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"page_name": "Stock Market Sectors Guide: How These 11 Slices Of The Market Work ...",
"page_url": "https://www.bankrate.com/investing/stock-market-sectors-guide/",
"page_snippet": "The market is divided into 11 sectors, composed of 24 industry groups and 69 industries. This system is called the Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS) and it shapes how ETFs and mutual funds are constructed.If you\u2019re a stock market investor and want to broadly diversify your portfolio, you\u2019ll need to own stock in companies across many different parts of the economy. The economy can be broken down into sectors, which group stocks with similar business characteristics together. The economy can be broken down into sectors, which group stocks with similar business characteristics together. The Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS) divides the market into 11 sectors, composed of 25 industry groups and 74 industries, as of March 2023. The commonly-used system helps shape how ETFs and mutual funds are constructed. One alternative to the GICS schema is the Industry Classification Benchmark, or ICB. The ICB was developed in 2005 by Dow Jones and FTSE, and divides the market into 11 industries, 20 supersectors and then further into sectors and subsectors. It\u2019s now used by the NASDAQ, NYSE and other international markets. The information technology sector includes companies that produce software and other IT products and services. It also contains companies that manufacture hardware such as communications equipment, mobile phones, computers and semiconductor equipment. This sector has been a fast grower and contains some of the market\u2019s largest companies.",
"page_result": "\n\n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n\n\t\n\tStock Market Sectors Guide: How These 11 Slices Of The Market Work | Bankrate\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\n\n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n
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\n Brian Beers is the managing editor for the Wealth team at Bankrate. He oversees editorial coverage of banking, investing, the economy and all things money.\n
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If you\u2019re a stock market investor and want to broadly diversify your portfolio, you\u2019ll need to own stock in companies across many different parts of the economy. The economy can be broken down into sectors, which group stocks with similar business characteristics together. The Global Industry Classification Standard (GICS) divides the market into 11 sectors, composed of 25 industry groups and 74 industries, as of March 2023. The commonly-used system helps shape how ETFs and mutual funds are constructed.
\n
Here\u2019s how GICS works and its 11 sector classifications, including some top companies in each.
\n
What is the GICS system and why is it important?
\n
The GICS system forms the basis for how groups of companies are divided and subdivided, and that division ultimately impacts how many sector-based index funds are created and which companies are included and left out of any given index. The classification system shapes that decision. GICS was developed in 1999 by MSCI and Standard & Poor\u2019s, two giants in the financial industry.
\n\n
The classification system gets fairly granular, and includes the following groupings in descending order of size:
\n
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Sectors
\n
Industry groups
\n
Industries
\n
Sub-industries
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The GICS system is revised from time to time, especially as industries grow and develop. For example, real estate is the newest addition to the sector categorization. Real estate companies and REITs were moved from the financials sector to their own separate sector in 2016. The move was due to the increasing growth and importance of real estate, especially equity REITs.
\n
This move helped recognize the development of the real estate sector as not just a financial player, and the reclassification had a powerful impact on the sector, driving more money to the stocks of those companies. Large fund companies that managed index-based funds had to buy more of these real estate stocks in order to match the new weightings in the sector index.
\n
So it\u2019s a big deal when the GICS classification changes or a company is added to or removed from the schema. The move could cause significant buying or selling of affected stocks, and may even change the company\u2019s ability to access cheaper funding.
\n
One alternative to the GICS schema is the Industry Classification Benchmark, or ICB. The ICB was developed in 2005 by Dow Jones and FTSE, and divides the market into 11 industries, 20 supersectors and then further into sectors and subsectors. It\u2019s now used by the NASDAQ, NYSE and other international markets.
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11 sectors of the stock market
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Below are the 11 GICS sector classifications, including a description of the companies in the sector, as well as a few of the largest or most well-known companies. Also included is a popular index fund that allows you to invest in the sector with a low expense ratio.
\n
1. Energy
\n
The energy sector includes companies engaged in exploration and production of oil and other hydrocarbons, refining, the transportation of oil and gas, and production of oil and gas equipment. The sector is generally mature with modest growth.
\n\n
Some of the best-known companies: Chevron, ExxonMobil, Halliburton \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Energy ETF (VDE)
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2. Materials
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The materials sector includes companies that produce chemicals, glass, paper, forestry products, metals, packaging, construction materials and steel. It tends to be a mature industry with modest growth potential.
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Some of the best-known companies: Dow, DuPont, Sherwin-Williams \nPopular sector ETF: iShares Global Materials ETF (MXI)
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3. Industrials
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The industrials sector includes companies that manufacture aerospace and defense products, electrical equipment and construction equipment. It also includes companies providing security services, employment services, professional services and transportation services. This sector may show strong growth during economic booms.
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Some of the best-known companies: 3M, Caterpillar, Delta Air Lines \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Industrials ETF (VIS)
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4. Consumer discretionary
\n
The consumer discretionary sector includes companies that produce cars, durable goods, clothing and leisure equipment. It also includes restaurants, hotels and consumer retailing, among others. This sector is sensitive to economic cycles, so when the economy grows, these companies tend to grow much more quickly, though when it slows, this industry typically slows even more.
\n
Some of the best-known companies:Amazon, Ford Motor Company, Home Depot \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Consumer Discretionary ETF (VCR)
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5. Consumer staples
\n
The consumer staples sector includes companies that produce food, drinks and tobacco, and non-durable household goods as well as those retailers that sell food and drugs, including retailing supercenters. This industry tends to be mature with modest growth.
\n
Some of the best-known companies: Coca-Cola, Procter & Gamble, Walmart \nPopular sector ETF: Consumer Staples Select Sector SPDR Fund (XLP)
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6. Health care
\n
The health care sector includes companies that provide health care services, as well as health care equipment and technology. It includes companies at all stages of pharmaceutical and biotech research, development and production. This sector can be dynamic and exhibits above-trend growth, with some very quickly growing companies.
\n
Some of the best-known companies: Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson, UnitedHealth \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Healthcare ETF (VHT)
\n
7. Financials
\n
The financials sector consists of companies involved in banking, including mortgage and consumer finance, as well as investment banks, brokerage firms and insurance companies. The sector has shown robust growth and profitability, but can be affected significantly by the trend of interest rates, causing cyclicality.
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Some of the best-known companies: Bank of America, Berkshire Hathaway, JPMorgan Chase \nPopular sector ETF: Financial Select Sector SPDR Fund (XLF)
\n
8. Information technology
\n
The information technology sector includes companies that produce software and other IT products and services. It also contains companies that manufacture hardware such as communications equipment, mobile phones, computers and semiconductor equipment. This sector has been a fast grower and contains some of the market\u2019s largest companies.
\n
Some of the best-known companies:Apple, Microsoft, Nvidia \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Information Technology ETF (VGT)
\n
9. Communication services
\n
The communication services sector includes telecommunication and media companies, entertainment companies and those producing content and interactive games. This sector can offer significant growth opportunities as the world moves more online, but older companies face significant challenges from more dynamic entrants.
\n
Some of the best-known companies: Disney, Meta Platforms, Verizon \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Communication Services ETF (VOX)
\n
10. Utilities
\n
The utilities sector includes companies providing electricity, gas and water (from conventional and environmentally friendly sources) as well as energy traders and distributors of energy. This sector is generally a slow and steady performer, rather than a growth sector. But \u201cgreen\u201d energy offers the promise of higher returns, although with higher risk.
\n
Some of the best-known companies: Dominion Energy, Duke Energy, NextEra Energy \nPopular sector ETF: Utilities Select Sector SPDR Fund (XLU)
\n
11. Real estate
\n
The real estate sector includes real estate services companies, real estate developers and equity REITs. This sector may offer strong growth opportunities, but shows steady growth overall.
\n
Some of the best-known companies: American Tower, Public Storage, Simon Property Group \nPopular sector ETF: Vanguard Real Estate Index Fund (VNQ)
\n
Bottom line
\n
Understanding where a company fits into the sector classification can be helpful as you diversify your portfolio and include companies from a broad range of sectors. Also, it\u2019s important to remember that larger companies often may span multiple sectors or industries. While a firm may be classified in one area, it often has significant operations in others. So it can be important to see the big picture of what a company does and not get too tied down to the classification.
\n Bankrate principal writer and editor James F. Royal, Ph.D., covers investing and wealth management. His work has been cited by CNBC, the Washington Post, The New York Times and more.\n
\n Brian Beers is the managing editor for the Wealth team at Bankrate. He oversees editorial coverage of banking, investing, the economy and all things money.\n
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"page_last_modified": ""
},
{
"page_name": "Structure of the euro area economy",
"page_url": "https://www.ecb.europa.eu/mopo/eaec/html/index.en.html",
"page_snippet": "The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank of the European Union countries which have adopted the euro. Our main task is to maintain price stability in the euro area and so preserve the purchasing power of the single currency.Home Media Explainers Research & Publications Statistics Monetary Policy The \u20acuro Payments & Markets Careers ... This section introduces the main economic and financial structures of the euro area economy. Compared with its individual member countries, the euro area is a large and much more closed economy. In terms of its share of global GDP, it is the world\u2019s third-largest economy, after the United States and China. As in other highly developed economies, the service sector has the largest share of total output, followed by the industrial sector, while the share of agriculture, fishing and forestry is relatively small. Euro area labour markets and the crisis, 10 October 2012 \u00b7 Competition, productivity and prices in the euro area services sector (Occasional Paper No. 44), by Task Force of the Monetary Policy Committee of the ESCB, 10 April 2006 Competition, productivity and prices in the euro area services sector (Occasional Paper No. 44), by Task Force of the Monetary Policy Committee of the ESCB, 10 April 2006 \u00b7 Indicators of financial integration in the euro area, 30 September 2005 \u00b7 Inflation differentials in the euro area: potential causes and policy implications, 30 September 2003 \u00b7 Structural factors in the EU housing markets, 28 March 2003 As in other highly developed economies, the service sector has the largest share of total output, followed by the industrial sector, while the share of agriculture, fishing and forestry is relatively small. The euro area is also one of the world\u2019s largest economies in terms of population, with almost 340 million people.",
"page_result": "\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n\n \n \n Structure of the euro area economy\n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \t \t\n\t \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n\t\n\t
This section introduces the main economic and financial structures of the euro area economy.
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Key characteristics
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Compared with its individual member countries, the euro area is a large and much more closed economy. In terms of its share of global GDP, it is the world\u2019s third-largest economy, after the United States and China.
\n \n \n \n \n
As in other highly developed economies, the service sector has the largest share of total output, followed by the industrial sector, while the share of agriculture, fishing and forestry is relatively small. The euro area is also one of the world\u2019s largest economies in terms of population, with almost 340 million people.
Key real economy characteristics of the euro area and other major economic areas in 2022
\t\n
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\nUnless otherwise indicated, euro area data include Croatia.\nSources: For the euro area: ECB, Eurostat, national data and ECB calculations; for the United States, Japan and China: BIS, IMF, OECD, Reuters, World Bank and national sources. \n *) 2021 figures \n **) 2020 figures \n\n Notes: \n 1. Euro data, US and Japan: annual average; China: end of the year data. \n 2. Data for US, Japan and China are converted into euro at OECD purchasing power parities (PPPs). \n 3. Ratio of the labour force to the working age population (aged 15 to 64).\n US: the proportion of the civilian non-institutional population (aged 16 to 64) either at work or actively seeking work.\n Annual average. \n 4. Ratio of persons employed to the working age population (aged 15 to 64).\n US: the proportion of the civilian non-institutional population (aged 16 to 64) at work. Annual average. \n 5. General government data for China are not directly comparable with the other major economic areas. \n 6. General government debt consists of deposits, debt securities and loans outstanding at nominal value and is consolidated\n within the general government sector, except for Japan and China. In addition, Chinese data follow a different methodology and are not directly comparable. Year-end. \n 7. European definition also for US and JP. \n 8. Euro area: based on extra-euro area transactions.
We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. \r\n\t\t\tLearn more about how we use cookies
We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. \r\n\t\t\tSee what has changed in our privacy policy
We are always working to improve this website for our users. To do this, we use the anonymous data provided by cookies. \r\n\t\t\tLearn more about how we use cookies
\r\n \n\n\n\t\t\n\n\n\n",
"page_last_modified": ""
},
{
"page_name": "Economy of Europe - Wikipedia",
"page_url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Europe",
"page_snippet": "Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, ... Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market ...Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850 but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment. 63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19. Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers. European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestl\u00e9 from Switzerland. Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent. The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU.",
"page_result": "\n\n\n\nEconomy of Europe - Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJump to content\n
The economy of Europe comprises about 748 million people in 50 countries. The formation of the European Union (EU) and in 1999 the introduction of a unified currency, the Euro, brought participating European countries closer through the convenience of a shared currency.[12] The European Union is a unique global organisation, an entity forming one of the largest economies in the world. The European Union also \u201cregulates\u201d the global market by the single market. The difference in wealth across Europe can be seen roughly in the former Cold War divide, with some countries breaching the divide (Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia).[13] Whilst most European states have a GDP per capita higher than the world's average and are very highly developed, some European economies, despite their position over the world's average in the Human Development Index, are relatively poor. Europe has total banking assets of more than $50 trillion and its Global assets under management has more than $20 trillion.[14][15]\n
Throughout this article \"Europe\" and derivatives of the word are taken to include selected states whose territory is only partly in Europe, such as Turkey, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and states that are geographically in Asia, bordering Europe and culturally adherent to the continent, such as Armenia and Cyprus.[16]\n
Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 184 have their headquarters in Europe. 161 are located in the EU, 15 in Switzerland, 6 in Russia, 1 in Turkey, 1 in Norway.[18]\n
As noted in 2010 by the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, the average standard of living in Western Europe is very high: \"The bulk of the population in Western Europe still enjoys the highest living standards in the world, and in the world's history.\"[19]\n
Prior to World War II, Europe's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry.[20] World War I briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run-up to World War II Europe recovered well and was competing with the ever-increasing economic might of the United States of America.[21]\n
However, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe's industrial centres and much of the continent's infrastructure was laid to waste.[22]\n
Following World War II, European governments were in tatters. Many non-Socialist European governments moved to link their economies, laying the foundation for what would become the European Union.[23] This meant a huge increase in shared infrastructure and cross-border trade. Whilst these European states rapidly improved their economies, by the 1980s, the economy of the COMECON was struggling, mainly due to the massive cost of the Cold War. The GDP and the living standards of Central and Eastern European states were lower than in other parts of Europe.[24]\n
The European Community grew from 6 original members following World War II, to 12 in this period.\n
Average living standards in Europe rose significantly during the post-war period, as characterised by these findings:[25]\n
Per capita private consumption (PPSs) in 1980\n
\n
Luxembourg: 5495
\n
France: 5395
\n
Germany, Federal Republic: 5319
\n
Belgium: 5143
\n
Denmark: 4802
\n
Netherlands: 4792
\n
United Kingdom: 4343
\n
Italy: 4288
\n
Ireland: 3029
\n
Per capita personal disposable income (PPSs) in 1980\n
When the 'Eastern Bloc' dissolved around 1992, these states struggled to adapt to free-market systems.[26] There was, however, a huge variation in degrees of success, with Central European states such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland adapting reasonably quickly, whilst states that used to form the USSR such as Russia, Belarus and Ukraine struggled to reform their crumbling infrastructures.[27][28]\n
Many developed European countries were quick to develop economic ties with fellow European states, where democracy was reintroduced. After the Revolutions of 1989, states in Central Europe and the Baltic states dealt with change, former Yugoslavian republics descended into war and Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are still struggling with their old systems.\n
Europe's largest economy, Germany, struggled upon unification in 1991 with former communist German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, influenced by the Soviet Union. The GDR had much of its industrial infrastructure removed during the Cold War, and for many years unified Germany struggled to build infrastructure in the former East Germany up to the level of former West Germany.\n
Peace did not come to Yugoslavia for a decade, and by 2003, there were still many NATO and EU peacekeeping troops present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Kosovo.[29] War severely hampered economic growth, with only Slovenia making any real progress in the 1990s.\n
The European economy was affected by the September 11 Attacks in the United States in 2001, with Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United Kingdom being the worst hit. But, in 2002/2003, the economy began to recover from the attacks in US.\n
The economy of Europe was by this time dominated by the EU, a huge economic and political organization with then 15 of Europe's states as full members. EU membership was seen as something to aspire to, and the EU gave significant support and aid to those Central and Eastern European states willing to work towards achieving economies that met the entry criteria. During this time, 12 of the 15 members of the EU became part of the Eurozone, a currency union launched in 1999, whereby each member uses a shared currency, the euro, which replaced their former national currencies. Three states chose to remain outside the Eurozone and continue with their own currencies, namely Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom.\n
In early 2004, 10 mostly former communist states joined the EU in its biggest ever expansion, enlarging the union to 25 members, with another eight making associated trade agreements. The acceding countries are bound to join the Eurozone and adopt the common currency euro in the future. The process includes the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, of which some of these countries are already part.\n
Most European economies are in very good shape, and the continental economy reflects this. Conflict and unrest in some of the former Yugoslavia states and in the Caucasus states are hampering economic growth in those states, however.\n
In response to the massive EU growth, in 2005 the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, (including both the European and Asian states).[30] 12 of the 15 signed up, with the three Baltic states deciding to align themselves with the EU. Despite this, the three Caucasus states have said in the past they would one day consider applying for EU membership, particularly Georgia.[31] This is also true of Ukraine since the Orange Revolution.\n
\n
2008\u20132015: Eurozone expansion and European debt crisis[edit]
Slovenia became the first republic from the former Yugoslavia as well as the first formerly communist nation overall to adopt the EU currency, the euro, in 2007, followed by Malta and Cyprus in 2008, and Slovakia in 2009. In 2011, Estonia became the first republic from the former Soviet Union to adopt the euro, followed by Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. Recently, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union, which had entered on the 1st day of July 2013.\n
In 2008, the Global Financial Crisis, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority of the European economies, which was a precedent to a far broader and more problematic Eurozone debt crisis, which threatened the collapse of economies in the south, particularly Greece, Italy recently affected by the ongoing political crisis, Portugal and Spain. Having also been hit hard, Ireland exited the crisis in mid-2013. Meanwhile, increased bailouts of the International Monetary Fund and European Central Bank alleviated somehow the situation in the debt-stricken nations, with Central and East European economies led by Germany escaping the worst of the 2010s debt crisis.\n
By the mid-2010s, 2014\u20132015, Ireland was recovering at a steady pace having graduated from the bail out programme successfully. The Eurozone as a whole had become more stable, however problems in Greece and slow recovery in Italy and in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) continue in keeping growth in the Euro area to a minimum. Germany continues to lead Europe in stability and growth, while both the UK and Ireland are seeing strong growth of 3\u20134%. Unemployment in Ireland reducing at the fastest levels in Europe, expected to reach 8% by 2016, down from double that in 2011. The Czech Republic and Germany have constantly the lowest unemployment rate in the EU.[32] Growth outlook in general remains optimistic for Europe in the future. With positive growth expected across the Euro area. Although uncertainty still surrounds Greece and debt payments in the Greek state, at present things appear stable.\n
European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestl\u00e9 from Switzerland. Companies like HSBC, Vodafone, TotalEnergies and BNP Paribas have all also sled in their respective industries against American and Asian competitors. In addition, former technologic heavyweights like Nokia, Ericsson and Alcatel have also declined against evolving American companies in the Silicon Valley.[33]\n
While the bottom 80% of the European population's income has increased by an estimated 40% on average since 1980, the top 1%'s pre-tax income has more than doubled.[34] Employment in the European Union reached a new high in 2019.[34]\n
While many social and economic indicators have converged across EU regions, the global financial crisis resulted in a sharp divergence in unemployment rates. Recently, these ranged from less than 2% in Prague to more than 20% in parts of Greece, southern Spain, and southern Italy. Rapid technological change also had an effect on medium-skilled workers resulting in more low-skilled jobs being taken up.[34]\n
\n
2016\u2013present: Brexit, COVID pandemic and Russian invasion of Ukraine[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(July 2018)
\nEuropean and bordering nations by GDP (PPP) per capita\nEuropean countries by total wealth (billions USD), Credit Suisse 2018\n
European countries with a long history of trade, a free market system, and a high level of development in the previous century are generally in the north and west of the continent. They tend to be wealthier and more stable than countries congregated in the European East and South, even though the gap is converging, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, due to higher growth rates.\n
The poorest states are those that just emerged from communism, fascist dictatorships and civil wars, namely those of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, with some exceptions. Former Western Bloc itself presents some living standards and development differences, with the greatest contrast seen between the Nordics (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland) and Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy.\n
Below is a map of European countries by gross national income per capita.[35]High income in blue ($12,616 or more, as defined by the World Bank), upper middle income in green ($4,086 \u2013 $12,615) and lower middle income ($1,036 \u2013 $4,085) in yellow.\n
The predicted impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on GDP is greatest in Southern Europe, where structural improvements are expected to enhance GDP levels by up to 5% by 2030, with the effect decreasing to 2.5% by 2040. The effect is projected to be a little less than 1% in Western Europe and Northern Europe, with cross-border spillover effects from the rest of Europe accounting for half of the predicted impact.[36]\n
A survey conducted in 2021 found that many businesses cut back on operations as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, resulting in a significant decline in revenue and job changes. Due to the pandemic, over 40% of the businesses surveyed had to close temporarily. Sales in the region declined by roughly 25% on average, but there was substantial variation within sub-regions.[37][38]\n
One out of every five businesses launched or grew their online business or distribution of products and services, while one out of every four businesses started or increased their remote operations.[37][39][40][41]\n
The pandemic has also hastened corporate transformation, with over 30% of companies altering or transforming their output as a result of it. Chemical manufacturers and wholesalers were the first to respond, with one in three expanding online business activity, beginning or boosting delivery of products and services, increasing remote employment, and changing manufacturing.[37][42]\n
Economic activity decreased by almost 4% in the majority of sub-regions in 2020, which was similar to the global average of 3.2%. However, the variance between nations is prominent. The high infection and mortality rates of the pandemic in countries in the Western Balkans, the Eastern Neighbourhood, and Central and Eastern Europe meant they faced deeper recessions.[37][43]\n
The European Union has the second largest economy in the world, behind that of the United States.[44] Trade within the Union accounts for more than one-third of the world total.\n
The European Union or EU is a supranational union of 27 European states, the most recent acceding member being Croatia, which became full member on 1 July 2013. It has many functions, the most important being the establishment and maintenance of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 18 of the 27 member states[45]), a Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy. The European Union also undertakes various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.\n
The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the Member States to the EU.\n
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as an alternative for European states that did not wish to join the European Union, creating a trade bloc with fewer central powers.\n
The EFTA member states as of 1992 were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In 2014 only four countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, remained members of EFTA, as the other members have gradually left to join the EU.\n
The European Economic Area (EEA) came into being on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU). It was designed to enable EFTA countries to participate in the European Single Market without having to join the EU.\n
In a referendum, Switzerland (ever keen on neutrality) chose not to participate in the EEA (although it is linked to the European Union by bilateral agreements similar in content to the EEA agreement), so the current members are the EU states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.\n
A Joint Committee consisting of the non EU members plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU Law to the non EU members.\n
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a confederation consisting of 9 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the three Baltic states, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine (Turkmenistan and Ukraine are participating states in the CIS)). Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses co-ordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. It 2012 the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area was established.\n
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade bloc of: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) on behalf of Kosovo.\n
This section is missing information about exchange groups. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page.(February 2024)
Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent.[48] The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidizes their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade.\n
This means because of the protectionist nature of the CAP, agricultural products from developing countries are rendered uncompetitive in both Europe (an important export market for developing countries) and on their home markets (as European agricultural products are dumped on developing countries' markets with help from European agricultural subsidies). This controversy surrounds every system of agricultural subsidies (the United States' policy of subsidizing farmers is also controversial). The CAP is also controversial because 40% of the EU's budget is spent on it, and because of the overproduction caused by it.\n
The Common Fisheries Policy is surrounded by an extensive system of rules (mainly consisting of quotas) to protect the environment from overfishing. Despite these rules, the cod is becoming increasingly rare in the North Sea resulting in drastic shortages in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Strict fishing rules are the main reason for Norway and Iceland to stay out of the European Union (and out of the Common Fisheries Policy). Price guarantees and subsidizations of fishermen are implemented in the same way as agricultural subsidies are. Bluefin tuna is also a problem. Global stocks of the species are overfished with extinction in the wild a possibility in the near future. This also has the negative effect of threatening their traditional, natural predators.\n
Europe has a thriving manufacturing sector, with a large part of the world's industrial production taking place in Europe. Most of the continent's industries are concentrated in the 'Blue Banana' (covering Southern England, the Benelux, western Germany, eastern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy). However, because of the higher wage level and hence production costs, Europe is suffering from deindustrialization and offshoring in the labour-intensive manufacturing sectors. This means that manufacturing has become less important and that jobs are moved to regions with cheaper labour costs (mainly China and Central and Eastern Europe).\n
Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850[49] but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy.\n
In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment.\n
According to Fortune Global 500, 195 of the top 500 companies are headquartered in Europe.[50] The main products in European industry are automobiles, bicycles, rail, machinery, marine, aerospace equipment, food, chemical and pharmaceutical goods, software and electronics.\n
Europe has a well-developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with London being the largest.[51][52][53] The financial sector of the Eurozone is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money in banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards.\n
According to the Global Financial Centres Index, as of 19 September 2019[update], four European cities rank among the 20 largest financial centres in the world: London (2nd), Zurich (14th), Frankfurt (15th), and Paris (17th).[54]\n
At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the economy, aggregate investment levels fell in the second quarter of 2020. The corporate sector was the most responsible for this reduction. Investment appeared to be increasing in early 2021, coinciding with the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions.[55][36]\n
30% of EU firms reported in the European Investment Bank's Investment Survey 2021 that they adjusted their investment expectations to fit the COVID-19 pandemic. This is reported as more than the US where the positive revision of investment plans was more common, with 25% of firms reporting.[36] 72% of EU enterprises state that the COVID-19 pandemic will have a long-term influence on investment requirements and priorities.[56][36]\n
Businesses in Europe received governmental support following the economic crisis. Governments ensured that enterprises had access to financing, with some governments covering labour expenses so that people could remain employed. This initiative targeted enterprises experiencing the greatest revenue loss, and the companies who got assistance were more likely to stick to their investment goals.[36][57]\n
63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19.[36][60]\n
\nLong-term obstacles to investment for European firms, as found in survey conducted in Europe.\n
Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers.[61]\n
Companies that are located in the countries under the European cohesion policy are less likely to spend money on the types of intangible assets, like R&D or training. Businesses in cohesion regions tend to concentrate their investments more on purchasing real estate, machinery, and other tangible assets.[62][63] Only 28% of investments are made in intangible activity in areas considered less developed, compared to 35% in transition areas and 39% in more developed areas.[62][64]\n
In all regions, bank loans are the most prevalent type of external financing. In less developed regions, they account for 49% of finance, in more developed regions, 58%, and in transitional regions, 69%. Grants make up a larger portion of the financing in less developed areas.[62][65]\n
Intangible assets (R&D, software, training, and business processes) were invested in by firms in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe countries at a lower rate (24%) in 2022 than the EU average (37%). The proportion of enterprises aiming to prioritize innovation in new goods and services was higher in these regions (27%) than in the EU (24%) and the US (21%).[66][67] Manufacturing enterprises (36%) and big firms (31%), in particular, have innovation as an investment priority. Among CESEE enterprises, Slovenia (38%) and the Czech Republic (37%), are the most likely to prioritize innovation.[66] Over half of businesses (57%) altered their operations in response to COVID-19. The majority (44%), produced new items (26%), while a minority (16%) reduced their supply chain.[66] 39% of EU enterprises created or introduced new goods, processes, or services in the previous fiscal year, compared to 57% of US firms. In both the EU and the US, little more than 12% of enterprises introduced ideas that were novel to the country or the global market.[68][69][70]\n
Europe's level of productive investment has lagged behind that of the United States - by two percentage points of GDP annually since 2010, according to European Commission data.[71] In comparison to 2021, there is a significant increase in the proportion of enterprises citing energy prices as a limitation to investment (87%), particularly those considering it as a substantial obstacle (63%).[66] The transition to cleaner energy is seen as a danger to investments by 41% of energy-intensive manufacturers in Europe, thus affecting all investment plans. This is compared to 31% of enterprises in non-energy heavy industries.[72] For future investment plans, European energy-intensive manufacturers and firms are more interested in climate investments than non-energy-intensive enterprises, with 48% now investing and 57% planning to invest.[72]\n
Productive investment, as of 2023 (excluding housing), has been increasing as a percentage of GDP in Europe. There remains a gap of around 1.5 percentage points in productive investment between Europe and the United States, but this growth has helped Europe keep up with the rate of productive investment growth in the United States to a certain extent. Although Europe is not falling further behind like during the sovereign debt crisis, European firms state narrowing this gap as a priority. [73]\n
Infrastructure enterprises were somewhat more likely than other firms to invest insufficiently in 2022 according to survey data. The same was true for SMEs (21%) against large businesses (15%). Firms in Lithuania (28%) and Latvia (30%) are the most likely to believe they have invested insufficiently during the previous three years. The proportion of enterprises that believe they have overinvested was largest (but still minor) in Hungary (7%), Bulgaria (7%), and the Czech Republic (6%).[66]\n
Most companies in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe (59%), and the rest of the EU (57%) projected their revenues to be greater in 2022 than they were in 2019. COVID-19 has had a negative impact on 45% of the enterprises in those regions. Almost one-third of those surveyed (13% of total enterprises) did not anticipate a recovery, whereas the vast majority did. Even throughout the pandemic, 41% of enterprises observed an increase in revenue, and the majority of them predicted stronger sales in 2022.[66]\n
Long-term hurdles to corporate investment continue to be energy prices, uncertainty, and a shortage of skills, with 83%, 78%, and 81% of enterprises citing these concerns as restraints, respectively. EU enterprises were more likely than US firms to cite energy prices as a key impediment.[68][74] In 2022 - 2023, EU businesses were found increasingly unhappy with the cost of credit as monetary policy tightened and external finance conditions deteriorated. This dissatisfaction is at more than 14% in 2023, compared to 5% in 2022.[68][75]\n
In 2023, Austrian enterprises are the most likely to grow stock and inventory, while Romanian firms are the most likely to invest in digital inventory and input tracking.[68] Romania has the largest proportion of importers lowering the proportion of goods/services imported from abroad, as well as the highest proportion of enterprises diversifying or growing the number of countries from which they import.[68][76] Also in the same year, 80% of EU firms were profitable, which was 2 percentage points higher than the historical average. Firms that achieved profits of at least 10% of their turnover were 8% more likely to increase their investment compared to firms that only broke even. Policy support and financial reserves have played a crucial role in protecting and maintaining corporate investment. Despite the energy crisis that started in 2022, firms were able to meet their investment expectations, thanks to the support and buffers in place.[77]\n
Credit demand in the Central, Eastern and Southern European regions remained strong in the first six months of 2023, although it has been steadily declining since 2021-22. Fixed investments and retail components, particularly the housing sector, contributed adversely, while credit demand was once again driven by corporate liquidity requirements (particularly for inventories and working capital).[78] In the previous six months, most parent banks in Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Europe nations have maintained their level of exposure. Major players in Serbia and Romania engaged in some mergers and acquisitions activities. Banks foresee an increase in non-performing loans (NPLs), which would hit the retail and business sectors in virtually all countries (excluding Albania).[79]\n
According to data from a European survey, big mid-caps account for the greatest percentage of high-growth and very high-growth enterprises, at 7.5% and 3.1%, respectively, followed by SMEs at 6% and 2%. XLs and tiny mid-caps trail somewhat, accounting for 5.2-5.5% and 1.9-2.1% of high- and very-high-growth enterprises, respectively. Manufacturing businesses with big mid-caps and XL firms have the greatest percentage of extremely high-growth firms.[80][81]\n
Europe in particular suffers from a lack of funding for more mature scale-up operations. Financing for these operations is six to eight times higher in the United States (in dollars).[82] Corporate investment among EU countries varies significantly due to distinct national factors. The sectoral breakdown of aggregate investment is not yet accessible for all EU members, even for early 2023. In some European nations, real corporate investment increased by 5% or more by early 2023, while in others it remained stagnant or far lower than pre-pandemic levels.[83]\n
Transport in Europe provides for the movement needs of over 700 million people[84] and associated freight. The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the industrial revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease.\n
Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and/or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross-border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to \u20ac73 billion in 2005.[85]\n
Despite an extensive road and rail network, most long-distance travel within Europe is by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe's many large international airports. London is the second busiest airport in the world by number of international passengers, only trailing Dubai.[86] The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems.[87]\n
The bulk of the EU's external trade is done with China, Mercosur and the United States,[88] Japan, Russia and non-member European states.\n
EU members are represented by a single official at the WTO.\n
The EU is involved in a few minor trade disputes. It had a long running dispute with the USA of allegedly unfair subsidies the US government gives to several companies, such as Boeing. The EU has a long running ban prohibiting arms trade with the Chinese. The EU issued a brief accusing Microsoft of predatory and monopolistic practices.\n
^ abcdMonaco, San Marino, Vatican City State, and Andorra have concluded monetary agreements with the EU, granting them the rights to produce limited quantities of euro coins with their own design on the national side, but not to issue euro banknotes. Kosovo and Montenegro also use the euro however they have no agreements with the EU.[46]\n
\n
^British Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey and a British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar are the other Pound Sterling users in Europe. All four issue local versions of the Pound Sterling which are pegged with GBP.\n
^\"The Bank of England's approach to the authorisation and supervision of international banks, insurers and central counterparties\". Bank of England. Retrieved 2 March 2018. The UK's financial sector also brings substantial benefits to EU households and firms, allowing them to access a broad range of services efficiently and reliably. UK-located banks underwrite around half of the debt and equity issued by EU companies. UK-located banks are counterparty to over half of the over-the-counter (OTC) interest rate derivatives traded by EU companies and banks. As many as 30 million EEA policyholders are insured through a UK-based insurer. Central counterparties (CCPs) located in the United Kingdom provide services to EU clients in a range of markets. UK-located asset managers account for 37% of all assets managed in Europe.\n
\n\n\n\n",
"page_last_modified": " Tue, 05 Mar 2024 23:39:54 GMT"
},
{
"page_name": "Economy of Europe - Wikipedia",
"page_url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Europe",
"page_snippet": "Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, ... Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market ...Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850 but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment. 63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19. Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers. European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestl\u00e9 from Switzerland. Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent. The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU.",
"page_result": "\n\n\n\nEconomy of Europe - Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJump to content\n
The economy of Europe comprises about 748 million people in 50 countries. The formation of the European Union (EU) and in 1999 the introduction of a unified currency, the Euro, brought participating European countries closer through the convenience of a shared currency.[12] The European Union is a unique global organisation, an entity forming one of the largest economies in the world. The European Union also \u201cregulates\u201d the global market by the single market. The difference in wealth across Europe can be seen roughly in the former Cold War divide, with some countries breaching the divide (Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia).[13] Whilst most European states have a GDP per capita higher than the world's average and are very highly developed, some European economies, despite their position over the world's average in the Human Development Index, are relatively poor. Europe has total banking assets of more than $50 trillion and its Global assets under management has more than $20 trillion.[14][15]\n
Throughout this article \"Europe\" and derivatives of the word are taken to include selected states whose territory is only partly in Europe, such as Turkey, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and states that are geographically in Asia, bordering Europe and culturally adherent to the continent, such as Armenia and Cyprus.[16]\n
Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 184 have their headquarters in Europe. 161 are located in the EU, 15 in Switzerland, 6 in Russia, 1 in Turkey, 1 in Norway.[18]\n
As noted in 2010 by the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, the average standard of living in Western Europe is very high: \"The bulk of the population in Western Europe still enjoys the highest living standards in the world, and in the world's history.\"[19]\n
Prior to World War II, Europe's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry.[20] World War I briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run-up to World War II Europe recovered well and was competing with the ever-increasing economic might of the United States of America.[21]\n
However, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe's industrial centres and much of the continent's infrastructure was laid to waste.[22]\n
Following World War II, European governments were in tatters. Many non-Socialist European governments moved to link their economies, laying the foundation for what would become the European Union.[23] This meant a huge increase in shared infrastructure and cross-border trade. Whilst these European states rapidly improved their economies, by the 1980s, the economy of the COMECON was struggling, mainly due to the massive cost of the Cold War. The GDP and the living standards of Central and Eastern European states were lower than in other parts of Europe.[24]\n
The European Community grew from 6 original members following World War II, to 12 in this period.\n
Average living standards in Europe rose significantly during the post-war period, as characterised by these findings:[25]\n
Per capita private consumption (PPSs) in 1980\n
\n
Luxembourg: 5495
\n
France: 5395
\n
Germany, Federal Republic: 5319
\n
Belgium: 5143
\n
Denmark: 4802
\n
Netherlands: 4792
\n
United Kingdom: 4343
\n
Italy: 4288
\n
Ireland: 3029
\n
Per capita personal disposable income (PPSs) in 1980\n
When the 'Eastern Bloc' dissolved around 1992, these states struggled to adapt to free-market systems.[26] There was, however, a huge variation in degrees of success, with Central European states such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland adapting reasonably quickly, whilst states that used to form the USSR such as Russia, Belarus and Ukraine struggled to reform their crumbling infrastructures.[27][28]\n
Many developed European countries were quick to develop economic ties with fellow European states, where democracy was reintroduced. After the Revolutions of 1989, states in Central Europe and the Baltic states dealt with change, former Yugoslavian republics descended into war and Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are still struggling with their old systems.\n
Europe's largest economy, Germany, struggled upon unification in 1991 with former communist German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, influenced by the Soviet Union. The GDR had much of its industrial infrastructure removed during the Cold War, and for many years unified Germany struggled to build infrastructure in the former East Germany up to the level of former West Germany.\n
Peace did not come to Yugoslavia for a decade, and by 2003, there were still many NATO and EU peacekeeping troops present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Kosovo.[29] War severely hampered economic growth, with only Slovenia making any real progress in the 1990s.\n
The European economy was affected by the September 11 Attacks in the United States in 2001, with Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United Kingdom being the worst hit. But, in 2002/2003, the economy began to recover from the attacks in US.\n
The economy of Europe was by this time dominated by the EU, a huge economic and political organization with then 15 of Europe's states as full members. EU membership was seen as something to aspire to, and the EU gave significant support and aid to those Central and Eastern European states willing to work towards achieving economies that met the entry criteria. During this time, 12 of the 15 members of the EU became part of the Eurozone, a currency union launched in 1999, whereby each member uses a shared currency, the euro, which replaced their former national currencies. Three states chose to remain outside the Eurozone and continue with their own currencies, namely Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom.\n
In early 2004, 10 mostly former communist states joined the EU in its biggest ever expansion, enlarging the union to 25 members, with another eight making associated trade agreements. The acceding countries are bound to join the Eurozone and adopt the common currency euro in the future. The process includes the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, of which some of these countries are already part.\n
Most European economies are in very good shape, and the continental economy reflects this. Conflict and unrest in some of the former Yugoslavia states and in the Caucasus states are hampering economic growth in those states, however.\n
In response to the massive EU growth, in 2005 the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, (including both the European and Asian states).[30] 12 of the 15 signed up, with the three Baltic states deciding to align themselves with the EU. Despite this, the three Caucasus states have said in the past they would one day consider applying for EU membership, particularly Georgia.[31] This is also true of Ukraine since the Orange Revolution.\n
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2008\u20132015: Eurozone expansion and European debt crisis[edit]
Slovenia became the first republic from the former Yugoslavia as well as the first formerly communist nation overall to adopt the EU currency, the euro, in 2007, followed by Malta and Cyprus in 2008, and Slovakia in 2009. In 2011, Estonia became the first republic from the former Soviet Union to adopt the euro, followed by Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. Recently, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union, which had entered on the 1st day of July 2013.\n
In 2008, the Global Financial Crisis, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority of the European economies, which was a precedent to a far broader and more problematic Eurozone debt crisis, which threatened the collapse of economies in the south, particularly Greece, Italy recently affected by the ongoing political crisis, Portugal and Spain. Having also been hit hard, Ireland exited the crisis in mid-2013. Meanwhile, increased bailouts of the International Monetary Fund and European Central Bank alleviated somehow the situation in the debt-stricken nations, with Central and East European economies led by Germany escaping the worst of the 2010s debt crisis.\n
By the mid-2010s, 2014\u20132015, Ireland was recovering at a steady pace having graduated from the bail out programme successfully. The Eurozone as a whole had become more stable, however problems in Greece and slow recovery in Italy and in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) continue in keeping growth in the Euro area to a minimum. Germany continues to lead Europe in stability and growth, while both the UK and Ireland are seeing strong growth of 3\u20134%. Unemployment in Ireland reducing at the fastest levels in Europe, expected to reach 8% by 2016, down from double that in 2011. The Czech Republic and Germany have constantly the lowest unemployment rate in the EU.[32] Growth outlook in general remains optimistic for Europe in the future. With positive growth expected across the Euro area. Although uncertainty still surrounds Greece and debt payments in the Greek state, at present things appear stable.\n
European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestl\u00e9 from Switzerland. Companies like HSBC, Vodafone, TotalEnergies and BNP Paribas have all also sled in their respective industries against American and Asian competitors. In addition, former technologic heavyweights like Nokia, Ericsson and Alcatel have also declined against evolving American companies in the Silicon Valley.[33]\n
While the bottom 80% of the European population's income has increased by an estimated 40% on average since 1980, the top 1%'s pre-tax income has more than doubled.[34] Employment in the European Union reached a new high in 2019.[34]\n
While many social and economic indicators have converged across EU regions, the global financial crisis resulted in a sharp divergence in unemployment rates. Recently, these ranged from less than 2% in Prague to more than 20% in parts of Greece, southern Spain, and southern Italy. Rapid technological change also had an effect on medium-skilled workers resulting in more low-skilled jobs being taken up.[34]\n
\n
2016\u2013present: Brexit, COVID pandemic and Russian invasion of Ukraine[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(July 2018)
\nEuropean and bordering nations by GDP (PPP) per capita\nEuropean countries by total wealth (billions USD), Credit Suisse 2018\n
European countries with a long history of trade, a free market system, and a high level of development in the previous century are generally in the north and west of the continent. They tend to be wealthier and more stable than countries congregated in the European East and South, even though the gap is converging, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, due to higher growth rates.\n
The poorest states are those that just emerged from communism, fascist dictatorships and civil wars, namely those of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, with some exceptions. Former Western Bloc itself presents some living standards and development differences, with the greatest contrast seen between the Nordics (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland) and Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy.\n
Below is a map of European countries by gross national income per capita.[35]High income in blue ($12,616 or more, as defined by the World Bank), upper middle income in green ($4,086 \u2013 $12,615) and lower middle income ($1,036 \u2013 $4,085) in yellow.\n
The predicted impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on GDP is greatest in Southern Europe, where structural improvements are expected to enhance GDP levels by up to 5% by 2030, with the effect decreasing to 2.5% by 2040. The effect is projected to be a little less than 1% in Western Europe and Northern Europe, with cross-border spillover effects from the rest of Europe accounting for half of the predicted impact.[36]\n
A survey conducted in 2021 found that many businesses cut back on operations as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, resulting in a significant decline in revenue and job changes. Due to the pandemic, over 40% of the businesses surveyed had to close temporarily. Sales in the region declined by roughly 25% on average, but there was substantial variation within sub-regions.[37][38]\n
One out of every five businesses launched or grew their online business or distribution of products and services, while one out of every four businesses started or increased their remote operations.[37][39][40][41]\n
The pandemic has also hastened corporate transformation, with over 30% of companies altering or transforming their output as a result of it. Chemical manufacturers and wholesalers were the first to respond, with one in three expanding online business activity, beginning or boosting delivery of products and services, increasing remote employment, and changing manufacturing.[37][42]\n
Economic activity decreased by almost 4% in the majority of sub-regions in 2020, which was similar to the global average of 3.2%. However, the variance between nations is prominent. The high infection and mortality rates of the pandemic in countries in the Western Balkans, the Eastern Neighbourhood, and Central and Eastern Europe meant they faced deeper recessions.[37][43]\n
The European Union has the second largest economy in the world, behind that of the United States.[44] Trade within the Union accounts for more than one-third of the world total.\n
The European Union or EU is a supranational union of 27 European states, the most recent acceding member being Croatia, which became full member on 1 July 2013. It has many functions, the most important being the establishment and maintenance of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 18 of the 27 member states[45]), a Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy. The European Union also undertakes various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.\n
The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the Member States to the EU.\n
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as an alternative for European states that did not wish to join the European Union, creating a trade bloc with fewer central powers.\n
The EFTA member states as of 1992 were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In 2014 only four countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, remained members of EFTA, as the other members have gradually left to join the EU.\n
The European Economic Area (EEA) came into being on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU). It was designed to enable EFTA countries to participate in the European Single Market without having to join the EU.\n
In a referendum, Switzerland (ever keen on neutrality) chose not to participate in the EEA (although it is linked to the European Union by bilateral agreements similar in content to the EEA agreement), so the current members are the EU states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.\n
A Joint Committee consisting of the non EU members plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU Law to the non EU members.\n
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a confederation consisting of 9 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the three Baltic states, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine (Turkmenistan and Ukraine are participating states in the CIS)). Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses co-ordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. It 2012 the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area was established.\n
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade bloc of: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) on behalf of Kosovo.\n
This section is missing information about exchange groups. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page.(February 2024)
Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent.[48] The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidizes their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade.\n
This means because of the protectionist nature of the CAP, agricultural products from developing countries are rendered uncompetitive in both Europe (an important export market for developing countries) and on their home markets (as European agricultural products are dumped on developing countries' markets with help from European agricultural subsidies). This controversy surrounds every system of agricultural subsidies (the United States' policy of subsidizing farmers is also controversial). The CAP is also controversial because 40% of the EU's budget is spent on it, and because of the overproduction caused by it.\n
The Common Fisheries Policy is surrounded by an extensive system of rules (mainly consisting of quotas) to protect the environment from overfishing. Despite these rules, the cod is becoming increasingly rare in the North Sea resulting in drastic shortages in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Strict fishing rules are the main reason for Norway and Iceland to stay out of the European Union (and out of the Common Fisheries Policy). Price guarantees and subsidizations of fishermen are implemented in the same way as agricultural subsidies are. Bluefin tuna is also a problem. Global stocks of the species are overfished with extinction in the wild a possibility in the near future. This also has the negative effect of threatening their traditional, natural predators.\n
Europe has a thriving manufacturing sector, with a large part of the world's industrial production taking place in Europe. Most of the continent's industries are concentrated in the 'Blue Banana' (covering Southern England, the Benelux, western Germany, eastern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy). However, because of the higher wage level and hence production costs, Europe is suffering from deindustrialization and offshoring in the labour-intensive manufacturing sectors. This means that manufacturing has become less important and that jobs are moved to regions with cheaper labour costs (mainly China and Central and Eastern Europe).\n
Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850[49] but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy.\n
In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment.\n
According to Fortune Global 500, 195 of the top 500 companies are headquartered in Europe.[50] The main products in European industry are automobiles, bicycles, rail, machinery, marine, aerospace equipment, food, chemical and pharmaceutical goods, software and electronics.\n
Europe has a well-developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with London being the largest.[51][52][53] The financial sector of the Eurozone is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money in banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards.\n
According to the Global Financial Centres Index, as of 19 September 2019[update], four European cities rank among the 20 largest financial centres in the world: London (2nd), Zurich (14th), Frankfurt (15th), and Paris (17th).[54]\n
At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the economy, aggregate investment levels fell in the second quarter of 2020. The corporate sector was the most responsible for this reduction. Investment appeared to be increasing in early 2021, coinciding with the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions.[55][36]\n
30% of EU firms reported in the European Investment Bank's Investment Survey 2021 that they adjusted their investment expectations to fit the COVID-19 pandemic. This is reported as more than the US where the positive revision of investment plans was more common, with 25% of firms reporting.[36] 72% of EU enterprises state that the COVID-19 pandemic will have a long-term influence on investment requirements and priorities.[56][36]\n
Businesses in Europe received governmental support following the economic crisis. Governments ensured that enterprises had access to financing, with some governments covering labour expenses so that people could remain employed. This initiative targeted enterprises experiencing the greatest revenue loss, and the companies who got assistance were more likely to stick to their investment goals.[36][57]\n
63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19.[36][60]\n
\nLong-term obstacles to investment for European firms, as found in survey conducted in Europe.\n
Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers.[61]\n
Companies that are located in the countries under the European cohesion policy are less likely to spend money on the types of intangible assets, like R&D or training. Businesses in cohesion regions tend to concentrate their investments more on purchasing real estate, machinery, and other tangible assets.[62][63] Only 28% of investments are made in intangible activity in areas considered less developed, compared to 35% in transition areas and 39% in more developed areas.[62][64]\n
In all regions, bank loans are the most prevalent type of external financing. In less developed regions, they account for 49% of finance, in more developed regions, 58%, and in transitional regions, 69%. Grants make up a larger portion of the financing in less developed areas.[62][65]\n
Intangible assets (R&D, software, training, and business processes) were invested in by firms in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe countries at a lower rate (24%) in 2022 than the EU average (37%). The proportion of enterprises aiming to prioritize innovation in new goods and services was higher in these regions (27%) than in the EU (24%) and the US (21%).[66][67] Manufacturing enterprises (36%) and big firms (31%), in particular, have innovation as an investment priority. Among CESEE enterprises, Slovenia (38%) and the Czech Republic (37%), are the most likely to prioritize innovation.[66] Over half of businesses (57%) altered their operations in response to COVID-19. The majority (44%), produced new items (26%), while a minority (16%) reduced their supply chain.[66] 39% of EU enterprises created or introduced new goods, processes, or services in the previous fiscal year, compared to 57% of US firms. In both the EU and the US, little more than 12% of enterprises introduced ideas that were novel to the country or the global market.[68][69][70]\n
Europe's level of productive investment has lagged behind that of the United States - by two percentage points of GDP annually since 2010, according to European Commission data.[71] In comparison to 2021, there is a significant increase in the proportion of enterprises citing energy prices as a limitation to investment (87%), particularly those considering it as a substantial obstacle (63%).[66] The transition to cleaner energy is seen as a danger to investments by 41% of energy-intensive manufacturers in Europe, thus affecting all investment plans. This is compared to 31% of enterprises in non-energy heavy industries.[72] For future investment plans, European energy-intensive manufacturers and firms are more interested in climate investments than non-energy-intensive enterprises, with 48% now investing and 57% planning to invest.[72]\n
Productive investment, as of 2023 (excluding housing), has been increasing as a percentage of GDP in Europe. There remains a gap of around 1.5 percentage points in productive investment between Europe and the United States, but this growth has helped Europe keep up with the rate of productive investment growth in the United States to a certain extent. Although Europe is not falling further behind like during the sovereign debt crisis, European firms state narrowing this gap as a priority. [73]\n
Infrastructure enterprises were somewhat more likely than other firms to invest insufficiently in 2022 according to survey data. The same was true for SMEs (21%) against large businesses (15%). Firms in Lithuania (28%) and Latvia (30%) are the most likely to believe they have invested insufficiently during the previous three years. The proportion of enterprises that believe they have overinvested was largest (but still minor) in Hungary (7%), Bulgaria (7%), and the Czech Republic (6%).[66]\n
Most companies in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe (59%), and the rest of the EU (57%) projected their revenues to be greater in 2022 than they were in 2019. COVID-19 has had a negative impact on 45% of the enterprises in those regions. Almost one-third of those surveyed (13% of total enterprises) did not anticipate a recovery, whereas the vast majority did. Even throughout the pandemic, 41% of enterprises observed an increase in revenue, and the majority of them predicted stronger sales in 2022.[66]\n
Long-term hurdles to corporate investment continue to be energy prices, uncertainty, and a shortage of skills, with 83%, 78%, and 81% of enterprises citing these concerns as restraints, respectively. EU enterprises were more likely than US firms to cite energy prices as a key impediment.[68][74] In 2022 - 2023, EU businesses were found increasingly unhappy with the cost of credit as monetary policy tightened and external finance conditions deteriorated. This dissatisfaction is at more than 14% in 2023, compared to 5% in 2022.[68][75]\n
In 2023, Austrian enterprises are the most likely to grow stock and inventory, while Romanian firms are the most likely to invest in digital inventory and input tracking.[68] Romania has the largest proportion of importers lowering the proportion of goods/services imported from abroad, as well as the highest proportion of enterprises diversifying or growing the number of countries from which they import.[68][76] Also in the same year, 80% of EU firms were profitable, which was 2 percentage points higher than the historical average. Firms that achieved profits of at least 10% of their turnover were 8% more likely to increase their investment compared to firms that only broke even. Policy support and financial reserves have played a crucial role in protecting and maintaining corporate investment. Despite the energy crisis that started in 2022, firms were able to meet their investment expectations, thanks to the support and buffers in place.[77]\n
Credit demand in the Central, Eastern and Southern European regions remained strong in the first six months of 2023, although it has been steadily declining since 2021-22. Fixed investments and retail components, particularly the housing sector, contributed adversely, while credit demand was once again driven by corporate liquidity requirements (particularly for inventories and working capital).[78] In the previous six months, most parent banks in Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Europe nations have maintained their level of exposure. Major players in Serbia and Romania engaged in some mergers and acquisitions activities. Banks foresee an increase in non-performing loans (NPLs), which would hit the retail and business sectors in virtually all countries (excluding Albania).[79]\n
According to data from a European survey, big mid-caps account for the greatest percentage of high-growth and very high-growth enterprises, at 7.5% and 3.1%, respectively, followed by SMEs at 6% and 2%. XLs and tiny mid-caps trail somewhat, accounting for 5.2-5.5% and 1.9-2.1% of high- and very-high-growth enterprises, respectively. Manufacturing businesses with big mid-caps and XL firms have the greatest percentage of extremely high-growth firms.[80][81]\n
Europe in particular suffers from a lack of funding for more mature scale-up operations. Financing for these operations is six to eight times higher in the United States (in dollars).[82] Corporate investment among EU countries varies significantly due to distinct national factors. The sectoral breakdown of aggregate investment is not yet accessible for all EU members, even for early 2023. In some European nations, real corporate investment increased by 5% or more by early 2023, while in others it remained stagnant or far lower than pre-pandemic levels.[83]\n
Transport in Europe provides for the movement needs of over 700 million people[84] and associated freight. The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the industrial revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease.\n
Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and/or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross-border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to \u20ac73 billion in 2005.[85]\n
Despite an extensive road and rail network, most long-distance travel within Europe is by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe's many large international airports. London is the second busiest airport in the world by number of international passengers, only trailing Dubai.[86] The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems.[87]\n
The bulk of the EU's external trade is done with China, Mercosur and the United States,[88] Japan, Russia and non-member European states.\n
EU members are represented by a single official at the WTO.\n
The EU is involved in a few minor trade disputes. It had a long running dispute with the USA of allegedly unfair subsidies the US government gives to several companies, such as Boeing. The EU has a long running ban prohibiting arms trade with the Chinese. The EU issued a brief accusing Microsoft of predatory and monopolistic practices.\n
^ abcdMonaco, San Marino, Vatican City State, and Andorra have concluded monetary agreements with the EU, granting them the rights to produce limited quantities of euro coins with their own design on the national side, but not to issue euro banknotes. Kosovo and Montenegro also use the euro however they have no agreements with the EU.[46]\n
\n
^British Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey and a British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar are the other Pound Sterling users in Europe. All four issue local versions of the Pound Sterling which are pegged with GBP.\n
^\"The Bank of England's approach to the authorisation and supervision of international banks, insurers and central counterparties\". Bank of England. Retrieved 2 March 2018. The UK's financial sector also brings substantial benefits to EU households and firms, allowing them to access a broad range of services efficiently and reliably. UK-located banks underwrite around half of the debt and equity issued by EU companies. UK-located banks are counterparty to over half of the over-the-counter (OTC) interest rate derivatives traded by EU companies and banks. As many as 30 million EEA policyholders are insured through a UK-based insurer. Central counterparties (CCPs) located in the United Kingdom provide services to EU clients in a range of markets. UK-located asset managers account for 37% of all assets managed in Europe.\n
\n\n\n\n",
"page_last_modified": " Tue, 05 Mar 2024 23:39:54 GMT"
},
{
"page_name": "Economy of Europe - Wikipedia",
"page_url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Europe",
"page_snippet": "Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, ... Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market ...Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850 but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment. 63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19. Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers. European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestl\u00e9 from Switzerland. Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent. The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU.",
"page_result": "\n\n\n\nEconomy of Europe - Wikipedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nJump to content\n
The economy of Europe comprises about 748 million people in 50 countries. The formation of the European Union (EU) and in 1999 the introduction of a unified currency, the Euro, brought participating European countries closer through the convenience of a shared currency.[12] The European Union is a unique global organisation, an entity forming one of the largest economies in the world. The European Union also \u201cregulates\u201d the global market by the single market. The difference in wealth across Europe can be seen roughly in the former Cold War divide, with some countries breaching the divide (Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia).[13] Whilst most European states have a GDP per capita higher than the world's average and are very highly developed, some European economies, despite their position over the world's average in the Human Development Index, are relatively poor. Europe has total banking assets of more than $50 trillion and its Global assets under management has more than $20 trillion.[14][15]\n
Throughout this article \"Europe\" and derivatives of the word are taken to include selected states whose territory is only partly in Europe, such as Turkey, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and states that are geographically in Asia, bordering Europe and culturally adherent to the continent, such as Armenia and Cyprus.[16]\n
Of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010), 184 have their headquarters in Europe. 161 are located in the EU, 15 in Switzerland, 6 in Russia, 1 in Turkey, 1 in Norway.[18]\n
As noted in 2010 by the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, the average standard of living in Western Europe is very high: \"The bulk of the population in Western Europe still enjoys the highest living standards in the world, and in the world's history.\"[19]\n
Prior to World War II, Europe's major financial and industrial states were the United Kingdom, France and Germany. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain, spread rapidly across Europe, and before long the entire continent was at a high level of industry.[20] World War I briefly led to the industries of some European states stalling, but in the run-up to World War II Europe recovered well and was competing with the ever-increasing economic might of the United States of America.[21]\n
However, World War II caused the destruction of most of Europe's industrial centres and much of the continent's infrastructure was laid to waste.[22]\n
Following World War II, European governments were in tatters. Many non-Socialist European governments moved to link their economies, laying the foundation for what would become the European Union.[23] This meant a huge increase in shared infrastructure and cross-border trade. Whilst these European states rapidly improved their economies, by the 1980s, the economy of the COMECON was struggling, mainly due to the massive cost of the Cold War. The GDP and the living standards of Central and Eastern European states were lower than in other parts of Europe.[24]\n
The European Community grew from 6 original members following World War II, to 12 in this period.\n
Average living standards in Europe rose significantly during the post-war period, as characterised by these findings:[25]\n
Per capita private consumption (PPSs) in 1980\n
\n
Luxembourg: 5495
\n
France: 5395
\n
Germany, Federal Republic: 5319
\n
Belgium: 5143
\n
Denmark: 4802
\n
Netherlands: 4792
\n
United Kingdom: 4343
\n
Italy: 4288
\n
Ireland: 3029
\n
Per capita personal disposable income (PPSs) in 1980\n
When the 'Eastern Bloc' dissolved around 1992, these states struggled to adapt to free-market systems.[26] There was, however, a huge variation in degrees of success, with Central European states such as the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Poland adapting reasonably quickly, whilst states that used to form the USSR such as Russia, Belarus and Ukraine struggled to reform their crumbling infrastructures.[27][28]\n
Many developed European countries were quick to develop economic ties with fellow European states, where democracy was reintroduced. After the Revolutions of 1989, states in Central Europe and the Baltic states dealt with change, former Yugoslavian republics descended into war and Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are still struggling with their old systems.\n
Europe's largest economy, Germany, struggled upon unification in 1991 with former communist German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, influenced by the Soviet Union. The GDR had much of its industrial infrastructure removed during the Cold War, and for many years unified Germany struggled to build infrastructure in the former East Germany up to the level of former West Germany.\n
Peace did not come to Yugoslavia for a decade, and by 2003, there were still many NATO and EU peacekeeping troops present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, and Kosovo.[29] War severely hampered economic growth, with only Slovenia making any real progress in the 1990s.\n
The European economy was affected by the September 11 Attacks in the United States in 2001, with Germany, Switzerland, France, and the United Kingdom being the worst hit. But, in 2002/2003, the economy began to recover from the attacks in US.\n
The economy of Europe was by this time dominated by the EU, a huge economic and political organization with then 15 of Europe's states as full members. EU membership was seen as something to aspire to, and the EU gave significant support and aid to those Central and Eastern European states willing to work towards achieving economies that met the entry criteria. During this time, 12 of the 15 members of the EU became part of the Eurozone, a currency union launched in 1999, whereby each member uses a shared currency, the euro, which replaced their former national currencies. Three states chose to remain outside the Eurozone and continue with their own currencies, namely Denmark, Sweden and the United Kingdom.\n
In early 2004, 10 mostly former communist states joined the EU in its biggest ever expansion, enlarging the union to 25 members, with another eight making associated trade agreements. The acceding countries are bound to join the Eurozone and adopt the common currency euro in the future. The process includes the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, of which some of these countries are already part.\n
Most European economies are in very good shape, and the continental economy reflects this. Conflict and unrest in some of the former Yugoslavia states and in the Caucasus states are hampering economic growth in those states, however.\n
In response to the massive EU growth, in 2005 the Russian-dominated Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) created a rival trade bloc to the EU, open to any previous USSR state, (including both the European and Asian states).[30] 12 of the 15 signed up, with the three Baltic states deciding to align themselves with the EU. Despite this, the three Caucasus states have said in the past they would one day consider applying for EU membership, particularly Georgia.[31] This is also true of Ukraine since the Orange Revolution.\n
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2008\u20132015: Eurozone expansion and European debt crisis[edit]
Slovenia became the first republic from the former Yugoslavia as well as the first formerly communist nation overall to adopt the EU currency, the euro, in 2007, followed by Malta and Cyprus in 2008, and Slovakia in 2009. In 2011, Estonia became the first republic from the former Soviet Union to adopt the euro, followed by Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. Recently, Croatia became the 28th member of the European Union, which had entered on the 1st day of July 2013.\n
In 2008, the Global Financial Crisis, triggered by the housing bubble in the United States, caused a significant decline in the GDP of the majority of the European economies, which was a precedent to a far broader and more problematic Eurozone debt crisis, which threatened the collapse of economies in the south, particularly Greece, Italy recently affected by the ongoing political crisis, Portugal and Spain. Having also been hit hard, Ireland exited the crisis in mid-2013. Meanwhile, increased bailouts of the International Monetary Fund and European Central Bank alleviated somehow the situation in the debt-stricken nations, with Central and East European economies led by Germany escaping the worst of the 2010s debt crisis.\n
By the mid-2010s, 2014\u20132015, Ireland was recovering at a steady pace having graduated from the bail out programme successfully. The Eurozone as a whole had become more stable, however problems in Greece and slow recovery in Italy and in Iberia (Spain and Portugal) continue in keeping growth in the Euro area to a minimum. Germany continues to lead Europe in stability and growth, while both the UK and Ireland are seeing strong growth of 3\u20134%. Unemployment in Ireland reducing at the fastest levels in Europe, expected to reach 8% by 2016, down from double that in 2011. The Czech Republic and Germany have constantly the lowest unemployment rate in the EU.[32] Growth outlook in general remains optimistic for Europe in the future. With positive growth expected across the Euro area. Although uncertainty still surrounds Greece and debt payments in the Greek state, at present things appear stable.\n
European businesses have been in decline against worldwide ones since the crisis. Of the 50 most valuable global firms, only seven were European as of 2015, compared to 17 in 2006. Out of 24 economic sectors, Europe only leads in one - food, which is led by Nestl\u00e9 from Switzerland. Companies like HSBC, Vodafone, TotalEnergies and BNP Paribas have all also sled in their respective industries against American and Asian competitors. In addition, former technologic heavyweights like Nokia, Ericsson and Alcatel have also declined against evolving American companies in the Silicon Valley.[33]\n
While the bottom 80% of the European population's income has increased by an estimated 40% on average since 1980, the top 1%'s pre-tax income has more than doubled.[34] Employment in the European Union reached a new high in 2019.[34]\n
While many social and economic indicators have converged across EU regions, the global financial crisis resulted in a sharp divergence in unemployment rates. Recently, these ranged from less than 2% in Prague to more than 20% in parts of Greece, southern Spain, and southern Italy. Rapid technological change also had an effect on medium-skilled workers resulting in more low-skilled jobs being taken up.[34]\n
\n
2016\u2013present: Brexit, COVID pandemic and Russian invasion of Ukraine[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(July 2018)
\nEuropean and bordering nations by GDP (PPP) per capita\nEuropean countries by total wealth (billions USD), Credit Suisse 2018\n
European countries with a long history of trade, a free market system, and a high level of development in the previous century are generally in the north and west of the continent. They tend to be wealthier and more stable than countries congregated in the European East and South, even though the gap is converging, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, due to higher growth rates.\n
The poorest states are those that just emerged from communism, fascist dictatorships and civil wars, namely those of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia, with some exceptions. Former Western Bloc itself presents some living standards and development differences, with the greatest contrast seen between the Nordics (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland) and Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy.\n
Below is a map of European countries by gross national income per capita.[35]High income in blue ($12,616 or more, as defined by the World Bank), upper middle income in green ($4,086 \u2013 $12,615) and lower middle income ($1,036 \u2013 $4,085) in yellow.\n
The predicted impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on GDP is greatest in Southern Europe, where structural improvements are expected to enhance GDP levels by up to 5% by 2030, with the effect decreasing to 2.5% by 2040. The effect is projected to be a little less than 1% in Western Europe and Northern Europe, with cross-border spillover effects from the rest of Europe accounting for half of the predicted impact.[36]\n
A survey conducted in 2021 found that many businesses cut back on operations as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, resulting in a significant decline in revenue and job changes. Due to the pandemic, over 40% of the businesses surveyed had to close temporarily. Sales in the region declined by roughly 25% on average, but there was substantial variation within sub-regions.[37][38]\n
One out of every five businesses launched or grew their online business or distribution of products and services, while one out of every four businesses started or increased their remote operations.[37][39][40][41]\n
The pandemic has also hastened corporate transformation, with over 30% of companies altering or transforming their output as a result of it. Chemical manufacturers and wholesalers were the first to respond, with one in three expanding online business activity, beginning or boosting delivery of products and services, increasing remote employment, and changing manufacturing.[37][42]\n
Economic activity decreased by almost 4% in the majority of sub-regions in 2020, which was similar to the global average of 3.2%. However, the variance between nations is prominent. The high infection and mortality rates of the pandemic in countries in the Western Balkans, the Eastern Neighbourhood, and Central and Eastern Europe meant they faced deeper recessions.[37][43]\n
The European Union has the second largest economy in the world, behind that of the United States.[44] Trade within the Union accounts for more than one-third of the world total.\n
The European Union or EU is a supranational union of 27 European states, the most recent acceding member being Croatia, which became full member on 1 July 2013. It has many functions, the most important being the establishment and maintenance of a common single market, consisting of a customs union, a single currency (adopted by 18 of the 27 member states[45]), a Common Agricultural Policy and a Common Fisheries Policy. The European Union also undertakes various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.\n
The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the Member States to the EU.\n
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was established on 3 May 1960 as an alternative for European states that did not wish to join the European Union, creating a trade bloc with fewer central powers.\n
The EFTA member states as of 1992 were Austria, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In 2014 only four countries, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, remained members of EFTA, as the other members have gradually left to join the EU.\n
The European Economic Area (EEA) came into being on 1 January 1994 following an agreement between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union (EU). It was designed to enable EFTA countries to participate in the European Single Market without having to join the EU.\n
In a referendum, Switzerland (ever keen on neutrality) chose not to participate in the EEA (although it is linked to the European Union by bilateral agreements similar in content to the EEA agreement), so the current members are the EU states plus Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein.\n
A Joint Committee consisting of the non EU members plus the European Commission (representing the EU) has the function of extending relevant EU Law to the non EU members.\n
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a confederation consisting of 9 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the three Baltic states, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine (Turkmenistan and Ukraine are participating states in the CIS)). Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses co-ordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. It 2012 the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area was established.\n
The Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) is a trade bloc of: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia and the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) on behalf of Kosovo.\n
This section is missing information about exchange groups. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page.(February 2024)
Europe's agricultural sector is in general highly developed and also has the lowest percentage of the population working in agriculture of any continent.[48] The process of improving Central Europe's agriculture is ongoing and is helped by the accession of Central European states to the EU. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidizes their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade.\n
This means because of the protectionist nature of the CAP, agricultural products from developing countries are rendered uncompetitive in both Europe (an important export market for developing countries) and on their home markets (as European agricultural products are dumped on developing countries' markets with help from European agricultural subsidies). This controversy surrounds every system of agricultural subsidies (the United States' policy of subsidizing farmers is also controversial). The CAP is also controversial because 40% of the EU's budget is spent on it, and because of the overproduction caused by it.\n
The Common Fisheries Policy is surrounded by an extensive system of rules (mainly consisting of quotas) to protect the environment from overfishing. Despite these rules, the cod is becoming increasingly rare in the North Sea resulting in drastic shortages in countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Strict fishing rules are the main reason for Norway and Iceland to stay out of the European Union (and out of the Common Fisheries Policy). Price guarantees and subsidizations of fishermen are implemented in the same way as agricultural subsidies are. Bluefin tuna is also a problem. Global stocks of the species are overfished with extinction in the wild a possibility in the near future. This also has the negative effect of threatening their traditional, natural predators.\n
Europe has a thriving manufacturing sector, with a large part of the world's industrial production taking place in Europe. Most of the continent's industries are concentrated in the 'Blue Banana' (covering Southern England, the Benelux, western Germany, eastern France, Switzerland, and northern Italy). However, because of the higher wage level and hence production costs, Europe is suffering from deindustrialization and offshoring in the labour-intensive manufacturing sectors. This means that manufacturing has become less important and that jobs are moved to regions with cheaper labour costs (mainly China and Central and Eastern Europe).\n
Central Europe (Berlin, Saxony, the Czech Republic and Little Poland) was largely industrialised by 1850[49] but Eastern Europe (European Russia) begun industrialisation between 1890\u20131900 and intensified it during the communist regime (as the USSR), but it suffered from contraction in the 1990s when the inefficient heavy-industry-based manufacturing sector was crippled after the collapse of communism and the introduction of the market economy.\n
In the 21st century the manufacturing sector in Central and Eastern Europe picked up because of the accession of ten formerly Communist European states to the EU and their resulting accession to the European Common Market. This caused firms within the European Union to move jobs from their manufacturing sector to Central European countries such as Poland (see above), which sparked both Central and Eastern European industrial growth and employment.\n
According to Fortune Global 500, 195 of the top 500 companies are headquartered in Europe.[50] The main products in European industry are automobiles, bicycles, rail, machinery, marine, aerospace equipment, food, chemical and pharmaceutical goods, software and electronics.\n
Europe has a well-developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with London being the largest.[51][52][53] The financial sector of the Eurozone is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit money in banks in other European countries. Exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in the Eurozone. The financial sector in Central and Eastern Europe is helped by economic growth in the region, European Regional Development Fund and the commitment of Central and Eastern European governments to achieve high standards.\n
According to the Global Financial Centres Index, as of 19 September 2019[update], four European cities rank among the 20 largest financial centres in the world: London (2nd), Zurich (14th), Frankfurt (15th), and Paris (17th).[54]\n
At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the economy, aggregate investment levels fell in the second quarter of 2020. The corporate sector was the most responsible for this reduction. Investment appeared to be increasing in early 2021, coinciding with the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions.[55][36]\n
30% of EU firms reported in the European Investment Bank's Investment Survey 2021 that they adjusted their investment expectations to fit the COVID-19 pandemic. This is reported as more than the US where the positive revision of investment plans was more common, with 25% of firms reporting.[36] 72% of EU enterprises state that the COVID-19 pandemic will have a long-term influence on investment requirements and priorities.[56][36]\n
Businesses in Europe received governmental support following the economic crisis. Governments ensured that enterprises had access to financing, with some governments covering labour expenses so that people could remain employed. This initiative targeted enterprises experiencing the greatest revenue loss, and the companies who got assistance were more likely to stick to their investment goals.[36][57]\n
63% of large firms, 61% of infrastructure firms and 58% of firms in the service sector are the largest share expecting long term effects of COVID-19.[36][60]\n
\nLong-term obstacles to investment for European firms, as found in survey conducted in Europe.\n
Across the European Union, the most commonly mentioned investment barrier is the lack of trained labor. 75% of businesses in transitional regions found this to be problematic. In less developed and non-cohesion regions, it is 79%. Demographics and rising demand for skills that are less common on the market, such as those needed to support digitalization activities, might contribute to the lack of competent workers.[61]\n
Companies that are located in the countries under the European cohesion policy are less likely to spend money on the types of intangible assets, like R&D or training. Businesses in cohesion regions tend to concentrate their investments more on purchasing real estate, machinery, and other tangible assets.[62][63] Only 28% of investments are made in intangible activity in areas considered less developed, compared to 35% in transition areas and 39% in more developed areas.[62][64]\n
In all regions, bank loans are the most prevalent type of external financing. In less developed regions, they account for 49% of finance, in more developed regions, 58%, and in transitional regions, 69%. Grants make up a larger portion of the financing in less developed areas.[62][65]\n
Intangible assets (R&D, software, training, and business processes) were invested in by firms in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe countries at a lower rate (24%) in 2022 than the EU average (37%). The proportion of enterprises aiming to prioritize innovation in new goods and services was higher in these regions (27%) than in the EU (24%) and the US (21%).[66][67] Manufacturing enterprises (36%) and big firms (31%), in particular, have innovation as an investment priority. Among CESEE enterprises, Slovenia (38%) and the Czech Republic (37%), are the most likely to prioritize innovation.[66] Over half of businesses (57%) altered their operations in response to COVID-19. The majority (44%), produced new items (26%), while a minority (16%) reduced their supply chain.[66] 39% of EU enterprises created or introduced new goods, processes, or services in the previous fiscal year, compared to 57% of US firms. In both the EU and the US, little more than 12% of enterprises introduced ideas that were novel to the country or the global market.[68][69][70]\n
Europe's level of productive investment has lagged behind that of the United States - by two percentage points of GDP annually since 2010, according to European Commission data.[71] In comparison to 2021, there is a significant increase in the proportion of enterprises citing energy prices as a limitation to investment (87%), particularly those considering it as a substantial obstacle (63%).[66] The transition to cleaner energy is seen as a danger to investments by 41% of energy-intensive manufacturers in Europe, thus affecting all investment plans. This is compared to 31% of enterprises in non-energy heavy industries.[72] For future investment plans, European energy-intensive manufacturers and firms are more interested in climate investments than non-energy-intensive enterprises, with 48% now investing and 57% planning to invest.[72]\n
Productive investment, as of 2023 (excluding housing), has been increasing as a percentage of GDP in Europe. There remains a gap of around 1.5 percentage points in productive investment between Europe and the United States, but this growth has helped Europe keep up with the rate of productive investment growth in the United States to a certain extent. Although Europe is not falling further behind like during the sovereign debt crisis, European firms state narrowing this gap as a priority. [73]\n
Infrastructure enterprises were somewhat more likely than other firms to invest insufficiently in 2022 according to survey data. The same was true for SMEs (21%) against large businesses (15%). Firms in Lithuania (28%) and Latvia (30%) are the most likely to believe they have invested insufficiently during the previous three years. The proportion of enterprises that believe they have overinvested was largest (but still minor) in Hungary (7%), Bulgaria (7%), and the Czech Republic (6%).[66]\n
Most companies in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe (59%), and the rest of the EU (57%) projected their revenues to be greater in 2022 than they were in 2019. COVID-19 has had a negative impact on 45% of the enterprises in those regions. Almost one-third of those surveyed (13% of total enterprises) did not anticipate a recovery, whereas the vast majority did. Even throughout the pandemic, 41% of enterprises observed an increase in revenue, and the majority of them predicted stronger sales in 2022.[66]\n
Long-term hurdles to corporate investment continue to be energy prices, uncertainty, and a shortage of skills, with 83%, 78%, and 81% of enterprises citing these concerns as restraints, respectively. EU enterprises were more likely than US firms to cite energy prices as a key impediment.[68][74] In 2022 - 2023, EU businesses were found increasingly unhappy with the cost of credit as monetary policy tightened and external finance conditions deteriorated. This dissatisfaction is at more than 14% in 2023, compared to 5% in 2022.[68][75]\n
In 2023, Austrian enterprises are the most likely to grow stock and inventory, while Romanian firms are the most likely to invest in digital inventory and input tracking.[68] Romania has the largest proportion of importers lowering the proportion of goods/services imported from abroad, as well as the highest proportion of enterprises diversifying or growing the number of countries from which they import.[68][76] Also in the same year, 80% of EU firms were profitable, which was 2 percentage points higher than the historical average. Firms that achieved profits of at least 10% of their turnover were 8% more likely to increase their investment compared to firms that only broke even. Policy support and financial reserves have played a crucial role in protecting and maintaining corporate investment. Despite the energy crisis that started in 2022, firms were able to meet their investment expectations, thanks to the support and buffers in place.[77]\n
Credit demand in the Central, Eastern and Southern European regions remained strong in the first six months of 2023, although it has been steadily declining since 2021-22. Fixed investments and retail components, particularly the housing sector, contributed adversely, while credit demand was once again driven by corporate liquidity requirements (particularly for inventories and working capital).[78] In the previous six months, most parent banks in Central, Eastern, and South-Eastern Europe nations have maintained their level of exposure. Major players in Serbia and Romania engaged in some mergers and acquisitions activities. Banks foresee an increase in non-performing loans (NPLs), which would hit the retail and business sectors in virtually all countries (excluding Albania).[79]\n
According to data from a European survey, big mid-caps account for the greatest percentage of high-growth and very high-growth enterprises, at 7.5% and 3.1%, respectively, followed by SMEs at 6% and 2%. XLs and tiny mid-caps trail somewhat, accounting for 5.2-5.5% and 1.9-2.1% of high- and very-high-growth enterprises, respectively. Manufacturing businesses with big mid-caps and XL firms have the greatest percentage of extremely high-growth firms.[80][81]\n
Europe in particular suffers from a lack of funding for more mature scale-up operations. Financing for these operations is six to eight times higher in the United States (in dollars).[82] Corporate investment among EU countries varies significantly due to distinct national factors. The sectoral breakdown of aggregate investment is not yet accessible for all EU members, even for early 2023. In some European nations, real corporate investment increased by 5% or more by early 2023, while in others it remained stagnant or far lower than pre-pandemic levels.[83]\n
Transport in Europe provides for the movement needs of over 700 million people[84] and associated freight. The political geography of Europe divides the continent into over 50 sovereign states and territories. This fragmentation, along with increased movement of people since the industrial revolution, has led to a high level of cooperation between European countries in developing and maintaining transport networks. Supranational and intergovernmental organisations such as the European Union (EU), Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe have led to the development of international standards and agreements that allow people and freight to cross the borders of Europe, largely with unique levels of freedom and ease.\n
Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and/or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross-border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to \u20ac73 billion in 2005.[85]\n
Despite an extensive road and rail network, most long-distance travel within Europe is by air. A large tourism industry also attracts many visitors to Europe, most of whom arrive into one of Europe's many large international airports. London is the second busiest airport in the world by number of international passengers, only trailing Dubai.[86] The advent of low cost carriers in recent years has led to a large increase in air travel within Europe. Air transportation is now often the cheapest way of travelling between cities. This increase in air travel has led to problems of airspace overcrowding and environmental concerns. The Single European Sky is one initiative aimed at solving these problems.[87]\n
The bulk of the EU's external trade is done with China, Mercosur and the United States,[88] Japan, Russia and non-member European states.\n
EU members are represented by a single official at the WTO.\n
The EU is involved in a few minor trade disputes. It had a long running dispute with the USA of allegedly unfair subsidies the US government gives to several companies, such as Boeing. The EU has a long running ban prohibiting arms trade with the Chinese. The EU issued a brief accusing Microsoft of predatory and monopolistic practices.\n
^ abcdMonaco, San Marino, Vatican City State, and Andorra have concluded monetary agreements with the EU, granting them the rights to produce limited quantities of euro coins with their own design on the national side, but not to issue euro banknotes. Kosovo and Montenegro also use the euro however they have no agreements with the EU.[46]\n
\n
^British Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Isle of Man, Jersey and a British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar are the other Pound Sterling users in Europe. All four issue local versions of the Pound Sterling which are pegged with GBP.\n
^\"The Bank of England's approach to the authorisation and supervision of international banks, insurers and central counterparties\". Bank of England. Retrieved 2 March 2018. The UK's financial sector also brings substantial benefits to EU households and firms, allowing them to access a broad range of services efficiently and reliably. UK-located banks underwrite around half of the debt and equity issued by EU companies. UK-located banks are counterparty to over half of the over-the-counter (OTC) interest rate derivatives traded by EU companies and banks. As many as 30 million EEA policyholders are insured through a UK-based insurer. Central counterparties (CCPs) located in the United Kingdom provide services to EU clients in a range of markets. UK-located asset managers account for 37% of all assets managed in Europe.\n
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