[β]; /t/ > [θ] or [h]; /d/ > [ð]; /k/ > [ç] or [ʃ]; and /ɡ/ > [ʝ], [ʃ] or [j] is apparent in Berber languages in central and northern Morocco and Algeria, as in many Middle Atlas dialects, it is more rare in High Atlas Tamazight speakers, and is absent in Tamazight speakers from the foothills of Jbel Saghro. Southern dialects (e.g. Ayt Atta) may also be differentiated syntactically: while other dialects predicate with the auxiliary /d/ (e.g. /d argaz/ \"it's a man\"), Southern dialects use the typically (High Atlas, Souss-Basin rural country, Jbel Atlas Saghro) auxiliary verb /g/ (e.g. /iga argaz/ \"it's a man\"). The differences between each of the three groups are primarily phonological.\nGroups speaking Tamazight include: Ait Ayache, Ait Morghi, Ait Alaham, Ait Youb, Marmoucha, Ait Youssi, Beni Mguild, Zayane, Zemmour, Ait Rbaa, Ait Seri, Guerouane, Ait Segougou, Ait Yafelman, Ait Sikhmane, Ayt Ndhir (Beni Mtir).\nThere is some ambiguity as to the eastern boundary of Central Atlas Tamazight. The dialect of the Ait Seghrouchen and Ait Ouarain tribes are commonly classed as Central Atlas Tamazight, and Ait Seghrouchen is reported to be mutually intelligible with the neighbouring Tamazight dialect of Ait Ayache. Genetically, however, they belong to the Zenati subgroup of Northern Berber, rather than to the Atlas subgroup to which the rest of Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, and are therefore excluded by some sources from Central Atlas Tamazight. The Ethnologue lists another group of Zenati dialects, South Oran Berber (ksours sud-oranais), as a dialect of Central Atlas Tamazight, but these are even less similar, and are treated by Berber specialists as a separate dialect group.\n\nHistory\nThe Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean since before recorded history began in the region about 33 centuries ago. By the 5th century BC, the city of Carthage, founded by Phoenicians, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa; in the wake of the Punic Wars, Rome replaced it as regional hegemon. The Central Atlas region itself remained independent throughout the classical period, but occasional loanwords into Central Atlas Tamazight, such as ayugu, \"plough ox\", from Latin iugum, \"team of oxen\" and aẓalim \"onion\" < Punic bṣal-im, bear witness to their ancestors' contact with these conquerors.\nArabs conquered the area of modern-day Morocco and Algeria around the 7th century, prompting waves of Arab migration and Berber adoption of Islam. Particularly following the arrival of the Banu Hilal in modern-day Tunisia in the 11th century, more and more of North Africa became Arabic-speaking over the centuries. However, along with other high mountainous regions of North Africa, the Middle Atlas continued to speak Berber.\n\nBetween the 12th and 15th centuries, the Central Atlas, along with the rest of Morocco, successively fell within the domain of the Berber Almoravid, Almohad, and Marinid dynasties. Since the 17th century the region has acknowledged the rule of the Alaouite Dynasty, the current Moroccan royal family. However, effective control of the region was limited; until the 20th century much of the Central Atlas was in a condition of siba, recognising the spiritual legitimacy of royal authority but rejecting its political claims. The expansion of the Ait Atta starting from the 16th century brought Tamazight back into the already Arabised Tafilalt region and put other regional tribes on the defensive, leading to the formation of the Ait Yafelman alliance.\nThe 1912 Treaty of Fez made most of Morocco a French-Spanish protectorate (under French and Spanish military occupation), leaving the Alaouite monarchy but establishing a French military presence in the Atlas region and installing a French commissioner-general. However, the Berber tribes of the Middle Atlas, as in other areas, put up stiff military resistance to French rule, lasting until 1933 in the case of the Ait Atta.\nAfter Morocco's independence in 1956, a strong emphasis was laid on the country's Arab identity, and a national Arabic language educational system was instituted, in which Berber languages, including Middle Atlas Tamazight, had no place. However, in 1994 the government responded to Berber demands for recognition by decreeing that Berber should be taught and establishing television broadcasts in three Berber languages, including Central Atlas Tamazight. For the promotion of Tamazight and other Berber languages and cultures, the government created the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM) in 2001.\n\nGeographic distribution\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings, reaching east to Taza and west to the region near Rabat. It is also spoken in the central and eastern High Atlas mountains in Morocco. It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions — from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the oases of the northwestern Sahara (Tafilalt). Berber in Morocco is spread into three areas: Riff in the north, Central Atlas in the center, and Shilha in the south/southwest. Central Atlas is mutually intelligible with the dialects Riff and Shilha; but Shilha- and Riff-speakers cannot understand each other, although transitional varieties exist between these dialects, creating a smooth transition.\nFigures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses. At least a third of Moroccans seem to speak Berber languages,. Tamazight is estimated to be spoken by about 40~49% of Morocco's Berber-speakers, while Shilha commands 32~40% and Riff 20~25%.\n\nStatus\nTamazight, along with other Berber languages of Morocco, has a low sociolinguistic status, used mainly in the home, and rarely in official or formal contexts. Media broadcasts and music are available in it, and there is a policy of teaching it in schools, although it is not always applied.\nOf the Central Atlas Tamazight speakers, 40–45% are monolingual, while the others use Arabic as a second language. Monolingual speakers consist mostly of older generations and children. Women are more likely to be monolingual than men, since they typically stay in the village while the men go to work in the cities. Since Tamazight is the language of the home, girls grow up speaking Berber languages and pass them on to their children — this gender stratification helps to preserve the language. Bilingual Berber speakers have learned Moroccan Arabic via schooling, migration, media, or through the government. Most rural Berber children are monolingual. They struggle to succeed in schools where the teachers do not speak Berber, and require them to learn both Arabic and French.\nRural Morocco, including the Central Atlas area, suffers from poverty. Tamazight along with its relative Shilha are undergoing \"contraction\" as rural families, motivated by economic necessity, move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight, leading many intellectuals to fear Berber language shift or regression. However, Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups. Moreover, Tamazight has a large enough body of native speakers not to be considered under risk of endangerment, although Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole.\n\nOfficial status\nAs of the Moroccan constitutional referendum, 2011, the Berber languages are official in Morocco alongside Arabic. In 1994, King Hassan II declared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status; television broadcasts are summarized in Tamazight, as well as Shilha and Rif, three times a day; and educational materials for schools are being developed. On October 17, 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree (Dahir 1–01–299) creating and organizing the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM). IRCAM's board is composed of Amazigh experts, artists, and activists, all of whom are appointed by the king. The institute, located in Rabat, has played an important role in the establishment of the Tifinagh script in Morocco. There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber, calling for it to be recognized as an official language, used more extensively in the mass media, and taught more in schools.\nA legal issue affecting Tamazight speakers is restrictions on naming - Moroccan law stipulates that first names must have a \"Moroccan character\", and uncommon names, including some Berber ones used in the Central Atlas, are often rejected by the civil registry.\n\nOrthography\nUntil the 20th century Tamazight, like many other Berber languages but in contrast with neighbouring Tashelhiyt, was basically unwritten (although sporadic cases, using Arabic script, are attested.) It was preserved through oral use in rural areas, isolated from urban hubs. Scholars from the Middle Atlas, as elsewhere in North Africa, usually wrote in the more prestigious Arabic language, rather than their vernacular.\nAt present three writing systems exist for Berber languages, including Tamazight: Neo-Tifinagh, the Latin alphabet and the Arabic script. To some extent, the choice of writing system is a political one, with various subgroups expressing preference based on ideology and politics. The orthography used for government services including schooling is Neo-Tifinagh, rendered official by a Dahir of King Mohammed VI based on the recommendation of IRCAM. However, various Latin transcriptions have been used in a number of linguistic works describing Central Atlas Tamazight, notably the dictionary of Taïfi (1991).\n\nPhonology\nConsonants\nCentral Atlas Tamazight has a contrastive set of \"flat\" consonants, manifested in two ways:\n\nFor front segments, pharyngealization: /tˤ dˤ sˤ zˤ lˤ nˤ rˤ/)\nFor back segments, labialization: /xʷ ɣʷ qʷ χʷ ʁʷ/)\nNote that pharyngealization may spread to a syllable or even a whole word. Historically Proto-Berber only had two pharyngealized phonemes (/dˤ, zˤ/), but modern Berber languages have borrowed others from Arabic and developed new ones through sound shifts. In addition, Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal consonants, as well as a lack of /p/ in its plosive inventory, unusual globally but characteristic of the region.\nAll segments may be geminated except for the pharyngeals /ʕ ħ/. In Ayt Ndhir, which is a dialect of Tamazight with spirantization, the consonants that can be spirantized appear in their stop forms when geminated, and additionally the geminate correspondents of /ʁ, dˤ, ʃ, ʒ, w, j/ are usually /qː, tˤː, t͡ʃː, d͡ʒː, ɣʷː, ɣː/ respectively. However some native Berber words have /ʁː/ (not /qː/) where other dialects have singleton /ʁ/, and similarly for /ʃː, ʒː/. In addition, in Arabic loans singleton non-spirantized [b, t, tˤ, d, k, ɡ, q] occur (though [b t d] and to an extent [tˤ] often alternate with their spirantized versions in loans), giving this alternation marginal phonemic status.\n\nPhonetic notes:\n\n/k ɡ/ are fricatives [x ɣ] in the Ayt Ayache dialect\n/χʷ/ and /ʁʷ/ rare—native speakers can freely substitute /χ ʁ/\nFor a small number of speakers, /b/ is sometimes lenited to [β].\n/t/ is aspirated.\n\nVowels\nTamazight has a typical phonemic three-vowel system:\n\nThese phonemes have numerous allophones, conditioned by the following environments:\n(# denotes word boundary, C̊ denotes C[−flat −/χ/ −/ʁ/], Ç denotes C[+flat], G denotes {Ç, /χ/, /ʁ/})\n\nPhonetic schwa\nThere is a predictable non-phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters, realized as [ɪ̈] before front consonants (e.g. /b t d .../) and [ə] before back consonants (e.g. /k χ .../). It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants, or alternatively it can be realized as a voiced or unvoiced consonant release. It also may be realized as the syllabicity of a nasal, lateral, or /r/.\nThe occurrence of schwa epenthesis is governed morphophonemically. These are some of the rules governing the occurrence of [ə]:\n(# denotes word boundary, R denotes /l r m n/, H denotes /h ħ ʕ w j/, ℞ denotes R or H, and B denotes not R or H.)\n\nExamples:\n\n/tbrˤːmnt/ > [tbərːəmənt] ('you (fp) turned')\n/datːħadˤar/ > [datːəħadˤar] ('she is present')\n/ʕadˤːrˤ/ > [ʕadˤːərˤ] ('to meet')\nHowever note that word-initial initial /j, w/ are realized as /i, u/ before consonants. In word-medial or -final position [əj], [əʝ], and [əw] are realized as [ij], [ij], and [uw] respectively, and may become [i] and [u] in rapid speech.\nTamazight in fact has numerous words without phonemic vowels, and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels.\n[ə] is written as ⟨ⴻ⟩ in neo-Tifinagh and as ⟨e⟩ in the Berber Latin alphabet. French publications tended to include [ə] in their transcriptions of Berber forms despite their predictability, perhaps due to the French vowel system. This can cause problems because alternations such as /iʁ(ə)rs/ 'he slaughtered' – /uriʁris/ 'he did not slaughter' would then have to be morphologically conditioned.\n\nStress\nWord stress is non-contrastive and predictable, and falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa).\nExamples:\n\n/sal/ > [ˈsal] ('to ask')\n/dajtːħadˤarˤ/ > [dajtːəħaˈdˤarˤ] ('he is present')\n/fsːr/ > [fəsːˈər] ('to explain')\n/tfsːrnt/ > [təfəsːəˈrənt] ('you (fp) explained')\n\nGrammar\nCentral Atlas Tamazight grammar has many features typical of Afro-Asiatic languages, including extensive apophony in both the derivational and inflectional morphology, gender, possessive suffixes, VSO typology, the causative morpheme /s/, and the use of the status constructus.\n\nMorphology\nTamazight nouns are inflected for gender, number, and state. Singular masculine nouns usually have the prefix /a-/, and singular feminines the circumfix /t...t. Plurals may either involve a regular change (\"sound plurals\"), internal vowel change (\"broken plurals\"), or a combination of the two. Masculine plurals usually take the prefix /i-/, feminines /ti-/, and sound plurals also take the suffix /-n/ in the masculine and /-in/} in the feminine, but many other plural patterns are found.\nExamples:\n\n/axam/ → /ixamn/ 'big tent(s)' (m)\n/amaziɣ/ → /imaziɣn/ 'Berber(s)' (m)\n/adaʃu/ → /iduʃa/ 'sandal(s)' (m)\n/asrdun/ → /isrdan/ 'mule(s)' (m)\n/taxamt/ → /tixamin/ 'tent(s)' (f)\n/tafunast/ → /tifunasin/ 'cow(s)' (f)\n/taɡrtilt/ → /tiɡrtal/ 'mat(s)' (f)\n/tamazirt/ → /timizar/ 'property(ies)' (f)\nNouns may be put into the construct state (contrasting with free state) to indicate possession or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns after numerals and some prepositions, as well as the conjunction /d-/ ('and'). The construct state is formed as follows: in masculines, initial /a/ becomes /u, wː, wa/, initial /i/ becomes /i, j, ji/, and initial /u/ becomes /wu/. In feminines, initial /ta/ usually becomes /t/, initial /ti/ usually becomes /t/, and initial /tu/ remains unchanged.\nExamples (in Ayt Ayache):\n\n/babuxam/ ( ← /axam/) 'head of the house'\n/ijːs ntslit/ ( ← /tislit/) 'the horse of the bride'\nCentral Atlas Tamazight's personal pronouns distinguish three persons and two genders. Pronouns appear in three forms: an independent form used in the subject position, a possessive suffix (and a derived independent possessive pronoun), and an object form affixed to the controlling verb.\nDemonstrative pronouns distinguish between proximate and remote. When they occur independently, they inflect for number. They may also be suffixed to nouns: /tabardaja/ 'this pack-saddle'.\n\nCentral Atlas Tamazight verbs are heavily inflected and are marked for tense, aspect, mode, voice, person, and polarity. Tamazight verbs have at their core a stem, modified by prefixes, suffixes, moveable affixes, circumfixes, and ablaut. The prefixes indicate voice, tense, aspect, and polarity, while the suffixes indicate mood (normal, horatory, or imperative). Subject markers are circumfixed to the verb, and object marking and satellite framing are accomplished via either prefixing or suffixing depending on environment Some verb forms are accompanied by ablaut, and sometimes metathesis.\nPronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object:/iznz-as-t/ \"he sold it to him\".\nAttributive adjectives occur after the noun they modify and are inflected for number and gender. Adjectives may also occur alone in which case they become an NP. Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb.\n\n/argaz amʕdur/ 'the foolish man' (lit. 'man foolish')\n/tamtˤut tamʕdur/ 'the foolish woman'\n/irgzen imʕdar/ 'the foolish men'\n/tajtʃin timʕdar/ 'the foolish women'\n/i-mmuʕdr urgaz/ 'the man is foolish' (lit. '3ps–foolish man')\n/argaz i-mmuʕdr-n/ 'the foolish man' [using a non-finite verb]\nPrepositions include /xf/ ('on'), /qbl/ ('before'), /ɣr/ ('to'), and the proclitics /n/ ('of') and /d/ ('with, and'). They may take pronominal suffixes. Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, but others do not.\n\nSyntax\nWord order is usually VSO (with the subject in construct state) but is sometimes SVO (with the subject in free state), e.g. (/ifːɣ umaziɣ/ vs. /amaziɣ ifːɣ/ 'the Berber went out'). Tamazight also exhibits pro-drop behavior.\n\nTamazight may use a null copula, but the word /ɡ/ 'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'.\nwh- questions are always clefts, and multiple wh-questions do not occur. Consequently, Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation contribute to anti-agreement effects, similar to Shilha, and causes deletion of the verbal person marker in certain situations.\n\nVocabulary\nAs a result of relatively intense language contact, Central Atlas Tamazight has a large stratum of Arabic loans. Many borrowed words in Berber also have native synonyms (/lbab/ or /tiflut/ 'door'), with the latter being used more in rural areas. The contact was unequal, as Moroccan Arabic has not borrowed as much from Berber languages, but Berber has contributed to the very reduced vowel systems of Moroccan and Algerian Arabic.\nArabic loans span a wide range of lexical clasees. Many nouns begin with /l-/, from the Arabic definite prefix, and some Arabic feminines may acquire the native Berber feminine ending /-t/, e.g. /lʕafit/ for /lʕafia/ 'fire'. Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to inflectional patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut. Even function words are borrowed: /blli/ or /billa/ 'that', /waxxa/ 'although', /ɣir/ 'just', etc.\nThe first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Ndhir) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowed Arabic forms. All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic, consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1–3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages nearly universally use unity as a determiner.\nCentral Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartite negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he did not go out'), which was apparently modelled after proximate |Arabic varieties, in a common development known as Jespersen's Cycle. It is present in multiple Berber varieties and is argued to have originated in neighbouring Arabic varietes and to have been adopted by contact.\n\nExamples\nSee also\nLanguages of Morocco\nShilha language\n\nNotes\n(from \"[nb 1]\")\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\n(in French) INALCO report on Central Atlas Tamazight: maps, extension, dialectology, name\nUCLA Archive for Tamazight\nBerber (Middle Atlas)\nTamazight Dictionary (southern variety)","title":"Central_Atlas_Tamazight"}],"string":"[\n {\n \"idx\": 0,\n \"is_supporting\": true,\n \"paragraph_text\": \"The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic, sometimes Afrasian), also known as Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic, are a language family (or \\\"phylum\\\") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara and Sahel. Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Niger–Congo. Most linguists divide the family into six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to the African continent, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch.\\nArabic, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa. Other major Afroasiatic languages include the Cushitic Oromo language with 45 million native speakers, Chadic Hausa language with over 34 million, the Semitic Amharic language with 25 million, and the Cushitic Somali language with 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the Semitic Tigrinya and Modern Hebrew, the Cushitic Sidaama, and the Omotic Wolaitta language, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size. There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have since died or gone extinct, including Egyptian and the Semitic languages Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew, Phoenician, Amorite, and Ugaritic. There is no consensus among historical linguists as to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known as Proto-Afroasiatic, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in the Levant. The reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists.\\nComparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as the fourth millennium BC, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries. While systematic sound laws have not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns. Other widely shared features include a prefix m- which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel \\\"a\\\" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence of pharyngeal fricatives. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes deriving middle (t-), causative (s-), and passive (m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic).\\n\\nName\\nIn current scholarship, the most common names for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance include Erythraic/Erythraean, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite.\\nFriedrich Müller introduced the name Hamito-Semitic to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft (1876). The variant Semito-Hamitic is mostly used in older Russian sources. The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons of Noah as attested in the Book of Genesis's Table of Nations passage: \\\"Semitic\\\" from the first-born Shem, and \\\"Hamitic\\\" from the second-born Ham (Genesis 5:32). Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, while Ham was the father of the Egyptians and Cushites. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as a Canaanite language, while the Elamites are ascribed to Shem despite their language being totally unrelated to Hebrew. The term Semitic for the Semitic languages had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlözer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. Hamitic was first used by Ernest Renan in 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back as Isidore of Seville in the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of \\\"Hamian\\\" or \\\"Hamitish\\\" languages.\\nThe term Hamito-Semitic has largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German. Several issues with the label Hamito-Semitic have led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests that a monophyletic \\\"Hamitic\\\" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition, Joseph Greenberg has argued that Hamitic possesses racial connotations, and that \\\"Hamito-Semitic\\\" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and doesn't imply a duality of Semitic and \\\"Hamitic\\\" any more than Indo-European implies a duality of Indic and \\\"European\\\". Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement of Hamito-Semitic is difficult.\\nWhile Greenberg ultimately popularized the name \\\"Afroasiatic\\\" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally by Maurice Delafosse, as French afroasiatique, in 1914. The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia. Due to concerns that \\\"Afroasiatic\\\" could imply the inclusion of all languages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name \\\"Afrasian\\\" (Russian: afrazijskije) was proposed by Igor Diakonoff in 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars.\\nThe names Lisramic—based on the Afroasiastic root *lis- (\\\"tongue\\\") and the Egyptian word rmṯ (\\\"person\\\")—and Erythraean—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, the Red Sea—have also been proposed.\\n\\nDistribution and branches\\nScholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon are Berber (also called \\\"Libyco-Berber\\\"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Most specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a \\\"linguistic phylum\\\" rather than a \\\"language family\\\".\\nM. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic; Ethnologue lists 375 languages. Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of \\\"language\\\" and \\\"dialect\\\".\\n\\nBerber\\nThe Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt; since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places.\\nThere are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE.\\n\\nChadic\\nChadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages. The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad Basin, with the exception of Hausa. Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct. Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists.\\n\\nCushitic\\nThere are about 30 Cushitic languages, more if Omotic is included, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers. Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area, Meroitic or Old Nubian. The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770; written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century.\\n\\nEgyptian\\nThe Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Egyptian (often called \\\"Ancient Egyptian\\\"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt, but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church.\\n\\nOmotic\\nThe c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. The two Omotic languages with the most speakers are Wolaitta and Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, with about 1.2 million speakers each.\\nA majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch; some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology.\\n\\nSemitic\\nThere are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today, with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers. \\nMost authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE.\\n\\nOther proposed branches\\nThere are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:\\n\\nLinguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-extinct Ongota language is a separate branch of Afroasiatic; however, this is only one of several competing theories. About half of current scholarly hypotheses on Ongota's origins align it with Afroasiatic in some way.\\nRobert Hetzron proposed that Beja is not part of Cushitic, but a separate branch. The prevailing opinion, however, is that Beja is a branch of Cushitic.\\nThe extinct Meroitic language has been proposed to represent a branch of Afroasiatic. Although an Afroasiatic connection is sometimes viewed as refuted, it continues to be defended by scholars such as Edward Lipiński.\\nThe Kujarge language is usually considered part of the Chadic languages; however, Roger Blench has proposed that it may be a separate branch of Afroasiatic.\\n\\nFurther subdivisions\\nThere is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Whereas Marcel Cohen (1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals, with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012.\\nCommon trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic. In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to argue that Chadic and Egyptian are closely related, and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber. Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997). In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group. Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off. Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret and Igor Diakonoff.\\nResponding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup. Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with Egyptian, presently with Omotic). Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincing isoglosses on which to base genetic distinctions.\\nOne way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such as lexicostatistics, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983. This is also the method used by Alexander Militarev and Sergei Starostin to create a family tree. Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin. Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship. They note the method's inability to detect various strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA.\\n\\nClassification history\\nA relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named \\\"Semitic\\\" by August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781. In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called \\\"Ethiopic\\\"). In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. In 1855, Ernst Renan named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, \\\"Hamitic,\\\" in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876 Friedrich Müller first described them as a \\\"Hamito-Semitic\\\" language family. Müller assumed that there existed a distinct \\\"Hamitic\\\" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, \\\"Negroid\\\" Chadic languages were in the same family as the \\\"Caucasian\\\" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites.\\n\\nAn important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the \\\"Hamitic theory\\\" or \\\"Hamitic hypothesis\\\" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. This theory connected the \\\"Hamites\\\", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) \\\"Caucasians\\\", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous \\\"Negroid\\\" Africans in ancient times. The \\\"Hamitic theory\\\" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 book Die Sprache der Hamiten. On one hand, the \\\"Hamitic\\\" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into \\\"Hamito-Chadic\\\", and an unrelated non-Hamitic \\\"Chadic\\\" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender. On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa.\\nThe first scholar to question the existence of \\\"Hamitic languages\\\" was Marcel Cohen in 1924, with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s. However, Meinhof's \\\"Hamitic\\\" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven by Joseph Greenberg in the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data. Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent \\\"Omotic\\\" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted. These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family.\\nGreenberg relied on his own method of mass comparison of vocabulary items rather than the comparative method of demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family. An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967. As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly established. Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed its genetic validity.\\n\\nOrigin\\nTimeline\\nThere is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary. The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE. An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family. Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to areal contact, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.\\n\\nLocation\\nLikewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated. Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia. Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses \\\"a strong ideological flavor\\\", with associations between an Asian origin and \\\"high civilization\\\". An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Further subdivisions) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-Southern Cushitic languages and the East African Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates the Proto-Cushitic speakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 ago, as well as the speakers of the Proto-Zenati variety of the Berber languages with an expansion across the Maghreb in the 5th century CE.\\nAn origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support, and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data. Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution, \\\"in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa.\\\" The Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there. Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherers, arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”.\\nA significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic, most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley.\\n\\nPhonological characteristics\\nAfroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features.\\n\\nSyllable structure\\nEgyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). Igor Diakonoff argues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel, however in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable.\\nWith the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant. Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. \\nSyllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word.\\n\\nConsonant systems\\nSeveral Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic. All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. AA languages tend to have pharyngeal fricative consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing ħ and ʕ. In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. Additionally, the glottal stop (ʔ) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all.\\nMost, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish between voiceless, voiced, and \\\"emphatic\\\" consonants. The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others; they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless.\\nA form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. Several Omotic languages have \\\"sibilant harmony\\\", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match.\\n\\nConsonant incompatibility\\nRestrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.\\nA set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: \\\"back consonants\\\" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), \\\"front consonants\\\" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. These rules also have a number of exceptions:\\n\\nvelar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals;\\ndental consonants can co-occur with sibilants; However, there are no Proto-Semitic verbal roots with ḍ and a sibilant, and roots with d and a sibilant are uncommon. In all attested cases of a dental and a sibilant, the sibilant occurs in first position and the dental in second.\\nSimilar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. James P. Allen has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals.\\n\\nVowel systems\\nThere is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA, and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably.\\nAll branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony.\\n\\nTones\\nThe majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from a pitch accent.\\n\\nSimilarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology\\nAt present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations. Moreover, all Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages. There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use of suffixes, infixes, vowel lengthening and shortening as a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology. Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below.\\n\\nGeneral features\\nConsonantal root structures\\nA widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic \\\"templates\\\" are placed. This structure is particularly visible in the verbs, and is particularly noticeable in Semitic. Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber, where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template. In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well.\\nMost Semitic verbs are triliteral (have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants). The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated. It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such as verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways.\\n\\nAs part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait; the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well.\\n\\nWord order\\nIt remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order, but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order.\\n\\nReduplication and gemination\\nAfroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed.\\n\\nNouns\\nGrammatical gender and number\\nThe assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family. This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic (\\\"gender stability\\\"). In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness. In addition to these uses, -t also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages.\\n\\nAfroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity), while in others, plural forms are ungendered. In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). These so-called \\\"internal-a\\\" or \\\"broken\\\" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication.\\n\\nNoun cases and states\\nNouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object.\\n\\nA second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of \\\"state\\\". Linguists use the term \\\"state\\\" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the \\\"free state\\\" or the \\\"construct state\\\". The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). Edward Lipiński refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a \\\"free\\\" (absolute) state, a \\\"construct state\\\", and a \\\"pronominal state\\\". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Berber instead contrasts between the \\\"free state\\\" and the \\\"annexed state\\\", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions.\\n\\nModifiers and agreement\\nThere is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic. All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category of adjectives except for Chadic; some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality and stative verbs. In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun. In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun.\\nIn those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying. However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking).\\nA widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA.\\n\\nVerb forms\\nTenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)\\nThere is no agreement about which tenses, aspects, or moods (TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived (marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb. Another common trait across the family is the use of a suppletive imperative for verbs of motion.\\n\\n\\\"Prefix conjugation\\\"\\nConjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found\\nin Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic, where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Prefixes of ʔ- (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. As there is no evidence for the \\\"prefix conjugation\\\" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic.\\n\\n\\\"Suffix conjugation\\\"\\nSome AA branches have what is called a \\\"suffix conjugation\\\", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective. In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a \\\"stative conjugation\\\", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments, as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses.\\n\\nCommon derivational affixes\\nM-prefix noun derivation\\nA prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns, and is one of the features Joseph Greenberg used to diagnose membership in the family. It forms agent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns. In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender. Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages.\\n\\nVerbal extensions\\nMany AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'; the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches. Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions.\\n\\n\\\"Nisba\\\" derivation\\nThe so-called \\\"Nisba\\\" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic, taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to \\\"nisba\\\" adjective derivation.\\n\\nDue to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a \\\"quintessentially Afroasiatic feature\\\". Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases.\\n\\nVocabulary comparison\\nPronouns\\nThe forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic), and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of \\\"independent\\\" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a nasal consonant (n, m), whereas the third person displays a sibilant consonant (s, sh). Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. These pronouns tend to show a masculine \\\"u\\\" and a feminine \\\"i\\\". The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate.\\n\\nNumerals\\nUnlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9. Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way. Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two, and Semitic has four words for one. Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers \\\"one\\\", \\\"two\\\", and \\\"five\\\" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with \\\"five\\\" often based on a word meaning \\\"hand\\\".\\nAnother factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages.\\n\\nCognates\\nAfroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. Writing in 2004, John Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages.\\nThere are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as \\\"controversial\\\", and Ehret's as \\\"not acceptable to many scholars\\\". Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages. Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences.\\n\\nAbbreviations: PEC='Proto-Eastern Cushtic'.\\n\\nSee also\\nNotes\\nCitations\\nWorks cited\\nExternal links\\nAfro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006\\nAfro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk \\\"Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data\\\" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there (in Russian)\\nRoot Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, by Alexander Militarev in \\\"Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic\\\", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.\\nAkkadian-Egyptian lexical matches, by Alexander Militarev in \\\"Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg.\\\" Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145.\\nA comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions\\n\\\"Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?\\\" by Rolf Theil (2006)\\nAfro-Asiatic webpage of Roger Blench (with family tree).\",\n \"title\": \"Afroasiatic_languages\"\n },\n {\n \"idx\": 1,\n \"is_supporting\": true,\n \"paragraph_text\": \"Central Atlas Tamazight or Atlasic (native name: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ Tamazight [tæmæˈzɪxt, θæmæˈzɪxθ]; Arabic: أمازيغية أطلس الأوسط) is a Berber language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken by 3.1 million speakers.\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is one of the most-spoken Berber languages, along with Tachelhit, Kabyle, Riffian, Shawiya and Tuareg. In Morocco, it comes second as the most-spoken after Tachelhit. All five languages may be referred to as \\\"Tamazight\\\", but Central Atlas speakers are the only ones who use the term exclusively. As is typical of Afroasiatic languages, Tamazight has a series of \\\"emphatic consonants\\\" (realized as pharyngealized), uvulars, pharyngeals and lacks the phoneme /p/. Tamazight has a phonemic three-vowel system but also has numerous words without vowels.\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight (unlike neighbouring Tashelhit) had no known significant writing tradition until the 20th century. It is now officially written in the Tifinagh script for instruction in Moroccan schools, while descriptive linguistic literature commonly uses the Latin alphabet, and the Arabic alphabet has also been used.\\nThe standard word order is verb–subject–object but sometimes subject–verb–object. Words inflect for gender, number and state, using prefixes, suffixes and circumfixes. Verbs are heavily inflected, being marked for tense, aspect, mode, voice, person of the subject and polarity, sometimes undergoing ablaut. Pervasive borrowing from Arabic extends to all major word classes, including verbs; borrowed verbs, however, are conjugated according to native patterns, including ablaut.\\n\\nClassification\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is one of the four most-spoken Berber languages, in addition to Kabyle, Tachelhit, and Riffian, and it comes second as the most-spoken Berber language after Tachelhit in Morocco. Differentiating these dialects is complicated by the fact that speakers of other languages may also refer to their language as 'Tamazight'. The differences between all three groups are largely phonological and lexical, rather than syntactic. Tamazight itself has a relatively large degree of internal diversity, including whether spirantization occurs.\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight speakers refer to themselves as Amazigh (pl. Imazighen), an endonymic ethnonym whose etymology is uncertain, but may translate as \\\"free people\\\". The term Tamazight, the feminine form of Amazigh, refers to the language. Both words are also used self-referentially by other Berber groups, although Central Atlas Tamazight speakers use them regularly and exclusively.\\nIn older studies, Central Atlas Tamazight is sometimes referred to as \\\"Braber\\\" / \\\"Beraber\\\", a dialectical Arabic term, or its Tamazight equivalent \\\"Taberbrit\\\". This is related to the Standard Arabic and English term \\\"Berber\\\", used to refer to all Berber dialects/languages, though eschewed by many Berbers because its etymology is pejorative.\\nTamazight belongs to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic language family; Afroasiatic subsumes a number of languages in North Africa and Southwest Asia including the Semitic languages, the Egyptian language, and the Chadic and Cushitic languages. Along with most other Berber languages, Tamazight has retained a number of widespread Afroasiatic features, including a two-gender system, verb–subject–object (VSO) typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as pharyngealized), a templatic morphology, and a causative morpheme /s/ (the latter also found in other macrofamilies, such as the Niger–Congo languages). Within Berber, Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, along with neighbouring Tashelhiyt, to the Atlas branch of the Northern Berber subgroup.\\nTamazight is in the middle of a dialect continuum between Riff to its north-east and Shilha to its south-west. The basic lexicon of Tamazight differs markedly from Shilha, and its verbal system is more similar to Riff or Kabyle. Moreover, Tamazight has a greater amount of internal diversity than Shilha.\\nTamazight's dialects are divided into three distinct subgroups and geographic regions: those spoken in the Middle Atlas mountains; those spoken in the High Atlas mountains; and those spoken in Jbel Saghro and its foothills. Although the characteristic spirantization of /b/ > [β]; /t/ > [θ] or [h]; /d/ > [ð]; /k/ > [ç] or [ʃ]; and /ɡ/ > [ʝ], [ʃ] or [j] is apparent in Berber languages in central and northern Morocco and Algeria, as in many Middle Atlas dialects, it is more rare in High Atlas Tamazight speakers, and is absent in Tamazight speakers from the foothills of Jbel Saghro. Southern dialects (e.g. Ayt Atta) may also be differentiated syntactically: while other dialects predicate with the auxiliary /d/ (e.g. /d argaz/ \\\"it's a man\\\"), Southern dialects use the typically (High Atlas, Souss-Basin rural country, Jbel Atlas Saghro) auxiliary verb /g/ (e.g. /iga argaz/ \\\"it's a man\\\"). The differences between each of the three groups are primarily phonological.\\nGroups speaking Tamazight include: Ait Ayache, Ait Morghi, Ait Alaham, Ait Youb, Marmoucha, Ait Youssi, Beni Mguild, Zayane, Zemmour, Ait Rbaa, Ait Seri, Guerouane, Ait Segougou, Ait Yafelman, Ait Sikhmane, Ayt Ndhir (Beni Mtir).\\nThere is some ambiguity as to the eastern boundary of Central Atlas Tamazight. The dialect of the Ait Seghrouchen and Ait Ouarain tribes are commonly classed as Central Atlas Tamazight, and Ait Seghrouchen is reported to be mutually intelligible with the neighbouring Tamazight dialect of Ait Ayache. Genetically, however, they belong to the Zenati subgroup of Northern Berber, rather than to the Atlas subgroup to which the rest of Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, and are therefore excluded by some sources from Central Atlas Tamazight. The Ethnologue lists another group of Zenati dialects, South Oran Berber (ksours sud-oranais), as a dialect of Central Atlas Tamazight, but these are even less similar, and are treated by Berber specialists as a separate dialect group.\\n\\nHistory\\nThe Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean since before recorded history began in the region about 33 centuries ago. By the 5th century BC, the city of Carthage, founded by Phoenicians, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa; in the wake of the Punic Wars, Rome replaced it as regional hegemon. The Central Atlas region itself remained independent throughout the classical period, but occasional loanwords into Central Atlas Tamazight, such as ayugu, \\\"plough ox\\\", from Latin iugum, \\\"team of oxen\\\" and aẓalim \\\"onion\\\" < Punic bṣal-im, bear witness to their ancestors' contact with these conquerors.\\nArabs conquered the area of modern-day Morocco and Algeria around the 7th century, prompting waves of Arab migration and Berber adoption of Islam. Particularly following the arrival of the Banu Hilal in modern-day Tunisia in the 11th century, more and more of North Africa became Arabic-speaking over the centuries. However, along with other high mountainous regions of North Africa, the Middle Atlas continued to speak Berber.\\n\\nBetween the 12th and 15th centuries, the Central Atlas, along with the rest of Morocco, successively fell within the domain of the Berber Almoravid, Almohad, and Marinid dynasties. Since the 17th century the region has acknowledged the rule of the Alaouite Dynasty, the current Moroccan royal family. However, effective control of the region was limited; until the 20th century much of the Central Atlas was in a condition of siba, recognising the spiritual legitimacy of royal authority but rejecting its political claims. The expansion of the Ait Atta starting from the 16th century brought Tamazight back into the already Arabised Tafilalt region and put other regional tribes on the defensive, leading to the formation of the Ait Yafelman alliance.\\nThe 1912 Treaty of Fez made most of Morocco a French-Spanish protectorate (under French and Spanish military occupation), leaving the Alaouite monarchy but establishing a French military presence in the Atlas region and installing a French commissioner-general. However, the Berber tribes of the Middle Atlas, as in other areas, put up stiff military resistance to French rule, lasting until 1933 in the case of the Ait Atta.\\nAfter Morocco's independence in 1956, a strong emphasis was laid on the country's Arab identity, and a national Arabic language educational system was instituted, in which Berber languages, including Middle Atlas Tamazight, had no place. However, in 1994 the government responded to Berber demands for recognition by decreeing that Berber should be taught and establishing television broadcasts in three Berber languages, including Central Atlas Tamazight. For the promotion of Tamazight and other Berber languages and cultures, the government created the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM) in 2001.\\n\\nGeographic distribution\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings, reaching east to Taza and west to the region near Rabat. It is also spoken in the central and eastern High Atlas mountains in Morocco. It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions — from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the oases of the northwestern Sahara (Tafilalt). Berber in Morocco is spread into three areas: Riff in the north, Central Atlas in the center, and Shilha in the south/southwest. Central Atlas is mutually intelligible with the dialects Riff and Shilha; but Shilha- and Riff-speakers cannot understand each other, although transitional varieties exist between these dialects, creating a smooth transition.\\nFigures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses. At least a third of Moroccans seem to speak Berber languages,. Tamazight is estimated to be spoken by about 40~49% of Morocco's Berber-speakers, while Shilha commands 32~40% and Riff 20~25%.\\n\\nStatus\\nTamazight, along with other Berber languages of Morocco, has a low sociolinguistic status, used mainly in the home, and rarely in official or formal contexts. Media broadcasts and music are available in it, and there is a policy of teaching it in schools, although it is not always applied.\\nOf the Central Atlas Tamazight speakers, 40–45% are monolingual, while the others use Arabic as a second language. Monolingual speakers consist mostly of older generations and children. Women are more likely to be monolingual than men, since they typically stay in the village while the men go to work in the cities. Since Tamazight is the language of the home, girls grow up speaking Berber languages and pass them on to their children — this gender stratification helps to preserve the language. Bilingual Berber speakers have learned Moroccan Arabic via schooling, migration, media, or through the government. Most rural Berber children are monolingual. They struggle to succeed in schools where the teachers do not speak Berber, and require them to learn both Arabic and French.\\nRural Morocco, including the Central Atlas area, suffers from poverty. Tamazight along with its relative Shilha are undergoing \\\"contraction\\\" as rural families, motivated by economic necessity, move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight, leading many intellectuals to fear Berber language shift or regression. However, Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups. Moreover, Tamazight has a large enough body of native speakers not to be considered under risk of endangerment, although Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole.\\n\\nOfficial status\\nAs of the Moroccan constitutional referendum, 2011, the Berber languages are official in Morocco alongside Arabic. In 1994, King Hassan II declared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status; television broadcasts are summarized in Tamazight, as well as Shilha and Rif, three times a day; and educational materials for schools are being developed. On October 17, 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree (Dahir 1–01–299) creating and organizing the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM). IRCAM's board is composed of Amazigh experts, artists, and activists, all of whom are appointed by the king. The institute, located in Rabat, has played an important role in the establishment of the Tifinagh script in Morocco. There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber, calling for it to be recognized as an official language, used more extensively in the mass media, and taught more in schools.\\nA legal issue affecting Tamazight speakers is restrictions on naming - Moroccan law stipulates that first names must have a \\\"Moroccan character\\\", and uncommon names, including some Berber ones used in the Central Atlas, are often rejected by the civil registry.\\n\\nOrthography\\nUntil the 20th century Tamazight, like many other Berber languages but in contrast with neighbouring Tashelhiyt, was basically unwritten (although sporadic cases, using Arabic script, are attested.) It was preserved through oral use in rural areas, isolated from urban hubs. Scholars from the Middle Atlas, as elsewhere in North Africa, usually wrote in the more prestigious Arabic language, rather than their vernacular.\\nAt present three writing systems exist for Berber languages, including Tamazight: Neo-Tifinagh, the Latin alphabet and the Arabic script. To some extent, the choice of writing system is a political one, with various subgroups expressing preference based on ideology and politics. The orthography used for government services including schooling is Neo-Tifinagh, rendered official by a Dahir of King Mohammed VI based on the recommendation of IRCAM. However, various Latin transcriptions have been used in a number of linguistic works describing Central Atlas Tamazight, notably the dictionary of Taïfi (1991).\\n\\nPhonology\\nConsonants\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight has a contrastive set of \\\"flat\\\" consonants, manifested in two ways:\\n\\nFor front segments, pharyngealization: /tˤ dˤ sˤ zˤ lˤ nˤ rˤ/)\\nFor back segments, labialization: /xʷ ɣʷ qʷ χʷ ʁʷ/)\\nNote that pharyngealization may spread to a syllable or even a whole word. Historically Proto-Berber only had two pharyngealized phonemes (/dˤ, zˤ/), but modern Berber languages have borrowed others from Arabic and developed new ones through sound shifts. In addition, Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal consonants, as well as a lack of /p/ in its plosive inventory, unusual globally but characteristic of the region.\\nAll segments may be geminated except for the pharyngeals /ʕ ħ/. In Ayt Ndhir, which is a dialect of Tamazight with spirantization, the consonants that can be spirantized appear in their stop forms when geminated, and additionally the geminate correspondents of /ʁ, dˤ, ʃ, ʒ, w, j/ are usually /qː, tˤː, t͡ʃː, d͡ʒː, ɣʷː, ɣː/ respectively. However some native Berber words have /ʁː/ (not /qː/) where other dialects have singleton /ʁ/, and similarly for /ʃː, ʒː/. In addition, in Arabic loans singleton non-spirantized [b, t, tˤ, d, k, ɡ, q] occur (though [b t d] and to an extent [tˤ] often alternate with their spirantized versions in loans), giving this alternation marginal phonemic status.\\n\\nPhonetic notes:\\n\\n/k ɡ/ are fricatives [x ɣ] in the Ayt Ayache dialect\\n/χʷ/ and /ʁʷ/ rare—native speakers can freely substitute /χ ʁ/\\nFor a small number of speakers, /b/ is sometimes lenited to [β].\\n/t/ is aspirated.\\n\\nVowels\\nTamazight has a typical phonemic three-vowel system:\\n\\nThese phonemes have numerous allophones, conditioned by the following environments:\\n(# denotes word boundary, C̊ denotes C[−flat −/χ/ −/ʁ/], Ç denotes C[+flat], G denotes {Ç, /χ/, /ʁ/})\\n\\nPhonetic schwa\\nThere is a predictable non-phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters, realized as [ɪ̈] before front consonants (e.g. /b t d .../) and [ə] before back consonants (e.g. /k χ .../). It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants, or alternatively it can be realized as a voiced or unvoiced consonant release. It also may be realized as the syllabicity of a nasal, lateral, or /r/.\\nThe occurrence of schwa epenthesis is governed morphophonemically. These are some of the rules governing the occurrence of [ə]:\\n(# denotes word boundary, R denotes /l r m n/, H denotes /h ħ ʕ w j/, ℞ denotes R or H, and B denotes not R or H.)\\n\\nExamples:\\n\\n/tbrˤːmnt/ > [tbərːəmənt] ('you (fp) turned')\\n/datːħadˤar/ > [datːəħadˤar] ('she is present')\\n/ʕadˤːrˤ/ > [ʕadˤːərˤ] ('to meet')\\nHowever note that word-initial initial /j, w/ are realized as /i, u/ before consonants. In word-medial or -final position [əj], [əʝ], and [əw] are realized as [ij], [ij], and [uw] respectively, and may become [i] and [u] in rapid speech.\\nTamazight in fact has numerous words without phonemic vowels, and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels.\\n[ə] is written as ⟨ⴻ⟩ in neo-Tifinagh and as ⟨e⟩ in the Berber Latin alphabet. French publications tended to include [ə] in their transcriptions of Berber forms despite their predictability, perhaps due to the French vowel system. This can cause problems because alternations such as /iʁ(ə)rs/ 'he slaughtered' – /uriʁris/ 'he did not slaughter' would then have to be morphologically conditioned.\\n\\nStress\\nWord stress is non-contrastive and predictable, and falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa).\\nExamples:\\n\\n/sal/ > [ˈsal] ('to ask')\\n/dajtːħadˤarˤ/ > [dajtːəħaˈdˤarˤ] ('he is present')\\n/fsːr/ > [fəsːˈər] ('to explain')\\n/tfsːrnt/ > [təfəsːəˈrənt] ('you (fp) explained')\\n\\nGrammar\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight grammar has many features typical of Afro-Asiatic languages, including extensive apophony in both the derivational and inflectional morphology, gender, possessive suffixes, VSO typology, the causative morpheme /s/, and the use of the status constructus.\\n\\nMorphology\\nTamazight nouns are inflected for gender, number, and state. Singular masculine nouns usually have the prefix /a-/, and singular feminines the circumfix /t...t. Plurals may either involve a regular change (\\\"sound plurals\\\"), internal vowel change (\\\"broken plurals\\\"), or a combination of the two. Masculine plurals usually take the prefix /i-/, feminines /ti-/, and sound plurals also take the suffix /-n/ in the masculine and /-in/} in the feminine, but many other plural patterns are found.\\nExamples:\\n\\n/axam/ → /ixamn/ 'big tent(s)' (m)\\n/amaziɣ/ → /imaziɣn/ 'Berber(s)' (m)\\n/adaʃu/ → /iduʃa/ 'sandal(s)' (m)\\n/asrdun/ → /isrdan/ 'mule(s)' (m)\\n/taxamt/ → /tixamin/ 'tent(s)' (f)\\n/tafunast/ → /tifunasin/ 'cow(s)' (f)\\n/taɡrtilt/ → /tiɡrtal/ 'mat(s)' (f)\\n/tamazirt/ → /timizar/ 'property(ies)' (f)\\nNouns may be put into the construct state (contrasting with free state) to indicate possession or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns after numerals and some prepositions, as well as the conjunction /d-/ ('and'). The construct state is formed as follows: in masculines, initial /a/ becomes /u, wː, wa/, initial /i/ becomes /i, j, ji/, and initial /u/ becomes /wu/. In feminines, initial /ta/ usually becomes /t/, initial /ti/ usually becomes /t/, and initial /tu/ remains unchanged.\\nExamples (in Ayt Ayache):\\n\\n/babuxam/ ( ← /axam/) 'head of the house'\\n/ijːs ntslit/ ( ← /tislit/) 'the horse of the bride'\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight's personal pronouns distinguish three persons and two genders. Pronouns appear in three forms: an independent form used in the subject position, a possessive suffix (and a derived independent possessive pronoun), and an object form affixed to the controlling verb.\\nDemonstrative pronouns distinguish between proximate and remote. When they occur independently, they inflect for number. They may also be suffixed to nouns: /tabardaja/ 'this pack-saddle'.\\n\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight verbs are heavily inflected and are marked for tense, aspect, mode, voice, person, and polarity. Tamazight verbs have at their core a stem, modified by prefixes, suffixes, moveable affixes, circumfixes, and ablaut. The prefixes indicate voice, tense, aspect, and polarity, while the suffixes indicate mood (normal, horatory, or imperative). Subject markers are circumfixed to the verb, and object marking and satellite framing are accomplished via either prefixing or suffixing depending on environment Some verb forms are accompanied by ablaut, and sometimes metathesis.\\nPronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object:/iznz-as-t/ \\\"he sold it to him\\\".\\nAttributive adjectives occur after the noun they modify and are inflected for number and gender. Adjectives may also occur alone in which case they become an NP. Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb.\\n\\n/argaz amʕdur/ 'the foolish man' (lit. 'man foolish')\\n/tamtˤut tamʕdur/ 'the foolish woman'\\n/irgzen imʕdar/ 'the foolish men'\\n/tajtʃin timʕdar/ 'the foolish women'\\n/i-mmuʕdr urgaz/ 'the man is foolish' (lit. '3ps–foolish man')\\n/argaz i-mmuʕdr-n/ 'the foolish man' [using a non-finite verb]\\nPrepositions include /xf/ ('on'), /qbl/ ('before'), /ɣr/ ('to'), and the proclitics /n/ ('of') and /d/ ('with, and'). They may take pronominal suffixes. Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, but others do not.\\n\\nSyntax\\nWord order is usually VSO (with the subject in construct state) but is sometimes SVO (with the subject in free state), e.g. (/ifːɣ umaziɣ/ vs. /amaziɣ ifːɣ/ 'the Berber went out'). Tamazight also exhibits pro-drop behavior.\\n\\nTamazight may use a null copula, but the word /ɡ/ 'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'.\\nwh- questions are always clefts, and multiple wh-questions do not occur. Consequently, Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation contribute to anti-agreement effects, similar to Shilha, and causes deletion of the verbal person marker in certain situations.\\n\\nVocabulary\\nAs a result of relatively intense language contact, Central Atlas Tamazight has a large stratum of Arabic loans. Many borrowed words in Berber also have native synonyms (/lbab/ or /tiflut/ 'door'), with the latter being used more in rural areas. The contact was unequal, as Moroccan Arabic has not borrowed as much from Berber languages, but Berber has contributed to the very reduced vowel systems of Moroccan and Algerian Arabic.\\nArabic loans span a wide range of lexical clasees. Many nouns begin with /l-/, from the Arabic definite prefix, and some Arabic feminines may acquire the native Berber feminine ending /-t/, e.g. /lʕafit/ for /lʕafia/ 'fire'. Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to inflectional patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut. Even function words are borrowed: /blli/ or /billa/ 'that', /waxxa/ 'although', /ɣir/ 'just', etc.\\nThe first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Ndhir) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowed Arabic forms. All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic, consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1–3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages nearly universally use unity as a determiner.\\nCentral Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartite negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he did not go out'), which was apparently modelled after proximate |Arabic varieties, in a common development known as Jespersen's Cycle. It is present in multiple Berber varieties and is argued to have originated in neighbouring Arabic varietes and to have been adopted by contact.\\n\\nExamples\\nSee also\\nLanguages of Morocco\\nShilha language\\n\\nNotes\\n(from \\\"[nb 1]\\\")\\n\\nReferences\\nBibliography\\nExternal links\\n\\n(in French) INALCO report on Central Atlas Tamazight: maps, extension, dialectology, name\\nUCLA Archive for Tamazight\\nBerber (Middle Atlas)\\nTamazight Dictionary (southern variety)\",\n \"title\": \"Central_Atlas_Tamazight\"\n }\n]"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"As of 2024, what percentage of Afroasiatic language speakers speak Central Atlas Tamazight?"},"question_decomposition":{"kind":"list like","value":[],"string":"[]"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"0.49%"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":[],"string":"[]"},"answerable":{"kind":"string","value":"true"}}},{"rowIdx":98,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"670"},"paragraphs":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"idx":0,"is_supporting":true,"paragraph_text":"HMHS Britannic (originally to be the RMS Britannic) () was the third and final vessel of the White Star Line's Olympic class of steamships and the second White Star ship to bear the name Britannic. She was the youngest sister of the RMS Olympic and the RMS Titanic and was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner. She was operated as a hospital ship from 1915 until her sinking near the Greek island of Kea, in the Aegean Sea, in November 1916. At the time she was the largest hospital ship in the world.\nBritannic was launched just before the start of the First World War. She was designed to be the safest of the three ships with design changes made during construction due to lessons learned from the sinking of the Titanic. She was laid up at her builders, Harland and Wolff, in Belfast for many months before being requisitioned as a hospital ship. In 1915 and 1916 she served between the United Kingdom and the Dardanelles. \nOn the morning of 21 November 1916 she hit a naval mine of the Imperial German Navy near the Greek island of Kea and sank 55 minutes later, killing 30 people. There were 1,066 people on board; the 1,036 survivors were rescued from the water and lifeboats. Britannic was the largest ship lost in the First World War.\nAfter the First World War, the White Star Line was compensated for the loss of Britannic by the award of SS Bismarck as part of postwar reparations; she entered service as RMS Majestic.\nThe wreck was located and explored by Jacques Cousteau in 1975. The vessel is the largest intact passenger ship on the seabed in the world. It was bought in 1996 and is currently owned by Simon Mills, a maritime historian.\n\nCharacteristics\nThe original dimensions of Britannic were similar to those of her older sisters, but her dimensions were altered whilst still on the building stocks after the loss of Titanic. With a gross tonnage of 48,158, she surpassed her older sisters in terms of internal volume, but this did not make her the largest passenger ship in service at that time; the German SS Vaterland held this title with a significantly higher tonnage.\nThe Olympic-class ships were propelled by a combined system of two triple-expansion steam engines which powered the three-bladed outboard wing propellers whilst a low-pressure steam turbine used steam exhausted from the two reciprocating engines to power the central four-bladed propeller giving a maximum speed of 23 knots.\n\nPost-Titanic design changes\nBritannic had a similar layout to her sister ships. Following the Titanic disaster and the subsequent inquiries, several design changes were made to the remaining Olympic-class liners. With Britannic, these changes made before launch included increasing the ship's beam to 94 feet (29 m) to allow for a double hull along the engine and boiler rooms and raising six out of the 15 watertight bulkheads up to B Deck. Additionally, a larger 18,000 horsepower (13,000 kW) turbine was added instead of the 16,000 horsepower (12,000 kW) units installed on the earlier vessels to make up for the increase in hull width. The central watertight compartments were enhanced, allowing the ship to stay afloat with six compartments flooded.\nExternally the largest visual change was the fitting of large crane-like gantry davits, each powered by an electric motor and capable of launching six lifeboats which were stored on gantries; the ship was designed to have eight sets of gantry davits but only five were installed before Britannic entered war service, with the difference being made up with boats launched by manually operated Welin-type davits as on Titanic and Olympic.\nAdditional lifeboats could be stored within reach of the davits on the deckhouse roof, and the gantry davits could reach lifeboats on the other side of the ship, providing that none of the funnels was obstructing the way. This design enabled all the lifeboats to be launched, even if the ship developed a list that would normally prevent lifeboats from being launched on the side opposite to the list. Several of these davits were placed abreast of funnels, defeating that purpose. The elevators, which previously stopped at A deck, could now reach the boat deck. The ship carried 48 lifeboats, capable of carrying at least 75 people each. Thus, at least 3,600 people could be carried by the lifeboats, which was well above the ship's maximum capacity of 3,309.\n\nHistory\nConception\nIn 1907, J. Bruce Ismay, director general of the White Star Line, and Lord Pirrie, chairman of the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast had decided to build a trio of ocean liners of unmatched size to compete with the Cunard Line's Lusitania and Mauretania not in terms of speed but in terms of luxury and safety. The names of the three vessels were decided at a later date and they showed the intention of the designers regarding their size: Olympic, Titanic and Britannic.\nConstruction of the Olympic and the Titanic began in 1908 and 1909 respectively. Their sizes were so large that it was necessary to build the Arrol Gantry to shelter them, wide enough to span the two new building slips and allow two ships to be built at a time. The three ships were designed to be 270 metres long and to have a gross tonnage of over 45,000. Their designed speed was approximately 22 knots, well below that of the Lusitania and Mauretania, but still allowing for a transatlantic crossing of less than one week.\n\nRumoured name-change\nAlthough the White Star Line and the Harland and Wolff shipyard always denied it, some sources claim that Britannic was to be named Gigantic, but her name was changed so as not to compete with Titanic or create comparisons. One source is a poster of the ship with the name Gigantic at the top. Other sources are November 1911 American newspapers stating the White Star order for Gigantic being placed, as well as other newspapers from around the world both during construction and immediately after the sinking of the Titanic.\nTom McCluskie stated that in his capacity as archive manager and historian at Harland and Wolff, he \"never saw any official reference to the name Gigantic being used or proposed for the third of the Olympic-class vessels\". Some hand-written changes were added to the order book and dated January 1912. These only dealt with the ship's moulded width, not her name.\n\nConstruction\nBritannic's keel was laid on 30 November 1911 at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, on the gantry slip previously occupied by Olympic, 13 months after the launch of that ship, and Arlanza, launched seven days before. The acquisition of the ship was planned to be at the beginning of 1914. Due to improvements introduced as a consequence of the Titanic's disaster, Britannic was not launched until 26 February 1914, which was filmed along with the fitting of a funnel. Several speeches were given in front of the press, and a dinner was organised in honour of the launching. Fitting out began subsequently. The ship entered dry dock in September and her propellers were installed.\nReusing Olympic's space saved the shipyard time and money by not clearing out a third slip similar in size to those used for the two previous vessels. In August 1914, before Britannic could commence transatlantic service between New York and Southampton, the First World War began. Immediately, all shipyards with Admiralty contracts were given priority to use available raw materials. All civil contracts including Britannic were slowed.\nThe naval authorities requisitioned a large number of ships as armed merchant cruisers or for troop transport. The Admiralty paid the companies for the use of their ships but the risk of losing a ship in naval operations was high. The larger ocean liners were not initially taken for naval use, because smaller ships were easier to operate. Olympic returned to Belfast on 3 November 1914, while work on Britannic continued slowly.\n\nRequisition\nThe need for increased tonnage grew critical as naval operations extended to the Eastern Mediterranean. In May 1915, Britannic completed mooring trials of her engines, and was prepared for emergency entrance into service with as little as four weeks' notice. The same month also saw the first major loss of a civilian ocean liner when Cunard's RMS Lusitania was torpedoed near the Irish coast by SM U-20.\nThe following month, the Admiralty decided to use recently requisitioned passenger liners as troop transports in the Gallipoli Campaign (also called the Dardanelles service). The first to sail were Cunard's RMS Mauretania and RMS Aquitania. As the Gallipoli landings proved to be disastrous and the casualties mounted, the need for large hospital ships for treatment and evacuation of wounded became evident. Aquitania was diverted to hospital ship duties in August (her place as a troop transport would be taken by Olympic in September). Then on 13 November 1915, Britannic was requisitioned as a hospital ship from her storage location at Belfast.\nRepainted white with large red crosses and a horizontal green stripe, she was renamed HMHS (His Majesty's Hospital Ship) Britannic and placed under the command of Captain Charles Alfred Bartlett. In the interior, 3,309 beds and several operating rooms were installed. The common areas of the upper decks were transformed into rooms for the wounded. The cabins of B Deck were used to house doctors. The first-class dining room and the first-class reception room on D Deck were transformed into operating rooms. The lower bridge was used to accommodate the lightly wounded. The medical equipment was installed on 12 December 1915.\n\nFirst service\nWhen declared fit for service on 12 December 1915 at Liverpool, Britannic was assigned a medical team consisting of 101 nurses, 336 non-commissioned officers and 52 commissioned officers as well as a crew of 675 people. On 23 December, she left Liverpool to join the port of Mudros on the island of Lemnos on the Aegean Sea to bring back sick and wounded soldiers. She joined with several ships on the same route, including Mauretania, Aquitania, and her sister ship Olympic. The four ships were joined a little later by Statendam. She made a stopover at Naples before continuing to Mudros, in order for her stock of coal to be replenished. After she returned, she spent four weeks as a floating hospital off the Isle of Wight.\nThe third voyage was from 20 March 1916 to 4 April. The Dardanelles was evacuated in January. At the end of her military service on 6 June 1916, Britannic returned to Belfast to undergo the necessary modifications for transforming her into a transatlantic passenger liner. The British government paid the White Star Line £75,000 to compensate for the conversion. The transformation took place for several months before being interrupted by a recall of the ship back into military service.\n\nRecalled\nThe Admiralty recalled Britannic back into service as a hospital ship on 26 August 1916, and the ship returned to the Mediterranean Sea for a fourth voyage on 24 September of that year. On 29 September on her way to Naples, she encountered a violent storm from which she emerged unscathed. She left on 9 October for Southampton. Then, she made a fifth trip, which was marked by a quarantining of the crew when the ship arrived at Mudros (now Moudros) because of food-borne illness.\nLife aboard the ship followed a routine. At six o'clock, the patients were awakened and the premises were cleaned up. Breakfast was served at 6:30 AM, then the captain toured the ship for an inspection. Lunch was served at 12:30 PM and tea at 4:30 PM. Patients were treated between meals and those who wished to go for a walk could do so. At 8:30 PM, the patients went to bed and the captain made another inspection tour. There were medical classes available for training the nurses.\n\nLast voyage\nAfter completing five successful voyages to the Middle Eastern theatre and back to the United Kingdom transporting the sick and wounded, Britannic departed Southampton for Lemnos at 14:23 on 12 November 1916, her sixth voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. The ship passed Gibraltar around midnight on 15 November and arrived at Naples on the morning of 17 November, for her usual coaling and water-refuelling stop, completing the first stage of her mission.\nA storm kept the ship at Naples until Sunday afternoon when Captain Bartlett decided to take advantage of a brief break in the weather and continue. The seas rose once again as Britannic left the port. By the next morning, the storms died and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without problems. Cape Matapan was rounded in the first hours of 21 November. By morning, Britannic was steaming at full speed into the Kea Channel, between Cape Sounion (the southernmost point of Attica, the prefecture that includes Athens) and the island of Kea.\nThere were 1,066 people on board: 673 crew, 315 Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), 77 nurses, and the captain.\n\nExplosion\nAt 08:12 am European Eastern Time Britannic was rocked by an explosion after hitting a mine. The mines had been planted in the Kea Channel on 21 October 1916 by SM U-73 under the command of Gustav Sieß.\nThe reaction in the dining room was immediate; doctors and nurses left instantly for their posts but not everybody reacted the same way, as further aft, the power of the explosion was less felt, and many thought the ship had hit a smaller boat. Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume were on the bridge at the time and the gravity of the situation was soon evident. The explosion was on the starboard side, between holds two and three. The force of the explosion damaged the watertight bulkhead between hold one and the forepeak. The first four watertight compartments were filling rapidly with water, the boiler-man's tunnel connecting the firemen's quarters in the bow with boiler room six was seriously damaged, and water was flowing into that boiler room.\nBartlett ordered the watertight doors closed, sent a distress signal, and ordered the crew to prepare the lifeboats. An SOS signal was immediately sent out and was received by several other ships in the area, among them HMS Scourge and HMS Heroic, but Britannic heard nothing in reply. Unknown to either Bartlett or the ship's wireless operator, the force of the first explosion had caused the antenna wires slung between the ship's masts to snap. This meant that although the ship could still send out transmissions by radio, she could no longer receive them.\nAlong with the damaged watertight door of the firemen's tunnel, the watertight door between boiler rooms six and five failed to close properly. Water was flowing further aft into boiler room five. Britannic had reached her flooding limit. She could stay afloat (motionless) with her first six watertight compartments flooded. There were five watertight bulkheads rising all the way up to B Deck. Those measures had been taken after the Titanic disaster (Titanic could float with only her first four compartments flooded).\nThe next crucial bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four and its door were undamaged and should have guaranteed the ship's survival. However, there were open portholes along the front lower decks, which tilted underwater within minutes of the explosion. The nurses had opened most of those portholes to ventilate the wards, against standing orders. As the ship's angle of list increased, water reached this level and began entering aft from the bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four. With more than six compartments flooded, Britannic could not stay afloat.\n\nEvacuation\nOn the bridge, Captain Bartlett was already considering efforts to save the ship. Only two minutes after the blast, boiler rooms five and six had to be evacuated. In about ten minutes, Britannic was roughly in the same condition Titanic had been in one hour after the collision with the iceberg. Fifteen minutes after the ship was struck, the open portholes on E Deck were underwater. With water also entering her aft section from the bulkhead between boiler rooms four and five, Britannic quickly developed a serious list to starboard.\nBartlett gave the order to turn starboard towards the island of Kea in an attempt to beach her. The effect of Britannic's starboard list and the weight of the rudder made attempts to navigate the ship under her own power difficult, and the steering gear had been knocked out by the explosion, which eliminated steering by the rudder. The captain ordered the port shaft driven at a higher speed than the starboard side, which helped the ship move towards Kea.\nAt the same time, the hospital staff prepared to evacuate. Bartlett had given the order to prepare the lifeboats, but he did not allow them to be lowered into the water. Everyone took their most valuable belongings with them before they evacuated. The chaplain of the ship recovered his Bible. The few patients and nurses on board were assembled. Major Harold Priestley gathered his detachments from the Royal Army Medical Corps to the back of the A deck and inspected the cabins to ensure no one was left behind.\nWhile Bartlett continued his desperate manoeuvre, Britannic's list steadily increased. Fearing that the list would become too large to launch, some crew decided to launch lifeboats without waiting for the order to do so. Two lifeboats were put onto the water on the port side without permission by Third Officer Francis Laws. These boats were drawn towards the still-turning, partly surfaced propellers. Bartlett ordered the engines to stop but before this could take effect, the two boats were drawn into the propellers, completely destroying both and killing 30 people. Bartlett was able to stop the engines before any more boats were lost.\n\nFinal moments\nBy 08:50, most of those on board had escaped in the 35 successfully launched lifeboats. At this point, Bartlett concluded that the rate at which Britannic was sinking had slowed so he called a halt to the evacuation and ordered the engines restarted in the hope that he might still be able to beach the ship. At 09:00 Bartlett was informed that the rate of flooding had increased due to the ship's forward motion and that the flooding had reached D-deck. Realising that there was now no hope of reaching land in time, Bartlett gave the final order to stop the engines and sounded two final long blasts of the whistle, the signal to abandon ship. As water reached the bridge, he and Assistant Commander Dyke walked off onto the deck and entered the water, swimming to a collapsible boat from which they continued to coordinate the rescue operations.\nBritannic gradually capsized to starboard, and the funnels collapsed one after the other as the ship rapidly sank. By the time the stern was out of the water, the bow had already slammed into the seabed. As Britannic's length was greater than the depth of the water, the impact caused major structural damage to the bow before she slipped completely beneath the waves at 09:07, 55 minutes after the explosion. Violet Jessop (who was one of the survivors of the Titanic, and had also been on board when the Olympic collided with HMS Hawke) described the last seconds:\n\nShe dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths, the noise of her going resounding through the water with undreamt-of violence....\nWhen the Britannic came to rest, she became the largest ship lost in the First World War and the world's largest sunken passenger ship.\n\nRescue\nCompared to Titanic, the rescue of Britannic was facilitated by three factors: The water temperature was higher (20 °C (68 °F) compared to −2 °C (28 °F) for Titanic), more lifeboats were available (35 were successfully launched and stayed afloat compared to Titanic's 20), and help was closer (it arrived less than two hours after first distress call compared to three and a half hours for Titanic).\nThe first to arrive on the scene were fishermen from Kea on their caïque, who picked many survivors from the water. At 10:00, HMS Scourge sighted the first lifeboats and 10 minutes later stopped and picked up 339 survivors. Armed boarding steamer HMS Heroic had arrived some minutes earlier and picked up 494. Some 150 had made it to Korissia, Kea, where surviving doctors and nurses from Britannic were trying to save the injured, using aprons and pieces of lifebelts to make dressings. A little barren quayside served as their operating room.\nScourge and Heroic had no deck space for more survivors, and they left for Piraeus signalling the presence of those remaining at Korissia. HMS Foxhound arrived at 11:45 and, after sweeping the area, anchored in the small port at 13:00 to offer medical assistance and take on board the remaining survivors. At 14:00 the light cruiser HMS Foresight arrived. Foxhound departed for Piraeus at 14:15 while Foresight remained to arrange the burial on Kea of RAMC Sergeant William Sharpe, who had died of his injuries. Another two survivors died on the Heroic and one on the French tug Goliath. The three were buried with military honours in the Piraeus Naval and Consular Cemetery. The last fatality was G. Honeycott, who died at the Russian Hospital at Piraeus shortly after the funerals.\nIn total, out of the 1,066 people on board, 1,036 people survived the sinking. Thirty people lost their lives in the disaster but only five were buried; others were not recovered and are honoured on memorials in Thessaloniki (the Mikra Memorial) and London. Another 38 were injured (18 crew, 20 RAMC). Survivors were accommodated in the warships that were anchored at the port of Piraeus while nurses and officers were hosted in separate hotels at Phaleron. Many Greek citizens and officials attended the funerals. Survivors were sent home and few arrived in the United Kingdom before Christmas.\nIn November 2006, Britannic researcher Michail Michailakis discovered that one of the 45 unidentified graves in the New British Cemetery in the town of Hermoupolis on the island of Syros contained the remains of a soldier collected from the church of Ag. Trias at Livadi (the former name of Korissia). Maritime historian Simon Mills contacted the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Further research established that this soldier was a Britannic casualty and his remains had been registered in October 1919 as belonging to a certain \"Corporal Stevens\".\nWhen the remains were moved to the new cemetery at Syros in June 1921, it was found that there was no record relating this name with the loss of the ship, and the grave was registered as unidentified. Mills provided evidence that this man could be Sergeant Sharpe and the case was considered by the Service Personnel and Veterans Agency. A new headstone for Sharpe was erected and the CWGC has updated its database.\n\nVisualised as an ocean liner\nThe plan of Britannic showed that she was intended to be more luxurious than her sister ships in order to compete with SS Imperator, SS Vaterland and RMS Aquitania. Enough cabins were provided for passengers divided into three classes. The White Star Line anticipated a considerable change in its customer base. Thus, the quality of the Third Class (intended for migrants) was lowered when compared to that of her sisters, while the quality of the Second Class increased. In addition, the number of crew planned was increased from about 860 – 880 onboard Olympic and Titanic to 950 aboard Britannic.\nThe quality of the First Class was also improved. Children began to appear as part of the clientele that needed to be satisfied, and thus a playroom for them was built on the boat deck. Similar to her two sister ships, the first class amenities included the Grand Staircase, but Britannic's amenities were more sumptuous, with worked balustrades, decorative panels and a pipe organ. The A Deck of the ship was devoted in its entirety to the First Class, being fitted with a salon, two veranda cafes, a smoking room and a reading room. The B Deck included a hair salon, post office, and redesigned deluxe Parlour Suites, dubbed Saloons in the Builder's Plans. The most important addition was that of individual bathrooms in almost every First Class cabin, which would have been a first on an ocean liner. Aboard the Olympic and Titanic, most passengers had to use public bathrooms.\nThese facilities were installed but were soon removed because the ship was converted to a hospital ship and were never re-installed because the ship sank before she could enter transatlantic service, so the planned facilities were either cancelled, destroyed, reused on other vessels, like the Olympic or Majestic, or just never used. Of these accessories, only a large staircase and a children's playroom remained installed. Under the glass dome was a white wall above the first-class staircase instead of a clock and a large painting.\n\nPipe organ\nA Welte philharmonic organ was planned to be installed on board Britannic but because of the outbreak of war, the instrument never made its way to Belfast from Germany. After the war, it was not claimed by Harland and Wolff since Britannic sank before she could have ever entered transatlantic service. It also was not installed on Olympic or Majestic since White Star Line did not want it. For a long time, it was thought that the organ was lost or destroyed.\nIn April 2007, the restorers of a Welte organ, now in the Museum für Musikautomaten in Seewen, Switzerland, detected that the main parts of the instrument were signed by the German organ builders with \"Britanik\". A photograph of a drawing in a company prospectus, found in the Welte-legacy in the Augustiner Museum in Freiburg, proved that this was the organ intended for Britannic. It was found that Welte had first sold the organ to a private owner in Stuttgart instead. Later, in 1937 it had been transferred to a company's concert hall in Wipperfürth, where it was eventually acquired by the founder of the Swiss Museum of Music Automatons in 1969. At the time, the museum was still unaware of the organ's original history. The museum maintains the organ in working condition and it is still used for fully automated and manual performances.\n\nWreck\nThe wreck of HMHS Britannic is at 37°42′05″N 24°17′02″E in about 400 feet (122 m) of water. It was discovered on 3 December 1975 by Jacques Cousteau, who explored it. In filming the expedition, Cousteau also held conference on camera with several surviving personnel from the ship including Sheila MacBeth Mitchell, a survivor of the sinking. In 1976, Cousteau entered the wreck with his divers for the first time. He expressed the opinion that the ship had been sunk by a single torpedo, basing this opinion on the damage to her plates.\nThe giant liner lies on her starboard side relatively intact, hiding the large hole that was torn open by the mine. There is a huge hole just beneath the forward well deck. The bow is heavily deformed and attached to the rest of the hull only by some pieces of C-Deck. The crew's quarters in the forecastle were found to be in good shape with many details still visible. The holds were found empty.\nThe forecastle machinery and the two cargo cranes in the forward well deck are well preserved. The foremast is bent and lies on the seabed near the wreck with the crow's nest still attached. The bell, thought to be lost, was found in a dive in 2019, having fallen from the mast and is now lying directly below the crow's nest on the seabed. Funnel number 1 was found a few metres from the Boat Deck. Funnel numbers two, three, and four were found in the debris field (located off the stern). Pieces of coal lie beside the wreck.\nIn mid-1995, in an expedition filmed by NOVA, Dr Robert Ballard, best known for having discovered the wrecks of Titanic in 1985, and the German battleship Bismarck in 1989, visited the wreck, using advanced side-scan sonar. Images were obtained from remotely controlled vehicles, but the wreck was not penetrated. Ballard found all the ship's funnels in surprisingly good condition. Attempts to find mine anchors failed.\nIn August 1996, the wreck was bought by Simon Mills, who has written two books about the ship: Britannic – The Last Titan and Hostage To Fortune.\nIn November 1997, an international team of divers led by Kevin Gurr used open-circuit trimix diving techniques to visit and film the wreck in the newly available DV digital video format.\nIn September 1998, another team of divers made an expedition to the wreck. Using diver propulsion vehicles, the team made more man-dives to the wreck and produced more images than ever before, including video of four telegraphs, a helm and a telemotor on the captain's bridge.\nIn 1999 GUE divers acclimated to cave diving and ocean discovery led the first dive expedition to include extensive penetration into Britannic. Video of the expedition was broadcast by National Geographic, BBC, the History Channel and the Discovery Channel.\nIn September 2003, an expedition led by Carl Spencer dived into the wreck. This was the first expedition to dive Britannic where all the bottom divers were using closed circuit rebreathers (CCR). Diver Leigh Bishop brought back some of the first photographs from inside the wreck and his diver partner Rich Stevenson found that several watertight doors were open. It has been suggested that this was because the mine strike coincided with the change of watches. Alternatively, the explosion may have distorted the doorframes. A number of mine anchors were located off the wreck by sonar expert Bill Smith, confirming the German records of U-73 that Britannic was sunk by a single mine and the damage was compounded by open portholes and watertight doors. Spencer's expedition was broadcast extensively across the world for many years by National Geographic and the UK's Channel 5.\nIn 2006, an expedition, funded and filmed by the History Channel, brought together fourteen skilled divers to help determine what caused the quick sinking of Britannic. After preparation the crew dived on the wreck site on 17 September. Time was cut short when silt was kicked up, causing zero visibility conditions, and the two divers narrowly escaped with their lives. One last dive was to be attempted on Britannic's boiler room, but it was discovered that photographing this far inside the wreck would lead to violating a permit issued by the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, a department within the Greek Ministry of Culture.\nPartly because of a barrier in languages, a last-minute plea was turned down by the department. The expedition was unable to determine the cause of the rapid sinking, but hours of footage were filmed and important data was documented. The Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities later recognised the importance of this mission and extended an invitation to revisit the wreck under less stringent rules.\nOn 24 May 2009, Carl Spencer, drawn back to his third underwater filming mission of Britannic, died in Greece due to equipment difficulties while filming the wreck for National Geographic.\nIn 2012, on an expedition organised by Alexander Sotiriou and Paul Lijnen, divers using rebreathers installed and recovered scientific equipment used for environmental purposes, to determine how fast bacteria are eating Britannic's iron compared to Titanic.\nOn 29 September 2019, a British technical diver, Tim Saville, died during a 120 m / 393 ft dive on Britannic's wreck.\n\nLegacy\nHaving her career cut short in wartime, never having entered commercial service, and having had few victims, Britannic did not experience the same notoriety as her sister ship Titanic. After being largely forgotten by the public, she finally gained fame when her wreck was discovered. Her name was reused by the White Star Line when it put MV Britannic into service in 1930. That ship was the last to fly the flag of the company when it retired in 1960.\nAfter Germany capitulated at the end of the First World War followed by the Treaty of Versailles, it handed over some of its ocean liners as war reparations, two of which were given to the company. The first, the Bismarck, renamed Majestic, replaced the Britannic. The second, the Columbus, renamed the Homeric, compensated for other ships lost in the conflict.\nThe last survivor, George Perman, died on the 24th of May 2000, just shy of his 100th birthday. At the time of the sinking, he was a 15-year-old Scout working on Britannic, and the youngest person onboard the ship.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe sinking of the ship was dramatised in a 2000 television film called Britannic that featured Edward Atterton, Amanda Ryan, Jacqueline Bisset and John Rhys-Davies. The film was an entirely fictitious account featuring a German agent sabotaging the ship, because the Britannic was secretly carrying munitions. Titanic has a cameo during the flashback sequence of Violet Jessop's account of the sinking.\nA BBC2 documentary, Titanic's Tragic Twin – the Britannic Disaster, was broadcast on 5 December 2016; presented by Kate Humble and Andy Torbet, it used up-to-date underwater film of the wreck and spoke to relatives of survivors.\nThe historical docudrama The Mystery Of The Britannic was released in 2017, in which the maritime explorer Richard Kohler investigates the ship's last voyage.\nAlma Katsu's 2020 novel The Deep was set partly on the Britannic, and on its sister ship the Titanic, and centred around the sinking of both ships.\nThe Gigantic, the apparent setting of the 2009 escape-room game Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors, references the Britannic as a sister ship of the Titanic retrofitted as a hospital ship.\n\nPostcards\nReferences\nBibliography\nBrewster, Hugh; Coulter, Laurie (1998). 882 1/2 Amazing Answers to your Questions about the Titanic. Madison Press Book. ISBN 978-0-590-18730-5.\nChirnside, Mark (2011) [2004]. The Olympic-Class Ships. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-2868-0.\nLord, Walter (2005) [1955]. A Night to Remember. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-8050-7764-3.\nLe Goff, Olivier (1998). Les Plus Beaux Paquebots du Monde (in French). Solar. ISBN 9782263027994.\nLynch, John (2012). Belfast Built Ships. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6539-5.\nPiouffre, Gérard (2009). Le Titanic ne répond plus (in French). Larousse. ISBN 978-2-263-02799-4.\n\nFurther reading\nMills, Simon (1992). H.M.H.S. \"Britannic\": Last Titan. Dorset: Waterfront Publications. ISBN 0-946184-71-2.\nMills, Simon (2002). Hostage to Fortune: the dramatic story of the last Olympian, HMHS Britannic. Chesham, England: Wordsmith. ISBN 1-899493-03-4.\nMills, Simon (2019). Exploring the Britannic: The Life, Last Voyage and Wreck of Titanic's Tragic Twin. London: Adlard Coles. ISBN 978-1-4729-5492-3.\nLayton, J. Kent (2013). The Edwardian Superliners: a trio of trios. Amberley. ISBN 978-1-4456-1438-0.\nKohler, Richie; Hudson, Charlie (2016). Mystery of the Last Olympian: Titanic's Tragic Sister Britannic. Best Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1930536869.\n\nExternal links\n\nNewsreel footage of the construction of HMHS Britannic, 1914\nMaritimequest HMHS Britannic Photo Gallery\nBritannic Home at Atlantic Liners\nNOVA Online-Titanic's Lost Sister (Companion website to the PBS special Titanic's Lost Sister)\nHospital Ship Britannic\nAbout the origins of the Britannic Organ Archived 10 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine\nImages of HMHS Britannic Archived 22 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine at the English Heritage Archive\nBritish Pathé gallery on the Olympic class\nDeck plans of Britannic as an ocean liner","title":"HMHS_Britannic"},{"idx":1,"is_supporting":true,"paragraph_text":"Belfast ( BEL-fast, -fahst; from Irish: Béal Feirste [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]) is the capital city and principal port of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan and connected to the open sea through Belfast Lough and the North Channel. It is the second-largest city on the island of Ireland (after Dublin), with an estimated population of 348,005 in 2022, and a metropolitan area population of 671,559.\nFirst chartered as an English settlement in 1613, the town's early growth was driven by an influx of Scottish Presbyterians. Their descendants' disaffection with Ireland's Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain in 1800 — later regarded as a key to the town's industrial transformation. When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the world's largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage.\nSectarian tensions accompanied the growth of an Irish Catholic population drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts. Heightened by division over Ireland's future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets. A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts.\nSince the 1998 Belfast Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists. At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions.\nBelfast has seen significant services sector growth, with important contributions from financial technology (fintech), from tourism and, with facilities in the redeveloped Harbour Estate, from film. It retains a port with commercial and industrial docks, including a reduced Harland & Wolff shipyard and aerospace and defence contractors. Post Brexit, Belfast and Northern Ireland remain, uniquely, within both the British domestic and European Single trading areas for goods.\nThe city is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport on the Lough shore and Belfast International Airport 15 miles (24 kilometres) west of the city. It supports two universities: on the north-side of the city centre, Ulster University, and on the southside the longer established Queens University. Since 2021, Belfast has been a UNESCO designated City of Music.\n\nHistory\nName\nThe name Belfast derives from the Irish Béal Feirste (Irish pronunciation: [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]), \"Mouth of the Farset\" a river whose name in the Irish, Feirste, refers to a sandbar or tidal ford. This was formed where the river ran—until culverted late in the 18th century, down High Street— into the Lagan. It was at this crossing, located under or close to the current Queen's Bridge, that the early settlement developed.: 74–77 \nThe compilers of Ulster-Scots use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of \"Belfast\" (with which they sometimes are also content) including Bilfawst, Bilfaust or Baelfawst.\n\nEarly settlements\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city,: 42–45 and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. At the beginning of the 14th century, Papal tax rolls record two churches: the \"Chapel of Dundela\" at Knock (Irish: Cnoc; from cnoc, meaning 'hill') in the east, connected by some accounts to the 7th-century evangelist St. Colmcille,: 11 and, the \"Chapel of the Ford\", which may have been a successor to a much older parish church on the present Shankill (Seanchill, \"Old Church\") Road,: 63–64 dating back to the 9th, and possibly to St. Patrick in the mid 5th, century.\nA Norman settlement at the ford, comprising the parish church (now St. George's), a watermill, and a small fort, was an outpost of Carrickfergus Castle. Established in the late 12th century, 11 miles (18 km) out along the north shore of the Lough, Carrickfergus was to remain the principal English foothold in the north-east until the scorched- earth Nine Years' War at the end of the 16th century broke the remaining Irish power, the O'Neills.\n\nDeveloping port, radical politics\nWith a commission from James I, in 1613 Sir Arthur Chichester undertook the Plantation of Belfast and the surrounding area, attracting mainly English and Manx settlers. The subsequent arrival of Scottish Presbyterians embroiled Belfast in its only recorded siege: denounced from London by John Milton as \"ungrateful and treacherous guests\", in 1649 the newcomers were temporarily expelled by an English Parliamentarian army.: 21 In 1689, Catholic Jacobite forces, briefly in command of the town, abandoned it in advance of the landing at Carrickfergus of William, Prince of Orange, who proceeded through the Belfast to his celebrated victory on 12 July 1690 at the Boyne.\n\nTogether with French Huguenots, the Scots introduced the production of linen, a flax-spinning industry that in the 18th century carried Belfast trade to the Americas. Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed and tobacco from the colonies. From the 1760s, profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the Lagan Canal, new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through Dublin. Abolitionist sentiment, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, Cunningham and Greg, in 1786 to commission ships for the Middle Passage.As \"Dissenters\" from the established Anglican church (with its episcopacy and ritual), Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament. Belfast's two MPs remained nominees of the Chichesters (Marquesses of Donegall). With their emigrant kinsmen in America, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from the Crown.: 55–61 \nWhen early in the American War of Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled their own Volunteer militia. Formed ostensibly for defence of the Kingdom, Volunteer corps were soon pressing their own protest against \"taxation without representation\". Further emboldened by the French Revolution, a more radical element in the town, the Society of United Irishmen, called for Catholic emancipation and a representative national government. In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection. The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the Battle of Antrim and to the south at the Battle of Ballynahinch.\nBritain seized on the rebellion to abolish the Irish Parliament, unlamented in Belfast, and to incorporate Ireland in a United Kingdom. In 1832, British parliamentary reform permitted the town its first electoral contest – an occasion for an early and lethal sectarian riot.: 87\n\nIndustrial expansion, sectarian division\nWhile other Irish towns experienced a loss of manufacturing, and after a cotton boom and bust, from the 1820s Belfast underwent rapid industrial expansion. As the global leader in the production of linen goods—mill, and finishing, work largely employing women and children— it won the moniker \"Linenopolis\". Shipbuilding led the development of heavier industry. By the 1900s, her shipyards were building up to a quarter of the total United Kingdom tonnage. This included from the yard of Harland & Wolff the ill-fated RMS Titanic, at the time of her launch in 1911 the largest ship afloat. Other major export industries included textile machinery, rope, tobacco and mineral waters.: 59–88 \nIndustry drew in a new Catholic population settling largely in the west of the town—refugees from a rural poverty intensified by Belfast's mechanisation of spinning and weaving and, in the 1840s, by famine. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised and dominated the apprenticed trades and gave a new lease of life to the once largely rural Orange Order. Sectarian tensions, which frequently broke out in riots and workplace expulsions, were also driven by the \"constitutional question\": the prospect of a restored Irish parliament in which Protestants (and northern industry) feared being a minority interest.\nOn 28 September 1912, unionists massed at Belfast's City Hall to sign the Ulster Covenant, pledging to use \"all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland\". This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000-strong Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The immediate crisis was averted by the onset of the Great War. The UVF formed the 36th (Ulster) Division whose sacrifices in the Battle of the Somme continue to be commemorated in the city by unionist and loyalist organisations.\nIn 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six counties remaining as Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, there was widespread violence. 8,000 \"disloyal\" workers were driven from their jobs in the shipyards: in addition to Catholics, \"rotten Prods\" – Protestants whose labour politics disregarded sectarian distinctions.: 104–108 Gunbattles, grenade attacks and house burnings contributed to as many as 500 deaths. A curfew remained in force until 1924. (see The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)) The lines drawn saw off the challenge to \"unionist unity\" posed by labour (industry had been paralysed by strikes in 1907 and again in 1919). Until \"troubles\" returned at the end of the 1960s, it was not uncommon in Belfast for the Ulster Unionist Party to have its council and parliamentary candidates returned unopposed.\nIn 1932, the opening of the new buildings for Northern Ireland's devolved Parliament at Stormont was overshadowed by the protests of the unemployed and ten days of running street battles with the police. The government conceded increases in Outdoor Relief, but labour unity was short lived.: 219–220 In 1935, celebrations of King George V's Jubilee and of the annual Twelfth were followed by deadly riots and expulsions, a sectarian logic that extended itself to the interpretation of darkening events in Europe.: 226–233 Labour candidates found their support for the anti-clerical Spanish Republic characterised as another instance of No-Popery. (Today, the cause of the republic in the Spanish Civil War is commemorated by a \"No Pasaran\" stained glass window in City Hall).\nIn 1938, nearly a third of industrial workers were unemployed, malnutrition was a major issue, and at 9.6% the city's infant mortality rate (compared with 5.9% in Sheffield, England) was among the highest in United Kingdom.\n\nThe Blitz and post-war development\nIn the spring of 1941, the German Luftwaffe appeared twice over Belfast. In addition to the shipyards and the Short & Harland aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, and devastated the old town centre around High Street. In the greatest loss of life in any air raid outside of London, more than a thousand people were killed.\nAt the end of World War II, the Unionist government undertook programmes of \"slum clearance\" (the Blitz had exposed the \"uninhabitable\" condition of much of the city's housing) which involved decanting populations out of mill and factory built red-brick terraces and into new peripheral housing estates. At the same time, a British-funded welfare state \"revolutionised access\" to education and health care. The resulting rise in expectations; together with the uncertainty caused by the decline of the city's Victorian-era industries, contributed to growing protest, and counter protest, in the 1960s over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights.\n\nThe Troubles\nFor reasons that nationalists and unionists dispute, the public protests of the late 1960s soon gave way to communal violence (in which as many as 60,000 people were intimidated from their homes): 70 and to loyalist and republican paramilitarism. Introduced onto the streets in August 1969, the British Army committed to the longest continuous deployment in its history, Operation Banner. Beginning in 1970 with the Falls curfew, and followed in 1971 by internment, this included counterinsurgency measures directed chiefly at the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) who characterised their operations, including the bombing of Belfast's commercial centre, as a struggle against British occupation.\nPreceded by loyalist and republican ceasefires, the 1998 \"Good Friday\" Belfast Agreement returned a new power-sharing legislative assembly and executive to Stormont. In the intervening years in Belfast, some 20,000 people had been injured, and 1,500 killed.: 73 \n\nEighty-five percent of the conflict-related deaths had occurred within 1,000 metres of the communal interfaces, largely in the north and west of the city.: 73 The security barriers erected at these interfaces are an enduring physical legacy of the Troubles. The 14 neighbourhoods they separate are among the 20 most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all peace lines by mutual consent. The target date of 2023 was passed with only a small number dismantled.\nThe more affluent districts escaped the worst of the violence, but the city centre was a major target. This was especially so during the first phase of the PIRA campaign in the early 1970s, when the organisation hoped to secure quick political results through maximum destruction.: 331–332 Including car bombs and incendiaries, between 1969 and 1977 the city experienced 2,280 explosions.: 58 In addition to the death and injury caused, they accelerated the loss of the city's Victorian fabric.\n\n21st century\nSince the turn of the century, the loss of employment and population in the city centre has been reversed. This reflects the growth of the service economy, for which a new district has been developed on former dockland, the Titanic Quarter. The growing tourism sector paradoxically lists as attractions the murals and peace walls that echo the violence of the past.: 350.352 In recent years, \"Troubles tourism\": 180–189 has presented visitors with new territorial markers: flags, murals and graffiti in which loyalists and republicans take opposing sides in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.\nThe demographic balance of some areas has been changed by immigration (according to the 2021 census just under 10% of the city's population was born outside the British Isles), by local differences in births and deaths between Catholics and Protestants, and by a growing number of, particularly younger, people no longer willing to self-identify on traditional lines.\nIn 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history. The election in 2011 saw Irish nationalist councillors outnumber unionist councillors for the first time, with Sinn Féin becoming the largest party, and the cross-community Alliance Party holding the balance of power.\n\nIn the 2016 Brexit referendum, Belfast's four parliamentary constituencies returned a substantial majority (60 percent) for remaining within the European Union, as did Northern Ireland as a whole (55.8), the only UK region outside London and Scotland to do so. In February 2022, the Democratic Unionist Party, which had actively campaigned for Brexit, withdrew from the power-sharing executive and collapsed the Stormont institutions to protest the 2020 UK-EU Northern Ireland Protocol. With the promise of equal access to the British and European markets, this designates Belfast as a point of entry to the European Single Market within whose regulatory framework local producers will continue to operate. After two years, the standoff was resolved with an agreement to eliminate routine checks on UK-destined goods.\n\nCityscape\nLocation and topography\nBelfast is at the mouth of the River Lagan at the head of Belfast Lough open through the North Channel to the Irish Sea and to the North Atlantic. In the course of the 19th century, the location's estuarine features were re-engineered. With dredging and reclamation, the lough was made to accommodate a deep sea port, and extensive shipyards. The lagan was banked (in 1994 a weir raised its water level to cover what remained of the tidal mud flats) and its various tributaries were culverted On the model pioneered in 2008 by the Connswater Community Greenway some are now being considered for \"daylighting\".\nIt remains the case that much of the city centre is built on an estuarine bed of \"sleech\": silt, peat, mud and—a source the city's ubiquitous red brick— soft clay, that presents a challenge for high-rise construction. (It was this soft foundation that persuaded St Anne's Cathedral to abandon plans for a bell tower and, in 2007, to substitute a lightweight steel spire). The city centre is also subject to tidal flood risk. Rising sea levels could mean, that without significant investment, flooding in the coming decades will be persistent.\nThe city is overlooked on the County Antrim side (to the north and northwest) by a precipitous basalt escarpment—the near continuous line of Divis Mountain (478 m), Black Mountain (389 m) and Cavehill (368 m)—whose \"heathery slopes and hanging fields are visible from almost any part of the city\".: 13 From County Down side (on the south and south east) it is flanked by the lower-lying Castlereagh and Hollywood hills. The sand and gravel Malone Ridge extends up river to the south-west.\n\nNorth Belfast and Shankill\nFrom 1820, Belfast began to spread rapidly beyond its 18th century limits. To the north, it stretched out along roads which drew into the town migrants from Scots-settled hinterland of County Antrim. Largely Presbyterian, they enveloped a number of Catholic-occupied \"mill-row\" clusters: New Lodge, Ardoyne and \"the Marrowbone\". Together with areas of more substantial housing in the Oldpark district, these are wedged between Protestant working-class housing stretching from Tiger's Bay out the Shore Road on one side, and up the Shankill (the original Antrim Road) on the other.\nThe Greater Shankill area, including Crumlin and Woodvale, is over the line from the Belfast North parliamentary/assembly constituency, but is physically separated from the rest of Belfast West by an extensive series of separation barriers—peace walls—owned (together with five daytime gates into the Falls area) by the Department of Justice. These include Cupar Way where tourists are informed that, at 45 feet, the barrier is \"three times higher than the Berlin Wall and has been in place for twice as long\".\nWith other working-class districts, Shankill suffered from the \"collapse of old industrial Belfast\". But it was also greatly affected from the 1960s by the city's most ambitious programme of \"slum clearance\". Red-brick, \"two up, two down\" terraced streets, typical of 19th century working-class housing, were replaced with flats, maisonettes, and car parks but few facilities. In a period of twenty years, due largely to redevelopment, 50,000 residents left the area leaving an aging population of 26,000 and more than 100 acres of wasteland.\nMeanwhile, road schemes, including the terminus of the M1 motorway and the Westlink, demolished a mixed dockland community, Sailortown and severed the streets linking the Shankill area and the rest of both north and west Belfast to the city centre.\nNew \"green field\" housing estates were built on the outer edges of the city. The onset of the Troubles overwhelmed attempts to promote these as \"mixed\" neighbourhoods so that the largest of these developments on the city's northern edge, Rathcoole rapidly solidified as a loyalist community. In 2004, it was estimated that 98% of public housing in Belfast was divided along religious lines.\nAmong the principal landmarks of north Belfast are the Crumlin Road Gaol (1845) now a major visitor attraction, Belfast Royal Academy (1785) - the oldest school in the city, St Malachy's College (1833), Holy Cross Church, Ardoyne (1902), Waterworks Park (1889), and Belfast Zoo (1934).\n\nWest Belfast\nIn the mid-19th century rural poverty and famine drove large numbers of Catholic tenant farmers, landless labourers and their families toward Belfast. Their route brought them down the Falls Road and into what are now remnants of an older Catholic enclave around St Mary's Church, the town's first Catholic chapel (opened in 1784 with Presbyterian subscriptions), and Smithfield Market. Eventually, an entire west side of the city, stretching up the Falls Road, along the Springfield Road (encompassing the new housing estates built 1950s and 60s: Highfield, New Barnsley, Ballymurphy, Whiterock and Turf Lodge) and out past Andersonstown on the Stewartstown Road toward Poleglass, became near-exclusively Catholic and, in political terms, nationalist.\nReflecting the nature of available employment as mill workers, domestics and shop assistants, the population, initially, was disproportionately female. Further opportunities for women on the Falls Road arose through developments in education and public health. In 1900, the Dominican Order opened St Mary's [Teacher] Training College, and in 1903 King Edward VII opened the Royal Victoria Hospital at the junction with the Grosvenor Road. Extensively redeveloped and expanded, the hospital has a staff of more than 8,500.\nLandmarks in the area include the Gothic-revival St Peter's Cathedral (1866, signature twin spires added in 1886); Clonard Monastery (1911), the Conway Mill (1853/1901, re-developed as a community enterprise, arts and education centre in 1983); Belfast City Cemetery (1869) and, best known for its republican graves, Milltown Cemetery (1869).\nThe area's greatest visitor attractions are its wall and gable-end murals. In contrast to those in loyalist areas, where Israel is typically the only outside reference, these range more freely beyond the local conflict frequently expressing solidarity with Palestinians, with Cuba, and with Basque and Catalan separatists.\n\nSouth Belfast\nWest Belfast is separated from South Belfast, and from the otherwise abutting loyalist districts of Sandy Row and the Donegall Road, by rail lines, the M1 Motorway (to Dublin and the west); industrial and retail parks, and the remnants of the Blackstaff (Owenvarra) bog meadows.\nBelfast began stretching up-river in the 1840s and 50s: out the Ormeau and Lisburn roads and, between them, running along a ridge of higher ground, the Malone Road. From \"leafy\" avenues of increasingly substantial (and in the course of time \"mixed\") housing, the Upper Malone broadened out into areas of parkland and villas.\nFurther out still, where they did not survive as public parks, from the 1960s the great-house demesnes of the city's former mill-owners and industrialists were developed for public housing: loyalist estates such as Seymour Hill and Belvoir. Meanwhile, in Malone and along the river embankments, new houses and apartment blocks have been squeezed in, increasing the general housing density.\nBeyond the Queen's University area the area's principal landmarks are the 15-storey tower block of Belfast City Hospital (1986) on the Lisburn Road, and the Lagan Valley Regional Park through which a towpath extends from the City-centre quayside to Lisburn.\nNorthern Ireland's three permanent diplomatic missions are situated on the Malone Road, the consulates of China, Poland and the United States.\n\nEast Belfast\nThe first district on the right bank of the Lagan (the County Down side) to be incorporated in Belfast was Ballymacarrett after 1868. Harland & Wolff, whose gantry cranes, Samson & Goliath, tower over the area, was long the mainstay of employment — although less securely so for the townland's Catholics (In 1970, when the yard still had a workforce of 10,000, only 400 Catholics were employed).: 280 Tolerated in periods of expansion as navvies and casual labourers,: 87–88 they concentrated in a small enclave, the Short Strand, which has continued into this century to feature as a sectarian flashpoint. Home to around 2,500 people, it is the only distinctly nationalist area in the east of the river.\nEast Belfast developed from the Queens Bridge (1843), through Ballymacarrett, east along the Newtownards Road and north (along the east shore of the Lough) up the Holywood Road; and from the Albert Bridge (1890) south east out the Cregagh and Castlereagh roads. The further out, the more substantial, and less religiously segregated, the housing until again encountering the city's outer ring of public housing estates: loyalist Knocknagoney, Lisnasharragh, and Tullycarnet.\nThis century, efforts have been made to add to East Belfast's two obvious visitor attractions: Samson & Goliath (the \"banana yellow cranes\" date only from the early 1970s): 79 and the Parliament Buildings at Stormont. What is marketed now as EastSide, features, at the intersection of the Connswater and Comber Greenways and next to the EastSide Visitor Centre, CS Lewis Square (2017), named and themed in honour of the local author of The Chronicles of Narnia. Next to the former the Harland & Wolff Drawing Offices (now an hotel), stands the \"cultural nucleus to Titanic Quarter\", Titanic Belfast (2012) whose interactive galleries tell the liner's ill-fated story.\n\nCity Centre\nBelfast City Centre is roughly bounded by the ring roads constructed since the 1970s: the M3 which sweeps across the dockland to the north; the Westlink that connects to the M1 for points south and west; and, with less certainty, the Bruce Street and Bankmore connectors that tie back toward the Lagan at the Gasworks Business Park and the beginning of the Ormeau Road. This embraces \"the Markets\", the one remaining inner-city area of housing. Of the various markets, including those for the sale and shipping of livestock, from which it derives its name, only one survives, the former produce market, St George's, now a food and craft market popular with visitors to the city.\n\nArchitectural heritage\nAmong surviving elements of the pre-Victorian town are the Belfast Entries, 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the elliptical First Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing) Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham); the Assembly Rooms (1769, 1776, 1845) on Bridge Street; St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church which had been built on a religious site dating back to 1306; St Mary's Church (1782) in Chapel Lane, which is the oldest Catholic church in the city. The oldest public building in Belfast, Clifton House (1771–74), the Belfast Charitable Society poorhouse, is on North Queen Street. It is now partly cut off from the city centre by arterial roads. In addition there are small sets of city-centre Georgian terraces.\nOf the much larger Victorian city a substantial legacy has survived the Blitz, The Troubles and planning and development. Among the more notable examples are St Malachy's Roman Catholic Church (1844) and the original college building of Queen's University Belfast (1849), both in a Tudor style; the Palm House in the Botanic Gardens (1852); the Renaissance revival Union Theological College (1853) and Ulster Bank (now Merchant Hotel) (1860); the Italianate Ulster Hall (1862), and the National Trust restored ornate Crown Liquor Saloon (1885, 1898) (a setting for the classic film, Odd Man Out, starring James Mason); the oriental-themed Grand Opera House (1895) (bombed several times during the Troubles), and the Romanesque revival St. Patrick's Catholic Church in Donegall Street (1877). \n\nThe Baroque revival City Hall was finished in 1906 on the site of the former White Linen Hall, and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. Its Edwardian design influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is 173 ft (53 m) high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\". \nNearby is the Renaissance and Baroque revival Scottish Provident Institution (1902). Opposite is a branch of the Ulster Bank which is built behind the facade of a large former Methodist church which was built in the classical style and which opened in 1846.\nBuilt around an older church dating to 1776, St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral was consecrated 1904 and completed in the 1920s. Its steel spire was added in 2007. The neoclassical Royal Courts of Justice were opened in 1933.\n\nRedevelopment\nThe opening Victoria Square Shopping Centre in 2008 was to symbolise the rebound of the city centre since its days as a restricted security zone during the Troubles. But retail footfall in the centre is limited by competition with out-of-town shopping centres and with internet retailing. As of November 2023, footfall had not recovered pre-COVID pandemic levels. There are compensating trends: the growth in tourism and hospitality which has included a sustained boom in hotel construction.\nThe City Council also talks of a \"residential-led regeneration\". New townhouse and apartments schemes are being developed for the city's quays, and for Titanic Quarter. The completion in 2023 of Ulster University's enhanced Belfast campus (in \"one of the largest higher education capital builds in Europe\") and the determination of Queen's University to compete with the private sector in the provision of student housing, has fostered the construction downtown of multiple new student residences.\n\nRough sleeping and homelessness\nPeople can be found sleeping rough on the streets of the city centre. Numbers, while growing, may be comparatively small for a city of its size in the British Isles. In 2022, counts and estimates by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive identified a total of 26 rough sleepers in Belfast. This is against a background (in 2023) of 2,317 people (0.67% of residents) presenting as homeless, many of whom are in temporary accommodation and shelters. Such figures, however, do not include all those living in severely overcrowded conditions, involuntarily sharing with other households on a long-term basis, or sleeping rough in hidden locations.\n\nThe \"Quarters\"\nSince 2001, buoyed by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has promoted a number of cultural quarters.\nThe Cathedral Quarter comprises much of Belfast's old trade and warehousing district in the narrow streets and entries around St Anne's Cathedral, with a concentration of bars, beer gardens, clubs and restaurants (including two establishments claiming descent from the early town, White's and The Duke of York) and performance spaces (most notably the Black Box and Oh Yeah). It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival. The adjoining Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.\nWithout defined geographical boundaries, the Gaeltacht Quarter encompasses Irish-speaking Belfast. (According to the 2021 census, 15.5% of people in the city have some knowledge of Irish, 4% speak it daily). It is generally understood as an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast served by the Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich cultural centre. It can be said to include, at the Skainos Centre in unionist east Belfast, Turas, a project that promotes Irish through night classes and cultural events in the belief that \"the language belongs to all\".\nThe Linen Quarter', an area south of City Hall once dominated by linen warehouses, now includes, in addition to cafés, bars and restaurants, a dozen hotels (including the 23-storey Grand Central Hotel), and the city's two principal Victorian-era cultural venues, the Grand Opera House and the Ulster Hall.\nMoving further south along the so-called \"Golden Mile\" of bars and clubs through Shaftesbury Square, there is the Queen's [University] Quarter. In addition to the university (spread over 250 buildings, of which 120 are listed as being of architectural merit), it is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum.\nFinally, the Titanic Quarter covers 0.75 km2 (185 acres) of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as Queen's Island. Named after RMS Titanic, launched here in 1911, work began in 2003 to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\". The current area houses Titanic Belfast, the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), two hotels, and multiple condo towers and shops, and the Titanic [film] Studios.\n\nCulture\nArts venues and festivals\nFrom Georgian Belfast, the city retains a civic legacy. In addition to Clifton House (Belfast Charitable Society, 1774), this includes the Linen Hall Library (Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge, 1788), the Ulster Museum (founded by the Belfast Natural History Society as the Belfast Municipal Museum and Art Gallery in 1833), and the Botanic Gardens (established in 1828 by the Belfast Botanic and Horticultural Society). These remain important cultural venues: in the case of the Gardens, for outdoor festivities including the Belfast Melā, the city's annual celebration of global cultures.\nOf the many stage venues built in the nineteenth century, and film theatres built in the twentieth, there remains the Ulster Hall (1862), which hosts concerts (including those of the Ulster Orchestra), classical recitals and party-political meetings; the Grand Opera House (1895) badly damaged in bomb blasts in the early 1990s, restored and enlarged 2020; the Strand Cinema (1935) now being developed as an arts centre; and the Queens Film Theatre (QFT) (1968) focussed on art house and world cinema. The two independent cinemas offer their screens for the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast International Arts Festival.\nThe principal stage for drama remains the Lyric Theatre (1951), the largest employer of actors and other theatre professionals in the region. At Queens University, drama students stage their productions at the Brian Friel Theatre, a 120-seat studio space (named after the renowned playwright).\nIn November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was made possible by the 11,000-seat Odyssey Arena (today the SSE Arena) which opened in 2000 at the entrance to the Titanic Quarter A further large-scale venue is the Waterfront Hall, a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre that first opened in 1997. The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is based on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall. In 2012, the Metropolitan Arts Centre, usually referred to as the MAC, was opened in the Cathedral Quarter, offering a performance mix of music, theatre, dance and visual art.\nThe city has a number of community arts, and arts education, centres, among them the Crescent Arts Centre in south Belfast, the Irish-language Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich in west Belfast, The Duncairn in north Belfast and, in the east of the city, EastSide Arts.\nFéile an Phobail, a community arts organisation born out of the Internment Commemorations in the west of the city, stages one of the largest community festivals in Europe. It has grown from its original August Féile on the Falls Road, to a year-round programme with a broad range of arts events, talks and discussions.\n\nUNESCO City of Music\nIn November 2021, Belfast became the third city in the British Isles to be designated by UNESCO as City of Music (after Glasgow in 2008 and Liverpool in 2016) and is one of 59 cities worldwide participating in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.\nThe greater part of Belfast's music scene is accommodated in the city's pubs and clubs. Irish traditional music (\"trad\") is a staple, and is supported, along with Ulster-Scots snare drum and pipe music, by the city's TradFest summer school.\nMusic offerings also draw on the legacy of the punk and the underground club scene that developed during The Troubles (associated with the groups Stiff Little Fingers and The Undertones, and celebrated in the award-winning 2013 film, Good Vibrations). Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody led a line up of private donors that together with public funders established the Oh Yeah music centre in 2008. The Cathedral Quarter non-profit supports young musicians and these have engaged with a range of genres including Alternative rock, Indie rock, Electronica, Post rock, Post punk, Crossover, and Experimental rock.\nQueens University hosts the Sonic Arts Research Centre (SARC), an institute for music-based practice and research. Its purpose designed building, Sonic Laboratory and multichannel studios were opened by Karlheinz Stockhausen, the German composer and \"father of electronic music\", in 2004.\n\nMedia\nBelfast is the home of the Belfast Telegraph, Irish News, and The News Letter, the oldest English-language daily newspaper in the world still in publication.\nThe city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, and ITV station UTV. The Irish public service broadcaster, RTÉ has a studio in the city. The national radio station is BBC Radio Ulster with commercial radio stations such as Q Radio, U105, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte. Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. \nOne of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\n\nParades\nSince the lifting in 1872 of a twenty-year party processions ban, Orange parades in celebration of \"the Twelfth\" [of July] and the bonfires of the previous evening, the eleventh, have been a fixed fixture of the Belfast calendar. On what became a public holiday in 1926, Belfast and guest Orange lodges with their pipe, flute and drum bands muster at Carlisle Circus, and parade through the city centre past the City Hall and out the Lisburn Road to a gathering in \"the field\" at Barnett Demesne. While some local feeder and return marches have a history of sectarian disturbance, in recent years, events have generally passed off without serious incident.\nIn 2015, the Orange Order opened the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road in East Belfast with the aim of educating the wider public about \"the origins, traditions and continued relevance\" of the parading institution.\nWhat is sometimes referred to as the Catholic equivalent of the Orangemen, the much smaller Ancient Order of Hibernians, confines its parades to nationalist areas in west and north Belfast, as do republicans commemorating the Easter Rising. In August 1993, in a break with a history of nationalist exclusion from the city centre, a parade marking the introduction of internment in the 1971 proceeded up Royal Avenue toward the City Hall, where it was addressed by Sinn Féin president, Gerry Adams, in front of the statue of Queen Victoria.\nSince 1998, the Belfast City Council has funded a city-centre St. Patrick's Day (March 17) celebration. It is organised by Féile an Phobail as a \"carnival\" complete with a parade featuring dancers, circus entertainers, floats, and giant puppets. Critical of what they perceive as an evolving nationalist festival, unionists on the City Council observe that \"a lot of the Protestant Unionist Loyalist (PUL) community will stay away from the city centre on St Patrick's Day, the same as some stay away on the Twelfth of July\".\nIn 1991, Belfast hosted its first gay pride event. Belfast Pride, culminating in a city-centre parade at the end of July, is now one of the biggest annual festivals in the city and, according to its organisers, the largest LGBT+ festival in Ireland.\nThe Irish Congress of Trade Unions organises an annual city-centre May Day march and rally. The International Workers Day has been a public holiday since 1978.\n\nDemography\nIn 2021, there were 345,418 residents within the expanded 2015 Belfast local government boundary and 634,600 in the Belfast Metropolitan Area, approximately one third of Northern Ireland's 1.9 million population.\n\nAs with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. Deprivation levels are notable in the inner parts of the north and the west of the city. The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) experience some of the highest levels of social deprivation including higher levels of ill health and poor access to services. These areas remain firmly segregated, with 80 to 90 percent of residents being of the one religious designation.\nConsistent with the trend across all of Northern Ireland, the Protestant population within the city has been in decline, while the non-religious, other religious and Catholic population has risen. The 2021 census recorded the following: 43% of residents as Catholic, 12% as Presbyterian, 8% as Church of Ireland, 3% as Methodist, 6% as belonging to other Christian denominations, 3% to other religions and 24% as having either no religion or no declared religion.\nIn terms of community background, 47.93% were deemed to belong to, or to have been brought up in, the Catholic faith and 36.45% in a Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. The comparable figures in 2011 were 48.60% Catholic and 42.28% Protestant or other Christian-related denomination.\nWith respondents free to indicate more than one national identity, in 2021 the largest national identity group was \"Irish only\" with 35% of the population, followed by \"British only\" 27%, \"Northern Irish only\" 17%, \"British and Northern Irish only\" 7%, \"Irish and Northern Irish only\" 2%, \"British, Irish and Northern Irish only\" 2%, British and Irish less than 1% and Other identities with 10%.\nInsofar as the city's two indigenous minority languages (Irish and Ulster Scots) are concerned, figures are made available from the decennial UK census. On census day, 21 March 2021, 14.93% (43,798) in Belfast claimed to have some knowledge of the Irish language, whilst 5.21% (15,294) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Irish. 3.74% (10,963) of residents claimed to use Irish daily and 0.75% (2,192) claimed Irish is their main language. 7.17% (21,025) of people in the city claimed to have some knowledge of Ulster Scots, whilst 0.75% (2,207) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Ulster Scots. 0.83% (2,430) claimed to use Ulster Scots daily.\nFrom the mid to late 19th century, there was a community of central European Jews (among its distinguished members, Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff of Harland & Wolff) and of Italians in Belfast. Today, the largest immigrant groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians. The 2011 census figures recorded a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the British Isles lived in south Belfast, where they comprised 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland resided in the Greater Belfast area. In the 2021 census the percentage of the city's residents born outside the United Kingdom had risen to 9.8.\n\n\tThe Belfast City Council area in the 2011 census\n\nEconomy\nEmployment profile\nServices (including retail, health, professional & scientific) account for three quarters of jobs in Belfast. Only 6% remain in manufacturing. The balance is in distribution and construction. In recent years, unemployment has been comparatively low (under 3% in the summer of 2023) for the UK. On the other hand, Belfast has a high rate of people economically inactive (close to 30%). It is a group, encompassing homemakers, full-time carers, students and retirees, that in Belfast has been swollen by the exceptionally large proportion of the population (27%) with long-term health problems or disabilities (and who, in Northern Ireland generally, are less likely to be employed than in other UK regions).\n\nShipbuilding, aerospace and defence\nOf Belfast's Victorian-era industry, little remains. The last working linen factory—Copeland Linens Limited, based in the Shankill area—closed in 2013. In recent years Harland & Wolff, which at peak production in the Second World War had employed around 35,000 people, has had a workforce of no more than two or three hundred refurbishing oil rigs and fabricating off-shore wind turbines. A £1.6 billion Royal Navy contract has offered the yard a new lease, returning it to shipbuilding in 2025.: 261–262 \nIn 1936, Short & Harland Ltd, a joint venture of Short Brothers and Harland & Wolff, began the manufacture of aircraft in the docks area. In 1989, the British government, which had nationalised the company during the Second World War, sold it to the Canadian aerospace company Bombardier. In 2020, it was sold on to Spirit AeroSystems. Producing aircraft components, it remains the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland.\nOriginating in the Short Brothers' missile division, since 2001 Thales Group owned Thales Air Defence Limited has been producing short range air defence and anti-tank missiles (including the NLAW shoulder-launched system deployed against the Russian invasion by Ukraine).\n\nFintech and cybersecurity\nFrom the 1990s, Belfast established itself as a significant location for call centres and for other back-office services. Attracting U.S. operators such as Citi, Allstate, Liberty Mutual, Aflac and FD Technologies (Kx Systems), it as since been identified by the UK Treasury as \"key fintech [financial technology] hub\". Fintech's key areas (its \"ABCD\") are artificial intelligence, blockchain, cloud computing, and big data.\nThe sector's principal constraint, cyber security, has been addressed since 2004 by the Queens University Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology (IECIT), and its Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT). The IECIT is the anchor tenant at Catalyst (science park) in the Titanic Quarter, which hosts a cluster of companies seeking to offer innovative cyber-security solutions.\n\nFilm\nBetween 2018 and 2023, film and television production based largely in Belfast, and occupying significant new studio capacity in the ports area, contributed £330m to Northern Ireland's economy. There are two 8-acre media complexes (serviced by the adjacent City Airport): the Titanic Studios on Queen's Island (the Titanic Quarter) and across the Victoria Channel in Giant's Park on the Lough's north foreshore, the Belfast Harbour Studios. Together they offer 226,000 ft2 of studio space, plus offices and workshops, and have attracted U.S. production companies such as Amazon, HBO (including all eight series of its fantasy drama Game of Thrones), Paramount, Playtone, Universal, and Warner Bros.\nAt the beginning of 2024, Ulster University, in partnership with Belfast Harbour and supported by Northern Ireland Screen, announced an £72m investment to add to the complex a new virtual production, research and development, facility, Studio Ulster. Additional studio space is available at Loop Studios (formerly Britvic) on the Castlereagh Road in East Belfast.\n\nTourism and hospitality\nNorthern Ireland's peace dividend since the 1990s, which includes a marked increase in inward investment, has contributed to a large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Significant projects included Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall, the new Titanic Quarter with its Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, and the development of the original Short's harbour airfield as George Best Belfast City Airport.\nThese developments reflect a boom in tourism (32 million visitors between 2011 and 2018),: 179 and related hotel construction. This has included an entirely new phenomenon for Belfast: in 1999, the port received its first cruise ship. In 2023, Belfast welcomed 153 calls, 8% up from the pre-pandemic record set in 2019. Ship from 32 different countries landed 320,000 passengers.\nBelfast has also seen growth of \"conflict tourism\".: 186–191 To the dismay of some, \"tourists take photos of the division lines that are not consigned to history, but are a part of living Belfast: children play football against the walls that tourists flock to. The places and the people themselves have become a spectacle, an attraction.\" Tourist bosses and guides, however, are satisfied that the greater draw is city's other \"must-see attractions\", and its \"convivial food and nightlife scene\".\n\nEU/GB Trade\nInvest NI, Northern Ireland's economic development agency is pitching Belfast and its hinterland to foreign investors as \"only region in the world able to trade goods freely with both GB and EU markets\". This follows the 2020 Northern Ireland Protocol and the 2023 Windsor Framework, agreements between the British government and European Union, whereby, post-Brexit, Northern Ireland would effectively remain within the European Single Market for goods while, in principle, retaining unfettered access to the British domestic market. Despite the DUP's derailment of devolved government in protest, local business leaders largely welcomed the new trade regime, hailing the promise of dual EU-GB access as a critical opportunity.\nIn February 2024, the DUP consented to a return of the devolved Assembly and Executive on the understanding that neither the EU nor the British government would defend the integrity of their respective internal markets by conducting routine checks on the bulk of goods passing through Belfast, or other Northern Ireland, ports.\n\nEducation\nPrimary and secondary education\nChildren from Catholic and Protestant homes in Belfast are taught, for the most part, separately on a pattern that, by the mid-nineteenth century, had been established throughout Ireland. Primary and secondary education is divided between (Catholic) Maintained Schools and (non-Catholic/ \"Protestant\") Controlled Schools. They are bound by the same curriculum, but their teaching staff are trained separately (in the university colleges of St Mary's and Stranmillis).: 200–202 \nSince the 1980s, two smaller school sectors have emerged: grant-maintained Integrated schools, which by design bring together children and staff from both communities, and Irish language medium schools\nThe Belfast [later Royal Belfast] Academical Institution, opened its doors in 1810 with the intention, in the words of its founder, former United Irishman, William Drennan of being \"perfectly unbiased by religious distinctions\". The principle was not embraced by the town's middle-classes: in practice \"Inst\" provided a grammar education to the town's Presbyterian families while Anglicans favoured the older Royal Belfast Academy (1785); Catholics, St Malachy's diocesan college (1833) and Wesleyans, Methodist College Belfast (1865).\nDenominational lines have since blurred, with Catholics in particular moving into the controlled grammars. But the presence of 18 selective grammar schools in Belfast is a further feature of post-primary education in Belfast that distinguishes it from that of comparable cities in Great Britain where academic selection was abandoned in the 1960s and 70s. Partly prompted by the COVID disruption of external testing in 2021/22, some the city's grammars have begun to review and amend the practice. It is not clear that this will be on terms that reduce the degree of social segregation they have represented within the system.\nIn 2006, the Belfast Education and Library Board became part of the consolidated Education Authority for Northern Ireland. In Belfast, the Authority has responsibility for 156 primary, and 48 secondary schools (including the 18 grammars). The system is marked by stark inequalities in outcome. Around 30% of school leavers in the city do not attain 5 GCSEs, A* - C (including Maths and English). For those in receipt of free school meals, the figure rises to over 50%.\n\nFurther and Higher education\nBelfast Metropolitan College (\"Belfast Met\") is a further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\nBelfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded as a college in 1845. In 1908, the Catholic bishops lifted their ban on attendance and Queen's was granted university status.: 164, 166 It is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK, and is one of the largest universities in the UK with over 25,000 students – among them over 4,000 international students.\nUlster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus on the edge of the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. Since 2021, this original \"Arts College\" campus has undergone a £1.4bn expansion to accommodate offerings across all departments. The project promises to bring 15,500 staff and students into the city, and to generate 5,000 new jobs.\n\nGovernance\nBelfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.\nBelfast has been represented in the British House of Commons since 1801, and in Northern Ireland Assembly, as presently constituted, since 1998.\n\nLocal government\nBelfast City Council is responsible for a range of powers and services, including land-use and community planning, parks and recreation, building control, arts and cultural heritage. The city's principal offices are those of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff. Like other elected positions within the Council such as Committee chairs, these are filled since 1998 using the D'Hondt system so that in recent years the position has rotated between councillors from the three largest factions, Sinn Féin, the DUP and the Alliance Party.\nThe first Lord Mayor of Belfast in 1892, Daniel Dixon, like every mayor but one until 1997 (Alliance in 1979), was a unionist. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in 1997. The current Lord Mayor is Micky Murray of the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, who has been in the position of Lord Mayor since 3 June 2024. His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\nIn 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party holding the balance of power. In 2023, unionists retained just 17 of 60 seats on the council, leaving nationalists (Sinn Féin and the SDLP) just 4 seats short of a majority. In addition to the 11 Alliance members there are four other councillors, 3 Green and 1 People Before Profit, who refuse a nationalist/unionist designation.\n\nNorthern Ireland Assembly and Westminster elections\nAs Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In United Kingdom elections, each constituency returns one MP, on a \"first past the post\" basis to Westminster. In NI Assembly elections each returns, on the basis of proportional representation, five MLAs to Stormont.\nIn the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2022, Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 5 Alliance Party, 1 SDLP, 1 UUP and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP won all but the Sinn Féin stronghold of Belfast West. In the 2019 and 2024 UK general elections, they retained only Belfast East, losing Belfast North to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the SDLP.\nFor the next elections the constituencies are redrawn, with Belfast South extended as Belfast South and Mid Down to include parts of Lagan Valley and Strangford.\n\nInfrastructure\nHospitals\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.\nThe Royal Hospitals site in west Belfast (junction of Grosvenor and Falls roads) contains two hospitals. The Royal Victoria Hospital (its origins in a number of successive institutions, beginning in 1797 with The Belfast Fever Hospital) provides both local and regional services. Specialist services include cardiac surgery, critical care and the Regional Trauma Centre. The Children's Hospital (Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children) provides general hospital care for children in Belfast and provides most of the paediatric regional specialities.\nThe Belfast City Hospital (evolved from a 19th-century workhouse and infirmary) on the Lisburn Road is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a najor cancer centre. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\nMusgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit.\nThe Mater Hospital (founded in 1883 by the Sisters of Mercy) on the Crumlin Road provides a wide range of services, including acute inpatient, emergency and maternity services, to north Belfast and the surrounding areas.\nThe Ulster Hospital, Upper Newtownards Road, Dundonald, on the eastern edge of the city, first founded as the Ulster Hospital for Women and Sick Children in 1872, is the major acute hospital for the South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust. It delivers a full range of outpatient, inpatient and daycare medical and surgical services.\n\nTransport\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the 22.5 miles (36 km) M2 and M22 motorway route.\nBlack taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called Enterprise operated jointly by NIR and the Irish rail company Iarnród Éireann.\nThe city's Europa Bus Centre and Great Victoria Street rail station, are being replaced by a new Belfast Central Station. When completed in 2025, it will be \"the largest integrated transport facility on the island of Ireland\" with bus stands, railway platforms, and facilities for taxis and bicycles.\n\nThe city has two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, close to the city centre on the eastern shore of Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport 30–40 minutes to the west on the shore of Lough Neagh. Both operate UK domestic and European flights. The city is also served by Dublin Airport, two hours to the south, with direct inter-continental connections.\nIn addition to its extensive freight business, the Belfast Port offers car-ferry sailings, operated by Stena Line, to Cairnryan in Scotland (5 Sailings Daily. 2 hours 22 minutes) and to Liverpool-Birkenhead (14 sailings weekly. 8 hours). The Isle of Man Steam Packet Company provides a seasonal connection to Douglas, Isle of Man.\nThe Glider bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast. Introduced in 2018, it is a bus rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre. Using articulated buses, the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week. The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport.\nNational Cycle Route 9 to Newry, which will eventually connect with Dublin, starts in Belfast.\n\nUtilities\nHalf of Belfast's water is supplied via the Aquarius pipeline from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The other half is now supplied from Lough Neagh via Dunore Water Treatment Works in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs were deferred by devolution in May 2007.\nPower is provided from a number of power stations via NIE Networks Limited transmission lines. (Just under a half of electricity consumption in Northern Ireland is generated from renewable sources). Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the Valuation and Lands Agency.\n\nRecreation and sports\nLeisure centres\nBelfast City Council owns and maintains 17 leisure centres across the city, run on its behalf by the non-profit social enterprise GLL under the 'Better' brand. These include eight large multipurposed centres complete with swimming pools: Ballysillan Leisure Centre and Grove Wellbeing Centre in North Belfast; the Andersonstown, Falls, Shankill and Whiterock leisure centres in West Belfast; Templemore Baths and Lisnasharragh Leisure Centre in East Belfast, and close to the city centre in South Belfast, the Olympia Leisure Centre and Spa,\n\nParks and gardens\nBelfast has over forty parks. The oldest (1828) and one of the most popular parks Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, its Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the recently restored Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.\nThe largest municipal park in the city, and closest to the city centre, lies on the right bank of Lagan. The 100-acres of Ormeau Park were opened to the public in 1871 on what was the last demesne of the town's former proprietors, the Chichesters, Marquesses of Donegall.\nIn north Belfast, the Waterworks, two reservoirs to which the public have had access since 1897, are features of a park supporting angling and waterfowl. In 1906, a further water park, Victoria, opened behind industrial dockland on what had been the eastern shore of the Lough. It is now connected through east Belfast by the Connswater Community Greenway which offers 16 km of continuous cycle and walkway through east Belfast.\nThe largest green conservation area within the city's boundaries is a 2,116 hectares patchwork of \"parks, demesnes, woodland and meadows\" stretching upriver along the banks of the Lagan river and canal; Established in 1967, the Lagan Valley Regional Park envelopes in its course, Belvoir Park Forest, which contains ancient oaks and a 12th-century Norman Motte, and Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, whose International Rose Garden attracts thousands of visitors each July.\nColin Glenn Forest Park, the National Trust Divis and the Black Mountain Ridge Trail, and Cave Hill Country Park. offer panoramic views over Belfast and beyond from the west. Climbing the Castlereagh Hills, the National Trust Lisnabreeny Cregagh Glen does the same from the east.\nBelow Cave Hill, the council maintains one of the few local government-funded zoos in the British Isles. The Belfast Zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. It carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\n\nSports\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, The 41st Marathon in 2023, with related events (Wheelchair Race, Team Relay and 8 Mile Walk) attracted 15,000 participants.\nThe Northern Ireland national football team plays its home matches at Windsor Park. Football clubs with stadia and training grounds in the city include: Linfield, Glentoran, Crusaders, Cliftonville, Donegal Celtic, Harland & Wolff Welders, Dundela, Knockbreda, PSNI, Newington, Sport & Leisure and Brantwood.\nBelfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, had a capacity of 31,500 making it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. Listed as one of the venues for the UK and Ireland's successful UEFA Euro 2028 bid, with co-funding from the Irish government there are plans for a complete rebuild. In May 2020, the foundation of East Belfast GAA returned Gaelic Games to East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area. The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast Linda Ervine who comes from a unionist background in the area. The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League.\nThe 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at Ravenhill Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\nBelfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever One Day International against England in 2006.\nThe 9,500 capacity SSE Arena accommodates the Belfast Giants, one of the biggest ice hockey clubs in the UK. Featuring Canadian, ex-NHL players, the club competes the British Elite Ice Hockey League.\nBelfast was the home town of former Manchester United player George Best, the 1968 European Footballer of the Year, who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre. Other sportspeople celebrated in the city include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough, Rinty Monaghan and Carl Frampton.\n\nClimate\nAt 54°35′49″N 05°55′45″W, its northern latitude is characterised by short winter days and long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. At the summer solstice in June, the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\nFor this northern latitude, thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, Belfast has a comparatively mild climate. In summer the temperatures rarely range above 25 °C (77 °F) or dip in winter below −5 °C (23 °F). The maritime influence, also ensures that the city gets significant precipitation. On 157 days in an average year, rainfall is greater than 1 mm. Average annual rainfall is 846 millimetres (33.3 in), less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland.\nWith its moderate temperatures and abundant rainfall, Belfast's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification system), a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe.\n\nIn fiction\nJohn Greer Ervine, The Wayward Man (1927)\nF. L. Green, Odd Man Out (1945), basis of Odd Man Out, a 1947 British film noir directed by Carol Reed, and starring James Mason, Robert Newton.\nBrian Moore, The Emperor of Ice Cream (1965).\nMaurice Leitch, Silver's City (1981)\nBernard MacLaverty, Cal (1983)\nRobert McLiam Wilson, Eureka Street (1996)\nLucy Caldwell, Where They Were Missed (2005)\nAnna Burns, Milkman (2018)\nLouise Kennedy, Trespasses (2022)\nMichael Magee, Close to Home (2023)\n\nNotable people\nTwin towns – sister cities\nBelfast City Council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with the following sister cities:\n\nNashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\nHefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\nBoston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\nShenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\nMelbourne, Victoria, Australia\n\nFreedom of the City\nThose who have received the Freedom of the City\n\nSir Kenneth Branagh: 30 January 2018.\nAndrew Carnegie: 28 September 1910.\nSir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955.\nBill Clinton, 9 April 2018\nSir Robert Hart, 1 July 1908\nJohn Hewitt: 26 May 1983\nSir John Jordan: 28 September 1910.\nMichael Longley: 23 March 2015\nGeorge J. Mitchell, 9 April 2018\nNurses of Belfast, 1 December 2015\nRoyal Ulster Constabulary and Reserve: 30 May 1980\nWilliam Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie: 1898, the first person to be awarded Freedom Of The City of Belfast.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nJonathan Bardon (1982), Belfast An illustrated History. Belfast: Blackstaff Press, ISBN 0-85640-272-9\nJ. C. Beckett et al. (1983), Belfast, The Making of a City. Belfast: Appletree Press, ISBN 0-86281-100-7\nCiaran Carson (1997), The Star Factory. London: Granta Books, ISBN 9781862071179\nFeargal Cochrane (2023), Belfast: The Story of a City and its People. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-26444-9\nS. J. Connolly ed. (2012), Belfast 400: People, Place and History, Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-635-7\nMaurice Goldring (1991), Belfast, From Loyalty to Rebellion. London: Lawrence & Wishart, ISBN 978-0-85315-722-81\nRobert Johnstone (1990), Belfast, Portraits of a City, London: Barrie & Jenkins. ISBN 978-0-7126-3744-2\nWilliam Maguire (2009), Belfast, A History, Lancaster: Carnegie. ISBN 978-1-85936-189-4\nBill Meulemans (2013), Belfast, Both Sides Now. Create Space. ISBN 978-1-4791-9541-1\nRaymond O'Regan (2010), Hidden Belfast: Benevolence, Blackguards and Balloon Heads. Dublin: Mercier Press. ISBN 978-1-85635-683-1\nRaymond O'Regan, Arthur Magee (2014), The Little Book of Belfast. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-84588-803-9\nMarcus Patton (1993), Central Belfast, An Historical Gazetteer. Belfast: Ulster Architectural Heritage Society. ISBN 0-900457-44-9\n\n\n== External links ==","title":"Belfast"}],"string":"[\n {\n \"idx\": 0,\n \"is_supporting\": true,\n \"paragraph_text\": \"HMHS Britannic (originally to be the RMS Britannic) () was the third and final vessel of the White Star Line's Olympic class of steamships and the second White Star ship to bear the name Britannic. She was the youngest sister of the RMS Olympic and the RMS Titanic and was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner. She was operated as a hospital ship from 1915 until her sinking near the Greek island of Kea, in the Aegean Sea, in November 1916. At the time she was the largest hospital ship in the world.\\nBritannic was launched just before the start of the First World War. She was designed to be the safest of the three ships with design changes made during construction due to lessons learned from the sinking of the Titanic. She was laid up at her builders, Harland and Wolff, in Belfast for many months before being requisitioned as a hospital ship. In 1915 and 1916 she served between the United Kingdom and the Dardanelles. \\nOn the morning of 21 November 1916 she hit a naval mine of the Imperial German Navy near the Greek island of Kea and sank 55 minutes later, killing 30 people. There were 1,066 people on board; the 1,036 survivors were rescued from the water and lifeboats. Britannic was the largest ship lost in the First World War.\\nAfter the First World War, the White Star Line was compensated for the loss of Britannic by the award of SS Bismarck as part of postwar reparations; she entered service as RMS Majestic.\\nThe wreck was located and explored by Jacques Cousteau in 1975. The vessel is the largest intact passenger ship on the seabed in the world. It was bought in 1996 and is currently owned by Simon Mills, a maritime historian.\\n\\nCharacteristics\\nThe original dimensions of Britannic were similar to those of her older sisters, but her dimensions were altered whilst still on the building stocks after the loss of Titanic. With a gross tonnage of 48,158, she surpassed her older sisters in terms of internal volume, but this did not make her the largest passenger ship in service at that time; the German SS Vaterland held this title with a significantly higher tonnage.\\nThe Olympic-class ships were propelled by a combined system of two triple-expansion steam engines which powered the three-bladed outboard wing propellers whilst a low-pressure steam turbine used steam exhausted from the two reciprocating engines to power the central four-bladed propeller giving a maximum speed of 23 knots.\\n\\nPost-Titanic design changes\\nBritannic had a similar layout to her sister ships. Following the Titanic disaster and the subsequent inquiries, several design changes were made to the remaining Olympic-class liners. With Britannic, these changes made before launch included increasing the ship's beam to 94 feet (29 m) to allow for a double hull along the engine and boiler rooms and raising six out of the 15 watertight bulkheads up to B Deck. Additionally, a larger 18,000 horsepower (13,000 kW) turbine was added instead of the 16,000 horsepower (12,000 kW) units installed on the earlier vessels to make up for the increase in hull width. The central watertight compartments were enhanced, allowing the ship to stay afloat with six compartments flooded.\\nExternally the largest visual change was the fitting of large crane-like gantry davits, each powered by an electric motor and capable of launching six lifeboats which were stored on gantries; the ship was designed to have eight sets of gantry davits but only five were installed before Britannic entered war service, with the difference being made up with boats launched by manually operated Welin-type davits as on Titanic and Olympic.\\nAdditional lifeboats could be stored within reach of the davits on the deckhouse roof, and the gantry davits could reach lifeboats on the other side of the ship, providing that none of the funnels was obstructing the way. This design enabled all the lifeboats to be launched, even if the ship developed a list that would normally prevent lifeboats from being launched on the side opposite to the list. Several of these davits were placed abreast of funnels, defeating that purpose. The elevators, which previously stopped at A deck, could now reach the boat deck. The ship carried 48 lifeboats, capable of carrying at least 75 people each. Thus, at least 3,600 people could be carried by the lifeboats, which was well above the ship's maximum capacity of 3,309.\\n\\nHistory\\nConception\\nIn 1907, J. Bruce Ismay, director general of the White Star Line, and Lord Pirrie, chairman of the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast had decided to build a trio of ocean liners of unmatched size to compete with the Cunard Line's Lusitania and Mauretania not in terms of speed but in terms of luxury and safety. The names of the three vessels were decided at a later date and they showed the intention of the designers regarding their size: Olympic, Titanic and Britannic.\\nConstruction of the Olympic and the Titanic began in 1908 and 1909 respectively. Their sizes were so large that it was necessary to build the Arrol Gantry to shelter them, wide enough to span the two new building slips and allow two ships to be built at a time. The three ships were designed to be 270 metres long and to have a gross tonnage of over 45,000. Their designed speed was approximately 22 knots, well below that of the Lusitania and Mauretania, but still allowing for a transatlantic crossing of less than one week.\\n\\nRumoured name-change\\nAlthough the White Star Line and the Harland and Wolff shipyard always denied it, some sources claim that Britannic was to be named Gigantic, but her name was changed so as not to compete with Titanic or create comparisons. One source is a poster of the ship with the name Gigantic at the top. Other sources are November 1911 American newspapers stating the White Star order for Gigantic being placed, as well as other newspapers from around the world both during construction and immediately after the sinking of the Titanic.\\nTom McCluskie stated that in his capacity as archive manager and historian at Harland and Wolff, he \\\"never saw any official reference to the name Gigantic being used or proposed for the third of the Olympic-class vessels\\\". Some hand-written changes were added to the order book and dated January 1912. These only dealt with the ship's moulded width, not her name.\\n\\nConstruction\\nBritannic's keel was laid on 30 November 1911 at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, on the gantry slip previously occupied by Olympic, 13 months after the launch of that ship, and Arlanza, launched seven days before. The acquisition of the ship was planned to be at the beginning of 1914. Due to improvements introduced as a consequence of the Titanic's disaster, Britannic was not launched until 26 February 1914, which was filmed along with the fitting of a funnel. Several speeches were given in front of the press, and a dinner was organised in honour of the launching. Fitting out began subsequently. The ship entered dry dock in September and her propellers were installed.\\nReusing Olympic's space saved the shipyard time and money by not clearing out a third slip similar in size to those used for the two previous vessels. In August 1914, before Britannic could commence transatlantic service between New York and Southampton, the First World War began. Immediately, all shipyards with Admiralty contracts were given priority to use available raw materials. All civil contracts including Britannic were slowed.\\nThe naval authorities requisitioned a large number of ships as armed merchant cruisers or for troop transport. The Admiralty paid the companies for the use of their ships but the risk of losing a ship in naval operations was high. The larger ocean liners were not initially taken for naval use, because smaller ships were easier to operate. Olympic returned to Belfast on 3 November 1914, while work on Britannic continued slowly.\\n\\nRequisition\\nThe need for increased tonnage grew critical as naval operations extended to the Eastern Mediterranean. In May 1915, Britannic completed mooring trials of her engines, and was prepared for emergency entrance into service with as little as four weeks' notice. The same month also saw the first major loss of a civilian ocean liner when Cunard's RMS Lusitania was torpedoed near the Irish coast by SM U-20.\\nThe following month, the Admiralty decided to use recently requisitioned passenger liners as troop transports in the Gallipoli Campaign (also called the Dardanelles service). The first to sail were Cunard's RMS Mauretania and RMS Aquitania. As the Gallipoli landings proved to be disastrous and the casualties mounted, the need for large hospital ships for treatment and evacuation of wounded became evident. Aquitania was diverted to hospital ship duties in August (her place as a troop transport would be taken by Olympic in September). Then on 13 November 1915, Britannic was requisitioned as a hospital ship from her storage location at Belfast.\\nRepainted white with large red crosses and a horizontal green stripe, she was renamed HMHS (His Majesty's Hospital Ship) Britannic and placed under the command of Captain Charles Alfred Bartlett. In the interior, 3,309 beds and several operating rooms were installed. The common areas of the upper decks were transformed into rooms for the wounded. The cabins of B Deck were used to house doctors. The first-class dining room and the first-class reception room on D Deck were transformed into operating rooms. The lower bridge was used to accommodate the lightly wounded. The medical equipment was installed on 12 December 1915.\\n\\nFirst service\\nWhen declared fit for service on 12 December 1915 at Liverpool, Britannic was assigned a medical team consisting of 101 nurses, 336 non-commissioned officers and 52 commissioned officers as well as a crew of 675 people. On 23 December, she left Liverpool to join the port of Mudros on the island of Lemnos on the Aegean Sea to bring back sick and wounded soldiers. She joined with several ships on the same route, including Mauretania, Aquitania, and her sister ship Olympic. The four ships were joined a little later by Statendam. She made a stopover at Naples before continuing to Mudros, in order for her stock of coal to be replenished. After she returned, she spent four weeks as a floating hospital off the Isle of Wight.\\nThe third voyage was from 20 March 1916 to 4 April. The Dardanelles was evacuated in January. At the end of her military service on 6 June 1916, Britannic returned to Belfast to undergo the necessary modifications for transforming her into a transatlantic passenger liner. The British government paid the White Star Line £75,000 to compensate for the conversion. The transformation took place for several months before being interrupted by a recall of the ship back into military service.\\n\\nRecalled\\nThe Admiralty recalled Britannic back into service as a hospital ship on 26 August 1916, and the ship returned to the Mediterranean Sea for a fourth voyage on 24 September of that year. On 29 September on her way to Naples, she encountered a violent storm from which she emerged unscathed. She left on 9 October for Southampton. Then, she made a fifth trip, which was marked by a quarantining of the crew when the ship arrived at Mudros (now Moudros) because of food-borne illness.\\nLife aboard the ship followed a routine. At six o'clock, the patients were awakened and the premises were cleaned up. Breakfast was served at 6:30 AM, then the captain toured the ship for an inspection. Lunch was served at 12:30 PM and tea at 4:30 PM. Patients were treated between meals and those who wished to go for a walk could do so. At 8:30 PM, the patients went to bed and the captain made another inspection tour. There were medical classes available for training the nurses.\\n\\nLast voyage\\nAfter completing five successful voyages to the Middle Eastern theatre and back to the United Kingdom transporting the sick and wounded, Britannic departed Southampton for Lemnos at 14:23 on 12 November 1916, her sixth voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. The ship passed Gibraltar around midnight on 15 November and arrived at Naples on the morning of 17 November, for her usual coaling and water-refuelling stop, completing the first stage of her mission.\\nA storm kept the ship at Naples until Sunday afternoon when Captain Bartlett decided to take advantage of a brief break in the weather and continue. The seas rose once again as Britannic left the port. By the next morning, the storms died and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without problems. Cape Matapan was rounded in the first hours of 21 November. By morning, Britannic was steaming at full speed into the Kea Channel, between Cape Sounion (the southernmost point of Attica, the prefecture that includes Athens) and the island of Kea.\\nThere were 1,066 people on board: 673 crew, 315 Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), 77 nurses, and the captain.\\n\\nExplosion\\nAt 08:12 am European Eastern Time Britannic was rocked by an explosion after hitting a mine. The mines had been planted in the Kea Channel on 21 October 1916 by SM U-73 under the command of Gustav Sieß.\\nThe reaction in the dining room was immediate; doctors and nurses left instantly for their posts but not everybody reacted the same way, as further aft, the power of the explosion was less felt, and many thought the ship had hit a smaller boat. Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume were on the bridge at the time and the gravity of the situation was soon evident. The explosion was on the starboard side, between holds two and three. The force of the explosion damaged the watertight bulkhead between hold one and the forepeak. The first four watertight compartments were filling rapidly with water, the boiler-man's tunnel connecting the firemen's quarters in the bow with boiler room six was seriously damaged, and water was flowing into that boiler room.\\nBartlett ordered the watertight doors closed, sent a distress signal, and ordered the crew to prepare the lifeboats. An SOS signal was immediately sent out and was received by several other ships in the area, among them HMS Scourge and HMS Heroic, but Britannic heard nothing in reply. Unknown to either Bartlett or the ship's wireless operator, the force of the first explosion had caused the antenna wires slung between the ship's masts to snap. This meant that although the ship could still send out transmissions by radio, she could no longer receive them.\\nAlong with the damaged watertight door of the firemen's tunnel, the watertight door between boiler rooms six and five failed to close properly. Water was flowing further aft into boiler room five. Britannic had reached her flooding limit. She could stay afloat (motionless) with her first six watertight compartments flooded. There were five watertight bulkheads rising all the way up to B Deck. Those measures had been taken after the Titanic disaster (Titanic could float with only her first four compartments flooded).\\nThe next crucial bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four and its door were undamaged and should have guaranteed the ship's survival. However, there were open portholes along the front lower decks, which tilted underwater within minutes of the explosion. The nurses had opened most of those portholes to ventilate the wards, against standing orders. As the ship's angle of list increased, water reached this level and began entering aft from the bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four. With more than six compartments flooded, Britannic could not stay afloat.\\n\\nEvacuation\\nOn the bridge, Captain Bartlett was already considering efforts to save the ship. Only two minutes after the blast, boiler rooms five and six had to be evacuated. In about ten minutes, Britannic was roughly in the same condition Titanic had been in one hour after the collision with the iceberg. Fifteen minutes after the ship was struck, the open portholes on E Deck were underwater. With water also entering her aft section from the bulkhead between boiler rooms four and five, Britannic quickly developed a serious list to starboard.\\nBartlett gave the order to turn starboard towards the island of Kea in an attempt to beach her. The effect of Britannic's starboard list and the weight of the rudder made attempts to navigate the ship under her own power difficult, and the steering gear had been knocked out by the explosion, which eliminated steering by the rudder. The captain ordered the port shaft driven at a higher speed than the starboard side, which helped the ship move towards Kea.\\nAt the same time, the hospital staff prepared to evacuate. Bartlett had given the order to prepare the lifeboats, but he did not allow them to be lowered into the water. Everyone took their most valuable belongings with them before they evacuated. The chaplain of the ship recovered his Bible. The few patients and nurses on board were assembled. Major Harold Priestley gathered his detachments from the Royal Army Medical Corps to the back of the A deck and inspected the cabins to ensure no one was left behind.\\nWhile Bartlett continued his desperate manoeuvre, Britannic's list steadily increased. Fearing that the list would become too large to launch, some crew decided to launch lifeboats without waiting for the order to do so. Two lifeboats were put onto the water on the port side without permission by Third Officer Francis Laws. These boats were drawn towards the still-turning, partly surfaced propellers. Bartlett ordered the engines to stop but before this could take effect, the two boats were drawn into the propellers, completely destroying both and killing 30 people. Bartlett was able to stop the engines before any more boats were lost.\\n\\nFinal moments\\nBy 08:50, most of those on board had escaped in the 35 successfully launched lifeboats. At this point, Bartlett concluded that the rate at which Britannic was sinking had slowed so he called a halt to the evacuation and ordered the engines restarted in the hope that he might still be able to beach the ship. At 09:00 Bartlett was informed that the rate of flooding had increased due to the ship's forward motion and that the flooding had reached D-deck. Realising that there was now no hope of reaching land in time, Bartlett gave the final order to stop the engines and sounded two final long blasts of the whistle, the signal to abandon ship. As water reached the bridge, he and Assistant Commander Dyke walked off onto the deck and entered the water, swimming to a collapsible boat from which they continued to coordinate the rescue operations.\\nBritannic gradually capsized to starboard, and the funnels collapsed one after the other as the ship rapidly sank. By the time the stern was out of the water, the bow had already slammed into the seabed. As Britannic's length was greater than the depth of the water, the impact caused major structural damage to the bow before she slipped completely beneath the waves at 09:07, 55 minutes after the explosion. Violet Jessop (who was one of the survivors of the Titanic, and had also been on board when the Olympic collided with HMS Hawke) described the last seconds:\\n\\nShe dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths, the noise of her going resounding through the water with undreamt-of violence....\\nWhen the Britannic came to rest, she became the largest ship lost in the First World War and the world's largest sunken passenger ship.\\n\\nRescue\\nCompared to Titanic, the rescue of Britannic was facilitated by three factors: The water temperature was higher (20 °C (68 °F) compared to −2 °C (28 °F) for Titanic), more lifeboats were available (35 were successfully launched and stayed afloat compared to Titanic's 20), and help was closer (it arrived less than two hours after first distress call compared to three and a half hours for Titanic).\\nThe first to arrive on the scene were fishermen from Kea on their caïque, who picked many survivors from the water. At 10:00, HMS Scourge sighted the first lifeboats and 10 minutes later stopped and picked up 339 survivors. Armed boarding steamer HMS Heroic had arrived some minutes earlier and picked up 494. Some 150 had made it to Korissia, Kea, where surviving doctors and nurses from Britannic were trying to save the injured, using aprons and pieces of lifebelts to make dressings. A little barren quayside served as their operating room.\\nScourge and Heroic had no deck space for more survivors, and they left for Piraeus signalling the presence of those remaining at Korissia. HMS Foxhound arrived at 11:45 and, after sweeping the area, anchored in the small port at 13:00 to offer medical assistance and take on board the remaining survivors. At 14:00 the light cruiser HMS Foresight arrived. Foxhound departed for Piraeus at 14:15 while Foresight remained to arrange the burial on Kea of RAMC Sergeant William Sharpe, who had died of his injuries. Another two survivors died on the Heroic and one on the French tug Goliath. The three were buried with military honours in the Piraeus Naval and Consular Cemetery. The last fatality was G. Honeycott, who died at the Russian Hospital at Piraeus shortly after the funerals.\\nIn total, out of the 1,066 people on board, 1,036 people survived the sinking. Thirty people lost their lives in the disaster but only five were buried; others were not recovered and are honoured on memorials in Thessaloniki (the Mikra Memorial) and London. Another 38 were injured (18 crew, 20 RAMC). Survivors were accommodated in the warships that were anchored at the port of Piraeus while nurses and officers were hosted in separate hotels at Phaleron. Many Greek citizens and officials attended the funerals. Survivors were sent home and few arrived in the United Kingdom before Christmas.\\nIn November 2006, Britannic researcher Michail Michailakis discovered that one of the 45 unidentified graves in the New British Cemetery in the town of Hermoupolis on the island of Syros contained the remains of a soldier collected from the church of Ag. Trias at Livadi (the former name of Korissia). Maritime historian Simon Mills contacted the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Further research established that this soldier was a Britannic casualty and his remains had been registered in October 1919 as belonging to a certain \\\"Corporal Stevens\\\".\\nWhen the remains were moved to the new cemetery at Syros in June 1921, it was found that there was no record relating this name with the loss of the ship, and the grave was registered as unidentified. Mills provided evidence that this man could be Sergeant Sharpe and the case was considered by the Service Personnel and Veterans Agency. A new headstone for Sharpe was erected and the CWGC has updated its database.\\n\\nVisualised as an ocean liner\\nThe plan of Britannic showed that she was intended to be more luxurious than her sister ships in order to compete with SS Imperator, SS Vaterland and RMS Aquitania. Enough cabins were provided for passengers divided into three classes. The White Star Line anticipated a considerable change in its customer base. Thus, the quality of the Third Class (intended for migrants) was lowered when compared to that of her sisters, while the quality of the Second Class increased. In addition, the number of crew planned was increased from about 860 – 880 onboard Olympic and Titanic to 950 aboard Britannic.\\nThe quality of the First Class was also improved. Children began to appear as part of the clientele that needed to be satisfied, and thus a playroom for them was built on the boat deck. Similar to her two sister ships, the first class amenities included the Grand Staircase, but Britannic's amenities were more sumptuous, with worked balustrades, decorative panels and a pipe organ. The A Deck of the ship was devoted in its entirety to the First Class, being fitted with a salon, two veranda cafes, a smoking room and a reading room. The B Deck included a hair salon, post office, and redesigned deluxe Parlour Suites, dubbed Saloons in the Builder's Plans. The most important addition was that of individual bathrooms in almost every First Class cabin, which would have been a first on an ocean liner. Aboard the Olympic and Titanic, most passengers had to use public bathrooms.\\nThese facilities were installed but were soon removed because the ship was converted to a hospital ship and were never re-installed because the ship sank before she could enter transatlantic service, so the planned facilities were either cancelled, destroyed, reused on other vessels, like the Olympic or Majestic, or just never used. Of these accessories, only a large staircase and a children's playroom remained installed. Under the glass dome was a white wall above the first-class staircase instead of a clock and a large painting.\\n\\nPipe organ\\nA Welte philharmonic organ was planned to be installed on board Britannic but because of the outbreak of war, the instrument never made its way to Belfast from Germany. After the war, it was not claimed by Harland and Wolff since Britannic sank before she could have ever entered transatlantic service. It also was not installed on Olympic or Majestic since White Star Line did not want it. For a long time, it was thought that the organ was lost or destroyed.\\nIn April 2007, the restorers of a Welte organ, now in the Museum für Musikautomaten in Seewen, Switzerland, detected that the main parts of the instrument were signed by the German organ builders with \\\"Britanik\\\". A photograph of a drawing in a company prospectus, found in the Welte-legacy in the Augustiner Museum in Freiburg, proved that this was the organ intended for Britannic. It was found that Welte had first sold the organ to a private owner in Stuttgart instead. Later, in 1937 it had been transferred to a company's concert hall in Wipperfürth, where it was eventually acquired by the founder of the Swiss Museum of Music Automatons in 1969. At the time, the museum was still unaware of the organ's original history. The museum maintains the organ in working condition and it is still used for fully automated and manual performances.\\n\\nWreck\\nThe wreck of HMHS Britannic is at 37°42′05″N 24°17′02″E in about 400 feet (122 m) of water. It was discovered on 3 December 1975 by Jacques Cousteau, who explored it. In filming the expedition, Cousteau also held conference on camera with several surviving personnel from the ship including Sheila MacBeth Mitchell, a survivor of the sinking. In 1976, Cousteau entered the wreck with his divers for the first time. He expressed the opinion that the ship had been sunk by a single torpedo, basing this opinion on the damage to her plates.\\nThe giant liner lies on her starboard side relatively intact, hiding the large hole that was torn open by the mine. There is a huge hole just beneath the forward well deck. The bow is heavily deformed and attached to the rest of the hull only by some pieces of C-Deck. The crew's quarters in the forecastle were found to be in good shape with many details still visible. The holds were found empty.\\nThe forecastle machinery and the two cargo cranes in the forward well deck are well preserved. The foremast is bent and lies on the seabed near the wreck with the crow's nest still attached. The bell, thought to be lost, was found in a dive in 2019, having fallen from the mast and is now lying directly below the crow's nest on the seabed. Funnel number 1 was found a few metres from the Boat Deck. Funnel numbers two, three, and four were found in the debris field (located off the stern). Pieces of coal lie beside the wreck.\\nIn mid-1995, in an expedition filmed by NOVA, Dr Robert Ballard, best known for having discovered the wrecks of Titanic in 1985, and the German battleship Bismarck in 1989, visited the wreck, using advanced side-scan sonar. Images were obtained from remotely controlled vehicles, but the wreck was not penetrated. Ballard found all the ship's funnels in surprisingly good condition. Attempts to find mine anchors failed.\\nIn August 1996, the wreck was bought by Simon Mills, who has written two books about the ship: Britannic – The Last Titan and Hostage To Fortune.\\nIn November 1997, an international team of divers led by Kevin Gurr used open-circuit trimix diving techniques to visit and film the wreck in the newly available DV digital video format.\\nIn September 1998, another team of divers made an expedition to the wreck. Using diver propulsion vehicles, the team made more man-dives to the wreck and produced more images than ever before, including video of four telegraphs, a helm and a telemotor on the captain's bridge.\\nIn 1999 GUE divers acclimated to cave diving and ocean discovery led the first dive expedition to include extensive penetration into Britannic. Video of the expedition was broadcast by National Geographic, BBC, the History Channel and the Discovery Channel.\\nIn September 2003, an expedition led by Carl Spencer dived into the wreck. This was the first expedition to dive Britannic where all the bottom divers were using closed circuit rebreathers (CCR). Diver Leigh Bishop brought back some of the first photographs from inside the wreck and his diver partner Rich Stevenson found that several watertight doors were open. It has been suggested that this was because the mine strike coincided with the change of watches. Alternatively, the explosion may have distorted the doorframes. A number of mine anchors were located off the wreck by sonar expert Bill Smith, confirming the German records of U-73 that Britannic was sunk by a single mine and the damage was compounded by open portholes and watertight doors. Spencer's expedition was broadcast extensively across the world for many years by National Geographic and the UK's Channel 5.\\nIn 2006, an expedition, funded and filmed by the History Channel, brought together fourteen skilled divers to help determine what caused the quick sinking of Britannic. After preparation the crew dived on the wreck site on 17 September. Time was cut short when silt was kicked up, causing zero visibility conditions, and the two divers narrowly escaped with their lives. One last dive was to be attempted on Britannic's boiler room, but it was discovered that photographing this far inside the wreck would lead to violating a permit issued by the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, a department within the Greek Ministry of Culture.\\nPartly because of a barrier in languages, a last-minute plea was turned down by the department. The expedition was unable to determine the cause of the rapid sinking, but hours of footage were filmed and important data was documented. The Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities later recognised the importance of this mission and extended an invitation to revisit the wreck under less stringent rules.\\nOn 24 May 2009, Carl Spencer, drawn back to his third underwater filming mission of Britannic, died in Greece due to equipment difficulties while filming the wreck for National Geographic.\\nIn 2012, on an expedition organised by Alexander Sotiriou and Paul Lijnen, divers using rebreathers installed and recovered scientific equipment used for environmental purposes, to determine how fast bacteria are eating Britannic's iron compared to Titanic.\\nOn 29 September 2019, a British technical diver, Tim Saville, died during a 120 m / 393 ft dive on Britannic's wreck.\\n\\nLegacy\\nHaving her career cut short in wartime, never having entered commercial service, and having had few victims, Britannic did not experience the same notoriety as her sister ship Titanic. After being largely forgotten by the public, she finally gained fame when her wreck was discovered. Her name was reused by the White Star Line when it put MV Britannic into service in 1930. That ship was the last to fly the flag of the company when it retired in 1960.\\nAfter Germany capitulated at the end of the First World War followed by the Treaty of Versailles, it handed over some of its ocean liners as war reparations, two of which were given to the company. The first, the Bismarck, renamed Majestic, replaced the Britannic. The second, the Columbus, renamed the Homeric, compensated for other ships lost in the conflict.\\nThe last survivor, George Perman, died on the 24th of May 2000, just shy of his 100th birthday. At the time of the sinking, he was a 15-year-old Scout working on Britannic, and the youngest person onboard the ship.\\n\\nIn popular culture\\nThe sinking of the ship was dramatised in a 2000 television film called Britannic that featured Edward Atterton, Amanda Ryan, Jacqueline Bisset and John Rhys-Davies. The film was an entirely fictitious account featuring a German agent sabotaging the ship, because the Britannic was secretly carrying munitions. Titanic has a cameo during the flashback sequence of Violet Jessop's account of the sinking.\\nA BBC2 documentary, Titanic's Tragic Twin – the Britannic Disaster, was broadcast on 5 December 2016; presented by Kate Humble and Andy Torbet, it used up-to-date underwater film of the wreck and spoke to relatives of survivors.\\nThe historical docudrama The Mystery Of The Britannic was released in 2017, in which the maritime explorer Richard Kohler investigates the ship's last voyage.\\nAlma Katsu's 2020 novel The Deep was set partly on the Britannic, and on its sister ship the Titanic, and centred around the sinking of both ships.\\nThe Gigantic, the apparent setting of the 2009 escape-room game Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors, references the Britannic as a sister ship of the Titanic retrofitted as a hospital ship.\\n\\nPostcards\\nReferences\\nBibliography\\nBrewster, Hugh; Coulter, Laurie (1998). 882 1/2 Amazing Answers to your Questions about the Titanic. Madison Press Book. ISBN 978-0-590-18730-5.\\nChirnside, Mark (2011) [2004]. The Olympic-Class Ships. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-2868-0.\\nLord, Walter (2005) [1955]. A Night to Remember. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-8050-7764-3.\\nLe Goff, Olivier (1998). Les Plus Beaux Paquebots du Monde (in French). Solar. ISBN 9782263027994.\\nLynch, John (2012). Belfast Built Ships. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6539-5.\\nPiouffre, Gérard (2009). Le Titanic ne répond plus (in French). Larousse. ISBN 978-2-263-02799-4.\\n\\nFurther reading\\nMills, Simon (1992). H.M.H.S. \\\"Britannic\\\": Last Titan. Dorset: Waterfront Publications. ISBN 0-946184-71-2.\\nMills, Simon (2002). Hostage to Fortune: the dramatic story of the last Olympian, HMHS Britannic. Chesham, England: Wordsmith. ISBN 1-899493-03-4.\\nMills, Simon (2019). Exploring the Britannic: The Life, Last Voyage and Wreck of Titanic's Tragic Twin. London: Adlard Coles. ISBN 978-1-4729-5492-3.\\nLayton, J. Kent (2013). The Edwardian Superliners: a trio of trios. Amberley. ISBN 978-1-4456-1438-0.\\nKohler, Richie; Hudson, Charlie (2016). Mystery of the Last Olympian: Titanic's Tragic Sister Britannic. Best Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1930536869.\\n\\nExternal links\\n\\nNewsreel footage of the construction of HMHS Britannic, 1914\\nMaritimequest HMHS Britannic Photo Gallery\\nBritannic Home at Atlantic Liners\\nNOVA Online-Titanic's Lost Sister (Companion website to the PBS special Titanic's Lost Sister)\\nHospital Ship Britannic\\nAbout the origins of the Britannic Organ Archived 10 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine\\nImages of HMHS Britannic Archived 22 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine at the English Heritage Archive\\nBritish Pathé gallery on the Olympic class\\nDeck plans of Britannic as an ocean liner\",\n \"title\": \"HMHS_Britannic\"\n },\n {\n \"idx\": 1,\n \"is_supporting\": true,\n \"paragraph_text\": \"Belfast ( BEL-fast, -fahst; from Irish: Béal Feirste [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]) is the capital city and principal port of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan and connected to the open sea through Belfast Lough and the North Channel. It is the second-largest city on the island of Ireland (after Dublin), with an estimated population of 348,005 in 2022, and a metropolitan area population of 671,559.\\nFirst chartered as an English settlement in 1613, the town's early growth was driven by an influx of Scottish Presbyterians. Their descendants' disaffection with Ireland's Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain in 1800 — later regarded as a key to the town's industrial transformation. When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the world's largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage.\\nSectarian tensions accompanied the growth of an Irish Catholic population drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts. Heightened by division over Ireland's future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets. A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts.\\nSince the 1998 Belfast Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists. At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions.\\nBelfast has seen significant services sector growth, with important contributions from financial technology (fintech), from tourism and, with facilities in the redeveloped Harbour Estate, from film. It retains a port with commercial and industrial docks, including a reduced Harland & Wolff shipyard and aerospace and defence contractors. Post Brexit, Belfast and Northern Ireland remain, uniquely, within both the British domestic and European Single trading areas for goods.\\nThe city is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport on the Lough shore and Belfast International Airport 15 miles (24 kilometres) west of the city. It supports two universities: on the north-side of the city centre, Ulster University, and on the southside the longer established Queens University. Since 2021, Belfast has been a UNESCO designated City of Music.\\n\\nHistory\\nName\\nThe name Belfast derives from the Irish Béal Feirste (Irish pronunciation: [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]), \\\"Mouth of the Farset\\\" a river whose name in the Irish, Feirste, refers to a sandbar or tidal ford. This was formed where the river ran—until culverted late in the 18th century, down High Street— into the Lagan. It was at this crossing, located under or close to the current Queen's Bridge, that the early settlement developed.: 74–77 \\nThe compilers of Ulster-Scots use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of \\\"Belfast\\\" (with which they sometimes are also content) including Bilfawst, Bilfaust or Baelfawst.\\n\\nEarly settlements\\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city,: 42–45 and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. At the beginning of the 14th century, Papal tax rolls record two churches: the \\\"Chapel of Dundela\\\" at Knock (Irish: Cnoc; from cnoc, meaning 'hill') in the east, connected by some accounts to the 7th-century evangelist St. Colmcille,: 11 and, the \\\"Chapel of the Ford\\\", which may have been a successor to a much older parish church on the present Shankill (Seanchill, \\\"Old Church\\\") Road,: 63–64 dating back to the 9th, and possibly to St. Patrick in the mid 5th, century.\\nA Norman settlement at the ford, comprising the parish church (now St. George's), a watermill, and a small fort, was an outpost of Carrickfergus Castle. Established in the late 12th century, 11 miles (18 km) out along the north shore of the Lough, Carrickfergus was to remain the principal English foothold in the north-east until the scorched- earth Nine Years' War at the end of the 16th century broke the remaining Irish power, the O'Neills.\\n\\nDeveloping port, radical politics\\nWith a commission from James I, in 1613 Sir Arthur Chichester undertook the Plantation of Belfast and the surrounding area, attracting mainly English and Manx settlers. The subsequent arrival of Scottish Presbyterians embroiled Belfast in its only recorded siege: denounced from London by John Milton as \\\"ungrateful and treacherous guests\\\", in 1649 the newcomers were temporarily expelled by an English Parliamentarian army.: 21 In 1689, Catholic Jacobite forces, briefly in command of the town, abandoned it in advance of the landing at Carrickfergus of William, Prince of Orange, who proceeded through the Belfast to his celebrated victory on 12 July 1690 at the Boyne.\\n\\nTogether with French Huguenots, the Scots introduced the production of linen, a flax-spinning industry that in the 18th century carried Belfast trade to the Americas. Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed and tobacco from the colonies. From the 1760s, profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the Lagan Canal, new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through Dublin. Abolitionist sentiment, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, Cunningham and Greg, in 1786 to commission ships for the Middle Passage.As \\\"Dissenters\\\" from the established Anglican church (with its episcopacy and ritual), Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament. Belfast's two MPs remained nominees of the Chichesters (Marquesses of Donegall). With their emigrant kinsmen in America, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from the Crown.: 55–61 \\nWhen early in the American War of Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled their own Volunteer militia. Formed ostensibly for defence of the Kingdom, Volunteer corps were soon pressing their own protest against \\\"taxation without representation\\\". Further emboldened by the French Revolution, a more radical element in the town, the Society of United Irishmen, called for Catholic emancipation and a representative national government. In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection. The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the Battle of Antrim and to the south at the Battle of Ballynahinch.\\nBritain seized on the rebellion to abolish the Irish Parliament, unlamented in Belfast, and to incorporate Ireland in a United Kingdom. In 1832, British parliamentary reform permitted the town its first electoral contest – an occasion for an early and lethal sectarian riot.: 87\\n\\nIndustrial expansion, sectarian division\\nWhile other Irish towns experienced a loss of manufacturing, and after a cotton boom and bust, from the 1820s Belfast underwent rapid industrial expansion. As the global leader in the production of linen goods—mill, and finishing, work largely employing women and children— it won the moniker \\\"Linenopolis\\\". Shipbuilding led the development of heavier industry. By the 1900s, her shipyards were building up to a quarter of the total United Kingdom tonnage. This included from the yard of Harland & Wolff the ill-fated RMS Titanic, at the time of her launch in 1911 the largest ship afloat. Other major export industries included textile machinery, rope, tobacco and mineral waters.: 59–88 \\nIndustry drew in a new Catholic population settling largely in the west of the town—refugees from a rural poverty intensified by Belfast's mechanisation of spinning and weaving and, in the 1840s, by famine. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised and dominated the apprenticed trades and gave a new lease of life to the once largely rural Orange Order. Sectarian tensions, which frequently broke out in riots and workplace expulsions, were also driven by the \\\"constitutional question\\\": the prospect of a restored Irish parliament in which Protestants (and northern industry) feared being a minority interest.\\nOn 28 September 1912, unionists massed at Belfast's City Hall to sign the Ulster Covenant, pledging to use \\\"all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland\\\". This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000-strong Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The immediate crisis was averted by the onset of the Great War. The UVF formed the 36th (Ulster) Division whose sacrifices in the Battle of the Somme continue to be commemorated in the city by unionist and loyalist organisations.\\nIn 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six counties remaining as Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, there was widespread violence. 8,000 \\\"disloyal\\\" workers were driven from their jobs in the shipyards: in addition to Catholics, \\\"rotten Prods\\\" – Protestants whose labour politics disregarded sectarian distinctions.: 104–108 Gunbattles, grenade attacks and house burnings contributed to as many as 500 deaths. A curfew remained in force until 1924. (see The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)) The lines drawn saw off the challenge to \\\"unionist unity\\\" posed by labour (industry had been paralysed by strikes in 1907 and again in 1919). Until \\\"troubles\\\" returned at the end of the 1960s, it was not uncommon in Belfast for the Ulster Unionist Party to have its council and parliamentary candidates returned unopposed.\\nIn 1932, the opening of the new buildings for Northern Ireland's devolved Parliament at Stormont was overshadowed by the protests of the unemployed and ten days of running street battles with the police. The government conceded increases in Outdoor Relief, but labour unity was short lived.: 219–220 In 1935, celebrations of King George V's Jubilee and of the annual Twelfth were followed by deadly riots and expulsions, a sectarian logic that extended itself to the interpretation of darkening events in Europe.: 226–233 Labour candidates found their support for the anti-clerical Spanish Republic characterised as another instance of No-Popery. (Today, the cause of the republic in the Spanish Civil War is commemorated by a \\\"No Pasaran\\\" stained glass window in City Hall).\\nIn 1938, nearly a third of industrial workers were unemployed, malnutrition was a major issue, and at 9.6% the city's infant mortality rate (compared with 5.9% in Sheffield, England) was among the highest in United Kingdom.\\n\\nThe Blitz and post-war development\\nIn the spring of 1941, the German Luftwaffe appeared twice over Belfast. In addition to the shipyards and the Short & Harland aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, and devastated the old town centre around High Street. In the greatest loss of life in any air raid outside of London, more than a thousand people were killed.\\nAt the end of World War II, the Unionist government undertook programmes of \\\"slum clearance\\\" (the Blitz had exposed the \\\"uninhabitable\\\" condition of much of the city's housing) which involved decanting populations out of mill and factory built red-brick terraces and into new peripheral housing estates. At the same time, a British-funded welfare state \\\"revolutionised access\\\" to education and health care. The resulting rise in expectations; together with the uncertainty caused by the decline of the city's Victorian-era industries, contributed to growing protest, and counter protest, in the 1960s over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights.\\n\\nThe Troubles\\nFor reasons that nationalists and unionists dispute, the public protests of the late 1960s soon gave way to communal violence (in which as many as 60,000 people were intimidated from their homes): 70 and to loyalist and republican paramilitarism. Introduced onto the streets in August 1969, the British Army committed to the longest continuous deployment in its history, Operation Banner. Beginning in 1970 with the Falls curfew, and followed in 1971 by internment, this included counterinsurgency measures directed chiefly at the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) who characterised their operations, including the bombing of Belfast's commercial centre, as a struggle against British occupation.\\nPreceded by loyalist and republican ceasefires, the 1998 \\\"Good Friday\\\" Belfast Agreement returned a new power-sharing legislative assembly and executive to Stormont. In the intervening years in Belfast, some 20,000 people had been injured, and 1,500 killed.: 73 \\n\\nEighty-five percent of the conflict-related deaths had occurred within 1,000 metres of the communal interfaces, largely in the north and west of the city.: 73 The security barriers erected at these interfaces are an enduring physical legacy of the Troubles. The 14 neighbourhoods they separate are among the 20 most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all peace lines by mutual consent. The target date of 2023 was passed with only a small number dismantled.\\nThe more affluent districts escaped the worst of the violence, but the city centre was a major target. This was especially so during the first phase of the PIRA campaign in the early 1970s, when the organisation hoped to secure quick political results through maximum destruction.: 331–332 Including car bombs and incendiaries, between 1969 and 1977 the city experienced 2,280 explosions.: 58 In addition to the death and injury caused, they accelerated the loss of the city's Victorian fabric.\\n\\n21st century\\nSince the turn of the century, the loss of employment and population in the city centre has been reversed. This reflects the growth of the service economy, for which a new district has been developed on former dockland, the Titanic Quarter. The growing tourism sector paradoxically lists as attractions the murals and peace walls that echo the violence of the past.: 350.352 In recent years, \\\"Troubles tourism\\\": 180–189 has presented visitors with new territorial markers: flags, murals and graffiti in which loyalists and republicans take opposing sides in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.\\nThe demographic balance of some areas has been changed by immigration (according to the 2021 census just under 10% of the city's population was born outside the British Isles), by local differences in births and deaths between Catholics and Protestants, and by a growing number of, particularly younger, people no longer willing to self-identify on traditional lines.\\nIn 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history. The election in 2011 saw Irish nationalist councillors outnumber unionist councillors for the first time, with Sinn Féin becoming the largest party, and the cross-community Alliance Party holding the balance of power.\\n\\nIn the 2016 Brexit referendum, Belfast's four parliamentary constituencies returned a substantial majority (60 percent) for remaining within the European Union, as did Northern Ireland as a whole (55.8), the only UK region outside London and Scotland to do so. In February 2022, the Democratic Unionist Party, which had actively campaigned for Brexit, withdrew from the power-sharing executive and collapsed the Stormont institutions to protest the 2020 UK-EU Northern Ireland Protocol. With the promise of equal access to the British and European markets, this designates Belfast as a point of entry to the European Single Market within whose regulatory framework local producers will continue to operate. After two years, the standoff was resolved with an agreement to eliminate routine checks on UK-destined goods.\\n\\nCityscape\\nLocation and topography\\nBelfast is at the mouth of the River Lagan at the head of Belfast Lough open through the North Channel to the Irish Sea and to the North Atlantic. In the course of the 19th century, the location's estuarine features were re-engineered. With dredging and reclamation, the lough was made to accommodate a deep sea port, and extensive shipyards. The lagan was banked (in 1994 a weir raised its water level to cover what remained of the tidal mud flats) and its various tributaries were culverted On the model pioneered in 2008 by the Connswater Community Greenway some are now being considered for \\\"daylighting\\\".\\nIt remains the case that much of the city centre is built on an estuarine bed of \\\"sleech\\\": silt, peat, mud and—a source the city's ubiquitous red brick— soft clay, that presents a challenge for high-rise construction. (It was this soft foundation that persuaded St Anne's Cathedral to abandon plans for a bell tower and, in 2007, to substitute a lightweight steel spire). The city centre is also subject to tidal flood risk. Rising sea levels could mean, that without significant investment, flooding in the coming decades will be persistent.\\nThe city is overlooked on the County Antrim side (to the north and northwest) by a precipitous basalt escarpment—the near continuous line of Divis Mountain (478 m), Black Mountain (389 m) and Cavehill (368 m)—whose \\\"heathery slopes and hanging fields are visible from almost any part of the city\\\".: 13 From County Down side (on the south and south east) it is flanked by the lower-lying Castlereagh and Hollywood hills. The sand and gravel Malone Ridge extends up river to the south-west.\\n\\nNorth Belfast and Shankill\\nFrom 1820, Belfast began to spread rapidly beyond its 18th century limits. To the north, it stretched out along roads which drew into the town migrants from Scots-settled hinterland of County Antrim. Largely Presbyterian, they enveloped a number of Catholic-occupied \\\"mill-row\\\" clusters: New Lodge, Ardoyne and \\\"the Marrowbone\\\". Together with areas of more substantial housing in the Oldpark district, these are wedged between Protestant working-class housing stretching from Tiger's Bay out the Shore Road on one side, and up the Shankill (the original Antrim Road) on the other.\\nThe Greater Shankill area, including Crumlin and Woodvale, is over the line from the Belfast North parliamentary/assembly constituency, but is physically separated from the rest of Belfast West by an extensive series of separation barriers—peace walls—owned (together with five daytime gates into the Falls area) by the Department of Justice. These include Cupar Way where tourists are informed that, at 45 feet, the barrier is \\\"three times higher than the Berlin Wall and has been in place for twice as long\\\".\\nWith other working-class districts, Shankill suffered from the \\\"collapse of old industrial Belfast\\\". But it was also greatly affected from the 1960s by the city's most ambitious programme of \\\"slum clearance\\\". Red-brick, \\\"two up, two down\\\" terraced streets, typical of 19th century working-class housing, were replaced with flats, maisonettes, and car parks but few facilities. In a period of twenty years, due largely to redevelopment, 50,000 residents left the area leaving an aging population of 26,000 and more than 100 acres of wasteland.\\nMeanwhile, road schemes, including the terminus of the M1 motorway and the Westlink, demolished a mixed dockland community, Sailortown and severed the streets linking the Shankill area and the rest of both north and west Belfast to the city centre.\\nNew \\\"green field\\\" housing estates were built on the outer edges of the city. The onset of the Troubles overwhelmed attempts to promote these as \\\"mixed\\\" neighbourhoods so that the largest of these developments on the city's northern edge, Rathcoole rapidly solidified as a loyalist community. In 2004, it was estimated that 98% of public housing in Belfast was divided along religious lines.\\nAmong the principal landmarks of north Belfast are the Crumlin Road Gaol (1845) now a major visitor attraction, Belfast Royal Academy (1785) - the oldest school in the city, St Malachy's College (1833), Holy Cross Church, Ardoyne (1902), Waterworks Park (1889), and Belfast Zoo (1934).\\n\\nWest Belfast\\nIn the mid-19th century rural poverty and famine drove large numbers of Catholic tenant farmers, landless labourers and their families toward Belfast. Their route brought them down the Falls Road and into what are now remnants of an older Catholic enclave around St Mary's Church, the town's first Catholic chapel (opened in 1784 with Presbyterian subscriptions), and Smithfield Market. Eventually, an entire west side of the city, stretching up the Falls Road, along the Springfield Road (encompassing the new housing estates built 1950s and 60s: Highfield, New Barnsley, Ballymurphy, Whiterock and Turf Lodge) and out past Andersonstown on the Stewartstown Road toward Poleglass, became near-exclusively Catholic and, in political terms, nationalist.\\nReflecting the nature of available employment as mill workers, domestics and shop assistants, the population, initially, was disproportionately female. Further opportunities for women on the Falls Road arose through developments in education and public health. In 1900, the Dominican Order opened St Mary's [Teacher] Training College, and in 1903 King Edward VII opened the Royal Victoria Hospital at the junction with the Grosvenor Road. Extensively redeveloped and expanded, the hospital has a staff of more than 8,500.\\nLandmarks in the area include the Gothic-revival St Peter's Cathedral (1866, signature twin spires added in 1886); Clonard Monastery (1911), the Conway Mill (1853/1901, re-developed as a community enterprise, arts and education centre in 1983); Belfast City Cemetery (1869) and, best known for its republican graves, Milltown Cemetery (1869).\\nThe area's greatest visitor attractions are its wall and gable-end murals. In contrast to those in loyalist areas, where Israel is typically the only outside reference, these range more freely beyond the local conflict frequently expressing solidarity with Palestinians, with Cuba, and with Basque and Catalan separatists.\\n\\nSouth Belfast\\nWest Belfast is separated from South Belfast, and from the otherwise abutting loyalist districts of Sandy Row and the Donegall Road, by rail lines, the M1 Motorway (to Dublin and the west); industrial and retail parks, and the remnants of the Blackstaff (Owenvarra) bog meadows.\\nBelfast began stretching up-river in the 1840s and 50s: out the Ormeau and Lisburn roads and, between them, running along a ridge of higher ground, the Malone Road. From \\\"leafy\\\" avenues of increasingly substantial (and in the course of time \\\"mixed\\\") housing, the Upper Malone broadened out into areas of parkland and villas.\\nFurther out still, where they did not survive as public parks, from the 1960s the great-house demesnes of the city's former mill-owners and industrialists were developed for public housing: loyalist estates such as Seymour Hill and Belvoir. Meanwhile, in Malone and along the river embankments, new houses and apartment blocks have been squeezed in, increasing the general housing density.\\nBeyond the Queen's University area the area's principal landmarks are the 15-storey tower block of Belfast City Hospital (1986) on the Lisburn Road, and the Lagan Valley Regional Park through which a towpath extends from the City-centre quayside to Lisburn.\\nNorthern Ireland's three permanent diplomatic missions are situated on the Malone Road, the consulates of China, Poland and the United States.\\n\\nEast Belfast\\nThe first district on the right bank of the Lagan (the County Down side) to be incorporated in Belfast was Ballymacarrett after 1868. Harland & Wolff, whose gantry cranes, Samson & Goliath, tower over the area, was long the mainstay of employment — although less securely so for the townland's Catholics (In 1970, when the yard still had a workforce of 10,000, only 400 Catholics were employed).: 280 Tolerated in periods of expansion as navvies and casual labourers,: 87–88 they concentrated in a small enclave, the Short Strand, which has continued into this century to feature as a sectarian flashpoint. Home to around 2,500 people, it is the only distinctly nationalist area in the east of the river.\\nEast Belfast developed from the Queens Bridge (1843), through Ballymacarrett, east along the Newtownards Road and north (along the east shore of the Lough) up the Holywood Road; and from the Albert Bridge (1890) south east out the Cregagh and Castlereagh roads. The further out, the more substantial, and less religiously segregated, the housing until again encountering the city's outer ring of public housing estates: loyalist Knocknagoney, Lisnasharragh, and Tullycarnet.\\nThis century, efforts have been made to add to East Belfast's two obvious visitor attractions: Samson & Goliath (the \\\"banana yellow cranes\\\" date only from the early 1970s): 79 and the Parliament Buildings at Stormont. What is marketed now as EastSide, features, at the intersection of the Connswater and Comber Greenways and next to the EastSide Visitor Centre, CS Lewis Square (2017), named and themed in honour of the local author of The Chronicles of Narnia. Next to the former the Harland & Wolff Drawing Offices (now an hotel), stands the \\\"cultural nucleus to Titanic Quarter\\\", Titanic Belfast (2012) whose interactive galleries tell the liner's ill-fated story.\\n\\nCity Centre\\nBelfast City Centre is roughly bounded by the ring roads constructed since the 1970s: the M3 which sweeps across the dockland to the north; the Westlink that connects to the M1 for points south and west; and, with less certainty, the Bruce Street and Bankmore connectors that tie back toward the Lagan at the Gasworks Business Park and the beginning of the Ormeau Road. This embraces \\\"the Markets\\\", the one remaining inner-city area of housing. Of the various markets, including those for the sale and shipping of livestock, from which it derives its name, only one survives, the former produce market, St George's, now a food and craft market popular with visitors to the city.\\n\\nArchitectural heritage\\nAmong surviving elements of the pre-Victorian town are the Belfast Entries, 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the elliptical First Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing) Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham); the Assembly Rooms (1769, 1776, 1845) on Bridge Street; St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church which had been built on a religious site dating back to 1306; St Mary's Church (1782) in Chapel Lane, which is the oldest Catholic church in the city. The oldest public building in Belfast, Clifton House (1771–74), the Belfast Charitable Society poorhouse, is on North Queen Street. It is now partly cut off from the city centre by arterial roads. In addition there are small sets of city-centre Georgian terraces.\\nOf the much larger Victorian city a substantial legacy has survived the Blitz, The Troubles and planning and development. Among the more notable examples are St Malachy's Roman Catholic Church (1844) and the original college building of Queen's University Belfast (1849), both in a Tudor style; the Palm House in the Botanic Gardens (1852); the Renaissance revival Union Theological College (1853) and Ulster Bank (now Merchant Hotel) (1860); the Italianate Ulster Hall (1862), and the National Trust restored ornate Crown Liquor Saloon (1885, 1898) (a setting for the classic film, Odd Man Out, starring James Mason); the oriental-themed Grand Opera House (1895) (bombed several times during the Troubles), and the Romanesque revival St. Patrick's Catholic Church in Donegall Street (1877). \\n\\nThe Baroque revival City Hall was finished in 1906 on the site of the former White Linen Hall, and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. Its Edwardian design influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is 173 ft (53 m) high and figures above the door state \\\"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\\\". \\nNearby is the Renaissance and Baroque revival Scottish Provident Institution (1902). Opposite is a branch of the Ulster Bank which is built behind the facade of a large former Methodist church which was built in the classical style and which opened in 1846.\\nBuilt around an older church dating to 1776, St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral was consecrated 1904 and completed in the 1920s. Its steel spire was added in 2007. The neoclassical Royal Courts of Justice were opened in 1933.\\n\\nRedevelopment\\nThe opening Victoria Square Shopping Centre in 2008 was to symbolise the rebound of the city centre since its days as a restricted security zone during the Troubles. But retail footfall in the centre is limited by competition with out-of-town shopping centres and with internet retailing. As of November 2023, footfall had not recovered pre-COVID pandemic levels. There are compensating trends: the growth in tourism and hospitality which has included a sustained boom in hotel construction.\\nThe City Council also talks of a \\\"residential-led regeneration\\\". New townhouse and apartments schemes are being developed for the city's quays, and for Titanic Quarter. The completion in 2023 of Ulster University's enhanced Belfast campus (in \\\"one of the largest higher education capital builds in Europe\\\") and the determination of Queen's University to compete with the private sector in the provision of student housing, has fostered the construction downtown of multiple new student residences.\\n\\nRough sleeping and homelessness\\nPeople can be found sleeping rough on the streets of the city centre. Numbers, while growing, may be comparatively small for a city of its size in the British Isles. In 2022, counts and estimates by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive identified a total of 26 rough sleepers in Belfast. This is against a background (in 2023) of 2,317 people (0.67% of residents) presenting as homeless, many of whom are in temporary accommodation and shelters. Such figures, however, do not include all those living in severely overcrowded conditions, involuntarily sharing with other households on a long-term basis, or sleeping rough in hidden locations.\\n\\nThe \\\"Quarters\\\"\\nSince 2001, buoyed by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has promoted a number of cultural quarters.\\nThe Cathedral Quarter comprises much of Belfast's old trade and warehousing district in the narrow streets and entries around St Anne's Cathedral, with a concentration of bars, beer gardens, clubs and restaurants (including two establishments claiming descent from the early town, White's and The Duke of York) and performance spaces (most notably the Black Box and Oh Yeah). It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival. The adjoining Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.\\nWithout defined geographical boundaries, the Gaeltacht Quarter encompasses Irish-speaking Belfast. (According to the 2021 census, 15.5% of people in the city have some knowledge of Irish, 4% speak it daily). It is generally understood as an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast served by the Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich cultural centre. It can be said to include, at the Skainos Centre in unionist east Belfast, Turas, a project that promotes Irish through night classes and cultural events in the belief that \\\"the language belongs to all\\\".\\nThe Linen Quarter', an area south of City Hall once dominated by linen warehouses, now includes, in addition to cafés, bars and restaurants, a dozen hotels (including the 23-storey Grand Central Hotel), and the city's two principal Victorian-era cultural venues, the Grand Opera House and the Ulster Hall.\\nMoving further south along the so-called \\\"Golden Mile\\\" of bars and clubs through Shaftesbury Square, there is the Queen's [University] Quarter. In addition to the university (spread over 250 buildings, of which 120 are listed as being of architectural merit), it is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum.\\nFinally, the Titanic Quarter covers 0.75 km2 (185 acres) of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as Queen's Island. Named after RMS Titanic, launched here in 1911, work began in 2003 to transform some former shipyard land into \\\"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\\\". The current area houses Titanic Belfast, the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), two hotels, and multiple condo towers and shops, and the Titanic [film] Studios.\\n\\nCulture\\nArts venues and festivals\\nFrom Georgian Belfast, the city retains a civic legacy. In addition to Clifton House (Belfast Charitable Society, 1774), this includes the Linen Hall Library (Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge, 1788), the Ulster Museum (founded by the Belfast Natural History Society as the Belfast Municipal Museum and Art Gallery in 1833), and the Botanic Gardens (established in 1828 by the Belfast Botanic and Horticultural Society). These remain important cultural venues: in the case of the Gardens, for outdoor festivities including the Belfast Melā, the city's annual celebration of global cultures.\\nOf the many stage venues built in the nineteenth century, and film theatres built in the twentieth, there remains the Ulster Hall (1862), which hosts concerts (including those of the Ulster Orchestra), classical recitals and party-political meetings; the Grand Opera House (1895) badly damaged in bomb blasts in the early 1990s, restored and enlarged 2020; the Strand Cinema (1935) now being developed as an arts centre; and the Queens Film Theatre (QFT) (1968) focussed on art house and world cinema. The two independent cinemas offer their screens for the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast International Arts Festival.\\nThe principal stage for drama remains the Lyric Theatre (1951), the largest employer of actors and other theatre professionals in the region. At Queens University, drama students stage their productions at the Brian Friel Theatre, a 120-seat studio space (named after the renowned playwright).\\nIn November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was made possible by the 11,000-seat Odyssey Arena (today the SSE Arena) which opened in 2000 at the entrance to the Titanic Quarter A further large-scale venue is the Waterfront Hall, a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre that first opened in 1997. The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is based on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall. In 2012, the Metropolitan Arts Centre, usually referred to as the MAC, was opened in the Cathedral Quarter, offering a performance mix of music, theatre, dance and visual art.\\nThe city has a number of community arts, and arts education, centres, among them the Crescent Arts Centre in south Belfast, the Irish-language Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich in west Belfast, The Duncairn in north Belfast and, in the east of the city, EastSide Arts.\\nFéile an Phobail, a community arts organisation born out of the Internment Commemorations in the west of the city, stages one of the largest community festivals in Europe. It has grown from its original August Féile on the Falls Road, to a year-round programme with a broad range of arts events, talks and discussions.\\n\\nUNESCO City of Music\\nIn November 2021, Belfast became the third city in the British Isles to be designated by UNESCO as City of Music (after Glasgow in 2008 and Liverpool in 2016) and is one of 59 cities worldwide participating in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.\\nThe greater part of Belfast's music scene is accommodated in the city's pubs and clubs. Irish traditional music (\\\"trad\\\") is a staple, and is supported, along with Ulster-Scots snare drum and pipe music, by the city's TradFest summer school.\\nMusic offerings also draw on the legacy of the punk and the underground club scene that developed during The Troubles (associated with the groups Stiff Little Fingers and The Undertones, and celebrated in the award-winning 2013 film, Good Vibrations). Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody led a line up of private donors that together with public funders established the Oh Yeah music centre in 2008. The Cathedral Quarter non-profit supports young musicians and these have engaged with a range of genres including Alternative rock, Indie rock, Electronica, Post rock, Post punk, Crossover, and Experimental rock.\\nQueens University hosts the Sonic Arts Research Centre (SARC), an institute for music-based practice and research. Its purpose designed building, Sonic Laboratory and multichannel studios were opened by Karlheinz Stockhausen, the German composer and \\\"father of electronic music\\\", in 2004.\\n\\nMedia\\nBelfast is the home of the Belfast Telegraph, Irish News, and The News Letter, the oldest English-language daily newspaper in the world still in publication.\\nThe city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, and ITV station UTV. The Irish public service broadcaster, RTÉ has a studio in the city. The national radio station is BBC Radio Ulster with commercial radio stations such as Q Radio, U105, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte. Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. \\nOne of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\\n\\nParades\\nSince the lifting in 1872 of a twenty-year party processions ban, Orange parades in celebration of \\\"the Twelfth\\\" [of July] and the bonfires of the previous evening, the eleventh, have been a fixed fixture of the Belfast calendar. On what became a public holiday in 1926, Belfast and guest Orange lodges with their pipe, flute and drum bands muster at Carlisle Circus, and parade through the city centre past the City Hall and out the Lisburn Road to a gathering in \\\"the field\\\" at Barnett Demesne. While some local feeder and return marches have a history of sectarian disturbance, in recent years, events have generally passed off without serious incident.\\nIn 2015, the Orange Order opened the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road in East Belfast with the aim of educating the wider public about \\\"the origins, traditions and continued relevance\\\" of the parading institution.\\nWhat is sometimes referred to as the Catholic equivalent of the Orangemen, the much smaller Ancient Order of Hibernians, confines its parades to nationalist areas in west and north Belfast, as do republicans commemorating the Easter Rising. In August 1993, in a break with a history of nationalist exclusion from the city centre, a parade marking the introduction of internment in the 1971 proceeded up Royal Avenue toward the City Hall, where it was addressed by Sinn Féin president, Gerry Adams, in front of the statue of Queen Victoria.\\nSince 1998, the Belfast City Council has funded a city-centre St. Patrick's Day (March 17) celebration. It is organised by Féile an Phobail as a \\\"carnival\\\" complete with a parade featuring dancers, circus entertainers, floats, and giant puppets. Critical of what they perceive as an evolving nationalist festival, unionists on the City Council observe that \\\"a lot of the Protestant Unionist Loyalist (PUL) community will stay away from the city centre on St Patrick's Day, the same as some stay away on the Twelfth of July\\\".\\nIn 1991, Belfast hosted its first gay pride event. Belfast Pride, culminating in a city-centre parade at the end of July, is now one of the biggest annual festivals in the city and, according to its organisers, the largest LGBT+ festival in Ireland.\\nThe Irish Congress of Trade Unions organises an annual city-centre May Day march and rally. The International Workers Day has been a public holiday since 1978.\\n\\nDemography\\nIn 2021, there were 345,418 residents within the expanded 2015 Belfast local government boundary and 634,600 in the Belfast Metropolitan Area, approximately one third of Northern Ireland's 1.9 million population.\\n\\nAs with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. Deprivation levels are notable in the inner parts of the north and the west of the city. The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) experience some of the highest levels of social deprivation including higher levels of ill health and poor access to services. These areas remain firmly segregated, with 80 to 90 percent of residents being of the one religious designation.\\nConsistent with the trend across all of Northern Ireland, the Protestant population within the city has been in decline, while the non-religious, other religious and Catholic population has risen. The 2021 census recorded the following: 43% of residents as Catholic, 12% as Presbyterian, 8% as Church of Ireland, 3% as Methodist, 6% as belonging to other Christian denominations, 3% to other religions and 24% as having either no religion or no declared religion.\\nIn terms of community background, 47.93% were deemed to belong to, or to have been brought up in, the Catholic faith and 36.45% in a Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. The comparable figures in 2011 were 48.60% Catholic and 42.28% Protestant or other Christian-related denomination.\\nWith respondents free to indicate more than one national identity, in 2021 the largest national identity group was \\\"Irish only\\\" with 35% of the population, followed by \\\"British only\\\" 27%, \\\"Northern Irish only\\\" 17%, \\\"British and Northern Irish only\\\" 7%, \\\"Irish and Northern Irish only\\\" 2%, \\\"British, Irish and Northern Irish only\\\" 2%, British and Irish less than 1% and Other identities with 10%.\\nInsofar as the city's two indigenous minority languages (Irish and Ulster Scots) are concerned, figures are made available from the decennial UK census. On census day, 21 March 2021, 14.93% (43,798) in Belfast claimed to have some knowledge of the Irish language, whilst 5.21% (15,294) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Irish. 3.74% (10,963) of residents claimed to use Irish daily and 0.75% (2,192) claimed Irish is their main language. 7.17% (21,025) of people in the city claimed to have some knowledge of Ulster Scots, whilst 0.75% (2,207) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Ulster Scots. 0.83% (2,430) claimed to use Ulster Scots daily.\\nFrom the mid to late 19th century, there was a community of central European Jews (among its distinguished members, Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff of Harland & Wolff) and of Italians in Belfast. Today, the largest immigrant groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians. The 2011 census figures recorded a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the British Isles lived in south Belfast, where they comprised 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland resided in the Greater Belfast area. In the 2021 census the percentage of the city's residents born outside the United Kingdom had risen to 9.8.\\n\\n\\tThe Belfast City Council area in the 2011 census\\n\\nEconomy\\nEmployment profile\\nServices (including retail, health, professional & scientific) account for three quarters of jobs in Belfast. Only 6% remain in manufacturing. The balance is in distribution and construction. In recent years, unemployment has been comparatively low (under 3% in the summer of 2023) for the UK. On the other hand, Belfast has a high rate of people economically inactive (close to 30%). It is a group, encompassing homemakers, full-time carers, students and retirees, that in Belfast has been swollen by the exceptionally large proportion of the population (27%) with long-term health problems or disabilities (and who, in Northern Ireland generally, are less likely to be employed than in other UK regions).\\n\\nShipbuilding, aerospace and defence\\nOf Belfast's Victorian-era industry, little remains. The last working linen factory—Copeland Linens Limited, based in the Shankill area—closed in 2013. In recent years Harland & Wolff, which at peak production in the Second World War had employed around 35,000 people, has had a workforce of no more than two or three hundred refurbishing oil rigs and fabricating off-shore wind turbines. A £1.6 billion Royal Navy contract has offered the yard a new lease, returning it to shipbuilding in 2025.: 261–262 \\nIn 1936, Short & Harland Ltd, a joint venture of Short Brothers and Harland & Wolff, began the manufacture of aircraft in the docks area. In 1989, the British government, which had nationalised the company during the Second World War, sold it to the Canadian aerospace company Bombardier. In 2020, it was sold on to Spirit AeroSystems. Producing aircraft components, it remains the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland.\\nOriginating in the Short Brothers' missile division, since 2001 Thales Group owned Thales Air Defence Limited has been producing short range air defence and anti-tank missiles (including the NLAW shoulder-launched system deployed against the Russian invasion by Ukraine).\\n\\nFintech and cybersecurity\\nFrom the 1990s, Belfast established itself as a significant location for call centres and for other back-office services. Attracting U.S. operators such as Citi, Allstate, Liberty Mutual, Aflac and FD Technologies (Kx Systems), it as since been identified by the UK Treasury as \\\"key fintech [financial technology] hub\\\". Fintech's key areas (its \\\"ABCD\\\") are artificial intelligence, blockchain, cloud computing, and big data.\\nThe sector's principal constraint, cyber security, has been addressed since 2004 by the Queens University Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology (IECIT), and its Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT). The IECIT is the anchor tenant at Catalyst (science park) in the Titanic Quarter, which hosts a cluster of companies seeking to offer innovative cyber-security solutions.\\n\\nFilm\\nBetween 2018 and 2023, film and television production based largely in Belfast, and occupying significant new studio capacity in the ports area, contributed £330m to Northern Ireland's economy. There are two 8-acre media complexes (serviced by the adjacent City Airport): the Titanic Studios on Queen's Island (the Titanic Quarter) and across the Victoria Channel in Giant's Park on the Lough's north foreshore, the Belfast Harbour Studios. Together they offer 226,000 ft2 of studio space, plus offices and workshops, and have attracted U.S. production companies such as Amazon, HBO (including all eight series of its fantasy drama Game of Thrones), Paramount, Playtone, Universal, and Warner Bros.\\nAt the beginning of 2024, Ulster University, in partnership with Belfast Harbour and supported by Northern Ireland Screen, announced an £72m investment to add to the complex a new virtual production, research and development, facility, Studio Ulster. Additional studio space is available at Loop Studios (formerly Britvic) on the Castlereagh Road in East Belfast.\\n\\nTourism and hospitality\\nNorthern Ireland's peace dividend since the 1990s, which includes a marked increase in inward investment, has contributed to a large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Significant projects included Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall, the new Titanic Quarter with its Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, and the development of the original Short's harbour airfield as George Best Belfast City Airport.\\nThese developments reflect a boom in tourism (32 million visitors between 2011 and 2018),: 179 and related hotel construction. This has included an entirely new phenomenon for Belfast: in 1999, the port received its first cruise ship. In 2023, Belfast welcomed 153 calls, 8% up from the pre-pandemic record set in 2019. Ship from 32 different countries landed 320,000 passengers.\\nBelfast has also seen growth of \\\"conflict tourism\\\".: 186–191 To the dismay of some, \\\"tourists take photos of the division lines that are not consigned to history, but are a part of living Belfast: children play football against the walls that tourists flock to. The places and the people themselves have become a spectacle, an attraction.\\\" Tourist bosses and guides, however, are satisfied that the greater draw is city's other \\\"must-see attractions\\\", and its \\\"convivial food and nightlife scene\\\".\\n\\nEU/GB Trade\\nInvest NI, Northern Ireland's economic development agency is pitching Belfast and its hinterland to foreign investors as \\\"only region in the world able to trade goods freely with both GB and EU markets\\\". This follows the 2020 Northern Ireland Protocol and the 2023 Windsor Framework, agreements between the British government and European Union, whereby, post-Brexit, Northern Ireland would effectively remain within the European Single Market for goods while, in principle, retaining unfettered access to the British domestic market. Despite the DUP's derailment of devolved government in protest, local business leaders largely welcomed the new trade regime, hailing the promise of dual EU-GB access as a critical opportunity.\\nIn February 2024, the DUP consented to a return of the devolved Assembly and Executive on the understanding that neither the EU nor the British government would defend the integrity of their respective internal markets by conducting routine checks on the bulk of goods passing through Belfast, or other Northern Ireland, ports.\\n\\nEducation\\nPrimary and secondary education\\nChildren from Catholic and Protestant homes in Belfast are taught, for the most part, separately on a pattern that, by the mid-nineteenth century, had been established throughout Ireland. Primary and secondary education is divided between (Catholic) Maintained Schools and (non-Catholic/ \\\"Protestant\\\") Controlled Schools. They are bound by the same curriculum, but their teaching staff are trained separately (in the university colleges of St Mary's and Stranmillis).: 200–202 \\nSince the 1980s, two smaller school sectors have emerged: grant-maintained Integrated schools, which by design bring together children and staff from both communities, and Irish language medium schools\\nThe Belfast [later Royal Belfast] Academical Institution, opened its doors in 1810 with the intention, in the words of its founder, former United Irishman, William Drennan of being \\\"perfectly unbiased by religious distinctions\\\". The principle was not embraced by the town's middle-classes: in practice \\\"Inst\\\" provided a grammar education to the town's Presbyterian families while Anglicans favoured the older Royal Belfast Academy (1785); Catholics, St Malachy's diocesan college (1833) and Wesleyans, Methodist College Belfast (1865).\\nDenominational lines have since blurred, with Catholics in particular moving into the controlled grammars. But the presence of 18 selective grammar schools in Belfast is a further feature of post-primary education in Belfast that distinguishes it from that of comparable cities in Great Britain where academic selection was abandoned in the 1960s and 70s. Partly prompted by the COVID disruption of external testing in 2021/22, some the city's grammars have begun to review and amend the practice. It is not clear that this will be on terms that reduce the degree of social segregation they have represented within the system.\\nIn 2006, the Belfast Education and Library Board became part of the consolidated Education Authority for Northern Ireland. In Belfast, the Authority has responsibility for 156 primary, and 48 secondary schools (including the 18 grammars). The system is marked by stark inequalities in outcome. Around 30% of school leavers in the city do not attain 5 GCSEs, A* - C (including Maths and English). For those in receipt of free school meals, the figure rises to over 50%.\\n\\nFurther and Higher education\\nBelfast Metropolitan College (\\\"Belfast Met\\\") is a further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\\nBelfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded as a college in 1845. In 1908, the Catholic bishops lifted their ban on attendance and Queen's was granted university status.: 164, 166 It is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK, and is one of the largest universities in the UK with over 25,000 students – among them over 4,000 international students.\\nUlster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus on the edge of the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. Since 2021, this original \\\"Arts College\\\" campus has undergone a £1.4bn expansion to accommodate offerings across all departments. The project promises to bring 15,500 staff and students into the city, and to generate 5,000 new jobs.\\n\\nGovernance\\nBelfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.\\nBelfast has been represented in the British House of Commons since 1801, and in Northern Ireland Assembly, as presently constituted, since 1998.\\n\\nLocal government\\nBelfast City Council is responsible for a range of powers and services, including land-use and community planning, parks and recreation, building control, arts and cultural heritage. The city's principal offices are those of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff. Like other elected positions within the Council such as Committee chairs, these are filled since 1998 using the D'Hondt system so that in recent years the position has rotated between councillors from the three largest factions, Sinn Féin, the DUP and the Alliance Party.\\nThe first Lord Mayor of Belfast in 1892, Daniel Dixon, like every mayor but one until 1997 (Alliance in 1979), was a unionist. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in 1997. The current Lord Mayor is Micky Murray of the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, who has been in the position of Lord Mayor since 3 June 2024. His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\\nIn 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party holding the balance of power. In 2023, unionists retained just 17 of 60 seats on the council, leaving nationalists (Sinn Féin and the SDLP) just 4 seats short of a majority. In addition to the 11 Alliance members there are four other councillors, 3 Green and 1 People Before Profit, who refuse a nationalist/unionist designation.\\n\\nNorthern Ireland Assembly and Westminster elections\\nAs Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In United Kingdom elections, each constituency returns one MP, on a \\\"first past the post\\\" basis to Westminster. In NI Assembly elections each returns, on the basis of proportional representation, five MLAs to Stormont.\\nIn the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2022, Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 5 Alliance Party, 1 SDLP, 1 UUP and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP won all but the Sinn Féin stronghold of Belfast West. In the 2019 and 2024 UK general elections, they retained only Belfast East, losing Belfast North to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the SDLP.\\nFor the next elections the constituencies are redrawn, with Belfast South extended as Belfast South and Mid Down to include parts of Lagan Valley and Strangford.\\n\\nInfrastructure\\nHospitals\\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.\\nThe Royal Hospitals site in west Belfast (junction of Grosvenor and Falls roads) contains two hospitals. The Royal Victoria Hospital (its origins in a number of successive institutions, beginning in 1797 with The Belfast Fever Hospital) provides both local and regional services. Specialist services include cardiac surgery, critical care and the Regional Trauma Centre. The Children's Hospital (Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children) provides general hospital care for children in Belfast and provides most of the paediatric regional specialities.\\nThe Belfast City Hospital (evolved from a 19th-century workhouse and infirmary) on the Lisburn Road is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a najor cancer centre. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\\nMusgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit.\\nThe Mater Hospital (founded in 1883 by the Sisters of Mercy) on the Crumlin Road provides a wide range of services, including acute inpatient, emergency and maternity services, to north Belfast and the surrounding areas.\\nThe Ulster Hospital, Upper Newtownards Road, Dundonald, on the eastern edge of the city, first founded as the Ulster Hospital for Women and Sick Children in 1872, is the major acute hospital for the South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust. It delivers a full range of outpatient, inpatient and daycare medical and surgical services.\\n\\nTransport\\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the 22.5 miles (36 km) M2 and M22 motorway route.\\nBlack taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called Enterprise operated jointly by NIR and the Irish rail company Iarnród Éireann.\\nThe city's Europa Bus Centre and Great Victoria Street rail station, are being replaced by a new Belfast Central Station. When completed in 2025, it will be \\\"the largest integrated transport facility on the island of Ireland\\\" with bus stands, railway platforms, and facilities for taxis and bicycles.\\n\\nThe city has two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, close to the city centre on the eastern shore of Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport 30–40 minutes to the west on the shore of Lough Neagh. Both operate UK domestic and European flights. The city is also served by Dublin Airport, two hours to the south, with direct inter-continental connections.\\nIn addition to its extensive freight business, the Belfast Port offers car-ferry sailings, operated by Stena Line, to Cairnryan in Scotland (5 Sailings Daily. 2 hours 22 minutes) and to Liverpool-Birkenhead (14 sailings weekly. 8 hours). The Isle of Man Steam Packet Company provides a seasonal connection to Douglas, Isle of Man.\\nThe Glider bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast. Introduced in 2018, it is a bus rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre. Using articulated buses, the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week. The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport.\\nNational Cycle Route 9 to Newry, which will eventually connect with Dublin, starts in Belfast.\\n\\nUtilities\\nHalf of Belfast's water is supplied via the Aquarius pipeline from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The other half is now supplied from Lough Neagh via Dunore Water Treatment Works in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs were deferred by devolution in May 2007.\\nPower is provided from a number of power stations via NIE Networks Limited transmission lines. (Just under a half of electricity consumption in Northern Ireland is generated from renewable sources). Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the Valuation and Lands Agency.\\n\\nRecreation and sports\\nLeisure centres\\nBelfast City Council owns and maintains 17 leisure centres across the city, run on its behalf by the non-profit social enterprise GLL under the 'Better' brand. These include eight large multipurposed centres complete with swimming pools: Ballysillan Leisure Centre and Grove Wellbeing Centre in North Belfast; the Andersonstown, Falls, Shankill and Whiterock leisure centres in West Belfast; Templemore Baths and Lisnasharragh Leisure Centre in East Belfast, and close to the city centre in South Belfast, the Olympia Leisure Centre and Spa,\\n\\nParks and gardens\\nBelfast has over forty parks. The oldest (1828) and one of the most popular parks Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, its Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the recently restored Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.\\nThe largest municipal park in the city, and closest to the city centre, lies on the right bank of Lagan. The 100-acres of Ormeau Park were opened to the public in 1871 on what was the last demesne of the town's former proprietors, the Chichesters, Marquesses of Donegall.\\nIn north Belfast, the Waterworks, two reservoirs to which the public have had access since 1897, are features of a park supporting angling and waterfowl. In 1906, a further water park, Victoria, opened behind industrial dockland on what had been the eastern shore of the Lough. It is now connected through east Belfast by the Connswater Community Greenway which offers 16 km of continuous cycle and walkway through east Belfast.\\nThe largest green conservation area within the city's boundaries is a 2,116 hectares patchwork of \\\"parks, demesnes, woodland and meadows\\\" stretching upriver along the banks of the Lagan river and canal; Established in 1967, the Lagan Valley Regional Park envelopes in its course, Belvoir Park Forest, which contains ancient oaks and a 12th-century Norman Motte, and Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, whose International Rose Garden attracts thousands of visitors each July.\\nColin Glenn Forest Park, the National Trust Divis and the Black Mountain Ridge Trail, and Cave Hill Country Park. offer panoramic views over Belfast and beyond from the west. Climbing the Castlereagh Hills, the National Trust Lisnabreeny Cregagh Glen does the same from the east.\\nBelow Cave Hill, the council maintains one of the few local government-funded zoos in the British Isles. The Belfast Zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. It carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\\n\\nSports\\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, The 41st Marathon in 2023, with related events (Wheelchair Race, Team Relay and 8 Mile Walk) attracted 15,000 participants.\\nThe Northern Ireland national football team plays its home matches at Windsor Park. Football clubs with stadia and training grounds in the city include: Linfield, Glentoran, Crusaders, Cliftonville, Donegal Celtic, Harland & Wolff Welders, Dundela, Knockbreda, PSNI, Newington, Sport & Leisure and Brantwood.\\nBelfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, had a capacity of 31,500 making it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. Listed as one of the venues for the UK and Ireland's successful UEFA Euro 2028 bid, with co-funding from the Irish government there are plans for a complete rebuild. In May 2020, the foundation of East Belfast GAA returned Gaelic Games to East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area. The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast Linda Ervine who comes from a unionist background in the area. The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League.\\nThe 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at Ravenhill Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\\nBelfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever One Day International against England in 2006.\\nThe 9,500 capacity SSE Arena accommodates the Belfast Giants, one of the biggest ice hockey clubs in the UK. Featuring Canadian, ex-NHL players, the club competes the British Elite Ice Hockey League.\\nBelfast was the home town of former Manchester United player George Best, the 1968 European Footballer of the Year, who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre. Other sportspeople celebrated in the city include double world snooker champion Alex \\\"Hurricane\\\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough, Rinty Monaghan and Carl Frampton.\\n\\nClimate\\nAt 54°35′49″N 05°55′45″W, its northern latitude is characterised by short winter days and long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. At the summer solstice in June, the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\\nFor this northern latitude, thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, Belfast has a comparatively mild climate. In summer the temperatures rarely range above 25 °C (77 °F) or dip in winter below −5 °C (23 °F). The maritime influence, also ensures that the city gets significant precipitation. On 157 days in an average year, rainfall is greater than 1 mm. Average annual rainfall is 846 millimetres (33.3 in), less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland.\\nWith its moderate temperatures and abundant rainfall, Belfast's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification system), a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe.\\n\\nIn fiction\\nJohn Greer Ervine, The Wayward Man (1927)\\nF. L. Green, Odd Man Out (1945), basis of Odd Man Out, a 1947 British film noir directed by Carol Reed, and starring James Mason, Robert Newton.\\nBrian Moore, The Emperor of Ice Cream (1965).\\nMaurice Leitch, Silver's City (1981)\\nBernard MacLaverty, Cal (1983)\\nRobert McLiam Wilson, Eureka Street (1996)\\nLucy Caldwell, Where They Were Missed (2005)\\nAnna Burns, Milkman (2018)\\nLouise Kennedy, Trespasses (2022)\\nMichael Magee, Close to Home (2023)\\n\\nNotable people\\nTwin towns – sister cities\\nBelfast City Council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with the following sister cities:\\n\\nNashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\\nHefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\\nBoston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\\nShenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\\nMelbourne, Victoria, Australia\\n\\nFreedom of the City\\nThose who have received the Freedom of the City\\n\\nSir Kenneth Branagh: 30 January 2018.\\nAndrew Carnegie: 28 September 1910.\\nSir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955.\\nBill Clinton, 9 April 2018\\nSir Robert Hart, 1 July 1908\\nJohn Hewitt: 26 May 1983\\nSir John Jordan: 28 September 1910.\\nMichael Longley: 23 March 2015\\nGeorge J. Mitchell, 9 April 2018\\nNurses of Belfast, 1 December 2015\\nRoyal Ulster Constabulary and Reserve: 30 May 1980\\nWilliam Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie: 1898, the first person to be awarded Freedom Of The City of Belfast.\\n\\nNotes\\nReferences\\nBibliography\\nJonathan Bardon (1982), Belfast An illustrated History. Belfast: Blackstaff Press, ISBN 0-85640-272-9\\nJ. C. Beckett et al. (1983), Belfast, The Making of a City. Belfast: Appletree Press, ISBN 0-86281-100-7\\nCiaran Carson (1997), The Star Factory. London: Granta Books, ISBN 9781862071179\\nFeargal Cochrane (2023), Belfast: The Story of a City and its People. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-26444-9\\nS. J. Connolly ed. (2012), Belfast 400: People, Place and History, Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-635-7\\nMaurice Goldring (1991), Belfast, From Loyalty to Rebellion. London: Lawrence & Wishart, ISBN 978-0-85315-722-81\\nRobert Johnstone (1990), Belfast, Portraits of a City, London: Barrie & Jenkins. ISBN 978-0-7126-3744-2\\nWilliam Maguire (2009), Belfast, A History, Lancaster: Carnegie. ISBN 978-1-85936-189-4\\nBill Meulemans (2013), Belfast, Both Sides Now. Create Space. ISBN 978-1-4791-9541-1\\nRaymond O'Regan (2010), Hidden Belfast: Benevolence, Blackguards and Balloon Heads. Dublin: Mercier Press. ISBN 978-1-85635-683-1\\nRaymond O'Regan, Arthur Magee (2014), The Little Book of Belfast. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-84588-803-9\\nMarcus Patton (1993), Central Belfast, An Historical Gazetteer. Belfast: Ulster Architectural Heritage Society. ISBN 0-900457-44-9\\n\\n\\n== External links ==\",\n \"title\": \"Belfast\"\n }\n]"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"As of 1st August 2024 The three British Olympic Class ocean liners were manufactured in a city that lies at the mouth of what river?"},"question_decomposition":{"kind":"list like","value":[],"string":"[]"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"River Lagan"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":[],"string":"[]"},"answerable":{"kind":"string","value":"true"}}},{"rowIdx":99,"cells":{"id":{"kind":"string","value":"333"},"paragraphs":{"kind":"list like","value":[{"idx":0,"is_supporting":true,"paragraph_text":"The Copa América is an international association football competition established in 1916. It is contested by the men's national teams of the members of the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL), the sport's continental governing body.\nEarly editions of the tournament, then known as the South American Football Championship, consisted of a round-robin group, where the team with the most points was declared the champion (with a play-off to break a tie if necessary). In 1975, when the tournament was rebranded to its current title, a final stage using the single-elimination format was introduced, which culminates with a final match between the last two teams remaining in contention. This type of format has been used ever since, except in 1989 and 1991, which featured a final group stage.\nArgentina defeated Colombia in the final of the latest competition, held in 2024.\n\nFinals\nKeys\naet: after extra time\np: penalty shoot-out\n Final played in two-legged format (with a playoff if necessary).\n Defined on penalties after 90 minutes.\n Defined on penalties after extra time\nTeams in italics are non-CONMEBOL members that participated as invitees.\n\nResults by nation\n* Indicates host country\n\nSee also\nList of FIFA World Cup finals\nList of UEFA European Championship finals\nList of AFC Asian Cup finals\nList of Africa Cup of Nations finals\nList of CONCACAF Gold Cup finals\nList of OFC Nations Cup finals\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Copa América Archive by Martín Tabeira on the RSSSF","title":"List_of_Copa_Am%C3%A9rica_finals"},{"idx":1,"is_supporting":true,"paragraph_text":"The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\n\nPresidents\nSee also\nActing President of the United States\nFounding Fathers of the United States\nList of vice presidents of the United States\nPresident of the Continental Congress\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nExternal links\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote","title":"List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"}],"string":"[\n {\n \"idx\": 0,\n \"is_supporting\": true,\n \"paragraph_text\": \"The Copa América is an international association football competition established in 1916. It is contested by the men's national teams of the members of the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL), the sport's continental governing body.\\nEarly editions of the tournament, then known as the South American Football Championship, consisted of a round-robin group, where the team with the most points was declared the champion (with a play-off to break a tie if necessary). In 1975, when the tournament was rebranded to its current title, a final stage using the single-elimination format was introduced, which culminates with a final match between the last two teams remaining in contention. This type of format has been used ever since, except in 1989 and 1991, which featured a final group stage.\\nArgentina defeated Colombia in the final of the latest competition, held in 2024.\\n\\nFinals\\nKeys\\naet: after extra time\\np: penalty shoot-out\\n Final played in two-legged format (with a playoff if necessary).\\n Defined on penalties after 90 minutes.\\n Defined on penalties after extra time\\nTeams in italics are non-CONMEBOL members that participated as invitees.\\n\\nResults by nation\\n* Indicates host country\\n\\nSee also\\nList of FIFA World Cup finals\\nList of UEFA European Championship finals\\nList of AFC Asian Cup finals\\nList of Africa Cup of Nations finals\\nList of CONCACAF Gold Cup finals\\nList of OFC Nations Cup finals\\n\\nReferences\\nExternal links\\nThe Copa América Archive by Martín Tabeira on the RSSSF\",\n \"title\": \"List_of_Copa_Am%C3%A9rica_finals\"\n },\n {\n \"idx\": 1,\n \"is_supporting\": true,\n \"paragraph_text\": \"The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\\n\\nPresidents\\nSee also\\nActing President of the United States\\nFounding Fathers of the United States\\nList of vice presidents of the United States\\nPresident of the Continental Congress\\n\\nNotes\\nReferences\\nWorks cited\\nExternal links\\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote\",\n \"title\": \"List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States\"\n }\n]"},"question":{"kind":"string","value":"Who was the United States President when Chile won their first Copa America?"},"question_decomposition":{"kind":"list like","value":[],"string":"[]"},"answer":{"kind":"string","value":"Barack Obama"},"answer_aliases":{"kind":"list like","value":[],"string":"[]"},"answerable":{"kind":"string","value":"true"}}}],"truncated":false,"partial":false},"paginationData":{"pageIndex":0,"numItemsPerPage":100,"numTotalItems":100,"offset":0,"length":100}},"jwt":"eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSJ9.eyJyZWFkIjp0cnVlLCJwZXJtaXNzaW9ucyI6eyJyZXBvLmNvbnRlbnQucmVhZCI6dHJ1ZX0sImlhdCI6MTc0MDU3NjA0MSwic3ViIjoiL2RhdGFzZXRzL2Jkc2FnbGFtL2ZyYW1lcy1tdXNpcXVlLW1pbmkiLCJleHAiOjE3NDA1Nzk2NDEsImlzcyI6Imh0dHBzOi8vaHVnZ2luZ2ZhY2UuY28ifQ.MoNVXqiPSCEyLtuQ0eGKCnbWBrrwNuKrylmefIBIpX7LUgBoCFDsSxxgXxCkQgj9rbxk2sC-r22l6gplY9BJAg","displayUrls":true},"discussionsStats":{"closed":0,"open":1,"total":1},"fullWidth":true,"hasGatedAccess":true,"hasFullAccess":true,"isEmbedded":false}">
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"paragraph_text": "Saturday Night Live (SNL) is an American late-night live sketch comedy variety show created by Lorne Michaels and developed by Michaels and Dick Ebersol that airs on NBC and simultaneously streams on Peacock. The show's premiere was hosted by George Carlin on NBC on October 11, 1975, under the original title NBC's Saturday Night. The show's comedy sketches, which often parody contemporary American culture and politics, are performed by a large and varying cast of repertory and newer cast members. Each episode is hosted by a celebrity guest, who usually delivers the opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast, with featured performances by a musical guest. An episode normally begins with a cold open sketch that is usually based on political events and ends with someone breaking character and proclaiming, \"Live from New York, it's Saturday Night!\", properly beginning the show.\nIn 1980, Michaels left the show to explore other opportunities. He was replaced by Jean Doumanian, who was then replaced by Ebersol after a season of bad reviews. Ebersol ran the show until 1985, when Michaels returned. Since then, Michaels has held the job of showrunner. Many SNL cast members have found national stardom while appearing on the show, and achieved success in film and television, both in front of and behind the camera. Others associated with the show, such as writers, have gone on to successful careers creating, writing, and starring in television and film.\nBroadcast from Studio 8H at NBC's headquarters in the Comcast Building at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, SNL has aired 970 episodes since its debut and began its 50th season on September 28, 2024, making it one of the longest-running network television programs in the United States. The show format has been developed and recreated in several countries, meeting with different levels of success. Successful sketches have seen life outside the show as feature films, including The Blues Brothers (1980) and Wayne's World (1992). The show has been marketed in other ways, including home media releases of \"best of\" and whole seasons, and books and documentaries about behind-the-scenes activities of running and developing the show.\nThroughout five decades on air, Saturday Night Live has received a vast number of awards, including 84 Primetime Emmy Awards, six Writers Guild of America Awards, and three Peabody Awards. In 2000, it was inducted into the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame. It was ranked tenth in TV Guide's \"50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time\" list, and in 2007 it was listed as one of Time's \"100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME.\" As of 2022, the show had received over 305 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, the most received by any television program. The live aspect of the show has resulted in several controversies and acts of censorship, with mistakes and intentional acts of sabotage by performers as well as guests.\n\nHistory\nDevelopment: 1974–1975\nBeginning in 1965, NBC network affiliates broadcast reruns of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson on Saturday or Sunday nights. In 1974, Johnny Carson petitioned to NBC executives for the weekend shows to be pulled and saved so they could be aired during weeknights, allowing him to take time off. In response, NBC president Herbert Schlosser approached the vice president of late-night programming, Dick Ebersol, and asked him to create a show to fill the Saturday night time slot. Schlosser and Ebersol then approached Lorne Michaels. Over the next three weeks, Ebersol and Michaels developed the latter's idea for a variety show featuring high-concept comedy sketches, political satire, and music performances that would attract 18- to 34-year-old viewers. NBC decided to base the new show at their studios in 30 Rockefeller Center. Michaels was given Studio 8H, a converted radio studio that was home to NBC's election and Apollo moon landing coverage. It was revamped for the premiere at a cost of $250,000.\nBy 1975, Michaels had assembled the show's initial cast, including Dan Aykroyd, John Belushi, Chevy Chase, Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Laraine Newman, Gilda Radner, and George Coe. The cast was nicknamed the \"Not Ready for Prime-Time Players\", a term coined by show writer Herb Sargent. Much of the talent pool involved in the inaugural season was recruited from The National Lampoon Radio Hour, including the original head writer, Michael O'Donoghue.\n\nDebut and early years: 1975–1980\nNBC's Saturday Night debuted on October 11, 1975, with an episode featuring Carlin as host. The original title was used because the Saturday Night Live title was in use by Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell on rival network ABC. After the cancellation of Cosell's show in 1976, NBC purchased the rights to the name and officially changed the show's name to Saturday Night Live at the start of the 1977–1978 season. The cast was initially paid $750 per episode, and essentially lived at the offices, according to Michaels. The show found its footing by the fourth episode, hosted by Candice Bergen, which featured the cast in most segments. The show developed a cult following, and its humor was seen as refreshing and daring, in comparison to previous sketch and variety shows that would rarely deal with controversial topics and issues. Iconic characters during the show's first five seasons included Belushi's samurai, the Coneheads (Aykroyd, Curtin, Newman), and Radner's Roseanne Roseannadanna.\nDrugs were a major problem during the show's first five years, which exacerbated existing tensions. Cocaine had become an \"integral part of the working progress\" on SNL by the 1978–1979 season, according to Doug Hill and Jeff Weingrad. Aykroyd and Belushi left the show after the 1978–1979 season to make The Blues Brothers, and as the fifth season ended in 1980, Michaels asked executives to place the show on hiatus for a year in order to allow him time to pursue other projects. Michaels suggested writers Al Franken, Tom Davis, and Jim Downey as his replacements; NBC president Fred Silverman disliked Franken and was infuriated by his Update routine in May 1980, called \"A Limo for a Lame-O\", that had critiqued Silverman's job performance. Unable to secure the deal that he wanted, Michaels chose to leave NBC, and Jean Doumanian was given his position. Almost every writer and cast member, including Michaels, left the show after the May 24, 1980, series finale.\n\nJean Doumanian and Dick Ebersol years: 1980–1985\nDoumanian's rapidly-assembled new cast faced immediate comparisons to the previous cast, and was not received favorably by critics or audiences. In a February 1981 episode, cast member Charles Rocket used the profanity \"fuck\" during a sketch. Rocket later said he was trying to kill time before the show's close and had not meant to utter the word. Following this episode, Doumanian was dismissed after only ten months on the job.\nAlthough some executives suggested SNL be cancelled, the show received a reprieve, and Dick Ebersol was hired as producer. Ebersol's sketches leaned towards more accessible, broad comedy, which alienated some long-time fans, writers, and cast members. His distaste for political humor led the show to largely avoid jokes about President Ronald Reagan during his time as showrunner. Under Ebersol's leadership, Eddie Murphy, who had been underused during Doumanian's tenure, rose to prominence with popular characters like Mister Robinson's Neighborhood and Gumby. His success was a major factor in the show's resurgence, though it created tensions within the cast.\nIn a break with tradition, producers hired established comedians like Billy Crystal and Martin Short for the 1984–1985 season. Though this season was considered one of the series' funniest, it diverged significantly from Michaels' innovative approach. Like Michaels before him, Ebersol informed NBC that he would only return if the show took a hiatus to recast and rebuild, and diverge significantly from the established live format. NBC rejected these requests and instead decided to approach Michaels to return as producer.\n\nMichaels returns: 1985–2005\nMichaels returned for the 1985–1986 season; the show was again recast, with Michaels borrowing Ebersol's idea to seek out established actors. Writers struggled with the cast, and Michaels cleaned house again for the 1986–1987 season, seeking unknown talent such as Dana Carvey and Phil Hartman instead of known names. This new cast was successful at reviving the show's popularity in the eyes of critics and audiences.\nIn the early 1990s, much of this core cast began to leave the show, and younger performers such as Chris Farley and Adam Sandler began to be promoted to repertory status. Some of these cast members, like Sandler, Farley, Rob Schneider, Spade, and Chris Rock, would come to be known as the \"Bad Boys of SNL\" for their outrageous comedy style. Afraid of cast members leaving for film careers, Michaels had overcrowded the cast, causing a divide between the veteran members and the new, younger talent. This led to increased competition for the show's limited screen time, and an increasing reliance on \"younger\", less subtle humor.\nThe show lost Carvey and Hartman, two of its biggest stars, between 1992 and 1994. Wanting to increase SNL's ratings and profitability, NBC West Coast president Don Ohlmeyer and other executives began to actively interfere in the show, recommending that new stars such as Chris Farley and Adam Sandler be fired and critiquing the costly nature of performing the show live. Criticism of the show's writing increased during this period, which reached its peak by the 1994–1995 season, which is considered one of the series' worst. A widely publicized profile of the show in New York during this period was highly critical of the show's humor, cast, and backstage dysfunction.\nThe show's cast was largely overhauled for the 1995–1996 season with names such as Will Ferrell and Cheri Oteri, which was successful at revitalizing the show. The show faced new competition during this period in the form of Fox's sketch comedy show Mad TV, which aired a half hour earlier than SNL and featured a more diverse cast.\nThe 2000–2001 season was also noted for its well-received spoofing of that year's presidential campaign between Al Gore and George W. Bush. The show's New York City cast and crew were highly impacted by the September 11 attacks in 2001, and returned on September 29 with an acclaimed appearance by Rudy Giuliani. Political humor was reduced for the following seasons.\n\nDigital expansion and Trump presidency: 2005–present\nThe show switched to high-definition broadcasting for the 2005–2006 season. Before the start of the 2006–2007 season, the show suffered budget cuts that led to a smaller cast. The following season was also cut short by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike, which led to several cancelled episodes.\nFey later returned to the show during the 2008 presidential election for several critically acclaimed guest appearances as vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin. Writer Robert Smigel later said it was the show's \"biggest moment since the 70s\", and Michaels observed that it made Fey a \"huge star\" and that \"you could see perception changing completely\". Armisen played Barack Obama from 2008 to 2012, following which cast member Jay Pharoah assumed the impression.\nThe show began to rely more on pre-recorded material and videos more than it ever had before during this period, to the extent that some commentators said it had sometimes outshined live material on the show. Taped material significantly increased in the mid-2000s with SNL Digital Shorts by The Lonely Island, and continued into the following years with videos by Good Neighbor and Please Don't Destroy.\nThe show frequently parodied Donald Trump before and during his presidency; an ongoing impression by actor Alec Baldwin led to a significant increase in ratings and a \"shot of relevance\" for the show, according to Vanity Fair's Joanna Robinson.\nDue to the COVID-19 pandemic, SNL's 2019–2020 season was indefinitely halted on March 16, 2020. The season was later resumed in April with three remotely produced episodes labelled Saturday Night Live at Home, and the show returned to Studio 8H in October 2020. A three-hour prime-time live broadcast to celebrate the series' fiftieth anniversary will air on February 16, 2025.\n\nFuture\nIn January 2024, Variety said that \"speculation [had] been rampant for years\" that Michaels would retire from the series after its fiftieth season, premiering in 2024. Michaels told Entertainment Tonight that month that former head writer and cast member Tina Fey could \"easily\" be his successor, were he to step down, but said he had not made a decision yet at that point. Michaels has worked with Fey several times since her SNL tenure ended, including on 30 Rock. Michaels earlier said in 2021 that the show's fiftieth anniversary would be \"a really good time to leave\". Kenan Thompson, the show's longest-serving cast member, speculated in 2022 that SNL may come to an end altogether after its fiftieth season, saying that it could make financial sense for NBC.\n\nCast and crew\nCast\nThose selected to join the cast of SNL are normally already accomplished performers, recruited from improvisational comedy groups such as The Groundlings (Newman, Hartman, Will Ferrell, Jon Lovitz, Kristen Wiig) and The Second City (Aykroyd, Farley, Tina Fey, Tim Meadows), or established stand-up comedians (Carvey, Sandler, Macdonald, Chris Rock), who already possess the training or experience necessary for SNL. The cast is divided into two tiers: the more established group of repertory players; and newer, unproven cast members known as featured players, who may eventually be promoted to the repertory stable. Of the many roles available in the show, one of the longest-running and most coveted is being the host of Weekend Update, a segment featuring one or two hosts, who get substantial screen time performing as themselves. Many of the Weekend Update hosts have gone on to find greater success outside the show, including Dennis Miller, Seth Meyers, Norm Macdonald, Colin Quinn, and Jimmy Fallon.\n\nAs of Season 49, SNL has featured 164 cast members including, besides the above-mentioned players, Rachel Dratch, Amy Poehler, Chris Rock, David Spade, Will Forte, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Tracy Morgan, Chris Parnell, Maya Rudolph, Andy Samberg, Molly Shannon, Kristen Wiig, and many others. Kenan Thompson is the show's longest-serving cast member. Currently, the cast consists of 17 members, with 14 repertory players and 3 featured players:\n\nThe cast were often contracted from anywhere between five and six years to the show, but starting with the 1999–2000 season, new hires were tied to a rewritten contract that allowed NBC to take a cast member in at least their second year and put them in an NBC sitcom. Cast members are given the option of rejecting the first two sitcom offers but must accept the third offer, with the sitcom contract length dictated by NBC and potentially lasting up to six years. The move drew criticism from talent agents and managers who believed a cast member could be locked into a contract with NBC for twelve years—six on SNL and then six on a sitcom. The contract also optioned the cast member for three feature films produced by SNL Films, a company owned by NBC, Paramount Pictures, and Michaels. The new contracts were reportedly developed after many previously unknown cast members, such as Mike Myers and Adam Sandler, gained fame on SNL only to leave and make money for other studios. In a 2010 interview, Wiig was reported to be contracted to SNL for a total of seven years. The contracts also contain a network option that allows NBC to remove a cast member at any time. In the first season of the show the cast was paid $750 per episode, rising to $2,000 by season two, and $4,000 by season four. By the late 1990s, new cast members received a salary between $5,000 and $5,500 per episode, increasing to $6,000 in the second year and up to $12,500 for a cast member in their fifth year. Performers could earn an additional $1,500 per episode for writing a sketch that made it to air. In 2001, Ferrell became the highest-paid cast member, being paid $350,000 per season (approximately $17,500 per episode).\n\nWriters\nAs of the 2022–23 season, Kent Sublette, Alison Gates, and Streeter Seidell are the show's co-head writers.\nSeth Meyers became a co-head writer in 2005, became the single head writer from 2008 to 2012, and then left in 2014. The Weekend Update segment has its own dedicated team of writers led by head writer and producer Alex Baze as of the 2011–12 season. Scenes on Weekend Update that involve members of the cast acting in-character alongside the host are often written by staff writers outside the dedicated Weekend Update team, who know those characters better.\nColin Jost has been a writer since 2005 and was one of the head writers from 2012 to 2015 before being renamed head writer, from 2017 until 2022. Michael Che has been a writer since 2013. He temporarily left the show in the summer of 2014, but came back that fall to anchor Update and reclaimed his status as a writer, then serving as a co-head writer alongside Jost for five years.\nSNL writers are often also performers or experienced in writing and improvisational comedy. Many are hired from similar backgrounds such as The Groundlings, Second City, Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre, and ImprovOlympic. Comedian Jim Downey was head writer for nine years beginning in 1985. Experienced writers with backgrounds in television shows are also sometimes brought into the SNL writing room. Like the SNL cast who appear on camera, many of the writers have been able to find their own success outside the show, such as Conan O'Brien, who was brought into SNL from The Groundlings in 1988, went on to write for The Simpsons, and eventually began hosting his own show. Former head writer Adam McKay, along with performer Ferrell, founded the successful comedy website Funny or Die. In 2000 Tina Fey became the first woman SNL head writer and successfully made the transition to starring on the show, as well as writing and starring in feature films, ultimately creating and starring in her own show 30 Rock, which was partly based on her SNL experiences. In 2005 Fey was paid $1.5 million per season for her dual role as head writer and performer. Writer John Mulaney has also found success outside of SNL through well-received stand-up specials, his Broadway act The Oh, Hello Show, and the special John Mulaney & the Sack Lunch Bunch.\n\nAnnouncers\nDon Pardo served as the announcer for the series when it began and continued in the role for all but season seven, between 1981 and 1982, when Michaels had left and Mel Brandt and Bill Hanrahan filled the announcing role. In 2004 Pardo announced that he would step down from his position, but then continued in the role until 2009 when he again announced his retirement, but then continued into the 2009–10 season.\nIn 2010 the 92-year-old Pardo was reported to be again considering his retirement, but continued to serve as announcer until his death at age 96 on August 18, 2014, following the 39th season. Apart from a brief period in 2006 in which Pardo pre-recorded his announcements at his home in Arizona, he flew to New York City to perform his announcing duties live, until 2010 when he began recording permanently from Arizona. Former cast members Joe Piscopo and Darrell Hammond have also impersonated Pardo and fulfilled his announcing duties during times Pardo was unavailable. Hammond took over as full-time announcer starting with season 40.\n\nHosts and musical guests\nA typical episode of SNL will feature a single host chosen for their popularity or novelty, or because they have a film, album, or other work being released near the time of their appearance on the show. The host delivers the opening monologue and goodnights, introduces the musical guest, and performs in sketches with the cast. Traditionally, the host of the show ends the opening monologue by mentioning the musical guest for the night and saying, \"We got a great show for you tonight, (musical guest) is/are here. So stick around, we'll be right back.\" Comedian George Carlin was the first to host SNL in the debut October 1975 episode; three episodes later, Candice Bergen became the first woman to host and subsequently the first host to return. Guests who have hosted five or more times are sometimes referred to as belonging to the Five-Timers Club, a term that originated on a sketch performed on Tom Hanks's fifth episode. As of February 11, 2017, actor Alec Baldwin holds the record for most times hosting, having performed the duty on seventeen different occasions since 1990; Baldwin took the record from actor Steve Martin who has hosted fifteen times since 1976. Occasionally, former SNL cast members also host.\nEach episode also features a musical guest, a solo act, or a band, who performs two or three musical numbers. Occasionally, the musical guest simultaneously serves as the host, and may also appear in comedy sketches. As of October 11, 2020, Dave Grohl is the most frequent musical guest, performing on fourteen shows since 1992.\nMichaels does not allow musical guests to perform using lip-synching tracks, believing it diminishes the live aspect of the show. Exceptions are made only when the musical act is focused on intense dance routines instead of vocals, where it is difficult to be both heavily physically active and sing. A 1975 performance by pop group ABBA was the first and only act to feature lip-synching, until the controversial 2004 performance of Ashlee Simpson.\nThe December 18, 2021, episode (hosted by Paul Rudd) became the first episode to not feature any musical performances since the first episode of season 12, as well as the third episode in the show's duration to not have a musical guest, due to the rise of the Omicron variant in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic. Charli XCX was planned as the musical guest, but her performance was cancelled due to the new restrictions as the show had a \"limited cast and crew\" and no audience.\n\nThe Band\nThe Saturday Night Live Band (also known as \"The Live Band\") is the house band for SNL. Academy Award-winning composer Howard Shore served as the first musical director, from 1975 to 1980, appearing in many musical sketches, including Howard Shore and His All-Nurse Band and (backing a U.S. Coast Guard chorus) Howard Shore and the Shore Patrol. Over the years, the band has featured several New York studio musicians including Paul Shaffer (1975–1980), Lou Marini (1975–1983), David Sanborn (1975), Michael Brecker (the early 1980s), Ray Chew (1980–1983), Alan Rubin (1975–1983), Georg Wadenius (1979–1985), Steve Ferrone (1985), David Johansen (performing as Buster Poindexter), Tom Malone (who took over as musical director from 1981 to 1985), and G. E. Smith (musical director from 1985 to 1995). As of 2017, the band is under the leadership of Tower of Power alumnus Lenny Pickett, keyboardist Leon Pendarvis, and Eli Brueggemann, who does not play in the band on the live show. The band plays instrumentals leading in and out of station breaks; affiliates who run no advertising during these interludes hear the band play complete songs behind a Saturday Night Live bumper graphic until the program resumes. The band plays \"Closing Theme (Waltz in A)\", written by Shore, at the end of the show.\n\nProduction\nThe studio\nSince the show's inception, SNL has aired from Studio 8H, located on floors eight and nine of the Comcast Building (formerly the RCA Building and GE Building, now 30 Rockefeller Plaza or \"30 Rock\"). Three of the shows of the 1976–77 season were shot at the former NBC Studios in Brooklyn, due to NBC News using Studio 8H for presidential election coverage.\nDuring the summer 2005 shooting hiatus, crews began renovations on Studio 8H. With its thirty-first-season premiere in October 2005, the show began broadcasting in high-definition television, appearing letterboxed on conventional television screens. The offices of SNL writers, producers, and other staff can be found on the 17th floor of \"30 Rock\".\n\nCreating an episode\nProduction on an SNL episode will normally start on a Monday with a free-form pitch meeting between the cast, writers, producers, including Michaels and the guest host in Michaels's office over two hours. The host is invited to pitch ideas during this meeting. Although some sketchwriting may occur on the day, the bulk of the work revolves around pitching ideas. Tuesday is the only day dedicated purely to writing the scripts, a process that usually extends through the night into the following morning. Writing may not begin until 8:00 p.m. on Tuesday. At 5:00 p.m. on Wednesday, the sketches are read by the cast during a round-table meeting in the writers' room, attended by the writers and producers present during the pitch meeting, technical experts such as make-up artists, who may be required to realize certain sketch ideas such as those using prosthetics, and other producers, resulting in attendance of approximately fifty people. At this point, there may be at least forty sketch ideas that are read-through in turn, lasting upwards of three hours.\nAfter completion of the read-through, Michaels, the head writer, the guest host, and some of the show producers will move to Michaels' office to decide the layout of the show and decide which of the sketches will be developed for air. Once complete, the writers and cast are allowed into Michaels's office to view the show breakdown and learn whether or not their sketch has survived. Sketches may be rewritten starting the same day, but will certainly commence on Thursday. Work focuses on developing and rewriting the remaining sketches and possibly rehearsals. If a sketch is still scheduled beyond Thursday, it is rehearsed on Friday or Saturday before moving to a rehearsal before a live audience at 8:00 p.m., again on Saturday, before the live show. After the rehearsal, Michaels will review the show lineup to ensure it meets a 90-minute length, and sketches that have made it as far as the live rehearsal may be removed. This often results in less than two days of rehearsal for the eight to twelve sketches that have made it to the stage that then may appear on the live broadcast. The opening monologue, spoken by the guest host, is given low priority and can be written as late as Saturday afternoon.\nAccording to an interview with Tina Fey in 2004, the three- to four-member dedicated Weekend Update writing team will write jokes throughout the week. The host(s) of Weekend Update will normally not work with or read the scripts from the team until Thursday evening after the main show sketches have been finalized. The host(s) will then work on contributing to the script where necessary.\n\nPost-production\nWith onsite facilities housed on floors eight and seventeen of Rockefeller Plaza, post-production duties on live broadcasts of Saturday Night Live include the mixing of audio and video elements by the Senior Audio Mixer, coupled with additional audio feeds consisting of music, sound effects, music scoring, and pre-recorded voiceovers. All sources are stored digitally, with shows captured and segregated into individual elements to reorganize for future repeats and syndication. The production tracking system was migrated from primarily analog to digital in 1998, with live shows typically requiring 1.5 terabytes of storage, consisting of audio elements and five cameras' worth of visual elements. Elements of Saturday Night Live that are pre-recorded, such as certain commercial parodies, SNL Digital Shorts, and show graphics are processed off-site in the post-production facilities of Broadway Video.\n\nFilming and photography\nStudio 8H production facilities are maintained by NBC Production Services. As of 2018, the show uses five Sony HDC-1500 cameras, primarily mounted on Vinten pedestals, although one is mounted on a Chapman-Leonard Electra crane.\nAs of 2014, a Grass Valley GVG 4000-3 digital component production switcher and GVG 7000 digital component routing switcher are used to route visual feeds to the control room, with multiple digital and analog video recorders used to store footage. Graphics are provided by a Chyron Lyric Pro character generator and an Avid Deko character generator. Audio facilities consist of a Calrec T Series digitally controlled analog mixing console, and a Yamaha digital mixing console used for tape playback support and utility audio work. While exact budgets for other seasons are not known, the 39th season (2013–14) had a budget of over $70 million, for which it received a subsidy from New York State in the amount of $12.3 million.\nAs of 2009, the opening title sequence and opening montage are shot using the Canon EOS 5D Mark II and Canon EOS 7D digital SLR cameras. Typical elements are recorded at thirty frames per second (fps), with slow-motion sequences shot at sixty fps, both in full 1080p high definition.\nEdie Baskin was the original SNL photographer. She was hired after Michaels saw her photographs of Las Vegas and other work. Baskin helped create the opening title sequence for the show by taking photos of New York City at night. The first episode used publicity photos of host George Carlin as transitional bumpers between the show and commercial breaks, the second episode used photos Baskin had already taken of host Paul Simon. It was then that Michaels suggested that Baskin photograph the hosts for the bumpers instead of using publicity photos, beginning a tradition that continues today.\nSince 1999, Mary Ellen Matthews has been the official photographer of SNL, responsible for devising distinctive photo layouts and aesthetics for still imagery used on the show. Matthews creates photo portraits of the hosts and musical guests of each episode which are used as commercial bumpers. The limited time frame between the host's involvement in the production process and the Live show requires Matthews to create makeshift photo studios on-site at 30 Rock, with Matthews attempting to shoot the host on Tuesday and the musical guest on Thursday, although the availability of either can mean the photoshoot for both occurs as late as Thursday. Matthews employs flattering portrait lighting with hard lights to achieve a Hollywood style. On the lighting, Matthews commented: \"I think it just helps the image pop off the screen ... If you use soft or flat lighting, it becomes not as dimensional ... The [classic Hollywood lighting] gives a little more contrast, and if I use edge lights and then light the background, it goes farther and farther back. I try to achieve that depth as much as I can.\" Matthews is also responsible for taking cast photos, behind-the-scenes images, documenting rehearsals, and promotional photos. As of 2010, she has also been involved in directing videos, including the show title sequence.\n\nBroadcast\nThe show begins at 11:29:30 p.m. Eastern Time, and is scheduled for a 93-minute timeslot ending at 1:02 a.m.\nFor most of SNL's history, it aired live only to NBC stations in the Eastern and Central Time Zones, with all others receiving a recorded broadcast at the normal start time of late-night network programming (11:30 p.m. Pacific and 10:30 p.m. in other time zones). Since 2017, the show is broadcast live across the contiguous United States. Because the show airs outside of the safe harbor outside of Eastern and Central Time, a brief broadcast delay is installed to meet Federal Communications Commission regulations of primetime programming.\nOutside of the contiguous United States, the show also airs live on the three NBC stations in Alaska at 7:30 p.m. local. Two NBC stations still broadcast SNL on tape delay: KHNL in Honolulu delays it one hour to 7:30 p.m., and KUAM-TV in Guam, where the live broadcast occurs at 1:30 p.m. on Sunday, delays it to 11:00 p.m.\nSince the first opening in 1975 with Michael O'Donoghue, Chevy Chase, and John Belushi, the show has normally begun with a cold open sketch which ends with one or more cast members breaking character and proclaiming \"Live from New York, it's Saturday Night!\", followed by the opening credits. From May 1985 to April 1991, SNL was occasionally preempted for Saturday Night's Main Event.\nIn February 2013, NBC began airing shortened hour-long repeats on select Saturday evenings at 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time during the regular season (these may be preempted due to the live airing happening in primetime on the West Coast); the episodes scheduled were sometimes rebroadcasts of the previous week's episode if it was a first-run broadcast. Beginning with the 2014–15 season, the show's 40th anniversary, the prime time rebroadcasts were a selection of episodes from throughout the show's run under the title SNL Vintage. The network dropped the vintage titling and changed to very recent rebroadcasts beginning in the 2023–2024 season.\nNBC and Broadway Video both hold the underlying rights to the show, while the copyright to every episode lies either with NBC or Universal Television. From 1990 until 2004, and again since 2015, Comedy Central and its predecessor Ha! aired reruns of the series, after which E! signed a deal to carry reruns. Abbreviated thirty- and sixty-minute versions of the first five seasons aired as The Best of Saturday Night Live in syndication (from Orion Television; at the time, the FCC's fin-syn rules prevented NBC from directly distributing reruns of the show) beginning in the 1980s, and later on Nick at Nite in 1988. In September 2010, reruns of most episodes made from 1998 onward began airing on VH1. Starting in February 2016, VH1 and Comedy Central's sister channel Logo began airing reruns of 2006-onward episodes on Sunday nights, launching its broadcast as counterprogramming for Super Bowl 50 and branding it the \"Live From New York, It's Satur-Gay Night!\" marathon.\nOn March 16, 2017, NBC announced it would air the final four episodes of the 42nd season live in all mainland U.S. time zones for the first time, creating a communal experience across the states. NBC executive Robert Greenblatt explained the show's significant viewership had made it part of the \"national conversation\", and thus, they felt it would be appropriate for the entire country to be \"in on the joke at the same time\". NBC announced on September 19, 2017, that all subsequent episodes would air live coast-to-coast in the U.S.\nNBC announced that the May 8, 2021, episode hosted by Elon Musk would be livestreamed on YouTube worldwide for the first time.\n\nDelays\nThe episode scheduled for October 25, 1986, hosted by Rosanna Arquette, was not aired until November 8 due to NBC broadcasting game 6 of the 1986 World Series between the New York Mets and Boston Red Sox; the four-hour game entered extra innings, causing that night's broadcast of SNL to be canceled. The show was recorded for the studio audience starting at 1:30 a.m. Eastern Time and broadcast two weeks later with a jocular \"apology\" by Mets pitcher Ron Darling.\nThe episode scheduled for February 10, 2001, hosted by Jennifer Lopez, aired 45 minutes late due to an XFL game. Lopez and the cast were not told they were airing on a delay. Michaels was so upset by the delay the episode was rerun a mere three weeks later. The fledgling football league ended up changing their rules in order to speed up play, and a deal was reached where the feed to future games would be cut off when SNL started, so that no such incident would happen again.\nThe November 7, 2020 episode, hosted by Dave Chappelle, began at 12:10 a.m. Eastern after a Clemson-Notre Dame college football game went into double overtime.\n\nInternational versions\nBecause SNL has been a huge success in the United States, channels in other countries have created their own versions of the show, including Brazil, Germany, Egypt, Spain, South Korea, Japan, Russia, Canada, Finland, France, Italy, and Poland.\nIn the mid-late 1980s Channel Four, in association with London Weekend Television, created a show for British audiences called Saturday Live and Friday Night Live, the repeat version was entitled \"Saturday Almost Live\". It was based on the SNL format but had no direct connection to the US program.\nA German version of SNL named RTL Samstag Nacht aired between 1993 and 1998 on RTL Television. Most episodes were hosted by German celebrities, however, some shows were hosted by American personalities who never hosted the American version, including Mel Brooks and Michael Winslow. Due to language barriers, they appeared only in opening monologues and in a limited number of sketches.\nSNL in its original American version has aired in Israel since the early 2000s and is broadcast by satellite provider yes. There was a local SNL-based show named Am Israel Hai (People of Israel Live) back in 2002 but it was canceled after one season. Another SNL-esque Israeli show, Eretz Nehederet (A Wonderful Country), debuted in 2003 and continues to garner high ratings.\nSNL also airs in the Middle East and North Africa, OSN First HD every Saturday night, one week after it airs in the U.S.\nIn India and Sri Lanka, Saturday Night Live! airs an hour-long version on Comedy Central one week after the U.S. broadcast.\nSpain's version of the show was short-lived, lasting a few episodes which aired on Thursdays and not Saturdays as the title suggested. This version copied heavily from the American version, as they did their own versions of sketches already done on the original series. Italy's Saturday Night Live From Milan aired for four seasons and used original material.\nOn December 3, 2011, South Korea's SNL Korea premiered on cable channel tvN. As of November 11, 2017, has completed nine seasons with 205 episodes. On September 4, 2021, it was rebooted and broadcast through Coupang Play, a South Korean OTT service. Only the broadcasting stations are different, but the members are similar or reinforced.\nThe Japanese version Saturday Night Live JPN, which ran for six months in 2011, was created in part with sponsor Coca-Cola and Lorne Michaels's production company, Broadway Video, and broadcast on Fuji TV networks. The show followed the same format with a few minor differences, being only 45 minutes long and hosted by a permanent host. The cast was made up of seasoned comedians who take center stage and newcomers who play the background roles. It was broadcast once a month, and ended after six episodes, as planned from the start.\nIn 2013, the Russian channel NTV aired the SNL adaptation entitled Суббота. Вечер. Шоу (Saturday. Evening. Show) and produced by Endemol's Weit Media. Unlike other international versions, it was not broadcast live. Due to low ratings and negative reviews, the third episode was pulled from the schedule. The remaining six episodes eventually aired in January 2014, but without any announcements and under a different title: Сегодня. Вечер. Шоу (Today. Evening. Show). Reruns of the adaptation were aired at night on NTV throughout the first half of 2015.\nIn 2014, two ninety-minute specials were broadcast in French on Télé-Québec in the Canadian province of Quebec under the title SNL Québec; the specials were broadcast on February 8 and March 22, 2014. Hosted by Louis-José Houde and Stéphane Rousseau, it is the same format and length as the original SNL series. Certain sketches from the original program, such as Debbie Downer and Schweddy Balls, were adapted into French, while other sketches were original material written directly for the Quebec series. On May 13, 2014, SNL Quebec was renewed for another eight episodes to be broadcast monthly over the 2014–15 season ending with a \"Best of\" compilation. Télé-Québec announced in May 2015 the series would not be renewed due to funding cutbacks, and Ici Radio-Canada Télé subsequently signed the show's production team and cast to produce a new series, Le nouveau show, for that network.\nThe French channel M6 launched the pilot episode of its SNL adaptation, Le Saturday Night Live, in January 2017.\nThe Polish division of Showmax video-on-demand streaming service launched the first season of its SNL adaptation, SNL Polska on December 2, 2017. The show received mixed reviews, however improving by the end of the series. Following the first series, a stand-alone \"Weekend Update\" was introduced in autumn 2018. In December 2018 Showmax announced the closure of its Polish branch, effectively cancelling the show.\nOn December 10, 2021, Deadline reported that Sky One is currently working on the UK version of Saturday Night Live.\n\nU.S. television ratings\nThe show's ratings increased steadily for several years after its debut, reaching their highest point in the fifth season. Ratings entered into a period of decline after that, never again reaching those heights, but had rebounded enough by the early 1990s to make the 1992–93 season the fifth-highest rated in the show's history. Since then, ratings have trended steadily lower. As of 2018, thirteen of the show's lowest-rated seasons occurred in the 2000s. The show's ratings have often experienced temporary spikes during U.S. presidential election years.\n\nReception\nIn 2002 SNL was ranked tenth on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, while in 2007 it was honored with inclusion on Time magazine's list of \"100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME\".\nIn June 2013 the show was placed at number 25 on the list of the 101 best written shows of all time by the Writers Guild of America, assessing series from the previous seventy years. In December 2013, TV Guide ranked it #18 on their list of the 60 Greatest Shows of All Time. A 2015 The Hollywood Reporter survey of 2,800 actors, producers, directors, and other industry people named SNL as their #7 favorite show. It is currently the 40th longest running television show in the U.S.\nIn 2016 a New York Times study of the fifty television shows with the most Facebook likes found that SNL \"is very much an urban show. It is most popular in cities throughout the country, and college towns. Amherst, Mass.; Madison, Wis.; and Ithaca, N.Y. are all among the top 10.\"\nSome critics have cautioned that the show is too dependent upon visiting guest actors and former SNL cast members – particularly for its impersonations of prominent politicians in the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election races – and is beginning to have difficulty producing relevant, truly funny content.\nIn 2023, Variety ranked Saturday Night Live #15 on its list of the 100 greatest TV shows of all time.\n\nAccolades\nSaturday Night Live has won numerous awards since its debut, including 84 Primetime Emmy Awards, six Writers Guild of America Awards, and three Peabody Awards. In 2009 it received a total of thirteen Emmy nominations for a lifetime total of 126, breaking the record for the most award-nominated show in Primetime Emmy Award history, previously set with 124 by hospital drama ER. As of September 2022, it has received a record total of 305 Primetime Emmy Award nominations.\nTwenty-five cast members have received individual Primetime Emmy Award nominations in the show's history. These nominations were mostly in the category of Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program before that award was discontinued; since then, nominations have been in the Supporting Actor and Supporting Actress categories for comedy series. Of the 54 total nominations for these twenty-five performers, four have won: Chevy Chase (1976), Gilda Radner (1978), Dana Carvey (1993), and Kate McKinnon (2016, 2017). In addition, Alec Baldwin received two Emmy nominations, winning once in 2017, for his recurring guest role as Donald Trump.\n\nElectoral effect\nSNL has also affected American elections, most commonly presidential elections. Voters have reported that political sketches shown on the program influenced them in the voting booth. The so-called SNL Effect was observed during the 2008 presidential campaign, according to Mike Dabadie. Two-thirds of voters who responded to a poll said they had seen a broadcast of politically charged content on SNL, with ten percent saying it had made a difference in their decision. Barack Obama was the beneficiary of the political content, with 59 percent saying they did in fact cast a vote for the Democratic then-nominee. Chevy Chase's bumbling impression of then-president Gerald Ford during the 1976 presidential election was cited as an influence on the election, and a quote commonly attributed to 2008 vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin stating \"I can see Russia from my house\" was actually spoken by SNL cast member Tina Fey while portraying Palin. The political content was abandoned briefly following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack in New York, with Amy Poehler saying the writers did not want to produce politicized material.\nSeveral politicians have appeared on SNL, including President Gerald Ford (in 1976, during the show's first season), then-Senator Barack Obama (2007), Senator John McCain (2002 and 2008), Secretary Hillary Clinton (2008 and 2015), and Governor Sarah Palin (2008), who appeared alongside Fey's Palin impression, resulting in the show's largest audience in fourteen years with fourteen million viewers. Senator Obama's appearance occurred in part because Hillary Clinton abandoned her scheduled appearance. Donald Trump hosted the show in 2015, which was met with controversy.\n\nControversies\nDue to its live broadcast, the show has been the subject of numerous controversies and incidents since its inception, involving controversial performers and content, technical problems, profanities (both intentional and accidental), and joke plagiarism accusations.\nOne incident that garnered widespread media coverage was a 1992 appearance by singer Sinéad O'Connor, in which she ripped up a photo of Pope John Paul II during her performance in an effort to protest the Catholic Church. This led to hundreds of complaints from viewers and widespread criticism at the time, although retrospective opinion of her action has been more positive since the Church's cover-up of abuse became public many years later.\nTechnical issues have also led to major controversies, such as in a widely publicized incident involving singer Ashlee Simpson in 2004 where she appeared to lip sync during her second performance, appearing flustered when the wrong song was played. Simpson was the only musical performer in the show's history to unexpectedly leave the stage mid-performance, later apologizing for the incident and explaining that she had lost her voice earlier in the week.\n\nRepresentations of minorities\nOver the years, SNL has been criticized for stereotypical and sparse representation of racial and gender groups. A 2016 study of SNL episodes from 1975 to 2016 (826 total) revealed over 90% of episodes had white hosts, while 6.8% were black, 1.2% were Hispanic, and 1.1% were of another racial minority.\nChris Rock indicated he grew frustrated with being limited to sketches where he played stereotypical roles such as a rapper or Black political activist, and left the show to perform on In Living Color, which featured a mostly Black cast and would offer Rock more creative freedom. When longtime cast member Kenan Thompson suggested in 2013 that female African-American representation was low because producers were not finding such comedians who were \"ready\", media outlets countered it was SNL that was not ready, and the racial disparity \"is symptomatic of problems deeply rooted in comedy and the entertainment industry at large\". Thompson also refused to play any more black women on the show and demanded SNL hire black women instead.\nSNL has had \"little representation from Asian actors, as cast members or hosts\", in its run. Until Bowen Yang's 2019 promotion from writer to on-air performer, there had been only three people of Asian descent in the cast: Fred Armisen (2002–2013) had a Korean grandfather; Rob Schneider (1988–1994) had a Filipina grandmother; and Nasim Pedrad (2009–2014) was born in Tehran, Iran. In the first forty-seven seasons, the show had seven hosts who were of Asian descent.\nDenny Dillon was the first gay cast member in the 1980–81 season, but was in the closet at the time. Terry Sweeney was SNL's first openly gay male cast member, appearing in the 1985–1986 season. Sweeney was also the first openly gay series regular on network television. Bowen Yang is the sixth LGBTQ cast member, hired in 2019. Numerous news outlets noted the disconnect of Michaels hiring Yang, an out gay Chinese-American cast member, at the same time as Shane Gillis, who was found to have aired what was perceived as homophobic and anti-Asian jokes and slurs on his podcast. Within days, a spokesperson for Michaels announced Gillis was fired due to the controversy. Later, Gillis went on to host SNL in 2024, during the 49th season. Molly Kearney became the first openly non-binary cast member in 2022.\nMelissa Villaseñor joined as a featured player on the October 1, 2016, episode of SNL. Villaseñor was the second Latina cast member after Noël Wells, who is a quarter Mexican, and the first Latina to be promoted to repertory status.\n\nIn other media\nHome media\nUniversal Studios Home Entertainment and Lions Gate Entertainment hold video rights to the series. Universal has issued complete season DVD sets of the first few seasons, while Lionsgate's share of the rights is a result of prior contracts with NBC struck before the NBC Universal merger. A majority of Lionsgate's SNL DVDs are \"Best Of ...\" compilations.\n\nBooks\nSaturday Night Live, the first authorized book about the series, was published by Avon Books in 1977 and edited by Anne Beatts and John Head, with photography by Edie Baskin; all three worked for SNL at the time the book was published. The oversized illustrated paperback included the scripts for several sketches by the 1975–80 cast. In 1986 Doug Hill and Jeff Weingrad authored Saturday Night: A Backstage History of Saturday Night Live, a behind-the-scenes look at the first ten seasons. Saturday Night Live: The First Twenty Years, by Michael Cader, was released in 1994 and presented information about the cast, characters, and other memorable moments seen on the show from 1975 to 1994.\nLive From New York: An Uncensored History of Saturday Night Live, as Told By Its Stars, Writers and Guests was released in 2002. The book, written by Tom Shales and James Andrew Miller, consists of interviews with people who have worked on the show. The interviews reveal personal experiences from what happened backstage and the difficulty of getting the show on air each week. In 2004 former cast member Jay Mohr released his memoir Gasping for Airtime: Two Years in the Trenches of Saturday Night Live about his struggles during his two seasons on the show between 1993 and 1995, dealing with getting sketches on-air and the intense work schedule. Former cast member Bobby Moynihan described the book as \"a handbook on what NOT to do at SNL\".\n\nFilms\nSNL has made several efforts to develop some of the more popular sketches into feature-length films, with varying degrees of commercial and critical success. The first foray into film came with the successful Aykroyd and Belushi vehicle, The Blues Brothers (1980), which earned over $115 million on a $27 million budget.\nIn 1990 Michaels oversaw the writing of a sketch anthology feature film titled The Saturday Night Live Movie with many of the show's then-current writing staff, including Al Franken, Tom Davis, Greg Daniels, Jim Downey, Conan O'Brien, Robert Smigel, and George Meyer, contributing. The screenplay only got as far as a Revised First Draft dated July 26, 1990, before being abandoned.\nThe success of Wayne's World (1992) encouraged Michaels to produce more film spin-offs, based on several popular sketch characters. Michaels revived 1970s characters for Coneheads (1993), followed by It's Pat (1994); Stuart Saves His Family (1995); A Night at the Roxbury (1998), Superstar (1999), and The Ladies Man (2000). Some did moderately well, though others did not – notably, It's Pat, which did so badly at the box office that the studio that made the film, Touchstone Pictures (owned by the Walt Disney Company, which also owns NBC's rival ABC), pulled it only one week after releasing it, and Stuart Saves His Family, which lost $14 million. Many of these films were produced by Paramount Pictures. The films based on The Blues Brothers were produced by Universal Studios, which merged with NBC in 2004 to form NBC Universal (Universal also has a joint venture with Paramount for international distribution of the two studios' films).\n\nThe character Bob Roberts from the Tim Robbins film of the same name (1992) first appeared on SNL in a short film about the conservative folk singer.\nIn addition, the 1999 comedy film Office Space originated from a series of animated short films by Mike Judge that aired on SNL in 1993.\nThe fictitious American folk music trio The Folksmen first appeared on SNL, performing the song \"Old Joe's Place\" before later appearing in the film A Mighty Wind (2002). The three members of the Folksmen were the same three comedians: Harry Shearer, Michael McKean, and Christopher Guest, who also appeared on the same episode as the rock group Spinal Tap. At the time of the appearance (the 1984–85 season), Shearer and Guest were cast members.\nMr. Bill's Real Life Adventures is based on the Mr. Bill sketches from early seasons of SNL.\n\nCommercials\nOver the years popular characters from the show have appeared in ad campaigns for an assortment of products.\n\nMusic\nIn 2005 the comedy troupe The Lonely Island, consisting of SNL members Andy Samberg, Akiva Schaffer, and Jorma Taccone, gained national exposure after joining the show and debuting their comedic music video \"Lazy Sunday\", written with fellow cast member Chris Parnell. The song became a surprise hit, and convinced Michaels to encourage the troupe to develop more comedy songs. Further successes with songs including \"Like a Boss\", \"Jizz in My Pants\", \"I'm on a Boat\", \"We Like Sportz\", \"Boombox\", and \"Dick in a Box\" – which won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics in 2007 – saw The Lonely Island go on to release two albums, Incredibad (2009) and Turtleneck & Chain (2011), containing SNL-developed songs and original works. The albums were released by Universal Republic Records, which was provided with a license to the SNL songs by NBC and Broadway Video.\nA cast album was released in 1976 on the Arista label including the song \"Chevy's Girls\" and comedy bits from the show (Weekend Update, \"Emily Litella\", \"Gun Control\"); it was later re-issued on CD and MP3 download.\n\nOther\nSeveral programs have documented the behind-the-scenes events of the show. A 60 Minutes report taped in October 2004 depicted the intense writing frenzy that goes on during the week leading up to a show, with crowded meetings and long hours. The report particularly noted the involvement of the guest host(s) in developing and selecting the sketches in which they will appear. Similarly, there has been an A&E episode of Biography which covered the production process, as well as an episode of TV Tales in 2002 on E!. In 2010, Saturday Night, a 94-minute documentary by actor James Franco in his directorial debut, was released; it follows the production process of the December 6, 2008, episode hosted by John Malkovich, from the concept stage to the episode actually airing live. Although it originated as a five-minute short film for Franco's New York University film class, Michaels granted Franco access to the process, allowing the project to be expanded. On February 15, 2015, NBC aired a 3+1⁄2-hour special on Saturday Night Live's 40th anniversary. The program included a mix of clips, new performances of classic characters from previous cast members, and special guest appearances from previous hosts.\nIn September 2011 ice cream company Ben & Jerry's released a limited-edition ice cream called \"Schweddy Balls\", inspired by a 1998 sketch of the same name starring Alec Baldwin, Ana Gasteyer, and Molly Shannon. According to the company, the ice cream became their fastest-selling limited-edition flavor. The ice cream was also subject to criticism and boycotts by One Million Moms, a project of the American Family Association, over the \"vulgar\" name. Some retail chains chose not to sell the flavor, but declined to say if the decision was at their own discretion or based on the One Million Moms boycotts. In June 2014 two new flavors inspired by SNL sketches were introduced: Lazy Sunday, based on a sketch of the same name featuring Andy Samberg and Chris Parnell, and Gilly's Catastrophic Crunch based on the recurring Gilly sketches featuring Kristen Wiig. Two Wild and Crazy Pies, based on the catchphrase of the recurring Festrunk Brothers, was introduced in September 2014, followed by Wayne'Swirled, which was inspired by the eponymous Wayne's World in February 2015.\n\nNotes\nSee also\nSaturday Live/Friday Night Live (a British television comedy show with a similar format)\n\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nSaturday Night Live at Curlie\nSaturday Night Live at IMDb\nOfficial Broadway Video webpage\nSaturday Night Live video archive at Yahoo! Screen\nSaturday Night Live at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television",
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"paragraph_text": "Hot Ones is an American YouTube talk show, created by Christopher Schonberger and Sean Evans and produced by First We Feast and Complex Media. Its basic premise involves celebrities being interviewed by Evans over a platter of increasingly spicy chicken wings. \n339 episodes including two bonus episodes and one removed episode have been released as of August 8, 2024.\n\nSeries overview\nEpisodes\nSeason 1 (2015)\nSeason 2 (2015–2016)\nSeason 3 (2017)\nSeason 4 (2017)\nSeason 5 (2018)\nSeason 6 (2018)\nSeason 7 (2018)\nSeason 8 (2019)\nSeason 9 (2019)\nSeason 10 (2019)\nSeason 11 (2020)\nSeason 12 (2020)\nSeason 13 (2020)\nSeason 14 (2021)\nSeason 15 (2021)\nSeason 16 (2021)\nSeason 17 (2022)\nSeason 18 (2022)\nSeason 19 (2022)\nSeason 20 (2023)\nSeason 21 (2023)\nSeason 22 (2023)\nSeason 23 (2024)\nSeason 24 (2024)\nSeason 25 (2024)\nSpecials\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nHot Ones at IMDb",
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] | As of August 2024, which cast member fired from Saturday Night Live appeared on the show Hot Ones? | [] | Shane Gillis | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "James Douglas Morrison (December 8, 1943 – July 3, 1971) was an American singer, songwriter and poet who was the lead vocalist and primary lyricist of the rock band the Doors. Due to his energetic persona, poetic lyrics, distinctive voice, erratic and unpredictable performances, along with the dramatic circumstances surrounding his life and early death, Morrison is regarded by music critics and fans as one of the most influential frontmen in rock history. Since his death, his fame has endured as one of popular culture's top rebellious and oft-displayed icons, representing the generation gap and youth counterculture.\nTogether with keyboardist Ray Manzarek, Morrison founded the Doors in 1965 in Venice, California. The group spent two years in obscurity until shooting to prominence with their number-one hit single in the United States, \"Light My Fire\", taken from their self-titled debut album. Morrison recorded a total of six studio albums with the Doors, all of which sold well and many of which received critical acclaim. He frequently gave spoken word poetry passages while the band was playing live. Manzarek said Morrison \"embodied hippie counterculture rebellion\".\nMorrison developed an alcohol dependency, which at times affected his performances on stage. In 1971, Morrison died unexpectedly in a Paris apartment at the age of 27, amid several conflicting witness reports. Since no autopsy was performed, the cause of Morrison's death remains disputed.\nAlthough the Doors recorded two more albums after Jim Morrison died, his death greatly affected the band's fortunes, and they split up two years later. In 1993, Morrison was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame along with the other Doors members. Rolling Stone, NME, and Classic Rock have ranked him among the greatest rock singers of all time.\n\nBiography\nEarly years and education\nMorrison was born on December 8, 1943, in Melbourne, Florida, to Clara Virginia (née Clarke; 1919–2005) and Lt.(j.g.) George Stephen Morrison (1919–2008), a future rear admiral in the United States Navy. His ancestors were Scottish, Irish, and English. In August 1964, Admiral Morrison was commanding U.S. naval forces during the Gulf of Tonkin incident. The following year, in 1965, the incident was a leading pretext used to justify U.S. engagement in the Vietnam War. Morrison had a younger sister, Anne Robin, who was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 1947, and a younger brother, Andrew Lee Morrison, who was born in Los Altos, California in 1948.\nIn 1947, when he was three to four years old, Morrison allegedly witnessed a car accident in the desert, during which a truck overturned and some Native Americans were lying injured on the side of the road. He referred to this incident in the Doors' song \"Peace Frog\" from their 1970 album Morrison Hotel, and in his spoken word performances \"Dawn's Highway\" and \"Ghost Song\" on the posthumous 1978 album An American Prayer. Morrison described this incident as the most formative event of his life, and made repeated references to it in the imagery in his songs, poems, and interviews. Morrison believed the spirits or the ghosts of those \"dead Indians leaped into [his] soul,\" and that he was \"like a sponge, ready to sit there and absorb it.\"\nMorrison's family does not recall this traffic incident happening in the way he told it. According to the Morrison biography No One Here Gets Out Alive, his family did drive past a car accident on an Indian reservation when he was a child, and he was very upset by it. The book The Doors, written by the surviving members of the band, explains how Morrison's account of the incident differed from that of his father, who is quoted as saying, \"We went by several Indians. It did make an impression on him. He always thought about that crying Indian.\" This is contrasted sharply with Morrison's tale of \"Indians scattered all over the highway, bleeding to death.\" In another book, his sister says that his version of the event is likely exaggerated, writing that, \"he says we saw a dead Indian on the side of the road, and I don't even know if that's true.\"\nRaised a military brat, Morrison spent part of his childhood in San Diego, completed third grade at Fairfax Elementary School in Fairfax County, Virginia, and attended Charles H. Flato Elementary School in Kingsville, Texas, while his father was stationed at NAS Kingsville in 1952. He continued at St. John's Methodist School in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and then Longfellow School Sixth Grade Graduation Program in San Diego.\nIn 1957, Morrison attended Alameda High School in Alameda, California for his freshman year and the first semester of his sophomore year. In 1959, his family returned to Northern Virginia, where he graduated from George Washington High School, now a middle school in Alexandria, in June 1961. While attending George Washington High School, Morrison maintained a grade average of 88 and tested in the top 0.1% with an IQ of 149.\n\n1961–1963: Literary influences\nMorrison's senior year English teacher later said, \"Jim read as much and probably more than any student in class, but everything he read was so offbeat I had another teacher (who was going to the Library of Congress) check to see if the books Jim was reporting on actually existed. I suspected he was making them up, as they were English books on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century demonology. I'd never heard of them, but they existed, and I'm convinced from the paper he wrote that he read them, and the Library of Congress would've been the only source.\"\nMorrison went to live with his paternal grandparents in Clearwater, Florida, and attended St. Petersburg Junior College. In 1962, he transferred to Florida State University in Tallahassee, and appeared in a school recruitment film. At Florida State, Morrison was arrested on September 28, 1963, for disturbing the peace and petty larceny while drunk at a home Florida State Seminoles football game at Doak Campbell Stadium.\nA voracious reader from an early age, Morrison was particularly inspired by the writings of several philosophers and poets. He was influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche, whose views on aesthetics, morality, and the Apollonian and Dionysian duality would appear in his conversation, poetry, and songs. Some of his formative influences were Plutarch's Parallel Lives and the works of the French Symbolist poet Arthur Rimbaud, whose style would later influence the form of Morrison's short prose poems. He was also influenced by William S. Burroughs, Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Charles Baudelaire, Vladimir Nabokov, Molière, Franz Kafka, Albert Camus, Honoré de Balzac, Jean Cocteau, and most French existentialist philosophers.\n\n1964–1965: College experience in Los Angeles\nMorrison soon transferred to the film program at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he enrolled in Jack Hirschman's class on Antonin Artaud in UCLA's Comparative Literature program. Artaud's surrealist theater brand profoundly impacted Morrison's dark poetic sensibility of cinematic theatricality.\nMorrison completed his undergraduate degree at UCLA's film school within the Theater Arts department of the College of Fine Arts in 1965. Refusing to attend the graduation ceremony, he went to Venice Beach in Los Angeles, and the university later mailed his diploma to his mother in Coronado, California. He made several short films while attending UCLA. First Love, the first of these films, made with Morrison's classmate and roommate Max Schwartz, was released to the public when it appeared in a documentary about the film Obscura.\nWhile living in Venice Beach, Morrison befriended writers at the Los Angeles Free Press, and he advocated for the publication until his 1971 death, conducting a lengthy and in-depth interview with Bob Chorush and Andy Kent of the Free Press in December 1970, and was planning to visit the headquarters of the busy newspaper shortly before leaving for Paris.\n\n1965–1971: The Doors\nIn the middle of 1965, after graduating with a bachelor's degree from the UCLA film school, Morrison led a bohemian lifestyle in Venice Beach. Living on the rooftop of a building inhabited by his UCLA classmate, Dennis Jakob, he wrote the lyrics of many of the early songs the Doors would later perform live and record on albums, such as \"Moonlight Drive\" and \"Hello, I Love You\". According to fellow UCLA student Ray Manzarek, he lived on canned beans and LSD for several months.\nMorrison and Manzarek, who had met months earlier as cinematography students, were the first members of the Doors, forming the group during that summer. Manzarek narrated the story that he was lying on Venice Beach one day when he coincidentally encountered Morrison. He was impressed with Morrison's poetic lyrics, claiming that they were \"rock group\" material. Subsequently, guitarist Robby Krieger and drummer John Densmore joined. All three musicians shared a common interest in the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's meditation practices at the time, attending scheduled classes, but Morrison was not involved in these series of classes.\nMorrison was inspired to name the band after the title of Aldous Huxley's book The Doors of Perception (a reference to the unlocking of doors of perception through psychedelic drug use). Huxley's own concept was based on a quotation from William Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, in which Blake wrote: \"If the doors of perception were cleansed, everything would appear to man as it is, infinite.\"\nAlthough Morrison was known as the lyricist of the group, Krieger also made lyrical contributions, writing or co-writing some of the group's biggest hits, including \"Light My Fire\", \"Love Me Two Times\", \"Love Her Madly\" and \"Touch Me\". On the other hand, Morrison, who did not write most songs using an instrument, would come up with vocal melodies for his own lyrics, with the other band members contributing chords and rhythm. Morrison did not play an instrument live (except for maracas and tambourine for most shows, and harmonica on a few occasions) or in the studio (excluding maracas, tambourine, handclaps, and whistling). However, he did play the grand piano on \"Orange County Suite\" and a Moog synthesizer on \"Strange Days\".\nIn May 1966, Morrison reportedly attended a concert by the Velvet Underground at The Trip in Los Angeles, and Andy Warhol claimed in his book Popism that his \"black leather\" look had been heavily influenced by the dancer Gerard Malanga who performed at the concert. Conversely, Krieger and Manzarek claim that Morrison was inspired to wear leather pants by Marlon Brando from his role in The Fugitive Kind. No One Here Gets Out Alive repeatedly mentions that Morrison was especially drawn to the look and posture of the ancient Greek king Alexander the Great. In June 1966, Morrison and the Doors were the opening act at the Whisky a Go Go in the last week of the residency of Van Morrison's band Them. Van's influence on Jim's developing stage performance was later noted by Brian Hinton in his book Celtic Crossroads: The Art of Van Morrison: \"Jim Morrison learned quickly from his near namesake's stagecraft, his apparent recklessness, his air of subdued menace, the way he would improvise poetry to a rock beat, even his habit of crouching down by the bass drum during instrumental breaks.\" On the final night, the two Morrisons and their two bands jammed together on \"Gloria\". Van later described Jim as being \"really raw. He knew what he was doing and could do it very well.\"\nIn November 1966, Morrison and the Doors produced a promotional film for \"Break On Through (To the Other Side)\", which was their first single release. The film featured the four group members playing the song on a darkened set with alternating views and close-ups of the performers while Morrison lip-synched the lyrics. Morrison and the Doors continued to make short music films, including \"The Unknown Soldier\", \"Strange Days\" and \"People Are Strange\". Around this time, photographer Joel Brodsky took a series of black-and-white photos of a shirtless Morrison in a photo shoot known as \"The Young Lion\" photo session. These photographs are considered among the most iconic images of Jim Morrison and are frequently used as covers for compilation albums, books, and other memorabilia related to Morrison and the Doors.\n\nThe Doors achieved national recognition in 1967 after signing with Elektra Records. The single \"Light My Fire\" spent three weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in July/August 1967, a far cry from the Doors opening for Simon and Garfunkel or playing at a high school as they did in Connecticut that same year. Later on, the Doors appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show, a popular Sunday night variety series that had given the Beatles and Elvis Presley national exposure. Ed Sullivan requested two songs from the Doors for the show, \"People Are Strange\" and \"Light My Fire\". Sullivan's censors insisted that the Doors change the lyrics of the song \"Light My Fire\" from \"Girl we couldn't get much higher\" to \"Girl we couldn't get much better\" for the television viewers; this was reportedly due to what was perceived as a reference to drugs in the original lyrics. After giving reluctant assurances of compliance to the producer in the dressing room, in one version of the story, an angry and defiant Morrison told the band he wasn't changing a word and sang the song with the original lyrics deliberately; in another, Morrison sang mistakenly the unaltered lyric out of anxiety from performing on live television. Either way, Sullivan was unhappy and refused to shake hands with Morrison or any other band member after their performance. He then had a producer tell the band they would never appear on his show again, and their planned six further bookings were canceled. In a defiant tone, Morrison said to the producer, \"Hey man. So what? We just did the Sullivan Show!\"\n\nBy the release of their second album, Strange Days, the Doors had become one of the most popular rock bands in the U.S. Their blend of blues and dark psychedelic rock included a number of original songs and distinctive cover versions, such as their rendition of \"Alabama Song\" from Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill's opera Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny. The band also performed a number of extended concept works, including the songs \"The End\", \"When the Music's Over\", and \"Celebration of the Lizard\".\nOn the evening of December 9, 1967, during a concert in New Haven, Connecticut, Morrison was arrested on stage in an incident that further added to his mystique and emphasized his rebellious image. Before the show, a police officer found Morrison and a woman in the showers backstage. Not recognizing the singer, the policeman ordered him to leave, to which Morrison mockingly replied, \"Eat me.\" He was subsequently maced by the officer, and the show was delayed. Once onstage, he told the concertgoers an obscenity-filled version of the incident. New Haven police arrested him for indecency and public obscenity, but the charges were later dropped. Morrison was the first rock performer arrested onstage.\n\nIn 1968, the Doors released their third studio album, Waiting for the Sun. On July 5, the band performed at the Hollywood Bowl; footage from this performance was later released on the DVD Live at the Hollywood Bowl. While in Los Angeles, Morrison spent time with Mick Jagger, discussing their mutual hesitation and awkwardness about dancing in front of an audience, with Jagger asking Morrison's advice on \"how to work for a big crowd\".\nOn September 6 and 7, 1968, the Doors played in Europe for the first time, with four performances at the Roundhouse in London with Jefferson Airplane, which was filmed by Granada Television for the television documentary The Doors Are Open, directed by John Sheppard. Around this time, Morrison – who had long been a heavy drinker – started showing up for recording sessions visibly inebriated. He was also frequently appearing in live performances and studio recordings late or stoned.\nBy early 1969, the formerly svelte Morrison had gained weight, grown a beard, and begun dressing more casually, abandoning the leather pants and concho belts for slacks, jeans, and T-shirts. The Soft Parade, the Doors' fourth album, was released later that year. It was the first album where each band member was given individual songwriting credit, by name, for their work. Previously, each song on their albums had been credited simply to \"The Doors\".\n\nDuring a concert on March 1, 1969, at the Dinner Key Auditorium in Miami, a visibly intoxicated Morrison attempted to spark a riot in the audience, in part by screaming, \"You wanna see my cock?\" and other obscenities. Three days later, six warrants for his arrest were issued by the Dade County Public Safety Department for indecent exposure, among other accusations. Consequently, many of the Doors' scheduled concerts were canceled. On September 20, 1970, Morrison was convicted of indecent exposure and profanity by a six-person jury in Miami after a sixteen-day trial. Morrison, who attended the October 30 sentencing \"in a wool jacket adorned with Indian designs\", silently listened as he was sentenced to six months in prison and had to pay a $500 fine. However, Morrison remained free on a $50,000 bond while the verdict was being appealed. At the sentencing, Judge Murray Goodman told Morrison that he was a \"person graced with a talent\" admired by many of his peers.\n\nInterviewed by Bob Chorush of the L.A. Free Press, Morrison expressed both bafflement and clarity about the Miami incident:\n\nI wasted a lot of time and energy with the Miami trial. About a year and a half. But I guess it was a valuable experience because before the trial, I had a very unrealistic schoolboy attitude about the American judicial system. My eyes have been opened up a bit. There were guys down there, black guys, that would go each day before I went on. It took about five minutes and they would get twenty or twenty-five years in jail. If I hadn't had unlimited funds to continue fighting my case, I'd be in jail right now for three years. It's just if you have money you generally don't go to jail.\nOn December 8, 2010 – the 67th anniversary of Morrison's birth – Florida governor Charlie Crist and the state clemency board unanimously signed a complete posthumous pardon for Morrison. All the other members of the band, along with Doors' road manager Vince Treanor, have insisted that Morrison did not expose himself on stage that night.\nFollowing The Soft Parade, the Doors released Morrison Hotel. After a lengthy break, the group reconvened in October 1970 to record their final album with Morrison, titled L.A. Woman. Shortly after the recording sessions for the album began, producer Paul A. Rothchild – who had overseen all of their previous recordings – left the project, and engineer Bruce Botnick took over as producer.\n\nDeath\nAfter recording L.A. Woman with the Doors in Los Angeles, Morrison announced to the band his intention to go to Paris. His bandmates generally felt it was a good idea. In March 1971, he joined girlfriend Pamela Courson in Paris at an apartment she had rented at 17–19, Rue Beautreillis in Le Marais, 4th arrondissement. In letters to friends, he described going alone for long walks through the city. During this time, he shaved his beard and lost some of the weight he had gained in the previous months. He also telephoned John Densmore to ask him how L.A. Woman was doing commercially; he was the last band member to ever speak with him.\n\nOn July 3, 1971, Morrison was found dead in the bathtub of the apartment at approximately 6:00 a.m. by Courson. He was 27 years old. The official cause of death was listed as heart failure, although no autopsy was performed as it was not required by French law. Courson said that Morrison's last words, as he was bathing, were, \"Pam, are you still there?\"\nSeveral individuals who say they were eyewitnesses, including Marianne Faithfull, claim that his death was due to an accidental heroin overdose. Sam Bernett, founder and manager of the Rock 'n' Roll Circus night club, affirmed that he had found Morrison unconscious in the club's bathrooms after a purported heroin overdose around 2:00 a.m. and that his body was taken away from the club by two men supposed to be the drug dealers. Because of the lack of an autopsy, however, these statements could never be confirmed. According to music journalist Ben Fong-Torres, it was suggested that his death was kept a secret, and the reporters who had telephoned Paris were told that Morrison was not deceased but tired and resting at a hospital. Morrison's friend, film director Agnès Varda, admitted that she was the one who was responsible for hiding the incident from becoming public. In her last media interview before her death in 2019, Varda confirmed that she was one of the only four mourners to attend Morrison's burial.\nMorrison's death came two years to the day after the death of Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones and approximately nine months after the deaths of Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin. All of these popular musicians died at the age of 27, leading to the emergence of the 27 Club urban legend. Since the date of his demise, there have been a number of conspiracy theories concerning Morrison's death.\n\nPersonal life\nMorrison's family\nMorrison's early life was the semi-nomadic existence typical of military families. Jerry Hopkins recorded Morrison's brother, Andy, explaining that his parents had determined never to use corporal punishment such as spanking on their children. They instead instilled discipline by the military tradition known as \"dressing down\", which consisted of yelling at and berating the children until they were reduced to tears and acknowledged their failings. Once Morrison graduated from UCLA, he broke off most contact with his family. By the time his music ascended to the top of the charts (in 1967) he had not been in communication with his family for more than a year and falsely claimed that everyone in his immediate family was dead (or claimed that he was an only child). However, Morrison told Hopkins in a 1969 interview for Rolling Stone magazine that he did this because he did not want to involve his family in his musical career. His sister similarly believed that \"he did it to protect my dad, who was moving up in the Navy, and to keep his life separate, not to shake it up on both sides.\"\nMorrison's father was not supportive of his career in music. One day, Andy brought over a record thought to have Morrison on the cover, which was the Doors' debut album. Upon hearing the record, Morrison's father wrote him a letter telling him \"to give up any idea of singing or any connection with a music group because of what I consider to be a complete lack of talent in this direction.\" In a letter to the Florida Probation and Parole Commission District Office dated October 2, 1970, Admiral Morrison acknowledged the breakdown in family communications as the result of an argument over his assessment of his son's musical talents. He said he could not blame his son for being reluctant to initiate contact and that he was proud of him.\nMorrison spoke fondly of his Scottish and Irish ancestry and was inspired by Celtic mythology in his poetry and songs. Celtic Family Magazine revealed in its 2016 Spring Issue that his Morrison clan was originally from the Isle of Lewis in Scotland, while his Irish side, the Clelland clan who married into the Morrison line, were from County Down in Northern Ireland.\n\nRelationships\nMorrison was sought after by many as a photographer's model, confidant, romantic partner and sexual conquest. He had several serious relationships and many casual encounters. By many accounts, he could also be inconsistent with his partners, displaying what some recall as \"a dual personality\". Rothchild recalls, \"Jim really was two very distinct and different people. A Jekyll and Hyde. When he was sober, he was Jekyll, the most erudite, balanced, friendly kind of guy ... He was Mr. America. When he would start to drink, he'd be okay at first, then, suddenly, he would turn into a maniac. Turn into Hyde.\"\nOne of Morrison's early significant relationships was with Mary Werbelow, whom he met on the beach in Clearwater, Florida, when they were teenagers in the summer of 1962. In a 2005 interview with the St. Petersburg Times, she said Morrison spoke to her before a photo shoot for the Doors' fourth album and told her the first three albums were about her. She also stated in the interview that she was not a fan of the band and never attended a concert by them. Werbelow broke off the relationship in Los Angeles in the summer of 1965, a few months before Morrison began rehearsals. Manzarek said of Werbelow, \"She was Jim's first love. She held a deep place in his soul.\" Manzarek also noted that Morrison's song \"The End\" was intended originally to be \"a short goodbye love song to Mary,\" with the longer oedipal middle section a later addition.\nMorrison spent the majority of his adult life in an open and at times very charged and intense relationship with Pamela Courson. Through to the end, Courson saw Morrison as more than a rock star, as \"a great poet\"; she constantly encouraged him and pushed him to write. Courson attended his concerts and focused on supporting his career. Like Morrison, she was described by many as fiery, determined and attractive, as someone who was tough despite appearing fragile. Manzarek called Pamela \"Jim's other half\" and said, \"I never knew another person who could so complement his bizarreness.\"\nAfter her death in 1974, Courson was buried by her family as Pamela Susan Morrison. Her parents petitioned the court for inheritance of Morrison's estate. The probate court in California judged that she and Morrison had what qualified as a common-law marriage. Morrison's will at the time of his death named Courson as the sole heir.\nMorrison dedicated his published poetry books The Lords and New Creatures and the lost writings Wilderness to Courson. A number of writers have speculated that songs like \"Love Street\", \"Orange County Suite\" and \"Queen of the Highway\", among other songs, may have been written about her. Though the relationship was \"tumultuous\" much of the time, and both also had relationships with others, they always maintained a unique and ongoing connection with one another until the end of Morrison's life.\nThroughout his career, Morrison had regular sexual and romantic encounters with fans (including groupies) such as Pamela Des Barres, as well as ongoing affairs with other musicians, writers, and photographers involved in the music business. They included Nico; singer Grace Slick of Jefferson Airplane; and editor Gloria Stavers of 16 Magazine, as well as an alleged alcohol-fueled encounter with Janis Joplin. David Crosby stated many years later that Morrison treated Joplin cruelly at a party at the Calabasas, California, home of John Davidson while Davidson was out of town. She reportedly hit him over the head with a bottle of whiskey during a fight in front of witnesses, and thereafter referred to Morrison as \"that asshole\" whenever his name was brought up in conversation. During her appearance on the Dick Cavett Show in 1969, when host Dick Cavett offered to light her cigarette, asking \"May I light your fire, my child?\", she jokingly replied, \"That's my favorite singer ... I guess not.\"\nRock critic Patricia Kennealy is described as having a relationship with Morrison in No One Here Gets Out Alive, Break On Through, and later in Kennealy's own memoir, Strange Days: My Life With and Without Jim Morrison. Kennealy said that Morrison participated in a neopagan handfasting ceremony with her. According to Kennealy, the couple signed a handwritten document, and were declared wed by a Celtic high priestess and high priest on Midsummer night in 1970, but none of the necessary paperwork for a legal marriage was filed with the state. No witness to this ceremony was ever named.\nKennealy met Morrison for an interview for Jazz & Pop magazine in January 1969, after which Kennealy said they developed a long-distance relationship. The handfasting ceremony is described in No One Here Gets Out Alive as a \"blending of souls on a karmic and cosmic plane\". Morrison was also still seeing Courson when he was in Los Angeles, and later moved to Paris for the summer, where Courson had acquired an apartment. In an interview for the book Rock Wives, Kennealy was asked if Morrison took the handfasting ceremony seriously. She is seen on video saying, \"Probably not too seriously\". She added, he turned \"really cold\" when she claimed she became pregnant, leading her to speculate that maybe he had not taken the wedding as seriously as she had. Kennealy showed up unexpectedly in Miami during the indecency trial, and Morrison was curt with her. She said, \"he was scared to death. They were really out to put him away. Jim was devastated that he wasn't getting any public support.\"\nAs he did with so many people, Morrison could be cruel and cold and then turn warm and loving. However, Kennealy was skeptical; he was living with Courson in Paris, he was drinking heavily and in poor health, and Kennealy, like many, feared he was dying.\nAt the time of Morrison's death, there were thirty-seven paternity actions pending against him, although no claims were made against his estate by any of the putative paternity claimants.\n\nArtistic influences\nAlthough Morrison's early education was routinely disrupted as he moved from school to school, he was drawn to the study of literature, poetry, religion, philosophy and psychology, among other fields. Biographers have consistently pointed to a number of writers and philosophers who influenced his thinking and, perhaps, his behavior. While still in his adolescence, Morrison discovered the works of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Densmore has mentioned that he believed Nietzsche's ideas of a world with no objective order or structure \"killed Jim Morrison\".\nMorrison was drawn to the poetry of William Blake, Arthur Rimbaud, and Charles Baudelaire. Beat Generation writers such as Jack Kerouac and libertine writers such as the Marquis de Sade also had a strong influence on Morrison's outlook and manner of expression; he was eager to experience the life described in Kerouac's On the Road. He was similarly drawn to the work of French writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline. Céline's book, Voyage Au Bout de la Nuit (Journey to the End of the Night) and Blake's Auguries of Innocence both echo through one of Morrison's early songs, \"End of the Night\".\nMorrison later met and befriended Michael McClure, a well-known Beat poet. McClure had enjoyed Morrison's lyrics but was even more impressed by his poetry and encouraged him to further develop his craft. Morrison's vision of performance was colored by the works of 20th-century French playwright Antonin Artaud (author of Theater and its Double) and by Judith Malina and Julian Beck's Living Theater.\nOther works relating to religion, mysticism, ancient myth and symbolism were of lasting interest to Morrison, particularly Joseph Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces. James Frazer's The Golden Bough also became a source of inspiration and is reflected in the title and lyrics of the song \"Not to Touch the Earth\". Morrison was particularly attracted to the myths and religions of Native American cultures.\nWhile he was still at school, his family moved to New Mexico where he became familiar with the landscape and some of the iconography important to the Indigenous peoples of the American Southwest. These interests appear to be the source of many references to creatures and places such as lizards, snakes, deserts and \"ancient lakes\" that appear in his songs and poetry. His interpretations and fantasies of Native American ceremonies and ceremonial leaders (which, based on his readings, he referred to by the anthropological term \"shamans\") influenced his stage performances, notably in his seeking of trance states and vision through dancing to the point of exhaustion. In particular, Morrison's poem \"The Ghost Song\" was inspired by his readings about the Native American Ghost Dance.\nMorrison's vocal influences included Elvis Presley and Frank Sinatra, which can be heard in his baritone crooning style on several of the Doors' songs. In the 1981 documentary The Doors: A Tribute to Jim Morrison, Rothchild relates his first impression of Morrison as being a \"Rock and Roll Bing Crosby\". Botnick has recalled that when he first met the Doors in Sunset Sound Studios he showed them the condenser microphone, which Morrison would then use when recording his vocals for their debut album. Morrison was particularly excited about this microphone (the Telefunken U47) as it was the same model that Sinatra had used for some of his recording sessions. Sugerman has written that Morrison, as a teenager, was such a fan of Elvis that he demanded silence when Elvis was on the radio, but that Sinatra was Morrison's favorite singer. Morrison also cited Little Richard, Fats Domino, Jerry Lee Lewis and Gene Vincent as other early influences. In his Elektra Records biography, Morrison named contemporaries such as the Beach Boys, the Kinks, and Love as his favorite singing groups. According to record producer David Anderle, Morrison considered Brian Wilson \"his favorite musician\" and the Beach Boys' 1967 LP Wild Honey \"one of his favorite albums. ... he really got into it.\"\nWallace Fowlie, professor emeritus of French literature at Duke University, wrote Rimbaud and Jim Morrison, subtitled \"The Rebel as Poet – A Memoir\". In this, he recounts his surprise at receiving a fan letter from Morrison who, in 1968, thanked him for his latest translation of Rimbaud's verse into English. \"I don't read French easily\", he wrote, \"... your book travels around with me.\" Fowlie went on to give lectures on numerous campuses comparing the lives, philosophies, and poetry of Morrison and Rimbaud. The book The Doors, by the remaining Doors, quotes Morrison's close friend Frank Lisciandro as saying that too many people took a remark of Morrison's that he was interested in revolt, disorder, and chaos \"to mean that he was an anarchist, a revolutionary, or, worse yet, a nihilist. Hardly anyone noticed that Jim was paraphrasing Rimbaud and the Surrealist poets\".\n\nPoetry and film\nMorrison began writing in earnest during his adolescence. At UCLA he studied the related fields of theater, film, and cinematography. He self-published two volumes of poetry in 1969, titled The Lords / Notes on Vision and The New Creatures. The Lords consists primarily of brief descriptions of places, people, events and Morrison's thoughts on cinema. The New Creatures verses are more poetic in structure, feel and appearance. These two books were later combined into a single volume titled The Lords and The New Creatures. These were the only writings published during Morrison's lifetime. Morrison befriended Beat poet Michael McClure, who wrote the afterword for Hopkins' No One Here Gets Out Alive. McClure and Morrison reportedly collaborated on a number of unmade film projects, including a film version of McClure's infamous play The Beard, in which Morrison would have played Billy the Kid.\nThe Lost Writings of Jim Morrison Volume I is titled Wilderness, and, upon its release in 1988, became an instant New York Times Bestseller. Volume II, The American Night, released in 1990, was also a success. Morrison recorded his own poetry in a professional sound studio on two occasions. The first was in March 1969 in Los Angeles and the second was on December 8, 1970. The latter recording session was attended by Morrison's personal friends and included a variety of sketch pieces. Some of the segments from the 1969 session were issued on the bootleg album The Lost Paris Tapes and were later used as part of the Doors' An American Prayer album, released in 1978. The album reached No. 54 on the music charts.\nSome poetry recorded from the December 1970 session remains unreleased to this day and is in the possession of the Courson family. Morrison's best-known but seldom seen cinematic endeavor is HWY: An American Pastoral, a project he started in 1969. Morrison financed the venture and formed his own production company in order to maintain complete control of the project. Paul Ferrara, Frank Lisciandro, and Babe Hill assisted with the project. Morrison played the main character, a hitchhiker turned killer/car thief. Morrison asked his friend, composer/pianist Fred Myrow, to select the soundtrack for the film.\n\nParis Journal\nAfter his death, a notebook of poetry written by Morrison was recovered, titled Paris Journal; amongst other personal details, it contains the allegorical foretelling of a man who will be left grieving and having to abandon his belongings, due to a police investigation into a death connected to the Chinese opium trade. \"Weeping, he left his pad on orders from police and furnishings hauled away, all records and mementos, and reporters calculating tears & curses for the press: 'I hope the Chinese junkies get you' and they will for the [opium] poppy rules the world\".\nThe concluding stanzas of this poem convey disappointment in someone with whom he had had an intimate relationship, perhaps using the relationship as a metaphor as the relationship with life itself, and contain a further invocation of Billy the killer/Hitchhiker, a common character in Morrison's body of work:\n\nIn 2013, another of Morrison's notebooks from Paris, found alongside the Paris Journal in the same box, known as the 127 Fascination box, sold for $250,000 at auction. This box of personal belongings similarly contained a home movie of Pamela Courson dancing in an unspecified cemetery in Corsica, the only film so far recovered to have been filmed by Morrison. The box also housed a number of older notebooks and journals and may initially have included the \"Steno Pad\" and the falsely titled The Lost Paris Tapes bootleg, if they had not been separated from the primary collection and sold by Philippe Dalecky with this promotional title. Those familiar with the voices of Morrison's friends and colleagues later determined that, contrary to the story advanced by Dalecky that this was Morrison's final recording made with busking Parisian musicians, the Lost Paris Tapes are in fact of \"Jomo & The Smoothies\": Morrison, friend Michael McClure and producer Paul Rothchild loose jamming in Los Angeles, well before Paris 1971.\n\nGrave site\nMorrison was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, one of the city's most visited tourist attractions, where Irish playwright Oscar Wilde, French cabaret singer Édith Piaf, and many other poets and artists are also buried. The grave had no official marker until French officials placed a shield over it, which was stolen in 1973. The grave was listed in the cemetery directory with Morrison's name incorrectly arranged as \"Douglas James Morrison\".\nIn 1981, Croatian sculptor Mladen Mikulin voluntarily – with the approval of the cemetery curators – placed a marble bust of his own design and a new gravestone with Morrison's name at the grave to commemorate the tenth anniversary of Morrison's death; the bust was defaced through the years by vandals and later stolen in 1988. Mikulin made another bust of Morrison in 1989 and a bronze portrait (\"death mask\") of him in 2001; neither piece is at the gravesite.\n\nIn 1990, Morrison's father, George Stephen Morrison, after a consultation with E. Nicholas Genovese, Professor of Classics and Humanities, San Diego State University, placed a flat stone on the grave. The bronze plaque thereon bears the Greek inscription: ΚΑΤΑ ΤΟΝ ΔΑΙΜΟΝΑ ΕΑΥΤΟΥ, usually translated as \"true to his own spirit\" or \"according to his own daemon\".\n\nLegacy\nMusical\nMorrison was and continues to be one of the most popular and influential singer-songwriters and iconic frontmen in rock history. To this day, he is widely regarded as the prototypical rock star: surly, sexy, scandalous, and mysterious. The leather pants he was fond of wearing both onstage and off have since become stereotyped as rock-star apparel. The lead singer of U2, Bono, had used Morrison's leather pants for his onstage alter-ego, which he called \"Fly\". Music journalist Stephen Davis described Morrison as the single \"greatest American rock star of his era\".\nIn 1993, Morrison was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Doors; the other band members dedicated their induction to Morrison. In 2011, a Rolling Stone readers' pick placed Morrison in fifth place of the magazine's \"Best Lead Singers of All Time\". In another Rolling Stone list, entitled \"The 100 Greatest Singers of All Time\", he was ranked 47th. NME named him the 13th greatest singer of all time. He was also ranked number 22 on Classic Rock magazine's \"50 Greatest Singers in Rock\".\n\nFatboy Slim's song \"Sunset\" includes Morrison's vocal interpretation of his poem \"Bird of Prey\". In 2012, electronic music producer Skrillex released \"Breakn' a Sweat\" which contained vocals from an interview with Morrison. Alice Cooper has said that his song \"Desperado\", from the 1971 Killer, was a tribute to Morrison.\n\nInfluences\nIggy and the Stooges are said to have formed after lead singer Iggy Pop was inspired by Morrison while attending a Doors concert in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Pop later said about the concert:\n\nThat show was a big, big, big influence on me. They had just had their big hit, \"Light My Fire\" and the album had taken off ... So, here's this guy, out of his head on acid, dressed in leather with his hair all oiled and curled. The stage was tiny and it was really low. It got confrontational. I found it really interesting. I loved the performance ... Part of me was like, \"Wow, this is great. He's really pissing people off and he's lurching around making these guys angry.\"\nOne of Pop's most popular songs, \"The Passenger\", is said to be based on one of Morrison's poems. Layne Staley, the vocalist of Alice in Chains; Eddie Vedder, the vocalist of Pearl Jam; Scott Weiland, the vocalist of Stone Temple Pilots and Velvet Revolver; Glenn Danzig, singer and founder of Danzig; Ian Astbury, the frontman of the Cult; Siouxsie Sioux, the lead singer of Siouxsie and the Banshees; Ian Curtis, the lead singer of Joy Division; Julian Casablancas, the vocalist of the Strokes; Billy Idol, and Patti Smith have said that Morrison was their biggest influence. Music journalist Simon Reynolds noted that the \"deep, heavy alloys\" in Morrison's voice, served as a prototype for the gothic rock scene.\n\nFilms\nBiopic\nIn 1991, Oliver Stone directed a biopic film about Morrison, with actor Val Kilmer portraying him. Kilmer learned over twenty of the Doors' songs to achieve Morrison's role. While the film was inspired by many real events and individuals, the film's depiction of Morrison was heavily criticized by many people who knew him personally, including Patricia Kennealy and the other Doors members. Manzarek said about the film's portrayal, \"It was ridiculous ... It was not about Jim Morrison. It was about 'Jimbo Morrison', the drunk. God, where was the sensitive poet and the funny guy? The guy I knew was not on that screen.\" Krieger agreed that the movie didn't capture \"how Jim [Morrison] was at all.\" He also noted the impact of the film's representation on numerous people he talked to: \"He's never a real guy in that movie. People find it hard to believe he could just be a normal person–a good friend and a great guy to be with.\"\nOn an album by CPR, David Crosby wrote and recorded a song about the movie with the lyric: \"And I have seen that movie – and it wasn't like that.\" In general, the film received underwhelming to poor reviews, which largely focused on the many inaccuracies and problems with the narrative. However, Kilmer received some praise for his performance, with some members of the Doors reportedly saying that at times they couldn't distinguish whether it was Kilmer or Morrison singing on some of the sequences. Overall, the group members praised Kilmer's interpretation. Regardless of the widespread acclaim surrounding Kilmer's performance, he did not claim any award.\n\nOthers\nThe lead character of a 2011 Bollywood film, Rockstar starring Ranbir Kapoor, was inspired by Morrison. The 2007 film Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story has numerous references to Morrison. Morrison's grave is featured in The Walking Dead: Daryl Dixon Season 1, episode 3.\n\nDiscography\nThe Doors\nThe Doors (1967)\nStrange Days (1967)\nWaiting for the Sun (1968)\nThe Soft Parade (1969)\nMorrison Hotel (1970)\nL.A. Woman (1971)\nAn American Prayer (1978)\n\nFilmography\nFilms by Morrison\nHWY: An American Pastoral\n\nDocumentaries featuring Morrison\nSee also\nOutline of the Doors\n\nBibliography\nThe Lords and the New Creatures (1969). 1985 edition: ISBN 0-7119-0552-5\nAn American Prayer (1970) privately printed by Western Lithographers. (Unauthorized edition also published in 1983, Zeppelin Publishing Company, ISBN 0-915628-46-5. The authenticity of the unauthorized edition has been disputed.)\nArden lointain, edition bilingue (1988), trad. de l'américain et présenté par Sabine Prudent et Werner Reimann. [Paris]: C. Bourgois. 157 p. N.B.: Original texts in English, with French translations, on facing pages. ISBN 2-267-00560-3\nWilderness: The Lost Writings Of Jim Morrison (1988). 1990 edition: ISBN 0-14-011910-8\nThe American Night: The Writings of Jim Morrison (1990). 1991 edition: ISBN 0-670-83772-5\nThe Collected Works of Jim Morrison: Poetry, Journals, Transcripts, and Lyrics (2021). Edited by Frank Lisciandro, Foreword by Tom Robbins: ISBN 978-0-06302897-5\nStephen Davis, Jim Morrison: Life, Death, Legend, (2004) ISBN 1-59240-064-7\nJohn Densmore, Riders on the Storm: My Life With Jim Morrison and The Doors (1991) ISBN 0-385-30447-1\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nLinda Ashcroft (1997), Wild Child: Life with Jim Morrison, ISBN 1-56025-249-9\nLester Bangs, \"Jim Morrison: Bozo Dionysus a Decade Later\" in Main Lines, Blood Feasts, and Bad Taste: A Lester Bangs Reader, John Morthland, ed. Anchor Press (2003) ISBN 0-375-71367-0\nDave DiMartino, Moonlight Drive (1995) ISBN 1-886894-21-3\nSteven Erkel, \"The Poet Behind The Doors: Jim Morrison's Poetry and the 1960s Countercultural Movement\" (2011)\nWallace Fowlie, Rimbaud and Jim Morrison (1994) ISBN 0-8223-1442-8\nJerry Hopkins, The Lizard King: The Essential Jim Morrison (1995) ISBN 0-684-81866-3\nJerry Hopkins and Danny Sugerman, No One Here Gets Out Alive (1980) ISBN 0-85965-138-X\nHuddleston, Judy, Love Him Madly: An Intimate Memoir of Jim Morrison (2013) ISBN 9781613747506\nMike Jahn, \"Jim Morrison and The Doors\", (1969) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 71-84745\nDylan Jones, Jim Morrison: Dark Star, (1990) ISBN 0-7475-0951-4\nPatricia Kennealy, Strange Days: My Life With and Without Jim Morrison (1992) ISBN 0-525-93419-7\nGerry Kirstein, \"Some Are Born to Endless Night: Jim Morrison, Visions of Apocalypse and Transcendence\" (2012) ISBN 1451558066\nFrank Lisciandro, Morrison: A Feast of Friends (1991) ISBN 0-446-39276-6, Morrison – Un festin entre amis (1996) (French)\nFrank Lisciandro, Jim Morrison: An Hour For Magic (A Photojournal) (1982) ISBN 0-85965-246-7, James Douglas Morrison (2005) (French)\nRay Manzarek, Light My Fire (1998) ISBN 0-446-60228-0. First by Jerry Hopkins and Danny Sugerman (1981)\nPeter Jan Margry, The Pilgrimage to Jim Morrison's Grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery: The Social Construction of Sacred Space. In idem (ed.), Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World. New Itineraries into the Sacred. Amsterdam University Press, 2008, p. 145–173.\nThanasis Michos, The Poetry of James Douglas Morrison (2001) ISBN 960-7748-23-9 (Greek)\nDaveth Milton, We Want The World: Jim Morrison, The Living Theatre, and the FBI, (2012) ISBN 978-0957051188\nMark Opsasnick, The Lizard King Was Here: The Life and Times of Jim Morrison in Alexandria, Virginia (2006) ISBN 1-4257-1330-0\nJames Riordan and Jerry Prochnicky, Break on through: The Life and Death of Jim Morrison (1991) ISBN 0-688-11915-8\nAdriana Rubio, Jim Morrison: Ceremony...Exploring the Shaman Possession (2005) ISBN\nHoward Sounes. 27: A History of the 27 Club Through the Lives of Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison, Kurt Cobain, and Amy Winehouse, Boston: Da Capo Press, 2013. ISBN 0-306-82168-0.\nThe Doors (remaining members Ray Manzarek, Robby Krieger, John Densmore) with Ben Fong-Torres, The Doors (2006) ISBN 1-4013-0303-X\nMick Wall (2014), Love Becomes a Funeral Pyre: A Biography of The Doors\n\nExternal links\n\nThe Doors official website\nJim Morrison discography at Discogs \nJim Morrison at Curlie\nJim Morrison at IMDb\nEarliest film of Jim Morrison\nA lost painting collaboration with Jim Morrison intended for his An American Prayer album\nGeorge Washington High School Alumni Association, Alexandria, Va., Morrison page",
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"paragraph_text": "The discography of the rock band the Grateful Dead includes more than 200 albums, the majority of them recorded live in concert. The band has also released more than two dozen singles and a number of videos.\nThe Grateful Dead formed in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1965 amid the counterculture of the 1960s. They had many musical influences, and their music evolved to a great degree over time. They made extensive use of improvisation, and are considered one of the originators of jam band music. The founding members were Jerry Garcia on guitar and vocals, Bob Weir on guitar and vocals, Phil Lesh on bass and vocals, Bill Kreutzmann on drums, and Ron \"Pigpen\" McKernan on organ, harmonica, percussion, and vocals. Pigpen died in 1973, but the other four remained with the band for its entire 30-year history. Second drummer Mickey Hart was also in the band for most of that time. Others who were band members at different times were keyboardists Tom Constanten, Keith Godchaux, Brent Mydland, Vince Welnick, and Bruce Hornsby, and vocalist Donna Jean Godchaux.\nWhile they were together, from 1965 to 1995, the Grateful Dead released thirteen studio albums and nine contemporary live albums. The nine live albums were recently recorded and mostly contained previously unreleased original material. They filled the role of traditional studio albums, and were an integral part of the contemporaneous evolution of the band. (The Dead's second album, Anthem of the Sun, was an experimental amalgam of studio and live material.)\nIn 1991, the band started releasing retrospective live albums, a practice that has continued to the present time. There are several series of these albums. The \"traditional\" live releases were created by remixing multitrack recordings of concerts. A second series of live albums, from 1993 to 2005, was Dick's Picks, concert recordings selected for their musical excellence but made using stereo recordings that did not allow the different musical parts to be remixed. Another series of albums was released in 2005 and 2006 in the form of digital downloads. This was followed by a series from 2007 to 2011 called Road Trips, and then, starting in 2012, by Dave's Picks.\nThe Grateful Dead's video albums include some albums that were released as both audio CDs and concert DVDs, either separately or together, and some that were released only on video, as well as two theatrical films. The band has also released several compilation albums and box sets.\n\nStudio and contemporary live albums\nUnconventionally, the Grateful Dead made the release of live albums a common occurrence throughout their career. Because many were recently recorded and included previously unreleased original material, they often filled the role of traditional studio albums. An integral part of the contemporaneous evolution of the band, such live albums are included in this section.\n\nCompilation albums\nBox sets\nRetrospective live albums\nTraditional releases\nDick's Picks\nIn the 1990s and 2000s, the Grateful Dead released numerous live concert recordings from their archives in three concurrent series. The \"From the Vault\" series are remixes of multi-track recordings made at the time of the concerts. The \"View from the Vault\" series are also multi-track remixes, but are released simultaneously as albums on CD and as concert performance videos on DVD. (The first three volumes were also released on VHS videotape.) Both of these series are included in the \"Retrospective\" live albums list above.\nThe third series of concert releases is Dick's Picks, which are based on two-track concert recordings. Unlike multi-track recordings, two-track recordings cannot be remixed, only remastered. Therefore, the sound quality of the Dick's Picks series, while generally very good, is not quite as high as that of the other official releases of live recordings, as explained in the various \"caveat emptor\" notices on the CD boxes.\nThe Dick's Picks series, which started in 1993, was named after Grateful Dead tape vault archivist Dick Latvala. Latvala selected shows with the band's approval and oversaw the production of the albums. After Latvala's death in 1999, David Lemieux became the Dead's tape archivist and took over responsibility for producing subsequent Dick's Picks releases, as well as his own Dave's Picks series. Latvala and Lemieux worked with recording engineer Jeffrey Norman, who was in charge of mastering the CDs. The last Dick's Pick's compilation was released in 2005.\nVolume 15 and later were released in HDCD format. This provides enhanced sound quality when played on CD players with HDCD capability, and is fully compatible with regular CD players.\n\nDigital downloads\nIn the summer of 2005 the Dead began offering download versions of both their existing live releases, and a new Internet-only series, The Grateful Dead Download Series, that was available through their own online store (which offered the albums in both 256 kbit/s mp3 files and FLAC files – a preferred audio standard for those who archive Dead and other fan-made live recordings on the Internet) and the iTunes Music Store (which offered them in their 256 kbit/s AAC format). Not surprisingly, these Internet-only albums have met with the same success as their CD-based brethren. The Download Series is no longer available for purchase on the Grateful Dead's website. However, they are still available for purchase from the iTunes Music Store as well as from Nugs.net, which offer them in FLAC, Apple Lossless Audio Codec (ALAC) and mp3 formats. Amazon also has them available in mp3 format.\n\nRoad Trips\nThe Road Trips series of albums is the successor to Dick's Picks. The series started after the Grateful Dead signed a ten-year contract with Rhino Records to release the band's archival material. The Road Trips releases are created using two-track concert recordings, but unlike Dick's Picks they each contain material from multiple concerts of a tour. The production of the CDs is supervised by vault archivist David Lemieux, with mastering by sound engineer Jeffrey Norman. Like the later Dick's Picks, the Road Trips albums are released in HDCD format.\n\nDave's Picks\nThe Dave's Picks albums followed the Road Trips series. They are named after Grateful Dead tape archivist David Lemieux.\n\nUnauthorized legal releases\nThese albums are not bootlegs. They were released legally, but without the band's consent or cooperation.\n\nVideos\nThis section does not include the following videos which were also released as audio CDs and are listed in \"Retrospective live albums\" above:\n\nView from the Vault, Volume One\nView from the Vault, Volume Two\nView from the Vault, Volume Three\nView from the Vault, Volume Four\nThe Closing of Winterland\nTruckin' Up to Buffalo\nRocking the Cradle: Egypt 1978\nCrimson White & Indigo\nGiants Stadium: June 17, 1991\n\nSingles\n7\" Singles Collection\nIn 2017, the Grateful Dead began offering the 27 singles released throughout the band's history on 7-inch colored vinyl, for sale exclusively on their website, dead.net. Each 7-inch vinyl features remastered audio, and packaging designed by artists for each single and B-side.\n\nLive albums by recording date\nFollowing is a list of Grateful Dead live albums in recording date order. The dates listed are the principal recording dates and do not include bonus tracks or bonus discs.\n\nAlbums and concert films by various artists\nPerformances by the Grateful Dead are included in these albums and concert films by various artists.\n\nSee also\nJerry Garcia discography\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial Grateful Dead website\nGrateful Dead discography at the Grateful Dead Family Discography\nThe Compleat Grateful Dead Discography\nGrateful Dead discography at Discogs",
"title": "Grateful_Dead_discography"
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] | What was the last album the Grateful Dead released prior to the death of Doors vocalist Jim Morrison? | [] | American Beauty | [] | true |
143 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The 2021 Scottish Parliament election took place on 11 May 2021, under the provisions of the Scotland Act 1998. All 129 Members of the Scottish Parliament were elected in the sixth election since the parliament was re-established in 1999. The election was held alongside the Senedd election in Wales, English local elections, London Assembly and mayoral election and the Hartlepool by-election.\nThe election campaign started on 25 March 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland. Parliament was officially dissolved on 5 May, the day before the election. The main parties fielding candidates were: the Scottish National Party (SNP), led by First Minister Nicola Sturgeon; the Scottish Conservatives, led by Douglas Ross; Scottish Labour, led by Anas Sarwar; the Scottish Liberal Democrats, led by Willie Rennie, and the Scottish Greens, jointly led Patrick Harvie and Lorna Slater. Of those five parties, three had changed their leader since the 2016 election.\nNewer parties set up since the 2016 election included: Reform UK Scotland, led by Michelle Ballantyne; the Alba Party, led by former First Minister and SNP leader Alex Salmond; and All for Unity, led by George Galloway. These parties only competed for seats on the regional lists. They all failed to win any seats.\nThe election resulted in the SNP winning a fourth consecutive term in government. They won 64 seats, a net increase of one. The SNP gained Edinburgh Central, Ayr, and East Lothian, as well as winning the largest share of the popular vote and the largest number of constituency seats in any Scottish Parliament election (62). The Greens won eight seats, their best result to date at a Scottish Parliament election, while the Conservatives retained second place with 31 seats. Labour had its worst-ever result with 22 seats, and the lowest share of the vote in both constituency and list votes for either Westminster or Holyrood since 1910. The Liberal Democrats (Lib Dems) also had their worst showing at a Holyrood election to date, winning only four seats.\nThe SNP and the Greens, both of which support Scottish independence, won 72 of the 129 seats in the parliament. Unionist parties (that is, those against independence) achieved a small majority of votes in constituency contests, whilst pro-independence parties achieved a small majority in the regional lists. The turnout was 63.5%, which is the highest ever at a Scottish Parliament election. Following the election, the third Sturgeon government was formed. It initially consisted of just the SNP, but later included Slater and Harvie of the Scottish Greens as junior ministers after the two parties negotiated a power-sharing agreement.\n\nBackground\nElectoral events\n2016 Scottish Parliament election\nAt the 2016 election, the ruling Scottish National Party (SNP) lost its parliamentary majority but was able to continue governing under Nicola Sturgeon as a minority administration. At the same election, the Conservatives overtook Labour to place second, whilst the Greens overtook the Liberal Democrats to place fourth. No representatives of minor parties were elected to the Parliament.\n\nOther elections\nFour further elections affecting Scotland took place between the 2016 and 2021 Scottish Parliament elections:\n\nMay 2017: Scottish local government elections. The SNP retained its position as the largest party in terms of votes and councillors. The Conservatives displaced Labour as the second largest party, while the Liberal Democrats suffered a net loss of councillors despite increasing their share of the vote.\nJune 2017: United Kingdom general election. The SNP lost 21 of its MPs, winning 35 seats. The Conservatives won 13 seats, with their highest vote share in any election in Scotland since 1979. Labour won seven seats, while the Liberal Democrats won four.\nMay 2019: European Parliament election. This was dominated by the impending Brexit-deadline. The SNP won three of the six seats in Scotland, with the Brexit Party, Conservatives and Liberal Democrats each winning one seat.\nDecember 2019: United Kingdom general election. The SNP increased its share of the vote, reclaiming thirteen of the seats they lost in 2017. The Conservatives won six Scottish seats with a net lost of seven. The Liberal Democrats won four seats with no no net losses, but their leader, Jo Swinson, lost her own seat to the SNP. Labour was reduced to a single Scottish seat, a net loss of six.\n\nLeadership changes\nThree parties underwent leadership changes during the parliamentary term leading up to the election. In August 2017, Kezia Dugdale resigned as leader of Scottish Labour and was replaced by Richard Leonard. In January 2021, less than four months before the election, Leonard resigned. Anas Sarwar won the subsequent leadership election.\nIn August 2019, Lorna Slater and Patrick Harvie became co-leaders of the Scottish Greens.\nAlso in August 2019, Ruth Davidson resigned as leader of the Scottish Conservatives and was succeeded by Jackson Carlaw. Carlaw resigned as leader in July 2020, with Douglas Ross winning the subsequent leadership election unopposed.\n\nExpansion of the electorate\nThis is the first election after the passage of the Scottish Elections (Franchise and Representation) Act, which extended the franchise to those serving prison sentences of 12 months or less. In 2005, the United Kingdom was found in breach of Protocol 1, Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights in regards of prisoner voting rights in the European Court of Human Rights as a result of Hirst v United Kingdom (No 2); the Act brings Scotland in line with the court ruling.\nThis act also allows all foreign nationals resident in Scotland to vote and all those with indefinite leave to remain or equivalent status, including pre–settled status in the United Kingdom, to stand as candidates. A BBC News report in April 2021 said that there were around 55,000 foreign nationals who had been given the right to vote as a result of these changes, including 20,000 refugees.\n\nDate\nUnder the Scotland Act 1998, an ordinary general election to the Scottish Parliament would normally have been held on the first Thursday in May four years after the 2016 election, i.e. in May 2020. This would have clashed with the proposed date of a UK general election, although this became a moot point when a snap UK general election was held in June 2017 (a further UK general election was held in December 2019). In November 2015, the Scottish Government published a Scottish Elections (Dates) Bill, which proposed to extend the term of the Parliament to five years. That Bill was passed by the Scottish Parliament on 25 February 2016 and received Royal Assent on 30 March 2016, setting the new date for the election as 6 May 2021.\nThe Scottish Elections (Dates) Act did not affect the legal possibilities for the Parliament to be dissolved earlier, those being;\n\nThat the date of the poll may be varied by up to one month either way by the monarch, on the proposal of the Presiding Officer.\nIf Parliament itself resolves that it should be dissolved, with at least two-thirds of the Members (i.e. 86 Members) voting in favour, the Presiding Officer proposes a date for an extraordinary general election and the Parliament is dissolved by the monarch by royal proclamation.\nIf Parliament fails to nominate one of its members to be First Minister within 28 days, irrespective of whether at the beginning or in the middle of a parliamentary term. Therefore, if the First Minister resigned, Parliament would then have 28 days to elect a successor and if no new First Minister was elected then the Presiding Officer would ask for Parliament to be dissolved. This process could also be triggered if the First Minister lost a vote of confidence by a simple majority, as they must then resign.\nNevertheless, no extraordinary general elections have been held to date. Any extraordinary general election would be in addition to the ordinary general elections, unless held less than six months before the due date of an ordinary general election, in which case it would supplant it. This would not affect the year in which the subsequent ordinary general election would be held.\nOn 16 November 2020, the Scottish General Election (Coronavirus) Bill was introduced. This draft legislation stated that while the next election was intended to be held on 6 May 2021, the Presiding Officer would gain the power to postpone the election by up to six months if the spread of COVID-19 made that date impractical. The bill also proposed to change the date of dissolution to the day before the election, meaning that the Parliament could be recalled during the election period. The bill was enacted and received Royal Assent on 29 January 2021. Parliament was in fact recalled on 12 April, to allow MSPs to mark the death of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.\n\nRetiring MSPs\nJames Dornan announced in February 2020 his intention to retire at the next Holyrood election, but reversed this decision some months later.\n\nParties\nThe SNP, Conservatives, Labour and Liberal Democrats fielded candidates in all 73 constituencies and all eight of the regional ballots. Five other parties contested both all eight regions and at least one constituency: the Scottish Greens (12 constituencies) the Scottish Libertarian Party (9), the Scottish Family Party (7), UKIP (5) and the Freedom Alliance (4). Four parties – Abolish the Scottish Parliament Party, Alba Party, All for Unity, and Reform UK – stood in all eight electoral regions, but did not contest any constituencies.\nSix other parties contested some of the regions and at least one constituency: TUSC (3 regions and 3 constituencies), Restore Scotland (2 regions, 4 constituencies), Scotia Future (2 of each), the Communist Party of Britain (2 regions and 1 constituency), the Reclaim Party (1 of each) and the Vanguard Party (also 1 of each). Five other parties – Independent Green Voice (5 regions), Renew (5), the Social Democratic Party (2), Women's Equality (2) and Animal Welfare (1) – contested some of the regions, but not any constituencies.\nThe Scottish Socialist Party, which participated in the last election as part of the electoral alliance RISE – Scotland's Left Alliance, opted not to participate in this election, for the first time since its inception.\n\nList of parties contesting all regional ballots\nElection system, seats and regions\nThe total number of Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) elected to the Parliament is 129.\nThe Scottish Parliament uses an additional member system (AMS), designed to produce approximate proportional representation for each region. There are 8 regions, each sub-divided into smaller constituencies. There is a total of 73 constituencies. Each constituency elects one MSP by the plurality (first past the post) system of election. Each region elects 7 additional MSPs using an additional member system. A modified D'Hondt method using the constituency results is used to elect these additional MSPs.\nThe boundaries of the 73 constituencies last changed as of the 2011 Scottish Parliament election, as did the configuration of the electoral regions used to elect \"list\" members of the Scottish Parliament. These revisions were the outcome of the First Periodical Review of the Scottish Parliament's constituencies and regions conducted by the Boundary Commission for Scotland; the Review was announced on 3 July 2007 and the Commission published its final report on 26 May 2010.\nThe Scottish Parliament constituencies have not been coterminous with Scottish Westminster constituencies since the 2005 general election, when the 72 former UK Parliament constituencies were replaced with a new set of 59, generally larger, constituencies (see Scottish Parliament (Constituencies) Act 2004). The size difference between Westminster and Holyrood boundaries was due to diverge further upon the implementation of the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies, which has not been voted upon by Parliament. The 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies for a UK total of 650 MPs commenced in England in 2021 and will complete for the UK by 2023.\n\nCampaign\nThe election campaign started on 25 March 2021. The Scottish Conservatives launched their campaign the same day, with a focus on promoting Scotland's recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic.\nOn 26 March 2021, the Alba Party was publicly launched by former First Minister of Scotland and SNP leader, Alex Salmond. The party announced plans to stand list-only candidates. Two sitting SNP MPs later defected to the Alba party. The Action for Independence party, which had intended to pursue a similar list-only strategy, announced they would stand down their candidates in favour of Alba. Sturgeon said she would refuse to have any dealings with Salmond unless he apologises to the women who had accused him of harassment.\nBBC Scotland announced that it would broadcast two debates between the main parties' leaders; the first was aired on 30 March 2021 and was moderated by the corporation's Scotland editor Sarah Smith. The debate included key questions from the audience on the COVID-19 recovery, climate change, and a second referendum on Scottish independence. The second BBC debate was held on 4 May 2021 and was moderated by BBC Scotland's political editor Glenn Campbell.\nCommercial broadcaster STV held their leaders' debate on 13 April, moderated by their political editor Colin Mackay. NUS Scotland held a debate on specifically on student issues which was moderated by NUS Scotland president, Matt Crilly on 20 April which featured the three main party leaders.\nOn 1 April, Planet Radio announced that their Clyde 2 station would be hosting a Leaders Phone-In with the main parties' leaders every Sunday before the election. Douglas Ross was the first to be interviewed on 4 April, with Willie Rennie following on 18 April. Whilst Nicola Sturgeon was set to be interviewed on 11 April, campaigning was delayed following the death of Prince Philip and her phone-in was instead held on 22 April. Patrick Harvie followed on 25 April; and Anas Sarwar had the final phone-in on 2 May.\nFollowing Prince Philip's death on 9 April, the SNP, Conservatives, Labour, Greens and Liberal Democrats said they would suspend election campaigning until further notice. After discussion between the parties, they agreed to resume campaigning after a special parliamentary session on 12 April to make tributes and to pause activities again on the day of the funeral (17 April).\n\nElection debates\nOpinion polling\nGraph of opinion poll results prior to the 2021 Scottish Parliament election. Trendlines are 30-day moving averages.\n\nKey\n SNP – Scottish National Party\n Conservative – Scottish Conservatives\n Labour – Scottish Labour\n Lib Dem – Scottish Liberal Democrats\n Green – Scottish Greens\n UKIP – UK Independence Party\n Reform – Reform UK\n SSP – Scottish Socialist Party\n Alba – Alba Party\n AFU – All for Unity\n\nTarget seats\nBelow are listed all the constituencies which required a swing of less than 5% from the 2016 result to change hands. The most marginal opportunity for the Greens was in Glasgow Kelvin, which they needed a 7.1% swing to gain. The Liberal Democrats' best bet was Caithness, Sutherland and Ross, which required a 6.1% swing. The SNP ended up holding both of these constituencies.\n\nSNP targets\nConservative targets\nLabour targets\nResults\nOverall\nVotes summary\nCentral Scotland\nGlasgow\nHighlands and Islands\nLothian\nMid Scotland and Fife\nNorth East Scotland\nSouth Scotland\nWest Scotland\nConstituency seat changes compared to 2016\nMSPs who lost their seats\nAnalysis\nThe SNP won 64 seats, falling one seat short of an overall majority. Some commentators put this down to unionists voting tactically for Conservative, Labour and Lib Dem candidates. According to psephologist John Curtice, \"Denying the SNP an overall majority was, indeed, a collective effort – at least on the part of Unionist voters, who on the constituency ballot demonstrated a remarkable willingness to back whichever pro-Union party appeared to be best placed locally to defeat the SNP. [...] These patterns had a decisive impact on the outcome.\" This was apparent in seats like Dumbarton, where incumbent Labour MSP Jackie Baillie saw her 0.3% majority increased to 3.9%, whilst both the Conservative and Lib Dem vote share decreased.\nIn The National, Emer O'Toole questioned whether social media adverts with \"a lack of transparency over funding\" may have cost the SNP key seats as well. The day before the election, The Guardian reported that anti-independence groups and campaigners had \"spent tens of thousands of pounds in the past week\", including on Facebook adverts, calling for tactical voting to prevent the SNP getting a majority. One of these groups was Scotland Matters, whose founder, Professor Hugh Pennington said, \"Across the country as a whole, tactical voting is obviously one of the ways forward to basically harm the SNP, not to put too fine a point on it.\"\nAdditionally, the Greens claimed that they may have been deprived of two seats because of Independent Green Voice (IGV), a far-right party which has nothing to do with the Scottish Greens (who support Scottish independence). IGV received nearly 10,000 votes, including 2,210 in Glasgow (where the Greens were 1,000 short of gaining a seat) and 1,690 in South Scotland (where the Greens fell 100 short). This potentially prevented pro-independence parties from having a 19-seat majority instead of 15 seats.\nThe Scottish and Welsh Election Studies 2021, revealed on 13 June, found that around a third of Scottish voters who decided to vote differently in the run-up to the election did so to stop another party, and that 90% of those who did this did so in a bid to prevent the SNP winning the seat. Rob Johns, Professor in Politics at the University of Essex, said: \"[W]e found a lot more switching than we had expected. The polls had suggested that not much was changing and obviously the overall election result was almost eerily similar to 2016. That can mean that nobody has changed their mind or it can mean lots of people have changed their mind – but these have cancelled out as people have moved in opposing directions. We found there was quite a lot more of that than we had expected.\"\n\nVoter demographics\nData from Savanta ComRes:\n\nCampaign spending\nAftermath\nNicola Sturgeon was nominated as First Minister by a vote of the parliament on 18 May 2021. Her cabinet was approved by the parliament two days later and thus the Third Sturgeon government, a minority government, was formed.\nOn 3 August 2021, it was reported that a co-operation agreement between the SNP and the Greens was \"on the brink of being finalised\" and could see Green MSPs take ministerial positions in government. On 19 August, the power-sharing agreement between the two parties was announced. Under the terms of the agreement, the Greens have two MSPs appointed as junior ministers in the government who are invited to attend cabinet meetings when their portfolios are being discussed. The Greens signed up to the bulk of the SNP's policies, but in areas of disagreement such as international relations and fee-paying schools the two parties are free to publicly disagree. The agreement states that the Greens support the government on votes of confidence and supply.\nA deal that would see Patrick Harvie and Lorna Slater made ministers was revealed on 26 August, subject to being voted upon by Green Party members. Two days later, members of both parties overwhelmingly voted in favour of the deal.\n\nSee also\nOther elections in the UK which were held on the same day:\n\n2021 London Assembly election\n2021 London mayoral election\n2021 Senedd election\n2021 United Kingdom local elections\n\nFootnotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nElection 2021 Archived 23 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine (on the Scottish Parliament website)",
"title": "2021_Scottish_Parliament_election"
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"paragraph_text": "The 2016 Scottish parliament election was held on Thursday, 5 May 2016 to elect 129 members to the Scottish Parliament. It was the fifth election held since the devolved parliament was established in 1999. It was the first parliamentary election in Scotland in which 16 and 17 year olds were eligible to vote, under the provisions of the Scottish Elections (Reduction of Voting Age) Act. It was also the first time the three largest parties were led by women.\nParliament went into dissolution on 24 March 2016, allowing the official period of campaigning to get underway. Five parties had MSPs in the previous parliament: Scottish National Party (SNP) led by First Minister Nicola Sturgeon, Scottish Labour led by Kezia Dugdale, Scottish Conservatives led by Ruth Davidson, Scottish Liberal Democrats led by Willie Rennie, Scottish Greens, led by their co-conveners Patrick Harvie and Maggie Chapman. Of those five parties, four changed their leader since the 2011 election.\nDuring the campaign, a series of televised debates took place, including party leaders of the elected parties. BBC Scotland held the first leaders' debate on 24 March, STV broadcast the next on 29 March, and BBC Scotland hosted the final debate on 1 May.\nThe election resulted in a hung parliament with the Scottish National Party winning a third term in government, but falling two seats short of securing a second consecutive overall majority. The Conservatives saw a significant increase in support and replaced the Labour Party as the second-largest party and main opposition in the Scottish Parliament. This was the first time that Labour had finished in third place at a Scottish election in 98 years. The Scottish Greens won six seats on the regional list and overtook the Liberal Democrats, who remained on five seats.\nAlthough the SNP had lost their majority, it was still by far the largest single party in the Scottish Parliament, with more than double the seats of the Conservatives. Accordingly, Sturgeon announced she would form a minority SNP government. She was voted in for a second term as First Minister on 17 May.\n\nDate\nUnder the Scotland Act 1998, an ordinary election to the Scottish Parliament would normally have been held on the first Thursday in May four years after the 2011 election, i.e. in May 2015. In May 2010, the new UK Government stated in its coalition agreement that the next general election would also be held in May 2015. This proposal was criticised by the Scottish National Party and Labour, as it had been recommended after the 2007 election that elections with different voting systems should be held on separate days: a recommendation which all of the political parties had then accepted. In response to this criticism, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg offered the right to vary the date of the Scottish Parliament election by a year either way. All the main political parties then stated their support for delaying the election by a year. The Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, a statute of the UK Parliament, moved the date of the Scottish Parliament election to 5 May 2016.\nThe date of the poll may be varied by up to one month either way by the monarch, on the proposal of the Presiding Officer.\nIf Parliament itself resolves that it should be dissolved, with at least two-thirds of the Members (i.e. 86 Members) voting in favour, the Presiding Officer proposes a date for an extraordinary election and the Parliament is dissolved by the monarch by royal proclamation.\nIt does not necessarily require a two-thirds majority to precipitate an extraordinary election, because under the Scotland Act Parliament is also dissolved if it fails to nominate one of its members to be First Minister within certain time limits, irrespective of whether at the beginning or in the middle of a parliamentary term. Therefore, if the First Minister resigned, Parliament would then have 28 days to elect a successor (s46(2)b and s46(3)a). If no new First Minister was elected then the Presiding Officer would ask for Parliament to be dissolved under s3(1)a. This process could also be triggered if the First Minister lost a vote of confidence by a simple majority (i.e. more than 50%), as they must then resign (Scotland Act 1998 s45(2)). To date the Parliament has never held a vote of no confidence in a First Minister.\nNo extraordinary elections have been held to date. Any extraordinary elections would be in addition to ordinary elections, unless held less than six months before the due date of an ordinary election, in which case they supplant it. The subsequent ordinary election reverts to the first Thursday in May, a multiple of four years after 1999.\nIt was envisaged that the election would still have taken place as scheduled if Scotland had voted in favour of independence in 2014.\n\nRetiring MSPs\nDeselected MSPs\nChanges to the SNP's selection procedures the previous year in order to ensure gender balance of candidates meant that any incumbent constituency MSP who chose to retire would have their replacement selected from an all-woman shortlist. The only ways for a new male candidate to receive a constituency nomination would be to stand in a constituency currently held by an opposition MSP or to run a de-selection campaign against a sitting MSP. For that reason there were far more challenges than normal within the SNP, but only two were successful:\n\nElection system, seats, and regions\nThe total number of Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs) elected to the Parliament is 129.\nThe First Periodical Review of the Scottish Parliament's constituencies and regions by the Boundary Commission for Scotland, was announced on 3 July 2007. The Commission published its provisional proposals for the regional boundaries in 2009.\nThe Scottish Parliament uses an Additional Members System, designed to produce approximate proportional representation for each region. There are 8 regions, each sub-divided into smaller constituencies. There are a total of 73 constituencies. Each constituency elects one MSP by the plurality (first past the post) system of election. Each region elects 7 additional MSPs using an additional member system. \nA modified D'Hondt method, using the constituency results, is used to elect these additional MSPs.\nThe Scottish Parliament constituencies have not been coterminous with Scottish Westminster constituencies since the 2005 general election, when the 72 former UK Parliament constituencies were replaced with a new set of 59, generally larger, constituencies (see Scottish Parliament (Constituencies) Act 2004). The boundaries used for the Scottish Parliament elections were then revised for the 2011 election. The Boundary Commission also recommended changes to the electoral regions used to elect \"list\" members of the Scottish Parliament, which were also implemented in 2011.\n\nCampaign\nOn 29 February 2016, BBC Scotland's Scotland 2016 current affairs programme held a debate focusing on education featuring the Education Minister Angela Constance and three party leaders: Kezia Dugdale, Ruth Davidson and Willie Rennie.\nOn 24 March 2016, BBC Scotland held a debate in Glasgow which was televised that featured Dugdale, Davidson, Rennie, Nicola Sturgeon, Patrick Harvie and David Coburn.\nOn 29 March 2016, STV hosted a televised leaders' debate, featuring the five leaders of the parties which held seats in the last Parliament.\nFrom 5–26 April 2016, Scotland 2016 also held a series of weekly subject debates on Tuesday nights. The subjects were Tax, Health, Energy & Environment, and Housing. Of these, six parties (SNP, Labour, Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, the Scottish Greens and UKIP) were invited to the Tax debate.\n\nParties contesting the election\nThe official nomination period closed on 1 April 2016, lists of candidates were then published by local councils once the applications had been processed.\nIn March 2015, the Scottish Greens balloted their members to select candidates for their regional lists. The SNP released their regional candidate list in October 2015. The Conservative regional candidate list followed in December. In January 2016, RISE – Scotland's Left Alliance announced list candidates for all regions except the North East. Labour had announced a new selection process for regional candidates in November 2013, then revealed their full list of regional candidates in February 2016. UKIP's regional candidates were picked by their executive committee, prompting one prospective candidate to resign his party membership.\n\nContesting constituency and regional ballot\nThe SNP, the Scottish Labour, the Scottish Conservatives and the Scottish Liberal Democrats fielded candidates in all 73 constituencies.\n\n Scottish National Party (SNP)\n Scottish Labour\n Scottish Conservatives\n Scottish Liberal Democrats\n Scottish Greens – contesting all regions and Coatbridge and Chryston, Edinburgh Central and Glasgow Kelvin constituencies.\n Scottish Libertarian Party − contesting West of Scotland, Mid Scotland Fife, North East Scotland region only and Edinburgh Central constituency\n\nContesting regional ballot only\nClydesdale and South Scotland Independent – contesting South Scotland\n Communist Party – contesting North East Scotland\n National Front – contesting North East Scotland only\n RISE – Respect, Independence, Socialism and Environmentalism – contesting all regions\n Scottish Christian Party \"Proclaiming Christ’s Lordship\" – contesting Highlands and Islands and North East\n Solidarity – Scotland's Socialist Movement – contesting all regions\n UK Independence Party – contesting all regions\n Women's Equality Party – contesting Lothian and Glasgow\n\nContesting constituency ballot only\nTrade Unionist and Socialist Coalition (TUSC): Glasgow Cathcart, Glasgow Pollok, Glasgow Shettleston, Renfrewshire North and West, Dundee City East and Dundee City West\n Independent candidates\n\nOpinion polling\nThe chart shows the relative state of the parties since polling began from 2012, until the date of the election. The constituency vote is shown as semi-transparent lines, while the regional vote is shown in full lines.\n\nResult\nVotes summary\nCentral Scotland\nGlasgow\nHighlands and Islands\nLothian\nMargo MacDonald had been elected on the Lothian regional list in 2011, as an Independent; she died in 2014.\n\nMid Scotland and Fife\nNorth East Scotland\nSouth Scotland\nWest Scotland\nTarget seats\nBelow are listed all the constituencies which required a swing of less than 5% from the 2011 result to change hands.\n\nSNP targets\nLabour targets\nConservative targets\nLiberal Democrat targets\nIncumbents defeated\n* Formerly SNP\n\nSee also\nOther elections in the UK being held on the same day\n2016 London Assembly election\n2016 London mayoral election\n2016 National Assembly for Wales election\n2016 Northern Ireland Assembly election\n2016 United Kingdom local elections\n\nUK parliamentary by-elections\n2016 Ogmore by-election\n2016 Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough by-election\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nMcNeill and Stone's Guide to candidates\nreport on 2016 election by Electoral Commission\n\nParty manifestos\nRISE – Scotland's Left Alliance: Another Scotland is possible\nScottish Conservatives: A strong opposition – A stronger Scotland\nScottish Green Party: A better Scotland needs a bolder Holyrood\nScottish Liberal Democrats: Be the best again\nScottish National Party: The next steps to a better Scotland\nUK Independence Party: Shake up Holyrood\nWomen's Equality Party: Scotland Manifesto",
"title": "2016_Scottish_Parliament_election"
}
] | How many more votes did the Conservatives receive in the Highlands and Islands region in the 2021 Scottish Parliamentary Elections than in 2016? | [] | 16,086 | [] | true |
119 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Office is an American mockumentary sitcom television series based on the 2001–2003 BBC series of the same name created by (and starring) Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant. Adapted for NBC by Greg Daniels, a veteran writer for Saturday Night Live, King of the Hill, and The Simpsons, the show depicts the everyday work lives of the office employees at Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company, and aired from March 24, 2005, to May 16, 2013, with a total of nine seasons consisting of 201 episodes. The show was co-produced by Daniels' Deedle-Dee Productions, Reveille Productions (later Shine America) and 3 Arts Entertainment (although uncredited) in association with Universal Television. The original executive producers were Daniels, Gervais, Merchant, Howard Klein and Ben Silverman, with numerous others being promoted in later seasons.\nLike its British counterpart, the series was filmed in a single-camera setup without a studio audience or a laugh track, to mirror the look of an actual documentary. It debuted on NBC as a mid-season replacement and ended its nine-season run on May 16, 2013, with a two-part series finale. Its original main cast was Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, Jenna Fischer, and B. J. Novak. It experienced numerous changes to its ensemble cast during its run. Stars outside the original main cast include Ed Helms, Rashida Jones, Amy Ryan, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, James Spader, Ellie Kemper, and Catherine Tate.\nThe Office received moderately positive reviews from critics (except for the pilot episode which received mixed reviews) during its short first season, but the following seasons, particularly Carell's performance, received significant acclaim from television critics as the show's characters, content, structure, and tone diverged considerably from the original British series. These seasons were included on several critics' year-end top TV series lists, winning several awards including a Peabody Award in 2006, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, a Golden Globe Award for Carell's performance, and four Primetime Emmy Awards, including one for Outstanding Comedy Series, in 2006. The eighth season was criticized for declining quality, with Carell's departure in season seven seen as a contributing factor. However, the ninth and final season ended the series with a generally positive response. The series finale, which originally aired on May 16, 2013, was viewed by an estimated 5.7 million viewers and garnered critical acclaim. In 2016, Rolling Stone named The Office one of the 100 greatest television shows of all time.\n\nProduction\nCrew\nGreg Daniels developed the British Office series for American television and served as the showrunner for the first four seasons. He then left the position when he co-created the comedy series Parks and Recreation with fellow Office writer Michael Schur and divided his time between both series. Paul Lieberstein and Jennifer Celotta were named the showrunners for the fifth season. Celotta left the series after the sixth season and Lieberstein stayed on as showrunner for the following two seasons. He left the showrunner spot after the eighth season for the potential Dwight Schrute spin-off, The Farm, which was eventually passed on by NBC. Daniels returned to the showrunner position for the ninth and final season. Other executive producers include cast members B. J. Novak and Mindy Kaling. Kaling, Novak, Daniels, Lieberstein and Schur made up the original team of writers. Kaling, Novak, and Lieberstein also served multiple roles on the series, as they played regular characters on the show, as well as wrote, directed, and produced episodes. Credited with twenty-four episodes, Kaling is the most prolific writer among the staff. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, who created the original British series, are credited as executive producers and wrote both pilot and the third-season episode \"The Convict\". Merchant later directed the episode \"Customer Survey\", while Gervais appeared in the episodes \"The Seminar\" and \"Search Committee\", reprising his role as David Brent from the British series.\nRandall Einhorn is the most frequent director of the series, with 15 credited episodes. The series also had several guest directors, including Lost co-creator J. J. Abrams, Buffy the Vampire Slayer creator Joss Whedon, both of whom are fans of the series, and filmmakers Jon Favreau, Harold Ramis, Jason Reitman, and Marc Webb. Episodes have been directed by several of the actors on the show including Steve Carell, Rainn Wilson, John Krasinski, B. J. Novak, Ed Helms, Brian Baumgartner, Mindy Kaling and Paul Lieberstein.\n\nDevelopment and writing\nBefore the second episode airing, the writers spent time conducting research in offices. This process was used for Daniels' other series King of the Hill and Parks and Recreation. The pilot is a direct adaptation of the first episode of the original British series. Daniels chose to go this route because \"completely starting from scratch would be a very risky thing to do\" owing to the show being an adaptation. He had briefly considered using the idea for \"The Dundies\" as the pilot episode. After the writers knew who the cast was, they were allowed to write for the actors, which allowed the show to be more original for the following episode, \"Diversity Day\". Following the mixed reaction toward the first season, the writers attempted to make the series more \"optimistic\" and to make Michael Scott more likable. They also established the supporting characters of the series more, giving them relatable personalities. They also made the lights in the office brighter, which allowed the series to differentiate itself from the British series.\nA common issue with the scripts, according to Novak, is that they tended to run too long for the regular 22-minute time slot, leading to several cuts. For example, the script for the episode \"Search Committee\" was initially 75 pages, which was 10 pages too long. A complete script was written for each episode; however, actors were given opportunities to improvise during filming. Fischer said, \"Our shows are 100 percent scripted. They put everything down on paper. But we get to play around a little bit, too. Steve and Rainn are brilliant improvisers.\". These improvisations led to a large number of deleted scenes with almost every episode of The Office, all of which are considered part of the show's canon and storyline by Daniels. Deleted scenes have sometimes been restored in repeats to make episodes longer or draw back people who have seen the episode before to see the bonus footage. In an experiment, a deleted scene from \"The Return\" was made available over NBC.com and iTunes, explaining the absence of a character over the next several episodes. Daniels hoped that word of mouth among fans would spread the information, but he eventually considered the experiment a failure.\n\nCasting\nAccording to Jenna Fischer, the series used an unusual casting process that did not involve a script. For example, the producers asked the actors several questions and they responded as the characters they were auditioning for. NBC programmer Kevin Reilly originally suggested Paul Giamatti to producer Ben Silverman for the role of Michael Scott, but the actor declined. Martin Short, Hank Azaria and Bob Odenkirk were reported to be interested in the part.\nIn January 2004, Variety reported that Steve Carell, of the Comedy Central program The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, was in talks to play the role. At the time, he was already committed to another NBC midseason replacement comedy, Come to Papa, but the series was quickly canceled, allowing his full commitment to The Office. Carell later said that he had only seen about half of the original pilot episode of the British series before he auditioned. He did not continue watching for fear that he would start copying Gervais' characterizations. Other people who were considered or auditioned for the role included Ben Falcone, Alan Tudyk, Jim Zulevic, and Paul F. Tompkins. Rainn Wilson was cast as power-hungry sycophant Dwight Schrute, and he watched every episode of the British series before he auditioned. Wilson had originally auditioned for Michael, a performance that he described as a \"terrible Ricky Gervais impersonation\"; however, the casting directors liked his audition as Dwight much more and hired him. Seth Rogen, Matt Besser, Patton Oswalt, and Judah Friedlander also auditioned for the role. Carell was later joined by his wife Nancy Carell when she was cast to play Carol Stills, a love interest of Michael Scott. When asked what it was like working with her husband, Carell said she was intimidated at first as she had retired from acting years prior, but they had so much fun together.\n\nJohn Krasinski and Jenna Fischer were cast in their respective roles as Jim and Pam, the main love interests. Krasinski attended school with B. J. Novak, where the two were best friends. Before Krasinski landed the role, he considered quitting acting. He discussed on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert that he moved to New York City and gave himself two to three years for his acting career to succeed or he would quit. He did not enjoy waiting tables and struggling to find roles, but his mom told him to wait it out until the end of the year. He booked his role in The Office just three weeks later.\nFischer prepared for her audition by looking as boring as possible, creating the original Pam hairstyle. In an interview on NPR's Fresh Air, she recalled the last stages of the audition process for Pam and Jim, where the producers paired up the potential Pams and Jims (four of each) to gauge their chemistry. When Fischer finished her scene with Krasinski, he told her that she was his favorite Pam, to which she reciprocated that he was her favorite Jim. Adam Scott and John Cho both auditioned for the role of Jim, and Kathryn Hahn also auditioned for the role of Pam.\nThe supporting cast includes actors known for their improv work: Angela Kinsey, Kate Flannery, Oscar Nunez, Leslie David Baker, Brian Baumgartner, Melora Hardin and David Denman. Kinsey originally auditioned for Pam. The producers thought she was \"too feisty\" for the character, but called her back for the part of Angela Martin, which she won. Flannery first auditioned for the part of Jan Levinson-Gould before landing the role of Meredith Palmer.\nBaumgartner originally auditioned for Stanley, but was eventually cast as Kevin. Ken Kwapis, the director of the pilot episode, liked the way Phyllis Smith, a casting associate, read with other actors auditioning so much that he cast her as Phyllis. At the beginning of the third season, Ed Helms and Rashida Jones joined the cast as members of Dunder Mifflin Stamford. Jones later left the cast, becoming a regular on Parks and Recreation in February 2007, and NBC announced that Helms was being promoted to a series regular.\nFour of the show's writers have also appeared in the show. B. J. Novak was cast as the reluctant temp Ryan Howard after Daniels saw his stand-up act. Paul Lieberstein was cast as human resources director Toby Flenderson on Novak's suggestion after his cold readings of scripts. Greg Daniels was originally unsure where to use Mindy Kaling on-screen until the opportunity came in the script for the second episode, \"Diversity Day\", where Michael needed to be slapped by a minority. \"Since [that slap], I've been on the show\" (as Kelly Kapoor), Kaling said. Michael Schur has also made several guest appearances as Dwight's cousin Mose, and consulting producer Larry Wilmore has played diversity trainer Mr. Brown.\nPlans were made for Mackenzie Crook, Martin Freeman and Lucy Davis, from the British series, to appear in the third season, but scheduling conflicts prevented them; however, Ricky Gervais made two appearances in the show's seventh season as David Brent.\n\nFilming\nThe Office was filmed with a single-camera setup in cinéma vérité style to create the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track, allowing its \"deadpan\" and \"absurd\" humor to fully come across. The show's primary premise is that a camera crew is filming Dunder Mifflin and its employees, seemingly around the clock. The presence of the camera is acknowledged by the characters, especially Michael Scott, who enthusiastically participates in the filming. The characters, especially Jim and Pam, also look towards the camera when Michael creates an awkward situation. The show's main action is supplemented with talking-head interviews or \"confessionals\" where characters speak one-on-one with the camera. Actor John Krasinski shot the footage of Scranton for the opening credits when he found out he was cast as Jim. He visited Scranton for research and interviewed employees at actual paper companies.\nTo create the show's documentary style, the producers hired cinematographer Randall Einhorn, known for directing episodes of Survivor, who gave the show its \"rough and jumpy\" feel. This was facilitated by the main set's open floor plan, purposely designed by showrunner Daniels, production designer Donald Lee Harris (Matt Flynn became production designer later), and pilot director Ken Kwapis to allow camera operators to catch characters \"unaware\". Unlike most sets, the office layout was built with immovable walls to emphasize its airless, claustrophobic atmosphere—\"trapping\" the documentary film crew with the characters.\nProducer Michael Schur said that the series would strictly follow the documentary format. The producers and directors had long discussions on how scenes could work in the documentary format. For example, in the fourth-season episode \"Did I Stutter?\", a scene featured Michael going through a long process to go to the bathroom without passing Stanley. The producers debated whether it was possible, and Einhorn walked through the scene to see if a camera operator could get everywhere to shoot the whole scene. Later seasons relaxed the format, with the camera crew often going where actual documentary crews would not. This also changed the series' writing and comedy styles, an inconsistency criticized by some reviewers and fans.\n\nMusic\nWhen it came to choosing the theme music for The Office, producer Greg Daniels had several tracks he was thinking of using: existing songs including \"Better Things\" by The Kinks, \"Float On\" by Modest Mouse, and \"Mr. Blue Sky\" by Electric Light Orchestra, and several original pieces artists contributed to the producers via a cattle call. Daniels decided that the cast would vote on what song to use and gave them four of the choices. Most of them wanted \"Mr. Blue Sky\", but that option turned out to be invalid as it was already used in the drama series LAX (2004–2005). Thus, the final choice was an original track written by Jay Ferguson and performed by The Scrantones.\nThe theme is played over the title sequence, which features scenes of Scranton, various tasks around the office, and the main cast members. Some episodes of the series use a shortened version of the theme song. Starting with the fourth season, the theme song is played over the closing credits, which previously rolled in silence. Ferguson described his theme as \"against type; it has this vulnerability, this yearning to it that soon explodes into this overdone optimism which then gets crushed - which is pretty much what the show is about.\"\nThe mockumentary format of the show contains no laugh track, and most of the music is diegetic, with songs either sung or played by the characters or heard on radios, computers, or other devices; however, songs have been played during montages or the closing credits, such as \"Tiny Dancer\" by Elton John (\"The Dundies\") and \"Islands in the Stream\" by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton (\"E-mail Surveillance\"). Featured music tends to be well known, and often songs reflect the character, such as Michael's attempt to seem hip by using \"Mambo No. 5\" and later \"My Humps\" as his cell phone ringtone. Michael confusing Lady Gaga's \"Just Dance\" with Britney Spears' \"Gimme More\" is another example of this. Daniels has said that it does not count as film score as long as it already appeared in the episode.\n\nCharacters\nThe Office features an ensemble cast.\nMany of its characters are based on characters in the original British series. While these characters generally have the same attitudes and perceptions as their British counterparts, the roles were modified to fit the American show. The show is known for its relatively large cast, and many of its actors and actresses are known particularly for their improvisational work.\nSteve Carell stars as Michael Scott, regional manager of the Dunder Mifflin Scranton Branch. Loosely based on David Brent, Gervais' character in the British series, Scott is a well-intentioned man whose oblivious attempts at humor often offend and annoy his peers and employees, and sometimes draw reprimands from his superiors. Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute, based on Gareth Keenan, who is a salesman and the Assistant to the Regional Manager, an imaginary title created by Michael.\nJohn Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert, a salesman and, in later seasons, assistant manager or co-manager who is known for his wittiness and his practical jokes on Dwight. Halpert is based upon Tim Canterbury and, at the start of the series, is known to have feelings for receptionist Pam Beesly, who is engaged to warehouse worker Roy. Pam, played by Jenna Fischer, is based on Dawn Tinsley. She is shy but often collaborates with Jim in his pranks on Dwight.\nB. J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard, who for the first two seasons is a temporary worker but is promoted to a sales representative in the third season. He later ascends to be the company's youngest vice president, North East Region, and director of new media until his innovations are exposed as corporate fraud and he is fired. He then gets a job in a bowling alley and later briefly works for the Michael Scott Paper Company. After this and a stint in rehab, he again eventually ends up as a temporary worker at the Scranton branch.\nThe accounting department includes Angela Martin (Angela Kinsey), an uptight and ultra-religious woman who likes to keep things orderly and make sure situations remain as businesslike as possible; Kevin Malone (Brian Baumgartner), a lovable but dim-witted man who revels in juvenile humor and frequently indulges in gambling; and Oscar Martinez (Oscar Nuñez), who is intelligent and cultured, but often patronizing, and whose homosexuality and Hispanic heritage made him a frequent target of Michael's unintentional off-color comments.\nRounding out the office are the laconic salesman Stanley Hudson (Leslie David Baker), who cannot stand Michael's constant references to his Black American heritage (he also does not like to take part in time-wasting meetings and often solves crossword puzzles or sleeps during them); the matronly saleswoman Phyllis Lapin (Phyllis Smith), who dates and then marries Bob Vance (Robert R. Shafer) from Vance Refrigeration, a company whose office is across the hall from Dunder Mifflin; eccentric quality assurance representative Creed Bratton, who has a mysterious criminal history; Andy Bernard (Ed Helms), a salesman from the Stamford, Connecticut branch of Dunder Mifflin introduced in season three who transfers to the Scranton branch after the two offices merge; the shallow and talkative customer service representative Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling); the promiscuous alcoholic supply relations representative Meredith Palmer (Kate Flannery); human resources representative Toby Flenderson (Paul Lieberstein), who is loathed, and often the target of abuse, by Michael; warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin (Craig Robinson); warehouse dock worker and Pam's fiancé Roy Anderson (David Denman), who is fired in the third season for attacking Jim; and the vice president for regional sales for Dunder Mifflin Jan Levinson (Melora Hardin), who later becomes Michael's rather toxic love interest.\nToward the end of season five, the bubbly and naive Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) is introduced as Pam's replacement at the reception and develops a unique bond with Michael when he becomes almost a father figure in her life. A story arc at the end of season four has Holly Flax (Amy Ryan) transferred to the office as Toby's replacement. She becomes a love interest for Michael, as they share very similar personality traits. Jo Bennett (Kathy Bates) is the CEO of Sabre. This company takes over Dunder Mifflin, and Gabe Lewis (Zach Woods), introduced in the middle of season six, is a Sabre employee who is assigned to the Dunder Mifflin Scranton branch as the regional director of sales. In season seven, Bennett's friend Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) is interviewed to replace Scott and later serves as a replacement regional manager for Bernard in season eight after Robert California (James Spader) has become the new CEO of Sabre. In season nine, Clark Green (Clark Duke) and Pete Miller (Jake Lacy) join as new customer service representatives who attempt to catch up on the ignored customer service complaints that Kelly has neglected while working at Dunder Mifflin. Clark is later moved to sales.\nInitially, the actors who portray the supporting office workers were credited as guest stars, but then were named series regulars during the second season. The show's large ensemble was mainly praised by critics and led to the series winning two Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series.\nCarell was reportedly paid $175,000 per episode starting in the third season. Krasinski and Fischer were paid around $20,000 at the beginning of the series, and around $100,000 per episode by the fourth season.\n\nSeason synopses\nA typical episode for a half-hour time slot runs 20+1⁄2 minutes. The final episode of season two introduced the first of what would be several \"super-sized\" episodes that had an approximately 28-minute running time for a 40-minute time slot. Season three introduced the first of occasional hour-long episodes (approximately 42-minute running time, also suitable for being shown as two separate normal episodes in reruns).\n\nSeason 1 (2005)\nThe first season consists of six episodes; the shortest season of the series.\nThe series starts by introducing Dunder Mifflin's employees via a tour given by branch manager Michael Scott for both a documentary camera crew and first-day temp Ryan Howard. Salesman Jim Halpert has a crush on receptionist Pam Beesly, who helps him play pranks on co-worker Dwight Schrute, even though she is engaged to Roy Anderson, who works in the company's downstairs warehouse. Rumors spread throughout the office that Dunder Mifflin's corporate headquarters is planning to downsize an entire branch, leading to general anxiety. Still, Michael chooses to deny or downplay the realities of the situation to maintain employee morale.\n\nSeason 2 (2005–2006)\nThe second season is the series' first 22-episode season and has its first 28-minute \"super-sized\" episode.\nMany workers seen in the background of the first season are developed into secondary characters and romantic relationships begin to develop between some of them. Michael makes out with and then spends the night with his boss, Jan Levinson, but does not have sex with her. Dwight and Angela become romantically involved, but keep their relationship a secret. Kelly Kapoor develops a crush on Ryan, and they start dating off and on. When Roy finally agrees to set a date for his wedding to Pam, at a company booze cruise, Jim grows depressed and considers transferring to the Stamford, Connecticut branch, but tells Pam in the season finale that he is in love with her. Even though Pam insists she is with Roy, the two kiss, and Jim transfers to the Stamford branch soon after. The general threat of downsizing continues throughout the season as well.\n\nSeason 3 (2006–2007)\nThe third season consists of 17 half-hour episodes, four 40-minute \"super-sized\" episodes, and two one-hour episodes. The total number of episodes is 25.\nThe season starts with a brief flashback to (and additional footage from) the last episode of season two, \"Casino Night\", when Jim kissed Pam and confessed his feelings for her. Jim briefly transfers to Dunder Mifflin's Stamford branch after Pam confirms her commitment to Roy. Corporate is later forced to merge the Stamford branch with the Scranton branch. Michael takes this merger very seriously. Transferred to the Scranton branch are saleswoman Karen Filippelli, whom Jim has begun dating, and the anger-prone preppy salesman Andy Bernard, along with other Stamford employees who all eventually quit within the first few episodes of being there. Pam is newly single after calling off her engagement to Roy, and Jim's unresolved feelings for her and his new relationship with Karen lead to shifting tensions between the three. Meanwhile, Michael and Jan's relationship escalates, which causes them to behave erratically on the job. On the other hand, Dwight and Angela continue their steamy secret relationship. In the season's finale, Jim, Karen, and Michael interview for a corporate position that turns out to be Jan's, who is fired for poor performance. Jim is offered the job but rejects it off-screen, opting instead to remain in Scranton without Karen and ask Pam out on a date, which she joyfully accepts. In the final scene, we learn Ryan has been awarded Jan's job.\n\nSeason 4 (2007–2008)\nNBC ordered a fourth full season of thirty half-hour episodes but ended with only 19 due to a halt in production caused by the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The season consists of nine half-hour and five hour-long episodes for a total of 19 episodes of material created.\nKaren has left the Scranton branch after her breakup with Jim and becomes the regional manager at the Utica branch. A self-employed Jan moves herself and her candle business into Michael's condo, until the dissolution of their relationship midway through the season during an intimate dinner party including Pam, Jim, Andy, Angela and Dwight. This episode showcases what has become a very toxic and unhealthy relationship between Michael and Jan. After Dwight's crude (though well-intentioned) method of euthanasia of Angela's ailing cat without her permission, she leaves him for Andy, leading Dwight into depression. Ryan, in his new corporate life in New York City, attempts to modernize Dunder Mifflin with a new website for online sales; he also learns that his boss, David Wallace, favors Jim, and thus Ryan attempts to sabotage Jim's career. Ryan is soon arrested and fired for misleading the shareholders and committing fraud related to the website's sales numbers. Toby announces he is moving to Costa Rica and is replaced by Holly Flax, who quickly shows a liking for Michael. Pam decides to follow her artistic interests and is accepted to attend a three-month graphic design course at the Pratt Institute in New York City. In the season finale, Jim almost proposes to Pam but is interrupted by Andy proposing to Angela, who reluctantly agrees. Phyllis then catches Dwight and Angela having sex in the office.\n\nSeason 5 (2008–2009)\nThe fifth season consists of 28 half-hours of material, divided into 24 half-hour episodes and two hour-long episodes, one of which aired after Super Bowl XLIII.\nJim proposes to Pam at a gas station halfway between Scranton and New York City, where they meet for a visit. Pam ultimately returns from New York to Scranton, where Jim has bought his parents' house for the two of them. Having avoided jail and only been sentenced to community service, Ryan bleaches his hair and starts working at a bowling alley. Michael initiates a romance with Holly until she is transferred to the Nashua, New Hampshire branch, Toby returns to Scranton to replace Holly, and their relationship ends. When Andy is made aware of Dwight and Angela's continued affair, both men leave her. Newly hired Vice President Charles Miner implements a rigid managerial style over the branch that causes Michael to resign in protest. Michael opens the Michael Scott Paper Company in the same office building, enticing Pam and Ryan to join as salespeople, and though his business model is ultimately unsustainable, Dunder Mifflin's profits are immediately threatened. In a buyout of the Michael Scott Paper Company, the three are rehired with Pam promoted to sales and Ryan returning as a temp. During the chaos a new receptionist, Erin, is hired to fill the vacancy originally left by Pam. The season ends with a scene that subtly alludes to Pam's (unplanned) pregnancy.\n\nSeason 6 (2009–2010)\nThe sixth season consists of 26 half-hours of material, divided into 22 half-hour episodes and two hour-long episodes.\nJim and Pam marry and have a baby named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Meanwhile, Andy and Erin develop an interest in each other, but find their inherent awkwardness inhibits his attempts to ask her out on a date during a murder-mystery game meant to distract the members of the office. Jim is promoted as co-manager. Rumors of bankruptcy begin to surround Dunder Mifflin, and by Christmas, Wallace announces to the branch that Dunder Mifflin has accepted a buyout from Sabre Corporation, a printer company. While Wallace and other executives are let go, the Scranton office survives due to its relative success within the company. Michael Scott is now the highest-level employee at Dunder Mifflin. In the season finale, Dwight buys the office park. Michael agrees to make an announcement to the press regarding a case of faulty printers. When Jo Bennett, Sabre CEO, asks how she can repay him, Michael responds that she could bring Holly back to the Scranton branch.\n\nSeason 7 (2010–2011)\nThe seventh season consists of 26 half-hours of material, divided into 21 half-hour episodes, one \"super-sized\" episode, and two hour-long episodes.\nThis was the final season for Steve Carell, who plays Michael Scott, as NBC did not renew Carell's contract. Beginning with this season, Zach Woods, who portrays Gabe Lewis, was promoted to a series regular. Erin and Gabe have begun a relationship, much to Andy's chagrin, and Andy attempts to win Erin's affection back. Holly, Michael's former girlfriend, returns to Scranton to fill in for Toby, who is on jury duty for the \"Scranton Strangler\" trial. Michael and Holly eventually restart their relationship. After the two get engaged, Michael reveals he will be leaving Scranton to move to Colorado with Holly to support her elderly parents. Jim and Pam adjust to parenthood, while Angela starts dating state senator Robert Lipton and gets engaged off-screen in the season finale. After Michael's replacement Deangelo (Will Ferrell) is seriously injured on the job, Jo creates a search committee to interview candidates and choose a new manager for the office. In the meantime, Dwight Schrute, and later Creed Bratton, took over as acting manager.\n\nSeason 8 (2011–2012)\nThe eighth season consists of 24 episodes.\nJames Spader joins the cast as Robert California, the new CEO of Dunder Mifflin/Sabre. Andy is then promoted to regional manager and works hard to make a good impression on Robert, asking Dwight to be his number two. Pam and Jim are expecting their second child, Phillip, at the start of the season, to coincide with Fischer's real-life pregnancy. Angela is also pregnant with her first son, also named Philip, with State Senator Robert Lipton (although it is implied that Dwight Schrute is the child's biological father). Darryl starts falling for the new warehouse foreman, Val. Dwight is tasked with traveling to Tallahassee, Florida, to assist Sabre special projects manager Nellie Bertram (Catherine Tate) in launching a chain of retail stores, along with Jim, Ryan, Stanley, Erin, and new office temp Cathy Simms. Cathy is also revealed to have ulterior motives for the trip, as she intends to seduce Jim. Still, she fails. Robert later kills the retail store project, and Erin decides to stay in Florida as an elderly woman's live-in helper. Andy goes to Florida to win back Erin, allowing Nellie to claim the manager position as her own. Robert tells Andy that he has been demoted back to a salesman, but Andy refuses to accept the news, which causes him to be fired. Andy becomes motivated to begin a Dunder Mifflin comeback and joins with former CFO David Wallace, now a millionaire, to repurchase Dunder Mifflin from Sabre, putting Sabre completely out of business and giving Andy the manager position once again.\n\nSeason 9 (2012–2013)\nThe final season consists of 25 episodes.\nAndy, recently returning from Outward Bound manager training, reverts to his arrogant earlier season personality, abandoning both Erin and the office to travel around the Caribbean with his brother in their sailboat after his parents' relationship's demise. In his absence, Erin strikes up a romance with new customer service rep Pete, who, along with another new customer service rep Clark, replaces Kelly, leaving for Ohio with her new husband. (Ryan also moves to Ohio for \"unrelated reasons.\") Meanwhile, Jim receives an exciting opportunity from an old college friend who offers him a job at Athlead, a Philadelphia sports marketing company. Darryl also jumps on board, but the distance and dedication to Athlead hurt Jim's relationship with Pam. Angela must deal with her husband's infidelity with Oscar. She also deals with her lingering attraction to Dwight, who inherits his family's beet farm. Dwight receives more good news when David Wallace handpicks him to be the new manager after Andy quits to pursue an acting career, which quickly ends when he embarrasses himself at an American Idol-like a cappella singing competition that turns into a viral web sensation. Dwight later makes Jim his assistant to the regional manager, and the two officially end their grudge.\nAfter Jim reconciles with Pam, choosing to stay in Scranton over Philadelphia, Dwight professes his love for Angela and finally marries her. In the series finale, which takes place one year after the release of the documentary that was shot during the entire series, the employees reunite for Dwight and Angela's wedding, for which Michael returns to serve as the best man (with help from Jim who was the person Dwight first asked to be best man). Kelly and Ryan run away together, Nellie now lives in Poland and \"adopts\" Ryan's abandoned baby, Erin meets her birth parents, Andy gets a job at Cornell, Stanley retires to Florida, Kevin and Toby are both fired—the former buying a bar, the latter moving to New York City to become an author, and Oscar runs for the State Senate. Jim and Pam, at her persuasion, move to Austin, Texas to open a new branch of Athleap (previously Athlead) with Darryl (Dwight \"fires\" them to give them both severance packages), and Creed is arrested for his many crimes.\n\nProduct placement\nThe Office has had product placement deals with Staples and Olympic balers, as well as mentioning in dialogue or displaying clear logos for products such as Sandals Resorts, HP, Apple, and Gateway computers, and Activision's Call of Duty video game series. In certain versions of \"The Merger\", Kevin Malone uses a Staples-branded shredding machine to shred a Staples-branded CD-R and many other nonpaper items, including a salad. Cisco Systems, a supplier of networking and telephone equipment, paid for product placement, which can be seen on close-up shots of the Cisco IP telephones. Some products have additional branding labels attached; this can be clearly seen with the HP photo printer on Toby's desk in season 6, and less noticeably with the Cisco phones. In \"The Secret\" Michael takes Jim to Hooters to discuss Jim's feelings for Pam.\nMany products featured are not part of product placement agreements but rather inserted by writers as products the characters would use to create realism under the guise of a documentary. Chili's restaurants were used for filming in \"The Dundies\" and \"The Client\", as the writers believed they were realistic choices for a company party and business lunch. Though not an explicit product placement, the producers of the show had to allow Chili's to have final approval of the script before filming, causing a scene of \"The Dundies\" to be hastily rewritten when the chain objected to the original version. Wegmans, a supermarket chain based out of Rochester, New York has had a working relationship with the show since the fall of 2007. Wegmans cereal, popcorn and cans of Wegmans soda have discreetly popped up in many episodes since then. Apple Inc. received over four minutes of publicity for the iPod when it was used as a much-desired gift in \"Christmas Party\", though the company did not pay for the placement. The travel website TripAdvisor was featured during Season 4 when after a visit to Dwight's \"agritourism\" bed and breakfast, Schrute Farms, Jim and Pam post an online review about their stay. The show reportedly approached the travel review website about using their name on the show and TripAdvisor set up a review page for the fictional B&B, which itself received hundreds of reviews. The appearance of Second Life in the episode \"Local Ad\" was rated eighth in the top ten most effective product placements of 2007.\n\nReception and legacy\nCritical reviews and commentary\nBefore the show aired, Ricky Gervais acknowledged that there were feelings of hesitation from certain viewers. The first season of The Office was met with a mixed response from critics with some of them comparing it to the short-lived NBC series Coupling, which was also based on a British version. The New York Daily News called it \"so diluted there's little left but muddy water,\" and USA Today called it a \"passable imitation of a miles-better BBC original.\" A Guardian Unlimited review panned its lack of originality, stating that Steve Carell \"just seems to be trying too hard.... Maybe in later episodes when it deviates from Gervais and Merchant's script, he'll come into his own. But right now he's a pale imitation.\" Tom Shales of The Washington Post said it was \"not the mishmash that [the Americanized version of Coupling] turned out to be, but again the quality of the original show causes the remake to look dim, like when the copying machine is just about to give out.\"\n\nThe second season was better received. James Poniewozik of Time remarked, \"Producer Greg Daniels created not a copy but an interpretation that sends up distinctly American work conventions ... with a tone that's more satiric and less mordant... The new boss is different from the old boss, and that's fine by me.\" He named it the second-best TV show of 2006 after Battlestar Galactica. Entertainment Weekly writer Mark Harris echoed these sentiments a week later, stating, \"Thanks to the fearless Steve Carell, an ever-stronger supporting cast, and scripts that spew American corporate absurdist vernacular with perfect pitch, this undervalued remake does the near-impossible—it honors Ricky Gervais' original and works on its own terms.\" The A.V. Club reviewer Nathan Rabin expressed its views on the show's progression: \"After a rocky start, The Office improved immeasurably, instantly becoming one of TV's funniest, sharpest shows. The casting of Steve Carell in the Gervais role proved to be a masterstroke. The American Office is that rarest of anomalies: a remake of a classic show that both does right by its source and carves out its own strong identity.\"\nThe series has been included on several top TV series lists. The show placed #61 on Entertainment Weekly's \"New TV Classics\" list. Time's James Poniewozik named it the second-best TV series of 2006, and the sixth-best returning series of 2007, out of ten TV series. He also included it on his \"The 100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME\" list. The show was also named the best show of 2006 by BuddyTV. while Paste named it the sixth-best sitcom of 2010. In 2013 the Writers Guild of America placed it at No. 66 on their list of 101 Best Written TV Series. In 2019, the series was ranked 32nd on The Guardian's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century.\nThe show has some superficial similarities to the comic strip Dilbert, which also features employees coping with an inept superior. John Spector, CEO of The Conference Board, says that they both show the impact a leader can have, for good or bad. Dilbert creator Scott Adams also touts the similarities: \"The lesson from The Office and from Dilbert is that people are often dysfunctional, and no amount of training can fix it.\" A labor-affiliated group, American Rights at Work (ARAW), praised the second-season episode \"Boys and Girls\" for what it considered an unusually frank depiction of union busting on American television. Metacritic, a review aggregation website, graded only the first, third, sixth, and final seasons; however, it denoted that all four of them received \"generally favorable reviews\" from critics, awarding a 61, 85, 78, and 64 score—out of 100—to each of them, respectively. It later named it the thirteenth most mentioned series on \"Best of Decade\" top-ten lists.\n\nThe last few seasons were criticized for a dip in quality. The sixth season received criticisms for a lack of stakes for the characters, particularly Jim and Pam. The Office co-creator Ricky Gervais wrote in his blog, referring to \"Search Committee,\" particularly Warren Buffett's guest appearance, \"If you're going to jump a shark, jump a big one,\" and compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais' other series, Extras (although he later said on his website, \"I fucking didn't [diss The Office], that's for sure\"). Some critics said the series should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell. In an IAmA interview on Reddit, Rainn Wilson felt that the eighth season possessed some mistakes \"creatively,\" such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms, which he called \"a bit dark\" and argued that the show should have gone for a \"brighter and more energized\" relationship. Despite this, there are later-series episodes that have received critical acclaim, including \"Niagara\", \"Garage Sale\", \"Goodbye, Michael\", \"Dwight Christmas\", \"A.A.R.M.\", and \"Finale\".\n\nAwards\nThe series received 42 Primetime Emmy Awards nominations, with five wins. It won for Outstanding Comedy Series in season two, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series (Greg Daniels for \"Gay Witch Hunt\"), Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series (Jeffrey Blitz for \"Stress Relief\"), and Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series (David Rogers and Claire Scanlon for \"Finale\"). Many cast and crew members have expressed anger that Carell did not receive an Emmy award for his performance in the series. Despite this, Carell won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Comedy or Musical in 2006. The series was also named the best TV series by the American Film Institute in 2006 and 2008, won two Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2006 and 2007 and won a Peabody Award in 2006.\n\nRatings\nPremiering on Thursday, March 24, 2005, with a \"preview\" episode, after an episode of The Apprentice on NBC, The Office brought in 11.2 million viewers in the U.S., winning its time slot. When NBC moved the series to its intended Tuesday night slot for its official series premiere, it lost nearly half its audience with only 5.9 million viewers. The program averaged 5.4 million viewers, ranking it #102 for the 2004–05 U.S. television season. \"Hot Girl,\" the first season's finale, rated a 2.2 with a 10 audience measurement share. Episodes were also rerun on CNBC on April 1 and April 24, 2005.\nAs the second season started, the success of Carell's hit summer movie The 40-Year-Old Virgin and online sales of episodes at iTunes helped the show. The increase in viewership led NBC to move the series to the \"Must See TV\" Thursday night in January 2006, where ratings continued to grow. By the 2005–06 season, it placed #67 (tied with 20/20). It averaged 8 million viewers with a 4.0/10 rating/share among viewers ages 18–49, and was up 80% in viewers from the year before and up 60% in viewers ages 18–49. The series ranked as NBC's highest rated scripted series during its run. The highest rated episode of the series was \"Stress Relief,\" which was watched by 22.9 million viewers. This episode was aired right after Super Bowl XLIII. While later seasons dropped in the ratings, the show was still one of NBC's highest rated shows, and in October 2011 it was reported that it cost $178,840 per 30-second commercial, the most for any NBC scripted series. The series was also the most streamed of 2020, with 57 billion minutes watched in the United States.\n\nNielsen ratings\nCultural impact\nThe city of Scranton, long known mainly for its industrial past as a coal mining and rail center, has embraced, and ultimately has been redefined by the show. \"We're really hip now,\" said the mayor's assistant. The Dunder Mifflin logo is on a lamppost banner in front of Scranton City Hall, as well as the pedestrian bridge to The Mall at Steamtown. The Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company, whose tower is shown in the opening credits, plans to add it to the tower as well. Newspapers in other Northeastern cities have published travel guides to Scranton locations for tourists interested in visiting places mentioned in the show. Scranton has become identified with the show outside the United States as well. In a 2008 St. Patrick's Day speech in its suburb of Dickson City, former Taoiseach (the Irish Head of Government) Bertie Ahern identified the city as the home of Dunder Mifflin.\nThe inaugural The Office convention was held downtown in October 2007. Landmarks, some of which have been settings for the show, that served as venues include the University of Scranton, the Radisson Lackawanna Station Hotel and the Mall at Steamtown. Cast appearances were made by B. J. Novak, Ed Helms, Oscar Nunez, Angela Kinsey, Brian Baumgartner, Leslie David Baker, Mindy Kaling, Craig Robinson, Melora Hardin, Phyllis Smith, Creed Bratton, Kate Flannery, Bobby Ray Shafer, and Andy Buckley. Besides Novak and Kaling, writer appearances were made by Greg Daniels, Michael Schur, Jennifer Celotta, Lee Eisenberg, Gene Stupnitsky, Justin Spitzer, Anthony Ferrell, Ryan Koh, Lester Lewis, and Jason Kessler. Not present were writer-actor Paul Lieberstein (who was originally going to make an appearance), Steve Carell, John Krasinski, Rainn Wilson, and Jenna Fischer.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nOn an episode of The Daily Show, Republican presidential candidate John McCain, reportedly a devoted fan of the show, jokingly told Jon Stewart he might take Dwight Schrute as his running mate. Rainn Wilson later accepted on Dwight Schrute's behalf while on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. After the airing of \"Garage Sale,\" where the character of Michael Scott decides to move to Colorado, Colorado governor John Hickenlooper issued a press release appointing Scott to the position of director of paper distribution in the Department of Natural Resources.\nThe show is often paid tribute by the band Relient K. Frontman Matt Thiessen is a fan of The Office, and during concerts will often perform a self-described \"love song\" about the series, titled \"The Ballad of Dunder Mifflin,\" followed by him and the band playing the show's opening theme.\nA parody musical, titled The Office! A Musical Parody, written by Bob McSmith, Tobly McSmith, and Assaf Gleizner, began performances at The Jerry Orbach Theatre on September 24, 2018, with an official opening on October 3, 2018. The show temporarily closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and resumed performances on April 9, 2021, becoming the first New York City stage musical to reopen following the pandemic. Cast members Jenna Fischer and Angela Kinsey attended a performance in May 2022.\n\nOther media\nOnline releases\nNBC webcast the \"Diversity Day\" episode on March 16, 2005, on MySpace to promote the show's then-upcoming premiere, days before the TV broadcasts began. This was NBC's first-ever online debut of a complete episode of a network series, and also included a trimmed-down webisode version of the episode for on-demand viewing on MySpace the following day. Episodes from The Office were among the first shows available for download from the iTunes Store and for free streaming on NBC.com beginning in December 2005. In 2006, ten internet-exclusive webisodes featuring some of the characters on The Office aired on NBC.com. \"Producer's Cuts\" (containing approximately ten additional minutes of material) of the episodes \"Branch Closing\" and \"The Return\" were also made available on NBC.com. The Office also became available for download from Amazon.com's Unbox video downloads in 2006. Sales of new The Office episodes on iTunes ceased in 2007 due to a dispute between NBC and Apple ostensibly overpricing. As of September 9, 2008, The Office was put back on the iTunes Store and can be bought in HD and SD format. It is also available through all other major digital distribution sales platforms.\nNetflix also offered the show for online viewing by subscribers, in addition to traditional DVD rental. The series would become one of the most streamed shows on Netflix, with its availability on a streamer leading to the show's sustained popularity. The Office left Netflix on December 31, 2020, as NBCUniversal acquired the rights to the show for its streaming service Peacock, which joined the following day. Exclusive to Peacock are extended episodes which include deleted scenes and additional footage. The first five seasons previously stream for free but now are premium only, and seasons 6–9 are available to stream on its premium tier.\nWhen the show was in production, it was noted for its large amount of delayed viewing. Of the 12.4 million total viewings of \"Fun Run,\" the fourth season's premiere, 2.7 million, or 22%, were on a computer via online streaming. \"The Office,\" said The New York Times, \"is on the leading edge of a sharp shift in entertainment viewing that was thought to be years away: watching television episodes on a computer screen is now a common activity for millions of consumers.\" It was particularly popular with online viewers, an NBC researcher said, because as an episode-driven sitcom without special effects it was easy to watch on smaller monitors such as those found on laptops and iPods. Between the online viewings and those who use digital video recorders, 25–50% of the show's viewers watched it after its scheduled airtime.\nThe show's Internet success became an issue in the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Daniels and many of the cast members who double as writers posted a video to YouTube shortly after the strike began, pointing out how little if any, they received in residuals from online and DVD viewing. \"You're watching this on the Internet, a thing that pays us zero dollars,\" Schur said. \"We're supposed to get 11 cents for every two trillion downloads.\" The writers were particularly upset that they weren't compensated for the Daytime Emmy Award-winning summer webisodes \"The Accountants\", which NBC considered promotional material despite the embedded commercials.\n\nOther broadcasts\nAside from NBC, The Office has gone into syndication in the United States. It previously ran on local broadcast stations in off-network syndication and TBS. On December 13, 2017, Comedy Central announced that they had acquired all nine seasons of the show from NBCUniversal in a non-exclusive deal, and some episodes are available to stream on Comedy Central's official website and mobile app on a rotating basis. Reruns of The Office began airing on Comedy Central on January 15, 2018. The deal between Viacom (who owns Comedy Central) and NBCUniversal (for rights for airing reruns of The Office) was extended throughout 2021. The series will then air in a non-exclusive window on Paramount Media Networks and its sister Fave TV through 2025. The series aired on Cozi TV from January 1, 2019, to October 3, 2021. It also aired on Nick at Nite starting January 1, 2019, and later on Paramount Network, although Nick at Nite no longer airs the program as of May 5, 2019. The show then began airing on Freeform on January 1, 2022. In the United Kingdom, the show was named in listings magazines (but not onscreen) as The Office: An American Workplace when it originally aired there on ITV2. In Australia, all 9 seasons air on 10 Shake.\n\nPromotional\nThe show's success has resulted in expansion outside of television. Characters have appeared in promotional materials for NBC, and a licensed video game—The Office—was released on November 28, 2007, by MumboJumbo from the development company Reveille. In 2008 two games were introduced via Pressman Toy Corp: The Office Trivia Board Game and The Office DVD Board Game. In 2009, The Office Clue was released, and The Office Monopoly was released in 2010. Other merchandise, from T-shirts and a bobblehead doll of Dwight Schrute to more office-specific items such as Dunder Mifflin copy paper and parodies of the Successories motivational poster series featuring the cast are available. Dunder Mifflin had two websites, and the cast members maintained blogs both as themselves and in character.\n\nCast blogs\nSeveral members of the cast maintained blogs on MySpace, including Jenna Fischer, Angela Kinsey, and Brian Baumgartner, who posted regularly during the season. Rainn Wilson wrote in character as Dwight for the \"Schrute Space\" blog on NBC.com, which was updated periodically; however, he stopped writing the blog himself. It is unknown whether Creed Bratton authors \"Creed Thoughts,\" the blog attributed to his character.\n\nCast podcast\nOn September 11, 2019, Jenna Fischer and Angela Kinsey announced their podcast called Office Ladies which premiered on October 16, 2019, on Earwolf. The podcast features Fischer and Kinsey watching episodes of The Office and offering behind-the-scenes details and answering fan questions. The theme song for the podcast, \"Rubber Tree\" is performed by Creed Bratton.\nIn February 2021, Brian Baumgartner started a podcast called The Office Deep Dive with Brian Baumgartner in which he sits down with other actors, writers, and others who worked on the show and share behind-the-scenes stories about the show. The podcast introduction song, \"Bubble and Squeek\" is performed by Creed Bratton.\n\nHome media\nThe complete series of The Office was released on Blu-ray from Universal Pictures Home Entertainment on November 10, 2020.\n\nProposed spin-offs\nA spin-off to the series was proposed in 2008, with a pilot episode expected to debut as the Super Bowl lead-out program in 2009. The idea created by the writers was that a copy machine breaks in The Office and then it is recalled, fixed, and shipped to Pawnee, Indiana, the setting of Parks and Recreation. However, The Office's creative team instead decided to develop Parks and Recreation as a separate series. Also, actress Rashida Jones was to portray a different character in both, causing a problem for the potential spin-off.\nAnother spin-off starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute running a bed-and-breakfast and beet farm, titled The Farm, was proposed in early 2012. In October 2012, however, NBC decided not to go forward with the series. A backdoor pilot episode was produced, and although the show was not picked up, it was modified and aired during the ninth season as \"The Farm\".\nIn September 2019, with the announcement of NBCUniversal's streaming service Peacock, Bonnie Hammer, Chairman of Direct-to-Consumer and Digital Enterprises at NBCU stated that it is her \"hope and goal that we do an Office reboot\". In March 2020, former showrunner Greg Daniels expressed doubts at a reboot being possible, and later that year, former NBC president of original content Bill McGoldrick stated that \"a reboot has not come up specifically for Peacock\".\nA reboot of the series was revealed to be in development in September 2023, with Greg Daniels returning as a showrunner. In November 2023, Daniels clarified that he had no interest in rebooting the series by redoing \"that same show with a different cast\", instead preferring to have a spinoff series focusing on a different subject in the same world.\nIn July 2020, Leslie David Baker launched a Kickstarter campaign to fund the production of a pilot for Uncle Stan, a proposed spin-off focusing on a now-engaged Stanley Hudson as \"After several years of enjoying a relatively uneventful retirement lifestyle, Uncle Stan receives an urgent call for help from his favorite nephew, Lucky: a recent widower with two small children and a motorcycle repair/flower shop in Los Angeles. Soon Uncle Stan finds himself dishing out all the support and guidance he has to offer in his new California home.\" As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, plans for the spinoff were put \"on hold\" and later cancelled, with Leslie David Baker announcing that backers would be refunded.\n\nUpcoming follow-up series\nIn January 2024, it was announced that Greg Daniels is setting up a development room for a possible expansion of The Office to explore ideas for a follow-up series. The follow-up, to be available for streaming on Peacock, will center around the documentary crew from the original series finding a new subject in a dying Midwestern historic newspaper and the publisher trying to revive it with volunteer reporters. The follow-up has Daniels, Michael Koman, Howard Klein, Ben Silverman, Banijay Americas and the creatives behind the original British series (Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant) on board as its executive producers. Steve Carell, who portrayed Michael Scott, confirmed that he will not be making an appearance in the reboot.\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nFernández, Luis J. Tosina. \"Michael Scott’s anti-proverbs and pseudo-proverbs as a source of humour in The Office.\" The European Journal of Humour Research 11, no. 1 (2023): 67–78.\nGriffin, Jeffrey. \"The Americanization of The Office: A Comparison of the Offbeat NBC Sitcom and its British Predecessor.” Journal of Popular Film and Television 35 (2008): 154–16.\nSchwind, Kai Hanno. \"Chilled-out Entertainers: Multi-layered Sitcom Performances in the British and American Version of The Office.\" Comedy Studies 5.1 (2014): 20–32.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nThe Office at NBC.com (2016 archive)\nThe Office at IMDb\nThe Office at epguides.com\nThe Office at Rotten Tomatoes",
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"paragraph_text": "The 85th Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 2012 and took place on February 24, 2013, at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles beginning at 5:30 p.m. Pacific Time Zone (PST) / 8:30 p.m. Eastern Time Zone (EST). The ceremony was the first in the Academy's 85-year history to adopt the phrase \"The Oscars\" as the ceremony's official name during the broadcast and marketing. During the ceremony, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories. The ceremony was televised in the United States by ABC, and produced by Craig Zadan and Neil Meron and directed by Don Mischer. Actor Seth MacFarlane hosted the show for the first time.\nIn related events, the Academy held its 4th annual Governors Awards ceremony at the Grand Ballroom of the Hollywood and Highland Center on December 1, 2012. On February 9, 2013, in a ceremony at The Beverly Hills Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by hosts Chris Pine and Zoe Saldana.\nArgo won three awards, including Best Picture, the first film to win an Academy Award for Best Picture without its director nominated since Driving Miss Daisy. Other winners included Life of Pi with four awards, Les Misérables with three, Django Unchained, Lincoln, and Skyfall with two, and Amour, Anna Karenina, Brave, Curfew, Inocente, Paperman, Searching for Sugar Man, Silver Linings Playbook and Zero Dark Thirty with one. The telecast garnered more than 40 million viewers in the United States.\n\nWinners and nominees\nThe nominees for the 85th Academy Awards were announced on January 10, 2013, at 5:38 a.m. PST (13:38 UTC) at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California, by Seth MacFarlane, host of the ceremony, and actress Emma Stone. Lincoln received the most nominations with twelve total, and Life of Pi came in second with eleven.\nThe winners were announced during the awards ceremony on February 24, 2013. Argo was the fourth film to win Best Picture without a directing nomination, following 1927's Wings, 1932's Grand Hotel, and 1989's Driving Miss Daisy. As co-producer of Argo, George Clooney became the third individual to win Oscars for both acting and producing. By virtue of his nomination for Best Original Song in Ted, host Seth MacFarlane became the first person since James Franco, who was a co-host and a Best Actor nominee during the 83rd ceremony in 2011, to host the ceremony while receiving a nomination in the same year. Silver Linings Playbook was the fourteenth film to earn nominations in all four acting categories, and the first since Reds in 1981. At age 22, Best Actress winner Jennifer Lawrence became the second-youngest winner in that category. With his third win for Best Lead Actor, Daniel Day-Lewis became the first three-time winner in that category. He also was the sixth performer to win at least three acting Oscars. Amour was the fourth film nominated simultaneously for Best Picture and Best Foreign Language Film in the same year. At age nine, Quvenzhané Wallis became the youngest nominee for Best Actress and the youngest female acting nominee overall. Meanwhile, Emmanuelle Riva (aged 85) was the oldest nominee for Best Actress. This marked the first time in Oscar history that all five nominees in an acting category (Best Supporting Actor) were all previous winners. Skyfall and Zero Dark Thirty's joint win in the Best Sound Editing category was the sixth occurrence of a tie in Oscar history.\n\nAwards\nWinners are listed first, highlighted in boldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡).\n\nHonorary Academy Awards\nThe Academy held its 4th Annual Governors Awards ceremony on December 1, 2012, during which the following awards were presented.\n\nAcademy Honorary Award\nHal Needham — An innovator, mentor, and master technician who elevated his craft to an art and made the impossible look easy.\nD. A. Pennebaker — Who redefined the language of film and taught a generation of filmmakers to look to reality for inspiration.\nGeorge Stevens Jr. — A tireless champion of the arts in America and especially that most American of arts: the Hollywood film.\n\nJean Hersholt Humanitarian Award\nJeffrey Katzenberg — who has led our community in enlightened philanthropy by his extraordinary example.\n\nFilms with multiple nominations and awards\nPresenters and performers\nThe following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.\n\nPresenters\nPerformers\nCeremony information\nDue to declining interest and viewership in recent ceremonies, the Academy hired a new production team in an attempt to improve ratings and revive interest in the ceremony. Reports surfaced that Academy then-president Tom Sherak approached television producer Lorne Michaels for producing duties with actor and comedian Jimmy Fallon as host. However, the telecast's broadcaster ABC objected to these selections, and both men declined afterward. With newly elected Academy president Hawk Koch assuming leadership duties, the Academy hired Neil Meron and Craig Zadan in August 2012 to produce the ceremony. Two months later, the Academy announced that actor, director, animator, singer, and comedian Seth MacFarlane would host the telecast. MacFarlane expressed that it was truly an honor and a thrill to be asked to host Academy Awards commenting, \"It's truly an overwhelming privilege to be asked to host the Oscars. My thoughts upon hearing the news were, one, I will do my utmost to live up to the high standards set forth by my predecessors; and two, I hope they don't find out I hosted the Charlie Sheen Roast.\" In an unusual break from previous years, producers Meron and Zadan announced that the on-air telecast of the ceremony would be simply referred to as \"The Oscars\" instead of \"The 85th Annual Academy Awards\".\nAs evident by the numerous musical numbers featured throughout the telecast, the ceremony was billed as a salute to music and the movies. In keeping with the theme of the evening, numerous film scores from various motion pictures were played intermittently throughout the ceremony; most notable was John Williams' theme music from Jaws, which was used to goad winners off the stage if their acceptance speeches were overly long. In a departure from having the orchestra perform in the same theatre, composer Williams Ross conducted the orchestra from a studio inside the Capitol Records Building a mile away.\nSeveral other people were involved with the telecast and its promotion. Tony Award-winning art director Derek McLane designed a new set and stage design for the ceremony. Rob Ashford served as choreographer for several musical numbers during the event. Comedians Ben Gleib and Annie Greenup served as correspondents and hosts of \"Oscar Road Trip\", a nationwide bus tour promoting the ceremony in eleven major cities across the United States. Six young film students from colleges across the country, who were selected from a contest conducted by AMPAS and MtvU, were recruited to appear onstage to deliver Oscar statuettes to the presenters during the gala.\n\nIntroduction of electronic voting system\nIn January 2012, AMPAS announced that it would create electronic voting system starting with the 2013 ceremony as another method for members to select the nominees and winners during the process. According to AMPAS Chief Operating Officer Ric Robertson, the implementation of the digital ballot was designed to increase participation among members in the voting process and to provide an alternative method of voting in case of emergency. Despite several Academy officials denying such reasons, some industry insiders speculated that the introduction of electronic voting was another move toward moving future awards galas to January. The deadline to submit nomination ballots was originally scheduled for January 3, but technological errors and glitches prompted the Academy to move the deadline one day later.\n\nBox office performance of nominated films\nNone of the nine Best Picture nominees were among the top ten releases in box office during the nominations. However, four of those films had already earned $100 million in American and Canadian ticket sales. At the time of the announcement of nominations on January 10, Lincoln was the highest-grossing film among the Best Picture nominees with $144 million in domestic box office receipts. The other three films to earn $100 million prior to nominations were Django Unchained with $112 million, Argo with $110 million, and Les Misérables with $103 million. Among the five remaining Best Picture nominees, Life of Pi was the next highest-grossing film with $91.8 million followed by Silver Linings Playbook ($35.7 million), Beasts of the Southern Wild ($11.2 million), Zero Dark Thirty ($4.4 million), and finally Amour ($311,247).[B] The combined gross of the nine Best Picture nominees when the Oscars were announced was $620 million with an average gross of $68.9 million per film.\nOf the top 50 grossing movies of the year, 61 nominations went to 15 films on the list. Only Brave (8th), Wreck-It Ralph (13th), Lincoln (17th), Django Unchained (23rd), Argo (26th), Les Misérables (27th), Flight (30th), and Life of Pi (31st) were nominated for Best Picture, Best Animated Feature, or any of the directing, acting, or screenwriting awards. The other top 50 box office hits that earned nominations were Marvel's The Avengers (1st), Skyfall (4th), The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey (6th), Ted (13th), Snow White and the Huntsman (15th), Prometheus (20th), and Mirror Mirror (44th).\n\n\"We Saw Your Boobs\" controversy\nDuring the opening monologue, MacFarlane is told by James T. Kirk (William Shatner) (Captain Kirk set in the next day) about how he was going to ruin the telecast, Captain Kirk then shows him a music video where MacFarlane sings We Saw Your Boobs. Its lyrics lists out movies that featured scenes of actresses' disrobing.\nThe song has mixed reviews. On the positive side, The Guardian reported, \"MacFarlane was employed partly to puncture the event's pomposity, which he did by lightheartedly pointing out that some of the world's most self-important people regularly get their kit off for money\". SheKnows wondered if the live reaction of some of the actresses were indeed acting as the \"pre-recorded spoof apparently looked real enough for social media to worry about it\". On the negative side, actress Jane Fonda stated, \"if they want to stoop to that, why not list all the penises we've seen? Better yet, remember that this is a telecast seen around the world watched by families with their children and to many this is neither appropriate or funny.\" California assemblywoman Bonnie Lowenthal and state senator Hannah-Beth Jackson expressed their disappointment at MacFarlane, ABC, and AMPAS in a press release reading, \"there was a disturbing theme about violence against women being acceptable and funny. From topical jabs about domestic violence to singing about 'boobs' during a film's rape scene, Seth MacFarlane crossed the line from humor to misogyny.\" Amy Davidson of The New Yorker interpreted the song as hostile to women.\nIn a press release statement, the Academy defended MacFarlane for expressing his artistic freedom, \"If the Oscars are about anything, they're about creative freedom. We think the show's producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron, and host Seth MacFarlane did a great job and we hope our worldwide audience found the show entertaining.\"\n\nCritical reviews\nThe show received a mixed reception from media publications. Some media outlets were more critical of the show. Columnist Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly commented \"By calling constant attention to the naughty factor\", MacFarlane created \"an echo chamber of outrage, working a little too hard to top himself with faux-scandalous gags about race, Jews in Hollywood, and the killing of Abraham Lincoln.\" The Washington Post television critic Hank Stuever bemoaned, \"There was nothing notably terrible about the show, and nothing particularly enthralling.\" Regarding MacFarlane's performance as host, Stuever noted, \"What you got was a combination of sicko and retro, an Oscar show hosted by someone who waited until Oscar night to discover that he's only so-so at stand-up comedy.\" Television editor Alan Sepinwall of HitFix lamented that the ceremony made for a \"frequently messy, but occasionally surprising and/or entertaining evening.\" He added that MacFarlane \"had some funny moments here and there, but he missed way more than he hit, and Frat Boy Seth quickly assumed dominance as the evening went along.\"\nOther media outlets received the broadcast and more positively. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter praised MacFarlane's performance saying that he did \"impressively better than one would have wagered.\" He also noted that he added \"plenty of niceties with a little bit of the Ricky Gervais bite-the-hand-that-feeds-you thing and worked the juxtaposition rather nicely. Chicago Tribune television critic Nina Metz lauded MacFarlane for keeping \"a solid handle on the proceedings.\" She also remarked that the host \"opened with a series of jokes that were bona fide winners, landing on just the right tone: confident but not cocksure\". Associated Press critic Frazier Moore extolled MacFarlane observing that he \"seized the camera Sunday as host of ABC's Oscarcast and proved to its vast audience that he's a ridiculously versatile entertainer, a guy who can be as charming as he is famously irreverent, even polarizing.\"\n\nRatings and reception\nThe American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 40.38 million people over its length, which was a 3% increase from the previous year's ceremony. An estimated 77.92 million total viewers watched all or part of the awards. The show also drew higher Nielsen ratings compared to the two previous ceremonies with 24.47% of households watching over a 35.65 share. In addition, the program scored its highest key demo ratings in six years with a 13.71 rating over a 33.45 share among viewers in the 18–49 demographic.\nIn July 2013, the ceremony presentation received nine nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmys. The following month, the ceremony didn't win any of the nominations.\n\nIn Memoriam\nThe annual In Memoriam segment was presented by actor/producer/director George Clooney. The montage featured an excerpt of the main title from Out of Africa by composer John Barry. At the end of the tribute, singer Barbra Streisand sang \"The Way We Were\" from the film of the same name in tribute to composer Marvin Hamlisch.\n\nSee also\n19th Screen Actors Guild Awards\n33rd Golden Raspberry Awards\n33rd Brit Awards\n55th Grammy Awards\n65th Primetime Emmy Awards\n66th British Academy Film Awards\n37th Laurence Olivier Awards\n67th Tony Awards\n70th Golden Globe Awards\nList of submissions to the 85th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film\n\nNotes\nA^ : Both Life of Pi and Silver Linings Playbook would eventually earn over $100 million in domestic ticket sales before the ceremony on February 24. Zero Dark Thirty was the number one film at the American box office during the weekend of January 11–13; the movie eventually grossed $91 million prior to the awards gala.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial websites\nAcademy Awards official website\nThe Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences official website\nNews resources\n\n85th Academy Awards Archived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Boston.com\nOscars 2013 The Guardian\nAcademy Awards 2013 People\nAnalysis\n\n2012 Academy Awards Winners and History Archived April 8, 2014, at the Wayback Machine Filmsite\nAcademy Awards, USA: 2013 Archived December 3, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Internet Movie Database\nOther resources\n\nThe Oscars (2013) at IMDb",
"title": "85th_Academy_Awards"
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] | The Office is an American mockumentary sitcom television series that first aired in 2005. Who won the Academy Award for Best Director the same year that the show had its series finale? | [] | Ang Lee won the award for best director for Life of Pi. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "On March 30, 1981, then President of the United States Ronald Reagan was shot and wounded by John Hinckley Jr. in Washington, D.C., as he was returning to his limousine after a speaking engagement at the Washington Hilton. Hinckley believed the attack would impress actress Jodie Foster, with whom he had developed an erotomanic obsession after viewing her in the 1976 film Taxi Driver.\nReagan was seriously wounded by a revolver bullet that ricocheted off the side of the presidential limousine and hit him in the left underarm, breaking a rib, puncturing a lung, and causing serious internal bleeding. He was close to death upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital but was stabilized in the emergency room; he then underwent emergency exploratory surgery. He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. No formal invocation of sections 3 or 4 of the Constitution's 25th amendment (concerning the vice president assuming the president's powers and duties) took place, though Secretary of State Alexander Haig stated that he was \"in control here\" at the White House until Vice President George H. W. Bush returned to Washington from Fort Worth, Texas. Haig was fourth in the line of succession after Bush, Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, and president pro tempore of the Senate Strom Thurmond.\nWhite House press secretary James Brady, Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy, and D.C. police officer Thomas Delahanty were also wounded. All three survived, but Brady had brain damage and was permanently disabled. His death in 2014 was considered a homicide because it was ultimately caused by his injury.\nHinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on charges of attempting to assassinate the president. He remained confined to St. Elizabeth's Hospital, a D.C. psychiatric facility. In January 2015, federal prosecutors announced that they would not charge Hinckley with Brady's death, despite the medical examiner's classification of his death as a homicide. Hinckley was released from institutional psychiatric care on September 10, 2016.\n\nHinckley's motivation\nJohn Hinckley Jr. had erotomania and his motivation for the attack was born of his obsession with then-child actress Jodie Foster. While living in Hollywood in the late 1970s, he saw the film Taxi Driver at least 15 times, apparently identifying strongly with protagonist Travis Bickle, portrayed by actor Robert De Niro. The story involves Bickle's attempts to save a child prostitute played by Foster. Toward the end of the film, Bickle attempts to assassinate a United States senator who is running for president. Over the following years, Hinckley trailed Foster around the country, going so far as to enroll in a writing course at Yale University in 1980 after reading in People magazine that she was a student there. He wrote numerous letters and notes to her in late 1980. He called her twice and refused to give up when she indicated that she was not interested in him.\nHinckley was convinced that he would be Foster's equal if he became a national figure. He decided to emulate Bickle and began stalking President Jimmy Carter. He was surprised at how easy it was to get close to the president—he was only a foot away at one event—but was arrested in October 1980 at Nashville International Airport and fined for illegal possession of a firearm.: 70, 251 Carter had made a campaign stop there, but the FBI did not connect this arrest to the president and did not notify the Secret Service. His parents briefly placed him under the care of a psychiatrist. Hinckley turned his attention to Ronald Reagan, whose election, he told his parents, would be good for the country. He wrote three or four more notes to Foster in early March 1981. Foster gave these notes to a Yale dean, who gave them to the Yale police department, who sought but failed to track Hinckley down.\n\nAttempted assassination\nOn March 21, 1981, new president Ronald Reagan, who took office on January 20, 1981, and his wife Nancy visited Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., for a fundraising event. In his autobiography An American Life, Reagan recalled,\n\nI looked up at the presidential box above the stage where Abe Lincoln had been sitting the night he was shot and felt a curious sensation ... I thought that even with all the Secret Service protection we now had, it was probably still possible for someone who had enough determination to get close enough to the president to shoot him.\n\nSpeaking engagement at the Washington Hilton Hotel\nOn March 28, Hinckley arrived in Washington, D.C., by bus and checked into the Park Central Hotel. He originally intended to continue on to New Haven in another attempt to infatuate Foster.: 23 He noticed Reagan's schedule that was published in The Washington Star and decided it was time to act. Hinckley knew that he might be killed during the assassination attempt, and he wrote but did not mail a letter to Foster about two hours prior to his attempt on the president's life. In the letter, he said that he hoped to impress her with the magnitude of his action and that he would \"abandon the idea of getting Reagan in a second if I could only win your heart and live out the rest of my life with you.\": 58 \nOn March 30, Reagan delivered a luncheon address to AFL–CIO representatives at the Washington Hilton. The Secret Service was very familiar with the hotel, having inspected it more than 100 times for presidential visits since the early 1970s. The Hilton was considered the safest venue in Washington because of its secure, enclosed passageway called \"President's Walk\", built after the 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy. Reagan entered the building through the passageway at about 1:45 p.m., waving to a crowd of news media and citizens. The Secret Service had required him to wear a bulletproof vest for some events, but Reagan was not wearing one for the speech, because his only public exposure would be the 30 feet (9 m) between the hotel and his limousine, and the agency did not require vests for agents that day. No one saw Hinckley behaving in an unusual way. Witnesses who reported him as \"fidgety\" and \"agitated\" apparently confused Hinckley with another person that the Secret Service had been monitoring.\n\nShooting\nAt 2:27 p.m.,: 82 Reagan exited the hotel through \"President's Walk\" on Florida Avenue, where reporters waited. He left the T Street NW exit toward his waiting limousine as Hinckley waited within the crowd of admirers. The Secret Service had extensively screened those attending the president's speech, but greatly erred by allowing an unscreened group to stand within 15 ft (4.5 m) of him, behind a rope line.: 80–81, 225 The agency uses multiple layers of protection. Local police in the outer layer briefly check people, Secret Service agents in the middle layer check for weapons and more agents form the inner layer immediately around the president. Hinckley had penetrated the first two layers.\nAs several hundred people applauded Reagan, the president unexpectedly passed right in front of Hinckley. Reporters standing behind a rope barricade 20 feet (6 m) away asked questions. As Mike Putzel of the Associated Press shouted \"Mr. President—\", Hinckley assumed a crouch position: 81 and rapidly fired a Röhm RG-14 .22 LR blue steel revolver six times in 1.7 seconds,: 82 missing the president with all six shots.\nThe first round hit White House press secretary James Brady in the head above his left eye, passing through underneath his brain and shattering his brain cavity. The small explosive charge in the round exploded on impact. District of Columbia police officer Thomas Delahanty recognized the sound as a gunshot and turned his head sharply to the left to identify the shooter.: 82 As he did so, he was struck in the back of his neck by the second shot, the bullet ricocheting off his spine. Delahanty fell on top of Brady, screaming \"I am hit!\". \nHinckley now had a clear shot at the president,: 81 but Alfred Antenucci, a Cleveland, Ohio labor official who was standing nearby, saw Hinckley fire the first two shots, hit him in the head and began to wrestle him to the ground. Upon hearing the shots, Special Agent in Charge Jerry Parr almost instantly grabbed Reagan by the shoulders and dived with him toward the open rear door of the limousine. Agent Ray Shaddick trailed just behind Parr to assist in throwing both men into the car. The third round overshot the president, instead hitting the window of a building across the street. Parr's actions likely saved Reagan from being hit in the head.: 224 \nAs Parr pushed Reagan into the limousine, Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy snapped his attention toward the sound of the gunfire, pivoted to his right, and placed himself in the line of fire. McCarthy spread his arms and legs, taking a wide stance directly in front of Reagan and Parr to make himself a target. McCarthy was struck in the lower abdomen by the fourth round, the bullet traversing his right lung, diaphragm and right lobe of the liver. The fifth round hit the bullet-resistant glass of the window on the open rear door of the limousine as Reagan and Parr were passing behind it. The sixth and final bullet ricocheted off the armored side of the limousine, passed between the space of the open rear door and vehicle frame and hit the president in the left underarm. The round grazed a rib and lodged in his lung, causing it to partially collapse before stopping less than an inch (25 mm) from his heart.\n\nWithin moments of the first shots, Secret Service agent Dennis McCarthy (not a familial relation of agent Tim McCarthy) dove across the sidewalk and landed directly on Hinckley, as others pushed Hinckley to the ground.: 84 Another Cleveland-area labor official, Frank J. McNamara, joined Antenucci and started punching Hinckley in the head, striking him so hard that he drew blood. Dennis McCarthy later reported that he had to \"strike two citizens\" to force them to release Hinckley. Secret Service agent Robert Wanko deployed an Uzi submachine gun concealed in a briefcase to cover the president's evacuation, and to deter a potential group attack.\nThe day after the shooting, Hinckley's gun was given to the ATF, which traced its origin. In just 16 minutes, agents found that the gun had been purchased at Rocky's Pawn Shop in Dallas, Texas on October 13, 1980. It had been loaded with six Devastator brand cartridges, which contained small aluminum and lead azide explosive charges designed to explode on contact, but the bullet that hit Brady was the only one that exploded. On April 2, after learning that the others could explode at any time, volunteer doctors wearing bulletproof vests removed the bullet from Delahanty's neck.: 223\n\nGeorge Washington University Hospital\nAfter the Secret Service first announced \"shots fired\" over its radio network at 2:27 p.m., Reagan—codename \"Rawhide\"—was removed from the scene by the agents in the limousine (\"Stagecoach\").: 66 No one knew that Reagan had been shot. After Parr searched Reagan's body and found no blood, he stated that \"Rawhide is OK...we're going to Crown\" (the White House), as he preferred its medical facilities to those of an unsecured hospital.\nReagan was in great pain from the bullet that struck his rib, and believed that his rib had cracked when Parr pushed him into the limousine. When the agent checked him for gunshot wounds, Reagan coughed up bright, frothy blood. Although the president believed that he had cut his lip, Parr assessed that the cracked rib had punctured Reagan's lung and ordered the motorcade to divert to nearby George Washington University Hospital, which the Secret Service periodically inspected for use. The limousine arrived there less than four minutes after leaving the hotel, while other agents took Hinckley to a D.C. jail, and Nancy Reagan (\"Rainbow\") left the White House for the hospital.\nAlthough Parr had requested a stretcher, none were ready at the hospital, which did not normally station a stretcher at the emergency department's entrance. Reagan exited the limousine and insisted on walking. He acted casually and smiled at onlookers as he entered the hospital. While he entered the hospital unassisted, once inside, Reagan complained of difficulty breathing, his knees buckled and he fell to one knee. Parr and others assisted him into the emergency department. The physician to the president Daniel Ruge had been near Reagan during the shooting and arrived in a separate car. Believing that the president might have experienced a heart attack, Ruge insisted that the hospital's trauma team operate on Reagan as they would any other patient.: 106–107 When a hospital employee asked Reagan aide Michael Deaver for the patient's name and address, only when Deaver stated \"1600 Pennsylvania\" did the worker realize that the president was in the emergency department.: 107–108 \nThe medical team, led by Joseph Giordano, cut Reagan's \"thousand-dollar\" custom-made suit in order to examine him. Reagan complained about the cost of the ruined suit, which was cited by an assistant in a press briefing to reassure the public that the president was in stable health. Military officers, including the one who carried the nuclear football, unsuccessfully tried to prevent FBI agents from confiscating the suit, Reagan's wallet and other possessions as evidence. The Gold Codes card was in the wallet, and the FBI did not return it until two days later.\nThe medical personnel found that Reagan's systolic blood pressure was 60 compared to the normal 140, indicating that he was in shock, and knew that most 70-year-olds in the president's condition would not survive.: 108 However, Reagan was in excellent physical health, and had been shot by a .22 (5.6 mm)-caliber bullet instead of a larger .38 (9.7 mm) as was first feared. They treated him with intravenous fluids, oxygen, tetanus toxoid and chest tubes and surprised Parr—who still believed that he had cracked the president's rib—by finding the entrance of the gunshot wound. Doctors operated on Brady and the wounded agent Tim McCarthy near the president.\nWhen Nancy Reagan arrived in the emergency department, Reagan remarked to her, \"Honey, I forgot to duck\", borrowing boxer Jack Dempsey's line to his wife from the night on which he was beaten by Gene Tunney. While intubated, he scribbled to a nurse, \"All in all, I'd rather be in Philadelphia\", borrowing a line from W. C. Fields. Although Reagan came close to death, the team's quick action—and Parr's decision to drive to the hospital instead of the White House—likely saved the president's life. Within 30 minutes, Reagan left the emergency department for surgery, with normal blood pressure. He then underwent emergency exploratory surgery to check for organ damage and remove the bullet. The chief of thoracic surgery, Benjamin L. Aaron, performed a thoracotomy lasting 105 minutes because the bleeding persisted. Ultimately, Reagan lost over half of his blood volume in the emergency department and during surgery, but the bullet was successfully removed.\nIn the operating room, Reagan removed his oxygen mask to joke, \"I hope you are all Republicans.\" The doctors and nurses laughed, and Giordano, a Democrat, replied, \"Today, Mr. President, we are all Republicans.\": 147 Reagan's post-operative course was complicated by fever, which was treated with antibiotics. Because Reagan had entered the operating room conscious and not in shock, and the surgery was routine, his doctors and others predicted that he could leave the hospital in two weeks, return to work at the Oval Office in a month and completely heal in six to eight weeks with no long-term effects.\n\nImmediate response\nNational Security Advisor Richard Allen would traditionally be responsible for crisis management for the executive branch, but Secretary of State Alexander Haig wanted the role. Six days before the shooting, Vice President George H. W. Bush received the assignment instead. Allen and the National Security Council would assist him. Reagan persuaded an upset Haig not to resign. The secretary reportedly \"pound[ed] the table in frustration and anger.\" When news of the assassination attempt reached the White House, Haig was there. He urged the vice president—visiting Texas for the first time since the inauguration—to return, but the voice connection to Bush aboard Air Force Two was weak, and it is unknown whether they heard each other.\nBy 2:35 p.m., Bush was notified of the shooting. He was leaving Fort Worth, Texas and, relying on the initial reports that Reagan was unharmed, he flew to Austin for a speech. At 3:14 p.m., 47 minutes after the shooting, Haig sent a coded teletype message to Bush:\n\nMR. VICE PRESIDENT: IN THE INCIDENT YOU WILL HAVE HEARD ABOUT BY NOW, THE PRESIDENT WAS STRUCK IN THE BACK AND IS IN SERIOUS CONDITION. MEDICAL AUTHORITIES ARE DECIDING NOW WHETHER OR NOT TO OPERATE. RECOMMEND YOU RETURN TO DC AT EARLIEST POSSIBLE MOMENT. SECRETARY ALEXANDER HAIG, JR.\nAir Force Two refueled in Austin before returning to Washington, at what its pilot described as the fastest speed in the plane's history. The aircraft did not have secure voice communications, and Bush's discussions with the White House were intercepted and given to the press.\nWhite House counsel Fred Fielding immediately prepared for a transfer of presidential powers under the 25th Amendment, and chief of staff James A. Baker and counselor to the President Edwin Meese went to Reagan's hospital still believing that the president was unharmed. Within five minutes of the shooting, members of the Cabinet began gathering in the White House Situation Room. The Cabinet and the Secret Service were initially unsure whether the shooting was part of a larger attack by terrorists, or that of a foreign intelligence service such as the KGB. Tensions with the Soviet Union were high because of the Solidarity movement in communist Poland.\nThe Cabinet was also concerned that the Soviets would take advantage of the unstable situation to launch a nuclear attack. After the shooting, the American military detected two Soviet ballistic missile submarines patrolling unusually close to the East Coast of the United States, which could allow their missiles to reach Washington, D.C. two minutes faster than usual.: 175–177 Defense secretary Caspar Weinberger responded by placing the Strategic Air Command on high alert. Haig, Weinberger and Allen discussed various issues, including the location of the nuclear football, the submarine presence, a possible Soviet invasion against the 1981 warning strike in Poland and the presidential line of succession. Although tape recorders are not normally allowed in the Situation Room, these meetings were recorded with the participants' knowledge by Allen, and the five hours of tapes have since been made public.\nThe group obtained a duplicate nuclear football and Gold Codes card and kept it in the Situation Room. Reagan's football was still with the officer at the hospital, and Bush also had a card and football.: 155 The participants discussed whether to raise the military's alert status and the importance of doing so without changing the DEFCON level. They eventually determined that the number of Soviet submarines was normal. A pair of Soviet submarines was assuming the patrol area from another pair, a relief operation that routinely occurred at the end of a month. However, one of the four submarines was patrolling unusually close to the coast. In consideration of the ongoing tensions over Poland, Weinberger ordered the Strategic Air Command be placed on alert, but he did not reveal the alert status to the public.\nUpon learning that Reagan was in surgery, Haig declared, the \"helm is right here. And that means right in this chair for now, constitutionally, until the vice president gets here\". However, Haig was incorrect. As the sitting Secretary of State, he was fourth behind Vice President Bush, Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, and President pro tempore of the Senate Strom Thurmond in the line of succession. Under 3 U.S.C. § 19, O'Neill and Thurmond would have to resign their positions to become acting president. Although others in the room knew that Haig's statement was constitutionally incorrect, they did not object at the time, to avoid a confrontation. Allen later said that although Haig \"constantly, incessantly drummed on some variant of 'I am in charge, I am senior'\", he and Fielding \"didn't give a rat's ass\" as Bush would be in charge when he arrived.\n\nAt the same time, a press conference was under way in the White House Briefing Room. CBS reporter Lesley Stahl asked deputy press secretary Larry Speakes who was running the government, to which Speakes responded, \"I cannot answer that question at this time\". Upon hearing Speakes's remark, Haig wrote and passed a note to Speakes, ordering him to leave the dais immediately.: 171–173 Moments later, Haig entered the Briefing Room, where he made the following controversial statement:\n\nConstitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president and the secretary of state, in that order, and should the president decide he wants to transfer the helm to the vice president, he will do so. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending the return of the vice president and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.\nDespite his familiarity with the Briefing Room from serving as Richard Nixon's chief of staff, Stahl described Haig as \"visibly shaken\", and the Associated Press wrote that \"his voice continually choked up and quavered with emotion, and his arms trembled\". Those in the Situation Room reportedly laughed when they heard him say \"I am in control here\", and Allen later said \"I was astounded that he would say something so eminently stupid\". Haig later said,\n\nI wasn't talking about transition. I was talking about the executive branch, who is running the government. That was the question asked. It was not \"Who is in line should the President die?\"\nAlthough Haig stated in the Briefing Room that \"There are absolutely no alert measures that are necessary at this time or contemplated\", while he was speaking, Weinberger raised the military's alert level. After Haig returned to the Situation Room, he objected to Weinberger doing so, as it made him appear a liar, although as deputy commander-in-chief, only Reagan outranked Weinberger in the National Command Authority. Weinberger and others accused Haig of exceeding his authority with his \"I am in control\" statement, while Haig defended himself by advising the others to \"read the Constitution\", saying that his comments did not involve \"succession\" and that he knew the \"pecking order\".\nAboard Air Force Two, Bush watched Haig's press briefing. Meese told him that Reagan was stable after surgery to remove the bullet. The vice president arrived at Andrews Air Force Base at 6:30 p.m. and decided to not fly by helicopter to the White House. He said to a military aide \"only the president lands on the South Lawn\". Bush later said in an interview that landing on the South Lawn would have \"made for great TV\", but would have sent the wrong message to the country, and pointed out that the South Lawn was situated under the president's bedroom window, where the First Lady was waiting for news of Reagan's surgery. Marine Two instead flew to Number One Observatory Circle.\n\"Despite brief flare-ups and distractions\", Allen recalled, \"the crisis management team in the Situation Room worked well together. The congressional leadership was kept informed, and governments around the world were notified and reassured.\" Reagan's surgery ended at 6:20 p.m., although he did not regain consciousness until 7:30 p.m., so could not invoke Section 3 of the 25th Amendment to make Bush acting president. The vice president arrived at the White House at 7:00 p.m., and did not invoke Section 4 of the 25th Amendment. \nBush took charge of the Situation Room meeting, which received an update that the planned Polish national strike was cancelled. They evaluated new satellite images from Eastern Europe that showed no Soviet troop movements near Poland. They further assessed that Hinckley Jr. was likely acting alone after being informed of his October 1980 arrest record in Nashville, which suggested that he had been trailing then-President Carter. Bush stated on national television at 8:20 p.m.:\n\nI can reassure this nation and a watching world that the American government is functioning fully and effectively. We've had full and complete communications throughout the day.\n\nInvestigation\nThe FBI took over the investigation on Saturday. Agents obtained a warrant and searched the shooter's hotel room. Before touching anything, the entire room was filmed and photographed. Fingerprints were then sought in case there was an accomplice. \nAccording to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"What we found in Mr Hinckley's room was bizarre. On the desk, so that we could find him, was his entire plan. He had left a map of where he was going. He had the morning paper open with the president's diary. He publicised the fact that Reagan would be speaking to a union group in the ballroom of the Washington Hilton. Strangest of all was a statement - a letter to actress Jodie Foster proclaiming that he was committing a historic act, a presidential assassination, to impress her.\".\nThe serial number of Hinckley's revolver was provided to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. It quickly determined where Hinckley bought the gun. The police gathered the witnesses in the auditorium where the president had given a speech. Secret Service agents who were witnesses or had other first-hand information were identified.\nAccording to Agent Thomas J. Baker: \"Our follow-up investigation, which lasted weeks, traced Mr Hinckley's history over the previous months. We determined that he had travelled the country, gone to firing ranges and, in fact, was obsessed with Ms Foster. He had planned and committed an assassination attempt on the president. He was a mentally disturbed man.\".\n\nPublic reaction\nThe assassination attempt was captured on electronic news-gathering videotape by several cameras, including those belonging to the Big Three television networks. ABC began airing footage at 2:42 p.m. All three networks erroneously reported that Brady had died. When ABC News anchorman Frank Reynolds, a friend of Brady, was later forced to retract the report, he angrily said on-air to his staff, \"C'mon, let's get it nailed down!\", as a result of the miscommunication. ABC News also initially reported that President Reagan had not been injured. A network erroneously reported that he was undergoing open-heart surgery.: 133, 185 \nWhile CNN did not have a camera of its own at the shooting, it was able to use NBC's pool feed, and by staying on the story for 48 hours, the network, less than a year old, built a reputation for thoroughness. Shocked Americans gathered around television sets in homes and shopping centers. Some cited the alleged Curse of Tippecanoe, and others recalled the assassinations of Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr. Newspapers printed extra editions and used gigantic headlines; the United States Senate adjourned, interrupting debate of Reagan's economic proposals; and churches held prayer services.\nHinckley asked the arresting officers whether that night's Academy Awards ceremony would be postponed because of the shooting, and it was. The ceremony—for which former actor Reagan had taped a message—occurred the next evening. The president survived surgery with a good prognosis. The NCAA championship basketball game that evening between Indiana and North Carolina was not postponed, although the audience of 18,000 in Philadelphia held a moment of silence before the game, which Indiana won. In the immediate aftermath of the shooting, the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined before the New York Stock Exchange closed early, but the index rose the next day as Reagan recovered. Beyond having to postpone its Academy Awards broadcast, ABC temporarily renamed the lead character of The Greatest American Hero, which had debuted in March, from \"Ralph Hinkley\" to \"Hanley\", and NBC postponed a forthcoming episode of Walking Tall titled \"Hit Man\".\n\nAftermath\nJodie Foster\nThe incident was a traumatic experience for the 18-year-old Foster, who was hounded by the media and paparazzi in its aftermath. She took a semester off at Yale and had to be escorted by a bodyguard everywhere she went. This event produced other stalkers for her, including a 22-year-old man named Edward Michael Richardson, who according to the Secret Service shared a similar obsession with Foster, and carried a loaded handgun planning to kill her, but changed his mind after watching her perform in a college play.\nHinckley demanded that Foster testify at his trial. Agreement was reached between Foster's and Hinckley lawyers that she would do so in a closed session, with only herself, the judge (Barrington D. Parker), lawyers and Hinckley present. A videotape of this session could be introduced as evidence into Hinckley's trial. This session took place in March 1982. During her testimony, Foster did not look at or acknowledge Hinckley. This caused him to throw a pen at her and shout threats, before he was surrounded and removed from the room by marshals.\nSince the attempted assassination, Foster has only commented on Hinckley on four occasions: a press conference a few days after the attack, an article she wrote for Esquire magazine in 1982 after his sentencing, during an interview with Charlie Rose on 60 Minutes II in 1999, and while speaking to comedian and actor Marc Maron on his podcast WTF with Marc Maron in 2021. She has ended or canceled several interviews if the event was mentioned, or if she felt that an interviewer was going to bring Hinckley up. To Maron, Foster said that she voluntarily chose not to speak about the incident in interviews to avoid being labelled as an actress primarily remembered for that incident, and reflected on how her mother, a former publicist, helped her in overcoming the media frenzy, and the public's obsession with her involvement.\n\nRonald Reagan\nReagan's staff members were anxious for the president to appear to be recovering quickly, and the morning after his operation he saw visitors and signed a piece of legislation. Reagan left the hospital on the morning of April 11. Entering the limousine was difficult, and he joked that the first thing he would do at home was \"sit down\".\nReagan's recovery speed impressed his doctors, but they advised the president not to work in the Oval Office for a week and avoid travel for several weeks. No visitors were scheduled for his first weekend. Initially, Reagan worked two hours a day in the White House's residential quarters. Reagan did not lead a Cabinet meeting until day 26, did not leave Washington until day 49, and did not hold a press conference until day 79. Ruge, the physician to the president, thought recovery was not complete until October. Reagan's plans for the month after the shooting were canceled, including a visit to the Mission Control Center at Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, in April 1981 during STS-1, the first flight of the Space Shuttle. Vice President Bush instead called the orbiting astronauts during their mission. Reagan visited Mission Control during STS-2 that November.\nThe events contributed to Reagan's initial popularity. Though he had enjoyed approval ratings of up to 60% until March, his ratings surged to nearly 70% in the following months. Privately, Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purpose and, although not a Catholic, meetings with Mother Teresa, Cardinal Terence Cooke, and fellow shooting survivor Pope John Paul II reinforced his belief.\nReagan returned to the Oval Office on April 25 and received a standing ovation from staff and Cabinet members. He referred to their teamwork in his absence and insisted, \"I should be applauding you.\" He made his first public appearance in an April 28 speech before the joint houses of Congress. In the speech, he introduced his planned spending cuts, which had been a campaign promise. He received \"two thunderous standing ovations\", which The New York Times deemed \"a salute to his good health\" as well as his programs, which the president introduced using a medical recovery theme. Reagan installed a gym in the White House and began regularly exercising there, gaining so much muscle that he had to buy new suits. The shooting caused Nancy Reagan to fear for her husband's safety, however. She asked him to not run for reelection in 1984, and, because of her concerns, began consulting astrologer Joan Quigley. Reagan never again walked across an airport tarmac or got out of his limousine on a public sidewalk as president.\n\nDelahanty, Tim McCarthy, and Brady\nThomas Delahanty recovered but developed permanent nerve damage to his left arm, and was ultimately forced to retire from the Metropolitan Police Department due to his disability. Tim McCarthy recovered fully and was the first of the wounded men to be discharged from the hospital. James Brady survived, but his wound left him with slurred speech and partial paralysis that required the full-time use of a wheelchair. \nBrady remained press secretary for the remainder of Reagan's administration, but this was primarily a titular role. Later, Brady and his wife Sarah became leading advocates of gun control and other actions to reduce the amount of gun violence in the United States. They became active in the lobbying organization Handgun Control, Inc.—which was eventually renamed the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence—and founded the non-profit Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence. The Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act was passed in 1993 as a result of their work. Brady died on August 4, 2014, in Alexandria, Virginia, at the age of 73.\nFollowing Brady's death in 2014, the District of Columbia Medical Examiner ruled the death a homicide stemming from wounds caused by the Hinckley assassination attempt. This ruling raised the possibility that Hinckley could face additional future murder charges. However, prosecutors declined to do so for two reasons. First, a jury had already declared Hinckley insane at the time of the shooting, and the constitutional prohibition against double jeopardy would preclude overturning this ruling on account of Brady's death. Second, in 1981 Washington, D.C., still had the common law \"year and a day\" rule in place. Although the year and a day rule had been abolished in the district prior to 2014, the constitutional prohibition against ex post facto law would preclude the upgrading of charges for deaths resulting today from acts committed while the rule was in effect, and would prohibit the government from challenging Hinckley's successful insanity defense based on the current federal law.\nThe shooting of Reagan exacerbated the debate on gun control in the U.S., that began with the December 1980 handgun murder of John Lennon. Reagan expressed opposition to increased handgun control following Lennon's death and reiterated his opposition after his own shooting. However, in a speech at an event marking the assassination attempt's 10th anniversary, Reagan endorsed the Brady Act:\n\n\"Anniversary\" is a word we usually associate with happy events that we like to remember: birthdays, weddings, the first job. March 30, however, marks an anniversary I would just as soon forget, but cannot... four lives were changed forever, and all by a Saturday-night special – a cheaply made .22 caliber pistol – purchased in a Dallas pawnshop by a young man with a history of mental disturbance. This nightmare might never have happened if legislation that is before Congress now – the Brady bill – had been law back in 1981... If the passage of the Brady bill were to result in a reduction of only 10 or 15 percent of those numbers (and it could be a good deal greater), it would be well worth making it the law of the land. And there would be a lot fewer families facing anniversaries such as the Bradys, Delahantys, [Tim] McCarthys and Reagans face every March 30.\nIn 1994, Reagan made numerous appeals to support the Federal Assault Weapons Ban in the House of Representatives. At least two representatives, Republican Scott L. Klug and Democrat Richard Swett, credit Reagan's efforts for their decision to vote for the bill, which eventually passed by a 216–214 margin.\n\nParr\nAfter the assassination attempt, Jerry Parr was hailed as a hero. He received Congressional commendations for his actions, and was named one of four \"Top Cops\" in the U.S. by Parade magazine. He later wrote about the assassination attempt in his autobiography, calling it both the best and the worst day of his life. Parr came to believe that God had directed his life so that he could one day save the president's life, and became a pastor after retiring from the Secret Service in 1985.[13]:224 He died of congestive heart failure at a hospice in Washington, D.C., on October 9, 2015, aged 85.\n\nAntenucci and McNamara\nAntenucci and McNamara both became ill following the assassination attempt. McNamara died on September 18, 1981, six months after the attempted assassination at the age of 62. Antenucci died on May 9, 1984, aged 71.\n\nJohn Hinckley\nHinckley was found not guilty by reason of insanity on June 21, 1982. The defense psychiatric reports had found him to be insane while the prosecution reports declared him legally sane. Following his lawyers' advice, he declined to take the stand in his own defense. Hinckley was confined at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington, D.C., full-time until 2006, at which point he began a program of spending gradually more time at his mother's home. \nOn September 10, 2016, Hinckley was permitted to permanently leave the hospital to live with his mother full-time, under court supervision and with mandatory psychiatric treatment. After his trial, he wrote that the shooting was \"the greatest love offering in the history of the world\", and did not indicate any regrets at the time.\nThe not-guilty verdict led to widespread dismay, and, as a result, the U.S. Congress and a number of states rewrote laws regarding the insanity defense. The old Model Penal Code test was replaced by a test that shifts the burden of proof regarding a defendant's sanity from the prosecution to the defendant. Three states have abolished the defense altogether.\n\nPortrayals in literature and popular culture\nBooks\nThe book Rawhide Down: The Near Assassination of Ronald Reagan (2011) by Del Quentin Wilber\nThe novella John Loves Jodie (2015) by Joe Kelly\n\nOn screen\nThe following is the list of the movies dealing with the assassination attempt or portraying a portion of it:\n\nThe 1991 made-for-television film Without Warning: The James Brady Story, dramatizes James Brady's recovery.\nThe 2001 Showtime TV movie The Day Reagan Was Shot, loosely-based on events surrounding the assassination attempt, depicts a crazed media frenzy, a divided White House cabinet and staff with little control, and a fictional threat of international crisis.\nThe 2003 television film The Reagans, which focuses on Reagan and his family, depicts the assassination attempt.\nThe 2006 American Dad! episode \"The Best Christmas Story Never Told\", Stan Smith, after being taken back in time by the Ghost of Christmas Past, is forced to take Hinckley's place and injure Reagan to restore the timeline.\nThe 2018 television drama Timeless, which follows two groups of time travelers through American history, depicts his attempted assassination in season 2 episode 8 (Overall episode 24) \"The Day Reagan was Shot\".\nThe 2024 American biographical historical drama film Reagan, which follows Reagan's life told by a former KGB agent, portrays the assassination attempt.\n\nOn stage\nThe musical play Assassins with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by John Weidman features John Hinckley Jr. as a character. The musical first opened Off-Broadway in 1990 with Greg Germann playing Hinckley and the Tony Award winning 2004 Broadway production, featured Alexander Gemignani in the role.\n\nSee also\nList of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nAssassination Attempt of President Ronald Reagan (full length video)\nTreaster, Joseph B. (April 1, 1981). \"A Life that Started Out With Much Promise Took Reclusive and Hostile Path\". The New York Times. p. A19. The eldest Hinckley child, Scott, 30, is the vice president of his father's company and a friend of Neil Bush, the son of Vice President Bush. Scott Hinckley and a date had been invited to dinner at the young Bushes' home last night, but the dinner was canceled after the shooting.",
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"paragraph_text": "The Kentucky Derby () is an American Grade I stakes race run at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky. The race is run by three-year-old Thoroughbreds at a distance of 1+1⁄4 miles (10 furlongs; 2,012 metres). Colts and geldings carry 126 pounds (57 kilograms) and fillies 121 pounds (55 kilograms).\nHeld annually on the first Saturday in May, the Derby is the first leg of the Triple Crown. It is preceded by the two-week-long Kentucky Derby Festival. The race is known as \"The Run for the Roses\", as the winning horse is draped in a blanket of roses. Lasting approximately two minutes, the Derby has been alternately called \"The Most Exciting Two Minutes in Sports\", \"The Fastest Two Minutes in Sports\", or \"The Greatest Two Minutes in Sports\", coined by Churchill Downs president Matt Winn. At least two of these descriptions are thought to be derived from the words of sportswriter Grantland Rice, when in 1935 he said \"Those two minutes and a second or so of derby running carry more emotional thrills, per second, than anything sport can show.\"\nThe race was first run in 1875. Unlike the other, older races of the Triple Crown—the Preakness Stakes and the Belmont Stakes—along with the Travers Stakes (the oldest comparable stakes race in the US), the Kentucky Derby and its sibling race, the Kentucky Oaks, have been run every year since inception. They were twice rescheduled within the same year, the first time due to World War II in 1945, and the second time due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. The Derby and the Oaks are the oldest major sporting events in the US held annually since their beginning. Among thoroughbred stakes races, they are the oldest that have been held annually on the same track every year.\nThe Derby is the most-watched and most-attended horse race in the United States. The 2024 Kentucky Derby marked the 150th running of the race.\n\nHistory\nIn 1872, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., grandson of William Clark of the Lewis and Clark expedition, traveled to England, visiting Epsom in Surrey where The Derby had been running annually since 1780. From there, Clark went on to Paris, France, where a group of racing enthusiasts had formed the French Jockey Club in 1863. They had organized the Grand Prix de Paris at Longchamp, which at the time was the greatest race in France. Returning home to Kentucky, Clark organized the Louisville Jockey Club to raise money for building quality racing facilities just outside the city. The track would soon become known as Churchill Downs, named for John and Henry Churchill, who provided the land for the racetrack. The naming went official in 1937.\n\nThe Kentucky Derby was first run at 1+1⁄2 miles (12 furlongs; 2.4 km) the same distance as the Epsom Derby, before changing lengths in 1896 to its current 1+1⁄4 miles (10 furlongs; 2 km). On May 17, 1875, in front of an estimated crowd of 10,000 people, a field of 15 three-year-old horses contested the first Derby. Under jockey Oliver Lewis, a colt named Aristides, who was trained by future Hall of Famer Ansel Williamson, won the inaugural Derby. Later that year, Lewis rode Aristides to a second-place finish in the Belmont Stakes.\nInitially a successful venue, the track ran into financial difficulties due to a protracted, gambling-related horseman boycott removing it from the upper echelons of racing that would last until just after the turn of the 20th century. In 1894 the New Louisville Jockey Club was incorporated with the new capitalization and improved facilities. Despite this, the business floundered until 1902, when a syndicate led by Col. Matt Winn of Louisville acquired the facility. Under Winn, Churchill Downs prospered, and the Kentucky Derby then became the preeminent stakes race for three-year-old thoroughbred horses in North America.\nThoroughbred owners began sending their successful Derby horses to compete in two other races. These two are the Preakness Stakes at the Pimlico Race Course, in Baltimore, and the Belmont Stakes in Elmont, New York. The three races offered large purses, and in 1919, Sir Barton became the first horse to win all three races. However, the term \"Triple Crown\" did not come into use for another eleven years. In 1930, when Gallant Fox became the second horse to win all three races, sportswriter Charles Hatton brought the phrase into American usage. Fueled by the media, public interest in the possibility of a \"superhorse\" that could win the Triple Crown began in the weeks leading up to the Derby. Two years after the term went in use, the race (until that time ran in mid-May since inception) changed the date to the first Saturday in May. This change allows for a specific schedule for the Triple Crown races. Since 1931, the order of Triple Crown races has been the Kentucky Derby first, followed by the Preakness Stakes and then the Belmont Stakes. Before 1931, eleven times the Preakness was run before the Derby. On May 12, 1917, and again on May 13, 1922, the Preakness and the Derby took place on the same day. On eleven occasions the Belmont Stakes was run before the Preakness Stakes, and in 2020, the Belmont was run first, then the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes last.\n\nOn May 16, 1925, the first live radio broadcast of the Kentucky Derby aired on WHAS as well as on WGN in Chicago. On May 7, 1949, the first television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, produced by WAVE-TV, the NBC affiliate in Louisville. This coverage was aired live in the Louisville market and sent to NBC as a kinescope newsreel recording for national broadcast. On May 3, 1952, the first national television coverage of the Kentucky Derby took place, aired from then-CBS affiliate WHAS-TV. In 1954, the purse exceeded US$100,000 for the first time. In 1968, Dancer's Image became the first horse to win the race and then face disqualification. A urine test revealed traces of phenylbutazone (an anti-inflammatory painkiller drug) inside Dancer's Image. Forward Pass won after a protracted legal battle by the owners of Dancer's Image (which they lost). Forward Pass thus became the eighth winner for Calumet Farm. Unexpectedly, the regulations at Kentucky thoroughbred race tracks were changed some years later, allowing horses to run on phenylbutazone. In 1970, Diane Crump became the first female jockey to ride in the Derby, finishing 15th aboard Fathom.\nThe fastest time ever run in the Derby was in 1973 at 1:59.4 minutes, when Secretariat broke the record set by Northern Dancer in 1964. Also during that race, Secretariat did something unique in Triple Crown races: for each successive quarter run, his times were faster. Although the races do not record times for non-winners, in 1973 Sham finished second, two and a half lengths behind Secretariat in the same race. Using the thoroughbred racing convention of one length equaling one-fifth of a second to calculate Sham's time, he also finished in under two minutes. Another sub-two-minute finish, only the third, was set in 2001 by Monarchos at 1:59.97, the first year the race used hundredths of seconds instead of fifths in timing.\nIn 2005, the purse distribution for the Derby changed, so that horses finishing fifth would henceforth receive a share of the purse; previously only the first four finishers did so.\nThe Kentucky Derby began offering $3 million in purse money in 2019. Churchill Downs officials have cited the success of historical race wagering terminals at their Derby City Gaming facility in Louisville as a factor behind the purse increase. The Derby first offered a $1 million purse in 1996; it was doubled to $2 million in 2005.\nIn 2020, the Derby was postponed from May 2 to September 5 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This was the second time in history the race had been postponed, the other being in 1945. Churchill Downs used a new singular 20-stall starting gate for the 2020 Kentucky Derby, replacing the previous arrangement that used a standard 14-stall gate and an auxiliary six-stall gate. The old setup contributed to congestion at the start of the race, especially in the gap between the two gates.\nRich Strike, a reserve who only made it into the final field after a late scratching, won the race in 2022 at final odds of 80:1 and parimutuel betting payouts were even larger.\n\nIn January 2024, the purse for the Kentucky Derby was increased to $5 million.\n\nAttendance\nMillions of people from around the world bet at various live tracks and online sportsbooks. In 2017, a crowd of 158,070 watched Always Dreaming win the Derby, making it the seventh biggest attendance in the history of the racetrack. The track reported a wagering total of $209.2 million from all the sources on all the races on the Kentucky Derby Day program. It was a 9 percent increase compared to the total of $192.6 million in 2016 and an increase of 8 percent over the previous record set in 2015 of $194.3 million. TwinSpires, a platform for betting online and a partner of the Kentucky Derby and the Breeders' Cup, recorded $32.8 million in handle on the Churchill Down races for the Kentucky Derby Day program. This record was a 22 percent increase over the preceding year. On the Kentucky Derby race alone, the handle of TwinSpires was $20.1 million, which is a 22 percent rise compared to the prior year.\nThe race often draws celebrities. HM Queen Elizabeth II, on a visit to the United States, joined the racegoers at Churchill Downs in 2007.\n\nSponsorship\nThe 2004 Kentucky Derby marked the first time that jockeys—as a result of a court order—were allowed to wear corporate advertising logos on their clothing.\nNorman Adams has been the designer of the Kentucky Derby Logo since 2002. On February 1, 2006, the Louisville-based fast-food company Yum! Brands, Inc. announced a corporate sponsorship deal to call the race \"The Kentucky Derby presented by Yum! Brands.\" In 2018, Woodford Reserve replaced Yum! Brands as the presenting sponsor.\n\nTraditions\nIn addition to the race itself, several traditions play a significant role in the Derby atmosphere. The mint julep—an iced drink consisting of bourbon, mint, and sugar syrup—is the traditional beverage of the race. The historic beverage comes served in an ice-frosted silver julep cup. However, most Churchill Downs patrons sip theirs from souvenir glasses (first offered in 1939 and available in revised form each year since) printed with all previous Derby winners. Also, burgoo, a thick stew of beef, chicken, pork, and vegetables, is a popular Kentucky dish served at the Derby.\n\nThe infield—a spectator area inside the track—offers general admission prices but little chance of seeing much of the race, particularly before the jumbotron installation in 2014. Instead, revelers show up in the infield to party with abandon. By contrast, \"Millionaire's Row\" refers to the expensive box seats that attract the rich, the famous and the well-connected. Women appear in elegant outfits lavishly accessorized with large, elaborate hats. Following the Call to the Post played on bugle by Steve Buttleman, as the horses start to parade before the grandstands, the University of Louisville Cardinal Marching Band plays Stephen Foster's \"My Old Kentucky Home\". This song is a tradition which began in 1921. The event attracts spectators from a large area, flying in hundreds of private aircraft to Louisville International Airport.\nThe Derby is frequently referred to as \"The Run for the Roses\", because a lush blanket of 554 red roses is awarded to the Kentucky Derby winner each year. New York sports columnist and future Churchill Downs president Bill Corum in 1925 began describing the race thusly, but the tradition originated in 1883 when New York City socialite E. Berry Wall presented roses to ladies at a post-Derby party. The Churchill Downs founder and president, Col. Meriwether Lewis Clark Jr., attended that event. This gesture is believed to have led Clark to the idea of making the rose the race's official flower. However, it was not until 1896 that any recorded account referred to draping roses on the Derby winner. The Governor of Kentucky and the Chairman of Churchill Downs Incorporated present the garland and the Kentucky Derby Trophy to the winner. Pop vocalist Dan Fogelberg composed the song \"Run for the Roses\", released in time for the 1980 running of the race.\n\nRiders Up!\n\"Riders Up!\" is the traditional command from the Paddock Judge for jockeys to mount their horses in advance of the upcoming race. Since 2012, the grand marshal recites this phrase.\nGrand marshals\n\nNational Anthem performers\nFestival\nIn the weeks preceding the race, numerous activities took place for the Kentucky Derby Festival. Thunder Over Louisville—an airshow and fireworks display—generally begins the festivities in earnest two weeks before the Derby.\n\nRecords\nHorse records\nSecretariat set the record for speed in 1973 with a time of 1:59.4. During its first two decades when the Derby was run at 1+1⁄2 miles, the record was 2:34.5, set by Spokane in 1889.\nThe largest margin of victory is 8 lengths, a feat tied by four different horses: Old Rosebud in 1914, Johnstown in 1939, Whirlaway in 1941, and Assault in 1946.\nThe highest odds of a winning horse were 91 to 1 for Donerail in 1913. The second-highest odds occurred in 2022, when Rich Strike went off at 80 to 1 and won the race.\nThree horses have won the Kentucky Derby without competing as a two-year-old: Apollo (1882), Justify (2018), and Mage (2023).\n\nJockey records\n107 jockeys have won the Kentucky Derby, with 27 doing so multiple times. Isaac Murphy (1890–91), Jimmy Winkfield (1901–02), Ron Turcotte (1972–73), Eddie Delahoussaye (1982–83), Calvin Borel (2009–10), and Victor Espinoza (2014–15) are the only jockeys to win the Derby in back-to-back years. Borel is the only jockey with three wins in a four-year span (2007, '09, '10).\n\nTrainer records\n116 trainers have won the Kentucky Derby, with 19 doing so multiple times. Six trainers have won the Derby in back-to-back years: Herbert J. Thompson (1932–33), Ben Jones (1948–49), Jimmy Jones (1957–58), Lucien Laurin (1972–73), D. Wayne Lukas (1995–96), and Bob Baffert (1997–98).\n\nOwner records\nSeventeen owners have won the Kentucky Derby multiple times with horses they fully or partially owned.\n\n* Partnered with other entities in an ownership group for one or more winning horses.\n\n\"Oaks/Derby Double\"\nJockeys, trainers, and owners competing in the Kentucky Derby often will compete in the Kentucky Oaks, a race for fillies held the day before the Derby. Winning both these races in the same year is referred to as an \"Oaks/Derby Double;\" 7 jockeys, 3 trainers, and 4 owners have accomplished this feat:\n\n*Until the 1950s, the Oaks was held several days or weeks after the Derby.\n\nWinners\nTriple Crown winners are in bold and highlighted with gold.\n\nNotes\n# Designates a filly.\n† Designates a horse that won American Horse of the Year in the same year they won the Derby.\n‡ Designates a horse that was inducted in subsequent years into the National Racing Hall of Fame.\n\nSire lines\nWinners of the Kentucky Derby can be connected to each other due to the practice of arranging horse breeding based on their previous success. All of the horses can be traced back to the three foundational sires, with Godolphin Arabian the ancestor of 7 winners, Byerley Turk the ancestor of 11 winners, and Darley Arabian the ancestor of 132 winners, including all winners since 1938.\n\nDarley Arabian line\nThe Darley Arabian (1700c) sire line (all branched through the Eclipse (1764) line) produced 132 Derby winners (124 colts, 5 geldings, 3 fillies), including all winners from 1938 to present. The main branches of this sire line are:\n\nthe King Fergus (1775) branch (all branched through the Voltigeur (1847) line), produced 14 winners. His sire line continued primarily through his son Vedette (1854) with 12 winners, due to his sons Speculum (1865) with 6 winners (nearly exclusively through Sundridge (1898) with 5 winners, most recently Count Turf in 1951) and Galopin (1872) with 6 winners (exclusively through St. Simon (1881), most recently Go For Gin in 1994).\nthe Potoooooooo (1773) branch produced 118 winners (all branched through the Waxy (1790) line), including all winners from 1995 to present. The primary branch of this sire line is through Whalebone (1807), which has produced 113 winners. In turn, the primary branch continues through Sir Hercules (1826), which has produced 91 winners (including all winners since 2006), and then the Birdcatcher (1833) branch which produced 79 winners. From Birdcatcher, the branch of The Baron (1842) has produced 69 winners, of which 67 winners trace to Stockwell (1849). Stockwell's son Doncaster (1870) sired Bend Or (1877), whose sire line accounts for 65 winners. The main branch of the Bend Or sire line continued through his son Bona Vista (1889) with 56 winners, exclusively through the Phalaris (1913) line, which has dominated in the last several decades (including all winners from 2006 to present) through the following sons:\nthe Pharamond (1925) branch (4 winners all through the Tom Fool (1949) line, most recently Silver Charm in 1997).\nthe Sickle (1924) branch, (24 winners all branched through the Native Dancer (1950) line, nearly exclusively through Raise a Native (1961) with 23 winners, continued primarily through Mr Prospector (1970) with 16 winners through 8 different sons: Fusaichi Pegasus, winner of the 2000 Kentucky Derby, and 7 other sons through their progeny (most recently Mage in 2023, with his son Fappiano (1977) accounting for 6 winners, nearly exclusively through his son Unbridled with 5 winners, including his win in the 1990 Kentucky Derby and 4 other winners (most recently Always Dreaming in 2017)).\nthe Pharos (1920) branch (28 winners all branched through the Nearco (1935) line, through his sons Royal Charger (1942), Nearctic (1954), and Nasrullah (1940)). The Royal Charger branch (exclusively through his son Turn-To (1951)) produced 5 winners (most recently Barbaro in 2006), the Nearctic branch produced 9 winners, exclusively through his son Northern Dancer (1961) with his win in the 1964 Kentucky Derby, and direct male progeny of 8 winners, including 5 winners through his son Storm Bird (most recently Mystik Dan in 2024), while the Nasrullah branch produced 14 winners (most recently Nyquist in 2016) primarily through his son Bold Ruler (1954) with 10 winners (most recently California Chrome in 2014).\nspecial notes:\nthe Waxy (1790) branch produced two main lines: the primary branch of Whalebone (1807), and the secondary branch of Whisker (1812) which produced 5 winners (exclusively through the King Tom (1851) line), most recently 1909 Kentucky Derby winner Wintergreen.\nan offshoot of the Whalebone (1807) branch, the Camel (1822) branch (18 winners exclusively through the Touchstone (1831) line), produced 2005 Kentucky Derby winner Giacomo through his grandson Orlando's (1841) branch. Since then, each winner of the Kentucky Derby has gone through Whalebone's more frequent sire line branch of Sir Herecules (1826). The Orlando branch (6 winners exclusively through the Himyar (1875) line) is the less common of the two branches derived through Camel. Orlando's brother Newminster (1848) produced 12 winners (primarily through the Hyperion (1930) line with 8 winners), most recently Chateaugay in 1963.\nthe Sir Hercules (1826) branch produced two main lines: the primary branch of Birdcatcher (1833), and the secondary branch of Faugh-a-Ballagh (1841) which produced 12 winners (exclusively through the Leamington (1853) line), most recently 1908 Kentucky Derby winner Stone Street.\nthe Birdcatcher (1833) branch produced two main lines: the primary branch of The Baron (1842), and the secondary branch of Oxford (1857) which produced 10 winners (primarily through the Swynford (1907) line with 8 winners, with his son St. Germans producing 5 winners), most recently 1965 Kentucky Derby winner Lucky Debonair.\nthe Bend Or (1877) branch produced two main lines: the primary branch of Bona Vista (1889), and the secondary branch of Ormonde (1883) which produced 8 winners (exclusively through the Teddy (1913) line, with his son Sir Gallahad producing 5 winners, most recently Hoop Jr. in 1945), most recently 1957 Kentucky Derby winner Iron Liege.\n\nByerley Turk line\nThe Byerley Turk (1680c) sire line produced 11 winners (8 colts, 3 geldings). The main branches of this sire (all branched through the Herod (1758) line) are:\n\nthe Highflyer (1774) branch produced 1 winner, most recently Macbeth II in 1888.\nthe Florizel (1768) branch produced 3 winners (all branched through the Lexington (1850) line), most recently Manuel in 1899.\nthe Woodpecker (1773) branch produced 7 winners (all branched through the Buzzard (1787) line). The main branches of this sire line are:\nthe Castrel (1801) branch produced 1 winner, most recently Kingman in 1891.\nthe Selim (1802) branch produced 6 winners (all branched through the Glencoe (1831) line). The main branches of this sire line are:\nthe Star Davis (1849) branch produced 1 winner, most recently Day Star in 1878.\nthe Vandal (1850) branch produced 5 winners (all branched through the Virgil (1864) line), most recently Alan-a-Dale in 1902.\n\nGodolphin Arabian line\nThe Godolphin Arabian (1724c) sire line produced 7 winners (6 colts, 1 gelding). The main branches of this sire (all branched through the West Australian (1850) line) are:\n\nthe Solon (1861) branch produced 3 winners, including:\nthe Barcaldine (1878) branch produced 1 winner, most recently Omar Khayyam in 1917\nthe Arbitrator (1874) branch produced 2 winners (all branched through The Finn (1912) line), most recently Flying Ebony in 1925\nthe Australian (1858) branch produced 4 winners, including:\nBaden-Baden (1874), winner of the 1877 Kentucky Derby\nthe Waverly (1870) branch produced 1 winner, most recently Montrose in 1887\nthe Spendthrift (1876) branch produced 2 winners (all branched through the Man o' War (1917) line), most recently War Admiral in 1937\n\nKentucky Derby winners with male-line descendants including other Kentucky Derby winners\nNorthern Dancer (1964 winner) – 8 colts; most recently Mystik Dan (2024)\nBen Brush (1896 winner) – 3 winners (2 colts, 1 filly); most recently Whiskery (1927)\nSeattle Slew (1977 winner) – 3 colts; most recently California Chrome (2014)\nUnbridled (1990 winner) – 3 winners (2 colts, 1 gelding); most recently American Pharoah (2015)\nHindoo (1881 winner) – 2 colts; most recently Alan-a-Dale (1902)\nBold Venture (1936 winner) – 2 colts; most recently Middleground (1950)\nReigh Count (1928 winner) – 2 colts; most recently Count Turf (1951)\nPensive (1944 winner) – 2 colts; most recently Needles (1956)\nMajestic Prince (1969 winner) – 2 colts; most recently Super Saver (2010)\nHalma (1895 winner) – 1 colt; Alan-a-Dale (1902)\nLeonatus (1883 winner) – 1 colt; Pink Star (1907)\nBubbling Over (1926 winner) – 1 colt; Burgoo King (1932)\nGallant Fox (1930 winner) – 1 colt; Omaha (1935)\nCount Fleet (1943 winner) – 1 colt; Count Turf (1951)\nPonder (1949 winner) – 1 colt; Needles (1956)\nDetermine (1954 winner) – 1 colt; Decidedly (1962)\nSwaps (1955 winner) – 1 colt; Chateaugay (1963)\nGrindstone (1996 winner) – 1 gelding; Mine That Bird (2009)\n\nSee also\nKentucky Oaks\nKentucky Derby Festival\nAmerican thoroughbred racing top attended events\nKentucky Derby top four finishers\nList of graded stakes at Churchill Downs\n\"The Kentucky Derby Is Decadent and Depraved\", a seminal example of New Journalism by Hunter S. Thompson\nTriple Crown Productions\nTriple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing\nGrand Slam of Thoroughbred racing\nList of attractions and events in the Louisville metropolitan area\nDerby pie\nList of Kentucky Derby broadcasters\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nNicholson, James C. (2012). The Kentucky Derby: How the Run for the Roses Became America's Premier Sporting Event. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nKentucky Derby Museum\nThe Courier-Journal's Derby Site\nHistory of the Kentucky Derby\nKentucky Derby News from DRF",
"title": "Kentucky_Derby"
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] | Which horse won the Kentucky Derby during the same calendar year in which John Hinckley Jr. attempted to assassinate U.S. President Ronald Reagan? | [] | Pleasant Colony | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Australian Poker Championship, commonly known as Aussie Millions, is a series of poker tournaments held at the Crown Casino, in Melbourne, Australia. The Main Event of the series is the Southern Hemisphere's richest poker tournament with a prize pool in excess of A$7 million.\n\nHistory\nPoker at Crown was introduced in June 1997, with the first major championship held shortly after in July 1998. The Main Event was a $1,000 buy in Limit Holdem tournament that attracted 74 entries with a $74,000 prize pool. The Crown Australian Poker Championship, or the 'Aussie Millions' as it became known, moved to January in 2001, attracting 40 entrants with a $5,000 buy in for a prize pool of $200,000. January 2003 saw the event go international, attracting a field of 122 entrants and a $1,200,000 prize pool. In January 2005, the Aussie Millions continued to grow with 263 participants paying $10,000 each to enter the No Limit Hold'em Main Event, generating the biggest prize pool ever in the Southern Hemisphere of $2,630,000. Over half the field was from overseas including players from New Zealand, England, Ireland, Norway, Denmark, the US, Sweden, the Netherlands, Canada, Italy and Lebanon. In 2006, 418 players competed for a share of the $4,180,000 prize pool, including some of the biggest names in the Poker world such as WSOP Champion Joe Hachem, along with Phil Ivey, John Juanda and Daniel Negreanu. The 2007 championship commenced on Sunday 14 January 2007 with the final table held on Friday 19 January 2007. The buy-in was $10,500 ($10,000+$500). A record 747 players entered, which generated a prize pool of $7,470,000. The top 80 players were \"in the money\" and received between $15,000 and $1,500,000 each.\nThe 2008 championship concluded on Sunday 20 January 2008 with the winner being the 21-year-old Russian Alexander Kostritsyn. The buy-in was $10,500 ($10,000+$500). A record 780 players entered, which generated a prize pool of $7,800,000. The top 80 players were \"in the money\" and received between $15,000 and $1,650,000 each. The 2009 event will feature a total of 15 tournaments. The Main Event will have a guaranteed $2 million first prize. It will also feature ten players taking part in the first Million Dollar Poker Cash Game, the largest poker game of its kind anywhere in the world. Ten players will be required to stake a minimum of $1 million, though it is expected that some players will bring more to the table. The Aussie Millions is now regarded as the largest poker tournament in the Southern Hemisphere and the sixth-largest internationally (by prize pool).\n\nTelevision\nIn 2013, Crown's Aussie Millions Poker Championship television coverage, produced by McGuire Media in conjunction with Poker PROductions, was a nine-episode series broadcast on One HD and ESPN Australia. The series was hosted by Lynn Gilmartin, with commentary by Joe Hachem and Jonno Pittock, as well as pro analysis by Antonio Esfandiari.\n\nMain Event structure\nThe structure of the Main Event is slightly different from that of most other major tournaments. While most major Hold 'em tournaments, including the World Series of Poker Main Event, play at nine-handed tables throughout, the Aussie Millions Main Event begins with eight-handed tables. Play continues eight-handed until the field is reduced to 36 players, at which point all tables are six-handed. The 2009 Aussie Millions Main Event structure will see Day 1 divided into three flights, with blind levels of 90 minutes' duration. From Day 2 until the completion of the tournament, the blind levels are 120 minutes long.\n\nHigh roller events\nThe Aussie Millions is also known for its high roller tournaments, which have featured some of the highest buy-ins in history.\n\n$100,000 Challenge\nThe high roller trend began in 2006 when the Aussie Millions launched its $100,000 No Limit Holdem Challenge (actual buy in is $100,500, including the $500 entry fee), at that time billed as the highest buy-in of any poker tournament in history. It has a particularly unusual structure:\n\nPlayers start with 100,000 chips, a comparatively larger amount compared to both the Aussie Millions and WSOP Main Events.\nBetting is pot limit preflop and no limit afterwards.\nPlayers are allowed only 30 seconds to act on their hands. At the start of the tournament, each player is given three extensions of 30 seconds each for use during the tournament.\nThe $100,000 Challenge was first played in 2006, with 10 entrants. Eighteen entered the Challenge in 2007, 25 in 2008, and 24 in 2010. Daniel Shak won the 2010 tournament for a total prize of A$1,200,000. A record field of 38 played in the 2011 edition.\n\n$250,000 Super High Roller\nWith a number of other poker events adding tournaments with buy-ins comparable to that of the $100,000 Challenge, the Aussie Millions added a tournament with a $250,000 buy-in in 2011, which the organisers again claimed as the world's highest. (Since then, the World Series of Poker has held an official event with a US$1 million buy-in.) It was originally scheduled to be a heads-up no-limit event, but the organisers changed the format twice, settling on what they thought would be a single-table no-limit hold 'em tournament. However, 20 players entered the inaugural $250K tournament, including major stars Phil Ivey, Erik Seidel, Tom Dwan, Chris Ferguson, John Juanda, David Benyamine and Annette Obrestad, plus Sam Trickett, who had just won that year's $100K event. Seidel, who had finished second in the $100K event, won the $2.5 million first prize, defeating Trickett in heads-up play.\nThe 2012 event was won by Ivey, who defeated 15 other players to win $2 million, the largest prize of his career. Trickett won the 2013 event, also winning $2 million after defeating 17 other players.\n\nResults\nMain Event Winners\n1998 Australian Poker Championships (Limit Hold'em)\nBuy-in: $1,000\nDate: 26 July 1998\nNumber of buy-ins: 74\nTotal Prize Pool: $74,000\nNumber of Payouts: 9\n\n1999 Australian Poker Championships (Pot-Limit Hold'em)\nBuy-in: $1,000\nDate: August 1999\nNumber of buy-ins: 109\nTotal Prize Pool: $109,000\nNumber of Payouts: 18\n\n2000 Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $1,500\nDate: Sunday, 27 August 2000\nNumber of buy-ins: 109\nTotal Prize Pool: $173,500\nNumber of Payouts: 18\n\n2001 Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $1,500\nDate: Friday, 24 August 2001\nNumber of buy-ins: 101\nTotal Prize Pool: $151,500\nNumber of Payouts: 18\n\n2002 Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $5,000\n2-Day Event: Friday, 11 January 2002 to Saturday, 12 January 2002\nNumber of buy-ins: 66\nTotal Prize Pool: $330,000\nNumber of Payouts: 10\n\n2003 Crown Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $10,000\nDate: Sunday, 12 January 2003\nNumber of buy-ins: 122\nTotal Prize Pool: $1,220,000\nNumber of Payouts: 18\n\n2004 Crown Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $10,000\nDate: Thursday, 15 January 2004\nNumber of buy-ins: 133\nTotal Prize Pool: $1,330,000\nNumber of Payouts: 18\n\n2005 Crown Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $10,000\n3-Day Event: Tuesday, 18 January 2005 to Thursday, 20 January 2005\nNumber of buy-ins: 263\nTotal Prize Pool: $2,630,000\nNumber of Payouts: 40\n\n2006 Crown Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $10,000\n6-Day Event: Saturday, 14 January 2006 to Thursday, 19 January 2006\nNumber of buy-ins: 418\nTotal Prize Pool: $4,180,000\nNumber of Payouts: 48\n\n2007 Crown Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $10,000\n6-Day Event: Sunday, 14 January 2007 to Friday, 19 January 2007\nNumber of buy-ins: 747\nTotal Prize Pool: $7,470,000\nNumber of Payouts: 80\n\n2008 Crown Australian Poker Championships\nBuy-in: $10,000\n6-Day Event: Sunday, 14 January 2008 to Friday, 19 January 2008\nNumber of buy-ins: 780\nTotal Prize Pool: A$7,758,500\nNumber of Payouts: 80\n\n2009 Crown Australian Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,000\n7-Day Event: Saturday, 17 January 2009 to Friday, 23 January 2009\nNumber of buy-ins: 681\nTotal Prize Pool: $6,810,000\nNumber of Payouts: 64\n\n2010 Crown Australian Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,000\n7-Day Event: Sunday, 24 January 2010 to Saturday, 30 January 2010\nNumber of buy-ins: 746\nTotal Prize Pool: $7,460,000\nNumber of Payouts: 72\n\n2011 Crown Australian Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,000\n7-Day Event: Sunday, 23 January 2011 to Saturday, 29 January 2011\nNumber of buy-ins: 721\nTotal Prize Pool: $7,210,000\nNumber of Payouts: 72\n\n2012 Crown Australian Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,000\n7-Day Event: Sunday, 22 January 2012 to Saturday, 28 January 2012\nNumber of buy-ins: 659\nTotal Prize Pool: $6,590,000\nNumber of Payouts: 72\n\n2013 Crown Australian Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,000\n7-Day Event: Sunday, 27 January to Saturday, 2 February 2013\nNumber of buy-ins: 629\nTotal Prize Pool: $6,290,000\nNumber of Payouts: 64\n\n2014 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,600\n7-Day Event: Sunday, 2 February to Sunday, 9 February 2014\nNumber of buy-ins: 668\nTotal Prize Pool: $6,680,000\nNumber of Payouts: 72\n\n2015 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,600\n7-Day Event: 25 January–1 February\nNumber of buy-ins: 648\nTotal Prize Pool: $6,480,000\nNumber of Payouts: 72\n\n2016 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,600\n6-Day Event: 25–31 January\nNumber of buy-ins: 732\nTotal Prize Pool: $7,320,000\nNumber of Payouts: 81\n\n2017 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,000\n9-Day Event: 22–30 January\nNumber of buy-ins: 725\nTotal Prize Pool: $7,685,000\nNumber of Payouts: 80\n\n2018 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,600\n8-Day Event: 28 January–4 February\nNumber of buy-ins: 800\nTotal Prize Pool: $8,000,000\nNumber of Payouts: 88\n\n2019 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,600\n7-Day Event: 28 January–3 February\nNumber of buy-ins: 822\nTotal Prize Pool: $8,220,000\nNumber of Payouts: 88\n\n*-The final three players made a deal, with Kenney being crowned champion\n\n2020 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nBuy-in: $10,600\n7-Day Event: 17–24 January 2020\nNumber of buy-ins: 820\nTotal Prize Pool: $8,200,000\nNumber of Payouts: 88\n\n* - Denotes deal between the final three players\n\n2021 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nPOSTPONED due Covid-19 - The popular annual Australian poker extravaganza is officially postponed. But organizers for the popular event hope to reschedule it for later in the year. \"Crown will continue to monitor and review the situation, working closely with the Victorian Government and health authorities to determine if and when such events can be safely revisited. We look forward to scheduling these long-standing annual events when it is deemed safe for us to do so.\"\n\n2022 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nA new responsible gambling policy released in 2021 make Crown Melbourne rethink poker tournament and live tables ath their Casino. According Crown, the new policy have a \"12 Hour Daily Visit\" for all guests, and this will make poker tournaments unvaliable at Crown Casino. \"It doesn’t look like the Aussie Millions will be back anytime soon\" – PMAunderstands Crown Melbourne has yet to appoint a new tournament director, no surprise given the pandemic-related issued of the past two years.\n\n2023 Aussie Millions Poker Championship\nPoker Tournaments will no longer be running at Crown - The popular Australian tournament series last ran in January 2020 before the COVID-19 pandemic shut down live poker at many casinos around the world. Three years later, it seems unlikely the Aussie Millions will be returning because Victoria recently announced a package of reforms for Crown Melbourne stemming from a royal commission inquiry which found the casino unfit to hold a license.\n\nHigh Roller Winners (A$100,000 Challenge)\nSuper High Roller Winners (A$250,000 Challenge)\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial site Archived 15 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine",
"title": "Crown_Australian_Poker_Championship"
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"paragraph_text": "Alexander Kostritsyn (born 1986) is a Russian professional poker player considered among the best online cash game players in the world. Kostritsyn plays under the alias joiso on PokerStars and PostflopAction on Full Tilt Poker.\nIn 2010, Kostritsyn won Event No. 9 at the PokerStars World Championship of Online Poker for $269,284. Kostritsyn described winning $2.7 million online in 2013 as not a big winning streak for the stakes being played.\nKostritsyn won the 2008 Aussie Millions Main Event for $1,450,396 defeating eight-time WSOP bracelet winner Erik Seidel heads up. As of 2015, his total live tournament winnings exceed $3,000,000.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nCard Player profile\nHendon Mob profile\nWPT profile\nWSOP profile",
"title": "Alexander_Kostritsyn"
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"paragraph_text": "The World Championship of Online Poker (WCOOP) is an online poker tournament series sponsored by PokerStars. It is played on the PokerStars website in September.\nEstablished in 2002, WCOOP is PokerStars' attempt to establish the online equivalent of the World Series of Poker. The WCOOP tournament series is the largest of its kind on the Internet.\nThe fifteen WCOOP events in 2005 generated $12,783,900 in prize money, making it not only the biggest ever online poker event, but the third biggest poker series (live or online) in all of 2005.\nKeeping with the tradition of the World Series of Poker, the WCOOP is a series of tournaments in which players compete in a variety of different poker games, each with different buy-in and prize levels. The games featured are Limit, Pot Limit and No Limit Texas Hold'em, Seven Card Stud and Seven Card Stud Hi/Lo, Razz, Pot Limit Omaha High and Limit Omaha Hi/Lo, and H.O.R.S.E. In 2007, 5 Card Draw and 2-7 Triple draw were added. 2-7 Single Draw and mixed limit games were added in 2008, and Badugi was added in 2009. The main event is No Limit Hold'em.\nIn addition to the cash prize, the winner of each WCOOP event received a personally engraved 14 karat gold bracelet from PokerStars up until 2015. Since then, PokerStars has discontinued awarding bracelets to save costs.\n\n2002 events\nThe 2002 World Championship of Online Poker consisted of nine events with over $730,000 in combined prizes. The events, buy-ins, and winners are listed below.\n\n2003 events\nThe 2003 World Championship of Online Poker consisted of 11 events with a total prize pool of over $2.7 million. The events, buy-ins, and winners are listed below.\n\n2004 events\nThe 2004 World Championship of Online Poker consisted of 12 events with a total prize pool of over $6 Million. The events, buy-ins, and winners are listed below.\n\n2005 events\nThe 2005 World Championship of Online Poker consisted of 15 events with a total prize pool of over $12 Million. The events, buy-ins, and winners are listed below.\n\n2006 events\nThe 2006 World Championship of Online Poker consisted of 18 events. The schedule including buy in for each event is listed below. 2006 WCOOP Total Prize Pool was $18,674,300\n\n1spawng becomes first player to win 2 WCOOP Bracelets.\n²kwob20 becomes first player to win 2 WCOOP bracelets in one year\n³The original first prize was to be $1,157,737.50, but the final six players in the tournament struck a deal to more evenly divide the prize money.\n\n2007 events\nThe 2007 World Championship of Online Poker consists of 23 events. The schedule including buy in for each event is listed below. 2007 WCOOP Total Prize Pool was $24,218,600 \nThe event was marred by controversy when the original winner of the main event, TheV0id was disqualified for using multiple accounts in the tournament following an investigation by PokerStars. \n\n1Original winner, Mark 'TheV0id' Teltscher, disqualified.\n\n2008 events\nThere were 33 events played in the September 2008 WCOOP. Each day of the 2008 WCOOP featured two events.\n\n1This event uses the same blind structure on the previous event (No Limit Hold'em)\n2 the player known as \"liberace\" who was the runner-up of the $5,200 No-Limit Hold'em Main Event, won more than the winner due to an earlier chop while five handed of $1,375,249\n\n2009 events\nThere were 45 events in the 2009 WCOOP, including Badugi, big antes No Limit Hold'em, and some new formats. A total of 43,973 unique players in 140 countries participated, making a total prize pool of $51,652,800.\n\n1Holds the record for the largest WCOOP field ever.\n2This event uses the 9x awards structure.\n\n2010 events\nThere were 62 events in the 2010 WCOOP.\n\n* next to the first place prize denotes a deal was made at the final table, original first place prizes are hidden and can be seen in edit mode\n** This event was originally scheduled on one day before the date listed above and listed at event 39, but the order was changed so that events 40 and 41 were run before this one.\n1g0lfa (Ryan D'Angelo) becomes first player to win 3 WCOOP Bracelets.\n2Largest amount of money won in online poker history, 2010 Main Event (Tyson \"POTTERPOKER\" Marks)\n\n2011 events\nThere were 62 events in the 2011 WCOOP.\nThis was the first WCOOP series since Black Friday 2011, A legal action by the U.S. Government that forbids people living in the United States from playing poker for real money on the site due to banking regulations, as a result there are many current or former US citizens playing online from other countries the following list reflects as always the nations where the winners were logged-in at the time of the event.\n\n2012 events\nThere were 65 events in the 2012 WCOOP.\nThe following list reflects, as always, the nations where the winners were logged-in at the time of the event.\n\n2013 events\nThere were 66 events in the 2013 WCOOP.\n\n2014 events\nThere were 66 events in the 2014 WCOOP.\n\n2015 events\nThere were 70 events in the 2015 WCOOP.\n\n2016 events\nThere were 82 events in the 2016 WCOOP.\n\n2017 events\nThere were 82 \"High\" events in the 2017 WCOOP, and PokerStars also introduced a \"Low\" buy-in WCOOP series, with the same events, to run concurrently.\nHIGH\n\nLOW\n\n† includes bounties\n\n2018 events\nThere were 186 events in the 2018 WCOOP.\n\n2019 events\nThere were 219 tournaments during WCOOP 2019 including a tie-in with UFC, which awarded winners tickets to a UFC bout in New York.\n\n†including bounties\n\ndenotes deal\n\n2020 events\nWCOOP Main Event winners\nWCOOP Player of the Series\nWCOOP multiple event winners\nUp to Season 17 (2018)\n\nWCOOP bracelet winners by country\nBelow is a breakdown of the login countries of all bracelet winners in the history of the WCOOP:\n\n USA - 103\n Canada - 80\n Russia - 60\n United Kingdom - 50\n Mexico - 35\n Sweden - 31\n Norway - 24\n Germany - 24\n Netherlands - 23\n Finland - 17\n Australia - 17\n Poland - 15\n Denmark - 14\n Austria - 12\n Brazil - 12\n Hungary - 11\n Belgium - 8\n Ukraine - 7\n France - 7\n Argentina - 7\n Bulgaria - 6\n Romania - 6\n Costa Rica - 5\n Ireland - 5\n Czech Republic - 5\n Greece - 4\n Cyprus - 4\n Malta - 3\n Taiwan - 3\n South Africa - 3\n Philippines - 1\n Slovenia - 1\n Kazakhstan - 1\n Bosnia and Herzegovina - 1\n Uruguay - 1\n Chile - 1\n Croatia - 1\n Armenia - 1\n\nWCOOP Challenge Series\nChallenge Series 1 (2013)\nChallenge Series 2 (2014)\nChallenge Series 3 (2014)\nWCOOP Challenge winners by country\nAustria - 2\n Brazil - 2\n Canada - 2\n Finland - 2\n Israel - 2\n Mexico - 2\n United Kingdom - 2\n Australia - 1\n Czech Republic - 1\n Denmark - 1\n Estonia - 1\n Germany - 1\n Netherlands - 1\n Norway - 1\n Peru - 1\n Poland - 1\n Romania - 1\n Singapore - 1\n Sweden - 1\n\nSee also\nWorld Cup of Poker\nFull Tilt Online Poker Series\nPlayWCOOP\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial site Archived 2009-07-22 at the Wayback Machine\nPokerstars.com WCOOP site\nPokerstars.tv live WCOOP broadcasts\nCBS News Story about a group of friends who played on one account together in the WCOOP and made decisions jointly.",
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] | How many player entries were in the event that the winner of the 2008 Aussie Millions also won in 2010 at the PokerStars World Championship of Online Poker? | [] | 1,240 | [] | true |
654 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Istiklal Mosque (Bosnian: Istiklal Džamija) is one of the largest mosques in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was named after Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, the national mosque of Indonesia, since the mosque was a gift from the Indonesian people and government for Bosnia and Herzegovina as a token of solidarity and friendship between the two nations. The name \"istiqlal\" is Arabic word for \"independence\", thus it is also meant to commemorate the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\nActivities\nOther than its regular function as a house of prayers; the regular daily 5 times salat and other prayers (Jumu'ah and Eids), Istiqlal mosque also hosts maktab and Quran recital competitions for children and adults. The mosque also served as Project Bureau Center for Islamic Architecture, arranging Sharia weddings, and also as Indonesian Cultural Center.\n\nHistory\nDuring his visit to the war torn city of Sarajevo in March 1995 and paid a courtesy call to Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović, Indonesian President Suharto contemplating an idea to build a mosque in the city as a gift for the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Suharto mobilized his administrations to realize his idea, and appointing Fauzan Noe’man, one of Indonesia's foremost architect to design the mosque and proceed with the project. Noe'man was known for his works in constructing grand mosque of Batam, Baiturrahim mosque in Merdeka Palace complex, and also At-Tin mosque (1999) in East Jakarta near Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. The project is started in 1995, however because the turmoil in Indonesia led to the fall of Suharto in 1998 has stalled the construction process.\nThe mosque was completed and inaugurated in September 2001 by Indonesian Minister of Religious Affairs Said Agil Al Munawar. A year later in September 2002 during her stately visit to Sarajevo, President Megawati Soekarnoputri also visited the mosque.\n\nArchitecture\nThe Istiqlal mosque of Sarajevo demonstrate postmodern interpretation of Islamic architecture as viewed from Indonesian perspective. The mosque built with simple geometric elements and patterns on metal-works made from stainless steel or aluminum and glass blocks applied on facade, windows and arches. The exterior were covered with white tiles, while the interior, especially in mihrab, minbar and window frames were adorned with Indonesian wooden carving of floral ornaments.\nBuilt on 2,800 square meters land on Otoka on western side of the city, the mosque is one among the largest mosque in Sarajevo and easily recognizable as the landmark in the neighborhood. The mosque has a single copper-colored dome measured 27 meters tall and 27 meters in diameter. The dome is equipped with three horizontal openings around the dome to allow natural lights to enter the mosque's interior beneath the dome. This type of dome is similar to those of At-Tin mosque in Jakarta, also designed by Fauzan Noe’man. Two twin towers flanking the entrance with reminiscent of Iranian iwan facade style. The tower height is 48 meters. The tip of the dome and twin towers are adorned with three spherical pinnacles with star and crescent on top of it. The twin towers symbolize two nations, as the mosque represents the friendship and solidarity between Indonesia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\nSee also\nBosnia and Herzegovina–Indonesia relations\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nPictures of Istiqlal Mosque, Sarajevo",
"title": "Istiklal_Mosque,_Sarajevo"
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"paragraph_text": "Sarajevo ( SARR-ə-YAY-voh) is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area including Sarajevo Canton, East Sarajevo and nearby municipalities is home to 555,210 inhabitants. Located within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of the Balkans, a region of Southeastern Europe.\nSarajevo is the political, financial, social, and cultural center of Bosnia and Herzegovina and a prominent center of culture in the Balkans. It exerts region-wide influence in entertainment, media, fashion, and the arts. Due to its long history of religious and cultural diversity, Sarajevo is sometimes called the \"Jerusalem of Europe\" or \"Jerusalem of the Balkans\". It is one of a few major European cities to have a mosque, Catholic church, Eastern Orthodox church, and synagogue within the same neighborhood. It is also home to the former Yugoslavia's first institution of tertiary education in the form of an Islamic polytechnic, today part of the University of Sarajevo.\nAlthough there is evidence of human settlement in the area since prehistoric times, the modern city arose in the 15th century as an Ottoman stronghold when the Ottoman empire extended into Europe. Sarajevo has gained international renown several times throughout its history. In 1885, it was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. \nIn 1914, Sarajevo was the site of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a local Young Bosnia activist Gavrilo Princip, a murder that sparked World War I. This resulted in the end of Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and the creation of the multicultural Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the Balkan region. Later, after World War II, the area was designated the capital of the communist Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, leading to rapid expansion of its population and businesses with investment in infrastructure and economic development.\nIn 1984, Sarajevo hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics, which marked a prosperous era for the city. However, after the start of the Yugoslav Wars, the city suffered the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare, for a total of 1,425 days, from April 1992 to February 1996, during the Bosnian War.\nWith continued post-war reconstruction in the aftermath, Sarajevo is the fastest growing city in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The travel guide series Lonely Planet ranked Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world. In December 2009, it recommended Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010. \nIn 2011, Sarajevo was nominated as the 2014 European Capital of Culture. It was selected to host the European Youth Olympic Festival. In addition, in October 2019, Sarajevo was designated as a UNESCO Creative City for having placed culture at the center of its development strategies. It is also ranked as one of the world's eighteen Cities of Film.\n\nEtymology\nThe name Sarajevo derives from the Turkish noun saray, meaning \"palace\" or \"mansion\" (from Persian sarāy, سرای, of the same meaning). Scholars disagree on the origin of the evo attached to the end. In Slavic languages, the addition of \"evo\" may indicate a possessive noun, thereby making the name of Sarajevo 'city of the palace'.\nOne theory is that the name may have been derived from the Ottoman Turkish term saray ovası, first recorded in 1455, meaning \"the plains around the palace\" or simply \"palace plains\".\nHowever, in his Dictionary of Turkish Loanwords, Abdulah Škaljić maintains that the evo ending is more likely to have come from the widespread Slavic suffix evo used to indicate place names, than from the Turkish ending ova. The first mention of the name Sarajevo was in a 1507 letter written by Firuz Bey. The official name during the 400 years of Ottoman rule was Saraybosna (\"Palace of Bosnia\"), which remains the city's name in Modern Turkish.\nSarajevo has had many nicknames. The earliest is Šeher, the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to construct—which is Turkish for \"city\" (şehir), in turn coming from the Persian shahr (شهر, meaning \"city\"). As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, i.e. \"Damascus of the North\" and \"European Jerusalem\"; the latter being the most popular.\n\nEnvironment\nGeography\nSarajevo is near the geometric center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia and Herzegovina and within the historical region of Bosnia proper. It is situated 518 m (1,699 ft) above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, in the middle of the Dinaric Alps. \nThe valley was once an expansive, fertile, and green space, but considerable urban expansion and development took place following World War II. Forested hills and five major mountains surround the city. The highest of the surrounding peaks is Treskavica at 2,088 m (6,850 ft), followed by Bjelašnica mountain at 2,067 m (6,781 ft), Jahorina at 1,913 m (6,276 ft), Trebević at 1,627 m (5,338 ft), and Igman the shortest at 1,502 m (4,928 ft). The last four are also known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo.\nWhen the city hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics, venues were constructed at these mountains for many winter sports events. The city is developed within hilly terrain; some steeply inclined streets and residences perch on the hillsides.\nThe Miljacka river is one of the city's chief geographic features. It flows through the city from east through the center of Sarajevo to the west part of the city, where it eventually meets up with the Bosna river. Miljacka River is also known as \"The Sarajevo River\". Its source (Vrelo Miljacke) is 2 km (1.2 mi) south of the town of Pale at the foothills of Mount Jahorina, several kilometers to the east of Sarajevo center. The Bosna's source, Vrelo Bosne near Ilidža (west Sarajevo), is another notable natural landmark and a popular destination for Sarajevans and other tourists. Several smaller rivers and streams, such as Koševski Potok, also run through the city and its vicinity.\n\nCityscape\nSarajevo is close to the center of the triangular shape of Bosnia and Herzegovina in southeastern Europe. The Sarajevo city consists of four municipalities: Centar (Center), Novi Grad (New Town), Novo Sarajevo (New Sarajevo), and Stari Grad (Old Town), while the Sarajevo metropolitan area (Greater Sarajevo area) includes these and the neighboring municipalities of Ilidža, Hadžići, Vogošća and Ilijaš.\nThe Metropolitan area was reduced in the 1990s after the war and the Dayton-imposed administrative division of the country, with several municipalities partitioned along the border of the newly recognized Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and Republika Srpska (RS), creating several new municipalities which together form the city of Istočno Sarajevo in the Republika Srpska: Istočna Ilidža, Istočno Novo Sarajevo, Istočni Stari Grad, Lukavica, Pale (RS-section), and Trnovo (RS-section), along with the municipality of Sokolac (which was not traditionally part of the Sarajevo area and was not partitioned).\nThe city has an urban area of 1,041.5 km2 (402.1 sq mi). Veliki Park (Great Park) is the largest green area in the center of Sarajevo. It is nestled between Titova, Koševo, Džidžikovac, Tina Ujevića and Trampina Streets and in the lower part there is a monument dedicated to the Children of Sarajevo.\n\nClimate\nSarajevo has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) bordering on a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb). Sarajevo's climate exhibits four seasons and uniformly spread precipitation. The proximity of the Adriatic Sea moderates Sarajevo's climate somewhat, although the mountains to the south of the city greatly reduce this maritime influence. The average yearly temperature is 10 °C (50 °F), with January (−0.5 °C (31.1 °F) on average) being the coldest month of the year and July (19.7 °C (67.5 °F) on average) the warmest.\nThe highest recorded temperature was 40.7 °C (105 °F) on 19 August 1946 and on 23 August 2008 (41.0), while the lowest recorded temperature was −26.2 °C (−15.2 °F) on 25 January 1942. On average, Sarajevo has seven days where the temperature exceeds 32 °C (89.6 °F) and four days where the temperature drops below −15 °C (5 °F) per year. The city typically experiences mildly cloudy skies, with an average yearly cloud cover of 45%.\nThe cloudiest month is December (75% average cloud cover), while the clearest is August (37%). Moderate precipitation occurs fairly consistently throughout the year, with an average 75 days of rainfall. Suitable climatic conditions have allowed winter sports to flourish in the region, as exemplified by the 1984 Winter Olympics that were held in Sarajevo. Average winds are 28–48 km/h (17–30 mph) and the city has 1,769 hours of sunshine.\n\nAir quality\nAir pollution is a major issue in Sarajevo. According to the 2016 World Health Organization's Ambient Air Pollution Database, the annual average PM2.5 concentration in 2010 was estimated to be 30 μg/m3 based on PM10 measurement, which is 3 times higher than recommended by WHO Air Quality Guidelines for the annual average PM2.5. There are no recent direct long-term PM2.5 measurements available in Sarajevo and only estimates can be made from PM10, which is less health-relevant than PM2.5. Real-time air quality data in the form of PM10, ozone, NO2, CO and SO2 by the Federal Hydrometeorological Institute Archived 13 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine.\n\nHistory\nAncient times\nOne of the earliest findings of settlement in the Sarajevo area is that of the Neolithic Butmir culture. The discoveries at Butmir were made on the grounds of the modern-day Sarajevo suburb Ilidža in 1893 by Austro-Hungarian authorities during the construction of an agricultural school. The area's richness in flint was attractive to Neolithic humans, and the settlement flourished. The settlement developed unique ceramics and pottery designs, which characterize the Butmir people as a unique culture, as described at the International Congress of Archaeologists and Anthropologists meeting in Sarajevo in 1894.\nThe next prominent culture in Sarajevo was the Illyrians. The ancient people, who considered most of the Western Balkans as their homeland, had several key settlements in the region, mostly around the river Miljacka and the Sarajevo valley. The Illyrians in the Sarajevo region belonged to the Daesitiates, the last Illyrian people in Bosnia and Herzegovina to resist Roman occupation. Their defeat by the Roman emperor Tiberius in 9 AD marks the start of Roman rule in the region. The Romans never built up the region of modern-day Bosnia, but the Roman colony of Aquae Sulphurae was near the top of present-day Ilidža, and was the most important settlement of the time. After the Romans, the Goths settled the area, followed by the Slavs in the 7th century.\n\nMiddle Ages\nDuring the Middle Ages, Sarajevo was part of the Bosnian province of Vrhbosna near the traditional center of the Kingdom of Bosnia. Though a city named Vrhbosna existed, the exact settlement in Sarajevo at this time is debated. Various documents note a place called Tornik in the region, most likely in the area of the Marijin Dvor neighborhood. By all indications, Tornik was a very small marketplace surrounded by a proportionally small village and was not considered very important by Ragusan merchants.\nOther scholars say that Vrhbosna was a major town in the wider area of modern-day Sarajevo. Papal documents say that in 1238, a cathedral dedicated to Saint Paul was built in the area. Disciples of the notable saints Cyril and Methodius stopped in the region, founding a church near Vrelo Bosne. Whether or not the town was somewhere in the area of modern-day Sarajevo, the documents attest to its and the region's importance. There was also a citadel Hodidjed north-east to the Old City, dating from around 1263 until it was occupied by the Ottoman Empire in 1429.\n\nOttoman era\nSarajevo was founded by the Ottoman Empire in the 1450s upon its conquest of the region, with 1461 used as the city's founding date. The first Ottoman governor of Bosnia, Isa-Beg Ishaković, transformed the cluster of villages into a city and state capital by building several key structures, including a mosque, a closed marketplace, a hamam, a caravansarai, a bridge, and of course the governor's palace (\"Saray\"), which gave the city its present name in conjunction with “evo”, a derivative of “ova” meaning lowland. The mosque was named \"Careva Džamija\" (the Emperor's Mosque) in honor of Sultan Mehmed II. With the improvements, Sarajevo quickly grew into the largest city in the region. By the 15th century the settlement was established as a city, named Bosna-Saraj, around the citadel in 1461.\nFollowing the expulsion of Jews from Spain at the end of the 15th century, and the invitation from the Ottoman Empire to resettle their population, Sephardic Jews arrived in Sarajevo, which over time would become a leading center of Sephardic culture and the Ladino language. Though relatively small in size, a Jewish quarter would develop over several blocks in Baščaršija.\nMany local Christians converted to Islam at this time. To accommodate the new pilgrims on the road to Mecca, in 1541, Gazi Husrev-beg's quartermaster Vekil-Harrach built a pilgrim's mosque which it is still known to this day as the Hadžijska Mosque.\nUnder leaders such as the second governor Gazi Husrev-beg, Sarajevo grew at a rapid rate. Husrev-beg greatly shaped the physical city, as most of what is now the Old Town was built during his reign. Sarajevo became known for its large marketplace and numerous mosques, which by the middle of the 16th century numbered more than 100. At the peak of the empire, Sarajevo was the biggest and most important Ottoman city in the Balkans after Istanbul. By 1660, the population of Sarajevo was estimated to be over 80,000. By contrast, Belgrade in 1683 had 100,000, and Zagreb as late as 1851 had 14,000 people. As political conditions changed, Sarajevo became the site of warfare.\n\nIn 1697, during the Great Turkish War, a raid was led by Prince Eugene of Savoy of the Habsburg monarchy against the Ottoman Empire, which conquered Sarajevo and left it plague-infected and burned to the ground. After his men had looted thoroughly, they set the city on fire and destroyed nearly all of it in one day. Only a handful of neighborhoods, some mosques, and an Orthodox church were left standing. Numerous other fires weakened the city, which was later rebuilt but never fully recovered from the destruction. By 1807, it had only some 60,000 residents.\nIn the 1830s, several battles of the Bosnian uprising had taken place around the city. These had been led by Husein Gradaščević. Today, a major city street is named Zmaj od Bosne (Dragon of Bosnia) in his honor. The rebellion failed and for several more decades, the Ottoman state remained in control of Bosnia.\nThe Ottoman Empire made Sarajevo an important administrative center by 1850. Baščaršija became the central commercial district and cultural center of the city in the 15th century when Isa-Beg Ishaković founded the town. The toponym Baščaršija derives from the Turkish language.\n\nAustria-Hungary\nAustria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina came in 1878 as part of the Treaty of Berlin, and complete annexation followed in 1908, angering the Serbs. Sarajevo was industrialized by Austria-Hungary, who used the city as a testing area for new inventions such as tramways, which were established in 1885 before they were later installed in Vienna. Architects and engineers wanting to help rebuild Sarajevo as a modern European capital rushed to the city. A fire that burned down a large part of the central city area (čaršija) left more room for redevelopment. As a result, the city has a unique blend of the remaining Ottoman city market and contemporary Western architecture. Sarajevo also has some examples of Secession- and Pseudo-Moorish styles that date from this period.\n\nThe Austro-Hungarian period was one of great development for the city, as the Western power brought its new acquisition up to the standards of the Victorian age. Various factories and other buildings were built at this time, and a large number of institutions were both Westernized and modernized. For the first time in history, Sarajevo's population began writing in Latin script.\nFor the first time in centuries, the city significantly expanded outside its traditional borders. Much of the city's contemporary central municipality (Centar) was constructed during this period.\nArchitecture in Sarajevo quickly developed into a wide range of styles and buildings. The Sacred Heart Cathedral, for example, was constructed using elements of neo-gothic and Romanesque architecture. The National Museum, Sarajevo brewery, and City Hall were also constructed during this period. Additionally, Austrian officials made Sarajevo the first city in this part of Europe to have a tramway.\n\nAlthough the Bosnia Vilayet de jure remained part of the Ottoman Empire, it was de facto governed as an integral part of Austria-Hungary with the Ottomans having no say in its day-to-day governance. This lasted until 1908 when the territory was formally annexed and turned into a condominium, jointly controlled by both Austrian Cisleithania and Hungarian Transleithania.\nThe event that triggered World War I was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, along with his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb and self-declared Yugoslav, and member of Young Bosnia. This was followed by the Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, which resulted in two deaths and destruction of property.\n\nIn the ensuing war, however, most of the Balkan offensives occurred near Belgrade, and Sarajevo largely escaped damage and destruction. Following the war, Bosnia was annexed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and Sarajevo became the capital of the Drina Province.\n\nYugoslavia\nAfter World War I and pressure from the Royal Serbian Army, alongside rebelling Slavic nations in Austria-Hungary, Sarajevo became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Though it held some political significance as the center of first the Bosnian region and then the Drinska Banovina, the city was no longer a national capital and saw a decline in global influence.\nDuring World War II, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia's army was overrun by German and Italian forces. Following a German bombing campaign, Sarajevo was captured on 15 April 1941 by the 16th Motorized Infantry Division. The Axis powers created the Independent State of Croatia and included Sarajevo in its territory.\nImmediately following the occupation, the main Sephardi Jewish synagogue, Il Kal Grande, was looted, burned, and destroyed by the Nazis. Within a matter of months, the centuries-old Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jewish communities of Sarajevo, comprising the vast majority of Bosnian Jewry, would be rounded up in the Old Synagogue (Stari hram) and deported to their deaths in Croatian concentration camps. Roughly 85% of Bosnia's Jewish population would perish at the hands of the Nazis and the Ustaše during the Holocaust in the region. The Sarajevo Haggadah was the most important artifact which survived this period, smuggled out of Sarajevo and saved from the Nazis and Ustaše by the chief librarian of the National Museum, Derviš Korkut.\n\nOn 12 October 1941, a group of 108 notable Bosniak citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the Genocide of Serbs organized by the Ustaše, made a distinction between the Bosniaks who participated in such persecutions and the rest of the Bosniak population, presented information about the persecutions of Bosniaks by Serbs, and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity. During the summer of 1941, Ustaše militia periodically interned and executed groups of Sarajevo Serbs. In August 1941, they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies, mostly church officials and members of the intelligentsia, and executed them or deported them to concentration camps. By mid-summer 1942, around 20,000 Serbs found refuge in Sarajevo from Ustaše terror.\nThe city was bombed by the Allies from 1943 to 1944. The Yugoslav Partisan movement was represented in the city. In the period February–May 1945, Maks Luburić set up a Ustaše headquarters in a building known as Villa Luburić and used it as a torture and execution place whose 323 victims were identified after the war. The resistance was led by Vladimir Perić Valter, who died while leading the liberation of the city on 6 April 1945.\n\nAfter the war, Sarajevo was the capital of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina within the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Republic Government invested heavily in Sarajevo, building many new residential blocks in the municipalities of Novi Grad and Novo Sarajevo, while simultaneously developing the city's industry and transforming Sarajevo into a modern city. Sarajevo grew rapidly as it became an important regional industrial center in Yugoslavia. Between the end of the war and the end of Yugoslavia, the city grew from a population of 115,000 to more than 600,000 people. The Vraca Memorial Park, a monument for victims of World War II, was dedicated on 25 November, the \"Statehood Day of Bosnia and Herzegovina\" when the ZAVNOBIH held their first meeting in 1943.\nA crowning moment of Sarajevo's time in Socialist Yugoslavia was the 1984 Winter Olympics. Sarajevo beat out Sapporo, Japan, and Falun/Gothenburg, Sweden, to host the Olympic Games. The games were followed by a tourism boom, making the 1980s one of the city's most prosperous decades.\n\nBosnian War\nThe Bosnian War for independence resulted in large-scale destruction and dramatic population shifts during the Siege of Sarajevo between 1992 and 1996. Thousands of Sarajevans lost their lives under the constant bombardment and sniper shooting at civilians by the Serb forces during the siege, the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. Bosnian Serb forces of the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav People's Army besieged Sarajevo from 5 April 1992 to 29 February 1996.\n\nWhen Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia and achieved United Nations recognition, Serbian leaders declared a new Serbian national state Republika Srpska (RS) which was carved out from the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Army of Republika Srpska encircled Sarajevo with a siege force of 18,000 stationed in the surrounding hills, from which they assaulted the city with artillery, mortars, tanks, anti-aircraft guns, heavy machine guns, multiple rocket launchers, rocket-launched aircraft bombs, and sniper rifles. From 2 May 1992, the Serbs blockaded the city. The Bosnian government defense forces inside the besieged city were poorly equipped and unable to break the siege.\nDuring the siege, 11,541 people were killed, including over 1,500 children. An additional 56,000 people were wounded, including nearly 15,000 children. The 1991 census indicates that before the siege, the city and its surrounding areas had a population of 525,980.\nWhen the siege ended, the concrete scars caused by mortar shell explosions left marks that were filled with red resin. After the red resin was placed, it left floral patterns, which led to them being dubbed Sarajevo Roses. Division of the territory according to the Dayton Agreement resulted in a mass exodus in early 1996 of some 62,000 Sarajevo Serbs from the city and its suburbs, creating today's more monoethnic post-war city.\n\nPresent\nVarious modern buildings now occupy Sarajevo's skyline, most significantly the Bosmal City Center, ARIA Centar, Sarajevo City Center (all three by architect Sead Gološ) and the Avaz Twist Tower, which at the time of its building was the tallest skyscraper in former Yugoslavia.\nIn 2014, the city saw anti-government protests and riots and record rainfall that caused historic flooding. Recent years have seen population growth as well as increases in tourism.\nThe Sarajevo cable car, also known as the Trebević cable car, Sarajevo's key landmark during the 1984 Winter Olympics, was rebuilt in 2017 and reopened on 6 April 2018. The cable car runs from Sarajevo at Bistrik station to the slopes of Trebević at Vidikovac station.\n\nAdministration\nLargest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina\nSarajevo is the capital of the country of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its sub-entity, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as of the Sarajevo Canton. It is also the de jure capital of another entity, Republika Srpska. Each of these levels of government has its parliament or council, as well as judicial courts, in the city. All national institutions and foreign embassies are in Sarajevo.\nSarajevo is home to the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the operational command of the Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\nBosnia and Herzegovina's Parliament office in Sarajevo was damaged heavily in the Bosnian War. Due to damage, the staff and documents were moved to a nearby ground-level office to resume work. In late 2006, reconstruction work started on Parliament and was finished in 2007. The cost of reconstruction was 80% funded by the Greek Government through the Hellenic Program of Balkans Reconstruction (ESOAV), and 20% by Bosnia and Herzegovina.\n\nMunicipalities and city government\nThe City of Sarajevo comprises four municipalities: Centar, Novi Grad, Novo Sarajevo, and Stari Grad. Each operates their own municipal government, while united they form one city government with its constitution. The executive branch (Bosnian: Gradska uprava) consists of a mayor, with two deputies and a cabinet.\nThe legislative branch consists of the City Council, or Gradsko vijeće. The council has 28 members, including a council speaker, two deputies, and a secretary. Councilors are elected by the municipality in numbers roughly proportional to their population. The City Statute requires the city council to include at least six councilors from each constituent people and at least two from the ranks of Others.\nSarajevo's Municipalities are further split into \"local communities\" (Bosnian, Mjesne zajednice). Local communities have a small role in city government and are intended as a way for ordinary citizens to get involved in city government. They are based on key neighborhoods in the city.\n\nEconomy\nSarajevo's large manufacturing, administrative, and tourism sectors make it the strongest economic region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo Canton generates almost 25% of the country's GDP. After years of war, Sarajevo's economy saw reconstruction and rehabilitation programs. The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina opened in Sarajevo in 1997 and the Sarajevo Stock Exchange began trading in 2002.\nWhile Sarajevo had a large industrial base during its communist period, only a few pre-existing businesses have successfully adapted to the market economy. Sarajevo industries now include tobacco products, furniture, hosiery, automobiles, and communication equipment. Companies based in Sarajevo include BH Telecom, Bosnalijek, Energopetrol, Sarajevo Tobacco Factory, and Sarajevska pivara (Sarajevo Brewery).\nIn 2019, the total export for the Sarajevo Canton was worth about 1,427,496,000 KM. Most of Sarajevo's exports (20.55%) head to Germany, with Serbia and Croatia following behind at 12% respectively. The largest amount of imported goods comes from Croatia, at 20.95%. With a worth of total import of about 4,872,213,000 KM, the total import is almost 3.4 times the total export.\nIn 1981, Sarajevo's GDP per capita was 133% of the Yugoslav average. Gross pay in Sarajevo in March 2023 was KM 2,497 or €1,269, while net salary was KM 1,585 or €805, indicating stable growth.\n\nTourism and recreation\nSarajevo has a wide tourist industry and a fast-expanding service sector thanks to the strong annual growth in tourist arrivals. Sarajevo also benefits from being both a summer and winter destination with continuity in its tourism throughout the year. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, and in December 2009, listed Sarajevo as one of the top ten cities to visit in 2010.\n\nIn 2019, 733,259 tourists visited Sarajevo, giving 1,667,545 overnight stays, which was 20% more than in 2018. Sports-related tourism uses the legacy facilities of the 1984 Winter Olympics, especially the skiing facilities on the nearby mountains of Bjelašnica, Igman, Jahorina, Trebević and Treskavica.\nSarajevo's 600 years of history, influenced by both Western and Eastern empires, makes it a tourist attraction with splendid variations. The city has hosted travelers for centuries, because it was an important trading center during the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires and because it was a natural stop for many routes between East and West. Examples of popular destinations in Sarajevo include the Vrelo Bosne park, the Sarajevo cathedral, and the Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque. Tourism in Sarajevo is chiefly focused on historical, religious, and cultural sites and winter sports.\n\nThere are many parks throughout the city and on the outskirts. A popular activity among locals is street chess, usually played at Trg Oslobođenja - Alija Izetbegović. Veliki Park is the largest green area in the center of Sarajevo. It is nestled between Titova, Koševo, Džidžikovac, Tina Ujevića and Trampina Streets and in the lower part, there is a monument dedicated to the Children of Sarajevo. Hastahana is a popular place to relax in the Austro-Hungarian neighborhood of Marijin Dvor. Goat's Bridge, locally known as Kozija Ćuprija, in the Miljacka Canyon is also a popular park destination along the Dariva walkway and river Miljacka. On 24 December 2012, a park hosting two brass sculptures resembling two mourning mothers was dedicated as the Friendship Park, commemorating over 45 years of friendship between Sarajevo and Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan.\nSarajevo is also famous for its city lookouts; including an observation deck on the Avaz Twist Tower, Park Prinčeva restaurant, Vidikovac lookout (Mt. Trebević), Zmajevac lookout and Yellow/White fortresses lookouts (in Vratnik) as well as numerous other rooftops throughout the city (i.e. Alta Shopping Center, ARIA Centar, Hotel Hecco Deluxe). A symbol of Sarajevo is the Trebević cable car which was reconstructed in 2018, also it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city taking visitors from the city center to Mount Trebević.\nThere is also a UNESCO tentative monument, the Old Jewish Cemetery, an almost 500 years old site that is the second-largest Jewish sepulchral complex in Europe, the one in Prague being the largest. It is also one of the most significant memorial complexes in the world. It represents the eternal proof of the coexistence of two or more different confessions under different administrations and rules, and the proof of mutual respect and tolerance.\n\nDemographics\nSarajevo has been called the 'European Jerusalem' due to the city's traditionally diverse ethnic and religious makeup\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nThanks to steady but constant and stable growth after the war, today's built-up area includes not only previously mentioned urban municipalities but the urban part of Hadžići that is uninterruptedly connected to Ilidža, the westernmost part of the Sarajevo urban settlement, is inhabited by more than 419,000 people, while the metro area including 8 additional municipalities, 14 in total goes up to 555,210 inhabitants. It is noticeable that the fastest-growing municipalities are Novi Grad, one of the main ones and the most inhabited one where the population has increased by almost 4,000 people or 2.95% since the 2013 census, and Ilidža that has recorded an increase of almost 7% since 2013.\nIn June 2016, the final results of the 2013 census were published. According to the census, the population of the Sarajevo Canton was 413,593, with 55,181 residents in Centar, 118,553 in Novi Grad, 64,814 in Novo Sarajevo and 36,976 in Stari Grad.\nThe last official Yugoslav census took place in 1991 and recorded 527,049 people living in the city of Sarajevo (ten municipalities). In the settlement of Sarajevo proper, there were 454,319 inhabitants. The war displaced hundreds of thousands of people, a large majority of whom have not returned.\nThe war changed the ethnic and religious profile of the city. It had long been a multicultural city, and often went by the nickname of \"Europe's Jerusalem\". At the time of the 1991 census, 49.2 percent of the city's population of 527,049 were Bosniaks, 29.8 percent Serbs, 10.7 percent Yugoslavs, 6.6 percent Croats and 3.6 percent other ethnicities (Jews, Romas, etc.). \nAccording to academic Fran Markowitz, there are several \"administrative apparatuses and public pressures that push people who might prefer to identify as flexible, multiply constituted hybrids or with one of the now unnamed minority groups into one of the three Bosniac-Croat-Serb constituent nations\". These include respondents being encouraged by census interviewers to identify as belonging to one of the three constituent peoples. Her analysis of marriage registration data shows, for instance, that 67 percent of people marrying in 2003 identified as Bosniak or Muslim, which is significantly lower than the 79.6 percent census figure from 2002 (unlike the census, where people respond to an interviewer, applicants to the marriage registry fill in the form themselves).\n\nTransportation\nRoads and highways\nSarajevo's location in a valley between mountains makes it a compact city. Narrow city streets and a lack of parking areas restrict automobile traffic but allow better pedestrian and cyclist mobility. The two main roads are Titova Ulica (Street of Marshal Tito) and the east–west Zmaj od Bosne (Dragon of Bosnia) highway (E761). Located roughly at the center of the country, Sarajevo is Bosnia's main intersection. The city is connected to all the other major cities by highway or national road like Zenica, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Goražde and Foča.\nTourists from Central Europe and elsewhere visiting Dalmatia driving via Budapest through Sarajevo also contribute to the traffic congestion in and around Sarajevo. The trans-European highway, Corridor Vc, runs through Sarajevo connecting it to Budapest in the north, and Ploče at the Adriatic Sea in the south. The highway is being built by the government and should cost 3.5 billion Euro. Up until March 2012, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina invested around 600 million euros in the A1. In 2014, the sections Sarajevo-Zenica and Sarajevo-Tarčin were completed including the Sarajevo Beltway ring road.\n\nTram, bus and trolleybus\nSarajevo's electric tramways, in operation since 1884 and electrified since 1895, are the oldest form of public transportation in the city. Sarajevo had the first full-time (dawn to dusk) tram line in Europe, and the second in the world. Opened on New Year's Day in 1885, it was the testing line for the tram in Vienna and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and operated by horses. Originally built to 760 mm (2 ft 5+15⁄16 in) Bosnian gauge, the present system in 1960 was upgraded to 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge. The trams played a pivotal role in the growth of the city in the 20th century.\n\nThere are seven tramway lines supplemented by five trolleybus lines and numerous bus routes. The main railway station in Sarajevo is in the north-central area of the city. From there, the tracks head west before branching off in different directions, including to industrial zones in the city. Sarajevo is undergoing a major infrastructure renewal; many highways and streets are being repaved, the tram system is undergoing modernization, and new bridges and roads are under construction. In January 2021, the city bought 25 new BKM 433 trolleybuses. Tram track renovation lasted from August 2021 to September 2023. The city also bought 15 new Stadler Tango trams in September 2021. The first tram arrived in December 2023, while the rest are expected to arrive by the summer of 2024. An additional 10 new trams were bought, as well as 30 new buses.\n\nRailway\nThe Sarajevo main railway station was built in 1882 for the narrow-gauge railway. After World War II, it was decided to replace the old station by a new functionalist building. The ceremonial completion of the station building took place in 1949. The station was electrified in 1967, as part of the early electrification program introduced in Bosnia up to 1969.\nThe Sarajevo–Ploče railway provides a connection to the Adriatic coast. It holds the distinction of being the first 25 kV AC-electrified country in the former Yugoslavia, followed by Croatia and Serbia. Once, the East Bosnian railway connected Sarajevo to Belgrade.\n\nMetro plans\nTo solve traffic congestion in the city, Sarajevo-based architect Muzafer Osmanagić proposed a study called \"Eco Energy 2010–2015\", proposing a subway system underneath the bed of the river Miljacka. The first line of Metro Sarajevo would connect Baščaršija with Otoka. This line would cost some 150 million KM and be financed by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.\n\nAirport\nSarajevo International Airport (IATA: SJJ) is just a few kilometers southwest of the city and was voted Best European Airport With Under 1,000,000 Passengers at the 15th Annual ACI-Europe in Munich in 2005.\nThe first regular flights to Sarajevo using an airfield in the suburb of Butmir began in 1930 when the domestic airliner Aeroput opened a regular route linking Belgrade to Podgorica through Sarajevo. Later, Aeroput opened a route that linked Sarajevo with Split, Rijeka, and Dubrovnik, and in 1938, the first international flights were introduced when Aeroput extended the route Dubrovnik – Sarajevo – Zagreb to Vienna, Brno and Prague. The airfield in Butmir remained in use until 1969. \nThe need for a new airport in Sarajevo, with an asphalt-concrete runway, was acknowledged in the mid-1960s when JAT, the Yugoslav national carrier at that time, began acquiring jet planes. The construction of the airport began in 1966 at its present location, not far from the old one.\nSarajevo Airport opened on 2 June 1969 for domestic traffic. In 1970, Frankfurt became the first international destination served. Most of the time the airport was a 'feeder' airport where passengers embarked for flights to Zagreb and Belgrade on their way to international destinations. Over time, the traffic volume steadily grew from 70,000 to 600,000 passengers a year. Later, during the Bosnian War, the airport was used for UN flights and humanitarian relief. Since the Dayton Agreement in 1995, the airport retook its role as the main air portal to Bosnia and Herzegovina.\nIn 2017, 957,971 passengers travelled through the airport, which was 61,4% of the total airport traffic in Bosnia and Herzegovina.\nPlans for the extension of the passenger terminal, together with upgrading and expanding the taxiway and apron, started in the fall of 2012. The existing terminal was expanded by approximately 7,000 m2 (75,347 sq ft). The upgraded airport was directly linked to the commercial retail center Sarajevo Airport Center, making it easier for tourists and travelers to spend their time before flight boarding shopping and enjoying the many amenities that are offered. Between 2015 and 2018, the airport was upgraded for more than 25 million euros.\n\nInternational relations\nTwin towns – sister cities\nSarajevo is twinned with:\n\nFriendship\nSarajevo is befriended with:\n\nCommunications and media\nAs the largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo is the main center of the country's media. Most of the communications and media infrastructure was destroyed during the war but reconstruction monitored by the Office of the High Representative has helped to modernize the industry as a whole. For example, the Internet was first made available to the city in 1995.\nOslobođenje (Liberation), founded in 1943, is Sarajevo's longest-running continuously circulating newspaper and the only one to survive the war. However, this long-running and trusted newspaper has fallen behind Dnevni avaz (Daily Voice), founded in 1995, and Jutarnje Novine (Morning News) in circulation in Sarajevo. Other local periodicals include the Croatian newspaper Hrvatska riječ and the Bosnian magazine Start, as well as weekly newspapers Slobodna Bosna (Free Bosnia) and BH Dani (BH Days). Novi Plamen, a monthly magazine, is the most left-wing publication.\nThe Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHRT) is Sarajevo's public television station and was created in 1945 under the umbrella of the Yugoslav Radio Television (JRT). It had its first television program aired in 1961, while continuous programming started in 1969. It is one of three main TV stations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other stations based in the city include Hayat TV, O Kanal, OBN, TV Kantona Sarajevo and TV Alfa.\nThe headquarters of Al Jazeera Balkans is also in Sarajevo, with a broadcasting studio at the top of the ARIA Centar. The news channel covers Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro and the surrounding Balkan states.\nMany small independent radio stations exist, including established stations such as Radio M, RSG Radio (Radio Old Town), Studentski eFM Radio, Radio 202 and Radio BIR. Radio Free Europe, as well as several American and Western European stations are available.\n\nEducation\nHigher education\nHigher education has a long and rich tradition in Sarajevo. The first institution that can be classified as a tertiary educational institution was a school of Sufi philosophy established by Gazi Husrev-beg in 1537; numerous other religious schools have been established over time. In 1887, under the Austro-Hungarian Empire, a Sharia Law School began a five-year program. In the 1940s, the University of Sarajevo became the city's first secular higher education institute, effectively building upon the foundations established by the Saraybosna Hanıka in 1537. In the 1950s, post-bachelor graduate degrees became available. Severely damaged during the war, it was recently rebuilt in partnership with more than 40 other universities.\nThere are also several universities in Sarajevo, including:\n\nUniversity of Sarajevo\nSarajevo School of Science and Technology\nInternational University of Sarajevo\nSarajevo Graduate School of Business\nInternational Burch University\n\nPrimary and secondary education\nAs of 2005, there are 46 elementary schools (Grades 1–9) and 33 high schools (Grades 10–13) in Sarajevo, including three schools for children with special needs.\nThere are also several international schools in Sarajevo, catering to the expatriate community; some of which are Sarajevo International School and the French International School of Sarajevo, established in 1998.\n\nCulture\nSarajevo has been home to many different religions for centuries, giving the city a range of diverse cultures. In the time of Ottoman occupation of Bosnia, Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholics, and Sephardi Jews all shared the city while maintaining distinctive identities. They were joined during the brief occupation by Austria-Hungary by a smaller number of Germans, Hungarians, Slovaks, Czechs and Ashkenazi Jews. By 1909, about 50% of the city's inhabitants were Muslim, 25% were Catholic, 15% were Orthodox, and 10% were Jewish.\nHistorically, Sarajevo has been home to several prominent Bosnian poets, scholars, philosophers, and writers. To list only a very few; Nobel Prize-winner Vladimir Prelog is from the city, as are the writer Zlatko Topčić and the poet Abdulah Sidran. Nobel Prize-winner Ivo Andrić attended high school in Sarajevo for two years. Academy Award-winning director Danis Tanović lives in the city.\nThe Sarajevo National Theatre is the oldest professional theater in Bosnia and Herzegovina, having been established in 1921.\n\nMuseums\nSarajevo is rich in museums, including the Museum of Sarajevo, the Ars Aevi Museum of Contemporary Art, Historical Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Museum of Literature and Theatre Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina (established in 1888) home to the Sarajevo Haggadah, an illuminated manuscript and the oldest Sephardic Jewish document in the world issued in Barcelona around 1350, containing the traditional Jewish Haggadah, is on permanent display at the museum. It is the only remaining illustrated Sephardic Haggadah in the world. The National Museum also hosts year-round exhibitions about local, regional and international culture and history, and exhibits over 5,000 artifacts from Bosnia's history. \n\nThe Alija Izetbegović Museum was opened on 19 October 2007 and is in the old town fort, more specifically in the Vratnik Kapija towers Ploča and Širokac. The museum is a commemoration of the influence and body of work of Alija Izetbegović, the first president of the Presidency of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sarajevo is also home to the War Childhood Museum, an independent not-for-profit museum containing personal belongings from the war and showing stories behind them. In addition, in 2018, the museum won the Council of Europe Museum Prize award for best museum.\n\nThe city also hosts the Sarajevo National Theatre, established in 1921, and the Sarajevo Youth Theatre. Some other cultural institutions include the Center for Sarajevo Culture, Sarajevo City Library, National Gallery of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Bosniak Institute, a privately owned library and art collection focusing on Bosniak history.\nDemolitions associated with the war, as well as reconstruction, destroyed several institutions and cultural or religious symbols including the Gazi Husrev-beg Library, the national library, the Sarajevo Oriental Institute, and a museum dedicated to the 1984 Winter Olympics. Consequently, the different levels of government established strong cultural protection laws and institutions. Bodies charged with cultural preservation in Sarajevo include the Institute for the Protection of the Cultural, Historical and Natural Heritage of Bosnia and Herzegovina (and their Sarajevo Canton counterpart), and the Bosnia and Herzegovina Commission to Preserve National Monuments.\n\nMusic\nSarajevo is and has historically been one of the most important musical enclaves in the region. The Sarajevo school of pop rock developed in the city between 1961 and 1991. This type of music began with bands like Indexi, Kodeksi, and singer-songwriter Kemal Monteno. It continued into the 1980s, with bands such as Plavi orkestar, Crvena jabuka, and Divlje jagode, by most accounts, pioneering the regional rock and roll movement. Sarajevo was also the home and birthplace of arguably the most popular and influential Yugoslav rock band of all time, Bijelo Dugme, somewhat of a Bosnian parallel to the Rolling Stones, in both popularity and influence.\nSarajevo was also the home of a very notable post-punk urban subculture known as the New Primitives, which began during the early 1980s with the Baglama Band which was banned shortly after its first LP and was brought into the mainstream through bands such as Zabranjeno Pušenje and Elvis J. Kurtović & His Meteors, as well as the Top lista nadrealista radio, and later television show. Other notable bands considered to be part of this subculture are Bombaj Štampa. Besides and separately from the New Primitives, Sarajevo is the hometown to one of the most significant ex-Yugoslavian alternative industrial-noise bands, SCH.\n\nPerhaps more importantly, Sarajevo in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century was home to a burgeoning and large center of Sevdalinka record-making and contributed greatly to bringing this historical genre of music to the mainstream, which had for many centuries been a staple of Bosnian culture. Songwriters and musicians such as Himzo Polovina, Safet Isović, Zaim Imamović, Zehra Deović, Halid Bešlić, Hanka Paldum, Nada Mamula, Meho Puzić and many more composed and wrote some of their most important pieces in the city.\nSarajevo also greatly influenced the pop scene of Yugoslavia with musicians like Zdravko Čolić, Kemal Monteno, Dino Merlin, Seid Memić Vajta, Hari Mata Hari, Mladen Vojičić Tifa, Željko Bebek and many more.\nMany newer Sarajevo-based bands have also found a name and established themselves in Sarajevo, such as Regina who also had two albums out in Yugoslavia, and Letu Štuke, who actually formed their band in Yugoslavia with the famous Bosnian-American writer Aleksandar Hemon and got their real breakthrough later in the 2000s. Sarajevo is now home to an important and eclectic mix of new bands and independent musicians, which continue to thrive with the ever-increasing number of festivals, creative showcases, and concerts around the country. The city is also home to the region's largest jazz festival, the Jazz Fest Sarajevo.\nAmerican heavy metal band Savatage, released a song entitled \"Christmas Eve (Sarajevo 12/24)\" on their 1995 album Dead Winter Dead, which was about a cello player playing a forgotten Christmas carol in war-torn Sarajevo. The song was later re-released by the same band under the name Trans-Siberian Orchestra on their 1996 debut album Christmas Eve and Other Stories, which the song gave them instant success.\n\nFestivals\nSarajevo is internationally renowned for its eclectic and diverse selection of over 50 annual festivals. The Sarajevo Film Festival was established in 1995 during the Bosnian War and has become the premier and largest film festival in Southeast Europe. It has been hosted at the National Theater, with screenings at the Open-air theater Metalac and the Bosnian Cultural Center, all in downtown Sarajevo. The MESS International Festival is an experimental theatre festival and the oldest living theatre festival in the Balkans. The annual Sarajevo Youth Film Festival showcases feature, animated and short films from around the world and is the premier student film festival in the Balkans. The Sarajevo Winter Festival, Jazz Fest Sarajevo and Sarajevo International Music Festival are well-known, as is the Baščaršija Nights festival, a month-long showcase of local culture, music, and dance.\nThe first incarnation of the Sarajevo Film Festival was hosted in still-warring Sarajevo in 1995, and has now progressed into being the biggest and most significant festival in Southeast Europe. A talent campus is also held during the duration of the festival, with lecturers speaking on behalf of world cinematography and holding workshops for film students from across Southeast Europe.\nThe Jazz Fest Sarajevo is the region's largest and most diverse of its kind. The festival takes place at the Bosnian Cultural Center (aka \"Main Stage\"), just down the street from the SFF, at the Sarajevo Youth Stage Theater (aka \"Strange Fruits Stage\"), at the Dom Vojske Federacije (aka \"Solo Stage\"), and at the CDA (aka \"Groove Stage\").\n\nSports\nSarajevo hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics. Yugoslavia won one medal, a silver in men's giant slalom awarded to Jure Franko. Many of the Olympic facilities survived the war or were reconstructed, including the Zetra Olympic Hall and Asim Ferhatović Stadium. In an attempt to bring back some of Sarajevo's Olympic glory, the original Olympic luge and bobsled tracks are being repaired, due to the efforts of both the Olympic Committee of Bosnia and Herzegovina and local sports enthusiasts. \nAfter co-hosting the Southeast Europe Friendship games, Sarajevo was awarded the 2009 Special Olympic winter games, but canceled these plans. The ice arena for the 1984 Olympics, Zetra Stadium, was used during the war as a temporary hospital and, later, for housing NATO troops of the IFOR.\nIn 2011, Sarajevo was the host city of the 51st World Military Skiing Championship with over 350 participants from 23 different nations. This was the first international event of such standing since the 1984 Olympics.\nFootball is popular in Sarajevo; the city hosts FK Sarajevo and FK Željezničar, which both compete in European and international cups and tournaments and have a very large trophy cabinet in the former Yugoslavia as well as independent Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other notable football clubs include Olimpik, SAŠK and Slavija. One of only three stadiums in Bosnia and Herzegovina that has the UEFA category 3 is the Grbavica Stadium, the home stadium of Željezničar.\n\nAnother popular sport is basketball; the basketball club KK Bosna won the European Championship in 1979 as well as many Yugoslav and Bosnian national championships, making it one of the greatest basketball clubs in the former Yugoslavia. The chess club, Bosna Sarajevo, has been a championship team since the 1980s and is the third-ranked chess club in Europe, having won four consecutive European championships in the nineties. Handball club RK Bosna also competes in the European Champions League and is considered one of the most well-organized handball clubs in Southeast Europe with a very large fan base and excellent national, as well as international results.\nSarajevo often holds international events and competitions in sports such as tennis and kickboxing.\nThe popularity of tennis has been picking up in recent years. Since 2003, BH Telecom Indoors has been an annual tennis tournament in Sarajevo.\nSince 2007, the Sarajevo Half Marathon has been organized every year in late September. Giro di Sarajevo is also a run in the city with over 2,200 cyclists taking part in 2015.\nIn February 2019, Sarajevo and East Sarajevo hosted the European Youth Olympic Winter Festival (EYOWF).\n\nSee also\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nChronology of the battle and siege of Sarajevo Archived 3 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine\nSarajevo on Encyclopædia Britannica\nSarajevo Panorama",
"title": "Sarajevo"
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"paragraph_text": "Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian military officer and politician, who served as the second and the longest serving President of Indonesia. Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto, backed by Western powers such as the United States, led Indonesia as an authoritarian regime from 1967 until his resignation in 1998 following nationwide unrest. His 31-year dictatorship is considered one of the most brutal and corrupt of the 20th century, as he was central to the perpetration of mass killings against alleged communists and subsequent persecution of ethnic Chinese, irreligious people, and trade unionists.\nSuharto was born in the small village of Kemusuk, in the Godean area near the city of Yogyakarta, during the Dutch colonial era. He grew up in humble circumstances. His Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he lived with foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation era, Suharto served in the Japanese-organized Indonesian security forces. During Indonesia's independence struggle, he joined the newly formed Indonesian Army. There, Suharto rose to the rank of major general some time after full Indonesian independence was achieved.\nAn attempted coup on 30 September and 1 October 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. According to official reports, this attempt was backed by the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). The army subsequently led a nationwide violent anti-communist purge and Suharto wrested power from Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno. He was appointed acting president in 1967 and elected president the following year. He then mounted a social campaign known as \"de-Sukarnoisation\" to reduce the former president's influence. Suharto ordered an invasion of East Timor in 1975, followed by a deadly 23-year occupation of the country and genocide. Support for Suharto's presidency was active throughout the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1990s, the New Order's increasing authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following the 1997 Asian financial crisis which led to widespread unrest, he resigned in May 1998. Suharto died in January 2008 and was given a state funeral.\nUnder his \"New Order\" administration, Suharto constructed a strong, centralised and military-dominated government. What started as an oligarchic military dictatorship evolved into a personalistic authoritarian regime centred around him. An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War. For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant industrialisation, economic growth, and improved levels of educational attainment. As a result, he was given the title \"Father of Development\". \nAccording to Transparency International, Suharto was one of the most corrupt leaders in modern history, having embezzled an alleged US$15–35 billion during his rule.\nSuharto remains a controversial and divisive figure within the Indonesian general public. Many Indonesians have praised his 31-year regime for its economic development, rapid industrialisation, and perceived political stability, while others have denounced his dictatorial rule, extensive human rights violations and corruption. Plans to award the status of National Hero to Suharto are being considered by the Indonesian government and have been debated vigorously in Indonesia.\n\nName\nLike many Javanese, Suharto had only one name. Religious contexts in recent years had sometimes referred to him as Haji/Al-Haj Mohammed Suharto, but these names were neither part of his formal name nor generally used. The spelling \"Suharto\" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although the general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, the standard transcription was Soeharto, and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling \"Suharto\" while the Indonesian government and media use \"Soeharto\".\n\nEarly life and family\nSuharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in the hamlet of Kemusuk, a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of the Dutch East Indies. The village is 15 kilometres (9 mi) west of Yogyakarta, the cultural heartland of the Javanese. Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro (1856–1929), had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah (1903–1946), a local woman, was distantly related to Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered a nervous breakdown; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in the rice paddies. In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area near Wonogiri. Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father.\nPrawirowihardjo took to raising the boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, a dukun (\"shaman\") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language. Difficulties in paying the fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee Schakel Muhammadiyah (middle school) in the city of Yogyakarta until 1938. Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such as Sukarno in that he is believed to have had little interest in anti-colonialism, or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speak Dutch or other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into the Dutch military in 1940.\n\nMilitary service\nJapanese occupation period\nSuharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes. Following a spell of unemployment, he joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training in Gombong near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and the Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese. Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course at KNIL Kaderschool in Gombong to become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion in Cisarua. Following the Dutch surrender to the invading Japanese forces in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of the thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force.\nIn October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, the Pembela Tanah Air (PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank of shodancho (platoon commander) he encountered a localised version of the Japanese bushido, or \"way of the warrior\", used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking. Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion at Wates, south of Yogyakarta until he was admitted for training for chudancho (company commander) in Bogor from April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits in Surakarta, Jakarta, and Madiun. The Japanese surrender and Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes of Mount Wilis) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by the Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February 1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar, led by Supriyadi.\n\nIndonesian National Revolution\nTwo days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence and were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta. As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined a new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945. Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops around Magelang and Semarang and was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as a field commander. In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader. The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to the status quo ante bellum, quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces.\nSuharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by the Dutch T (\"Tiger\") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces. The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the \"Diponegoro Division\") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest of Yogyakarta from Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of opium through the territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meet Musso, chairman of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of the communist uprising in Madiun.\n\nIn December 1948, the Dutch launched \"Operation Kraai\", which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capital Yogyakarta. Suharto was appointed to lead the Wehrkreise III, consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south of Yogyakarta. In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon. Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of the Third Division ordered the attack. However, General Abdul Nasution said that Suharto took great care in preparing the \"General Offensive\" (Indonesian: Serangan Umum). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured the Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949.\nDuring the Revolution, Suharto married Siti Hartinah (known as Madam Tien), the daughter of a minor noble in the Mangkunegaran royal house of Solo. The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996. The couple had six children: Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (\"Titiek Suharto\", born 1959), Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). Within the Javanese upper class, it was considered acceptable for the wife to pursue genteel commerce to supplement the family budget, allowing her husband to keep his dignity in his official role. The commercial dealings of Tien, her children and grandchildren became extensive and ultimately undermined Suharto's presidency.\n\nPost-Independence career\nIn the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in the Indonesian National Army, primarily in Java. In 1950, as a colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing the Makassar uprising, a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-established State of East Indonesia and its federal entity, the United States of Indonesia. During his year in Makassar, Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest son BJ Habibie was later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating the Islamic-inspired rebellion of Battalion 426 in the Klaten area of Central Java. Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in the Mount Merapi area. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with a deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism.\nBetween 1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based in Semarang, responsible for Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. His relationship with prominent businessmen Liem Sioe Liong and Bob Hasan, which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in a series of \"profit-generating\" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning. Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School (Seskoad) in the city of Bandung.\n\nWhile in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff. On 6 March 1961, he was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve (Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD, later KOSTRAD), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based in Jakarta. In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank of major general and appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based in Makassar. This formed the military side of the campaign to win western New Guinea from the Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia. In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno's Konfrontasi, against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful that Konfrontasi would leave Java thinly covered by the army, and hand control to the 2 million-strong Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer, Ali Murtopo, to open secret contacts with the British and Malaysians.\n\nOverthrow of Sukarno\nBackground\nTensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a \"fifth armed force\" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the \"Gilchrist Document\" aroused Sukarno's fear of a military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere.\nWhile Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled. Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to the inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become the most potent political party in Indonesia.\n\nAbortive coup and anti-communist purge\nBefore dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division. Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 am Untung bin Syamsuri announced on the radio that the \"30 September Movement\" had forestalled a coup attempt on Sukarno by \"CIA-backed power-mad generals\", and that it was \"an internal army affair\". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life. Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old son Tommy who had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief, a key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality.\nUpon being told of the killings, Suharto went to Kostrad headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (now Kopassus) special forces to seize control of the centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by \"counter-revolutionaries\" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno. Suharto issued an ultimatum to Halim Air Force Base, where the G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commander Omar Dhani and PKI chairman Dipa Nusantara Aidit had gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting. With the failure of the poorly organized coup, and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of the army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies.\nComplicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the \"New Order\", was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by the army and Islamic and Catholic student groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes. The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and other Western powers, led a campaign of mass killings to purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of the Communist Party of Indonesia and other leftist organizations. The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country. The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed. As many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another. As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party, was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam. The CIA described the purge as \"one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century\".\n\nPower struggle\nSukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of the 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats. In January 1966, university students under the banner of KAMI, began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from the army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection.\nIn February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966). The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment of KAMI in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966, the appearance of unidentified troops around Merdeka Palace during a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee to Bogor Palace (60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major-General Basuki Rahmat, Brigadier-General M. Jusuf, and Brigadier-General Amir Machmud went to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (see Supersemar) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. Using the Supersemar letter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers.\nThe army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appoint a new cabinet consisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of the MPRS (parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service. In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning of Marxism–Leninism, ratifying the Supersemar, and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties, the holder of the Supersemar—Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations (Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year). Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces. By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within the armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. Facing an increasingly untenable situation, on 22 February 1967 Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency, and on 12 March, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power and named Suharto acting president. Sukarno was placed under house arrest in Bogor Palace; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970. On 27 March 1968, the MPRS appointed Suharto for a full five-year term as president.\n\nThe \"New Order\" (1967–1998)\nIdeology\nSuharto promoted his \"New Order\", as opposed to Sukarno's \"Old Order\", as a society based on the Pancasila ideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into a quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as \"anti-Pancasila\". The New Order also implemented the Dwifungsi (\"Dual Function\") policy which enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society.\n\nConsolidation of power\nHaving been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere primus inter pares, and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-Communist purge. Suharto, aided by his \"Office of Personal Assistants\" (Aspri) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularly Ali Murtopo, began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives. Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman General Abdul Haris Nasution's 1968 attempt to introduce a bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generals Hartono Rekso Dharsono, Kemal Idris, and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo (dubbed \"New Order Radicals\") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of a non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distant North Sumatra and South Sulawesi as regional commanders.\nSuharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of the 1966 student movement (Angkatan '66) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections (\"Golput\" movement), the costly construction of the Taman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists (Malari Incident of 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figures Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti, Adnan Buyung Nasution, Hariman Siregar, and Syahrir), and even sending troops to occupy the campus of ITB (Bandung Institute of Technology) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on \"Normalisation of Campus Life\" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits.\nOn 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out in Jakarta during a visit by the Japanese prime minister Kakuei Tanaka. Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by General Sumitro, deputy commander of the armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident is referred to as the Malari Incident (Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari / Disaster of 15 January). However, Suharto also disbanded Aspri to appease popular dissent. In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed the Petition of Fifty, which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements.\n\nDomestic policy and political stability\nTo placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated a series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for a parliament (Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat/MPR) with the power to elect presidents, consisting of a house of representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat/DPR) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by the government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents.\nTo participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party, the PNI, in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs called Golkar (\"Functional Groups\") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand man Ali Murtopo. The first general election was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting of Golkar, four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on a non-ideological platform of \"development\", and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics, Golkar managed to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. The March 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly appointed Suharto to second-term in office with Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX as vice-president.\n\n\"It is not the military strength of the Communists but their fanaticism and ideology which is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology.\"\nOn 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge into PPP (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan/United Development Party) while the five non-Islamic parties were fused into PDI (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia/Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership while establishing the \"re-call\" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system dubbed \"Pancasila Democracy\", Suharto was re-elected unopposed by the MPR in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition. \nSuharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the \"mandatory of the MPR,\" responsible for implementing the \"Broad Lines of State Policy\" (GBHN) developed by the MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered \"accountability speeches\" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by the House of People's Representatives (DPR) to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in the DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure.\nSuharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised \"floating mass\" supportive of the national mission of \"development\", a concept similar to corporatism. The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created the Indonesian Civil Servants Corps (Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia or KORPRI) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI (Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established the MUI in 1975 to control Islamic clerics.\n\nInternal security and social policy\nAdditionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by the Kopkamtib (Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) and BAKIN (State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under the rubric of the Dwifungsi (\"Dual Function\") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorised Operasi Trisula which destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in the Blitar area in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency in West Kalimantan (1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by the first incarnation of Free Aceh Movement separatists under Hasan di Tiro in 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad. Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to end hijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight by Islamic extremists at Don Mueang International Airport in Bangkok.\nIn 1968, Suharto commenced the highly successful family-planning program (Keluarga Berentjana/KB) to stem the high population growth rate and hence increasing per-capita income. A lasting legacy from this period is the spelling reform of Indonesian language decreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972. To promote assimilation of the influential Chinese-Indonesians, the Suharto government passed several laws as part of the so-called \"Basic Policy for the Solution of Chinese Problem\", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) were prohibited from public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned into Indonesian-language public schools, and the ethnic-Chinese were forced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names; creating a systematic cultural genocide. In 1978, the government began requiring a Letter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia, or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led to difficulties for Chinese Indonesians when enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining the military or police.\n\nEconomy\nTo stabilise the economy and to ensure long-term support for the New Order, Suharto's administration enlisted a group of mostly US-educated Indonesian economists, dubbed the \"Berkeley Mafia\", to formulate significant changes in economic policy. By cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine was alleviated by the influx of USAID rice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968. With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companies Freeport Sulphur Company / International Nickel Company. Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such as Astra Group and Salim Group.\nFrom 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit. With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the 1973 oil crisis, the government invested in infrastructure under a series of five-year plans, dubbed REPELITA (Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun) I to VI from 1969 to 1998. Outside the formal economy, Suharto created a network of charitable organizations (\"yayasan\") run by the military and his family members, which extracted \"donations\" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of the money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order. In 1975, the state-owned oil company, Pertamina, defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally, Ibnu Sutowo. The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt.\n\nForeign policy\nUpon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted a policy of neutrality in the Cold War but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan and South Korea) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support. Diplomatic relations with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in the 30 September Movement (diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, the Soviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister Adam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation with Malaysia in August 1966, Indonesia became a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoing Vietnam War.\nIn 1974, the neighbouring colony of Portuguese Timor descended into civil war after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following the Carnation Revolution, whereby the left-wing populist Fretilin (Portuguese: Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente) emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. president Gerald Ford and Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam during their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groups UDT and APODETI, Suharto authorised a full-scale invasion of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province of East Timor in July 1976. The \"encirclement and annihilation\" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor during Indonesian rule (1974–1999); namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of the violent deaths.\nIndonesia's invasion and occupation of East Timor during Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths. To comply with the New York Agreement of 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration of West Irian into Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called \"Act of Free Choice\" scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces under Sarwo Edhie Wibowo which secured the surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia (Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers under Jusuf Wanandi to distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of the population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by the United Nations General Assembly in November 1969.\n\nSocio-economic progress\nReal socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate has dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$806 to US$4,114. In 1966, the manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series of Palapa telecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and the parliament (MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of \"Father of Development\".\nSuharto government's health-care programs (such as the Puskesmas program) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government's Inpres program launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating the education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from the FAO in November 1985. In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the 1980s oil glut by successfully shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and a series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken by Chinese-Indonesian companies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy.\n\nThe largest of these conglomerates were the Salim Group led by Liem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim), Sinar Mas Group led by Oei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja), Astra Group led by Tjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya), Lippo Group led by Lie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady), Barito Pacific Group led by Pang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu), and Nusamba Group led by Bob Hasan. Suharto decided to support the growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they would not pose a political challenge due to their ethnic-minority status, but from his experience, he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided vital financing for his \"regime maintenance\" activities.\nIn the late 1980s, the Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the \"October Package of 1988\" (PAKTO 88) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced the TABANAS program to the populace. The Jakarta Stock Exchange, re-opened in 1977, recorded a \"bull run\", due to a spree of domestic IPOs and an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to the end of Suharto's presidency.\n\nGrowing corruption\nThe growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (\"Tutut\"), Hutomo Mandala Putra (\"Tommy\"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include the toll-expressway market which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by 21 Cineplex (owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km2 of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m2 of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish \"strategic partnerships\" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile, the myriad of yayasans run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in \"donations\" from the public and private sectors each year.\nIn 1997, Forbes magazine listed Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $16 billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6 million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all of Belgium, and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks his Humpuss Group already had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing, a subsidiary of the state oil company Pertamina, instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $1 million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firm Jasa Marga, with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as a partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company, PLN, to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue of Time magazine, the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $73.24 billion. Setting aside $9 billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth was derived from grabbing the country's oil, gas, and mining resources, or muscling in on state corporations and major government contracts. The entrepreneurial value added from these Suharto family companies was, by all accounts, almost zero.\nIn early 2004, the German anti-corruption NGO Transparency International released a list of what it believed to be the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades; in order of amount allegedly stolen in USD, the highest-ranking of these was Suharto and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $15 billion – $35 billion.\n\nThe New Order in the 1980s and 1990s\nBy the 1980s, Suharto's grip on power was maintained by the emasculation of civil society, engineered elections, and use of the military's coercive powers. Upon his retirement from the military in June 1976, Suharto undertook a re-organization of the armed forces that concentrated power away from commanders to the president. In March 1983, he appointed General Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani as head of the armed forces who adopted a hard-line approach on elements who challenged the administration. As a Roman Catholic, he was not a political threat to Suharto. From 1983 to 1985, army squads killed up to 10,000 suspected criminals in response to a spike in the crime rate (see \"Petrus Killings\"). Suharto's imposition of Pancasila as the sole ideology caused protests from conservative Islamic groups who considered Islamic law to be above all other conceptions.\nThe Tanjung Priok massacre saw the army kill up to 100 conservative Muslim protesters in September 1984. A retaliatory series of small bombings, including the bombing of Borobudur, led to arrests of hundreds of conservative Islamic activists, including future parliamentary leader AM Fatwa and Abu Bakar Bashir (later leader of Jemaah Islamiyah). Attacks on police by a resurgent Free Aceh Movement in 1989 led to a military operation which killed 2,000 people and ended the insurgency by 1992. In 1984, the Suharto government sought increased control over the press by issuing a law requiring all media to possess a press operating license (Surat Izin Usaha Penerbitan Pers, SIUPP) which could be revoked at any time by Ministry of Information.\nWith the end of communism and the Cold War, Suharto's human rights record came under greater international scrutiny, particularly following the 1991 Santa Cruz massacre in East Timor. Suharto was elected as head of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1992, while Indonesia became a founding member of APEC in 1989 and host to the Bogor APEC Summit in 1994. Domestically, the business dealings of Suharto's family created discontent among the military who lost access to power and lucrative rent-seeking opportunities. The March 1988 MPR session, military legislators attempted to pressure Suharto by unsuccessfully seeking to block the nomination of Sudharmono, a Suharto-loyalist, as vice-president. Moerdani's criticism of the Suharto family's corruption saw the president dismiss him from the position of military chief. Suharto proceeded to slowly \"de-militarise\" his regime; he dissolved the powerful Kopkamtib in September 1988 and ensured key military positions were held by loyalists.\n\nIn an attempt to diversify his power base away from the military, Suharto began courting support from Islamic elements. He undertook a much-publicised hajj pilgrimage in 1991, took up the name of Haji Mohammad Suharto, and promoted Islamic values and the careers of Islamic-oriented generals. To win support from the nascent Muslim business community who resented the dominance of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates, Suharto formed the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals (ICMI) in November 1990, which was led by his protégé B.J. Habibie, the Minister for Research and Technology since 1978. During this period, race riots against ethnic-Chinese begin to occur quite regularly, beginning with the April 1994 riot in Medan. By the 1990s, Suharto's government came to be dominated by civilian politicians such as Habibie, Harmoko, Ginandjar Kartasasmita, and Akbar Tanjung, who owed their position solely to Suharto. As a sign of Habibie's growing clout, when two prominent Indonesian magazines and a tabloid newspaper reported on criticism over Habibie's purchase of almost the entire fleet of the disbanded East German Navy in 1993 (most of the vessels were of scrap-value), the Ministry of Information ordered the offending publications be closed down on 21 June 1994. In 1993, the Purna Bhakti Pertiwi Museum was opened on the initiative of Tien Suharto. It houses and displays Suharto collections including artworks and souvenirs, received from various world leaders and Indonesian people.\nIn the 1990s, elements within the growing Indonesian middle class created by Suharto's economic development were becoming restless with his autocracy and the corruption of his children, fuelling demands for \"Reformasi\" (reform) of the almost 30-year-old New Order government. A significant element of the middle class had no memory of the events leading up to Suharto's rise to power. By 1996, Sukarno's daughter, Megawati Sukarnoputri, chairwoman of the normally compliant PDI, was becoming an opposition figure for this growing discontent. In response, Suharto backed a co-opted faction of PDI led by Suryadi, which ousted Megawati as PDI leader. On 27 July 1996, an attack by soldiers and hired thugs led by Lieutenant-General Sutiyoso on demonstrating Megawati supporters in Jakarta resulted in fatal riots and looting. This incident was followed by the arrest of 200 democracy activists, 23 of whom were kidnapped, and some killed, by army squads led by Suharto's son-in-law, Major-General Prabowo Subianto. In 1995, Suharto released a special 1,54 troy ounce gold coin worth of 850,000 rupiah with his face on one side of the coin in the celebration of 50th anniversary of Indonesian Independence. On 5 October 1997, he awarded himself and generals Sudirman and Abdul Haris Nasution the honorary rank of five-star \"Grand General\".\n\nEconomic crisis and downfall\nAsian financial crisis\nIndonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. From mid-1997 there were large capital outflows and against the US dollar. Due to poor bank lending practices, many Indonesian companies borrowed cheaper US dollar loans while their income is mainly in Indonesian rupiah. The weakening rupiah spurred panic buying of US dollar by these companies, causing the Indonesian rupiah to drop in value from a pre-crisis level of Rp. 2,600 to a low point in early 1998 of around Rp. 17,000. Consequently, many companies were bankrupted and the economy shrank by 13.7%, leading to sharp increases in unemployment and poverty across the country.\nEfforts by the central bank to defend the rupiah proved futile and only drained the country's dollar reserves. In exchange for US$43 billion in liquidity aid, between October 1997 and the following April, Suharto signed three letters of intent with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for an economic reform process. In January 1998, the government was forced to provide emergency liquidity assistance (BLBI), issue blanket guarantees for bank deposits and set-up the Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency to take over management of troubled banks to prevent the collapse of the financial system. Among the steps taken on IMF recommendation, the government raised an interest rate up to 70% pa in February 1998, which further worsened the contraction of the economy. In December 1997, Suharto did not attend an ASEAN presidents' summit for the first time, which was later revealed to be due to a minor stroke, creating speculation about his health and the immediate future of his presidency. In mid-December, as the crisis swept through Indonesia and an estimated $150 billion of capital was being withdrawn from the country, he appeared at a press conference to re-assert his authority and to urge people to trust the government and the collapsing rupiah.\nHowever, his attempts to re-instil confidence had little effect. Evidence suggested that his family and associates were being spared the most stringent requirements of the IMF reform process, further undermining confidence in the economy and his leadership. The economic meltdown was accompanied by increasing political tension. Anti-Chinese riots occurred in Situbondo (1996), Tasikmalaya (1996), Banjarmasin (1997), and Makassar (1997); violent ethnic clashes broke out between the Dayak and Madurese settlers in Central Kalimantan in 1997. Golkar won the rigged 1997 election, and in March 1998, Suharto was voted unanimously to another five-year term. He nominated his protégé B. J. Habibie as vice president then stacking the cabinet with his own family and business associates, including his eldest daughter Tutut as Minister of Social Affairs. The appointments and the government's unrealistic 1998 budget created further currency instability, rumours, and panic; which led to a run on stores and pushed up prices. The government increased the fuel prices further by 70% in May 1998, which triggered another wave of riots in Medan.\n\nSuharto resigned\nWith Suharto increasingly seen as the source of the country's mounting economic and political crises, prominent political figures, including Muslim politician Amien Rais, spoke out against his presidency, and in January 1998 university students began organizing nationwide demonstrations. The crisis climaxed while Suharto was on a state visit to Egypt on 12 May 1998, when security forces killed four demonstrators from Jakarta's Trisakti University. Rioting and looting across Jakarta and other cities over the following days destroyed thousands of buildings and killed over 1,000 people. Ethnic Chinese and their businesses were particular targets in the violence. Theories on the origin of the violence include rivalry between military chief General Wiranto and Army Strategic Commander Lt. Gen. Prabowo Subianto, and the suggestion of deliberate provocation by Suharto to divert blame for the crisis to the ethnic-Chinese and discredit the student movement.\nOn 16 May, tens of thousands of university students demanded Suharto's resignation, and occupied the grounds and roof of the parliament building. Upon Suharto's return to Jakarta, he offered to resign in 2003 and to reshuffle his cabinet. These efforts failed when his political allies deserted him by refusing to join the proposed new cabinet. According to Wiranto, on 18 May, Suharto issued a decree which provided authority to him to take any measures to restore security; however, Wiranto decided not to enforce the decree to prevent conflict with the population. On 21 May 1998, Suharto announced his resignation, upon which vice-president Habibie assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitution. Documents from the United States Department of State indicate that the Clinton Administration sought to maintain close ties with the Indonesian military in the aftermath of Suharto's fall from power.\n\nPost-presidency\nCorruption charges\nAfter resigning from the presidency, Suharto became a recluse in his family's compound in the Menteng area of Jakarta, protected by soldiers and rarely making public appearances. Suharto's family spent much of their time fending off corruption investigations. However, Suharto himself was protected from grave prosecution by politicians who owed their positions to the former president, as indicated in the leaked telephone conversation between President Habibie and attorney-general Andi Muhammad Ghalib in February 1999. In May 1999, Time Asia estimated Suharto's family fortune at US$15 billion in cash, shares, corporate assets, real estate, jewellery and fine art. Suharto sued the magazine seeking more than US$27 billion in damages for libel over the article. On 10 September 2007, Indonesia's Supreme Court awarded Suharto damages against Time Asia magazine, ordering it to pay him one trillion rupiah ($128.59 million). The High Court reversed the judgment of an appellate court and Central Jakarta district court (made in 2000 and 2001).\nSuharto was placed highest on Transparency International's list of corrupt leaders with alleged misappropriation of between US$15–35 billion during his 32-year presidency. On 29 May 2000, Suharto was placed under house arrest when Indonesian authorities began to investigate the corruption during his presidency. In July 2000, it was announced that he was to be accused of embezzling US$571 million of government donations to one of several foundations under his control and then using the money to finance family investments. However, in September court-appointed doctors announced that he could not stand trial because of his declining health. State prosecutors tried again in 2002, but then doctors cited an unspecified brain disease. On 26 March 2008, a civil court judge acquitted Suharto of corruption but ordered his charitable foundation, Supersemar, to pay US$110 m (£55 m).\nIn 2002, Suharto's son Tommy Suharto was sentenced to 15 years' jail for ordering the killing of a judge (who had previously convicted him of corruption), illegal weapons possession, and fleeing justice. In 2006, he was paroled on \"conditional release\". In 2003, Suharto's half-brother Probosutedjo was tried and convicted for corruption and the loss of $10 million from the Indonesian state. He was sentenced to four years in jail. He later won a reduction of his sentence to two years, initiating a probe by the Corruption Eradication Commission into the alleged scandal of the \"judicial mafia\" which uncovered offers of $600,000 to various judges. Probosutedjo confessed to the scheme in October 2005, leading to the arrest of his lawyers. His full four-year term was reinstated. After a brief standoff at a hospital, in which he was reportedly protected by a group of police officers, he was arrested on 30 November 2005. On 9 July 2007, Indonesian prosecutors filed a civil lawsuit against Suharto, to recover state funds ($440 million or £219 million, which allegedly disappeared from a scholarship fund, and a further $1.1 billion in damages).\n\nIllness and death\nAfter resigning from the presidency, Suharto was hospitalised repeatedly for stroke, heart, and intestinal problems. His declining health hindered attempts to prosecute him as his lawyers successfully claimed that his condition rendered him unfit for trial. Moreover, there was little support within Indonesia for any attempts to prosecute him. In 2006, Attorney General Abdurrahman announced that a team of twenty doctors would be asked to evaluate Suharto's health and fitness for trial. One physician, Brigadier-General Dr Marjo Subiandono, stated his doubts about by noting that \"[Suharto] has two permanent cerebral defects.\" In a later Financial Times report, Attorney General Abdurrahman discussed the re-examination, and called it part of a \"last opportunity\" to prosecute Suharto criminally. Attorney General Abdurrahman left open the possibility of filing suit against the Suharto estate.\nOn 4 January 2008, Suharto was taken to the Pertamina Central Hospital, Jakarta with complications arising from poor health, swelling of limbs and stomach, and partial renal failure. His health fluctuated for several weeks but progressively worsened with anaemia and low blood pressure due to heart and kidney complications, internal bleeding, fluid on his lungs, and blood in his faeces and urine which caused a haemoglobin drop. On 23 January, Suharto's health worsened further, as a sepsis infection spread through his body. His family consented to the removal of life support machines if his condition did not improve, and he died on 27 January at 1:09 pm.\nMinutes after his death, then-Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono held a news conference declaring Suharto as one of Indonesia's \"best sons\" and invited the country to give the highest respect and honour to the ex-president. Suharto's body was taken from Jakarta to the Astana Giribangun mausoleum complex in Karanganyar Regency, near the Central Java city of Solo. He was buried alongside his late wife in a state military funeral with full honours, with the Kopassus elite forces and KOSTRAD commandos as the honour guard and pallbearers and Commander of Group II Kopassus Surakarta Lt. Colonel Asep Subarkah. In attendance were President Yudhoyono, who presided over the ceremony, as well as the vice-president, government ministers, and armed forces chiefs of staff. Tens of thousands of people lined the streets to see the convoy. Condolences were offered by many regional heads of state. President Yudhoyono that afternoon declared a week of official mourning starting from Suharto's day of death. During this period, all flags of Indonesia were flown at half-mast.\n\nPolitical rehabilitation\nOn 25 September 2024, in one of its last acts for the 2019-2024 period, the Indonesian parliament repealed clause 4 of MPR Resolution XI/MPR/1998, which had accused Suharto and his cronies of acts of corruption, collusion, and nepotism (clause 4 specifically named Suharto). The stated reason for this was because Suharto was never put on trial for these accusations before his death in 2008. This move has reignited debate as to whether Suharto should be awarded the National Hero status.\n\nHonours\nNational honours\nAs an officer in the Indonesian Army (1940–1974), and then as president of Indonesia (1967–1998), he received several civilian and military Star Decorations from Indonesia, namely:\n\n Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipurna)\n Star of Mahaputera, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Mahaputera Adipurna)\n Star of Merit, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Jasa Utama)\n The Sacred Star (Indonesian: Bintang Sakti)\n Star of Meritorious Service (Indonesian: Bintang Dharma)\n Guerrilla Star (Indonesian: Bintang Gerilya)\n Star of Culture Parama Dharma (Indonesian: Bintang Budaya Parama Dharma)\n Star of Yudha Dharma, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Yudha Dharma Utama)\n Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Utama)\n Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 2st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Pratama)\n Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 3st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Nararya)\n Star of Jalasena, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Jalasena Utama)\n Star of Swa Bhuwana Paksa, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Swa Bhuwana Paksa Utama)\n Star of Bhayangkara, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Bhayangkara Utama)\n Garuda Star (Indonesian: Bintang Garuda)\n Indonesian Armed Forces 8 Years of Service Star (Indonesian: Bintang Sewindu Angkatan Perang)\n Military Long Service Medal, 16 Years Service (Indonesian: Satyalancana Kesetiaan 16 Tahun)\n Military Campaign Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Teladan)\n 1st Campaign Commemoration Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan I)\n 2nd Campaign Commemoration Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan II)\n 1st Military Operations Service Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M I)\n 2nd Military Operations Service Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M II)\n 3rd Military Operations Service Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M III)\n 4th Military Operations Service Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M IV)\n West New Guinea Military Campaign Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Satya Dharma)\n Northern Borneo Military Campaign Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Wira Dharma)\n Medal for Combat Against Communists (Indonesian: Satyalancana Penegak)\n\nForeign honours\nIn addition, he also received several foreign decorations:\n Argentina:\n\n Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martín (1972)\n Austria:\n\n Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (1973)\n Belgium:\n\n Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold (1973)\n Brunei:\n\n Recipient of the Most Esteemed Family Order of Laila Utama (DK) (1988)\n Cambodia:\n\n Grand Collar of the National Order of Independence (1968)\n Egypt:\n\n Grand Collar of the Order of the Nile (1977)\n Ethiopia:\n\n Grand Cordon and Collar of the Order of the Queen of Sheba (1968)\n France:\n\n Grand Cross of the National Order of the Legion of Honour (1972)\n Iran:\n\n First Class of the Order of Pahlavi\n Recipient of the Commemorative Medal of the 2,500-year Celebration of the Persian Empire (1971)\n Italy:\n\n Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (OMRI) (1972)\n Japan:\n\n Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum (1968)\n Jordan:\n\n Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali (1986)\n Kuwait:\n\n Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great (1977)\n Malaysia:\n\n Honorary Recipient of the Most Exalted Order of the Crown of the Realm (DMN) (1988)\n Johor:\n Grand Commander of the Most Esteemed Royal Family Order of Johor (DK Johor) (1990)\n Perak:\n Recipient Member of the Most Esteemed Royal Family Order of Perak (DK Perak) (1988)\n Mexico:\n\n Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle\n Netherlands:\n\n Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (1970)\n Pakistan:\n\n Nishan-e-Pakistan (NPk) (1982)\n Philippines:\n\n Grand Collar (Raja) of the Order of Sikatuna (GCS) (1968)\n Grand Collar (Maringal na Kuwintas) of the Order of the Golden Heart (GCGH) (1968)\n Qatar:\n\n Collar of the Order of the Independence (1977)\n Romania:\n\n First Class of the Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic (1982)\n Saudi Arabia:\n\n Great Chain of the Badr (1977)\n Singapore:\n\n Recipient of the Order of Temasek (DUT) (1974)\n South Africa:\n\n Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope (1997)\n South Korea:\n\n Grand Order of Mugunghwa (1981)\n Spain:\n\n Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (CYC) (1980)\n Syria:\n\n Member 1st Class of the Order of the Umayyads (1977)\n Thailand:\n\n Knight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (KRM) (1970)\n Tunisia:\n\n Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic (1995)\n Ukraine:\n\n First Class of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise (1997)\n United Arab Emirates :\n\n Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of Unity (1977)\n United Kingdom:\n\n Honorary Knight Grand Cross (Military Division) of the Order of the Bath (GCB) (1974)\n Venezuela:\n\n Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Liberator (1988)\n West Germany:\n\n Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1970)\n Yemen:\n\n Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Republic\n Yugoslavia:\n\n Yugoslav Star with Sash of the Order of the Yugoslav Star (1975)\n\nPlaces and statue\nSuharto's childhood house in Kemusuk is currently a memorial museum, called Memorial Jenderal Besar HM Soeharto. A statue of him stands in front of the museum. It was built by Probosutedjo and was inaugurated in 2013.\nFELDA Soeharto, a village in Selangor, is named after him. He visited the village in 1977 as part of a momentous visit to normalize the Indonesia–Malaysia relations.\n\nIn popular culture\nSuharto has been portrayed by five Indonesian actors in several movies.\n\nKaharuddin Syah portrayed Suharto in the 1980 movie Janur Kuning directed by Alam Surawidjaja.\nAntonius Yacobus portrayed Suharto in the 1982 movie Serangan Fajar directed by Arifin C. Noer.\nAmoroso Katamsi portrayed Suharto in the 1984 movie Pengkhianatan G30S/PKI and the 1988 movie Djakarta 66 directed by Arifin C. Noer. Amoroso Katamsi also portrayed Suharto in the 2015 drama movie Di Balik 98 directed by Lukman Sardi.\nMarcell Siahaan portrayed Suharto in the 2010 comedic movie Laskar Pemimpi directed by Monty Tiwa.\nTio Pakusadewo portrayed Suharto in the 2012 biopic movie Habibie & Ainun directed by Faozan Rizal.\n\nSee also\nHistory of Indonesia\nHigh-ranking commanders of the Indonesian National Revolution\nAsas tunggal Pancasila\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nFurther reading\nDwipayana, G.; Ramadhan, K.H. (1989). Soeharto: Pikiran, ucapan dan tindakan saya: otobiografi [Soeharto: My thoughts, words and deeds: an autobiography]. Jakarta: PT Citra Lamtoro Gung Persada. ISBN 979-8085-01-9.\nElson, R.E. (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0 521 77326 1\nMcGlynn, John H. et al. (2007). Indonesia in the Soeharto years. Issue, incidents and images, Jakarta, KITLV\nAbdulgani-Knapp, Retnowati (2007). Soeharto: The Life and Legacy of Indonesia's Second President: An Authorised Biography. Marshall Cavendish Editions. p. 12. ISBN 978-981-261-340-0.\nSiti Hardiyanti Rukmana (2011). Pak Harto: The Untold Stories, Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.\n\nExternal links\nShadow Play Website accompanying a 2002 PBS documentary on Indonesia, with emphasis on the Suharto era and early Reformasi\n\"Suharto, Inc.\" 1999 Time magazine article on Suharto's presidency and family, published on the first anniversary of his resignation\n\"Life in pictures: Indonesia's Suharto\" BBC News – Photographs about Suharto's life, from his rise to power to his downfall and trial",
"title": "Suharto"
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"paragraph_text": "Kemusuk is a hamlet (dukuh) in the Argomulyo village, Sedayu subdistrict, Bantul Regency, Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The area, around 10 km to the west of Yogyakarta towards the town of Wates, is known as the birthplace of the second president of Indonesia, Suharto.\n\nSignificance with Suharto's life and family\nSuharto was born to a 'poor but not unimportant farmer's family' in the village. His father, Kertosudiro, was a local irrigation official in charge of overseeing the allocation of water to different farmers in Kemusuk. His mother, Sukirah, was a village woman from a nearby hamlet.\nThe Suharto family have returned to the village on various occasions in recent years. Suharto himself, accompanied by members of his family, made a trip to Kemusuk in 2002 to pay respects to his father's grave. At the time Suharto's younger step-brother, Notosuwito, had a house in the village near the graveyard in the Kepoh area. More recently, in March 2013 several of Suharto's children, along with his half-brother Probosutedjo, visited Kemusuk Lor (North Kemusuk) to attend the unveiling of a statue of their father installed near a series of exhibits (photos and some dioramas) about Suharto's life at a hall in the village. The statue of Soeharto, which is 3.5 meters tall, presents him in full military uniform as the commander of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, or TNI) carrying a baton under his left arm. The sculptor of the statue was the well-known Indonesian sculptor Edhi Sunarso. Edhi Sunarso has created various other well-known statues and monuments in Indonesia including the landmark Selamat Datang Monument (Welcome Monument) in Jakarta.\nIn June 2013 additional facilities as part of a memorial to Suharto were opened in a ceremony in Kemusuk by Suharto's eldest daughter Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut) and his brother Probosutedjo. The memorial included refurbished houses which various members of Suharto's family had lived in as well as a museum. The ceremony was attended by several senior ministers of the Indonesian government including the Coordinating People's Welfare Minister Agung Laksono and Defence Minister Purnomo Yusgiantoro.\nAt the time of Suharto's death in January 2008, residents of Kemusuk joined in the mourning for the former president. Flags were lowered in the village and Suharto's nephew, Aryo Notosuwito spoke in memory of Suharto. As is the practice in Indonesia, members of the local community gathered together at the house of Suharto's relatives to remember the former resident of their village.\nLater, in March 2018, when Suharto's brother Probosutedjo died in Jakarta, his body was flown back to Yogyakarta and transferred to Kemusuk to be buried in the local Somenggalan cemetery.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Kemusuk"
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] | Please consider the following clues and answer the question that follows: 1. This mosque is located in the city dubbed the "Jerusalem of the Balkans." 2, The mosque was commissioned by an authoritarian dictator born in a small village 10 km west of Yogyakarta. Question: What is the height difference between the twin towers of the mosque and its dome? | [] | 21 meters | [] | true |
46 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Below is a list of European countries and dependencies by area in Europe. As a continent, Europe's total geographical area is about 10 million square kilometres. Transcontinental countries are ranked according to the size of their European part only, excluding Greece due to the not clearly defined boundaries of its islands between Europe and Asia. Inland water is included in area numbers.\n\nList of European countries and dependencies by area\nDefinition\nEurope and Asia are contiguous with each other; thus, the exact boundary between them is not clearly defined, and often follows historical, political, and cultural definitions, rather than geographical.\n\nMap of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries\nLegend:\nBlue = Contiguous transcontinental countries\nGreen = Sometimes considered European but geographically outside Europe's boundaries\n\nSee also\nArea and population of European countries\nList of countries and dependencies by area\nList of European countries by population\nEuropean microstates\n\nNotes\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "List_of_European_countries_by_area"
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"paragraph_text": "Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukraine to the east, Slovakia and the Czech Republic to the south, and Germany to the west. The territory is characterised by a varied landscape, diverse ecosystems, and temperate transitional climate. Poland is composed of sixteen voivodeships and is the fifth most populous member state of the European Union (EU), with over 38 million people, and the fifth largest EU country by land area, covering a combined area of 312,696 km2 (120,733 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Warsaw; other major cities include Kraków, Wrocław, Łódź, Poznań, and Gdańsk.\nPrehistoric human activity on Polish soil dates to the Lower Paleolithic, with continuous settlement since the end of the Last Glacial Period. Culturally diverse throughout late antiquity, in the early medieval period the region became inhabited by the West Slavic tribal Polans, who gave Poland its name. The process of establishing statehood coincided with the conversion of a pagan ruler of the Polans to Christianity, under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Church in 966. The Kingdom of Poland emerged in 1025, and in 1569 cemented its long-standing association with Lithuania, thus forming the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the time, the Commonwealth was one of the great powers of Europe, with an elective monarchy and a uniquely liberal political system, which adopted Europe's first modern constitution in 1791.\nWith the passing of the prosperous Polish Golden Age, the country was partitioned by neighbouring states at the end of the 18th century. Poland regained its independence at the end of World War I in 1918 with the creation of the Second Polish Republic, which emerged victorious in various conflicts of the interbellum period. In September 1939, the invasion of Poland by Germany and the Soviet Union marked the beginning of World War II, which resulted in the Holocaust and millions of Polish casualties. Forced into the Eastern Bloc in the global Cold War, the Polish People's Republic was a founding signatory of the Warsaw Pact. Through the emergence and contributions of the Solidarity movement, the communist government was dissolved and Poland re-established itself as a democratic state in 1989, as the first of its neighbors.\nPoland is a semi-presidential republic with its bicameral legislature comprising the Sejm and the Senate. Considered a middle power, it is a developed market and high-income economy that is the sixth largest in the EU by nominal GDP and the fifth largest by GDP (PPP). Poland enjoys a very high standard of living, safety, and economic freedom, as well as free university education and universal health care. The country has 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 15 of which are cultural. Poland is a founding member state of the United Nations and a member of the World Trade Organization, OECD, NATO, and the European Union (including the Schengen Area).\n\nEtymology\nThe native Polish name for Poland is Polska. The name is derived from the Polans, a West Slavic tribe who inhabited the Warta River basin of present-day Greater Poland region (6th–8th century CE). The tribe's name stems from the Proto-Slavic noun pole meaning field, which in-itself originates from the Proto-Indo-European word *pleh₂- indicating flatland. The etymology alludes to the topography of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland. During the Middle Ages, the Latin form Polonia was widely used throughout Europe. \nThe country's alternative archaic name is Lechia and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notably Hungarian, Lithuanian, and Persian. The exonym possibly derives from either Lech, a legendary ruler of the Lechites, or from the Lendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge of Lesser Poland. The origin of the tribe's name lies in the Old Polish word lęda (plain). Initially, both names Lechia and Polonia were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during the Middle Ages.\n\nHistory\nPrehistory and protohistory\nThe first Stone Age archaic humans and Homo erectus species settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments. The arrival of Homo sapiens and anatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of the Last Glacial Period (Northern Polish glaciation 10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable. Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in Polish Kuyavia, and the Bronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).\nThe period spanning the Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (1300 BC–500 BC) was marked by an increase in population density, establishment of palisaded settlements (gords) and the expansion of Lusatian culture. A significant archaeological find from the protohistory of Poland is a fortified settlement at Biskupin, attributed to the Lusatian culture of the Late Bronze Age (mid-8th century BC).\nThroughout antiquity (400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notably Celtic, Scythian, Germanic, Sarmatian, Baltic and Slavic tribes. Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence of Roman Legions sent to protect the amber trade. The Polish tribes emerged following the second wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD; they were Slavic and may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area. Beginning in the early 10th century, the Polans would come to dominate other Lechitic tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state.\n\nKingdom of Poland\nPoland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty. In 966, ruler of the Polans Mieszko I accepted Christianity under the auspices of the Roman Church with the Baptism of Poland. In 968, a missionary bishopric was established in Poznań. An incipit titled Dagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital in Gniezno and affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of the Apostolic See. The country's early origins were described by Gallus Anonymus in Gesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle. An important national event of the period was the martyrdom of Saint Adalbert, who was killed by Prussian pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor, Bolesław I the Brave.\nIn 1000, at the Congress of Gniezno, Bolesław obtained the right of investiture from Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor, who assented to the creation of additional bishoprics and an archdioceses in Gniezno. Three new dioceses were subsequently established in Kraków, Kołobrzeg, and Wrocław. Also, Otto bestowed upon Bolesław royal regalia and a replica of the Holy Lance, which were later used at his coronation as the first King of Poland in c. 1025, when Bolesław received permission for his coronation from Pope John XIX. Bolesław also expanded the realm considerably by seizing parts of German Lusatia, Czech Moravia, Upper Hungary, and southwestern regions of the Kievan Rus'.\n\nThe transition from paganism in Poland was not instantaneous and resulted in the pagan reaction of the 1030s. In 1031, Mieszko II Lambert lost the title of king and fled amidst the violence. The unrest led to the transfer of the capital to Kraków in 1038 by Casimir I the Restorer. In 1076, Bolesław II re-instituted the office of king, but was banished in 1079 for murdering his opponent, Bishop Stanislaus. In 1138, the country fragmented into five principalities when Bolesław III Wrymouth divided his lands among his sons. These were Lesser Poland, Greater Poland, Silesia, Masovia and Sandomierz, with intermittent hold over Pomerania. In 1226, Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to aid in combating the Baltic Prussians; a decision that later led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.\nIn the first half of the 13th century, Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but the Mongol invasion and the death of Henry II in battle hindered the unification. As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration of German and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes. In 1264, the Statute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for the Polish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe. \nIn 1320, Władysław I the Short became the first king of a reunified Poland since Przemysł II in 1296, and the first to be crowned at Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. Beginning in 1333, the reign of Casimir III the Great was marked by developments in castle infrastructure, army, judiciary and diplomacy. Under his authority, Poland transformed into a major European power; he instituted Polish rule over Ruthenia in 1340 and imposed quarantine that prevented the spread of Black Death. In 1364, Casimir inaugurated the University of Kraków, one of the oldest institutions of higher learning in Europe. Upon his death in 1370, the Piast dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his closest male relative, Louis of Anjou, who ruled Poland, Hungary, and Croatia in a personal union. Louis' younger daughter Jadwiga became Poland's first female monarch in 1384.\n\nIn 1386, Jadwiga of Poland entered a marriage of convenience with Władysław II Jagiełło, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus forming the Jagiellonian dynasty and the Polish–Lithuanian union which spanned the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era. The partnership between Poles and Lithuanians brought the vast multi-ethnic Lithuanian territories into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for its inhabitants, who coexisted in one of the largest European political entities of the time.\nIn the Baltic Sea region, the struggle of Poland and Lithuania with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, where a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against them. In 1466, after the Thirteen Years' War, king Casimir IV Jagiellon gave royal consent to the Peace of Thorn, which created the future Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty and forced the Prussian rulers to pay tributes. The Jagiellonian dynasty also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Bohemia (1471 onwards) and Hungary. In the south, Poland confronted the Ottoman Empire (at the Varna Crusade) and the Crimean Tatars, and in the east helped Lithuania to combat Russia.\nPoland was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility that confined the population to private manorial farmstead known as folwarks. In 1493, John I Albert sanctioned the creation of a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house, the Sejm, and an upper house, the Senate. The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish General Sejm in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as Golden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equal Polish nobles.\n\nThe 16th century saw Protestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time. This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil and wars of religion that beset Europe. In Poland, Nontrinitarian Christianity became the doctrine of the so-called Polish Brethren, who separated from their Calvinist denomination and became the co-founders of global Unitarianism.\nThe European Renaissance evoked under Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a cultural awakening. During the Polish Golden Age, the nation's economy and culture flourished. The Italian-born Bona Sforza, daughter of the Duke of Milan and queen consort to Sigismund I, made considerable contributions to architecture, cuisine, language and court customs at Wawel Castle.\n\nPolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\nThe Union of Lublin of 1569 established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unified federal state with an elective monarchy, but largely governed by the nobility. The latter coincided with a period of prosperity; the Polish-dominated union thereafter becoming a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central, Eastern, Southeastern and Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km2 (390,000 sq mi) at its peak and was the largest state in Europe. Simultaneously, Poland imposed Polonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.\nIn 1573, Henry de Valois of France, the first elected king, approbated the Henrician Articles which obliged future monarchs to respect the rights of nobles. When he left Poland to become King of France, his successor, Stephen Báthory, led a successful campaign in the Livonian War, granting Poland more lands across the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. State affairs were then headed by Jan Zamoyski, the Crown Chancellor. Stephen's successor, Sigismund III, defeated a rival Habsburg electoral candidate, Archduke Maximilian III, in the War of the Polish Succession (1587–1588). In 1592, Sigismund succeeded his father and John Vasa, in Sweden. The Polish-Swedish union endured until 1599, when he was deposed by the Swedes.\n\nIn 1609, Sigismund invaded Russia which was engulfed in a civil war, and a year later the Polish winged hussar units under Stanisław Żółkiewski occupied Moscow for two years after defeating the Russians at Klushino. Sigismund also countered the Ottoman Empire in the southeast; at Khotyn in 1621 Jan Karol Chodkiewicz achieved a decisive victory against the Turks, which ushered the downfall of Sultan Osman II.\nSigismund's long reign in Poland coincided with the Silver Age. The liberal Władysław IV effectively defended Poland's territorial possessions but after his death the vast Commonwealth began declining from internal disorder and constant warfare. In 1648, the Polish hegemony over Ukraine sparked the Khmelnytsky Uprising, followed by the decimating Swedish Deluge during the Second Northern War, and Prussia's independence in 1657. In 1683, John III Sobieski re-established military prowess when he halted the advance of an Ottoman Army into Europe at the Battle of Vienna. The Saxon era, under Augustus II and Augustus III, saw neighboring powers grow in strength at the expense of Poland. Both Saxon kings faced opposition from Stanisław Leszczyński during the Great Northern War (1700) and the War of the Polish Succession (1733).\n\nPartitions\nThe royal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation of Stanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy. His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, Empress Catherine II of Russia. The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states. His ideals led to the formation of the 1768 Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility. The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade.\nIn 1772, the First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which the Partition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as a fait accompli. Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which the Commission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated. Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of the Enlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republican neoclassicism. For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded a Fellowship of the Royal Society.\nIn 1791, Great Sejm parliament adopted the 3 May Constitution, the first set of supreme national laws, and introduced a constitutional monarchy. The Targowica Confederation, an organisation of nobles and deputies opposing the act, appealed to Catherine and caused the 1792 Polish–Russian War. Fearing the reemergence of Polish hegemony, Russia and Prussia arranged and in 1793 executed, the Second Partition, which left the country deprived of territory and incapable of independent existence. On 24 October 1795, the Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time and ceased to exist as a territorial entity. Stanisław Augustus, the last King of Poland, abdicated the throne on 25 November 1795.\n\nEra of insurrections\nThe Polish people rose several times against the partitioners and occupying armies. An unsuccessful attempt at defending Poland's sovereignty took place in the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising, where a popular and distinguished general Tadeusz Kościuszko, who had several years earlier served under George Washington in the American Revolutionary War, led Polish insurgents. Despite the victory at the Battle of Racławice, his ultimate defeat ended Poland's independent existence for 123 years.\nIn 1806, an insurrection organised by Jan Henryk Dąbrowski liberated western Poland ahead of Napoleon's advance into Prussia during the War of the Fourth Coalition. In accordance with the 1807 Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon proclaimed the Duchy of Warsaw, a client state ruled by his ally Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. The Poles actively aided French troops in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly those under Józef Poniatowski who became Marshal of France shortly before his death at Leipzig in 1813. In the aftermath of Napoleon's exile, the Duchy of Warsaw was abolished at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and its territory was divided into Russian Congress Kingdom of Poland, the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen, and Austrian Galicia with the Free City of Kraków.\n\nIn 1830, non-commissioned officers at Warsaw's Officer Cadet School rebelled in what was the November Uprising. After its collapse, Congress Poland lost its constitutional autonomy, army and legislative assembly. During the European Spring of Nations, Poles took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 to resist Germanisation, but its failure saw duchy's status reduced to a mere province; and subsequent integration into the German Empire in 1871. In Russia, the fall of the January Uprising (1863–1864) prompted severe political, social and cultural reprisals, followed by deportations and pogroms of the Polish-Jewish population. Towards the end of the 19th century, Congress Poland became heavily industrialised; its primary exports being coal, zinc, iron and textiles.\n\nSecond Polish Republic\nIn the aftermath of World War I, the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland, confirmed through the Treaty of Versailles of June 1919. A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, and over 450,000 died. Following the armistice with Germany in November 1918, Poland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic.\nThe Second Polish Republic reaffirmed its sovereignty after a series of military conflicts, most notably the Polish–Soviet War, when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsaw.\nThe inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until World War I, a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such as Ignacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 when Gabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at the Zachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalist Eligiusz Niewiadomski.\nIn 1926, the May Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign Marshal Józef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisan Sanacja (Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilizing the country. By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.\n\nWorld War II\nWorld War II began with the Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, followed by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September. On 28 September 1939, Warsaw fell. As agreed in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. In 1939–1941, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles. The Soviet NKVD executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war (among other incidents in the Katyn massacre) ahead of Operation Barbarossa. German planners had in November 1939 called for \"the complete destruction of all Poles\" and their fate as outlined in the genocidal Generalplan Ost.\n\nPoland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in Europe, and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east. Polish troops played an important role in the Normandy, Italian, North African Campaigns and Netherlands and are particularly remembered for the Battle of Britain and Battle of Monte Cassino. Polish intelligence operatives proved extremely valuable to the Allies, providing much of the intelligence from Europe and beyond, Polish code breakers were responsible for cracking the Enigma cipher and Polish scientists participating in the Manhattan Project were co-creators of the American atomic bomb. In the east, the Soviet-backed Polish 1st Army distinguished itself in the battles for Warsaw and Berlin.\nThe wartime resistance movement, and the Armia Krajowa (Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court system. The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiated Operation Tempest, of which the Warsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.\n\nNazi German forces under orders from Adolf Hitler set up six German extermination camps in occupied Poland, including Treblinka, Majdanek and Auschwitz. The Germans transported millions of Jews from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps. Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews – approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles were killed during the German occupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polish intelligentsia – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during the Wola and Ochota massacres. Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as the Wołyń Massacres. Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population – half of them Polish Jews. About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.\nIn 1945, Poland's borders were shifted westwards. Over two million Polish inhabitants of Kresy were expelled along the Curzon Line by Stalin. The western border became the Oder-Neisse line. As a result, Poland's territory was reduced by 20%, or 77,500 square kilometres (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced the migration of millions of other people, most of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews.\n\nPost-war communism\nAt the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.\nDespite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland (in particular the cities of Wilno and Lwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning of Red Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.\nThe new communist government took control with the adoption of the Small Constitution on 19 February 1947. The Polish People's Republic (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) was officially proclaimed in 1952. In 1956, after the death of Bolesław Bierut, the régime of Władysław Gomułka became temporarily more liberal, freeing many people from prison and expanding some personal freedoms. Collectivisation in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the 1970s under Edward Gierek, but most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Eastern Bloc.\nLabour turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the independent trade union \"Solidarity\" (\"Solidarność\"), which over time became a political force. Despite persecution and imposition of martial law in 1981 by General Wojciech Jaruzelski, it eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by 1989 had triumphed in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War. Lech Wałęsa, a Solidarity candidate, eventually won the presidency in 1990. The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe.\n\nThird Polish Republic\nA shock therapy program, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early 1990s, enabled the country to transform its Soviet-style planned economy into a market economy. As with other post-communist countries, Poland suffered temporary declines in social, economic, and living standards, but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre-1989 GDP levels as early as 1995, although the unemployment rate increased. Poland became a member of the Visegrád Group in 1991, and joined NATO in 1999. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in June 2003, with Poland becoming a full member on 1 May 2004, following the consequent enlargement of the organisation.\nPoland joined the Schengen Area in 2007, as a result of which, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union were dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the European Union. On 10 April 2010, the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, along with 89 other high-ranking Polish officials died in a plane crash near Smolensk, Russia.\nIn 2011, the ruling Civic Platform won parliamentary elections. In 2014, the Prime Minister of Poland, Donald Tusk, was chosen to be President of the European Council, and resigned as prime minister. The 2015 and 2019 elections were won by the national-conservative Law and Justice Party (PiS) led by Jarosław Kaczyński, resulting in increased Euroscepticism and increased friction with the European Union. In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydlo, in office since 2015. President Andrzej Duda, supported by Law and Justice party, was re-elected in the 2020 presidential election. As of November 2023, the Russian invasion of Ukraine had led to 17 million Ukrainian refugees crossing the border to Poland. As of November 2023, 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland. In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in the election, but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition made up of Civic Coalition, Third Way, and The Left. Law and Justice became the leading opposition party.\n\nGeography\nPoland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km2 (120,743 sq mi), and is the ninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km2 (120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km2 (788 sq mi) is internal waters and 8,783 km2 (3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea. Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverse landforms, water bodies and ecosystems. The central and northern region bordering the Baltic Sea lie within the flat Central European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous. The average elevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres.\nThe country has a coastline spanning 770 km (480 mi); extending from the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the Bay of Pomerania in the west to the Gulf of Gdańsk in the east. The beach coastline is abundant in sand dune fields or coastal ridges and is indented by spits and lagoons, notably the Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Lagoon, which is shared with Russia. The largest Polish island on the Baltic Sea is Wolin, located within Wolin National Park. Poland also shares the Szczecin Lagoon and the Usedom island with Germany.\nThe mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two major mountain ranges; the Sudetes in the west and the Carpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are the Tatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border. Poland's highest point is Mount Rysy at 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras. The highest summit of the Sudetes massif is Mount Śnieżka at 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic. The lowest point in Poland is situated at Raczki Elbląskie in the Vistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level.\n\nPoland's longest rivers are the Vistula, the Oder, the Warta, and the Bug. The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region of Masuria, within the Masurian Lake District. The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), are Śniardwy and Mamry, and the deepest is Lake Hańcza at 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth.\n\nClimate\nThe climate of Poland is temperate transitional, and varies from oceanic in the north-west to continental in the south-east. The mountainous southern fringes are situated within an alpine climate. Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December. The warmest and sunniest part of Poland is Lower Silesia in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, around Suwałki in Podlaskie province, where the climate is affected by cold fronts from Scandinavia and Siberia. Precipitation is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.\nThere is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year. Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannual thermal anomalies and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period. Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with less sleet and snowfall.\n\nBiodiversity\nPhytogeographically, Poland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The country has four Palearctic ecoregions – Central, Northern, Western European temperate broadleaf and mixed forest, and the Carpathian montane conifer. Forests occupy 31% of Poland's land area, the largest of which is the Lower Silesian Wilderness. The most common deciduous trees found across the country are oak, maple, and beech; the most common conifers are pine, spruce, and fir. An estimated 69% of all forests are coniferous.\nThe flora and fauna in Poland is that of Continental Europe, with the wisent, white stork and white-tailed eagle designated as national animals, and the red common poppy being the unofficial floral emblem. Among the most protected species is the European bison, Europe's heaviest land animal, as well as the Eurasian beaver, the lynx, the gray wolf and the Tatra chamois. The region was also home to the extinct aurochs, the last individual dying in Poland in 1627. Game animals such as red deer, roe deer, and wild boar are found in most woodlands. Poland is also a significant breeding ground for migratory birds and hosts around one quarter of the global population of white storks.\nAround 315,100 hectares (1,217 sq mi), equivalent to 1% of Poland's territory, is protected within 23 Polish national parks, two of which – Białowieża and Bieszczady – are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. There are 123 areas designated as landscape parks, along with numerous nature reserves and other protected areas under the Natura 2000 network.\n\nGovernment and politics\nPoland is a unitary semi-presidential republic and a representative democracy, with a president as the head of state. The executive power is exercised further by the Council of Ministers and the prime minister who acts as the head of government. The council's individual members are selected by the prime minister, approved by parliament and sworn in by the president. The head of state is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The current president is Andrzej Duda and the prime minister is Donald Tusk.\nPoland's legislative assembly is a bicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member upper house (Senate). The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method for vote-seat conversion. The Senate is elected under the first-past-the-post electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies. The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.\n\nWith the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates of political parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm. Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteed parliamentary immunity. Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.\nMembers of the Sejm and Senate jointly form the National Assembly of the Republic of Poland. The National Assembly, headed by the Sejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes the oath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to the State Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.\n\nAdministrative divisions\nPoland is divided into 16 provinces or states known as voivodeships. As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas). Major cities normally have the status of both gmina and powiat. The provinces are largely founded on the borders of historic regions, or named for individual cities. Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and a voivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.\n\nLaw\nThe Constitution of Poland is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of civil law. The current democratic constitution was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland on 2 April 1997; it guarantees a multi-party state with freedoms of religion, speech and gatherings, prohibits the practices of forced medical experimentation, torture or corporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right to strike.\nThe judiciary in Poland is composed of the Supreme Court as the country's highest judicial organ, the Supreme Administrative Court for the judicial control of public administration, Common Courts (District, Regional, Appellate) and the Military Court. The Constitutional and State Tribunals are separate judicial bodies, which rule the constitutional liability of people holding the highest offices of state and supervise the compliance of statutory law, thus protecting the Constitution. Judges are nominated by the National Council of the Judiciary and are appointed for life by the president. With the approval of the Senate, the Sejm appoints an ombudsman for a five-year term to guard the observance of social justice.\nPoland has a low homicide rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018. Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level. The country has imposed strict regulations on abortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger; congenital disorder and stillbirth are not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.\nHistorically, the most significant Polish legal act is the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Instituted to redress long-standing political defects of the federative Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty, it was the first modern constitution in Europe and influenced many later democratic movements across the globe. In 1918, the Second Polish Republic became one of the first countries to introduce universal women's suffrage.\n\nForeign relations\nPoland is a middle power and is transitioning into a regional power in Europe. It has a total of 53 representatives in the European Parliament as of 2024. Warsaw serves as the headquarters for Frontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well as ODIHR, one of the principal institutions of the OSCE. Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the WTO.\nIn recent years, Poland significantly strengthened its relations with the United States, thus becoming one of its closest allies and strategic partners in Europe. Historically, Poland maintained strong cultural and political ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as \"The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship\".\n\nMilitary\nThe Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – the Land Forces, the Navy, the Air Force, the Special Forces and the Territorial Defence Force. The military is subordinate to the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland. However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff. Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by the Armed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August. As of 2022, the Polish Armed Forces have a combined strength of 114,050 active soldiers, with a further 75,400 active in the gendarmerie and defence force.\nPoland ranks 14th in the world in terms of military expenditures; the country allocates 3.8% of its total GDP on military spending, equivalent to approximately US$31.6 billion in 2023. From 2022, Poland initiated a programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polish defence manufacturers. Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel. According to SIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.\nCompulsory military service for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO's military exercises. Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions, and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, the Baltic states and southeastern Europe.\n\nSecurity, law enforcement and emergency services\nThanks to its location, Poland is a country essentially free from the threat of natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes and tropical cyclones. However, floods have occurred in low-lying areas from time to time during periods of extreme rainfall (e.g. during the 2010 Central European floods).\nLaw enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to the Ministry of Interior and Administration – the State Police (Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; the Municipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guard. Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect. Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carry firearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer. Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.\nThe Internal Security Agency (ABW, or ISA in English) is the chief counterintelligence instrument safeguarding Poland's internal security, along with Agencja Wywiadu (AW) which identifies threats and collects secret information abroad. The Central Investigation Bureau of Police (CBŚP) and the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) are responsible for countering organised crime and corruption in state and private institutions.\nEmergency services in Poland consist of the emergency medical services, search and rescue units of the Polish Armed Forces and State Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are operated by local and regional governments, but are a part of the centralised national agency – the National Medical Emergency Service (Państwowe Ratownictwo Medyczne).\n\nEconomy\nAs of 2023, Poland's economy and gross domestic product (GDP) is the sixth largest in the European Union by nominal standards and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is also one of the fastest growing within the Union and reached a developed market status in 2018. The unemployment rate published by Eurostat in 2023 amounted to 2.8%, which was the second-lowest in the EU. As of 2023, around 62% of the employed population works in the service sector, 29% in manufacturing, and 8% in the agricultural sector. Although Poland is a member of the European single market, the country has not adopted the Euro as legal tender and maintains its own currency – the Polish złoty (zł, PLN).\nPoland is the regional economic leader in Central Europe, with nearly 40 per cent of the 500 biggest companies in the region (by revenues) as well as a high globalisation rate. The country's largest firms compose the WIG20 and WIG30 indexes, which is traded on the Warsaw Stock Exchange. According to reports made by the National Bank of Poland, the value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost 300 billion PLN at the end of 2014. The Central Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.\nPoland has the largest banking sector in Central Europe, with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults. It was the only European economy to have avoided the recession of 2008. The country is the 20th largest exporter of goods and services in the world. Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 56% of GDP, as of 2020. In 2019, Poland passed a law that would exempt workers under the age of 26 from income tax.\n\nTourism\nIn 2020, the total value of the tourism industry in Poland was 104.3 billion PLN, then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP. Tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market. Nearly 200,000 people were employed in the accommodation and catering (hospitality) sector in 2020. In 2021, Poland ranked 12th most visited country in the world by international arrivals.\nTourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the beaches in the north, with a trail of rich architectural and cultural heritage. Among the most recognisable landmarks are Old Towns in Kraków, Warsaw, Wrocław (dwarf statues), Gdańsk, Poznań, Lublin, Toruń and Zamość as well as museums, zoological gardens, theme parks and the Wieliczka Salt Mine, with its labyrinthine tunnels, underground lake and chapels carved by miners out of rock salt beneath the ground. There are over 100 castles in the country, largely within the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, and also on the Trail of the Eagles' Nests; the largest castle in the world by land area is situated in Malbork. The German Auschwitz concentration camp in Oświęcim, and the Skull Chapel in Kudowa-Zdrój constitute dark tourism. Regarding nature based travel, notable sites include the Masurian Lake District and Białowieża Forest in the east; on the south Karkonosze, the Table Mountains and the Tatra Mountains, where Rysy and the Eagle's Path trail are located. The Pieniny and Bieszczady Mountains lie in the extreme south-east.\n\nTransport\nTransport in Poland is provided by means of rail, road, marine shipping and air travel. The country is part of EU's Schengen Area and is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe. Some of the longest European routes, including the E30 and E40, run through Poland. The country has a good network of highways consisting of express roads and motorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's 21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of highways in use.\nIn 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France. The Polish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their own commuter and regional rail. Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is Warsaw Chopin Airport. It is the primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines, the country's flag carrier.\nSeaports exist all along Poland's Baltic coast, with most freight operations using Świnoujście, Police, Szczecin, Kołobrzeg, Gdynia, Gdańsk and Elbląg as their base. The Port of Gdańsk is the only port in the Baltic Sea adapted to receive oceanic vessels. Polferries and Unity Line are the largest Polish ferry operators, with the latter providing roll-on/roll-off and train ferry services to Scandinavia.\n\nEnergy\nThe electricity generation sector in Poland is largely fossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation's greenhouse gas emissions. Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks, Kompania Węglowa and JSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually. After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.\nThe new Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal and lignite in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.\n\nScience and technology\nOver the course of history, the Polish people have made considerable contributions in the fields of science, technology and mathematics. Perhaps the most renowned Pole to support this theory was Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik), who triggered the Copernican Revolution by placing the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe. He also derived a quantity theory of money, which made him a pioneer of economics. Copernicus' achievements and discoveries are considered the basis of Polish culture and cultural identity. Poland was ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.\nPoland's tertiary education institutions; traditional universities, as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles was Marie Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland's Radium Institute.\nIn the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. Outstanding Polish mathematicians formed the Lwów School of Mathematics (with Stefan Banach, Stanisław Mazur, Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam) and Warsaw School of Mathematics (with Alfred Tarski, Kazimierz Kuratowski, Wacław Sierpiński and Antoni Zygmund). Numerous mathematicians, scientists, chemists or economists emigrated due to historic vicissitudes, among them Benoit Mandelbrot, Leonid Hurwicz, Alfred Tarski, Joseph Rotblat and Nobel Prize laureates Roald Hoffmann, Georges Charpak and Tadeusz Reichstein.\n\nDemographics\nPoland has a population of approximately 38.2 million as of 2021, and is the ninth-most populous country in Europe, as well as the fifth-most populous member state of the European Union. It has a population density of 122 inhabitants per square kilometre (320 inhabitants/sq mi). The total fertility rate was estimated at 1.33 children born to a woman in 2021, which is among the world's lowest. Furthermore, Poland's population is aging significantly, and the country has a median age of 42.2.\n\nAround 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones. In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided in detached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments. The most populous administrative province or state is the Masovian Voivodeship and the most populous city is the capital, Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in its metropolitan area. The metropolitan area of Katowice is the largest urban conurbation with a population between 2.7 million and 5.3 million residents. Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities of Wrocław and Kraków.\nIn the 2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reported Polish identity, 846,719 Silesian, 232,547 Kashubian and 147,814 German. Other identities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality. Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit or Karta Polaka. More than 1.7 million Ukrainian citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017. The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone. According to the Council of Europe, 12,731 Romani people live in Poland.\n\nLanguages\nPolish is the official and predominant spoken language in Poland, and is one of the official languages of the European Union. It is also a second language in parts of neighbouring Lithuania, where it is taught in Polish-minority schools. Contemporary Poland is a linguistically homogeneous nation, with 97% of respondents declaring Polish as their mother tongue. There are currently 15 minority languages in Poland, including one recognised regional language, Kashubian, which is spoken by approximately 100,000 people on a daily basis in the northern regions of Kashubia and Pomerania. Poland also recognises secondary administrative languages or auxiliary languages in bilingual municipalities, where bilingual signs and placenames are commonplace. According to the Centre for Public Opinion Research, around 32% of Polish citizens declared knowledge of the English language in 2015.\n\nReligion\nAccording to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to the Roman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.\nPoland is one of the most religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-born Pope John Paul II is widely revered. In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance. However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attended mass weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000. According to The Wall Street Journal, \"Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by the Pew Research Center in 2018, Poland was secularizing the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders.\"\nFreedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland's concordat with the Holy See enables the teaching of religion in public schools. Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree of religious tolerance and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe. Poland hosted Europe's largest Jewish diaspora, and the country was a centre of Ashkenazi Jewish culture and traditional learning until the Holocaust.\nContemporary religious minorities include Orthodox Christians, Protestants, including Lutherans of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church, Pentecostals in the Pentecostal Church in Poland, Adventists in the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and other smaller Evangelical denominations, including Jehovah's Witnesses, Eastern Catholics, Mariavites, Jews, Muslims (Tatars), and neopagans, some of whom are members of the Native Polish Church.\nPilgrimages to the Jasna Góra Monastery, a shrine dedicated to the Black Madonna, take place annually.\n\nHealth\nMedical service providers and hospitals (szpitale) in Poland are subordinate to the Ministry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard of hygiene and patient care. Poland has a universal healthcare system based on an all-inclusive insurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance program of the National Health Fund (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.\nAccording to the Human Development Report from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female); the country has a low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 births). In 2019, the principal cause of death was ischemic heart disease; diseases of the circulatory system accounted for 45% of all deaths. In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer of medications and pharmaceutical products.\n\nEducation\nThe Jagiellonian University founded in 1364 by Casimir III in Kraków was the first institution of higher learning established in Poland, and is one of the oldest universities still in continuous operation. Poland's Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), established in 1773, was the world's first state ministry of education. In 2018, the Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, placed Poland's educational output as one of the highest in the OECD, ranking 5th by student attainment and 6th by student performance in 2022. The study showed that students in Poland perform better academically than in most OECD countries.\nThe framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by the Ministry of Education and Science. One year of kindergarten is compulsory for six-year-olds. Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians. Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or various vocational studies (szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by individual pupils. A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning. \nIn Poland, there are over 500 university-level institutions, with numerous faculties. The University of Warsaw and Warsaw Polytechnic, the University of Wrocław, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań and the University of Technology in Gdańsk are among the most prominent. There are three conventional academic degrees in Poland – licencjat or inżynier (first cycle), magister (second cycle) and doktor (third cycle qualification).\n\nEthnicity\nEthnic structure of Poland by voivodeship according to the censuses of 2002, 2011 and 2021:\n\nCulture\nThe culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-year history, and forms an important constituent in the Western civilisation. The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expression biało-czerwoni (\"whitereds\"). National symbols, chiefly the crowned white-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems. The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by the National Heritage Board of Poland. Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto the Historic Monuments Register, with further 17 being recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites.\n\nHolidays and traditions\nThere are 13 government-approved annual public holidays – New Year on 1 January, Three Kings' Day on 6 January, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday, Labour Day on 1 May, Constitution Day on 3 May, Pentecost, Corpus Christi, Feast of the Assumption on 15 August, All Saints' Day on 1 November, Independence Day on 11 November and Christmastide on 25 and 26 December.\nParticular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year. Trees are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus' manger, Christmas wafers (opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and a twelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when the first star appears. An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest. On occasion, carolers journey around smaller towns with a folk Turoń creature until the Lent period.\nA widely-popular doughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs on Fat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter. Eggs for Holy Sunday are painted and placed in decorated baskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches on Easter Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagan dyngus festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights. Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.\n\nMusic\nArtists from Poland, including famous musicians such as Frédéric Chopin, Artur Rubinstein, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Krzysztof Penderecki, Henryk Wieniawski, Karol Szymanowski, and traditional, regionalised folk composers create a lively and diverse music scene, which even recognises its own music genres, such as sung poetry and disco polo.\nThe origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found in Stary Sącz containing polyphonic compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica and God Is Born (a coronation polonaise tune for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer, Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century. Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.\nIn the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wrote liturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos and sonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the polonaise. Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titled Krakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794.\n\nPoland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as Krzysztof Komeda created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are the Pol'and'Rock Festival, Open'er Festival, Opole Festival and Sopot Festival.\n\nArt\nArt in Poland has invariably reflected European trends, with Polish painting pivoted on folklore, Catholic themes, historicism and realism, but also on Impressionism and romanticism. An important art movement was Young Poland, developed in the late 19th century for promoting decadence, symbolism and Art Nouveau. Since the 20th century Polish documentary art and photography has enjoyed worldwide fame, especially the Polish School of Posters. One of the most distinguished paintings in Poland is Lady with an Ermine (1490) by Leonardo da Vinci.\nInternationally renowned Polish artists include Jan Matejko (historicism), Jacek Malczewski (symbolism), Stanisław Wyspiański (art nouveau), Henryk Siemiradzki (Roman academic art), Tamara de Lempicka (art deco), and Zdzisław Beksiński (dystopian surrealism). Several Polish artists and sculptors were also acclaimed representatives of avant-garde, constructivist, minimalist and contemporary art movements, including Katarzyna Kobro, Władysław Strzemiński, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Alina Szapocznikow, Igor Mitoraj and Wilhelm Sasnal.\nNotable art academies in Poland include the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, Art Academy of Szczecin, University of Fine Arts in Poznań and the Geppert Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław. Contemporary works are exhibited at Zachęta, Ujazdów, and MOCAK art galleries.\n\nArchitecture\nThe architecture of Poland reflects European architectural styles, with strong historical influences derived from Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries. Settlements founded on Magdeburg Law evolved around central marketplaces (plac, rynek), encircled by a grid or concentric network of streets forming an old town (stare miasto). Poland's traditional landscape is characterised by ornate churches, city tenements and town halls. Cloth hall markets (sukiennice) were once an abundant feature of Polish urban architecture. The mountainous south is known for its Zakopane chalet style, which originated in Poland.\nThe earliest architectonic trend was Romanesque (c. 11th century), but its traces in the form of circular rotundas are scarce. The arrival of brick Gothic (c. 13th century) defined Poland's most distinguishable medieval style, exuded by the castles of Malbork, Lidzbark, Gniew and Kwidzyn as well as the cathedrals of Gniezno, Gdańsk, Wrocław, Frombork and Kraków. The Renaissance (16th century) gave rise to Italianate courtyards, defensive palazzos and mausoleums. Decorative attics with pinnacles and arcade loggias are elements of Polish Mannerism, found in Poznań, Lublin and Zamość. Foreign artisans often came at the expense of kings or nobles, whose palaces were built thereafter in the Baroque, Neoclassical and Revivalist styles (17th–19th century).\nPrimary building materials timber and red brick were used extensively in Polish folk architecture, and the concept of a fortified church was commonplace. Secular structures such as dworek manor houses, farmsteads, granaries, mills and country inns are still present in some regions or in open air museums (skansen). However, traditional construction methods faded in the early-mid 20th century due to urbanisation and the construction of functionalist housing estates and residential areas.\n\nLiterature\nThe literary works of Poland have traditionally concentrated around the themes of patriotism, spirituality, social allegories and moral narratives. The earliest examples of Polish literature, written in Latin, date to the 12th century. The first Polish phrase Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai (officially translated as \"Let me, I shall grind, and you take a rest\") was documented in the Book of Henryków and reflected the use of a quern-stone. It has been since included in UNESCO's Memory of World Register. The oldest extant manuscripts of fine prose in Old Polish are the Holy Cross Sermons and the Bible of Queen Sophia, and Calendarium cracoviense (1474) is Poland's oldest surviving print.\nThe poets Jan Kochanowski and Nicholas Rey became the first Renaissance authors to write in Polish. Prime literarians of the period included Dantiscus, Modrevius, Goslicius, Sarbievius and theologian John Laski. In the Baroque era, Jesuit philosophy and local culture greatly influenced the literary techniques of Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (Marinism) and Jan Chryzostom Pasek (sarmatian memoirs). During the Enlightenment, playwright Ignacy Krasicki composed the first Polish-language novel. Poland's leading 19th-century romantic poets were the Three Bards – Juliusz Słowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński and Adam Mickiewicz, whose epic poem Pan Tadeusz (1834) is a national classic. In the 20th century, the English impressionist and early modernist writings of Joseph Conrad made him one of the most eminent novelists of all time.\nContemporary Polish literature is versatile, with its fantasy genre having been particularly praised. The philosophical sci-fi novel Solaris by Stanisław Lem and The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski are celebrated works of world fiction. Poland has six Nobel-Prize winning authors – Henryk Sienkiewicz (Quo Vadis; 1905), Władysław Reymont (The Peasants; 1924), Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978), Czesław Miłosz (1980), Wisława Szymborska (1996), and Olga Tokarczuk (2018).\n\nCuisine\nThe cuisine of Poland is eclectic and shares similarities with other regional cuisines. Among the staple or regional dishes are pierogi (filled dumplings), kielbasa (sausage), bigos (hunter's stew), kotlet schabowy (breaded cutlet), gołąbki (cabbage rolls), barszcz (borscht), żurek (soured rye soup), oscypek (smoked cheese), and tomato soup. Bagels, a type of bread roll, also originated in Poland.\nTraditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce. Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds of kluski (soft dumplings), soups, cereals and a variety of breads and open sandwiches. Salads, including mizeria (cucumber salad), coleslaw, sauerkraut, carrot and seared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such as sernik (cheesecake), makowiec (poppy seed roll), or napoleonka (mille-feuille) cream pie.\nTraditional alcoholic beverages include honey mead, widespread since the 13th century, beer, wine and vodka. The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland. The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998. Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as \"Polish Champagne\", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland. Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.\n\nFashion and design\nSeveral Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; including Helena Rubinstein and Maksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known as Max Factor and formulated the term \"make-up\" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics. Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing modern eyelash extensions. As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe. Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer, and the retail store Reserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.\nHistorically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness or cultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known as Sarmatism at the turn of the 17th century. The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court at Versailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments included robe à la polonaise and the witzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococo Polish beds with canopies became fashionable in French châteaus. Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.\n\nCinema\nThe cinema of Poland traces its origins to 1894, when inventor Kazimierz Prószyński patented the Pleograph and subsequently the Aeroscope, the first successful hand-held operated film camera. In 1897, Jan Szczepanik constructed the Telectroscope, a prototype of television transmitting images and sounds. They are both recognised as pioneers of cinematography. Poland has also produced influential directors, film producers and actors, many of whom were active in Hollywood, chiefly Roman Polański, Andrzej Wajda, Pola Negri, Samuel Goldwyn, the Warner brothers, Max Fleischer, Agnieszka Holland, Krzysztof Zanussi and Krzysztof Kieślowski.\nThe themes commonly explored in Polish cinema include history, drama, war, culture and black realism (film noir). In the 21st-century, two Polish productions won the Academy Awards – The Pianist (2002) by Roman Polański and Ida (2013) by Paweł Pawlikowski. Polish cinematography also created many well-received comedies. The most known of them were made by Stanisław Bareja and Juliusz Machulski.\n\nMedia\nAccording to the Eurobarometer Report (2015), 78 percent of Poles watch the television daily. In 2020, 79 percent of the population read the news more than once a day, placing it second behind Sweden. Poland has a number of major domestic media outlets, chiefly the public broadcasting corporation TVP, free-to-air channels TVN and Polsat as well as 24-hour news channels TVP Info, TVN 24 and Polsat News. Public television extends its operations to genre-specific programmes such as TVP Sport, TVP Historia, TVP Kultura, TVP Rozrywka, TVP Seriale and TVP Polonia, the latter a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish-language telecasts for the Polish diaspora. In 2020, the most popular types of newspapers were tabloids and socio-political news dailies.\nPoland is a major European hub for video game developers and among the most successful companies are CD Projekt, Techland, The Farm 51, CI Games and People Can Fly. Some of the popular video games developed in Poland include The Witcher trilogy and Cyberpunk 2077. The Polish city of Katowice also hosts Intel Extreme Masters, one of the biggest esports events in the world.\n\nSports\nMotorcycle Speedway, volleyball and association football are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions. Track and field, basketball, handball, boxing, MMA, ski jumping, cross-country skiing, ice hockey, tennis, fencing, swimming, and weightlifting are other popular sports.\nThe golden era of football in Poland occurred throughout the 1970s and went on until the early 1980s when the Polish national football team achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing third place in the 1974 and the 1982 tournaments. The team won a gold medal in football at the 1972 Summer Olympics and two silver medals, in 1976 and in 1992. In 2012, Poland co-hosted the UEFA European Football Championship.\nAs of September 2024, the Polish men's national volleyball team is ranked as first in the world. The team won a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics and the gold medal at the FIVB World Championship 1974, 2014 and 2018.\nMariusz Pudzianowski is a highly successful strongman competitor and has won more World's Strongest Man titles than any other competitor in the world, winning the event in 2008 for the fifth time.\nPoland has made a distinctive mark in motorcycle speedway racing. The top Ekstraliga division has one of the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The national speedway team of Poland is one of the major teams in international speedway. Individually, Poland has three Speedway Grand Prix World Champions, with the most successful being four-time World Champion Bartosz Zmarzlik who won back-to-back championships in 2019 and 2020 as well as 2022 and 2023. In 2021, Poland finished runners-up in the Speedway of Nations world championship final, held in Manchester, England in 2021.\nIn the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1 Iga Świątek, winner of five Grand Slam singles titles; former World No. 2 Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including 2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP player Hubert Hurkacz; former World No. 1 doubles player Łukasz Kubot, winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles and Jan Zieliński, winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the 2015 Hopman Cup with Agnieszka Radwańska and Jerzy Janowicz representing the country.\nPoles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter ascending of the eight-thousanders (e.g. Jerzy Kukuczka, Krzysztof Wielicki, Wanda Rutkiewicz). Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world. Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.\n\nSee also\nOutline of Poland\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nMaterski, Wojciech; Szarota, Tomasz (2009). Poland 1939–1945. Casualties and the victims of repressions under the Nazi and the Soviet occupations [Polska 1939–1945. Straty osobowe i ofiary represji pod dwiema okupacjami] (excerpts online). Institute of National Remembrance (IPN). Hardcover, 353 pages. ISBN 978-83-7629-067-6. With a Foreword by Janusz Kurtyka (IPN); and expert contributions by Waldemar Grabowski, Franciszek Piper, and Andrzej Krzysztof Kunert. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2013.\n\nExternal links\n\nGov.pl – Polish national portal. .\nPoland. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\n\"Poland\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). 1911.\n\"Poland\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 32 (12th ed.). 1922.\nPoland at Curlie\n Wikimedia Atlas of Poland\n Geographic data related to Poland at OpenStreetMap",
"title": "Poland"
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] | As of August 1, 2024, what is the largest city of the 9th largest country by land area in Europe? | [] | The largest city of the 9th largest country in Europe is Warsaw. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Michigan ( MISH-ig-ən) is a state in the Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest region of the United States. It borders Wisconsin to the southwest in the Upper Peninsula, and Indiana and Ohio to the south in the Lower Peninsula; it is also connected by Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Erie to Minnesota and Illinois, and the Canadian province of Ontario. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of 96,716 sq mi (250,490 km2), Michigan is the 10th-largest state by population, the 11th-largest by area, and the largest by area east of the Mississippi River. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit. Metro Detroit is among the nation's most populous and largest metropolitan economies. The name derives from a gallicized variant of the original Ojibwe word ᒥᓯᑲᒥ (mishigami), meaning \"large water\" or \"large lake\".\nMichigan consists of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula resembles the shape of a mitten, and comprises a majority of the state's land area. The Upper Peninsula (often called \"the U.P.\") is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, a five-mile (8 km) channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan. The Mackinac Bridge connects the peninsulas. Michigan has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the United States, being bordered by four of the five Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair. It also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds. Michigan has the second-most water area of any state, behind only Alaska.\nThe area was first occupied by a succession of Native American tribes over thousands of years. In the 17th century, French explorers claimed it as part of the New France colony, when it was largely inhabited by Indigenous peoples. French and Canadian traders and settlers, Métis, and others migrated to the area, settling largely along the waterways. After France's defeat in the French and Indian War in 1762, the region came under British rule. Britain ceded the territory to the newly independent United States after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The area was part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Michigan Territory was formed in 1805, but some of the northern border with Canada was not agreed upon until after the War of 1812. Michigan was admitted into the Union in 1837 as the 26th state, a free one. It soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region, attracting immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from many European countries. Immigrants from Finland, Macedonia, and the Netherlands were especially numerous. Migration from Appalachia and of Black Southerners as part of the Great Migration increased in the 1930s, with many settling in Metro Detroit.\nAlthough Michigan has developed a diverse economy, in the early 20th century it became widely known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry, which developed as a major national economic force. It is home to the country's three major automobile companies (whose headquarters are all in Metro Detroit). Once exploited for logging and mining, today the sparsely populated Upper Peninsula is important for tourism because of its abundance of natural resources. The Lower Peninsula is a center of manufacturing, forestry, agriculture, services, and high-tech industry.\n\nHistory\nWhen the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were the Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa (Ottawa), and the Boodewaadamii/Bodéwadmi (Potawatomi). The three nations coexisted peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been at least 35,000, were the largest.\nThe Ojibwe Indians (also known as Chippewa in the U.S.), an Anishinaabe tribe, were established in Michigan's Upper Peninsula and northern and central Michigan. Bands also inhabited Ontario and southern Manitoba, Canada; and northern Wisconsin, and northern and north-central Minnesota. The Ottawa Indians lived primarily south of the Straits of Mackinac in northern, western, and southern Michigan, but also in southern Ontario, northern Ohio, and eastern Wisconsin. The Potawatomi were in southern and western Michigan, in addition to northern and central Indiana, northern Illinois, southern Wisconsin, and southern Ontario. Other Algonquian tribes in Michigan, in the south and east, were the Mascouten, the Menominee, the Miami, the Sac (or Sauk), and the Meskwaki (Fox). The Wyandot were an Iroquoian-speaking people in this area; they were historically known as the Huron by the French, and were the historical adversaries of the Iroquois Confederation.\n\n17th century\nFrench voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlé's expedition in 1622. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, as a base for Catholic missions. Missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were well received by the area's Indian populations, with few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph. In 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present-day city of Niles.\n\n18th century\nIn 1701, French explorer and army officer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit or \"Fort Pontchartrain on-the-Strait\" on the strait, known as the Detroit River, between lakes Saint Clair and Erie. Cadillac had convinced King Louis XIV's chief minister, Louis Phélypeaux, Comte de Pontchartrain, that a permanent community there would strengthen French control over the upper Great Lakes and discourage British aspirations.\nThe hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent (about 0.85 acres (3,400 m2), the equivalent of just under 200 feet (61 m) per side) and named it Fort Pontchartrain. Cadillac's wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in what was considered the wilderness of Michigan. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post. The Église de Saint-Anne (Catholic Church of Saint Anne) was founded the same year. While the original building does not survive, the congregation remains active. Cadillac later departed to serve as the French governor of Louisiana from 1710 to 1716. French attempts to consolidate the fur trade led to the Fox Wars, in which the Meskwaki (Fox) and their allies fought the French and their Native allies.\nAt the same time, the French strengthened Fort Michilimackinac at the Straits of Mackinac to better control their lucrative fur-trading empire. By the mid-18th century, the French also occupied forts at present-day Niles and Sault Ste. Marie, though most of the rest of the region remained unsettled by Europeans. France offered free land to attract families to Detroit, which grew to 800 people in 1765. It was the largest city between Montreal and New Orleans. French settlers also established small farms south of the Detroit River opposite the fort, near a Jesuit mission and Huron village.\n\nFrom 1660 until the end of French rule, Michigan was part of the Royal Province of New France. In 1760, Montreal fell to the British forces, ending the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the North American front of the Seven Years' War in Europe. Under the 1763 Treaty of Paris, Michigan and the rest of New France east of the Mississippi River were ceded by defeated France to Great Britain. After the Quebec Act was passed in 1774, Michigan became part of the British Province of Quebec. By 1778, Detroit's population reached 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in Quebec province.\nDuring the American Revolutionary War, Detroit was an important British supply center. Most of the inhabitants were French-Canadians or American Indians, many of whom had been allied with the French because of long trading ties. Because of imprecise cartography and unclear language defining the boundaries in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, the British retained control of Detroit and Michigan after the American Revolution. When Quebec split into Lower and Upper Canada in 1791, Michigan was part of Kent County, Upper Canada. It held its first democratic elections in August 1792 to send delegates to the new provincial parliament at Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake).\nUnder terms negotiated in the 1794 Jay Treaty, Britain withdrew from Detroit and Michilimackinac in 1796. It retained control of territory east and south of the Detroit River, which are now included in Ontario, Canada. Questions remained over the boundary for many years, and the United States did not have uncontested control of the Upper Peninsula and Drummond Island until 1818 and 1847, respectively.\n\n19th century\nDuring the War of 1812, the United States forces at Fort Detroit surrendered Michigan Territory (effectively consisting of Detroit and the surrounding area) after a nearly bloodless siege in 1812. A U.S. attempt to retake Detroit resulted in a severe American defeat in the River Raisin Massacre. This battle, still ranked as the bloodiest ever fought in the state, had the highest number of American casualties of any battle of the war.\nMichigan was recaptured by the Americans in 1813 after the Battle of Lake Erie. They used Michigan as a base to launch an invasion of Canada, which culminated in the Battle of the Thames. But the more northern areas of Michigan were held by the British until the peace treaty restored the old boundaries. A number of forts, including Fort Wayne, were built by the United States in Michigan during the 19th century out of fears of renewed fighting with Britain.\n\nMichigan Territory governor and judges established the University of Michigan in 1817, as the Catholepistemiad, or the University of Michigania.\nThe population grew slowly until the opening in 1825 of the Erie Canal through the Mohawk Valley in New York, connecting the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and New York City. The new route attracted a large influx of settlers to the Michigan territory. They worked as farmers, lumbermen, shipbuilders, and merchants and shipped out grain, lumber, and iron ore. By the 1830s, Michigan had 80,000 residents, more than enough to apply and qualify for statehood.\nOn November 1, 1935, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative 3-cent stamp celebrating the 100th anniversary of Michigan statehood. Michigan's statehood, however, wasn't officially established until January 26, 1837, but since the campaign for statehood actually began in 1835, Michigan chose to hold its centennial celebration in 1935, the year the stamp was first issued.\nA constitutional convention of assent was held to lead the territory to statehood. In October 1835 the people approved the constitution of 1835, thereby forming a state government. Congressional recognition was delayed pending resolution of a boundary dispute with Ohio known as the Toledo War. Congress awarded the \"Toledo Strip\" to Ohio. Michigan received the western part of the Upper Peninsula as a concession and formally entered the Union as a free state on January 26, 1837. The Upper Peninsula proved to be a rich source of lumber, iron, and copper. Michigan led the nation in lumber production from the 1850s to the 1880s. Railroads became a major engine of growth from the 1850s onward, with Detroit the chief hub.\n\nA second wave of French-Canadian immigrants settled in Michigan during the late 19th to early 20th century, working in lumbering areas in counties on the Lake Huron side of the Lower Peninsula, such as the Saginaw Valley, Alpena, and Cheboygan counties, as well as throughout the Upper Peninsula, with large concentrations in Escanaba and the Keweenaw Peninsula. \nThe first statewide meeting of the Republican Party took place on July 6, 1854, in Jackson, Michigan, where the party adopted its platform. The state was predominantly Republican until the 1930s, reflecting the political continuity of migrants from across the Northern Tier of New England and New York. Michigan made a significant contribution to the Union in the American Civil War and sent more than forty regiments of volunteers to the federal armies.\nMichigan modernized and expanded its system of education in this period. The Michigan State Normal School, now Eastern Michigan University, was founded in 1849, for the training of teachers. It was the fourth oldest normal school in the United States and the first U.S. normal school outside New England. In 1899, the Michigan State Normal School became the first normal school in the nation to offer a four-year curriculum. Michigan Agricultural College (1855), now Michigan State University in East Lansing, was founded as the first agricultural college in the nation. Many private colleges were founded as well, and the smaller cities established high schools late in the century.\n\n20th–21st centuries\nMichigan's economy underwent a transformation at the turn of the 20th century. Many individuals, including Ransom E. Olds, John and Horace Dodge, Henry Leland, David Dunbar Buick, Henry Joy, Charles King, and Henry Ford, provided the concentration of engineering know-how and technological enthusiasm to develop the automotive industry. Ford's development of the moving assembly line in Highland Park marked a new era in transportation. Like the steamship and railroad, mass production of automobiles was a far-reaching development. More than the forms of public transportation, the affordable automobile transformed private life. Automobile production became the major industry of Detroit and Michigan, and permanently altered the socioeconomic life of the United States and much of the world.\nWith the growth, the auto industry created jobs in Detroit that attracted immigrants from Europe and migrants from across the United States, including both blacks and whites from the rural South. By 1920, Detroit was the fourth-largest city in the U.S.. Residential housing was in short supply, and it took years for the market to catch up with the population boom. By the 1930s, so many immigrants had arrived that more than 30 languages were spoken in the public schools, and ethnic communities celebrated in annual heritage festivals. Over the years immigrants and migrants contributed greatly to Detroit's diverse urban culture, including popular music trends. The influential Motown Sound of the 1960s was led by a variety of individual singers and groups.\nGrand Rapids, the second-largest city in Michigan also became an important center of manufacturing. Since 1838, the city has been noted for its furniture industry. In the 21st century, it is home to five of the world's leading office furniture companies. Grand Rapids is home to a number of major companies including Steelcase, Amway, and Meijer. Grand Rapids is also an important center for GE Aviation Systems.\nMichigan held its first United States presidential primary election in 1910. With its rapid growth in industry, it was an important center of industry-wide union organizing, such as the rise of the United Auto Workers.\nIn 1920 WWJ (AM) in Detroit became the first radio station in the United States to regularly broadcast commercial programs. Throughout that decade, some of the country's largest and most ornate skyscrapers were built in the city. Particularly noteworthy are the Fisher Building, Cadillac Place, and the Guardian Building, each of which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark (NHL).\n\nIn 1927 a school bombing took place in Clinton County. The Bath School disaster resulted in the deaths of 38 schoolchildren and constitutes the deadliest mass murder in a school in U.S. history.\nMichigan converted much of its manufacturing to satisfy defense needs during World War II; it manufactured 10.9% of the United States military armaments produced during the war, ranking second (behind New York) among the 48 states.\nDetroit continued to expand through the 1950s, at one point doubling its population in a decade. After World War II, housing was developed in suburban areas outside city cores to meet demand for residences. The federal government subsidized the construction of interstate highways, which were intended to strengthen military access, but also allowed commuters and business traffic to travel the region more easily. Since 1960, modern advances in the auto industry have led to increased automation, high-tech industry, and increased suburban growth. Longstanding tensions in Detroit culminated in the Twelfth Street riot in July 1967.\nMichigan became the leading auto-producing state in the U.S., with the industry primarily located throughout the Midwestern United States; Ontario, Canada; and the Southern United States. With almost ten million residents in 2010, Michigan is a large and influential state, ranking tenth in population among the fifty states. Detroit is the centrally located metropolitan area of the Great Lakes megalopolis and the second-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. (after Chicago) linking the Great Lakes system.\nThe Metro Detroit area in Southeast Michigan is the state's largest metropolitan area (roughly 50% of the population resides there) and the eleventh largest in the United States. The Grand Rapids metropolitan area in Western Michigan is the state's fastest-growing metro area, with more than 1.3 million residents as of 2006.\n\nGeography\nMichigan consists of two peninsulas separated by the Straits of Mackinac. The 45th parallel north runs through the state, marked by highway signs and the Polar-Equator Trail— along a line including Mission Point Light near Traverse City, the towns of Gaylord and Alpena in the Lower Peninsula and Menominee in the Upper Peninsula. With the exception of two tiny areas drained by the Mississippi River by way of the Wisconsin River in the Upper Peninsula and by way of the Kankakee-Illinois River in the Lower Peninsula, Michigan is drained by the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed and is the only state with the majority of its land thus drained. No point in the state is more than six miles (9.7 km) from a natural water source or more than 85 miles (137 km) from a Great Lakes shoreline.\nThe Great Lakes that border Michigan from east to west are Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. The state is bounded on the south by the states of Ohio and Indiana, sharing land and water boundaries with both. Michigan's western boundaries are almost entirely water boundaries, from south to north, with Illinois and Wisconsin in Lake Michigan; then a land boundary with Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula, that is principally demarcated by the Menominee and Montreal Rivers; then water boundaries again, in Lake Superior, with Wisconsin and Minnesota to the west, capped around by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north and east.\nThe heavily forested Upper Peninsula is relatively mountainous in the west. The Porcupine Mountains, which are part of one of the oldest mountain chains in the world, rise to an altitude of almost 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level and form the watershed between the streams flowing into Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. The surface on either side of this range is rugged. The state's highest point, in the Huron Mountains northwest of Marquette, is Mount Arvon at 1,979 feet (603 m). The peninsula is as large as Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island combined but has fewer than 330,000 inhabitants. The people are sometimes called \"Yoopers\" (from \"U.P.'ers\"), and their speech (the \"Yooper dialect\") has been heavily influenced by the numerous Scandinavian and Canadian immigrants who settled the area during the lumbering and mining boom of the late 19th century.\n\nThe Lower Peninsula is shaped like a mitten and many residents hold up a hand to depict where they are from. It is 277 miles (446 km) long from north to south and 195 miles (314 km) from east to west and occupies nearly two-thirds of the state's land area. The surface of the peninsula is generally level, broken by conical hills and glacial moraines usually not more than a few hundred feet tall. It is divided by a low water divide running north and south. The larger portion of the state is on the west of this and gradually slopes toward Lake Michigan. The highest point in the Lower Peninsula is either Briar Hill at 1,705 feet (520 m), or one of several points nearby in the vicinity of Cadillac. The lowest point is the surface of Lake Erie at 571 feet (174 m).\nThe geographic orientation of Michigan's peninsulas makes for a long distance between the ends of the state. Ironwood, in the far western Upper Peninsula, lies 630 miles (1,010 kilometers) by highway from Lambertville in the Lower Peninsula's southeastern corner. The geographic isolation of the Upper Peninsula from Michigan's political and population centers makes the region culturally and economically distinct. Frequent attempts to establish the Upper Peninsula as its own state have failed to gain traction. \nA feature of Michigan that gives it the distinct shape of a mitten is the Thumb, which projects into Lake Huron, forming Saginaw Bay. Other notable peninsulas of Michigan include the Keweenaw Peninsula, which projects northeasterly into Lake Superior from the Upper Peninsula and largely comprising Michigan's Copper Country region, and the Leelanau Peninsula, projecting from the Lower Peninsula into Lake Michigan, forming Michigan's \"little finger\".\nNumerous lakes and marshes mark both peninsulas, and the coast is much indented. Keweenaw Bay, Whitefish Bay, and the Big and Little Bays De Noc are the principal indentations on the Upper Peninsula. The Grand and Little Traverse, Thunder, and Saginaw bays indent the Lower Peninsula. Michigan has the second longest shoreline of any state—3,288 miles (5,292 km), including 1,056 miles (1,699 km) of island shoreline.\nThe state has numerous large islands, the principal ones being the North Manitou and South Manitou, Beaver, and Fox groups in Lake Michigan; Isle Royale and Grande Isle in Lake Superior; Marquette, Bois Blanc, and Mackinac islands in Lake Huron; and Neebish, Sugar, and Drummond islands in St. Mary's River. Michigan has about 150 lighthouses, the most of any U.S. state. The first lighthouses in Michigan were built between 1818 and 1822. They were built to project light at night and to serve as a landmark during the day to safely guide the passenger ships and freighters traveling the Great Lakes (see: lighthouses in the United States).\nThe state's rivers are generally small, short and shallow, and few are navigable. The principal ones include the Detroit River, St. Marys River, and St. Clair River which connect the Great Lakes; the Au Sable, Cheboygan, and Saginaw, which flow into Lake Huron; the Ontonagon, and Tahquamenon, which flow into Lake Superior; and the St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Grand, Muskegon, Manistee, and Escanaba, which flow into Lake Michigan. The state has 11,037 inland lakes—totaling 1,305 square miles (3,380 km2) of inland water—in addition to 38,575 square miles (99,910 km2) of Great Lakes waters. No point in Michigan is more than six miles (9.7 km) from an inland lake or more than 85 miles (137 km) from one of the Great Lakes.\nThe state is home to several areas maintained by the National Park Service including: Isle Royale National Park, in Lake Superior, about 30 miles (48 km) southeast of Thunder Bay, Ontario. Other national protected areas in the state include: Keweenaw National Historical Park, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, Huron National Forest, Manistee National Forest, Hiawatha National Forest, Ottawa National Forest and Father Marquette National Memorial. The largest section of the North Country National Scenic Trail passes through Michigan.\nWith 78 state parks, 19 state recreation areas, and six state forests, Michigan has the largest state park and state forest system of any state.\n\nClimate\nMichigan has a continental climate with two distinct regions. The southern and central parts of the Lower Peninsula (south of Saginaw Bay and from the Grand Rapids area southward) have a warmer climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) with hot summers and cold winters. The northern part of the Lower Peninsula and the entire Upper Peninsula has a more severe climate (Köppen Dfb), with warm, but shorter summers and longer, cold to very cold winters. Some parts of the state average high temperatures below freezing from December through February, and into early March in the far northern parts. During the winter through the middle of February, the state is frequently subjected to heavy lake-effect snow. The state averages from 30 to 40 inches (76 to 102 cm) of precipitation annually; however, some areas in the northern lower peninsula and the upper peninsula average almost 160 inches (4,100 mm) of snowfall per year. Michigan's highest recorded temperature is 112 °F (44 °C) at Mio on July 13, 1936, and the coldest recorded temperature is −51 °F (−46 °C) at Vanderbilt on February 9, 1934.\nThe state averages 30 days of thunderstorm activity per year. These can be severe, especially in the southern part of the state. The state averages 17 tornadoes per year, which are more common in the state's extreme southern section. Portions of the southern border have been almost as vulnerable historically as states further west and in Tornado Alley. For this reason, many communities in the very southern portions of the state have tornado sirens to warn residents of approaching tornadoes. Farther north, in Central Michigan, Northern Michigan, and the Upper Peninsula, tornadoes are rare.\n\nGeology\nThe geological formation of the state is greatly varied, with the Michigan Basin being the most major formation. Primary boulders are found over the entire surface of the Upper Peninsula (being principally of primitive origin), while Secondary deposits cover the entire Lower Peninsula. The Upper Peninsula exhibits Lower Silurian sandstones, limestones, copper and iron bearing rocks, corresponding to the Huronian system of Canada. The central portion of the Lower Peninsula contains coal measures and rocks of the Pennsylvanian period. Devonian and sub-Carboniferous deposits are scattered over the entire state.\nMichigan rarely experiences earthquakes, and those that it does experience are generally smaller ones that do not cause significant damage. A 4.6-magnitude earthquake struck in August 1947. More recently, a 4.2-magnitude earthquake occurred on Saturday, May 2, 2015, shortly after noon, about five miles south of Galesburg, Michigan (9 miles southeast of Kalamazoo) in central Michigan, about 140 miles west of Detroit, according to the Colorado-based U.S. Geological Survey's National Earthquake Information Center. No major damage or injuries were reported, according to then-Governor Rick Snyder's office.\n\nAdministrative divisions\nState government is decentralized among three tiers—statewide, county and township. Counties are administrative divisions of the state, and townships are administrative divisions of a county. Both of them exercise state government authority, localized to meet the particular needs of their jurisdictions, as provided by state law. There are 83 counties in Michigan.\nCities, state universities, and villages are vested with home rule powers of varying degrees. Home rule cities can generally do anything not prohibited by law. The fifteen state universities have broad power and can do anything within the parameters of their status as educational institutions that is not prohibited by the state constitution. Villages, by contrast, have limited home rule and are not completely autonomous from the county and township in which they are located.\nThere are two types of township in Michigan: general law township and charter. Charter township status was created by the Legislature in 1947 and grants additional powers and stream-lined administration in order to provide greater protection against annexation by a city. As of April 2001, there were 127 charter townships in Michigan. In general, charter townships have many of the same powers as a city but without the same level of obligations. For example, a charter township can have its own fire department, water and sewer department, police department, and so on—just like a city—but it is not required to have those things, whereas cities must provide those services. Charter townships can opt to use county-wide services instead, such as deputies from the county sheriff's office instead of a home-based force of ordinance officers.\n\nDemographics\nSince 1800 U.S. census, Michigan has experienced relatively positive and stable population growth trends; beginning with a population of 3,757, the 2010 census recorded 9,883,635 residents. At the 2020 United States census, its population was 10,077,331, an increase of 2.03% since 2010's tabulation. According to the United States Census Bureau, it is the third-most populous state in the Midwest and its East North Central subregion, behind Ohio and Illinois.\nThe center of population of Michigan is in Shiawassee County, in the southeastern corner of the civil township of Bennington, which is northwest of the village of Morrice.\nAccording to the American Immigration Council in 2019, an estimated 6.8% of Michiganders were immigrants, while 3.8% were native-born U.S. citizens with at least one immigrant parent. Numbering approximately 678,255 according to the 2019 survey, the majority of Michigander immigrants came from Mexico (11.5%), India (11.3%), Iraq (7.5%), China (5.3%), and Canada (5.3%); the primary occupations of its immigrants were technology, agriculture, and healthcare. Among its immigrant cohort, there were 108,105 undocumented immigrants, making up 15.9% of the total immigrant population.\nAccording to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 8,206 homeless people in Michigan.\n\nRace and ethnicity\nSince colonial European and American settlement, the majority of Michigan's population has been predominantly non-Hispanic or non-Latino white; Americans of European descent live throughout every county in the state, and most of Metro Detroit. Large European American groups include those of German, British, Irish, Polish and Belgian ancestry. Scandinavian and Finnish Americans have a notable presence in the Upper Peninsula. Western Michigan is known for its Dutch heritage, especially in Holland and metropolitan Grand Rapids.\nBlack and African Americans—coming to Detroit and other northern cities in the Great Migration of the early 20th century—have formed a majority of the population in Detroit and other cities including Flint and Benton Harbor. Since the 2021 census estimates—while Detroit was still the largest city in Michigan with a majority black population—it was no longer the largest black-majority city in the U.S., citing crime and higher-paying jobs given to whites.\nAs of 2007, about 300,000 people in Southeastern Michigan trace their descent from the Middle East and Asia. Dearborn has a sizeable Arab American community, with many Assyrian/Chaldean/Syriac, and Lebanese who immigrated for jobs in the auto industry in the 1920s, along with more recent Yemenis and Iraqis. As of 2007, almost 8,000 Hmong people lived in the state of Michigan, about double their 1999 presence in the state. Most lived in northeastern Detroit, but they had been increasingly moving to Pontiac and Warren. By 2015, the number of Hmong in the Detroit city limits had significantly declined. Lansing hosts a statewide Hmong New Year Festival. The Hmong community also had a prominent portrayal in the 2008 film Gran Torino, which was set in Detroit.\nAs of 2015, 80% of Michigan's Japanese population lived in the counties of Macomb, Oakland, Washtenaw, and Wayne in the Detroit and Ann Arbor areas. As of April 2013, the largest Japanese national population is in Novi, with 2,666 Japanese residents, and the next largest populations are respectively in Ann Arbor, West Bloomfield Township, Farmington Hills, and Battle Creek. The state has 481 Japanese employment facilities providing 35,554 local jobs. 391 of them are in Southeast Michigan, providing 20,816 jobs, and the 90 in other regions in the state provide 14,738 jobs. The Japanese Direct Investment Survey of the Consulate-General of Japan, Detroit stated more than 2,208 additional Japanese residents were employed in the State of Michigan as of 1 October 2012, than in 2011. During the 1990s, the Japanese population of Michigan experienced an increase, and many Japanese people with children moved to particular areas for their proximity to Japanese grocery stores and high-performing schools.\n\nLanguages\nIn 2010, about 91.11% (8,507,947) of Michigan residents age five and older spoke only English at home, while 2.93% (273,981) spoke Spanish, 1.04% (97,559) Arabic, 0.44% (41,189) German, 0.36% (33,648) Chinese (which includes Mandarin), 0.31% (28,891) French, 0.29% (27,019) Polish, and Syriac languages (such as Modern Aramaic and Northeastern Neo-Aramaic) was spoken as a main language by 0.25% (23,420) of the population over the age of five. In total, 8.89% (830,281) of Michigan's population age five and older spoke a mother language other than English. Since 2021, 90.1% of residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, and Spanish was the second-most spoken language with 2.9% of the population speaking it.\n\nReligion\nFollowing British and French colonization of the region surrounding Michigan, Christianity became the dominant religion, with Roman Catholicism historically being the largest single Christian group for the state. Until the 19th century, the Roman Catholic Church was the only organized religious group in Michigan, reflecting the territory's French colonial roots. Detroit's St. Anne's parish, established in 1701 by Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, is the second-oldest Roman Catholic parish in the United States. On March 8, 1833, the Holy See formally established a diocese in the Michigan territory, which included all of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the Dakotas east of the Mississippi River. When Michigan became a state in 1837, the boundary of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Detroit was redrawn to coincide with that of the state; the other dioceses were later carved out from the Detroit Diocese but remain part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Detroit. Several Native American religions have been practiced in Michigan. \nIn 2020, there were 1,492,732 adherents of Roman Catholicism. There's also a significant Independent Catholic presence in Metro Detroit, including the Ecumenical Catholic Church of Christ established by Archbishop Karl Rodig; the see of this church operates in a former Roman Catholic parish church.\nWith the introduction of Protestantism to the state, it began to form the largest collective Christian group. In 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported the largest Protestant denomination was the United Methodist Church with 228,521 adherents; followed by the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod with 219,618, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America with 120,598 adherents. The Christian Reformed Church in North America had almost 100,000 members and more than 230 congregations in Michigan. The Reformed Church in America had 76,000 members and 154 congregations in the state. By the 2020 study, non- and inter-denominational Protestant churches formed the largest Protestant group in Michigan, numbering 508,904. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod grew to become the second-largest single Christian denomination, and United Methodists declined to being the third-largest. The Lutheran Protestant tradition was introduced by German and Scandinavian immigrants. Altogether, Baptists numbered 321,581 between the National Missionary Baptists, National Baptists, American Baptists, Southern Baptists, National Baptists of America, Progressive National Baptists, and Full Gospel Baptists; black Baptists formed the largest constituency. In West Michigan, Dutch immigrants fled from the specter of religious persecution and famine in the Netherlands around 1850 and settled in and around what is now Holland, Michigan, establishing a \"colony\" on American soil that fervently held onto Calvinist doctrine that established a significant presence of Reformed churches.\nIn the same 2010 survey, Jewish adherents in the state of Michigan were estimated at 44,382, and Muslims at 120,351. The first Jewish synagogue in the state was Temple Beth El, founded by twelve German Jewish families in Detroit in 1850. Islam was introduced by immigrants from the Near East during the 20th century. Michigan is home to the largest mosque in North America, the Islamic Center of America in Dearborn. Battle Creek, Michigan, is also the birthplace of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, which was founded on May 21, 1863.\n\nEconomy\nIn 2017, 3,859,949 people in Michigan were employed at 222,553 establishments, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.\nThe U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimated Michigan's Q1 2023 gross state product to be $645.293 billion, ranking 14th out of the 50 states. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of August 2023, the state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was estimated at 3.7%.\nProducts and services include automobiles, food products, information technology, aerospace, military equipment, furniture, and mining of copper and iron ore. Michigan is the third-largest grower of Christmas trees with 60,520 acres (245 km2) of land dedicated to Christmas tree farming in 2007. The beverage Vernors Ginger Ale was invented in Michigan in 1866, sharing the title of oldest soft drink with Hires Root Beer. Faygo was founded in Detroit on November 4, 1907. Two of the top four pizza chains were founded in Michigan and are headquartered there: Domino's Pizza by Tom Monaghan and Little Caesars Pizza by Mike Ilitch. Michigan became the 24th right-to-work state in the U.S. in 2012, however, in 2023 this law was repealed.\nSince 2009, GM, Ford and Chrysler have managed a significant reorganization of their benefit funds structure after a volatile stock market which followed the September 11 attacks and early 2000s recession impacted their respective U.S. pension and benefit funds (OPEB). General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler reached agreements with the United Auto Workers Union to transfer the liabilities for their respective health care and benefit funds to a 501(c)(9) Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association (VEBA). Manufacturing in the state grew 6.6% from 2001 to 2006, but the high speculative price of oil became a factor for the U.S. auto industry during the economic crisis of 2008 impacting industry revenues. In 2009, GM and Chrysler emerged from Chapter 11 restructurings with financing provided in part by the U.S. and Canadian governments. GM began its initial public offering (IPO) of stock in 2010. For 2010, the Big Three domestic automakers have reported significant profits indicating the beginning of rebound.\nAs of 2002, Michigan ranked fourth in the U.S. in high-tech employment with 568,000 high-tech workers, which includes 70,000 in the automotive industry. Michigan typically ranks third or fourth in overall research and development (R&D) expenditures in the United States. Its research and development, which includes automotive, comprises a higher percentage of the state's overall gross domestic product than for any other U.S. state. The state is an important source of engineering job opportunities. The domestic auto industry accounts directly and indirectly for one of every ten jobs in the U.S.\nMichigan was second in the U.S. in 2004 for new corporate facilities and expansions. From 1997 to 2004, Michigan was the only state to top the 10,000 mark for the number of major new developments; however, the effects of the late 2000s recession have slowed the state's economy. In 2008, Michigan placed third in a site selection survey among the states for luring new business which measured capital investment and new job creation per one million population. In August 2009, Michigan and Detroit's auto industry received $1.36 B in grants from the U.S. Department of Energy for the manufacture of electric vehicle technologies which is expected to generate 6,800 immediate jobs and employ 40,000 in the state by 2020. From 2007 to 2009, Michigan ranked 3rd in the U.S. for new corporate facilities and expansions.\n\nAs leading research institutions, the University of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Wayne State University are important partners in the state's economy and its University Research Corridor. Michigan's public universities attract more than $1.5 B in research and development grants each year. The National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory is at Michigan State University. Michigan's workforce is well-educated and highly skilled, making it attractive to companies. It has the third highest number of engineering graduates nationally.\nDetroit Metropolitan Airport is one of the nation's most recently expanded and modernized airports with six major runways, and large aircraft maintenance facilities capable of servicing and repairing a Boeing 747 and is a major hub for Delta Air Lines. Michigan's schools and colleges rank among the nation's best. The state has maintained its early commitment to public education. The state's infrastructure gives it a competitive edge; Michigan has 38 deep water ports. In 2007, Bank of America announced that it would commit $25 billion to community development in Michigan following its acquisition of LaSalle Bank in Troy.\nMichigan led the nation in job creation improvement in 2010.\nOn December 20, 2019, Governor Gretchen Whitmer signed a package of bills into law effectively legalizing online gambling activities in Michigan, which allowed commercial and tribal casinos to apply for internet gaming licenses.\n\nTaxation\nMichigan's personal income tax is a flat rate of 4.25%. In addition, 22 cities impose income taxes; rates are set at 1% for residents and 0.5% for non-residents in all but four cities. Michigan's state sales tax is 6%, though items such as food and medication are exempted. Property taxes are assessed on the local level, but every property owner's local assessment contributes six mills (a rate of $6 per $1000 of property value) to the statutory State Education Tax. Property taxes are appealable to local boards of review and need the approval of the local electorate to exceed millage rates prescribed by state law and local charters. In 2011, the state repealed its business tax and replaced it with a 6% corporate income tax which substantially reduced taxes on business. Article IX of the Constitution of the State of Michigan also provides limitations on how much the state can tax.\nA 6% use tax is levied on goods purchased outside the state (that are brought in and used in state), at parity with the sales tax. The use tax applies to internet sales/purchases from outside Michigan and is equivalent to the sales tax.\n\nAgriculture\nA wide variety of commodity crops, fruits, and vegetables are grown in Michigan, making it second only to California among US states in the diversity of its agriculture. The state has 54,800 farms utilizing 10,000,000 acres (40,000 km2) of land which sold $6.49 billion worth of products in 2010. The most valuable agricultural product is milk. Leading crops include corn, soybeans, flowers, wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes. Livestock in the state included 78,000 sheep, a million cattle, a million hogs, and more than three million chickens. Livestock products accounted for 38% of the value of agricultural products while crops accounted for the majority.\nMichigan is a leading grower of fruit in the US, including blueberries, tart cherries, apples, grapes, and peaches. Plums, pears, and strawberries are also grown in Michigan. These fruits are mainly grown in West Michigan due to the moderating effect of Lake Michigan on the climate. There is also significant fruit production, especially cherries, but also grapes, apples, and other fruits, in northwest Michigan along Lake Michigan. Michigan produces wines, beers and a multitude of processed food products. Kellogg's cereal is based in Battle Creek, Michigan and processes many locally grown foods. Thornapple Valley, Ball Park Franks, Koegel Meat Company, and Hebrew National sausage companies are all based in Michigan.\nMichigan is home to very fertile land in the Saginaw Valley and Thumb areas. Products grown there include corn, sugar beets, navy beans, and soybeans. Sugar beet harvesting usually begins the first of October. It takes the sugar factories about five months to process the 3.7 million tons of sugarbeets into 485,000 tons of pure, white sugar. Michigan's largest sugar refiner, Michigan Sugar Company is the largest east of the Mississippi River and the fourth largest in the nation. Michigan sugar brand names are Pioneer Sugar and the newly incorporated Big Chief Sugar. Potatoes are grown in Northern Michigan, and corn is dominant in Central Michigan. Alfalfa, cucumbers, and asparagus are also grown.\n\nTourism\nAs of 2011, Michigan's tourists spent $17.2 billion per year in the state, supporting 193,000 tourism jobs. Michigan's tourism website ranks among the busiest in the nation. Destinations draw vacationers, hunters, and nature enthusiasts from across the United States and Canada. Michigan is over 50% forest land, much of it quite remote. The forests, lakes and thousands of miles of beaches are top attractions. Event tourism draws large numbers to occasions like the Tulip Time Festival and the National Cherry Festival.\nIn 2006, the Michigan State Board of Education mandated all public schools in the state hold their first day of school after Labor Day, in accordance with the new post-Labor Day school law. A survey found 70% of all tourism business comes directly from Michigan residents, and the Michigan Hotel, Motel, & Resort Association claimed the shorter summer between school years cut into the annual tourism season. However, a bill introduced in 2023 would cancel this requirement, allowing individual districts to decide when their school year should begin.\nTourism in metropolitan Detroit draws visitors to leading attractions, especially The Henry Ford, the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Detroit Zoo, and to sports in Detroit. Other museums include the Detroit Historical Museum, the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, museums in the Cranbrook Educational Community, and the Arab American National Museum. The metro area offers four major casinos, MGM Grand Detroit, Hollywood Casino, Motor City, and Caesars Windsor in Windsor, Ontario, Canada; moreover, Detroit is the largest American city and metropolitan region to offer casino resorts.\nHunting and fishing are significant industries in the state. Charter boats are based in many Great Lakes cities to fish for salmon, trout, walleye, and perch. Michigan ranks first in the nation in licensed hunters (over one million) who contribute $2 billion annually to its economy. More than three-quarters of a million hunters participate in white-tailed deer season alone. Many school districts in rural areas of Michigan cancel school on the opening day of firearm deer season, because of attendance concerns.\n\nMichigan's Department of Natural Resources manages the largest dedicated state forest system in the nation. The forest products industry and recreational users contribute $12 billion and 200,000 associated jobs annually to the state's economy. Public hiking and hunting access has also been secured in extensive commercial forests. The state has the highest number of golf courses and registered snowmobiles in the nation.\nThe state has numerous historical markers, which can themselves become the center of a tour. The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.\nWith its position in relation to the Great Lakes and the countless ships that have foundered over the many years they have been used as a transport route for people and bulk cargo, Michigan is a world-class scuba diving destination. The Michigan Underwater Preserves are 11 underwater areas where wrecks are protected for the benefit of sport divers.\n\nCulture\nArts\nMusic\nMichigan music is known for three music trends: early punk rock, Motown/soul music and techno music. Michigan musicians include Tally Hall, Bill Haley & His Comets, the Supremes, the Marvelettes, the Temptations, the Four Tops, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye \"The Prince of Soul\", Smokey Robinson and the Miracles, Aretha Franklin, Mary Wells, Tommy James and the Shondells, ? and the Mysterians, Al Green, The Spinners, Grand Funk Railroad, the Stooges, the MC5, the Knack, Madonna \"The Queen of Pop\", Bob Seger, Jack Scott, Ray Parker Jr., Jackie Wilson, Aaliyah, Eminem, Babytron, Kid Rock, Jack White and Meg White (the White Stripes), Big Sean, Alice Cooper, Greta Van Fleet, Mustard Plug, and Del Shannon.\n\nPerformance arts\nMajor theaters in Michigan include the Fox Theatre, Music Hall, Gem Theatre, Masonic Temple Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, Fisher Theatre, The Fillmore Detroit, Saint Andrew's Hall, Majestic Theater, and Orchestra Hall.\nThe Nederlander Organization, the largest controller of Broadway productions in New York City, originated in Detroit.\n\nSports\nMichigan's major-league sports teams include: Detroit Tigers baseball team, Detroit Lions football team, Detroit Red Wings ice hockey team, and the Detroit Pistons men's basketball team. All of Michigan's major league teams play in the Metro Detroit area. The state also has a professional second-tier (USL Championship) soccer team in Detroit City FC, which plays its home games at Keyworth Stadium in Hamtramck, Michigan.\nThe Pistons played at Detroit's Cobo Arena until 1978 and at the Pontiac Silverdome until 1988 when they moved into The Palace of Auburn Hills. In 2017, the team moved to the newly built Little Caesars Arena in downtown Detroit. The Detroit Lions played at Tiger Stadium in Detroit until 1974, then moved to the Pontiac Silverdome where they played for 27 years between 1975 and 2002 before moving to Ford Field in Detroit in 2002. The Detroit Tigers played at Tiger Stadium (formerly known as Navin Field and Briggs Stadium) from 1912 to 1999. In 2000 they moved to Comerica Park. The Red Wings played at Olympia Stadium before moving to Joe Louis Arena in 1979. They later moved to Little Caesars Arena to join the Pistons as tenants in 2017. Professional hockey got its start in 1903 in Houghton, when the Portage Lakers were formed.\n\nThe Michigan International Speedway is the site of NASCAR races and Detroit was formerly the site of a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix race. From 1959 to 1961, Detroit Dragway hosted the NHRA's U.S. Nationals. Michigan is home to one of the major canoeing marathons: the 120-mile (190 km) Au Sable River Canoe Marathon. The Port Huron to Mackinac Boat Race is also a favorite.\nTwenty-time Grand Slam champion Serena Williams was born in Saginaw. The 2011 World Champion for Women's Artistic Gymnastics, Jordyn Wieber is from DeWitt. Wieber was also a member of the gold medal team at the London Olympics in 2012.\nCollegiate sports in Michigan are popular in addition to professional sports. The state's two largest athletic programs are the Michigan Wolverines and Michigan State Spartans, which play in the NCAA Big Ten Conference. Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, home to the Michigan Wolverines football team, is the largest stadium in the Western Hemisphere and the third-largest stadium worldwide.\nThe Michigan High School Athletic Association features around 300,000 participants.\n\nEducation\nMichigan's education system serves 1.6 million K-12 students in public schools. More than 124,000 students attend private schools and an uncounted number are homeschooled under certain legal requirements. The public school system had a $14.5 billion budget in 2008–09. From 2009 to 2019, over 200 private schools in Michigan closed, partly due to competition from charter schools. In 2022, U.S. News & World Report rated three Michigan high schools among the nation's 100 best: City High Middle School (18th), the International Academy of Macomb (21st), and the International Academy (52nd). Washtenaw International High School ranked 107th.\nThe University of Michigan is Michigan's oldest higher educational institution and among the oldest research universities in the nation. It was founded in 1817, 20 years before Michigan Territory achieved statehood. Kalamazoo College is the state's oldest private liberal arts college, founded in 1833 by a group of Baptist ministers as the Michigan and Huron Institute. From 1840 to 1850, the college operated as the Kalamazoo Branch of the University of Michigan. Methodist settlers in Spring Arbor Township founded Albion College in 1835. It is the state's second-oldest private liberal arts college.\nMichigan Technological University is the first post-secondary institution in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, founded in 1885 as the Michigan Mining School. Eastern Michigan University was founded in 1849 as the Michigan State Normal School for the training of teachers. It was the nation's fourth-oldest normal school and the first U.S. normal school outside New England. In 1899, the Michigan State Normal School became the nation's first normal school to offer a four-year curriculum. Michigan State University was founded in 1855 as the nation's first agricultural college.\nThe Carnegie Foundation classifies eight of the state's institutions (Michigan State University, Michigan Technological University, Eastern Michigan University, Wayne State University, Central Michigan University, Western Michigan University, Oakland University, University of Michigan) as research universities.\n\nInfrastructure\nEnergy\nIn 2020, Michigan consumed 113,740- gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electrical energy and produced 116,700 (GWh) of electrical energy.\nCoal power is Michigan's leading source of electricity, producing roughly half its supply or 53,100 GWh of electrical energy (12.6 GW total capacity) in 2020. Although Michigan has no active coal mines, coal is easily moved from other states by train and across the Great Lakes by lake freighters. The lower price of natural gas is leading to the closure of most coal plants, with Consumer Energy planning to close all of its remaining coal plants by 2025; DTE plans to retire 2100MW of coal power by 2023. The coal-fired Monroe Power Plant in Monroe, on the western shore of Lake Erie, is the nation's 11th-largest electric plant, with a net capacity of 3,400 MW.\nNuclear power is also a significant source of electrical power in Michigan, producing roughly one-quarter of the state's supply or 28,000-gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electrical energy (4.3 GW total capacity) in 2020. The three active nuclear power plants supply Michigan with about 26% of its electricity. Donald C. Cook Nuclear Plant, just north of Bridgman, is the state's largest nuclear power plant, with a net capacity of 2,213 MW. The Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station is the second-largest, with a net capacity of 1,150 MW. It is also one of the two nuclear power plants in the Detroit metropolitan area (within a 50-mile radius of Detroit's city center), about halfway between Detroit and Toledo, Ohio, the other being the Davis–Besse Nuclear Power Station, in Ottawa County, Ohio. The Palisades Nuclear Power Plant, south of South Haven, closed in May 2022. The Big Rock Point Nuclear Power Plant, Michigan's first nuclear power plant and the nation's fifth, was decommissioned in 1997.\nUtility companies were required to generate at least 10% of their energy from renewable sources by 2015, under Public Act 295 of 2008. In 2016, the legislature set another mandate to reach at least 12.5% renewable energy by 2019 and 15% by end of year 2021, which all utilities subject to the law successfully met. By the end of 2022, Michigan had at least 6 GW of renewable generating capacity, and was projected to have at least 8 GW by the end of 2026. Wind energy accounted for 59% of all Michigan energy credits in 2021.\n\nTransportation\nInternational crossings\nMichigan has nine international road crossings with Ontario, Canada:\n\nAmbassador Bridge, North America's busiest international border, crossing the Detroit River\nBlue Water Bridge, a twin-span bridge (Port Huron, Michigan, and Point Edward, Ontario, but the larger city of Sarnia is usually referred to on the Canadian side)\nBlue Water Ferry (Marine City, Michigan, and Sombra, Ontario)\nCanadian Pacific Railway tunnel\nDetroit–Windsor Truck Ferry (Detroit and Windsor)\nDetroit–Windsor Tunnel\nInternational Bridge (Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario)\nSt. Clair River Railway Tunnel (Port Huron and Sarnia)\nWalpole Island Ferry (Algonac, Michigan, and Walpole Island First Nation, Ontario)\nThe Gordie Howe International Bridge, a second international bridge between Detroit and Windsor, is under construction. It is expected to be completed in 2024.\n\nRailroads\nMichigan is served by four Class I railroads: the Canadian National Railway, the Canadian Pacific Railway, CSX Transportation, and the Norfolk Southern Railway. These are augmented by several dozen short line railroads. The vast majority of rail service in Michigan is devoted to freight, with Amtrak and various scenic railroads the exceptions.\n\nThree Amtrak passenger rail routes serve the state. The Pere Marquette from Chicago to Grand Rapids, the Blue Water from Chicago to Port Huron, and the Wolverine from Chicago to Pontiac. There are plans for commuter rail for Detroit and its suburbs (see SEMCOG Commuter Rail).\n\nRoadways\nInterstate 75 (I-75) is the main thoroughfare between Detroit, Flint, and Saginaw extending north to Sault Ste. Marie and providing access to Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. The freeway crosses the Mackinac Bridge between the Lower and Upper Peninsulas. Auxiliary highways include I-275 and I-375 in Detroit; I-475 in Flint; and I-675 in Saginaw.\nI-69 enters the state near the Michigan–Ohio–Indiana border, and it extends to Port Huron and provides access to the Blue Water Bridge crossing into Sarnia, Ontario.\nI-94 enters the western end of the state at the Indiana border, and it travels east to Detroit and then northeast to Port Huron and ties in with I-69. I-194 branches off from this freeway in Battle Creek. I-94 is the main artery between Chicago and Detroit.\nI-96 runs east–west between Detroit and Muskegon. I-496 loops through Lansing. I-196 branches off from this freeway at Grand Rapids and connects to I-94 near Benton Harbor. I-696 branches off from this freeway at Novi and connects to I-94 near St. Clair Shores.\nU.S. Highway 2 (U.S. 2) enters Michigan at the city of Ironwood and travels east to the town of Crystal Falls, where it turns south and briefly re-enters Wisconsin northwest of Florence. It re-enters Michigan north of Iron Mountain and continues through the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the cities of Escanaba, Manistique, and St. Ignace. Along the way, it cuts through the Ottawa and Hiawatha national forests and follows the northern shore of Lake Michigan. Its eastern terminus lies at exit 344 on I-75, just north of the Mackinac Bridge.\nU.S. Highway 23 enters Michigan at the Ohio state line in the suburban spillover of Toledo, Ohio, as a freeway and leads northward to Ann Arbor before merging with I-75 just south of Flint. Concurrent with I-75 through Flint, Saginaw, and Bay City, it splits from I-75 at Standish as an intermittently four lane/two-lane surface road closely following the western shore of Lake Huron generally northward through Alpena before turning west to northwest toward Mackinaw City and Interstate 75 again, where it terminates.\nU.S. Highway 31 enters Michigan as Interstate-quality freeway at the Indiana state line just northwest of South Bend, Indiana, heads north to Interstate 196 near Benton Harbor, and follows the eastern shore of Lake Michigan to Mackinaw City, where it has its northern terminus.\nU.S. Highway 127 enters Michigan from Ohio south of Hudson as a two-lane, undivided highway and closely follows the Michigan meridian, the principal north–south line used to survey Michigan in the early 19th century. It passes north through Jackson and Lansing before terminating south of Grayling at I-75, and is a four-lane freeway for the majority of its course.\nU.S. Highway 131 has its southern terminus at the Indiana Toll Road roughly one mile south of the Indiana state line as a two-lane surface road. It passes through Kalamazoo and Grand Rapids as a freeway of Interstate standard and continues as such to Manton, where it reverts to two-lane surface road to its northern terminus at U.S. 31 in Petoskey.\n\nIntercity bus services\nAmtrak Thruway\nBarons Bus Lines\nFlixbus\nGreyhound Lines\nIndian Trails\nMegabus\n\nAirports\nDetroit Metropolitan Airport in the western suburb of Romulus, was in 2010 the 16th busiest airfield in North America measured by passenger traffic. The Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids is the next busiest airport in the state, served by eight airlines to 23 destinations. Flint Bishop International Airport is the third largest airport in the state, served by four airlines to several primary hubs. Other frequently trafficked airports include Cherry Capital Airport, in Traverse City; Kalamazoo/Battle Creek International Airport, serving the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek region; Capital Region International Airport, located outside of Lansing; and MBS International Airport serving the Midland, Bay City and Saginaw tri-city region. Additionally, smaller regional and local airports are located throughout the state including on several islands.\n\nGovernment\nState government\nMichigan is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: the executive branch consisting of the Governor of Michigan and the other independently elected constitutional officers; the legislative branch consisting of the House of Representatives and Senate; and the judicial branch. The Michigan Constitution allows for the direct participation of the electorate by statutory initiative and referendum, recall, and constitutional initiative and referral (Article II, § 9, defined as \"the power to propose laws and to enact and reject laws, called the initiative, and the power to approve or reject laws enacted by the legislature, called the referendum. The power of initiative extends only to laws which the legislature may enact under this constitution\"). Lansing is the state capital and is home to all three branches of state government.\n\nThe governor and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The current governor is Gretchen Whitmer. Michigan has two official Governor's Residences; one is in Lansing, and the other is on Mackinac Island. The other constitutionally elected executive officers are the lieutenant governor, who is elected on a joint ticket with the governor; the secretary of state; and the attorney general. The lieutenant governor presides over the Senate (voting only in case of a tie) and is also a member of the cabinet. The secretary of state is the chief elections officer and is charged with running many licensure programs including motor vehicles, all of which are done through the branch offices of the secretary of state.\nThe Michigan Legislature consists of a 38-member Senate and 110-member House of Representatives. Members of both houses of the legislature are elected through first past the post elections by single-member electoral districts of near-equal population that often have boundaries which coincide with county and municipal lines. Senators serve four-year terms concurrent to those of the governor, while representatives serve two-year terms. The Michigan State Capitol was dedicated in 1879 and has hosted the executive and legislative branches of the state ever since.\n\nThe Michigan judiciary consists of two courts with primary jurisdiction (the Circuit Courts and the District Courts), one intermediate level appellate court (the Michigan Court of Appeals), and the Michigan Supreme Court. There are several administrative courts and specialized courts. District courts are trial courts of limited jurisdiction, handling most traffic violations, small claims, misdemeanors, and civil suits where the amount contended is below $25,000. District courts are often responsible for handling the preliminary examination and for setting bail in felony cases. District court judges are elected to terms of six years. In a few locations, municipal courts have been retained to the exclusion of the establishment of district courts. There are 57 circuit courts in the State of Michigan, which have original jurisdiction over all civil suits where the amount contended in the case exceeds $25,000 and all criminal cases involving felonies. Circuit courts are also the only trial courts in the State of Michigan which possess the power to issue equitable remedies. Circuit courts have appellate jurisdiction from district and municipal courts, as well as from decisions and decrees of state agencies. Most counties have their own circuit court, but sparsely populated counties often share them. Circuit court judges are elected to terms of six years. State appellate court judges are elected to terms of six years, but vacancies are filled by an appointment by the governor. There are four divisions of the Court of Appeals in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing, and Marquette. Cases are heard by the Court of Appeals by panels of three judges, who examine the application of the law and not the facts of the case unless there has been grievous error pertaining to questions of fact. The Michigan Supreme Court consists of seven members who are elected on non-partisan ballots for staggered eight-year terms. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction only in narrow circumstances but holds appellate jurisdiction over the entire state judicial system.\n\nLaw\nMichigan has had four constitutions, the first of which was ratified on October 5 and 6, 1835. There were also constitutions from 1850 and 1908, in addition to the current constitution from 1963. The current document has a preamble, 11 articles, and one section consisting of a schedule and temporary provisions. Michigan, like every U.S. state except Louisiana, has a common law legal system.\n\nPolitics\nHaving been a Democratic-leaning state at the presidential level since the 1990s, Michigan has evolved into a swing state after Donald Trump won the state in 2016. Governors since the 1970s have alternated between the Democrats and Republicans, and statewide offices including attorney general, secretary of state, and senator have been held by members of both parties in varying proportion. Additionally, from 1994 until 2022, the governor-elect had always come from the party opposite the presidency. The Democratic Party has a slim majority of two seats in the Senate of the Michigan Legislature, and the House is currently deadlocked at 54 seats for each party. The state's congressional delegation is commonly split, with one party or the other typically holding a narrow majority.\nMichigan was the home of Gerald Ford, the 38th president of the United States. Born in Nebraska, he moved as an infant to Grand Rapids. The Gerald R. Ford Museum is in Grand Rapids, and the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library is on the campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.\nIn a 2020 study, Michigan was ranked as the 13th easiest state for citizens to vote in.\n\nState symbols and nicknames\nMichigan is traditionally known as \"The Wolverine State\", and the University of Michigan uses the wolverine as its mascot. The association is well and long established: for example, many Detroiters volunteered to fight during the American Civil War and George Armstrong Custer, who led the Michigan Brigade, called them the \"Wolverines\". The origins of this association are obscure; it may derive from a busy trade in wolverine furs in Sault Ste. Marie in the 18th century or may recall a disparagement intended to compare early settlers in Michigan with the vicious mammal. Wolverines are, however, extremely rare in Michigan. A sighting in February 2004 near Ubly was the first confirmed sighting in Michigan in 200 years. The animal was found dead in 2010.\n\nSister regions\nShiga Prefecture, Japan\n Sichuan Province, People's Republic of China\n\nSee also\nIndex of Michigan-related articles\nOutline of Michigan: organized list of topics about Michigan\nUSS Michigan, 3 ships\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\n Geographic data related to Michigan at OpenStreetMap\nState of Michigan government website Archived November 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine\nEnergy Data & Statistics for Michigan\nInfo Michigan, detailed information on 630 cities Archived April 25, 2024, at the Wayback Machine\nMichigan Historic Markers Archived December 3, 2023, at the Wayback Machine\nHistorical Society of Michigan Archived April 25, 2024, at the Wayback Machine\nClarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University, Bibliographies for Michigan by region, counties, etc. Archived March 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.\nMichigan State Guide from the Library of Congress Archived November 19, 2020, at the Wayback Machine\nMichigan Official Travel Site Archived April 25, 2024, at the Wayback Machine\nMichigan Official Business Site Archived April 25, 2024, at the Wayback Machine\nMichigan Official Talent Site Archived April 30, 2024, at the Wayback Machine\nMichigan State Fact Sheet Archived August 24, 2016, at the Wayback Machine from the US Department of Agriculture\nThe Michigan Municipal League Archived April 26, 2024, at the Wayback Machine\nUSGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Michigan",
"title": "Michigan"
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"paragraph_text": "There have been 13 British monarchs since the political union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland on 1 May 1707. England and Scotland had been in personal union since 24 March 1603; while the style, \"King of Great Britain\" first arose at that time, legislatively the title came into force in 1707.\nOn 1 January 1801, the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland merged, creating first the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland upon the secession of southern Ireland in the 1920s.\n\nUnion and succession\nQueen Anne became monarch of the Kingdom of Great Britain after the political union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland on 1 May 1707. She had ruled England, Scotland, and the Kingdom of Ireland since 8 March 1702. She continued as queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death. Her total reign lasted 12 years and 147 days. Although Anne's great-grandfather, James VI and I (r. 1603–1625), the monarch of the Union of the Crowns, proclaimed himself \"King of Great Britain\", and used it on coinage, stamps and elsewhere, the Parliament of England had refused to use that style in statutory law or address.\nAnne's only children died young, so during her reign, Parliament settled the rules of succession in the Act of Settlement 1701, by defining Sophia of Hanover (granddaughter of James VI and I) and her non-Catholic descendants as the future royal heirs. The Crown passed from Queen Anne to Sophia's son, King George I, as Sophia had already died. Queen Anne and King George I were second cousins, as both were great-grandchildren of James VI and I. For a family tree that shows George I's relationship to Anne, see George I of Great Britain § Family tree.\n\nList\nTimeline\nSee also\nFamily tree of the British royal family\nList of monarchs in Britain by length of reign\nLists of monarchs in the British Isles\nList of British royal consorts\nList of current British princes and princesses\n\nNotes\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "List_of_British_monarchs"
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] | Who was the British monarch when Michigan was admitted as a state in the United States of America? | [] | King William IV. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was one of the key events that led to World War I. Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip. They were shot at close range while being driven through Sarajevo, the provincial capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, formally annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908.\nPrincip was part of a group of six Bosnian assassins together with Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Vaso Čubrilović, Nedeljko Čabrinović, Cvjetko Popović and Trifko Grabež coordinated by Danilo Ilić; all but one were Bosnian Serbs and members of a student revolutionary group that later became known as Young Bosnia. The political objective of the assassination was to free Bosnia and Herzegovina of Austria-Hungarian rule and establish a common South Slav (\"Yugoslav\") state. The assassination precipitated the July Crisis which led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia and the start of World War I.\nThe assassination team was helped by the Black Hand, a Serbian secret nationalist group; support came from Dragutin Dimitrijević, chief of the military intelligence section of the Serbian general staff, as well as from Major Vojislav Tankosić and Rade Malobabić, a Serbian intelligence agent. Tankosić provided bombs and pistols to the assassins and trained them in their use. The assassins were given access to the same clandestine network of safe-houses and agents that Malobabić used for the infiltration of weapons and operatives into Austria-Hungary.\nThe assassins and key members of the clandestine network were tried in Sarajevo in October 1914. In total twenty-five people were indicted. All six assassins, except Mehmedbašić, were under twenty at the time of the assassination; while the group was dominated by Bosnian Serbs, four of the indictees were Bosnian Croats, and all of them were Austro-Hungarian citizens, none from Serbia. Princip was found guilty of murder and high treason; too young to be executed, he was sentenced to twenty years in jail, while the four other attackers also received jail terms. Five of the older prisoners were sentenced to be hanged.\nBlack Hand members were arrested and tried before a Serbian court in Salonika in 1917 on fabricated charges of high treason; the Black Hand was disbanded and three of its leaders were executed. Much of what is known about the assassinations comes from these two trials and related records. Princip's legacy was re-evaluated following the breakup of Yugoslavia, and public opinion of him in the successor states is largely divided along ethnic lines.\n\nBackground\nUnder the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Austria-Hungary received the mandate to occupy and administer the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia, while the Ottoman Empire retained official sovereignty. Under this same treaty, the Great Powers (Austria-Hungary, the United Kingdom, France, the German Empire, Italy, and the Russian Empire) gave official recognition to the Principality of Serbia as a fully sovereign state, which four years later transformed into a kingdom under Prince Milan IV Obrenović who thus became King Milan I of Serbia. Serbia's monarchs, at the time from the royal House of Obrenović that maintained close relations with Austria-Hungary, were content to reign within the borders set by the treaty.\nThis changed in May 1903, when Royal Serbian Army officers led by Dragutin Dimitrijević stormed the Serbian Royal Palace. After a fierce battle in the dark, the attackers captured General Lazar Petrović, head of the Palace Guard, and forced him to reveal the hiding place of King Alexander I Obrenović and his wife Queen Draga. The King was subsequently shot thirty times and the Queen eighteen. MacKenzie writes that \"the royal corpses were then stripped and brutally sabred.\" The attackers threw the corpses of King Alexander and Queen Draga out of a palace window, ending any threat that loyalists would mount a counterattack.\" General Petrović was then killed when Vojislav Tankosić organized the murders of Queen Draga's brothers. The conspirators installed Peter I of the House of Karađorđević as the new king.\nThe new dynasty was more nationalist, friendlier to Russia and less friendly to Austria-Hungary. Over the next decade, disputes between Serbia and its neighbors erupted, as Serbia moved to build its power and gradually reclaim its 14th-century empire. These conflicts included a customs dispute with Austria-Hungary beginning in 1906 (commonly referred to as the \"Pig War\"); the Bosnian crisis of 1908–1909, in which Serbia assumed an attitude of protest over Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ending in Serbian acquiescence without compensation in March 1909); and finally the two Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, in which Serbia acquired Macedonia and Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire and drove out Bulgaria.\nSerbia's military successes and Serbian outrage over the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina emboldened Serbian nationalists in Serbia and Serbs in Bosnia who chafed under Austro-Hungarian rule and whose nationalist sentiments were stirred by Serb cultural organizations. One notable example was a Serbian nationalist society Narodna Odbrana, which was formed in Belgrade on 8 October 1908 under the initiative of Milovan Milovanović. Under the guise of cultural activities, it operated to undermine the loyalty of Bosnian Serbs to the Habsburg regime. In the five years leading up to 1914, lone assassins – mostly Serb citizens of Austria-Hungary – made a series of unsuccessful assassination attempts in Croatia-Slavonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina against Austro-Hungarian officials. In Bosnia and Herzegovina existed an aggregation of local revolutionary groups that became known as Young Bosnia, their goal was the end of Austria-Hungarian colonial rule in Bosnia and the unification of all South Slavs. \nOn 3 June 1910, Bogdan Žerajić, a young revolutionary loosely connected to Young Bosnia, attempted to kill the Austrian governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina, General Marijan Varešanin. Žerajić was a 22-year-old Bosnian Serb from Nevesinje, Herzegovina, who was a student at the Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb. (General Verešanin went on to crush the last Bosnian peasant uprising in the second half of 1910). The five bullets Žerajić fired at Varešanin and the fatal bullet he put in his own brain made Žerajić an inspiration to future assassins, including Princip and Princip's accomplice Čabrinović. Princip said that Žerajić \"was my first model. When I was seventeen I passed whole nights at his grave, reflecting on our wretched condition and thinking of him. It is there that I made up my mind sooner or later to perpetrate an outrage.\"\nIn May 1911, the Black Hand, a secret society dedicated to creating a Greater Serbia through \"terrorist action\", was established by key members of the Narodna Odbrana including Dimitrijević and Tankosić. Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, the networks of both the Black Hand and Narodna Odbrana penetrated to some extent local revolutionary movements such as Young Bosnia. The fundamental difference between those movements was that the Young Bosnians regarded social revolution as a necessary corollary of national liberation, and that, even though its membership was predominantly Serb, Young Bosnia also attracted an important minority of Croats and some Muslims. In the Spring of 1912, in a plot involving Young Bosnians, Luka Jukić a Bosnian Croat student, tried to assassinate the Governor of Croatia Count Slavko Cuvaj.\nIn 1913, Emperor Franz Joseph commanded Archduke Franz Ferdinand to observe the military maneuvers in Bosnia scheduled for June 1914. Following the maneuvers, Ferdinand and his wife planned to visit Sarajevo to open the state museum in its new premises there. Duchess Sophie, according to their eldest son, Duke Maximilian, accompanied her husband out of fear for his safety.\nAs Sophie, although of high aristocratic birth, was not from a dynastic family, her union with the Habsburg heir presumptive could only be a morganatic marriage. Emperor Franz Joseph had only consented to their marriage on the condition that their descendants would never ascend the throne. The 14th anniversary of their marriage fell on 28 June. As historian A. J. P. Taylor observes:\n\n[Sophie] could never share [Franz Ferdinand's] rank ... could never share his splendours, could never even sit by his side on any public occasion. There was one loophole ... his wife could enjoy the recognition of his rank when he was acting in a military capacity. Hence, he decided, in 1914, to inspect the army in Bosnia. There, at its capital Sarajevo, the Archduke and his wife could ride in an open carriage side by side ... Thus, for love, did the Archduke go to his death.\nFranz Ferdinand was an advocate of increased federalism and widely believed to favor trialism, under which Austria-Hungary would be reorganized by combining the Slavic lands within the Austro-Hungarian empire into a third crown. A Slavic kingdom could have been a bulwark against Serb irredentism, and Franz Ferdinand was therefore perceived as a threat by those same irredentists. Princip later stated to the court that preventing Franz Ferdinand's planned reforms was one of his motivations.\nThe day of the assassination, 28 June (15 June in the Julian calendar), is the feast of St. Vitus. In Serbia, it is called Vidovdan and commemorates the 1389 Battle of Kosovo against the Ottomans, at which Sultan Murad I was assassinated in his tent by a Serb. Princip, Čabrinović and other members of the Young Bosnia were inspired by the heroism of Miloš Obilić, reenacting the Kosovo Myth. Čabrinović was deeply\nimmersed in the myth, personally identifying himself with the Kosovo heroes, while it is known that Princip knew the entire Petar II Petrović-Njegoš's The Mountain Wreath, one of the most celebrated works in the South Slavic literature that glorifies the heroic ideals and spirit of the Kosovo Myth.\n\nPreliminaries\nPrevious conspiracy\nDanilo Ilić was a Bosnian Serb. He had worked as a schoolteacher and as a bank worker but in 1913 and 1914 he lived with, and outwardly off, his mother, who operated a small boarding house in Sarajevo. Ilić was a member of a secret revolutionary society or Kružok organized on the model of the Black Hand. According to Serbian Colonel C. A. Popović, a captain at the time and a member of the Black Hand, in late 1913, Danilo Ilić came to the Serbian listening post at Užice to speak to him. Popović claimed that Ilić recommended an end to the period of revolutionary organization building and a move to direct action against Austria-Hungary. Popović alleged that he sent Danilo Ilić to Belgrade to discuss this matter with Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević, known more commonly as Apis. By 1913, Apis and his fellow military conspirators (drawn heavily from the ranks of the May 1903 coup) had come to dominate what was left of the Black Hand.\nThere are no reports as to what took place between Ilić and Apis during the alleged meeting, but soon Apis's righthand man and fellow Black Hander, Serbian Major Vojislav Tankosić, who by this time was in charge of guerrilla training, called a Serbian irredentist planning meeting in Toulouse, France. Amongst those summoned to the Toulouse meeting was Muhamed Mehmedbašić, a Bosniak carpenter from Herzegovina. According to Luigi Albertini writing in 1942, Mehmedbašić was a member of the Black Hand, having been sworn into the organization by Black Hand Provincial Director for Bosnia and Herzegovina Vladimir Gacinović and Danilo Ilić. Mehmedbašić was (here quoting Albertini paraphrasing Mehmedbašić) \"eager to carry out an act of terrorism to revive the revolutionary spirit of Bosnia.\" During this January 1914 meeting, various possible Austro-Hungarian targets for assassination were discussed, including Franz Ferdinand. However, the participants decided only to dispatch Mehmed Mehmedbašić to Sarajevo, to kill the Governor of Bosnia, Oskar Potiorek.\nAccording to Mehmedbašić while he was traveling to Bosnia and Herzegovina from France, police searched his train for a thief. Thinking the police might be after him, he threw his weapons (a dagger and a bottle of poison) in the lavatory. Once he arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina he wrote to Gacinović and did nothing more until Ilić wrote to him to summon him to Mostar. On 26 March 1914, Ilić informed Mehmedbašić that Belgrade (meaning the Black Hand) thought that an attack of Franz Ferdinand instead of the Potiorek would be far more important and that they would support it. (Apis later boasted to the Serbian Court that he ordered the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in his position as head of the Intelligence Department, however Apis made the unproven claims in 1917 attempting to save his own life since he was about to be executed for high treason.)\n\nThe assassination team\nUnknown to the Black Hand, a second plot against the archduke had arisen that spring of 1914 when student Gavrilo Princip was shown a newspaper cutting announcing Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria's visit to Bosnia in June, by his friend and fellow Young Bosnia member Nedeljko Čabrinović. At the time the two young Bosnian Serbs were in Belgrade eager to return to Austrian-occupied Bosnia to commit an attack on an imperial official, what they saw as performing the ultimate act of heroism. Princip asked another friend Trifko Grabež to join the plot, and then wrote to Ilić, his former roommate and confidante, telling him about the plan and asking him to recruit people in Sarajevo.\nFor the assassination Ilić recruited seventeen-year-old Sarajevo high-school student Vaso Čubrilović, eighteen-year-old student Cvjetko Popović, as well as Mehmed Mehmedbašić, shortly after Orthodox Easter (as given by Dedijer: 19 April 1914), as testified by Ilić, Čubrilović, and Popović at the Sarajevo trial. Princip, Grabež, and Čabrinović testified at the Sarajevo trial that at about the same time (a little after Easter), they approached a fellow Bosnian Serb and former guerrilla fighter known to be well connected and with access to arms, Milan Ciganović, and through him Major Tankosić and reached an agreement to receive arms and get smuggled across the Serbian border back into Bosnia with the weapons.\nA principal agreement was quickly reached, but the delivery of the weapons was delayed for more than a month. The assassins met with Ciganović and he put them off. At one point, Ciganović told Grabež: \"Nothing doing, the old Emperor is ill and the Heir Apparent [sic] will not go to Bosnia.\" When Emperor Franz Joseph's health recovered, the operation was a \"go\" again. Tankosić gave the assassins one FN Model 1910 pistol. They practised shooting a few rounds of scarce and expensive .380 ACP pistol ammunition in a park near Belgrade.\nThe rest of the weapons were finally delivered on 26 May. The three assassins from Belgrade testified that Major Tankosić, directly and through Ciganović, not only provided six hand grenades and four new Browning FN Model 1910 automatic pistols with .380 ACP ammunition, but also money, suicide pills, training, a special map with the location of gendarmes marked, knowledge of contacts on a clandestine \"tunnel\" used to infiltrate agents and arms into Austria-Hungary, and a small card authorizing the use of that tunnel. Major Tankosić confirmed to the journalist and historian Luciano Magrini that he provided the bombs and pistols and was responsible for training Princip, Grabež, and Čabrinović and that he (Tankosić) initiated the idea of the suicide pills.\n\nThe secret route\nPrincip, Grabež, and Čabrinović left Belgrade by boat on 28 May and traveled along the Sava river to Šabac where they handed the small card to Captain Popović of the Serbian Border Guard. Popović, in turn, provided them with a letter to Serbian Captain Prvanović, and filled out a form with the names of three customs officials whose identities they could assume and thereby receive discounted train tickets for the ride to Loznica, a small border town.\nWhen Princip, Grabež, and Čabrinović reached Loznica on 29 May, Captain Prvanović summoned three of his revenue sergeants to discuss the best way to cross the border undetected. While waiting for the sergeants to arrive, Princip and Grabež had a falling out with Čabrinović over Čabrinović's repeated violations of operational security. Čabrinović handed over the weapons he was carrying to Princip and Grabež. Princip told Čabrinović to go alone to Zvornik, make an official crossing there using Grabež's ID card and then go on to Tuzla and link back up.\nOn the morning of 30 May, Prvanović's revenue sergeants assembled and Sergeant Budivoj Grbić accepted the task and led Princip and Grabež by foot to Isaković's Island, a small island in the middle of the Drina river that separated Serbia from Bosnia. They and their weapons reached the island on 31 May. Grbić passed the terrorists and their weapons to the agents of the Serbian Narodna Odbrana for transport into Austro-Hungarian territory and from safe-house to safe-house. Princip and Grabež crossed into Austria-Hungary on the evening of 1 June. Princip and Grabež and the weapons were passed from agent to agent until on 3 June they arrived in Tuzla. They left the weapons in the hands of the Narodna Odbrana agent Miško Jovanović and rejoined Čabrinović.\nThe Narodna Odbrana agents reported their activities to the Narodna Odbrana President, Božidar Janković, who in turn reported to the then Serbian Caretaker Prime Minister Nikola Pašić. The report to Pašić added the name of a new military conspirator, Serbian Major Kosta Todorović, Boundary Commissioner and Director of Serbian Military Intelligence Services for the frontier line from Rada to Ljubovija. Pašić's handwritten notes from the briefing (estimated by Dedijer to have taken place on 5 June) included the nickname of one of the assassins (\"Trifko\" Grabež) and also the name of Major Tankosić. The Austrians later captured the report, Pašić's handwritten notes, and additional corroborating documents.\nČabrinović's father was a Sarajevo police official. In Tuzla, Čabrinović bumped into one of his father's friends, Sarajevo Police Detective Ivan Vila, and struck up a conversation. By coincidence, Princip, Grabež and Čabrinović boarded the same train for Sarajevo as Detective Vila. Čabrinović inquired of the detective the date of Franz Ferdinand's visit to Sarajevo. The next morning, Čabrinović passed on the news to his fellow assassins that the assassination would be on 28 June.\nOn arriving in Sarajevo on 4 June, Princip, Grabež, and Čabrinović went their separate ways. Princip checked in with Ilić, visited his family in Hadžici and returned to Sarajevo on 6 June taking up residence at Ilić's mother's house with Ilić. Grabež joined his family in Pale. Čabrinović moved back into his father's house in Sarajevo.\nOn 14 June, Ilić went to Tuzla to bring the weapons to Sarajevo. Miško Jovanović hid the weapons in a large box of sugar. On 15 June, the two went separately by train to Doboj where Jovanović handed off the box to Ilić. Later that day, Ilić returned to Sarajevo by train, being careful to transfer to a local train outside Sarajevo and then quickly transfer to a tram to avoid police detection. Once at his mother's house, Ilić hid the weapons in a suitcase under a sofa. Then, on approximately 17 June, Ilić traveled to Brod (Dedijer puts it on 16 June, but trial records put it on 18 June). Questioned at trial, Ilić gave a confusing explanation of the reason for his trip, first saying he had gone to Brod to prevent the assassination and then saying he had returned to Sarajevo from Brod to prevent the assassination. Dedijer puts forward the thesis (citing Bogijević) that Ilić went to Brod to meet an emissary of Apis, Djuro Ŝarac, who had instructions to cancel the assassination and then later Rade Malobabić was dispatched from Serbia to Sarajevo to reauthorize the assassination.\n\nEve of the attacks\nIlić began handing out the weapons on 27 June. Until that day, Ilić had kept the identities of the assassins from Belgrade secret from those he had recruited locally and vice versa. Then, that night, as Mehmedbašić told Albertini: \"On the eve of the outrage Ilić introduced me to Princip in a Sarajevo café with the words 'Mehmedbašić who to-morrow is to be with us.'\" The three sent a postcard to Black Hand Provincial Director for Bosnia and Herzegovina Vladimir Gaćinović in France.\n\nAssassination\nMotorcade\nOn the morning of Sunday 28 June 1914, Ilić positioned the six assassins along the motorcade route. Ilić walked the street, exhorting the assassins to bravery. Franz Ferdinand and his party proceeded by train from Ilidža Spa to Sarajevo. Governor Oskar Potiorek met the party at Sarajevo station. Six automobiles were waiting. By mistake, three local police officers got into the first car with the chief officer of special security; the special security officers who were supposed to accompany their chief got left behind. The second car carried the Mayor and the Chief of Police of Sarajevo. The third car in the motorcade was a Gräf & Stift 28/32 PS open sports car with its top folded down. Franz Ferdinand, Sophie, Governor Potiorek, and Lieutenant Colonel Count Franz von Harrach rode in this third car. The motorcade's first stop on the preannounced program was for a brief inspection of a military barracks. According to the program, at 10:00 a.m., the motorcade was to leave the barracks for the town hall by way of the Appel Quay.\nSecurity arrangements within Sarajevo were limited. The local military commander, General Michael von Appel, proposed that troops line the intended route but was told that this would offend the loyal citizenry. Protection for the visiting party was accordingly left to the Sarajevo police, of whom only about 60 were on duty on the Sunday of the visit.\n\nBombing\nThe motorcade passed the first assassin, Mehmedbašić. Danilo Ilić had placed him in front of the garden of the Mostar Café and armed him with a bomb. Mehmedbašić failed to act. Ilić had placed Vaso Čubrilović next to Mehmedbašić, arming him with a pistol and a bomb. He too failed to act. Further along the route, Ilić had placed Nedeljko Čabrinović on the opposite side of the street near the Miljacka river, arming him with a bomb.\nAt 10:10 am, Franz Ferdinand's car approached and Čabrinović threw his bomb. The bomb bounced off the folded back convertible cover into the street. The bomb's timed detonator caused it to explode under the next car, putting that car out of action, leaving a 1-foot-diameter (0.30 m), 6.5-inch-deep (170 mm) crater, and wounding 16–20 people.\nČabrinović swallowed his cyanide pill and jumped into the Miljacka river. Čabrinović's suicide attempt failed, as the old cyanide only induced vomiting, and the Miljacka was only 13 cm deep due to the hot, dry summer. Police dragged Čabrinović out of the river, and he was severely beaten by the crowd before being taken into custody.\nThe procession sped away towards the Town Hall leaving the disabled car behind. Cvjetko Popović, Gavrilo Princip, and Trifun Grabež failed to act as the motorcade passed them at high speed.\n\nTown Hall reception\nArriving at the Town Hall for a scheduled reception, Franz Ferdinand showed signs of stress, interrupting a prepared speech of welcome by Mayor Fehim Čurčić to protest: \"Mr. Mayor, I came here on a visit and I am greeted with bombs. It is outrageous.\" Duchess Sophie then whispered into Franz Ferdinand's ear, and after a pause, Franz Ferdinand said to the mayor: \"Now you may speak.\" He then became calm and the mayor gave his speech. Franz Ferdinand had to wait as his own speech, still wet with blood from being in the damaged car, was brought to him. To the prepared text he added a few remarks about the day's events thanking the people of Sarajevo for their ovations \"as I see in them an expression of their joy at the failure of the attempt at assassination.\"\nOfficials and members of the Archduke's party discussed what to do next. The archduke's chamberlain, Baron Rumerskirch, proposed that the couple remain at the Town Hall until troops could be brought into the city to line the streets. Governor-General Oskar Potiorek vetoed this suggestion on the grounds that soldiers coming straight from maneuvers would not have the dress uniforms appropriate for such duties. \"Do you think that Sarajevo is full of assassins?\" he concluded.\nFranz Ferdinand and Sophie gave up their planned program in favor of visiting the wounded from the bombing, at the hospital. Count Harrach took up a position on the left-hand running board of Franz Ferdinand's car to protect the Archduke from any assault from the river side of the street. This is confirmed by photographs of the scene outside the Town Hall. At 10:45 a.m, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie got back into the motorcade, once again in the third car. In order to ensure the safety of the couple, General Oskar Potiorek decided that the imperial motorcade should travel straight along the Appel Quay to the Sarajevo Hospital so that they could avoid the crowded city center. However, Potiorek failed to communicate his decision to the drivers. As a result, the Archduke's driver, Leopold Lojka, took a right turn at the Latin Bridge just as the two drivers ahead of him had done. According to the historian Joachim Remak, the reason for this is that Potiorek's aide Erik von Merizzi was in the hospital, and was therefore unable to give Lojka the information about the change in plans and the driving route. The Sarajevo Chief of Police Edmund Gerde, who had earlier repeatedly warned Potiorek of insufficient security precautions for the imperial visit, was asked by one of the Archduke's aides to tell the drivers of the new route, but in the confusion and tensions of the moment, he neglected to do so.\n\nFatal shooting\nAfter learning that the first assassination attempt had been unsuccessful, Princip thought about a position to assassinate the Archduke on his return journey, and decided to move to a position in front of a nearby food shop (Schiller's delicatessen), near the Latin Bridge. At this point, the first and second cars of the Archduke's motorcade suddenly turned right into a side street, leaving the Appel Quay. When the Archduke's driver followed their route, Governor Potiorek, who was sharing the third vehicle with the Imperial couple, called out to the driver to stop as he was going the wrong way. The driver applied the brakes, and when he attempted to put the car into reverse gear he accidentally stalled the engine close to where Princip was standing. The assassin stepped up to the footboard of the car, and shot Franz Ferdinand and Sophie at point-blank range using a Belgian-made Fabrique Nationale model 1910 .380 caliber pistol. Pistol serial numbers 19074, 19075, 19120 and 19126 were supplied to the assassins; Princip used #19074. According to Albertini, \"the first bullet wounded the Archduke in the jugular vein, the second inflicted an abdominal wound on the Duchess.\" Princip tried to shoot himself, but was immediately seized and arrested. At his sentencing, Princip stated that his intention had been to kill Governor Potiorek, rather than Sophie.\nAfter being shot, Sophie immediately fell unconscious and collapsed onto Franz Ferdinand's legs. The Archduke, too, lost consciousness while being driven to the Governor's residence for medical treatment. As reported by Count Harrach, Franz Ferdinand's last words were \"Sophie, Sophie! Don't die! Live for our children!\" followed by six or seven utterances of \"It is nothing,\" in response to Harrach's inquiry as to Franz Ferdinand's injury. These utterances were followed by a violent choking sound caused by hemorrhage. The imperial couple were dead by 11:30 a.m on 28 June 1914; Sophie was dead on arrival at the Governor's residence, and Franz Ferdinand died 10 minutes later.\nThere is a myth which states that Princip had eaten a sandwich at Schiller's delicatessen just prior to the shooting, but there are no primary sources from the time which mention this. This myth likely originated from the 2001 novel Twelve Fingers, which presents a fictionalized version of the events of the assassination that includes the sandwich.\n\nFuneral\nThe bodies were transported to Trieste by the battleship SMS Viribus Unitis and then to Vienna by special train. The funeral was arranged by the Obersthofmeister of the Royal Household Alfred, 2nd Prince of Montenuovo, who was said to have been a lifelong enemy of Franz Ferdinand. With the Emperor's connivance, he decided to turn the funeral into a massive and vicious snub of the assassinated couple. Even though most foreign royalty had planned to attend, they were pointedly disinvited and the funeral was attended by just the immediate imperial family, with the dead couple's three children excluded from the few public ceremonies. The Archduke's friend Kaiser Wilhelm II was invited so that the Imperial Cabinet could consult him on foreign policy, but he declined to attend; although he publicly claimed it was due to a case of lumbago, Imperial Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg revealed that the real reason was security concerns. The officer corps was forbidden to salute the funeral train, and this led to a minor revolt led by Archduke Karl, the new heir presumptive. The public viewing of the coffins was curtailed severely and even more scandalously, Montenuovo tried unsuccessfully to make the couple's children foot the bill. Sophie's coffin was slanted down from her husband's to reassert her lower social status, gloves were placed on top of her casket as was traditional for a lady-in-waiting. The Archduke and his wife were interred at Artstetten Castle because the Duchess could not be buried in the Imperial Crypt.\n\nAftermath\nAll of the assassins were eventually caught. Those in Austro-Hungarian custody were tried together with members of the infiltration route who had helped deliver them and their weapons to Sarajevo. Mehmedbašić, the only Bosnian Muslim among the conspirators, was arrested in Montenegro by local authorities but managed to escape from the Nikšić prison before his extradition could take place (possibly with help from the gendarmes who were guarding him and were consequently put under arrest). He later resurfaced in Serbia where he joined Major Tankosić's Chetnik detachment during the war, in 1916 the Serbian government imprisoned him on fabricated charges of treason during the Salonika trial, he was released in 1919. (see criminal penalty section below).\nAnti-Serb rioting broke out in Sarajevo and various other places within Austria-Hungary in the hours following the assassination until order was restored by the military. On the night of the assassination, country-wide anti-Serb pogroms and demonstrations were also organized in other parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, particularly on the territory of modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. They were organized and stimulated by Oskar Potiorek, the Austro-Hungarian governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first anti-Serb demonstrations, led by the followers of Josip Frank, were organized in the early evening of 28 June in Zagreb. The following day, anti-Serb demonstrations in Sarajevo became more violent and could be characterized as a pogrom. The police and local authorities in the city did nothing to prevent anti-Serb violence. Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence in Sarajevo as the \"Sarajevo frenzy of hate.\" Two Serbs were killed on the first day of pogrom in Sarajevo, many were attacked, while around 1,000 houses, shops, schools and institutions (such as banks, hotels, printing houses) owned by Serbs were razed or pillaged.\nFollowing the assassination, Franz Joseph's daughter, Marie Valerie, noted that her father expressed his greater confidence in the new heir presumptive, his grandnephew Archduke Charles. The emperor admitted to his daughter, regarding the assassination: \"For me, it is a relief from a great worry.\"\n\nTrials and punishment\nSarajevo trial (October 1914)\nAustro-Hungarian authorities arrested and prosecuted the Sarajevo assassins together with the agents and peasants who had assisted them on their way. The majority of the defendants were charged with conspiracy to commit high treason involving official circles in the Kingdom of Serbia. Conspiracy to commit high treason carried a maximum sentence of death which conspiracy to commit simple murder did not. The trial was held from 12 to 23 October with the verdict and sentences announced on 28 October 1914.\nThe adult defendants, facing the death penalty, portrayed themselves at trial as unwilling participants in the conspiracy. The examination of defendant Veljko Čubrilović (who helped coordinate the transport of the weapons and was a Narodna Odbrana agent) is illustrative of this effort. Čubrilović stated to the court: \"Princip glared at me and very forcefully said 'If you want to know, it is for that reason and we are going to carry out an assassination of the Heir and if you know about it, you have to be quiet. If you betray it, you and your family will be destroyed.'\" Under questioning by defense counsel Čubrilović described in more detail the basis of the fears that he said had compelled him to cooperate with Princip and Grabež.\" Čubrilović explained that he was afraid a revolutionary organization capable of committing great atrocities stood behind Princip and that he therefore feared his house would be destroyed and his family killed if he did not comply and explained that he knew such an organization existed in Serbia, at least at one time. When pressed for why he risked the punishment of the law, and did not take the protection of the law against these threats he responded: \"I was more afraid of terror than the law.\" Another Narodna Odbrana agent, Miško Jovanović, also claimed to have been against the assassination.\nThe three members of the original assassination team acknowledged full responsibility for their acts, proclaiming their ideal of a liberated and united South Slav people, exonerating Serbia and the Narodna Odbrana whose responsibility the prosecution tried to prove; however the court did not believe the defendants' statements as they differed from their depositions made at the preliminary investigation.\nPrincip focused on taking full responsibility for the crime on himself, and stated: \"Our enterprise was purely private and in no way official as the prosecution asserts. Serbia has no hand in it and cannot be held responsible for our deed.\" He then asked: \"No one else knew of it beyond Ciganović and ourselves. How could Serbia be brought into the affair?\" Princip deposed under cross-examination: \"I am a Yugoslav nationalist and I believe in unification of all South Slavs in whatever form of state and that it be free of Austria.\" Princip was then asked how he intended to realize his goal and responded: \"By means of terror.\" Cabrinović testified that he was motivated to kill Franz Ferdinand because he saw him as a danger to the Slavs and to Serbia, something he claimed to have heard in cafés from students and citizens. Grabež stated that he would never have taken part had he known that it would lead to a European war. In spite of the absence of proof, the Sarajevo Court deemed that Serbian military circles were also implicated and thus the verdict ran: \"The court regards it as proved by the evidence that both Narodna Odbrana and military circles in the Kingdom of Serbia in charge of the espionage service, collaborated in the outrage.\"\n\nPrison terms, death sentences and acquittals were as follows:\n\nAt trial, Čabrinović had expressed his regrets for the murders. Following sentencing, Čabrinović received a letter of complete forgiveness from the three young children the assassins had orphaned. Čabrinović and Princip died of tuberculosis in prison. Those under the age of 20 years at the time of the crime could receive a maximum sentence of 20 years under Austrian-Hungarian law. The court heard arguments regarding Princip's age, as there was some doubt as to his true date of birth but concluded that Princip was under 20 at the time of the assassination. Because Bosnia and Herzegovina had not been assigned to Austria or to Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Finance Minister administered Bosnia and Herzegovina and had responsibility for recommending clemency to the emperor.\n\nSalonika trial (spring 1917)\nFrom late 1916 into early 1917, secret peace talks took place between Austria-Hungary and France. There is evidence that parallel discussions were held between Austria-Hungary and Serbia with Prime Minister Pašić dispatching his righthand man Stojan Protić and Regent Alexander dispatching his confidant Colonel Petar Živković to Geneva on secret business. Charles I of Austria laid out Austria-Hungary's key demand for returning Serbia to the control of the Serbian Government in exile: that Serbia should provide guarantees that there be no further political agitation emanating from Serbia against Austria-Hungary.\n\nFor some time, Regent Alexander and officers loyal to him had planned to get rid of the military clique headed by Apis, as Apis represented a political threat to Alexander's power. The Austro-Hungarian peace demand gave added impetus to this plan. On 15 March 1917 Apis and the officers loyal to him were indicted, on various false charges unrelated to Sarajevo (the case was retried before the Supreme Court of Serbia in 1953 and all defendants were exonerated), by Serbian Court Martial on the French-controlled Salonica front. \nOn 23 May Apis and eight of his associates were sentenced to death; two others were sentenced to 15 years in prison. One defendant died during the trial and the charges against him were dropped. The Serbian High Court reduced the number of death sentences to seven. Regent Alexander commuted four of the remaining death sentences, leaving just three death sentences in place.\nAmongst those tried, four of the defendants had confessed their roles in Sarajevo and their final sentences were as follows:\n\nIn justifying the executions, Prime Minister Pašić wrote to his envoy in London: \"...Dimitrijević (Apis) besides everything else admitted he had ordered Franz Ferdinand to be killed. And now who could reprieve them?\"\nAs the three condemned men were driven to their execution, Apis remarked to the driver: \"Now it is clear to me and clear to you too, that I am to be killed today by Serbian rifles solely because I organized the Sarajevo outrage.\"\nVojislav Tankosić died in battle in late 1915 and so was not put on trial.\n\nControversy about responsibility\nSerbia's \"warning\" to Austria-Hungary\nFollowing the assassinations, Serbian Ambassador to France Milenko Vesnić and Serbian Ambassador to Russia Miroslav Spalajković put out statements claiming that Serbia had warned Austria-Hungary of the impending assassination. Serbia soon thereafter denied making warnings and denied knowledge of the plot. Prime Minister Pašić himself made these denials to Az Est on 7 July and to the Paris edition of the New York Herald on 20 July. Other voices eventually spoke out on the \"warning\". As Serbian Education Minister Ljubomir Jovanović wrote in Krv Sloventsva, in late May or early June, Prime Minister Pašić reviewed the plot of the impending assassination with members of his cabinet. On 18 June, a telegram, lacking in specifics, ordered Serbia's Ambassador to Vienna, Jovan Jovanović Pižon, to warn Austria-Hungary that Serbia had reason to believe there was a conspiracy to assassinate Franz Ferdinand in Bosnia. On 21 June, Ambassador Jovanović met with Austro-Hungarian Finance Minister Leon Biliński. According to Serbian Military Attaché to Vienna, Colonel Lešjanin, Ambassador Jovanović, spoke to Biliński and \"...stressed in general terms the risks the Archduke heir apparent [sic] might run from the inflamed public opinion in Bosnia and Serbia. Some serious personal misadventure might befall him. His journey might give rise to incidents and demonstrations that Serbia would deprecate but that would have fatal repercussions on Austro-Serbian relations.\" Jovanović came back from the meeting with Biliński and told Lešjanin that \"...Biliński showed no sign of attaching great importance to the total message and dismissed it limiting himself to remarking when saying goodbye and thanking him: 'Let us hope nothing does happen.'\" The Austro-Hungarian Finance Minister took no action based on Jovanović's remarks.\nIn 1924, J. Jovanović went public stating that his warning had been made on his own initiative, and what he said was that \"Among the Serb youths (in the army) there may be one who will put a ball-cartridge in his rifle or revolver in place of a blank cartridge and he may fire it, the bullet might strike the man giving provocation (Franz Ferdinand).\" J. Jovanović's account changed back and forth over the years and never adequately addressed Colonel Lešjanin's statement. Biliński did not speak openly on the subject, but his press department chief confirmed that a meeting had taken place including a vague warning, but there was no mention of an ethnic Serb Austro-Hungarian soldier shooting Franz Ferdinand.\nIn the days leading up to the assassination, Pašić was the caretaker prime minister because during this period the Serbian Government briefly fell to a political alliance led by the Serbian Military. The military favored promoting Jovan Jovanović to Foreign Minister, and Jovanović's loyalties one might expect to have been divided and his orders therefore carried out poorly. By choosing a military loyalist to convey the message, and by not including any of the specifics such as the conspirators' names and weapons, Pašić, a survivor, hedged his bets against the various possible outcomes and consequences of the impending assassination.\n\nRade Malobabić\nIn 1914, Rade Malobabić was Serbian Military Intelligence's chief undercover operative against Austria-Hungary. His name appeared in Serbian documents captured by Austria-Hungary during the war. These documents describe the running of arms, munitions, and agents from Serbia into Austria-Hungary under Malobabić's direction.\nOwing to the suppression by Serbia of Apis's confession and of the Salonika trial transcripts historians did not initially link Malobabić closely to the Sarajevo attack. Apis's confession, however, states that \"I engaged Malobabić to organize the assassination on the occasion of the announced arrival of Franz Ferdinand to Sarajevo.\" At the Salonika trial, Colonel Ljubomir Vulović (head of the Serbian Frontiers Service) testified: 'In 1914 on occasion of my official trip from Loznica to Belgrade, I received a letter at the General Staff [signed by Marshal Radomir Putnik, Serbia's top military officer] noting that agents of Malobabić would come and a teacher whose name I don't recall (Danilo Ilić was a teacher but it is unclear if the teacher in question was Ilić as Ilić can be placed in Brod but not Loznica) so I could sent [sic] them into Bosnia.' Because of that 'I went to Loznica and either that day or very soon afterwards sent Rade and that teacher into Bosnia.' Soon thereafter occurred the Sarajevo assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.\" On the eve of his execution, Malobabić told a priest: \"They ordered me to go to Sarajevo when that assassination was to take place, and when everything was over, they ordered me to come back and fulfill other missions, and then there was the outbreak of the war.\" Vladimir Dedijer in The Road to Sarajevo presented additional testimonial evidence that Malobabić arrived in Sarajevo on the eve of the Sarajevo attack and gave the final go-ahead for the operation to Danilo Ilić. This meshes with Dedijer's theory that Djuro Ŝarac had given instructions to Ilić on 16 June canceling the assassination. Soon after their confessions, Serbia executed Malobabić, Vulović, and Apis on false charges. Serbia published no clarifications of their confessions with regards to the Sarajevo attack.\n\n\"Black Hand\" or Serbian military intelligence?\nAn alternative theory to the Sarajevo attack being a Serbian Military Intelligence Operation was that it was a \"Black Hand\" operation. The \"Black Hand\" was a Serbian military society formed on 9 May 1911 by officers in the Royal Serbian Army, originating in the conspiracy group that assassinated the Serbian royal couple in May 1903, led by captain Dragutin Dimitrijević (Commonly referred to as \"Apis\").\nAfter Serbia's victory over Bulgaria in Macedonia in the Balkan Wars, the \"Black Hand\" became moribund because of the death of its president and the failure to replace him, an inactive secretary, casualties, broken links between its three-man cells, and a drying up of funding. By 1914 the \"Black Hand\" was no longer operating under its constitution but rather as a creature of the Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence, Apis, and its active ranks were composed mostly of Serbian officers loyal to Apis. Apis's confession to ordering the operation that begins with the phrase \"As the Chief of the Intelligence Department of the General Staff\", the fact that the military chain of command was invoked, the moribund nature of the \"Black Hand\" and the fact that under the \"Black Hand\" constitution Article 16, such an assassination could only be ordered by a vote of the Supreme Council Directorate, the President or the Secretary, and no such order was made, are factors in favor of assigning responsibility to Serbian Military Intelligence. The fact that Milan Ciganović was involved, that the key officers involved were \"Black Hand\" members, that \"Black Hand\" Provincial Director for Bosnia and Herzegovina Vladimir Gaćinović was consulted and that there was no official budget for the operation favors assigning responsibility to the \"Black Hand\".\n\nThe newspaper clipping\nAt trial, it was noted that the three assassins from Belgrade tried to take all blame on themselves. Čabrinović claimed the idea of killing Franz Ferdinand came from a newspaper clipping he received in the mail at the end of March announcing Franz Ferdinand's planned visit to Sarajevo. He then showed the newspaper clipping to Princip and the next day they agreed they would kill Franz Ferdinand. Princip explained to the court he had already read about Franz Ferdinand's upcoming visit in German papers. Princip went on to testify that, at about the time of Easter (19 April), he wrote an allegorical letter to Ilić informing him of the plan to kill Franz Ferdinand. Grabež testified that he and Princip, also at about the time of Easter, agreed between them to make an assassination of either Governor Potiorek or Franz Ferdinand and a little later settled on Franz Ferdinand. The defendants refused or were unable to provide details under examination.\nOn 26 March Ilić and Mehmedbašić had already agreed to kill Franz Ferdinand based on instructions from Belgrade predating the newspaper clipping and the discussions amongst the three assassins in Belgrade.\n\nNarodna Odbrana\nSerbian Military Intelligence – through remnants of the \"Black Hand\" – penetrated the Narodna Odbrana, using its clandestine tunnel to smuggle the assassins and their weapons from Belgrade to Sarajevo. In the 5 June 1914 report by the President of the Narodna Odbrana Boža Milanović to Prime Minister Pašić, one can sense the frustration of the President over the hijacking of his organization in the final sentence dealing with Sarajevo: \"Boža has informed all the agents that they should not receive anyone unless he produces the password given by Boža.\"\n\nMilan Ciganović\nPrime Minister Pašić received early information of the assassination plan. The information was received by Pašić early enough, according to Education Minister Ljubomir Jovanović, for the government to order the border guards to prevent the assassins from crossing. This places the cabinet minister's discussions in late May and the information release to some time before that. Albertini concluded that the source of the information was most likely Milan Ciganović. Bogičević made a more forceful case.\nThe circumstantial evidence against Ciganović includes his sinecure government job, his protection by the Chief of Police and Serbia's failure to arrest him (Austria-Hungary demanded Serbia arrest Major Vojislav Tankosić and Ciganović, but Serbia arrested only Tankosić and lied saying that Ciganović could not be found), Serbia's protection of Ciganović during the war, and the government's provision for Ciganović after it. In 1917, all of the Sarajevo conspirators within Serbia's control were tried at Salonika on false charges, except Ciganović, who even gave evidence against his comrades at the trial.\n\nRussian military attaché's office\nApis's confession to ordering the assassination of Franz Ferdinand states that Russian Military Attaché Viktor Artamonov promised Russia's protection from Austria-Hungary if Serbia would ever come under attack. While admitting funding of the intelligence network in Austro-Hungary, Artamonov denied the involvement of his office in the assassination in an interview with Albertini. Artamonov stated that he went on vacation to Italy leaving Assistant Military Attaché Alexander Werchovsky in charge and though he was in daily contact with Apis he did not learn of Apis's role until after the war had ended. Albertini writes that he \"remained unconvinced by the behavior of this officer.\" Werchovsky admitted the involvement of his office and then fell silent on the subject.\nThere is evidence that Russia was at least aware of the plot before 14 June. De Schelking writes:\n\nOn 1 June 1914 (14 June new calendar), Emperor Nicholas had an interview with King Charles I of Roumania, at Constanza. I was there at the time ... yet as far as I could judge from my conversation with members of his (Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov's) entourage, he (Sazonov) was convinced that if the Archduke (Franz Ferdinand) were out of the way, the peace of Europe would not be endangered.\n\nConsequences\nIn August 1914, The Independent described the assassination as a \"deplorable but relatively insignificant\" reason for which\n\nthe financial system of the world is in chaos, that international commerce is suspended, that industries are everywhere demoralized and families ruined, and that millions of men in Europe have taken up arms with the intent to slaughter each other.\n\"It may be doubted whether the Archduke [is] worth all this carnage\", the magazine wrote. The murder produced widespread shock across European royal houses, and there was initially much sympathy for the Austrian position. Ordinary people did not really care about what happened, and on the evening of the assassination the crowds in Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened.\nWithin two days of the assassination, Austria-Hungary and Germany advised Serbia that it should open an investigation, but Secretary-General to the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Slavko Grujić, replied: \"Nothing had been done so far and the matter did not concern the Serbian Government.\" An angry exchange followed between the Austrian Chargé d'Affaires at Belgrade and Grujić. After conducting a criminal investigation, verifying that Germany would honor its military alliance, and persuading the sceptical Hungarian prime minister Count István Tisza, Austria-Hungary issued a formal letter to the government of Serbia on 23 July 1914. The letter reminded Serbia of its commitment to respect the Great Powers' decision regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina, and to maintain good neighborly relations with Austria-Hungary. The letter contained specific demands that Serbia should accept, including the suppression of the publication of propaganda advocating the violent destruction of Austria-Hungary, the removal of the people behind this propaganda from the Serbian Military, the dissolution of the Serbian nationalist organization Narodna Odbrana, the arrest of the people on Serbian soil who were involved in the assassination plot and the prevention of the clandestine shipment of arms and explosives from Serbia to Austria-Hungary. It also demanded that Austro-Hungarian officials should take part in the Serbian inquiry into the assassination plot.\nThis letter became known as the July Ultimatum, and Austria-Hungary stated that if Serbia did not accept all of the demands in total within 48 hours, it would recall its ambassador from Serbia. After receiving a telegram of support from Russia, Serbia mobilized its army and responded to the letter by completely accepting point #8 demanding an end to the smuggling of weapons and punishment of the frontier officers who had assisted the assassins and completely accepting point #10 which demanded Serbia report the execution of the required measures as they were completed. Serbia partially accepted, finessed, disingenuously answered or politely rejected elements of the preamble and enumerated demands #1–7 and #9. The shortcomings of Serbia's response were published by Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary responded by breaking diplomatic relations. According to a 2021 study, Franz Ferdinand's absence was key to the breakdown of diplomacy and escalation into war, as Ferdinand had been the most powerful and effective proponent for peace in Vienna.\nThe next day, Serbian reservists being transported on tramp steamers on the Danube crossed onto the Austro-Hungarian side of the river at Temes-Kubin and Austro-Hungarian soldiers fired into the air to warn them off. The report of this incident was initially sketchy and reported to Emperor Franz-Joseph erroneously as \"a considerable skirmish\". Austria-Hungary then declared war and mobilized the portion of its army that would face the (already mobilized) Serbian Army on 28 July 1914. Under the Secret Treaty of 1892 Russia and France were obliged to mobilize their armies if any of the Triple Alliance mobilized. Russia partially mobilized along its Austrian border on 29 July, and on 30 July Russia ordered general mobilization. Russia's general mobilization set off full Austro-Hungarian and German mobilizations. Soon all the Great Powers except Italy had chosen sides and gone to war.\n\nToday\nThe consequences of his action were very bad for Bosnia. Bosnia ceased to exist in Yugoslavia, and Bosnian Muslims were not recognised until 1968. They [Austria-Hungary] were still much better rulers than the Kingdom of Yugoslavia or communist Yugoslavia. You can look at the historical records and see how Austria-Hungary cared about issues like the rule of law. We lost so much in 1918.\nThe shots fired 100 years ago by Gavrilo Princip were not fired at Europe, they were shots for freedom, marking the start of the Serbs' fight for liberation from foreign occupiers.\nLater, referring to Franz Ferdinand's assassination, Vaso Čubrilović said: \"We destroyed a beautiful world that was lost forever due to the war that followed.\"\nFollowing the breakup of Yugoslavia, Princip's legacy came under reevaluation in the various successor states. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks and Croats largely view Gavrilo Princip as a terrorist and an ethnic Serb nationalist. Many Serbs consider Princip a national hero. The 100th anniversary of the assassination was commemorated with a concert by the Vienna Philharmonic in the Sarajevo City Hall, in an event that was organized by the European Union. Austrian president Heinz Fischer was the guest of honour.\nThe World War I commemorations were boycotted by Serb nationalists and dignitaries, who, along with Bosnian Serbs, view \"Princip as a hero.\" On the 100th anniversary of the assassination, a statue of Gavrilo Princip was erected in East Sarajevo. This was followed by another statue in Belgrade, which was erected in June 2015. Serbian history textbooks deny that Serbia or Princip were responsible for starting World War I, laying blame on the Central Powers instead. Milorad Dodik acknowledged that Bosnia is \"still divided\", but maintained that Princip was a \"freedom fighter\" and that Austria-Hungary had been an \"occupier\".\n\nPrincip's weapon, along with the car in which the Archduke was riding, his bloodstained uniform and the chaise longue on which he died, are on permanent display in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna, Austria. The bullet fired by Gavrilo Princip, sometimes referred to as \"the bullet that started World War I\", is a museum exhibit in the Konopiště Castle near the town of Benešov in the Czech Republic. The bronze medallion of Ferdinand and Sophie, which was part of a monument that was erected on the site of the assassination and demolished in 1918 during Yugoslav rule, is currently preserved in the National Gallery of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo. A marble plaque commemorating Princip and the assassination was erected in 1930 but, following the 1941 German invasion of Yugoslavia, it was removed by German troops and Volksdeutsche and was subsequently given to Adolf Hitler as a 52nd birthday present. Hitler sent it to the Berlin Zeughaus where it was put on display in the military museum until 1945 when it disappeared.\n\nIn art and culture\nLiterature\nThe Bridge on the Drina (1945) by Ivo Andrić (Nobel Prize laureate)\nThe Guns of August (1963) by Barbara W. Tuchman (Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction)\nJune 28, 1914 (2019) by Zlatko Topčić\n\nTheater\nThis Grave Is Too Small for Me (2013) written by Biljana Srbljanović\n\nFilm\n1914 (1931) directed by Richard Oswald\nSarajevo (1940) directed by Max Ophüls\nSarajevo (1940) directed by Ákos Ráthonyi\nSarajevo (1955) directed by Fritz Kortner\nThe Day That Shook the World (1975) directed by Veljko Bulajić\nSt. George Shoots the Dragon (2009) directed by Srđan Dragojević\nSarajevo (2014) directed by Andreas Prochaska\nThe Man Who Defended Gavrilo Princip (2014) directed by Srđan Koljević\nThe King's Man directed by Matthew Vaughn\n\nTV series\nThe Great War (1964) written by John Terraine and Correlli Barnett\nFall of Eagles (1974) created by John Elliot\n37 Days (2014) directed by Justin Hardy\n\nCitations\nGeneral and cited references\nFurther reading\nBataković, Dušan T. (1996). The Serbs of Bosnia & Herzegovina: History and Politics. Dialogue Association. ISBN 978-2911527104.\nFay, Sidney Bradshaw: Origins of the Great War. New York, 1928\nFomenko, A. \"There Was an Alternative! The Legacy of Franz Ferdinand\" International Affairs: A Russian Journal of World Politics, Diplomacy & International Relations (2009) 55#3 pp. 177–184.\nPonting, Clive. Thirteen Days, Chatto & Windus, London, 2002.\nStoessinger, John. Why Nations Go to War, Wadsworth Publishing, 2007.\nStrachan, Hugh (2001). The First World War, Volume I: To Arms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199261918.\nTreusch, Wolf Sören. Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand und seine Gemahlin werden in Sarajevo ermordet, DLF, Berlin, 2004\n\nExternal links\n\nMap of Europe at the time of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand at omniatlas.com\nNewsreels about Franz Ferdinand's assassination at www.europeanfilmgateway.eu\nPrison Interview with Gavrilo Princip after the Assassination",
"title": "Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand"
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"paragraph_text": "Franz Ferdinand are a Scottish rock band formed in Glasgow in 2002. Their original line-up was composed of Alex Kapranos (lead vocals, lead guitar, keyboards), Nick McCarthy (rhythm guitar, keyboards, vocals), Bob Hardy (bass guitar, percussion) and Paul Thomson (drums, percussion, backing vocals). Julian Corrie (keyboards, lead guitar, backing vocals) and Dino Bardot (rhythm guitar, backing vocals) joined the band in 2017 after McCarthy left during the previous year, and Audrey Tait (drums, percussion) joined the band after Thomson left in 2021. The band are one of the more popular post-punk revival bands, garnering multiple UK top 20 hits. They have been nominated for several Grammy Awards and have received two Brit Awards—winning one for Best British Group—as well as one NME Award.\nThe band's first single, \"Darts of Pleasure\", just missed out on the Top 40 of the UK Singles Chart, peaking at number 44. Their second single, \"Take Me Out\", proved their big commercial breakthrough, peaking at number three. \"Take Me Out\" charted in several other countries and earned a Grammy nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal; it became the band's signature song. Their self-titled debut studio album won the 2004 Mercury Prize and earned a Grammy nomination for Best Alternative Album.\nIn 2005, the band released their second studio album, You Could Have It So Much Better, produced by Rich Costey. It peaked within the top-ten in multiple countries and earned Grammy-nominations for Best Alternative Album and for one of the singles, \"Do You Want To\". The band's third studio album, Tonight: Franz Ferdinand, was released in January 2009; by then the band had shifted from a post-punk-focused sound to a more dance-oriented sound. A remix album of Tonight, titled Blood, was released in July 2009.\nFour years after the release of Tonight, the band released their fourth studio album, Right Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action, in August 2013. In 2015, Franz Ferdinand and American rock band Sparks formed the supergroup FFS and released a one-off self-titled album in June 2015. The band underwent multiple lineup changes following FFS, beginning with McCarthy's departure in 2016. After acquiring Corrie and Bardot, the band released their fifth studio album Always Ascending in February 2018. Thomson departed in 2021 and was replaced by Tait. The band's sixth studio album, The Human Fear, is scheduled for release in 2025.\n\nHistory\nFormation (2001–2003)\nThe band's members played in various bands during the 1990s, including The Karelia, Yummy Fur, 10p Invaders, and Embryo. Alex Kapranos and Paul Thomson met at a party and began a close friendship and played together in Yummy Fur, and subsequently teamed up to write songs. Around the same time, Kapranos taught his friend Bob Hardy how to play bass after being given a bass guitar by Mick Cooke of Belle & Sebastian. Kapranos met rhythm guitarist Nick McCarthy, who had returned to Scotland after studying jazz bass in Germany, in 2001.\nOnce the members came together, they settled on the name Franz Ferdinand for their band. The name was originally inspired by a racehorse called Archduke Ferdinand. After seeing the horse win the Northumberland Plate in 2001, the band began to discuss Archduke Franz Ferdinand and thought it would be a good band name because of the alliteration of the name and the implications of the Archduke's death: his assassination was a significant factor in the lead-up to World War I. In an interview, Hardy recollected that \"mainly we just liked the way it sounded. We liked the alliteration.\" Kapranos continued, saying \"he was an incredible figure as well. His life, or at least the ending of it, was the catalyst for the complete transformation of the world and that is what we want our music to be. But I don't want to over-intellectualise the name thing. Basically a name should just sound good ... like music.\" Thomson concluded, saying \"I like the idea that, if we become popular, maybe the words Franz Ferdinand will make people think of the band instead of the historical figure.\"\n\nFranz Ferdinand and international breakthrough (2003–2005)\nIn May 2003 the band signed to Laurence Bell's independent record label, Domino Recording Company. The band moved to Gula Studios in Malmö, Sweden, with Cardigans producer Tore Johansson to record their debut album. In the latter part of 2003, the band released their debut single, \"Darts of Pleasure\". In January 2004, the single \"Take Me Out\" reached No. 3 in the UK charts. The album, Franz Ferdinand, was released in early 2004, debuting at No. 3 in the UK Albums Chart in February 2004, and at No. 12 in the Australian album charts in April 2004. The album only reached the lowest levels of the Billboard 200 album charts in the US as of early 2004, but reached the top 5 of the indie rock chart and the Heatseeker chart for debut artists. After a couple of North American tours and heavy rotation of the \"Take Me Out\" video on MTV, the album eventually reached No. 32 on the Billboard 200 later in 2004, and sold over a million copies in the United States. Franz Ferdinand received a generally strong positive response from critics. NME rated it 9 out of 10, and said that the band was the latest in the line of art school rock bands featuring the Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Who, Roxy Music, the Sex Pistols, Wire, Travis and Blur.\nOn 7 September 2004, the album was awarded the 2004 Mercury Music Prize. \"Take Me Out\" gained first place in the Australian Triple J Hottest 100 for 2004, winning more than twice the votes of the second-place entry, with This Fire and The Dark of the Matinee entering at No. 24 and No. 50 respectively. Franz Ferdinand won an Ivor Novello Award in 2004 and two Brit Awards in 2005. The avant-garde music video for \"Take Me Out\" earned them a Breakthrough Video MTV Award. NME named Franz Ferdinand the best album of 2004, and placed it 38th on their 100 Best Albums of All Time list. The band performed \"Take Me Out\" as a live medley with Los Lonely Boys, Maroon 5, The Black Eyed Peas and Gwen Stefani at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards in 2005, in which \"Take Me Out\" was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Franz Ferdinand was nominated for Best Alternative Album. \"Take Me Out\" was featured on the video games NHL 2005, Madden NFL 2005 and the breakthrough game Guitar Hero. The album has sold around 3.6 million copies worldwide.\n\nYou Could Have It So Much Better (2005–2007)\nThe band spent much of 2005 in the studio in Glasgow working on their follow-up album, You Could Have It So Much Better, which was released on 3 October 2005. The band initially intended to leave the album self-titled like their debut, but they changed it to You Could Have It So Much Better...With Franz Ferdinand before settling on the final title. The album's cover design was modelled on Alexander Rodchenko's 1924 portrait of Lilya Brik. The band attempted to broaden its musical range on the album; Hardy said, \"There's more to life than disco-beat guitar music\". It was generally well received in the press and seen as an album equal to, or better than, their first by most critics. It entered the UK Album Charts at Number 1 and the US charts at Number 8. The album eventually sold 2 million copies worldwide.\n\nTo support the album, four singles were released. Included in that set is a double A-side single that contained a video-clip-only single as well (both the AA-side \"L. Wells\" and the video-clip \"Jeremy Fraser\" are not featured on the album, recorded in early 2006 during the band's tour of Australia in support of the album). Also included is another video-clip-only single called \"Wine, In the Afternoon\" which is the B-side to \"Eleanor Put Your Boots On\", and was also not featured on the album, but recorded on tour in Michigan. \"Do You Want To\" made it to number 4 and was declared by Q to be the greatest single of 2005, while \"Walk Away\" and \"The Fallen\" entered the top 15 of the UK Singles Chart. The fourth and final single from the second album, \"Eleanor Put Your Boots On\", peaked at number 30. You Could Have It So Much Better went on to earn a nomination for Best Alternative Album at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006, as did \"Do You Want To\" for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.\n\nTonight: Franz Ferdinand (2007–2011)\nOn 26 January 2009, the band released their third studio album, Tonight: Franz Ferdinand, which they had been recording in Glasgow since mid-2007. The band recorded the album in a disused building in Glasgow that had been a town hall in the past. Alex Kapranos has stated that \"The last record was...like a teenager having sex. This one's a bit more assured and a bit friendlier for the dance floor.\"\nTonight was mixed by Canadian Mix Engineer Mike Fraser. The song \"Ulysses\" was chosen to be the first single and was released on 19 January 2009. It was first played by Zane Lowe on 17 November 2008. Shortly afterwards it hit YouTube. It did not see that much success in the UK Top 40, reaching only No. 20, but it fared better in Spain and Japan where it reached No. 2 and No. 3, respectively. It also entered the Top 20 of the US Modern Rock Chart. The album, Tonight was released 26 January 2009 and debuted at No. 2 in the UK Album Chart and No. 9 in the US Billboard 200. The second single, \"No You Girls\" saw success both in the charts and on the radio prior to release, eventually reaching No. 7 on the US Modern Rock Chart and was performed by Franz Ferdinand on Comic Relief 2009 Top of The Pops special. \"Can't Stop Feeling\" was released on 6 July as the third single from the album and on 28 August, \"What She Came For\" was released as the 4th single in the form of a remix single. The band performed \"What She Came For\" on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien on Wednesday, 26 August 2009.\nThe band appeared on Radio 1's live lounge performing their second single \"No You Girls\", and did a cover of Britney Spears' comeback single \"Womanizer\". In February 2009, Glastonbury Festival announced Franz Ferdinand as the first major band playing at that year's festival. The band also unveiled a 19-date tour of the US during the spring, in support of the new album. The tour included a set at the Coachella Festival. The band were also one of the main stage acts performing at Radio 1's Big Weekend in Swindon in May. On 6 May 2009, it was announced that Franz Ferdinand would be the third opening act for the Green Day's 21st Century Breakdown World Tour. They played 8–26 August 2009, and they followed Kaiser Chiefs and The Bravery.\nOn 1 June 2009, the band released Blood, a compilation album that includes dub music versions of songs from Tonight: Franz Ferdinand. The release was timed to coincide with Record Store Day. iTunes Festival: London 2009, iTunes Store exclusive, was released in June as well.\nAlso made for the Record Store Day, on 16 April 2011 Domino released the compilation Covers E.P., which featured songs of Tonight: Franz Ferdinand played by Peaches, LCD Soundsystem, Stephin Merritt, ESG and Debbie Harry (who recorded in duet with the band). The first edition was only vinyl, and on 2 May 2011 it was released on CD.\n\nRight Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action and FFS with Sparks (2012–2015)\nWriting for a fourth studio album began in 2010. Kapranos stated that the band promised themselves they would also focus on not over-publicising their progress as he felt that's something he regretted about their previous album. In May 2012, the band returned to touring, playing several festivals during the summer of 2012 including a headlining slot at Field Day festival in London's Victoria Park. Other appearances included Barcelona's Primavera Sound Festival, Montreal's 2012 Osheaga Music Festival, Chicago's 2012 Lollapalooza Music Festival, Belgium's Dour Festival, Portugal's Marés Vivas Festival and San Francisco's 2012 Outside Lands Music Festival.\nDuring their 2012 tour, the band gradually introduced new songs to their repertoire, along with a reworked version of Tonight cut \"Can't Stop Feeling\" combined with \"I Feel Love\" by Donna Summer. In March 2013, Franz Ferdinand continued touring and premiering new songs. In early March they performed \"Evil Eye\" and \"Love Illumination\", while the end of the month saw the live premiere of \"Goodbye Lovers & Friends\". On 16 May 2013, Franz Ferdinand officially announced their fourth album, titled Right Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action, along with cover art, track listing and a release date of 26 August 2013. The band launched the new album at a show at the Electric Brixton. FMV Magazine's Dan Jenko praised the gig, saying that \"there's no reason why latest LP Right Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action can't be the belated soundtrack of the summer\".\nOn 9 March 2015, it was announced that the band had formed a supergroup with Sparks under the name FFS, with plans to release a studio album and tour Europe during that summer. A teaser titled \"The Domino Effect\" was released on the group's YouTube channel that same day. The John Congleton-produced album, FFS, was officially announced on 1 April 2015. Three official singles were released from the album: \"Johnny Delusional\", which was released on 13 April, \"Call Girl\", which was released on 28 May, and \"Police Encounters\", which was released on 23 October.\n\nLineup change and Always Ascending (2016–2020)\nIn July 2016, the band announced that guitarist Nick McCarthy would not be involved in the recording and touring of their next album, in order to concentrate on his family and other musical interests. The band, however, have stressed that it is possible he may rejoin the band at a later date. On 14 October 2016, the band released \"Demagogue\", a song protesting and satirising the candidacy of Donald Trump in the U.S. presidential election of 2016. It was released as part of the 30 Days, 50 Songs programme that featured 50 songs lyrically against Trump and his candidacy.\nOn 19 May 2017, two days prior to the start of their North American tour, Franz Ferdinand announced their new five-piece line-up, with former Yummy Fur and 1990s member Dino Bardot on guitar and Julian Corrie on keyboards, synth and guitar. On 25 October, the band released the title track from their fifth studio album, Always Ascending (2018), as its lead single. They revealed the album's release date, 9 February 2018, and announced dates for a world tour. Corrie joined the band for the recording sessions of the album, while Bardot joined after recording was completed.\n\nDeparture of Thomson, Hits to the Head and The Human Fear (2021–present)\nOn 21 October 2021, the band announced through social media that Paul Thomson had departed the band, with Glasgow-based drummer Audrey Tait joining as his replacement, as well as confirming that studio recordings had been undertaken with Tait. The announcement was accompanied by a statement from Thomson and a photograph of him passing his drumsticks to Tait. Tait's debut performance with the band had taken place several weeks before the announcement, at the Balmain fashion show in Paris on 29 September.\nFranz Ferdinand released a new single, \"Billy Goodbye\", on 2 November 2021. The track is one of two new songs on the greatest hits compilation Hits to the Head, which was released on 11 March 2022.\nFranz Ferdinand performed at Night for Ukraine, a fundraising benefit held at the Roundhouse in north London on the evening of March 9, 2022, with the funds raised being donated to the Disasters Emergency Committee appeal, to provide aid to people fleeing Ukraine following the Russian invasion. The event was organised by Fabien Riggall in collaboration with the Ukrainian pop duo Bloom Twins.\nOn 11 September 2024, Franz Ferdinand announced their sixth studio album, The Human Fear, to be released on 10 January 2025. The lead single, \"Audacious\", was released following the announcement of the album. The album will be the first full-length album to feature Audrey Tait on drums following the departure of Paul Thomson. The band will tour the UK and Europe in the first half of 2025, beginning on 14 February in Lisbon and concluding in Glasgow on 7 March.\n\nCollaborations and covers\nFranz Ferdinand covered the LCD Soundsystem song \"All My Friends\" which appeared as a B-side on the single and LCD Soundsystem covered their song Live Alone in return, which appeared on a covers EP alongside Stephin Merritt, ESG and Debbie Harry who all covered songs from Tonight. They have also covered \"Sexy Boy\" by Air, \"It Won't Be Long\" by the Beatles, Pulp's \"Mis-Shapes\", Gwen Stefani's top 5 hit \"What You Waiting For?\", Blondie's \"Call Me\", Britney Spears' \"Womanizer\" and David Bowie's song \"Sound and Vision\", featuring Girls Aloud on backing vocals, for a compilation disc marking the 40th anniversary of BBC Radio 1, along with other leading artists. Additionally, Franz Ferdinand recorded a cover of the Fire Engines' song \"Get Up and Use Me\". In return, the Fire Engines recorded a cover of \"Jacqueline\". The band also took a similar approach with Dutch band De Kift, covering the song \"Heisa-Ho\" whilst De Kift recorded a cover of \"Love and Destroy\" with Dutch lyrics. The cover by De Kift is named \"Liefde En Puin\" which is the title \"Love and Destroy\" translated into Dutch. The band has had remixes by electronic artists Daft Punk, Hot Chip, Justice, The Avalanches, Microfilm and Erol Alkan.\nThe band also performed, played and recorded with Jane Birkin, covering the Serge Gainsbourg song \"Sorry Angel\" for the 2005 album Monsieur Gainsbourg Revisited. In addition, Franz re-recorded the track \"Brown Onions\" for David Shrigley's compilation album Worried Noodles. The band kept instrumentation identical but used lyrics written by Shrigley which include the consistent repetition of the word \"No\" and occasionally \"No brains, no teeth, no legs, no eyes...\". Hot Chip, a band who are reported to be a favourite of Franz Ferdinand, also performed their own version of \"No\" on the same album.\nThe band partnered with Sony in Tokyo, filming commercials for the launch of the A Series Walkman music player on 8 September 2005. A limited edition Franz Ferdinand-themed Walkman A Series player was released by Sony Japan in January 2006, with only one hundred made.\nThe band 'met' Gorillaz in December 2005 and interviewed each other for a feature in Observer Music Monthly.\nAt the 2009 NME Awards ceremony, they performed a cover of Blondie's \"Call Me\" with Elly Jackson of La Roux on guest vocals.\nWhen Franz appeared on Radio 1's Live Lounge on 6 April 2009, to promote \"No You Girls\", they covered \"Womanizer\" by Britney Spears.\nThey have also collaborated with Marion Cotillard for the 2010 Lady Dior campaign. The band wrote the lyrics and plays the music for the song \"The Eyes of Mars\", while the actress is on vocals. Kapranos noted that it was refreshing working with her as she had a lot of fun going and retrying the song time and time again.\nIn 2010, Franz Ferdinand contributed to the Alice in Wonderland soundtrack with their adaption of the song \"The Lobster Quadrille\". Later that year, Kapranos and McCarthy collaborated on the song \"Do It Again\" with Edwyn Collins on his album Losing Sleep.\nIn 2016, Alex Kapranos took part in a documentary about Glasgow music and Chemikal Underground Records called Lost in France. The film was directed by Niall McCann and brought Kapranos (along with members of The Delgados, Mogwai and others) to Mauron, Brittany, to recreate a gig they played when Kapranos was in his earlier band, The Karelia. The film features Kapranos playing live with Stuart Braithwaite of Mogwai, and other musicians such as Emma Pollock and RM Hubbert, and Holy Mountain, as well as interviews with Kapranos and his old label-mates. Lost in France premiered at the Edinburgh International Film Festival to wholly positive reviews and was called \"funny, vital and sobering\" by Scotland's arts bible The Skinny.\nIn 2022, Franz Ferdinand's single, \"This Fire\" served as the opening theme song for the Polish-Japanese animated series, Cyberpunk: Edgerunners.\n\nStyle\nMusic and art\nStylistically, the band has been labelled as indie rock, garage rock revival, post-punk revival, dance-punk, dance-rock and art rock. The band is notable for its use of Russian avant-garde imagery in album and single covers designed by Matthew Cooper. Examples include: \"You Could Have It So Much Better\", which references a 1924 portrait of Lilya Brik by Alexander Rodchenko; \"Take Me Out\", which references One-Sixth Part of the World, also by Alexander Rodchenko; \"This Fire\" which references Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge by El Lissitzky; and \"Michael\", with single art based on A Proun by Lissitzky. The song \"Love and Destroy\" was inspired by the scene of disorder made by Margarita, a character of Michael Bulgakov's \"The Master and Margarita\", in the apartment of the literature critic Latunzky.\nAlso, in \"Outsiders\", the lyrics \"In seventeen years will you still be Camille, Lee Miller, Gala or whatever\" are a reference to the lovers of the artists Auguste Rodin, Man Ray and Salvador Dalí.\nThe band have been credited with helping to increase the popularity of men's fringed hairstyles.\n\nMusic videos\nMany of the videos to promote the band's singles take inspiration from Russian avant-garde much like their LP and CD sleeves.\nThe avant-garde music video for \"Take Me Out\", directed by Jonas Odell, was inspired by Dadaism (especially Max Ernst's Une Semaine de Bonté), Busby Berkeley choreographies and Russian constructivist design. Alex Kapranos explained the many and varied influences behind the 1930s-style promo for second single \"Take Me Out\": \"It's kind of two dimensional in a three dimensional style if that makes any sense. It's a montage of images; ourselves, pictures and things taken from other places and put together in a strange, abstract way. That's what gives the video that strange, jerky, style\".\nThe lyrics of \"Do You Want To\" make reference to parties at the \"trendy\" Glasgow art gallery Transmission, and the video includes a variety of the work of contemporary artist Vanessa Beecroft.\n\nMembers\nTimeline\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\n\nFranz Ferdinand (2004)\nYou Could Have It So Much Better (2005)\nTonight: Franz Ferdinand (2009)\nRight Thoughts, Right Words, Right Action (2013)\nAlways Ascending (2018)\nThe Human Fear (2025)\n\nAwards and honours\nSee also\nList of bands from Glasgow\nList of Scottish musicians\n\nNotes\nReferences\nHiatt, Brian (2005). \"Hot Scots – Franz Ferdinand get rock fans dancing again\" Rolling Stone (Retrieved 16 June 2006)\nFranz Ferdinand book out later this month Rebecca Nicholson (2 Nov 2007). Retrieved 30 November 2008\nJosh Lovseth (Feb 2007).. Retrieved 22 March 2008\nElse, D. (2007). Great Britain. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74104-565-9.\n\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "Franz_Ferdinand_(band)"
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"paragraph_text": "The Northumberland Plate is a flat handicap horse race in Great Britain open to horses aged three years or older. It is run at Newcastle over a distance of 2 miles and 56 yards (3,270 metres), and it is scheduled to take place each year in late June or early July.\n\nHistory\nThe event was established in 1833, and the inaugural running was won by Tomboy. It was initially held at Town Moor, and it was part of a meeting first staged at Killingworth in 1623. It was transferred to its present venue at Gosforth Park in 1882.\nThe Northumberland Plate originally took place on a Wednesday, and for many years the meeting was a holiday for local mine workers. The race became popularly known as the \"Pitmen's Derby\". The meeting ceased to be a holiday in 1949, and the race was switched to a Saturday in 1952.\nThe Northumberland Plate is now one of the richest two-mile handicaps in the world. It was sponsored by John Smith's from 2003 to 2016, by Stobart Rail Limited in 2017 and 2018 and by Betfair since 2019.\nSince 2016, it has been run on an artificial all-weather surface, Tapeta, having previously been run on turf.\n\nRecords\nWinners since 1985\nWeights given in stones and pounds.\n\nEarlier winners\n* The 1946 running took place at Aintree.\n\nSee also\nHorse racing in Great Britain\nList of British flat horse races\n\nReferences\n\nRacing Post:\n1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997\n1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007\n2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017\n2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023\ngalopp-sieger.de – Northumberland Plate.\npedigreequery.com – Northumberland Plate – Newcastle.",
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] | The band Franz Ferdinand is named after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and a racehorse that the band watched win a race. How many years before the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was that race established? | [] | The Northumberland Plate horse race was established 81 years before the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand | [] | true |
140 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Lee Vaughn (born November 27, 1974) is a former American football cornerback in the National Football League (NFL) for the Dallas Cowboys. He also was a member of the BC Lions in the Canadian Football League (CFL). He played college football at the University of Wyoming.\n\nEarly years\nVaughn attended East High School in Cheyenne, Wyoming, where he practiced football, basketball and track. As a senior, he received All-state honors at cornerback and return specialist. He also was named the Class 4A Back of the Year.\nIn track as a senior, he broke the state records in the 100 metres, 200 metres and long jump (originally set in 1963). He also received the Milward Simpson award, given annually to the state's outstanding prep athlete.\n\nCollege career\nVaughn accepted a football scholarship from the University of Wyoming. As a freshman, he was a backup player, making 10 tackles. As a sophomore, he started 11 games at free safety, tallying 65 tackles, one interception and 3 pass deflections. He also contributed to the team winning the WAC title with an 8–4 record.\nAs a junior, he was moved to the starting right cornerback position, registering 70 tackles (3 for loss), 3 interceptions, 14 pass deflections, one sack and one quarterback pressure.\nAs a senior, he registered 75 tackles (51 solo), one interception, 10 pass deflections and 2 fumble recoveries. He contributed to the team achieving a 10–1 regular season record, the WAC's Pacific title and a 22 ranking in the AP Poll. He finished his college career with 220 tackles (4 for loss), 5 interceptions and 27 pass deflections.\n\nProfessional career\nDallas Cowboys\nVaughn was selected by the Dallas Cowboys in the sixth round (187th overall) of the 1997 NFL draft. On July 23, he tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his right knee and was placed on the injured reserve list on August 14. He was waived on August 24, 1998.\n\nAmsterdam Admirals (NFLEL)\nVaughn was selected by the Amsterdam Admirals in the 19th round (111th overall) of the 1999 NFL Europe Draft. He was released on March 29.\n\nGrand Rapids Rampage (AFL)\nOn July 3, 2001, he was signed by the Grand Rapids Rampage of the Arena Football League. He was released on July 6.\n\nBC Lions (CFL)\nOn May 24, 2001, he was signed by the BC Lions of the Canadian Football League. He posted 38 defensive tackles, 2 special teams tackles, one interception and 2 fumble recoveries. He was released on October 1.\n\nWichita Stealth (AF2)\nIn 2003, he was signed by the Wichita Stealth of the AF2 League. In June, he suffered a torn anterior cruciate ligament and was placed on the injured reserve list.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nLee Vaughn Stats",
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"paragraph_text": "The 1997 NFL draft was the procedure by which National Football League teams selected amateur college football players. It is officially known as the NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting. The draft was held April 19–20, 1997, at the Paramount Theatre at Madison Square Garden in New York City, New York. No teams chose to claim any players in the supplemental draft this year.\nThis draft was notable for its high-profile offensive linemen. The first overall selection was Orlando Pace, who appeared in seven consecutive Pro Bowls from 2000 to 2006 and was inducted to the Hall of Fame in 2016. Tarik Glenn was selected 19th overall and was also named to three Pro Bowls. Walter Jones, who made nine Pro Bowls (including eight consecutive from 2001 to 2008), was a seven time All-Pro, and was inducted to the Hall of Fame in 2014, was selected sixth overall. Others include Chris Naeole, Dan Neil, Ryan Tucker, Jeff Mitchell, Mike Flynn, and Joe Andruzzi.\nThe 1997 Draft is also known for its running backs. Warrick Dunn, Corey Dillon, and Tiki Barber each rushed for over 10,000 yards in their careers, and Antowain Smith, and Duce Staley all enjoyed productive seasons in the NFL. This draft is also well known for its undrafted Pro Bowl players, including Jake Delhomme, Priest Holmes, and Pat Williams.\n\nPlayer selections\nNotable undrafted players\nHall of Famers\nWalter Jones, offensive tackle from Florida State University taken 1st round 6th overall by the Seattle Seahawks.\ninducted: Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2014.\nOrlando Pace, offensive tackle from Ohio State University taken 1st round 1st overall by the St. Louis Rams.\ninducted: Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2016.\nJason Taylor, defensive end from University of Akron taken 3rd round 73rd overall by the Miami Dolphins.\ninducted: Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2017.\nTony Gonzalez, tight end from University of California taken 1st round 13th overall by the Kansas City Chiefs.\ninducted: Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2019.\nRonde Barber, cornerback from University of Virginia taken 3rd round 66th overall by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.\ninducted: Pro Football Hall of Fame class of 2023.\n\nTrades\nIn the explanations below, (D) denotes trades that took place during the 1994 Draft, while (PD) indicates trades completed pre-draft.\nChicago bears\n\nRound one\n\nRound two\n\nRound three\n\nRound four\n\nRound five\n\nRound six\n\nRound seven\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nNFL.com – 1997 Draft\ndatabaseFootball.com – 1997 Draft\nPro Football Hall of Fame",
"title": "1997_NFL_draft"
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"paragraph_text": "Tony McCombs (born August 24, 1974) is a former American football linebacker. He was drafted in the sixth round of the 1997 NFL draft. He played for the Arizona Cardinals from 1997 to 1998.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Tony_McCombs"
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] | What is the birth date of the person picked right after Lee Vaughn in the 1997 NFL draft? | [] | August 24, 1974 | [] | true |
12 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Basibasy mine is one of the largest titanium mines in Madagascar. The mine is located in Basibasy, Atsimo-Andrefana. The mine has reserves amounting to 446 million tonnes of ore grading 5.5% titanium.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Basibasy_mine"
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"paragraph_text": "Titanium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ti and atomic number 22. Found in nature only as an oxide, it can be reduced to produce a lustrous transition metal with a silver color, low density, and high strength, resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, and chlorine.\nTitanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791 and was named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth after the Titans of Greek mythology. The element occurs within a number of minerals, principally rutile and ilmenite, which are widely distributed in the Earth's crust and lithosphere; it is found in almost all living things, as well as bodies of water, rocks, and soils. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll and Hunter processes. The most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a component of smoke screens and catalysts; and titanium trichloride (TiCl3), which is used as a catalyst in the production of polypropylene.\nTitanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum, among other elements. The resulting titanium alloys are strong, lightweight, and versatile, with applications including aerospace (jet engines, missiles, and spacecraft), military, industrial processes (chemicals and petrochemicals, desalination plants, pulp, and paper), automotive, agriculture (farming), sporting goods, jewelry, and consumer electronics. Titanium is also considered one of the most biocompatible metals, leading to a range of medical applications including prostheses, orthopedic implants, dental implants, and surgical instruments.\nThe two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, but less dense. There are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8%).\n\nCharacteristics\nPhysical properties\nAs a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio. It is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile (especially in an oxygen-free environment), lustrous, and metallic-white in color. Due to its relatively high melting point (1,668 °C or 3,034 °F) it has sometimes been described as a refractory metal, but this is not the case. It is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity compared to other metals. Titanium is superconducting when cooled below its critical temperature of 0.49 K.\n\nCommercially pure (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa (63,000 psi), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are less dense. Titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 1,400 MPa (200,000 psi). However, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (806 °F).\nTitanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel; it is non-magnetic and a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Machining requires precautions, because the material can gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a fatigue limit that guarantees longevity in some applications.\nThe metal is a dimorphic allotrope of a hexagonal close packed α form that changes into a body-centered cubic (lattice) β form at 882 °C (1,620 °F). The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly constant for the β form regardless of temperature.\n\nChemical properties\nLike aluminium and magnesium, the surface of titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air to form a thin non-porous passivation layer that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation or corrosion. When it first forms, this protective layer is only 1–2 nm thick but it continues to grow slowly, reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four years. This layer gives titanium excellent resistance to corrosion against oxidizing acids, but it will dissolve in dilute hydrofluoric acid, hot hydrochloric acid, and hot sulfuric acid.\nTitanium is capable of withstanding attack by dilute sulfuric and hydrochloric acids at room temperature, chloride solutions, and most organic acids. However, titanium is corroded by concentrated acids. Titanium is a very reactive metal that burns in normal air at lower temperatures than the melting point. Melting is possible only in an inert atmosphere or vacuum. At 550 °C (1,022 °F), it combines with chlorine. It also reacts with the other halogens and absorbs hydrogen.\nTitanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) in air, and at 610 °C (1,130 °F) in pure oxygen, forming titanium dioxide. Titanium is one of the few elements that burns in pure nitrogen gas, reacting at 800 °C (1,470 °F) to form titanium nitride, which causes embrittlement. Because of its high reactivity with oxygen, nitrogen, and many other gases, titanium that is evaporated from filaments is the basis for titanium sublimation pumps, in which titanium serves as a scavenger for these gases by chemically binding to them. Such pumps inexpensively produce extremely low pressures in ultra-high vacuum systems.\n\nOccurrence\nTitanium is the ninth-most abundant element in Earth's crust (0.63% by mass) and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present as oxides in most igneous rocks, in sediments derived from them, in living things, and natural bodies of water. Of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium. Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5–1.5%.\nCommon titanium-containing minerals are anatase, brookite, ilmenite, perovskite, rutile, and titanite (sphene). Akaogiite is an extremely rare mineral consisting of titanium dioxide. Of these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations. About 6.0 and 0.7 million tonnes of those minerals were mined in 2011, respectively. Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite deposits exist in Australia, Canada, China, India, Mozambique, New Zealand, Norway, Sierra Leone, South Africa, and Ukraine. About 210,000 tonnes of titanium metal sponge were produced in 2020, mostly in China (110,000 t), Japan (50,000 t), Russia (33,000 t) and Kazakhstan (15,000 t). Total reserves of anatase, ilmenite, and rutile are estimated to exceed 2 billion tonnes.\n\nThe concentration of titanium is about 4 picomolar in the ocean. At 100 °C, the concentration of titanium in water is estimated to be less than 10−7 M at pH 7. The identity of titanium species in aqueous solution remains unknown because of its low solubility and the lack of sensitive spectroscopic methods, although only the 4+ oxidation state is stable in air. No evidence exists for a biological role, although rare organisms are known to accumulate high concentrations of titanium.\nTitanium is contained in meteorites, and it has been detected in the Sun and in M-type stars (the coolest type) with a surface temperature of 3,200 °C (5,790 °F). Rocks brought back from the Moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12.1% TiO2. Native titanium (pure metallic) is very rare.\n\nIsotopes\nNaturally occurring titanium is composed of five stable isotopes: 46Ti, 47Ti, 48Ti, 49Ti, and 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant (73.8% natural abundance). At least 21 radioisotopes have been characterized, the most stable of which are 44Ti with a half-life of 63 years; 45Ti, 184.8 minutes; 51Ti, 5.76 minutes; and 52Ti, 1.7 minutes. All other radioactive isotopes have half-lives less than 33 seconds, with the majority less than half a second.\nThe isotopes of titanium range in atomic weight from 39.002 Da (39Ti) to 63.999 Da (64Ti). The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 46Ti is positron emission (with the exception of 44Ti which undergoes electron capture), leading to isotopes of scandium, and the primary mode for isotopes heavier than 50Ti is beta emission, leading to isotopes of vanadium.\nTitanium becomes radioactive upon bombardment with deuterons, emitting mainly positrons and hard gamma rays.\n\nCompounds\nThe +4 oxidation state dominates titanium chemistry, but compounds in the +3 oxidation state are also numerous. Commonly, titanium adopts an octahedral coordination geometry in its complexes, but tetrahedral TiCl4 is a notable exception. Because of its high oxidation state, titanium(IV) compounds exhibit a high degree of covalent bonding.\n\nOxides, sulfides, and alkoxides\nThe most important oxide is TiO2, which exists in three important polymorphs; anatase, brookite, and rutile. All three are white diamagnetic solids, although mineral samples can appear dark (see rutile). They adopt polymeric structures in which Ti is surrounded by six oxide ligands that link to other Ti centers.\nThe term titanates usually refers to titanium(IV) compounds, as represented by barium titanate (BaTiO3). With a perovskite structure, this material exhibits piezoelectric properties and is used as a transducer in the interconversion of sound and electricity. Many minerals are titanates, such as ilmenite (FeTiO3). Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism (star-forming shine) from the presence of titanium dioxide impurities.\nA variety of reduced oxides (suboxides) of titanium are known, mainly reduced stoichiometries of titanium dioxide obtained by atmospheric plasma spraying. Ti3O5, described as a Ti(IV)-Ti(III) species, is a purple semiconductor produced by reduction of TiO2 with hydrogen at high temperatures, and is used industrially when surfaces need to be vapor-coated with titanium dioxide: it evaporates as pure TiO, whereas TiO2 evaporates as a mixture of oxides and deposits coatings with variable refractive index. Also known is Ti2O3, with the corundum structure, and TiO, with the rock salt structure, although often nonstoichiometric.\nThe alkoxides of titanium(IV), prepared by treating TiCl4 with alcohols, are colorless compounds that convert to the dioxide on reaction with water. They are industrially useful for depositing solid TiO2 via the sol-gel process. Titanium isopropoxide is used in the synthesis of chiral organic compounds via the Sharpless epoxidation.\nTitanium forms a variety of sulfides, but only TiS2 has attracted significant interest. It adopts a layered structure and was used as a cathode in the development of lithium batteries. Because Ti(IV) is a \"hard cation\", the sulfides of titanium are unstable and tend to hydrolyze to the oxide with release of hydrogen sulfide.\n\nNitrides and carbides\nTitanium nitride (TiN) is a refractory solid exhibiting extreme hardness, thermal/electrical conductivity, and a high melting point. TiN has a hardness equivalent to sapphire and carborundum (9.0 on the Mohs scale), and is often used to coat cutting tools, such as drill bits. It is also used as a gold-colored decorative finish and as a barrier layer in semiconductor fabrication. Titanium carbide (TiC), which is also very hard, is found in cutting tools and coatings.\n\nHalides\nTitanium tetrachloride (titanium(IV) chloride, TiCl4) is a colorless volatile liquid (commercial samples are yellowish) that, in air, hydrolyzes with spectacular emission of white clouds. Via the Kroll process, TiCl4 is used in the conversion of titanium ores to titanium metal. Titanium tetrachloride is also used to make titanium dioxide, e.g., for use in white paint. It is widely used in organic chemistry as a Lewis acid, for example in the Mukaiyama aldol condensation. In the van Arkel–de Boer process, titanium tetraiodide (TiI4) is generated in the production of high purity titanium metal.\nTitanium(III) and titanium(II) also form stable chlorides. A notable example is titanium(III) chloride (TiCl3), which is used as a catalyst for production of polyolefins (see Ziegler–Natta catalyst) and a reducing agent in organic chemistry.\n\nOrganometallic complexes\nOwing to the important role of titanium compounds as polymerization catalyst, compounds with Ti-C bonds have been intensively studied. The most common organotitanium complex is titanocene dichloride ((C5H5)2TiCl2). Related compounds include Tebbe's reagent and Petasis reagent. Titanium forms carbonyl complexes, e.g. (C5H5)2Ti(CO)2.\n\nAnticancer therapy studies\nFollowing the success of platinum-based chemotherapy, titanium(IV) complexes were among the first non-platinum compounds to be tested for cancer treatment. The advantage of titanium compounds lies in their high efficacy and low toxicity in vivo. In biological environments, hydrolysis leads to the safe and inert titanium dioxide. Despite these advantages the first candidate compounds failed clinical trials due to insufficient efficacy to toxicity ratios and formulation complications. Further development resulted in the creation of potentially effective, selective, and stable titanium-based drugs.\n\nHistory\nTitanium was discovered in 1791 by the clergyman and geologist William Gregor as an inclusion of a mineral in Cornwall, Great Britain. Gregor recognized the presence of a new element in ilmenite when he found black sand by a stream and noticed the sand was attracted by a magnet. Analyzing the sand, he determined the presence of two metal oxides: iron oxide (explaining the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify. Realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match any known element, in 1791 Gregor reported his findings in both German and French science journals: Crell's Annalen and Observations et Mémoires sur la Physique. He named this oxide manaccanite.\nAround the same time, Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein produced a similar substance, but could not identify it. The oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by Prussian chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in rutile from Boinik (the German name of Bajmócska), a village in Hungary (now Bojničky in Slovakia).\nKlaproth found that it contained a new element and named it for the Titans of Greek mythology. After hearing about Gregor's earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of manaccanite and confirmed that it contained titanium.\nThe currently known processes for extracting titanium from its various ores are laborious and costly; it is not possible to reduce the ore by heating with carbon (as in iron smelting) because titanium combines with the carbon to produce titanium carbide. Pure metallic titanium (99.9%) was first prepared in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by heating TiCl4 with sodium at 700–800 °C (1,292–1,472 °F) under great pressure in a batch process known as the Hunter process. Titanium metal was not used outside the laboratory until 1932 when William Justin Kroll produced it by reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with calcium. Eight years later he refined this process with magnesium and with sodium in what became known as the Kroll process. Although research continues to seek cheaper and more efficient routes, such as the FFC Cambridge process, the Kroll process is still predominantly used for commercial production.\n\nTitanium of very high purity was made in small quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal.\nIn the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications (Alfa class and Mike class) as part of programs related to the Cold War. Starting in the early 1950s, titanium came into use extensively in military aviation, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the F-100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12 and SR-71.\nThroughout the Cold War period, titanium was considered a strategic material by the U.S. government, and a large stockpile of titanium sponge (a porous form of the pure metal) was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center, until the stockpile was dispersed in the 2000s. As of 2021, the four leading producers of titanium sponge were China (52%), Japan (24%), Russia (16%) and Kazakhstan (7%).\n\nProduction\nMineral beneficiation processes\nThe Becher process is an industrial process used to produce synthetic rutile, a form of titanium dioxide, from the ore ilmenite.\nThe Chloride process.\nThe Sulfate process: \"relies on sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to leach titanium from ilmenite ore (FeTiO3). The resulting reaction produces titanyl sulfate (TiOSO4). A secondary hydrolysis stage is used to break the titanyl sulfate into hydrated TiO2 and H2SO4. Finally, heat is used to remove the water and create the end product - pure TiO2.\"\n\nPurification processes\nHunter process\nThe Hunter process was the first industrial process to produce pure metallic titanium. It was invented in 1910 by Matthew A. Hunter, a chemist born in New Zealand who worked in the United States. The process involves reducing titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with sodium (Na) in a batch reactor with an inert atmosphere at a temperature of 1,000 °C. Dilute hydrochloric acid is then used to leach the salt from the product. \n\nTiCl4(g) + 4 Na(l) → 4 NaCl(l) + Ti(s)\n\nKroll process\nThe processing of titanium metal occurs in four major steps: reduction of titanium ore into \"sponge\", a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, where an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip, and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.\nBecause it cannot be readily produced by reduction of titanium dioxide, titanium metal is obtained by reduction of titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with magnesium metal in the Kroll process. The complexity of this batch production in the Kroll process explains the relatively high market value of titanium, despite the Kroll process being less expensive than the Hunter process. To produce the TiCl4 required by the Kroll process, the dioxide is subjected to carbothermic reduction in the presence of chlorine. In this process, the chlorine gas is passed over a red-hot mixture of rutile or ilmenite in the presence of carbon.\nAfter extensive purification by fractional distillation, the TiCl4 is reduced with 800 °C (1,470 °F) molten magnesium in an argon atmosphere.\n\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n FeTiO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 7\n \n \n Cl\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 6\n \n C\n \n \n →\n \n \n 900\n o\n \n C\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n FeCl\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 2\n \n \n TiCl\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 6\n \n CO\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {2FeTiO3 + 7Cl2 + 6C ->[900^oC] 2FeCl3 + 2TiCl4 + 6CO}}}\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n TiCl\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n 2\n \n Mg\n \n \n →\n \n \n 1100\n o\n \n C\n \n \n \n Ti\n +\n 2\n \n \n MgCl\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {TiCl4 + 2Mg ->[1100^oC] Ti + 2MgCl2}}}\n\nArkel-Boer process\nThe van Arkel–de Boer process was the first semi-industrial process for pure Titanium. It involves thermal decomposition of titanium tetraiodide.\n\nArmstrong process\nTitanium powder is manufactured using a flow production process known as the Armstrong process that is similar to the batch production Hunter process. A stream of titanium tetrachloride gas is added to a stream of molten sodium; the products (sodium chloride salt and titanium particles) is filtered from the extra sodium. Titanium is then separated from the salt by water washing. Both sodium and chlorine are recycled to produce and process more titanium tetrachloride.\n\nPilot plants\nMethods for electrolytic production of Ti metal from TiO2 using molten salt electrolytes have been researched and tested at laboratory and small pilot plant scales. The lead author of an impartial review published in 2017 considered his own process \"ready for scaling up.\" A 2023 review \"discusses the electrochemical principles involved in the recovery of metals from aqueous solutions and fused salt electrolytes\", with particular attention paid to titanium. While some metals such as nickel and copper can be refined by electrowinning at room temperature, titanium must be in the molten state and \"there is a strong chance of attack of the refractory lining by molten titanium.\" Zhang et al concluded their Perspective on Thermochemical and Electrochemical Processes for Titanium Metal Production in 2017 that \"Even though there are strong interests in the industry for finding a better method to produce Ti metal, and a large number of new concepts and improvements have been investigated at the laboratory or even at pilot plant scales, there is no new process to date that can replace the Kroll process commercially.\"\nThe Hydrogen assisted magnesiothermic reduction (HAMR) process uses titanium dihydride.\n\nFabrication\nAll welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen). Contamination causes a variety of conditions, such as embrittlement, which reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to joint failure.\nTitanium is very difficult to solder directly, and hence a solderable metal or alloy such as steel is coated on titanium prior to soldering. Titanium metal can be machined with the same equipment and the same processes as stainless steel.\n\nTitanium alloys\nCommon titanium alloys are made by reduction. For example, cuprotitanium (rutile with copper added), ferrocarbon titanium (ilmenite reduced with coke in an electric furnace), and manganotitanium (rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.\nAbout fifty grades of titanium alloys are designed and currently used, although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially. The ASTM International recognizes 31 grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which grades one through four are commercially pure (unalloyed). Those four vary in tensile strength as a function of oxygen content, with grade 1 being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and grade 4 the least ductile (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%). The remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specific properties of ductility, strength, hardness, electrical resistivity, creep resistance, specific corrosion resistance, and combinations thereof.\nIn addition to the ASTM specifications, titanium alloys are also produced to meet aerospace and military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military, medical, and industrial applications.\n\nForming and forging\nCommercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must take into account of the tendency of the metal to springback. This is especially true of certain high-strength alloys. Exposure to the oxygen in air at the elevated temperatures used in forging results in formation of a brittle oxygen-rich metallic surface layer called \"alpha case\" that worsens the fatigue properties, so it must be removed by milling, etching, or electrochemical treatment. The working of titanium is very complicated, and may include Friction welding, cryo-forging, and Vacuum arc remelting.\n\nApplications\nTitanium is used in steel as an alloying element (ferro-titanium) to reduce grain size and as a deoxidizer, and in stainless steel to reduce carbon content. Titanium is often alloyed with aluminium (to refine grain size), vanadium, copper (to harden), iron, manganese, molybdenum, and other metals. Titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) find application in industrial, aerospace, recreational, and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.\n\nPigments, additives, and coatings\nAbout 95% of all titanium ore is destined for refinement into titanium dioxide (TiO2), an intensely white permanent pigment used in paints, paper, toothpaste, and plastics. It is also used in cement, in gemstones, and as an optical opacifier in paper. \nTiO2 pigment is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: it imparts a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or grey chemicals that form the majority of household plastics. In nature, this compound is found in the minerals anatase, brookite, and rutile. Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures and marine environments. Pure titanium dioxide has a very high index of refraction and an optical dispersion higher than diamond. Titanium dioxide is used in sunscreens because it reflects and absorbs UV light.\n\nAerospace and marine\nBecause titanium alloys have high tensile strength to density ratio, high corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, high crack resistance, and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping, they are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles. For these applications, titanium is alloyed with aluminium, zirconium, nickel, vanadium, and other elements to manufacture a variety of components including critical structural parts, landing gear, firewalls, exhaust ducts (helicopters), and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames. The titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.\nThe Lockheed A-12 and the SR-71 \"Blackbird\" were two of the first aircraft frames where titanium was used, paving the way for much wider use in modern military and commercial aircraft. A large amount of titanium mill products are used in the production of many aircraft, such as (following values are amount of raw mill products used, only a fraction of this ends up in the finished aircraft): 116 metric tons are used in the Boeing 787, 77 in the Airbus A380, 59 in the Boeing 777, 45 in the Boeing 747, 32 in the Airbus A340, 18 in the Boeing 737, 18 in the Airbus A330, and 12 in the Airbus A320. In aero engine applications, titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components, and nacelles. An early use in jet engines was for the Orenda Iroquois in the 1950s.\nBecause titanium is resistant to corrosion by sea water, it is used to make propeller shafts, rigging, heat exchangers in desalination plants, heater-chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader, and divers' knives. Titanium is used in the housings and components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for science and military. The former Soviet Union developed techniques for making submarines with hulls of titanium alloys, forging titanium in huge vacuum tubes.\n\nIndustrial\nWelded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specific alloys are used in oil and gas downhole applications and nickel hydrometallurgy for their high strength (e. g.: titanium beta C alloy), corrosion resistance, or both. The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media, such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery). Other applications include ultrasonic welding, wave soldering, and sputtering targets.\nTitanium tetrachloride (TiCl4), a colorless liquid, is important as an intermediate in the process of making TiO2 and is also used to produce the Ziegler–Natta catalyst. Titanium tetrachloride is also used to iridize glass and, because it fumes strongly in moist air, it is used to make smoke screens.\n\nConsumer and architectural\nTitanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile and motorcycle racing where low weight and high strength and rigidity are critical.(p 141) The metal is generally too expensive for the general consumer market, though some late model Corvettes have been manufactured with titanium exhausts, and a Corvette Z06's LT4 supercharged engine uses lightweight, solid titanium intake valves for greater strength and resistance to heat.\nTitanium is used in many sporting goods: tennis rackets, golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and football helmet grills, and bicycle frames and components. Although not a mainstream material for bicycle production, titanium bikes have been used by racing teams and adventure cyclists.\nTitanium alloys are used in spectacle frames that are rather expensive but highly durable, long lasting, light weight, and cause no skin allergies. Titanium is a common material for backpacking cookware and eating utensils. Though more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium horseshoes are preferred to steel by farriers because they are lighter and more durable.\n\nTitanium has occasionally been used in architecture. The 42.5 m (139 ft) Monument to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space (55°42′29.7″N 37°34′57.2″E), as well as the 110 m (360 ft) Monument to the Conquerors of Space on top of the Cosmonaut Museum in Moscow are made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels. Titanium sheathing was used in the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in Denver, Colorado.\nBecause of titanium's superior strength and light weight relative to other metals (steel, stainless steel, and aluminium), and because of recent advances in metalworking techniques, its use has become more widespread in the manufacture of firearms. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders. For the same reasons, it is used in the body of some laptop computers (for example, in Apple's PowerBook G4).\nIn 2023, Apple launched the iPhone 15 Pro, which uses a titanium enclosure.\nSome upmarket lightweight and corrosion-resistant tools, such as shovels, knife handles and flashlights, are made of titanium or titanium alloys.\n\nJewelry\nBecause of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry (particularly, titanium rings). Its inertness makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools. Titanium is also alloyed with gold to produce an alloy that can be marketed as 24-karat gold because the 1% of alloyed Ti is insufficient to require a lesser mark. The resulting alloy is roughly the hardness of 14-karat gold and is more durable than pure 24-karat gold.\nTitanium's durability, light weight, and dent and corrosion resistance make it useful for watch cases. Some artists work with titanium to produce sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.\nTitanium may be anodized to vary the thickness of the surface oxide layer, causing optical interference fringes and a variety of bright colors. With this coloration and chemical inertness, titanium is a popular metal for body piercing.\nTitanium has a minor use in dedicated non-circulating coins and medals. In 1999, Gibraltar released the world's first titanium coin for the millennium celebration. The Gold Coast Titans, an Australian rugby league team, award a medal of pure titanium to their player of the year.\n\nMedical\nBecause titanium is biocompatible (non-toxic and not rejected by the body), it has many medical uses, including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint replacement) and dental implants that can stay in place for up to 20 years. The titanium is often alloyed with about 4% aluminium or 6% Al and 4% vanadium.\n\nTitanium has the inherent ability to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can last for over 30 years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications. These benefit from titanium's lower modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) to more closely match that of the bone that such devices are intended to repair. As a result, skeletal loads are more evenly shared between bone and implant, leading to a lower incidence of bone degradation due to stress shielding and periprosthetic bone fractures, which occur at the boundaries of orthopedic implants. However, titanium alloys' stiffness is still more than twice that of bone, so adjacent bone bears a greatly reduced load and may deteriorate.\nBecause titanium is non-ferromagnetic, patients with titanium implants can be safely examined with magnetic resonance imaging (convenient for long-term implants). Preparing titanium for implantation in the body involves subjecting it to a high-temperature plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidized.\nModern advancements in additive manufacturing techniques have increased potential for titanium use in orthopedic implant applications. Complex implant scaffold designs can be 3D-printed using titanium alloys, which allows for more patient-specific applications and increased implant osseointegration.\nTitanium is used for the surgical instruments used in image-guided surgery, as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other products where high strength and low weight are desirable.\nTitanium dioxide nanoparticles are widely used in electronics and the delivery of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.\n\nNuclear waste storage\nBecause of its corrosion resistance, containers made of titanium have been studied for the long-term storage of nuclear waste. Containers lasting more than 100,000 years are thought possible with manufacturing conditions that minimize material defects. A titanium \"drip shield\" could also be installed over containers of other types to enhance their longevity.\n\nPrecautions\nTitanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body. An estimated quantity of 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day, but most passes through without being absorbed in the tissues. It does, however, sometimes bio-accumulate in tissues that contain silica. One study indicates a possible connection between titanium and yellow nail syndrome.\nAs a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard. Water and carbon dioxide are ineffective for extinguishing a titanium fire; Class D dry powder agents must be used instead.\nWhen used in the production or handling of chlorine, titanium should not be exposed to dry chlorine gas because it may result in a titanium–chlorine fire.\nTitanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface comes in contact with liquid oxygen.\n\nFunction in plants\nAn unknown mechanism in plants may use titanium to stimulate the production of carbohydrates and encourage growth. This may explain why most plants contain about 1 part per million (ppm) of titanium, food plants have about 2 ppm, and horsetail and nettle contain up to 80 ppm.\n\nSee also\nFootnotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\n\"Titanium: Our Next Major Metal\" in Popular Science (October 1950), one of first general public detailed articles on Titanium\nTitanium at Periodic Videos (University of Nottingham)\nTitanium.org: official website of the International Titanium Association, an industry association\nMetallurgy of Titanium and its Alloys - slide presentations, movies, and other material from Harshad Bhadeshia and other Cambridge University metallurgists",
"title": "Titanium"
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"paragraph_text": "William Gregor (25 December 1761 – 11 June 1817) was a British clergyman and mineralogist who discovered the elemental metal Titanium.\n\nEarly years\nHe was born at the Trewarthenick Estate in Cornwall, the son of Francis Gregor and Mary Copley and the brother of Francis Gregor, MP for Cornwall. He was educated at Bristol Grammar School, where he became interested in chemistry, then after two years with a private tutor entered St John's College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1784 and MA in 1787. He was ordained in the Church of England. He became vicar of St Mary's Church Diptford near Totnes, Devon. He married Charlotte Anne Gwatkin in 1790 and they had one daughter, Charlotte-Anne Gregor.\n\nDiscovery of titanium\nAfter a brief interval at Bratton Clovelly, in 1793 William and his family moved permanently to the rectory of Creed in Cornwall. Here he continued his remarkably accurate chemical analysis of minerals, most of which came from Cornwall, such as the zeolites found in gabbro on The Lizard. He also analysed wavellite, tourmaline, and the uranium minerals torbernite and autunite, the arsenate scorodite, the lead mineral mimetite and the nickel mineral niccolite, and others. But he is best known for one of his earliest discoveries: in 1791, while analysing the minerals in a black sand he had discovered in the Manaccan valley, he isolated the calx of an unknown metal which he named manaccanite. Later in 1791, Martin Heinrich Klaproth discovered what is now known as the transition metal, titanium in the mineral rutile. Believing this to be a new discovery, Klaproth named it titanium after the Titans of Greek Mythology, but eventually it was clarified that Gregor made the discovery first. Gregor was credited with the discovery, but the element kept the name chosen by Klaproth. Gregor later found titanium in corundum from Tibet, and in a tourmaline from a local tin mine.\n\nDeath and legacy\nGregor was made an honorary member of the Geological Society of London on its inception in 1807, and was a founding member of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall in 1814. His friends and correspondents included John Hawkins, Philip Rashleigh and John Ayrton Paris. Never letting his scientific work interfere with his pastoral duties, he was also a distinguished landscape painter, etcher and musician. He died of tuberculosis on 11 June 1817 and was buried at nearby Cornelly church.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\n Works by or about William Gregor at Wikisource",
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"paragraph_text": "Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the liturgical year in Christianity, it follows the season of Advent (which begins four Sundays before) or the Nativity Fast, and initiates the season of Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries, is celebrated religiously by a majority of Christians, as well as culturally by many non-Christians, and forms an integral part of the holiday season surrounding it.\nThe traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies. When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word.\nThere are different hypotheses regarding the date of Jesus's birth, and in the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25. It is exactly nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, believing that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity rather than knowing Jesus's exact birth date is considered to be the primary purpose of celebrating Christmas.\nThe customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular holiday traditions include gift giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and caroling; watching Christmas movies; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world.\n\nEtymology\nThe English word Christmas is a shortened form of 'Christ's Mass'. The word is recorded as Crīstesmæsse in 1038 and Cristes-messe in 1131. Crīst (genitive Crīstes) is from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos, 'Christ'), a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ, 'Messiah'), meaning 'anointed'; and mæsse is from the Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist.\nThe form Christenmas was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic and dialectal. The term derives from Middle English Cristenmasse, meaning 'Christian mass'. Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in the Greek Χριστός, although some style guides discourage its use. This abbreviation has precedent in Middle English Χρ̄es masse (where Χρ̄ is another abbreviation of the Greek word).\n\nOther names\nThe holiday has had various other English names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as \"midwinter\", or, more rarely, as Nātiuiteð (from the Latin nātīvitās below). Nativity, meaning 'birth', is from the Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola ('Yule') referred to the period corresponding to December and January, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas. 'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in \"The First Nowell\") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning 'birth (day)'.\nKoleda is the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmas-related rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times.\n\nNativity\nThe gospels of Luke and Matthew describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem to the Virgin Mary. In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in a manger. Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, born the king of the Jews. King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later returns to Nazareth.\n\nHistory\nEarly and medieval era\nIn the 2nd century, the \"earliest church records\" indicate that \"Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord\", an \"observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers\"; although \"they did not agree upon a set date\". The earliest evidence of Christ's birth being marked on December 25 is a sentence in the Chronograph of 354. Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336. Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writers Irenaeus and Tertullian, the early Church Fathers John Chrysostom, Augustine of Hippo, and Jerome attested to December 25 as the date of Christmas toward the end of the fourth century. December 25 was the traditional date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire, where most Christians lived, and the Roman festival Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus, the 'Invincible Sun') had been held on this date since 274 AD.\nIn the East, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6. This holiday was not primarily about Christ's birth, but rather his baptism. Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival of Orthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced in Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century, probably in 388, and in Alexandria in the following century. The Georgian Iadgari demonstrates that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by the sixth century.\n\nIn the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the \"forty days of St. Martin\" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent. In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.\nIn 567, the Council of Tours put in place the season of Christmastide, proclaiming \"the twelve days from Christmas to Epiphany as a sacred and festive season, and established the duty of Advent fasting in preparation for the feast.\" This was done in order to solve the \"administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east.\"\nThe prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.\n\nBy the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form. \"Misrule\"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.\nChristmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens. Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.\n\n17th and 18th centuries\nFollowing the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629, the Anglican poet John Milton penned On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, Chico, states that Martin Luther \"inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America.\" Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts.\nHowever, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the \"trappings of popery\" or the \"rags of the Beast\". In contrast, the established Anglican Church \"pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party.\" The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647.\nProtests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. Football, among the sports the Puritans banned on a Sunday, was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with \"plow-boys\" and \"maidservants\", old Father Christmas and carol singing. During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.\n\nIt was restored as a legal holiday in England with the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, with Christmas again freely celebrated in England. Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebration. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant. The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been \"purged of all superstitious observation of days\". Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday since time immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated a bank holiday in Scotland. Following the Restoration of Charles II, Poor Robin's Almanack contained the lines: \"Now thanks to God for Charles return, / Whose absence made old Christmas mourn. / For then we scarcely did it know, / Whether it Christmas were or no.\" The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.\nAs in England, Puritans in Colonial America staunchly opposed the observation of Christmas. The Pilgrims of New England pointedly spent their first December 25 in the New World working normally. Puritans such as Cotton Mather condemned Christmas both because scripture did not mention its observance and because Christmas celebrations of the day often involved boisterous behavior. Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governor Edmund Andros, but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.\nAt the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, predominantly Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.\nGeorge Washington attacked Hessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.\nWith the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was renamed the \"equality cake\" under anticlerical government policies.\n\n19th century\nIn the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services became widespread with the rise of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor, along with Washington Irving, Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, and Santa Claus (for Irving), or Father Christmas (for Dickens).\nIn the early-19th century, writers imagined Tudor-period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol, which helped revive the \"spirit\" of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.\nDickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking \"worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation.\" Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed \"Carol Philosophy\", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. A prominent phrase from the tale, \"Merry Christmas\", was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.\n\nThe term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with the phrase \"Bah! Humbug!\" becoming emblematic of a dismissive attitude of the festive spirit. In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of \"The First Noel\", \"I Saw Three Ships\", \"Hark the Herald Angels Sing\" and \"God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen\", popularized in Dickens's A Christmas Carol.\n\nIn Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century by the German-born Queen Charlotte. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain. An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.\nIn America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and \"Old Christmas\". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned, and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.\n\nIn 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England, Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.\nWhile the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected \"a transition state about Christmas here in New England\" in 1856. \"The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so.\" In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, \"Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth.\"\nThe First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, \"although of genuine Puritan stock\", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864. By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday. In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the \"father of the American Christmas card\". On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday.\n\n20th and 21st centuries\nDuring the First World War and particularly (but not exclusively) in 1914, a series of informal truces took place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at a distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies. These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory. They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas.\nUnder the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public. During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a protest against the holiday. Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.\nEuropean History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany, \"because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday\" and that \"Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies.\"\nAs Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditional Christian cultures, several Muslim-majority countries began to ban the observance of Christmas, claiming it undermined Islam. In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled in Bethlehem, the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus. Palestinian leaders of various Christian denominations cited the ongoing Israel–Hamas war in their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations.\n\nObservance and traditions\nChristmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is in Turkey, being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival.\nMany popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in a Christian context. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival-like state in the Middle Ages, to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation. The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as the Puritans and Jehovah's Witnesses (who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical.\nPrior to and through the early Christian centuries, winter festivals were the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needed to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached. Celtic winter herbs such as mistletoe and ivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries.\nThe pre-Christian Germanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas. In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat. Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the Wild Hunt), the long-bearded god Odin is referred to as \"the Yule one\" and \"Yule father\" in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as \"Yule beings\". On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice.\nAmong countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as the Koleda, which shares parallels with the Christmas carol.\n\nChurch attendance\nChristmas Day (inclusive of its vigil, Christmas Eve), is a Festival in the Lutheran Churches, a solemnity in the Roman Catholic Church, and a Principal Feast of the Anglican Communion. Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost. As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Day church service plays an important part in the recognition of the Christmas season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time. In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5 million people at Christmas services in 2015.\n\nDecorations\nNativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful Kraków szopka in Poland, which imitate Kraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian presepi (Neapolitan, Genoese and Bolognese), or the Provençal crèches in southern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called santons. In certain parts of the world, notably Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom.\nThe traditional colors of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold. Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the Magi, symbolizing royalty.\n\nThe Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Bucer. In the United States, these \"German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees.\" When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem, a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897. Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus. Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, is symbolic of Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent the Light of the World—Jesus—born in Bethlehem. Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected. The Christmas tree is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship; according to eighth-century biographer Æddi Stephanus, Saint Boniface (634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an ax to an oak tree dedicated to Thor and pointed out a fir tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to heaven and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the Trinity. The English language phrase \"Christmas tree\" is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language.\n\nSince the 16th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of the Star of Bethlehem; in that country it is known in Spanish as the Flower of the Holy Night. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus.\nOther traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. Both the displaying of wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths and are designed to prepare Christians for the Advent season. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate the fact that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.\n\nChristmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played from speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night.\n\nNativity play\nFor the Christian celebration of Christmas, the viewing of the Nativity play is one of the oldest Christmastime traditions, with the first reenactment of the Nativity of Jesus taking place in 1223 AD in the Italian town of Greccio. In that year, Francis of Assisi assembled a Nativity scene outside of his church in Italy and children sung Christmas carols celebrating the birth of Jesus. Each year, this grew larger and people travelled from afar to see Francis's depiction of the Nativity of Jesus that came to feature drama and music. Nativity plays eventually spread throughout all of Europe, where they remain popular. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day church services often came to feature Nativity plays, as did schools and theatres. In France, Germany, Mexico and Spain, Nativity plays are often reenacted outdoors in the streets.\n\nMusic and carols\nThe earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth-century Rome. Latin hymns such as \"Veni redemptor gentium\", written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. \"Corde natus ex Parentis\" (\"Of the Father's love begotten\") by the Spanish poet Prudentius (died 413) is still sung in some churches today. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas \"Sequence\" or \"Prose\" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional Christmas carol. Christmas carols in English appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay who lists twenty five \"caroles of Cristemas\", probably sung by groups of 'wassailers', who went from house to house.\n\nThe songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as \"harvest tide\" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like \"Personent hodie\", \"Good King Wenceslas\", and \"In dulci jubilo\" can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. \"Adeste Fideles\" (O Come all ye faithful) appeared in its current form in the mid-18th century.\nThe singing of carols increased in popularity after the Protestant Reformation in the Lutheran areas of Europe, as the Reformer Martin Luther wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship, in addition to spearheading the practice of caroling outside the Mass. The 18th-century English reformer Charles Wesley, a founder of Methodism, understood the importance of music to Christian worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled \"Hark! How All the Welkin Rings\", later renamed \"Hark! The Herald Angels Sing\".\n\nChristmas seasonal songs of a secular nature emerged in the late 18th century. The Welsh melody for \"Deck the Halls\" dates from 1794, with the lyrics added by Scottish musician Thomas Oliphant in 1862, and the American \"Jingle Bells\" was copyrighted in 1857. Other popular carols include \"The First Noel\", \"God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen\", \"The Holly and the Ivy\", \"I Saw Three Ships\", \"In the Bleak Midwinter\", \"Joy to the World\", \"Once in Royal David's City\" and \"While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks\". In the 19th and 20th centuries, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holiday songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.\nOne of the most ubiquitous festive songs is \"We Wish You a Merry Christmas\", which originates from the West Country of England in the 1930s. Radio has covered Christmas music from variety shows from the 1940s and 1950s, as well as modern-day stations that exclusively play Christmas music from late November through December 25. Hollywood movies have featured new Christmas music, such as \"White Christmas\" in Holiday Inn and Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. Traditional carols have also been included in Hollywood films, such as \"Hark! The Herald Angels Sing\" in It's a Wonderful Life (1946), and \"Silent Night\" in A Christmas Story.\n\nTraditional cuisine\nA special Christmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food that is served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions have special meals for Christmas Eve, such as Sicily, where twelve kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such as Christmas pudding, mince pies, Christmas cake, and latterly Panettone and Yule log. A traditional Christmas meal in Central Europe features fried carp or other fish.\n\nCards\nChristmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads \"wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year\", much like that of the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging E-cards.\nChristmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative, with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem, or a white dove, which can represent both the Holy Spirit and Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depict Christmas traditions, mythical figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes, and the wildlife of the northern winter.\nSome prefer cards with a poem, prayer, or Biblical verse; while others distance themselves from religion with an all-inclusive \"Season's greetings\".\n\nCommemorative stamps\nA number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale sometime between early October and early December and are printed in considerable quantities.\n\nChristmas seals\nChristmas seals were first issued to raise funding to fight and bring awareness to tuberculosis. The first Christmas seal was issued in Denmark in 1904, and since then other countries have issued their own Christmas seals.\n\nGift giving\nThe exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with Saint Nicholas, and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the Magi. The practice of gift giving in the Roman celebration of Saturnalia may have influenced Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian \"core dogma of the Incarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event\", because it was the Biblical Magi, \"together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life.\" However, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor Aurelian placed the alternate festival on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.\n\nGift-bearing figures\nA number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these are Father Christmas, also known as Santa Claus (derived from the Dutch for Saint Nicholas), Père Noël, and the Weihnachtsmann; Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas; the Christkind; Kris Kringle; Joulupukki; tomte/nisse; Babbo Natale; Saint Basil; and Ded Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte (also called nisse) is sometimes depicted as a gnome instead of Santa Claus.\n\nThe best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name 'Santa Claus' can be traced back to the Dutch Sinterklaas ('Saint Nicholas'). Nicholas was a 4th-century Greek bishop of Myra, a city in the Roman province of Lycia, whose ruins are 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from modern Demre in southwest Turkey. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.\nSaint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, corrupted in English to 'Kris Kringle', and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.\nThe modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors including Washington Irving and the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840–1902). Following the American Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town of New Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.\nCurrent tradition in several Latin American countries (such as Venezuela and Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.\nIn Italy's South Tyrol, Austria, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from Saint Basil on New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.\nMultiple gift-giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Central and North-East areas, the Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common in Greater Poland, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is unique to Upper Silesia, with the Little Star (Gwiazdka) and the Little Angel (Aniołek) being common in the South and the South-East. Grandfather Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland. It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver on Saint Nicholas Day on December 6.\n\nSport\nChristmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival with annual indulgences included the sporting. When Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. The Orkney Christmas Day Ba' tradition continues. In the former top tier of English football, home and away Christmas Day and Boxing Day double headers were often played guaranteeing football clubs large crowds by allowing many working people their only chance to watch a game. Champions Preston North End faced Aston Villa on Christmas Day 1889 and the last December 25 fixture was in 1965 in England, Blackpool beating Blackburn Rovers 4–2. One of the most memorable images of the Christmas truce during World War I was the games of football played between the opposing sides on Christmas Day 1914.\nMore recently, in the United States, both NFL and NBA have held fixtures on Christmas Day.\n\nChoice of date\nThere are two main theories behind December 25 becoming the traditional date for Christmas, although Theology professor Susan Roll says that \"No liturgical historian [...] goes so far as to deny that it has any sort of relation with the sun, the winter solstice and the popularity of solar worship in the later Roman Empire\". December 25 was the date of the winter solstice in the Roman calendar. Some early Christian writers noted the solar symbolism in placing Jesus's birthday at the winter solstice and John's birthday at the summer solstice. \nThe 'history of religions' theory suggests the Church chose December 25 as Christ's birthday (dies Natalis Christi) to appropriate the Roman winter solstice festival dies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus, the 'Invincible Sun'), held on this date since 274 AD. The early Church linked Jesus Christ to the Sun and referred to him as the 'Sun of Righteousness' (Sol Justitiae) prophesied by Malachi. Gary Forsythe, Professor of Ancient History, says that the Natalis Solis Invicti followed \"the seven-day period of the Saturnalia (December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season since Republican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts\".\nAnother theory, the 'computation hypothesis' or 'calculation theory', notes that December 25 is nine months after March 25, a date chosen as Jesus's conception (the Annunciation) and the date of the spring equinox on the Roman calendar.\n\nDate according to Julian calendar\nSome jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church, including those of Russia, Georgia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Jerusalem, mark feasts using the older Julian calendar. As of 2024, there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modern Gregorian calendar, which is used internationally for most secular purposes. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.\nHowever, following the Council of Constantinople in 1923, other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions of Constantinople, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, and the Orthodox Church in America, among others, began using the Revised Julian calendar, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25.\nA further complication is added by the fact that the Armenian Apostolic Church continues the original ancient Eastern Christian practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because since 1923 the Armenian Church in Armenia has used the Gregorian calendar.\nHowever, there is also a small Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates \"Christmas\" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.\nFollowing the 2022 invasion of its territory by Russia, Ukraine officially moved its Christmas date from January 7 to December 25, to distance itself from the Russian Orthodox Church that had supported Russia's invasion. This followed the Orthodox Church of Ukraine formally adopting the Revised Julian calendar for fixed feasts and solemnities.\n\nTable of dates\nThere are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below.\n\nVenezuela\nIn September 2024, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro declared Christmas to be brought forward from December 25 to October 1.\n\nEconomy\nChristmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world since sales increase dramatically during this time as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the United States, the \"Christmas shopping season\" starts as early as October. In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before Halloween (October 31), and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on. A concept devised by retail entrepreneur David Lewis, the first Christmas grotto opened in Lewis's department store in Liverpool, England in 1879. In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season. Figures from the US Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 billion in November 2004 to $31.9 billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6 million to 1.8 million in the two months leading up to Christmas. Industries completely dependent on Christmas include Christmas cards, of which 1.9 billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas trees, of which 20.8 million were cut in the US in 2002. For 2019, the average US adult was projected to spend $920 on gifts alone. In the UK in 2010, up to £8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales. \n\nIn most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Similar legislation was approved in Scotland in 2007. Film studios release many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for the Academy Awards.\nOne economist's analysis calculates that, despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the US alone. Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.\n\nControversies\nChristmas has at times been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources, both Christian and non-Christian. Historically, it was prohibited by Puritans during their ascendency in the Commonwealth of England (1647–1660), and in Colonial New England where the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659 on the grounds that Christmas was not mentioned in Scripture and therefore violated the Reformed regulative principle of worship. The Parliament of Scotland, which was dominated by Presbyterians, passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not become a public holiday in Scotland until 1871. Today, some conservative Reformed denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America likewise reject the celebration of Christmas based on the regulative principle and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin. Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited by atheist states such as the Soviet Union and more recently majority Muslim states such as Somalia, Tajikistan and Brunei.\nSome Christians and organizations such as Pat Robertson's American Center for Law and Justice cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a \"war on Christmas\"). Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term \"Christmas\" or its religious aspects is being increasingly censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees. In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greeting Merry Christmas with Happy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah. In the U.S. and Canada, where the use of the term \"Holidays\" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term \"Christmas\" as being politically correct. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch v. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment. American Muslim scholar Abdul Malik Mujahid has said that Muslims must treat Christmas with respect, even if they disagree with it.\nThe government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism, and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end. In December 2018, officials raided Christian churches prior to Christmastide and coerced them to close; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed.\n\nSee also\nApollo 8 Genesis reading from lunar orbit, December 24, 1968\nChristmas in July – Second Christmas celebration\nChristmas Peace – Finnish tradition\nChristmas Sunday – Sunday after Christmas\nList of Christmas films\nList of Christmas novels – Christmas as depicted in literaturePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets\nLittle Christmas – Alternative title for 6 January\nNochebuena – Evening or entire day before Christmas DayPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets\nMithraism in comparison with other belief systems#25th of December\nChristmas by medium – Christmas represented in different media\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nChristmas collection at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History\nChristmas: Its Origin and Associations, by William Francis Dawson, 1902, from Project Gutenberg\nChristmas: its origin, celebration and significance as related in prose and verse, by Robert Haven Schauffler, 1907",
"title": "Christmas"
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] | The Basibasy mine is located in Madagascar. This mine is abundant in a specific chemical element that was discovered for the first time in 1791. The person who discovered this element was born on what is now known as a major US holiday - what holiday is this? | [] | Christmas | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Willis Tower, originally and still commonly referred to as the Sears Tower, is a 110-story, 1,451-foot (442.3 m) skyscraper in the Loop community area of Chicago in Illinois, United States. Designed by architect Bruce Graham and engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), it opened in 1973 as the world's tallest building, a title that it held for nearly 25 years. It is the third-tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, as well as the 23rd-tallest in the world. Each year, more than 1.7 million people visit the Skydeck observation deck, the highest in the United States, making it one of Chicago's most popular tourist destinations.\nThe building occupies a site bounded by Franklin Street, Jackson Boulevard, Wacker Drive, and Adams Street. Graham and Khan designed the building as nine square \"tubes\", clustered in a 3×3 matrix; seven of the tubes set back at upper floors. The tower has 108 stories as counted by standard methods, though the building's owners count the main roof as 109 and the mechanical penthouse roof as 110. The facade is made of anodized aluminum and black glass. The base of the building contains a retail complex known as the Catalog. The lower half of the tower was originally occupied by retail company Sears, which had its headquarters there until 1994, while the upper stories were rented out.\nThe structure was known as the Sears Tower from its construction until the naming rights were included in a 2009 lease with the Willis Group. Local area residents still refer to the building by its old name. As of April 2018, the building's largest tenant is United Airlines, which occupies around 20 floors. Other major tenants include the building's namesake Willis Towers Watson, and law firms Schiff Hardin and Seyfarth Shaw. Morgan Stanley became the building's fourth-largest tenant in 2017.\n\nHistory\nPlanning\nSite selection\nSears, Roebuck & Co. had occupied an office complex on Chicago's west side since 1906. The existing offices were inadequate by 1966, prompting Sears executives to begin searching for a new site. By 1969, Sears was the largest retailer in the world, with about 350,000 employees. Sears executives quickly determined that a new headquarters complex in the suburbs was infeasible, since it would require relocating about 7,000 employees. Instead, Sears executives decided to consolidate the thousands of employees in offices distributed throughout the Chicago area into one building on the western edge of Chicago's Loop.\nSears asked its outside counsel, Arnstein, Gluck, Weitzenfeld & Minow (now known as Saul Ewing LLP) to suggest a location. The firm consulted with local and federal authorities and the applicable law, then offered Sears two options. The first option was the Goose Island area northwest of the Loop, but Sears's vice president of real estate, Matthew J. Stacom, rejected this proposal. The other was a two-block area in the Loop, bounded by Franklin Street on the east, Jackson Boulevard on the south, Wacker Drive on the west, and Adams Street on the north. Though the site was more centrally located, it was also relatively small, with about 55,000 square feet (5,100 m2). Bernard Feinberg, Albert I. Rubenstein, and Philip Teinowitz had assembled that site over the previous five years, but they had failed to acquire a neighboring 74,000-square-foot (6,900 m2) lot from bus company Greyhound Lines.\nFeinberg, Rubenstein, and Teinowitz then bought options for three adjacent lots. Under the terms of each option, unless the three men were able to acquire at least one of the lots within 90 days, all three options would be forfeited. Ultimately, Sears acquired the Loop site in 1970. Sears then obtained permits to close down one block of Quincy Street, which bisected the site from east to west. Attorneys from the Arnstein firm, headed by Andrew Adsit, began buying the properties parcel by parcel. Sears purchased 15 buildings from 100 owners and paid the government of Chicago $2.7 million (equivalent to $21.2 million in 2023) for the block of Quincy Street that was to be closed down.\n\nDesign process\nSears executives estimated that their new building would need about 4.2 million square feet (390,000 m2), split into 70 stories with 60,000 square feet (5,600 m2) each or 60 stories with 70,000 square feet (6,500 m2) each. Sears commissioned architecture firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) to design the tower. SOM was also the lead structural engineer, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles provided MEP engineering.\nSears planned to move its merchandise group into the building initially, renting out the remaining space to other tenants until needed. Sears executives were accustomed to large floor areas of at least 100,000 square feet (9,300 m2), but SOM architects raised concerns that the large floors would be unattractive to smaller tenants. A subsequent proposal called for two buildings connected by a footbridge, which would respectively contain 50,000 square feet (4,600 m2) and 30,000 square feet (2,800 m2) on each floor, but this was also infeasible.\nSome floors were designed with smaller footprints to attract prospective lessees, so the building's height was increased to meet Sears's floor-area requirements. Architect Bruce Graham and structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan, both of whom were partners with SOM, proposed a tower with 55,000-square-foot (5,100 m2) floors in the lower part of the building, as well as a series of setbacks with gradually tapering floor plates, giving the tower its distinctive look. During the design process, one of the architects reportedly pulled out nine cigars and staggered them vertically until the pair both agreed to the arrangement. This allowed Sears to occupy the large lower stories, while providing more conventional office space that could be rented out on the upper stories. The firm of Saphier, Lerner, Schindler was responsible for determining Sears's space requirements and designing furniture for the company. It conducted a year-long study to determine how 16 of the company's departments should be laid out within the building.\nAs Sears continued to offer optimistic growth projections, the height of the proposed tower also increased. Under Chicago's relatively lax zoning laws, the site could theoretically accommodate a 300-story building with 13.5 million square feet (1,250,000 m2). In practice, most potential tenants did not want excessively high offices. Additionally, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) restricted the height of structures in the area to protect air traffic. FAA officials publicly denied that they had imposed a height limit; however, the area's minimum safe altitude would need to be raised by 1,000 feet (300 m) if the building was just 1 foot (0.30 m) taller. Plans for the tower were announced on July 27, 1970. The 1,450-foot-tall (440 m) building would contain 109 stories as measured from Wacker Drive and 110 stories as measured from Franklin Street. This would make Sears's new tower the tallest in the world, as measured by roof height, although New York City's under-construction World Trade Center Twin Towers would have a taller antenna. Although the Sears Tower would contain 4.4 million square feet (410,000 m2) of space, only about 3.7 million square feet (340,000 m2) would be used as offices.\n\nConstruction\nEarly construction\nWork on the building's foundation commenced in August 1970. Contractors excavated the lot to a depth of 50 feet (15 m), and they removed 180,000 cubic feet (5,100 m3) of dirt from the site. By that November, Spencer, White & Prentis Inc. was excavating a trench around the site, measuring 60 feet (18 m) deep and 20 by 216 feet (6.1 by 65.8 m) across. The contractors then built a slurry wall within the trench, made of concrete and reinforced steel. Workers used steel bracing to prevent the slurry wall from collapsing inward, then used caissons to drill 201 holes into the ground. They also rerouted a sewer that had run underneath Quincy Street, which was to be closed permanently as part of the tower's construction.\nThe Diesel Construction Company was hired as the Sears Tower's general contractor. Sears, Roebuck & Co. chairman Gordon M. Metcalf installed the building's first steel beam at a ceremony on June 7, 1971. The project employed 2,000 workers. To accelerate the building's construction, a concrete plant was built in the building's basement, allowing workers to pour one-third of a concrete floor every day. Contractors built two temporary kitchens on the site for workers, and telephone and loudspeaker systems were installed on every floor to allow workers to communicate. In addition, contractors installed temporary generators that could supply up to 14,000 kilowatts (19,000 hp) simultaneously; during the winter, most of this electricity was used to heat the exposed steel beams on the lowest five floors.\n\nBroadcast-signal controversy\nBy late 1971, area residents and broadcasters had raised concerns that the new Sears Tower would disrupt television broadcasts. According to one estimate, the building would obstruct television signals for 15 percent of Chicagoans and cause \"double images\" for another 20 percent, primarily affecting communities to the northwest and southeast. The same year, officials of the village of Skokie, northwest of Chicago, threatened to request an injunction to prevent further construction. In response to these concerns, Sears started researching methods to reduce the tower's effect on broadcast signals. Variety magazine stated that the Sears Tower did not interfere with broadcasts on its own, since several shorter towers in the Loop also interfered with broadcast signals. Nonetheless, the Illinois Citizens' Committee for Broadcasting filed a formal complaint with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in February 1972.\nThe first lawsuit against the building was filed by the state attorney in neighboring Lake County on March 17, 1972. A second suit was filed on March 28 in Cook County Circuit Court by the villages of Skokie, Northbrook, and Deerfield, Illinois. Sears filed motions to dismiss the Lake and Cook County lawsuits, which both sought to cap the building at 67 stories. Sears studied the possibility of erecting antennas atop its tower in April 1972, and the tower's construction continued, even as decisions on both lawsuits were delayed. At the end of the month, the company applied for permission to increase the building's height limit by 350 feet (110 m) and install a new antenna, although eight of Chicago's ten television stations criticized the plan. On May 17, 1972, Judge LaVerne Dickson, Chief of the Lake County Circuit Court, dismissed the suit, saying, \"I find nothing that gives television viewers the right to reception without interference.\" By then, the building had reached the 58th story. The Lake County attorney appealed to the Illinois Supreme Court. In his decision on June 12, Judge Charles R. Barrett contended the plaintiffs did not have a right to undistorted television reception.\nMeanwhile, the FCC declined to act on the height dispute on the grounds it did not have jurisdiction. The FAA approved the antennas atop the tower in June 1972, and the Illinois Supreme Court affirmed the previous rulings by Lake and Cook County circuit courts at the end of the month. Work was temporarily paused that July due to a labor strike. The next month, Sears formally announced plans for broadcast antennas on the tower's roof, and the company offered to spend $5 million (equivalent to $36.4 million in 2023) to help relocate broadcast stations to the Sears Tower. The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit upheld the FCC's decision in September, and the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal of the Seventh Circuit's decision that November.\n\nTopping-out and completion\nIn November 1972, the Sears Tower became Chicago's tallest building, surpassing the Standard Oil Building, which had held the record for one month. At the time, the Sears project employed 1,600 workers in three shifts; one worker had been killed during the project so far. The building's final completion had been delayed significantly due to labor strikes and bad weather. The concrete work had reached the 77th floor, while the steel superstructure had reached the 84th floor; the remainder of the steelwork would be difficult to construct because of high winds at higher altitudes. Local television stations WTTW and WLS-TV were planning to install temporary broadcast antennas atop the tower when the steel frame was completed. The tower's superstructure had reached the 100th floor in February 1973, at which point it was taller than the Empire State Building in New York City.\nThe building was topped out on May 3, 1973. The day before the event, the Chicago Tribune's editorial board wrote: \"Move aside, New York. After tomorrow, when schoolchildren dream of big buildings, they'll no longer think of you and the Empire State Building and the World Trade Center.\" The frame was still not technically complete, as three to four stories remained to be built. One week after the ceremony, four workers died after an elevator shaft caught fire. A fifth worker died after falling from the tower in an unrelated incident four days later. Work was halted again that June due to a labor strike, and Sears began moving furniture into the building that month. The construction cost was about US$150 million, (equivalent to $1.03 billion in 2023). Despite the size of the project, Sears executives said the building could not accommodate Sears' annual shareholder meetings, and the company continued to rent space in other structures.\n\n20th century\nOpening and early years\nThe first Sears employees began moving into the tower during the weekend of September 9, 1973. Flashing beacons on the building's roof, the first to be installed at any building in Chicago, were activated the same month. Upon the tower's opening, broadcasters at the John Hancock Center, Chicago's second-tallest building, had to decide whether to relocate to the Sears Tower. Two television stations decided to relocate. Six other stations remained at the John Hancock Center, citing a study which showed that relocating to the Sears Tower would provide only minimal benefits. Documents released in late 1973 indicated that the Sears Tower would cause much more interference than either Sears or the television stations had disclosed. WLS-TV moved to the Sears Tower in February 1974, followed by WTTW the next month.\nBy March 1974, three-fourths of the space in the building was occupied; Sears had leased the upper stories to tenants such as Goldman Sachs, Northwest Industries, and Schiff Hardin. A mobile sculpture by Alexander Calder was dedicated in the lobby in October 1974. Sears' optimistic growth projections were not realized; instead, in late 1974, the company fired 500 workers, about seven percent of the 7,000 Sears employees that worked in the tower. Competition beyond its traditional rivals such as Montgomery Ward arose from emerging retail giants including Kmart, Kohl's, and Walmart. As a result of a surplus of office space that emerged in the 1980s, the tower did not draw as many tenants as projected and so stood half-vacant for a decade.\n\nRenovation and relocation\nIn February 1984, Sears announced that it would renovate the building to attract visitors to the lower floors. At the time, 6,500 Sears employees occupied more than half of the building, taking up the lowest 48 stories. The remainder of the tower was occupied by 5,500 employees from about 70 companies. As part of the project, the main entrance was covered with a four-story glass dome, and the first four stories were converted into a shopping atrium. In addition, a visitor center for the building's Skydeck was constructed. The renovations, designed by SOM, were completed in mid-1985. Paul Gapp of the Chicago Tribune wrote that SOM had \"scaled the new entrance skillfully, in keeping with the main building's height\" and that the new atrium \"relieves the formerly cramped feeling from just inside the Franklin entrance\".\nSears announced in 1988 that it would sell the tower and relocate its merchandising division from the lower half of the building. The company wanted to earn at least $1 billion from the sale of the Sears Tower, so it offered multiple concessions to potential buyers, including a guarantee that Sears would continue to pay rent on the lower half of the building until tenants were found for these stories. Four large firms were negotiating to buy the tower by July 1989. The company had difficulties finding a buyer, in part because the lower stories were too large for many potential tenants. Sears nearly sold the tower to Canadian company Olympia & York, but the deal was canceled in September 1989 because the two firms could not agree on who would pay the property taxes. In November 1989, Sears decided to instead refinance the building. The next year, Sears took out a mortgage loan on the tower for $850 million from MetLife and AEW Capital Management, with MetLife as the holder of the mortgage note; the loan would mature in 2005.\nIn 1990, the law firm of Keck, Mahin & Cate decided to move into a development that would become 77 West Wacker Drive, rebuffing Sears' attempts to entice the firm to stay. Just two years later, Sears began moving its own offices out of the building to a new campus in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, which was completed in 1995. As the maturation of the mortgage approached, Sears renegotiated the loan in 1994. The negotiations resulted in an agreement where Sears would no longer be liable for the $850 million loan, although it would only nominally own the building, while AEW and MetLife effectively had total control. As part of the 1994 agreement, AEW and MetLife would be able to take official ownership of the building in 2003. In 1997, Toronto-based TrizecHahn, at the time the lessee of the CN Tower, acquired AEW's holdings in the building for $110 million, assuming $4 million in liabilities and a $734 million mortgage.\n\n21st century\nTrizec had projected that the Sears Tower would quickly reach a value of $1 billion. These projections were not met, with the tower facing the same vacancy and other problems it saw under Sears, although Trizec made somewhat successful efforts to attract new tenants. Following the September 11 attacks, two of the largest tenants, Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch, immediately announced plans for vacating 300,000 ft2 of space. In 2003, Trizec sold its holdings of the tower to MetLife for $9 million.\n\nSyndicate ownership\nIn March 2004, MetLife announced that it would sell the building to a group of investors, including Joseph Chetrit, Joseph Moinian, Lloyd Goldman, Joseph Cayre, and Jeffrey Feil of New York, as well as American Landmark Properties of Skokie, Illinois. The quoted price was $840 million, with $825 million held in a mortgage. Two years later, in February 2007, the Sears Tower's owners obtained a $780 million loan from UBS. At the time, UBS valued the tower at $1.2 billion.\n\nSince 2007, the owners had considered plans for the construction of a hotel on the north side of Jackson Boulevard, between Wacker Drive and Franklin Street, close to the entrance of the observation deck, above the tower's underground parking garage. According to the tower's owners, the second building was considered in the original design. The plan was eventually cancelled as city zoning did not permit construction of such a tall building in that location. In February 2009, the owners announced they were considering a plan to paint the structure silver, an idea that was later abandoned. It was hoped that a new, silver, paint-job would \"rebrand\" the building and highlight its advances in energy efficiency for an estimated cost of $50 million.\nAlthough Sears' naming rights expired in 2003, the building continued to be called the Sears Tower for several years, despite multiple changes in ownership. In March 2009, London-based insurance broker Willis Group Holdings agreed to lease a portion of the building and obtained the naming rights. On July 16, 2009, the building was officially renamed the Willis Tower. By 2011, the building's owners were considering selling a partial ownership stake, or even the entire building, to an investor. The next year, United Airlines announced it would move its corporate headquarters from 77 West Wacker Drive to Willis Tower.\n\nBlackstone ownership\nBy March 2015, the Willis Tower was being marketed at a price of $1.5 billion. The same month, the Blackstone Group purchased the tower for a reported $1.3 billion, the highest price ever paid for a property in the U.S. outside of New York City. Blackstone announced a $500 million renovation in January 2017, which would include the construction of the Catalog, a six-story commercial complex, replacing a plaza on Jackson Boulevard and the entrance on Wacker Drive. Architectural firm Gensler designed the renovation. A rooftop terrace was built atop the Catalog, and the building's HVAC systems were overhauled. Most of the building's elevators, excluding those that served the Skydeck, were also renovated for the first time in the tower's history. The new elevators would be faster than the original elevators and would use use 35 percent less energy. The building's owners installed artwork by Olafur Eliasson, Jacob Hashimoto, and other artists.\nTo fund these improvements, in February 2017, Blackstone obtained a $1 billion loan from a group of banks including Goldman Sachs. The new loan replaced $750 million of CMBS debt that was maturing. The following year, because of the increasing costs of the renovation, Blackstone received a new $1.3 billion loan from Deutsche Bank and Barclays. The Wacker Drive \"Lunchbox\" entrance was demolished in early 2018 to make way for the Catalog. A steel globe next to the entrance, manufactured by the Poblocki Sign Company and installed in 2010, was relocated to Elmhurst, Illinois. A 40,000-square-foot (3,700 m2) private club on the 66th and 67th stories opened in June 2018. The club included a restaurant named Craftsman and a lounge named Frame, both of which exclusively served the tower's tenants, as well as a public restaurant known as the East Room. That September, Urbanspace announced that it would operate a food hall on the lower stories.\nIn 2020, insurance company Aon had proposed acquiring Willis Towers Watson (which had succeeded the Willis Group as the building's owner), prompting speculation that the building could be renamed again. The planned merger was canceled in 2021 following an antitrust lawsuit from the United States Department of Justice. The building's renovation was completed in May 2022. At the time, although the Willis Tower was nearly 85 percent leased, the number of tenants and visitors entering the building had decreased significantly since 2019, in part because of the COVID-19 pandemic in Chicago. In April 2023, The New York Times reported that Blackstone had written down the value of its investment in the tower by $119 million.\n\nIncidents\nIn June 2006, seven men were arrested by the FBI and charged with plotting to destroy the tower. Deputy FBI Director John Pistole described their plot as \"more aspirational than operational\". The case went to court in October 2007. After three trials, five of the suspects were convicted and two acquitted. The alleged leader of the group, Narseal Batiste, was sentenced to 13+1⁄2 years in prison. In response to the perceived threat of an attack, the building's largest tenant at this time, Ernst & Young, moved to North Wacker Drive in early 2009.\nIn May 2020, heavy rains caused three of the basement levels to flood, knocking out power to the building. This also resulted in many TV and radio stations going off the air.\n\nArchitecture\nThe Willis Tower was designed by architect Bruce Graham and structural engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill. Graham and Khan designed the building as nine square \"tubes\", clustered in a 3×3 matrix forming a square base with 225-foot (69 m) sides. The building's rentable area is 3,810,000 sq ft (354,000 m2). The structure was intended to accommodate 16,500 employees.\n\nForm and facade\nEach of the \"tubes\" is a column-free module measuring 75 by 75 feet (23 by 23 m), which set back at different stories. There are setbacks at the 50th, 66th, and 90th floors. The lowest 50 stories contain nine tubes and cover 52,000 square feet (4,800 m2) each. The northwest and southeast tubes terminate at the 50th floor. The 51st through 66th floors each span 41,420 square feet (3,848 m2), above which the northeast and southwest tubes end. From the 67th to 90th floors, each story is shaped like a cross, covering 30,170 square feet (2,803 m2). The north, east, and south tubes end at the 90th floor; the remaining west and center tubes reach 108 floors, with an area of 12,283 square feet (1,141.1 m2) on each of the top stories.\n\nThe Sears Tower was the first building to use this innovative design. It was both structurally efficient and economic: at 1,450 feet, it provided more space and rose higher than the Empire State Building and cost much less per unit area. The system would prove highly influential in skyscraper construction and has been used in most supertall buildings since, including the world's current tallest building, the Burj Khalifa. In February 1982, two television antennas were added to the structure, increasing its total height to 1,707 feet (520.3 m). The western antenna was later extended, bringing the overall height to 1,729 feet (527 m) on June 5, 2000, to improve reception of local NBC station WMAQ-TV.\nThe perimeter of the Willis Tower contains columns that are spaced 15 feet (4.6 m) apart on their centers. The facade is made of anodized aluminum and black glass. Alcoa manufactured 4 million pounds (1.8 kt) of aluminum sheeting for the building's facade. Black bands appear on the tower around the 29th–32nd, 64th–65th, 88th–89th, and 104th–108th floors. These elements are louvers to ventilate the building's environmental support systems and obscure its belted trusses. The rest of the facade is made of 16,000 rectangular windows. all of which measure 5 by 8 feet (1.5 by 2.4 m) and are tinted with bronze.\nOutside the building, there was originally a 80,000-square-foot (7,400 m2) plaza made of pink granite. In the late 2010s, a three-level wing was built along the western and southern sides of the tower replacing the plaza. The roof garden above the annex spans 30,000 square feet (2,800 m2). The annex contains a facade of black steel and aluminum, similar to in the original building. The Jackson Boulevard facade of the annex contains an artwork by Olafur Eliasson, entitled Atmospheric wave wall. The work, measuring 30 by 60 feet (9.1 by 18.3 m) across, comprises almost 2,000 blue-and-green steel tiles, which are decorated with hexagonal motifs. The wall is backlit at night.\n\nStructural and mechanical features\nThe interior includes 74,000 short tons (66,000 long tons; 67,000 t) of steel, 4 million pounds (1.8 kt) of aluminum, and 101 acres (4,400,000 sq ft; 410,000 m2) of concrete flooring. The building contains diagonal columns only on the two stories immediately below each of the setbacks, thus reducing shear stress. The interior of the building could not contain diagonal beams, since these would have obstructed the connections between each of the \"tubes\". Therefore, the columns and the horizontal beams on each story are connected by rigid joints. The superstructure was designed to withstand wind gusts of 130 miles per hour (210 km/h), which on average would occur once every hundred years. According to the Chicago Tribune, the top of the building would be able to bend by as much as 7 inches (180 mm), returning to its normal position within 7.2 seconds.\nThe Willis Tower's basement extends 50 feet (15 m) deep, resting on a 5-foot-thick (1.5 m) concrete slab. The ground directly beneath the building was largely made of clay; the underlying layer of limestone was as much as 100 feet (30 m) beneath ground level. As a result, the foundation was excavated using 201 caissons, of which 114 reached the underlying limestone. The caissons created holes that measured up to 10 feet (3.0 m) across. Some holes at the northwestern and northeastern corners of the site filled up with groundwater and had to be drained. Workers next placed steel tubes into the holes, then poured concrete around the tubes.\nDuring the Sears Tower's construction, SOM and Chicago government officials considered adding \"smoke free and fire free\" areas to the building, as well as a complete sprinkler system serving all floors. Neither of these features had previously been used in a structure in Chicago. Even though regulations did not require a fire sprinkler system, the building was equipped with one from the beginning. There are around 40,000 sprinkler heads in the building, installed at a cost of $4 million. When it was completed, the Sears Tower was heated electrically, unlike older structures that used gas heating. It included 145,000 light fixtures and a cooling system capable of 17,000 tons of refrigeration. Furthermore, the tower contained fire-suppression and communications systems for emergency use, which were powered by diesel generators. If there was a fire in one section of the building, the building's smoke-detection system would close off the fresh-air intake openings in that section, discharging smoke outdoors.\nFifteen above-ground stories, as well as three of the basement levels, contain mechanical equipment. Above the Skydeck on the 103rd floor is a seven-story mechanical penthouse.\n\nElevators and escalators\nThe Sears Tower was planned with 103 elevators, including 14 double-deck elevators. The office stories are served by 97 elevator cabs; due to the presence of the double-deck elevators, these occupy 83 shafts. As designed, one bank of single-deck elevators connected the lobby to the lowest 28 stories. Banks of double-deck elevators traveled to \"sky lobbies\" at the 33rd/34th and 66th/67th floors, where passengers could transfer to local elevators. The 34th through 103rd stories were served by local elevators that operated from the sky lobbies. Two elevators also ran directly from the lobby to the Skydeck on the 103rd floor. As of 2018, the elevators carried 5.8 million passengers per year.\nSix of the elevators are used for freight. One of the freight elevators served all stories, traveling to a height of 1,440 feet (440 m). During a fire or another emergency, this elevator would be reserved for the Chicago Fire Department. Other elevators would be controlled from the 33rd floor. During a fire, elevators would be dispatched to the affected floors to assist with evacuation.\nThe building also had 16 escalators, including a set of double-height escalators that traveled from the main lobby to the lower mezzanine. Another set of escalators connects the 33rd and 34th stories.\n\nInterior\nBase\nWhen the building was completed, the main entrance was on Wacker Drive to the west. There was a plaza on the south side of the building, sloping upward toward Franklin Street to the east. The Franklin Street side of the building was 6 feet (1.8 m) lower than the Wacker Drive entrance, so the entrances on Franklin Street were actually below the plaza, leading to the building's lower mezzanine. Below ground level are three basement levels with a total area of 400,000 square feet (37,000 m2). The basements included a 1,200-seat cafeteria, commercial space, service areas, and a loading dock for 17 trucks. The basement also contained a 150-spot parking garage.\nAs of 2022, the building's base covers 463,000 square feet (43,000 m2) and contains two lobbies for tenants. The building's tenants primarily enter from Wacker Drive and Franklin Street. Shoppers, restaurant patrons, and visitors to the Skydeck observation deck use the southern entrance on Jackson Boulevard. The Wacker Drive lobby contains In the Heart of this Infinite Particle of Galactic Dust, a 2019 artwork by Jacob Hashimoto. It consists of over 7,000 rice-paper and resin disks that are hung from the ceiling. To honor Khan's contributions to skyscraper engineering design, the Structural Engineers Association of Illinois also commissioned a sculpture of him for the lobby of the Willis Tower.\nThe commercial complex at the building's lowest stories is known as the Catalog, a reference to Sears' mail-order catalogs. The six-story complex includes numerous restaurants. It extends into three of the building's basement levels, as well as the three-story annex to the south and west of the tower. The roof of the annex includes a curved skylight with 240 glass panes, and the northern section of the annex's roof is supported by black columns that resemble those in the original tower. The Catalog also contains decorative details, such as handrails and staircase landings, which are inspired by elements of Chicago's \"built environment\". The third story of the Catalog contains a 30,000-square-foot coworking space operated by Convene.\n\nSkydeck\nThe Willis Tower observation deck, called the Skydeck, opened on June 22, 1974. Located on the 103rd floor, 1,353 feet (412.4 m) above ground level, it is the highest observation deck in the United States and one of Chicago's most famous tourist attractions. Tourists can experience how the building sways in wind and see far over the plains of Illinois and across Lake Michigan to Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin in clear conditions. Elevators reach the top in about 60 seconds, allowing occupants to feel the change in pressure as they ascend. Some 1.7 million tourists visit annually as of 2018. There is also an event venue on the 99th floor.\nIn January 2009, a major renovation of the Skydeck began, including the installation of retractable glass balconies which extend approximately 4 feet (1.2 m) from the facade of the 103rd floor, overlooking South Wacker Drive. The all-glass boxes, informally dubbed \"The Ledge\", allow visitors to see the street below. The boxes, which can accommodate 5 short tons (4.5 metric tons), opened to the public on July 2, 2009. On May 29, 2014, the laminated glass flooring of one of the boxes cracked while visitors were inside, but there were no injuries. The flooring of the same box cracked again on June 12, 2019. In May 2022 a fifth glass ledge opened on the west facade overlooking South Wacker Drive.\n\nHeight\nWhen completed, the Sears Tower was the world's tallest building but not the world's tallest structure. Toronto's CN Tower was about 350 feet (106.7 m) taller, although the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) does not consider the CN Tower to be a building, since it does not have floors from the ground up. The Willis Tower remains the third tallest building in the Americas and in the Western Hemisphere (after One World Trade Center and Central Park Tower in New York City). With a pinnacle height of 1,729 feet (527 m), it is the third-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. It is the 16th-tallest freestanding structure in the world by pinnacle height.\nWhen the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, was completed in 1998, it claimed to be the tallest building in the world, measuring 1,482.6 feet (451.9 m) tall including decorative spires. Chicagoans objected to this claim on the basis that the Sears Tower's top floor was higher than that of either of the Petronas Towers. In the ensuing controversy, four categories of \"tallest building\" were created. Of these, Petronas was the tallest in the category of height to the top of architectural elements, meaning spires but not antennas. Taipei 101 in Taiwan claimed the record in three of the four categories in 2004, surpassing the Petronas Twin Towers in spire height and the Sears Tower in roof height and highest occupied floor. People suggested that Sears add cosmetics atop its tower to surpass Taipei 101, but this did not materialize. On August 12, 2007, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai was reported by its developers to have surpassed the tower in all height categories. Upon completion, One World Trade Center in New York City surpassed the Willis Tower through its structural and pinnacle heights, but not by roof, observation deck elevation, or highest occupied floor.\nUntil 2000, the tower did not hold the record for being the tallest building by pinnacle height. From 1969 to 1978, this record was held by John Hancock Center, whose antenna reached a height of 1,500 feet (457.2 m), 49 feet (14.9 m) taller than the Sears Tower's original height. One World Trade Center became taller by pinnacle height with the addition of a 359-foot (109.4-meter) antenna, bringing its total height to 1,727 feet (526.4 m). In 1982, two antennas were installed which brought its total height to 1,707 feet (520.3 m), making it taller than the John Hancock Center but not One World Trade Center. However, the extension of the tower's western antenna in June 2000 to 1,729 feet (527 m) allowed it to just barely claim the title of tallest building by pinnacle height.\nThe lowest level of Willis Tower is 43 feet (13 m) below the elevation of Franklin Street.\n\nClimbing\nOn May 25, 1981, Dan Goodwin, wearing a homemade Spider-Man suit while using suction cups, camming devices, and sky hooks, and despite several attempts by the Chicago Fire Department to stop him, made the first successful outside ascent of the tower. Goodwin was arrested at the top after the seven-hour climb and was later charged with trespassing. Goodwin stated that the reason he made the climb was to call attention to shortcomings in high-rise rescue and firefighting techniques. After a lengthy interrogation by Chicago's District Attorney and Fire Commissioner, Goodwin was officially released from jail.\nIn August 1999, French urban climber Alain \"Spiderman\" Robert, using only his bare hands and bare feet, scaled the building's exterior glass and steel wall all the way to the top. A thick fog settled in near the end of his climb, making the last 20 stories of the building's glass and steel exterior slippery.\nAnnually, since 2009, the Willis Tower has hosted SkyRise Chicago, the world's tallest indoor stair climb, as a charity event benefiting Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, where participants can (legally) climb the Willis Tower's 103-story staircase.\n\nNaming rights\nSears sold the tower in 1994 and vacated it by 1995, but retained naming rights through 2003. The new owners were rebuffed in renaming deals with CDW Corp in 2005 and the U.S. Olympic Committee in 2008. British insurance broker Willis Group Holdings leased more than 140,000 square feet (13,000 m2) of space on three floors in 2009. A Willis spokesman said the naming rights were obtained as part of the negotiations at no cost to Willis and the building was renamed Willis Tower on July 16, 2009.\nThe naming rights are valid for 15 years, so it is possible that the building's name could change again as soon as 2024. The Chicago Tribune joked that the building's new name reminded them of the oft-repeated \"What you talkin' 'bout, Willis?\" catchphrase from the American television sitcom Diff'rent Strokes and considered the name-change ill-advised in \"a city with a deep appreciation of tradition and a healthy ego, where some Chicagoans still mourn the switch from Marshall Field's to Macy's\". This feeling was confirmed in a July 16, 2009, CNN article in which some Chicago-area residents expressed reluctance to accept the Willis Tower name, and in an article that appeared in the October 2010 issue of Chicago magazine that ranked the building among Chicago's 40 most important, the author pointedly refused to acknowledge the name change and referred to the building as the \"Sears Tower\". Time magazine called the name change one of the top 10 worst corporate name changes and pointed to negative press coverage by local news outlets and online petitions from angry residents. The naming rights issue continued into 2013, when Eric Zorn noted in the Chicago Tribune that \"We're stubborn about such things. This month marked four years since the former Sears Tower was re-christened Willis Tower, and the new name has yet to stick.\"\n\nBroadcasting\nMany broadcast station transmitters are located at the top of Willis Tower. Each list is ranked by height from the top down. Stations at the same height on the same mast indicate the use of a diplexer into the same shared antenna. Due to its extreme height, FM stations (all class B) are very limited in power output.\n\nRadio stations\nNOAA Weather Radio station KWO39 transmits off the tower at 162.550 MHz. Programmed by the National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office in Chicago, it is equipped with Specific Area Message Encoding (SAME), which sets off a siren on specially programmed weather radios to alert of an impending hazard.\n\nTelevision stations\nCultural depictions\nThe building has appeared in numerous films and television shows set in Chicago such as Ferris Bueller's Day Off, where Ferris and company visit the observation deck. Late Night with Conan O'Brien introduced a character called The Sears Tower Dressed In Sears Clothing when the show visited Chicago in 2006. The building is also featured in History Channel's Life After People, in which it and other human-made landmarks suffer from neglect without humans around, collapsing two hundred years after people are gone.\nIn the 2008 film The Dark Knight, it is part of Gotham City. In the 2011 film Transformers: Dark of the Moon, it is featured in a number of scenes. In the 2013 film Man of Steel, the tower is the location of the offices of the Daily Planet.\n\nPosition in Chicago's skyline\nSee also\nReferences\nCitations\nSources\nKamin, Blair (2001). Why Architecture Matters: Lessons from Chicago. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-42322-7.\nPridmore, Jay; Larson, George A. (2018). Chicago Architecture and Design (3rd ed.). ABRAMS. ISBN 978-1-68335-421-5.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website Willis Tower office-space leasing website\nWillis Tower Skydeck website\nWillis Tower on CTBUH Skyscraper Center\n\"Willis Tower\". Emporis. Archived from the original on September 23, 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)\nWillis Tower at Structurae",
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"paragraph_text": "The Chicago Spire was a skyscraper project in Chicago that was partially built between 2007 and 2008 before being cancelled. Located at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive, it would have stood 2,000 feet (610 m) high with 150 floors and been the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere. When originally proposed as the Fordham Spire in July 2005, the design had 116 stories, included a hotel and condominiums, and was topped with a broadcast antenna mast. The building was designed and spearheaded by Spanish architect-engineer Santiago Calatrava and Chicago developer Christopher T. Carley of the Fordham Company. On March 16, 2006, the Chicago Plan Commission unanimously approved the initial design of the building. On November 4, 2016, a court ruling brought the original development plan and the extended litigation over the nine-year-old project to a close. Developer Garrett Kelleher signed over the property location to the project's biggest creditor, Related Midwest, who announced that they would not build the Spire and released plans for a different project.\n\nPlanning\nChristopher T. Carley of the Fordham Company proposed the Fordham Spire in July 2005. In the proposal the Spire was to be a 116-story structure with hotel and condominiums topped by a tall broadcast antenna mast. The initial design of the building was passed unanimously by the Chicago Plan Commission on March 16, 2006, and by the Chicago Zoning Committee on March 23, 2006. On March 29, 2006, the Chicago City Council also approved the building's design. As part of the approval process, the council passed a measure that raised the height limit on structures at the site to accommodate the 2,000-foot (610 m) design height. The Fordham Spire would have become the second tallest building in the entire world, surpassed only by the Burj Khalifa, and would have become the tallest freestanding structure as well as the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, surpassing the CN Tower in Toronto.\nThe building was designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava and was being developed by Garrett Kelleher of Shelbourne Development Group, Inc., the then-owner of St Patrick's Athletic F.C.\nChicago Mayor Richard M. Daley approved of the design, stating that it was environmentally friendly. Burton F. Natarus, who was the 42nd-ward alderman when the building was announced, said, \"This is a very unique opportunity for the city of Chicago. This building belongs to Chicago and should be in Chicago.\" Donald Trump immediately voiced opposition to the building, stating that the tall structure would be a target for terrorists and did not even seem to be a viable project.\n\nDevelopment\nInitial financial problems\nAfter several months of development in 2005, Carley failed to obtain sufficient financing for the construction of the building. Irish developer Garrett Kelleher, executive chairman of Shelbourne Development Group, Inc., acquired the land and took over the project. It was announced that he would put up 100% of the equity, something Carley had been unable to do. He also had the financial backing to acquire the land, something Carley lacked. Kelleher stated he would consider using Carley's services on the development and that \"Carley will be paid an unspecified sum for his involvement in the deal so far.\" Kelleher later renamed the project \"Chicago Spire\" after briefly going by \"400 North Lake Shore Drive\", as it was no longer a Fordham project.\n\nNew designs\nIn the final quarter of 2006, Shelbourne Development issued two separate press releases regarding the construction and design of the spire. A November 2006 press release stated that construction of the Chicago Spire would begin in June 2007. In early December 2006, Shelbourne Development issued another press release stating that the design of the building had been revised. This included the removal of the hotel and the antenna mast, making the building consist solely of condominium units. The design change altered the building design such that it was wider than the original plan. Additionally, the spire no longer tapered at the top, resulting in an increase in floor space and overall floor count. The revision also removed the separate parking structure from the original plan, instead incorporating underground parking into the spire itself. This first major redesign of the Chicago Spire was criticized by architectural critics and city officials.\nIn late December 2006, the Chicago Tribune reported that the developer was soliciting opinions on a further revision from community leaders. Several weeks following that report the Chicago Tribune held an exclusive interview with architect Santiago Calatrava and lead developer Garrett Kelleher. During the interview, Calatrava drew out design ideas restoring the rotating design of the building and showcasing his vision for the Chicago Spire's lobby. On March 26, 2007, further revisions were shown during a public presentation by Shelbourne Development showcasing the most recent design.\n\nApproval\nFollowing the March 26, 2007 public presentation by Shelbourne Development, residents showed a favorable reaction to the newest design of the Chicago Spire. The Chicago Plan Commission approved the final plans of the Chicago Spire on April 19, 2007. Chicago's zoning committee also approved the tower on April 26 and, on May 9, 2007, the Chicago City Council approved the final design of the Chicago Spire.\n\nMarketing\nBy June 2008, Shelbourne had sold more than 350 of the 1,193 units—more than half of those to foreign investors in markets where certain United States Securities and Exchange Commission regulations do not apply. Shelbourne announced on September 30, 2008 that the building's penthouse had been sold to Beanie Babies manufacturer Ty Warner. Kelleher offered to rent out units at a guaranteed 7.5% return to spur sales. The approach is common outside the United States where the tower was marketed more heavily and was meant to spur sales of the smallest units, which are the most likely to be purchased as rental property investments by foreigners.\n\nFinancial crisis and suspension of construction\nBy October 2008, the late-2000s recession was beginning to affect the project. Construction was suspended and the tower's architect, Santiago Calatrava, placed an $11.34 million lien on the construction site, stating that Kelleher had not yet paid him for his work. Within a few months Anglo Irish Bank, the primary lender for the project, was on the brink of financial collapse. The bank's stocks had lost nearly all of their value and Anglo Irish Bank was facing nationalization. Due to the bank's dire financial situation, Shelbourne Development was forced to suspend construction, and would eventually have to pay back the $69.5 million (USD) it had already borrowed.\nAdditional litigation and liens threatened the project by autumn 2009. The owner of the NBC Tower in Chicago sued to evict Shelbourne Development from their sales office, where extensive modeling of Chicago Spire units had been installed. The lawsuit alleged that Shelbourne was behind $316,000 (USD) in lease payments. In addition to this and other liens listed on the property, Bank of America filed a lawsuit against Shelbourne Development for $4.92 million (USD). The lawsuit was an attempt to collect that sum on two unpaid loans used for initial construction at the Chicago Spire site.\nAfter these setbacks, the AFL–CIO and Kelleher announced in late 2009 that they were discussing the potential for a $170 million (USD) land loan that would retire Kelleher's loan from Anglo Irish Bank, pay off the outstanding liens, and restart work in exchange for making the construction a complete union job. Due to the lack of construction and the sluggish economy, Chicago unions were desperate to find work for their employees as they faced near 30% unemployment. Construction of the Chicago Spire would have provided approximately 900 full-time jobs to union members for four years if construction had resumed. In addition to the $194 million (USD) that Kelleher has invested personally in the project already, backup financing of an unspecified amount and from an unknown source in the form of mezzanine capital and bridge loans has been guaranteed and would have kicked in automatically if the $170 million (USD) AFL-CIO loan had been secured.\nBut within weeks of the official announcement that Kelleher was searching for union bailouts, four major labor union investment funds declined to offer Shelbourne Development any loans. Kelleher continued to search for financing. Shelbourne Development faced eviction from its offices on the 50th floor of 111 South Wacker Drive on which Shelbourne owed $27,600 in unpaid rent. Earlier in the year, the spire's Chicago sales office had been ejected from the nearby NBC Tower.\nIn October 2010 Anglo Irish Bank Corp. filed a $77 million foreclosure lawsuit against Kelleher, claiming that loans made to Kelleher's development company had been in default for a year. The bank was expected to take possession of the site. By the end of the year, courts handed control of the site to a receiver, leaving the project (at the time) dead. In addition, two Chicago firms purchased the tax lien certificates on the property.\n\nEnd of the project\nIn 2013, with the Chicago Spire site for sale by Ireland's National Asset Management Agency (NAMA), interest resumed, drawing in at least a half-dozen offers for the property. Under the involuntary bankruptcy ruling in October 2013, Shelbourne had until the end of March 2014 to obtain approval of a reorganization plan, and was considering a bid to take back control of the property, reigniting hope that the skyscraper might actually be built.\nHowever, on October 31, 2014, the developer failed to make a required payment to Related Midwest and Related filed suit to compel Shelbourne to turn over the deed to the property. On 4 November 2016, Garrett Kelleher signed over the property located at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive to Related Midwest. President Curt Bailey said that Related Midwest would not build the Spire.\nIn February 2016, Shelbourne sought court approval to take up an offer of up to $135 million from Atlas Apartment Holdings intended to underpin the project's emergence from bankruptcy, with a deadline of August 31, 2016 for having a court-approved reorganization plan. At a hearing on March 11, 2016, Shelbourne announced that it had reached agreement on a repayment plan with the project's creditors, including Related Midwest, which had bought up much of the project's debt. Assuming the project finds funding to satisfy that agreement, Atlas said that the building would be built and that Atlas would control the project, but that Kelleher would still be the developer, with the intention of building the same building planned prior to the suspension of construction.\nIn early 2018, the former developer Garrett Kelleher launched a $1.2 billion (USD) lawsuit, in the US Federal District Court in Illinois, against NAMA alleging that the agency destroyed his chances of building the Chicago Spire through a combination of \"sheer spite\" and \"consistent incompetence\". The lawsuit is formally brought by Kelleher's company, Shelbourne North Water Street Corporation.\n\nFuture site development\nIn 2016, Crain's Chicago Business reported that Related Midwest had hired former SOM architect Michael Pfeffer to guide the design of developments on the former Chicago Spire site. Although President Curt Bailey disclosed no project details—such as whether, for example, Related Midwest plans to build one big tower or multiple structures on the site—he did announce the development firm's intent to discuss plan outlines with the public in 2017.\nIn 2018, it was revealed that Related Midwest will build two skyscrapers at the site of the Spire. The taller of the two would include 300 condominiums and a 175-room luxury hotel and the other 550 apartments. The two tower plan has been approved by the city and the development will be called 400 Lake Shore Drive.\n\nLocation\nThe skyscraper was being constructed at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive, on Chicago's waterfront west of Navy Pier and northeast of the Loop, in the Streeterville neighborhood of the Near North Side community area. The site is at the junction of Lake Michigan and the Chicago River, and is bordered by the Ogden Slip of the Chicago River to the north, North Lake Shore Drive to the east, the Chicago River to the south, and existing residential property to the west. The site was originally zoned for two 35 to 50-story buildings. Originally, it was to be sold by a joint venture of LR Development Company of Chicago and JER Partners of Virginia for $64 million to Christopher Carley of the Fordham Company. After numerous short-term extensions, and later Carley's failure to obtain financing, Kelleher of Shelbourne Development purchased the land instead and pledged to finance the rest of the project.\n\nDuSable Park\nWhen the project was first announced, the Fordham Company pledged almost $500,000 to assist in the development of the city's proposed DuSable Park, which would adjoin the property of the Chicago Spire. DuSable Park would cover 3.24 acres (1.31 ha) and a $11.4 million budget was planned for its renovation. On March 26, 2007, Shelbourne pledged to pay $6 million toward the development of the park, making up the deficit left over from the city's own initial pledge of $6 million and far exceeding the Fordham Co's initial offer. In May 2007 Shelbourne's pledge jumped to $9.6 million. Soil tests performed in December 2000 on the soil of the proposed park showed contamination of radioactive thorium. Thorium was used by the Lindsay Light Company, which operated a location nearby. After the closing of the location in the 1930s, contaminated soil was dumped on the location of the proposed park. In March 2003, the Chicago Park District stated that the thorium clean-up on that land was incomplete. Hazards of contamination can be avoided by laying a minimum of 6 inches (15 cm) of concrete over any affected soil, an approach that would be more feasible for the site of the Chicago Spire than for the adjacent park.\nIn 2012 the Chicago Park District received funding from the EPA for remediation of the site, bagging the radioactive soil and shipping it to a Superfund site. By summer 2013 the Park District website reported the remediation had been completed by September 2012.\n\nArchitecture\nAs with many of his designs, Calatrava was inspired by themes and designs in nature for the tall, twisting skyscraper. He likened the structure to an imaginary smoke spiral coming from a campfire near the Chicago River lit by Native Americans indigenous to the area, and also related the building's newly designed pinnacle to the \"graceful\" and \"rotating forms\" of a snail shell.\nStanding at 2,000 feet (610 m), the Chicago Spire would have further transformed the always-growing Chicago skyline. Plans for the tower included 1,193 condominiums with each of the building's 150 stories rotated 2.4 degrees from the one below it for a total 360-degree rotation. In February 2008, prices for the condominiums were announced as ranging from $750,000 to US$40 million. For supplemental structural support, each floor was to be surrounded by cantilevered corners and four concave sides. Similar to the Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) and John Hancock Center observation decks, the Chicago Spire design included a community room on the top floor offering residents a view of four U.S. states. The design for the soaring four story lobby of the skyscraper included translucent glass walls framed by arching, steel-reinforced concrete vaults. The building has been described as a giant \"drill bit\" by the public and others in the media have likened it to a \"tall twisting tree\" and a \"blade of grass\".\nThe curved design offered two major benefits to the structure of the building. First, curved designs, such as that found in Calatrava's Turning Torso in Malmö, Sweden, tend to add to the strength of a structure. A similar principle has been used in the past with curved stadium roofs. In addition to structural support, the curved face of the exterior would minimize wind forces. In rectangular buildings, a fluid wind flow puts pressure on the windward face of the building; while air moves around it, a suction is applied to the leeward face. This often causes a sway in tall buildings usually counteracted, at least partially, by stiffening the structure or by using a dynamic wind damper. Since the curved design of the Chicago Spire would not completely negate wind forces, a tapering concrete core and twelve shear walls radiating from it were planned to counteract the remaining wind load.\nAdditionally, the Chicago Spire was designed with world-class sustainable engineering practices to meet Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold recognition. Sustainable features included recycled rainwater, river water used for cooling, ornithologically-sensitive glass to protect migratory birds, intelligent building and management systems, waste storage and recycling management, and monitored outdoor air delivery.\n\nConstruction\nFollowing the city approval, it was announced that construction of the Chicago Spire was to begin in the summer of 2007, with caisson work scheduled to begin as early as June 2007. DuSable Park was designated as a staging area for the construction of the tower. The sales center for the Chicago Spire opened on January 14, 2008.\nOn September 19, 2008, a spokeswoman for the developer announced that construction was continuing on the building, but that the pace of construction would be slowed until the financial markets recovered from the subprime mortgage crisis. Kelleher promised that he still had financial backing, although analysts questioned the ability of the project to survive the current economic decline. A contractor to build the building's superstructure had not yet been named. The October 1, 2008 edition of The Wall Street Journal said that the building foundation was complete and the above ground construction would not continue until the markets recover. The Spire has remained a fenced-off hole in the ground at 400 N. Lake Shore Drive since 2008. But before Shelbourne faced financial difficulties and was forced into bankruptcy, about 370 of the planned 1,200 luxury condos were sold, half of which were to people outside the U.S., according to the suit.\n“Shelbourne remains the only person logically capable of completing it because it still owns the intellectual property necessary to construct it and it still maintains the goodwill of the diverse governmental and community interests without which a project of this dimension would be doomed,” the lawsuit states.\n\nUnderground phase\nCrane parts and construction equipment arrived at the site on June 25, 2007. The following day Shelbourne Development officially announced the first construction contract. In preparation for construction, 34 concrete and steel caissons were drilled 120 feet (37 m) into bedrock underground; this was completed June 25, 2008. A cofferdam with a 104 foot (32 m) diameter and 78 foot (24 m) depth was installed to create a work environment and would have later acted as a foundation for the building's core. Utility upgrades were planned for the surrounding neighborhood.\n\nImages\nSee also\nList of skyscrapers\nList of tallest buildings in Chicago\nList of tallest buildings in the United States\nList of buildings with 100 floors or more\nWorld's tallest structures\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nFurther reading\n\nKeegan, E. (2005). Calatrava designing massive tower in Chicago. Architectural Record, 193, 29.\nMcKeoug, T. (2006). Artist at work: Santiago Calatrava. Azure, 22, 56–61.\nNobel, P. (2005). Onward and upward? Four years after 9/11 – at perhaps the peak of the real estate bubble – very tall has never been hotter. Metropolis, 25, 66–72.\nPridmore, J., & Larson, G.A. (2005) Chicago Architecture and Design : Revised and expanded. Harry N. Abrams, Inc.: New York.\n\n\n== External links ==",
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"paragraph_text": "Coit Tower (also known as the Coit Memorial Tower) is a 210-foot (64 m) tower in the Telegraph Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, California, overlooking the city and San Francisco Bay. The tower, in the city's Pioneer Park, was built between 1932 and 1933 using Lillie Hitchcock Coit's bequest to beautify the city of San Francisco. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 29, 2008.\nThe Art Deco tower, built of unpainted reinforced concrete, was designed by architects Arthur Brown Jr. and Henry Temple Howard. The interior features fresco murals in the American Social Realism style, painted by 22 different onsite artists and their numerous assistants. Three artists preferred oil on canvas and worked offsite. One artist preferred egg tempera rather than fresco.\nIt is often erroneously stated that the structure was dedicated to the volunteer firemen who had died in San Francisco's five major fires, but that is not accurate. The tower was constructed as the result of a bequest by Lillie Hitchcock Coit, whose will included two bequests, one to create a memorial to the city's volunteer firefighters, which was done by statuary in Washington Square, and the other to beautify the city. Coit Tower is the result of the second bequest. A concrete relief of a phoenix by sculptor Robert Boardman Howard is placed above the main entrance. It was commissioned by the architect and cast as part of the building.\nAlthough an apocryphal story claims that the tower was designed to resemble a fire hose nozzle due to Coit's affinity with the San Francisco firefighters of the day, the resemblance is coincidental.\n\nHistory\nTelegraph Hill, the tower's location, has been described as \"the most optimal 360 degree viewing point to the San Francisco Bay and five surrounding counties.\" In 1849, it became the site of a two-story observation deck, from which information about incoming ships was broadcast to city residents using an optical semaphore system, replaced in 1853 by an electrical telegraph that was destroyed by a storm in 1870.\nCoit Tower was paid for with money left by Lillie Hitchcock Coit (1843–1929), a wealthy socialite who loved to chase fires in the early days of the city's history. Before December 1866, there was no city fire department, and fires in the city, which broke out regularly in the wooden buildings, were extinguished by several volunteer fire companies. Coit was one of the more eccentric characters in the history of North Beach and Telegraph Hill, smoking cigars and wearing trousers long before it was socially acceptable for women to do so. She was an avid gambler and often dressed like a man in order to gamble in the males-only establishments that dotted North Beach.\n\nCoit's fortune funded the monument four years following her death in 1929. She had a special relationship with the city's firefighters. At the age of fifteen she witnessed the Knickerbocker Engine Co. No. 5 in response to a fire call up on Telegraph Hill when they were shorthanded; she threw her school books to the ground and pitched in to help, calling out to other bystanders to help get the engine up the hill to the fire, to get the first water onto the blaze. After that Coit became the Engine Co. mascot and could barely be constrained by her parents from jumping into action at the sound of every fire bell. She frequently rode with the Knickerbocker Engine Co. 5, especially in street parades and celebrations in which the Engine Co. participated. Through her youth and adulthood Coit was recognized as an honorary firefighter.\nIn her will she specified that one third of her fortune, amounting to $118,000, \"be expended in an appropriate manner for the purpose of adding to the beauty of the city which I have always loved.\" Two memorials were built in her name. One was Coit Tower, and the other was a sculpture depicting three firemen, one of them carrying a woman in his arms.\nThe San Francisco County Board of Supervisors proposed that Coit's bequest be used for a road at Lake Merced. This proposal brought disapproval from the estate's executors, who expressed a desire that the county find \"ways and means of expending this money on a memorial that in itself would be an entity and not a unit of public development\". Art Commission president Herbert Fleishhacker suggested a memorial on Telegraph Hill, which was approved by the estate executors. An additional $7,000 in city funds was appropriated, and a design competition was initiated. The winner was architect Arthur Brown, Jr, whose design was completed and dedicated on October 8, 1933.\nThe following month Honore Bowlby-Gledhill, proprietor of the Dead Fish Cafe (an 'artists' restaurant') in Telegraph Hill, was charged (under the name 'Helen Smith') with shooting a pistol at the tower. Bowlby-Gledhill was quoted as objecting to the tower because it 'looked like a silo'.\nCoit Tower was listed as a San Francisco Designated Landmark in 1984 and on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008. Although Coit Tower itself is not technically a California Historical Landmark, the state historical plaque for Telegraph Hill is located in the tower's lobby, marking the site of the original signal station.\nThe San Francisco Arts Commission ordered the removal of the Statue of Christopher Columbus that had stood outside the entrance of the tower since 1957, following numerous other removals of controversial statues during the George Floyd protests that began in May 2020, and it was removed on June 18, 2020.\n\nArchitecture\nBrown's competition design envisioned a restaurant in the tower, which was changed to an exhibition area in the final version. The design uses three nesting concrete cylinders, the outermost a tapering fluted 180-foot (55 m) shaft that supports the viewing platform. An intermediate shaft contains a stairway, and an inner shaft houses the elevator. The observation deck is 32 feet (9.8 m) below the top, with an arcade and skylights above it. A rotunda at the base houses display space and a gift shop.\nPotable water is pumped from a water main at street level to two 1,000 US gal (3,800 L) tanks on the fifth floor, and gravity is used to feed all systems in the tower; a booster pump was installed later at the tanks to provide adequate pressure for the restrooms. Because of this arrangement, the murals (on the second and ground floors) are vulnerable to water damage from system leaks, which could be avoided if adequate pressure was available from the water supply at the street.\n\nMural project\nThe Coit Tower murals in the American Social Realism style formed the pilot project of the Public Works of Art Project, the first of the New Deal federal employment programs for artists. Ralph Stackpole and Bernard Zakheim successfully sought the commission in 1933, and supervised the muralists, including Maxine Albro, Victor Arnautoff, Jane Berlandina, Ray Bertrand, Ray Boynton, Ralph Chessé, Rinaldo Cuneo, Ben Cunningham, Mallette \"Harold\" Dean, Parker Hall, Edith Hamlin, George Albert Harris, William Hesthal, John Langley Howard, Lucien Labaudt, Gordon Langdon, Jose Moya del Pino Otis Oldfield, Frederick Olmsted Jr., Suzanne Scheuer, Edward Terada, Frede Vidar, and Clifford Wight. Many were faculty and students of the California School of Fine Arts (CSFA).\nThese artists (chosen by Walter Heil, director of the de Young Museum, together with other officials) were each paid $25 to $45 per week to depict \"aspects of life in California.\" The most well-known of them were assigned sections that were 10 by 36 feet (3.0 by 11.0 m) in size, while less famous artists were confined to 10 by 4 feet (3.0 by 1.2 m).\n\nThemes\nThe artists were committed in varying degrees to racial equality and to leftist and Marxist political ideas, which are strongly expressed in the paintings. Bernard Zakheim's mural Library 7 depicts fellow artist John Langley Howard crumpling a newspaper in his left hand as he reaches for a shelved copy of Karl Marx's Das Kapital (here spelled as Das Capital) with his right. Workers of all races are shown as equals, often in the heroic poses of Socialist realism, while well-dressed racially white members of the capitalist classes enjoy the fruit of their labor.\nVictor Arnautoff's City Life 9 includes the periodicals The New Masses and The Daily Worker in the scene's news stand rack.\nJohn Langley Howard's mural California Industrial Scenes 2 depicts an ethnically diverse Labor March as well as showing a destitute family panning for gold while a wealthy, heavily caricatured ensemble observes.\nStackpole's Industries of California 5 was composed along the same lines as an early study of the destroyed Man at the Crossroads.\nThe youngest of the muralists, George Albert Harris, painted a mural called Banking and Law 10 . In the mural, the world of finance is represented by the Federal Reserve Bank and a stock market ticker (in which stocks are shown as declining) and law is illustrated by a law library. Some of the book titles that appear in the law library, such as Civil, Penal, and Moral Codes, are legitimate, while others list fellow muralists as authors, in a joking or derogatory manner.\nAfter Diego Rivera's Man at the Crossroads mural was destroyed by its Rockefeller Center patrons for the inclusion of an image of Lenin, the Coit Tower muralists protested, picketing the tower. Sympathy for Rivera led some artists to incorporate references to the Rivera incident; in Zakheim's Library panel 7 , Stackpole is painted reading a newspaper headline announcing the destruction of Rivera's mural.\n\nCensorship\nAfter most of the Coit Tower murals had already been completed, the 1934 West Coast waterfront strike, taking place nearby at the foot of Telegraph Hill, caused government officials, shipping companies, some union leaders and the press to raise fears about communist agitation. This \"red scare\" has been identified as playing a \"crucial role\" in a subsequent controversy that mainly focused on two of the murals:\n\n 4a and 4b : These portraits were linked originally by a third small fresco in which Clifford Wight portrayed capitalism, the New Deal and communism, the three prominent economic systems of the era, with the communism part containing a hammer and sickle and the caption \"Workers of the World Unite.\"\n 2 : John Langley Howard's Industry mural (designed with the support of his architect brother Henry Howard), which depicts California industrial scenes including out-of-work men, and angered conservatives by showing a banner of the communist periodical Western Worker above a crowd of workers.\nOn June 23, 1934, the conservative banker Herbert Fleishhacker, the most powerful member of the committee allocating funds from the Public Works of Art Project, asked Heil to inspect the art, who telegraphed back that some artists had included \"details ... and certain symbols which might be interpreted as communistic propaganda,\" and that \"editors of influential papers ... have warned us that they would take hostile attitude towards whole project unless those details be removed.\" The official opening of the tower, planned for July 7, was canceled and Fleishhacker ordered to close the tower and to block the view from outside through the windows. Subsequently, articles in the San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner attacked the project, sometimes using misleading representations of the artworks in question, while Wight refused to remove the hammer and sickle symbol from his mural. However, federal government officials decided that the offending parts would need to be painted over, and 16 of the artists signed a statement saying that they opposed the hammer and sickle symbol and that it \"has no place in the subject matter assigned.\" Eventually, only the hammer and sickle and the \"Western Worker\" banner were removed, and Coit Tower opened on October 12, 1934.\n\nTechnical details and access\nTwo of the murals are of San Francisco Bay scenes. Most murals are done in fresco; the exceptions are one mural done in egg tempera (Home Life by Jane Berlandina, 27 : upstairs, in the last decorated room) and the works done in the elevator foyer, which are oil on canvas ( 16 , 17 , 18 , and 19 ).: 65, 118 While most of the murals were restored in 1990 and again in 2014 through cleaning and touching up scratches, the murals in the spiral stairway exit to the observation platform (Powell Street by Lucien Labaudt) were not restored but durably painted over with epoxy surfacing.\nMost of the murals are open for public viewing without charge during open hours, although there are ongoing negotiations by the Recreation and Parks Department of San Francisco to begin charging visitors a fee to enter the mural rotunda. The murals in the spiral stairway and second floor, normally closed to the public, are open for viewing through tours. Labaudt's Powell Street runs along both sides of the spiral staircase; the second-floor murals all carry recreational themes.\nSince 2004 artist Ben Wood collaborated with other artists on large scale video projections onto the exterior of Coit Tower, in 2004, 2006, 2008 & 2009.\n\nPanorama\nThe tower, which stands atop Telegraph Hill in San Francisco's Pioneer Park, offers panoramic views of San Francisco that take in \"crooked\" Lombard Street, Nob Hill, Russian Hill, Twin Peaks, Aquatic Park, Pier 39, the Financial District and the Ferry Building, as well as San Francisco Bay itself including Angel Island, Alcatraz, Treasure Island, and the Golden Gate and Bay Bridges.\n\nGallery\nIn popular culture\nCoit Tower is a prominent landscape feature in Alfred Hitchcock's 1958 film, Vertigo, set largely in San Francisco. The character of Madeleine (Kim Novak) tells Scotty (James Stewart) that she has used the tower to orient herself to his apartment, as she did not know his street address; he responds this is the first time he had been grateful for the tower. Art director Henry Bumstead, who worked on Vertigo, noted that Hitchcock was adamant that Coit Tower should be seen in the film from the apartment of the lead character, portrayed by Stewart. When Bumstead asked why, Hitchcock said, \"It's a phallic symbol.\"\nCoit Tower is also featured in:\n\nAfter the Thin Man (1936 film): the roundabout in front of the tower served as the driveway for Nick and Nora Charles' home in San Francisco.\nThe Strawberry Statement (1970 film)\nThe Enforcer (1976)\nTex Murphy series (1989–2014)\nCalifornia's Gold Episode 12004\nPBS The History Detectives Episode 709 August 24, 2009.\nJust like Heaven (2005)\nCats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore (2010)\n\nSee also\n49-Mile Scenic Drive\nHistory of San Francisco\nList of San Francisco Designated Landmarks\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nCoit Tower at Structurae",
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] | How many copies of Coit Tower would have to be stacked on top of the Willis Tower in order to exceed the height of the Chicago Spire, had it been completed? Give your answer as the lowest possible whole number of Coit Towers. | [] | 3 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, often shortened to Hamlet (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play. Set in Denmark, the play depicts Prince Hamlet and his attempts to exact revenge against his uncle, Claudius, who has murdered Hamlet's father in order to seize his throne and marry Hamlet's mother. Hamlet is considered among the \"most powerful and influential tragedies in the English language\", with a story capable of \"seemingly endless retelling and adaptation by others\". It is widely considered one of the greatest plays of all time. Three different early versions of the play are extant: the First Quarto (Q1, 1603); the Second Quarto (Q2, 1604); and the First Folio (F1, 1623). Each version includes lines and passages missing from the others. \nMany works have been pointed to as possible sources for Shakespeare's play, from ancient Greek tragedies to Elizabethan dramas. The editors of the Arden Shakespeare question the idea of \"source hunting\", pointing out that it presupposes that authors always require ideas from other works for their own, and suggests that no author can have an original idea or be an originator. When Shakespeare wrote, there were many stories about sons avenging the murder of their fathers, and many about clever avenging sons pretending to be foolish in order to outsmart their foes. This would include the story of the ancient Roman, Lucius Junius Brutus, which Shakespeare apparently knew, as well as the story of Amleth, which was preserved in Latin by 13th-century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus in his Gesta Danorum, and printed in Paris in 1514. The Amleth story was subsequently adapted and then published in French in 1570 by the 16th-century scholar François de Belleforest. It has a number of plot elements and major characters in common with Shakespeare's Hamlet, and lacks others that are found in Shakespeare. Belleforest's story was first published in English in 1608, after Hamlet had been written, though it's possible that Shakespeare had encountered it in the French-language version.\n\nCharacters\nPlot\nAct I\nPrince Hamlet of Denmark is the son of the recently deceased King Hamlet, and nephew of King Claudius, his father's brother and successor. Claudius hastily married King Hamlet's widow, Gertrude, Hamlet's mother, and took the throne for himself. Denmark has a long-standing feud with neighbouring Norway, in which King Hamlet slew King Fortinbras of Norway in a battle some years ago. Although Denmark defeated Norway and the Norwegian throne fell to King Fortinbras's infirm brother, Denmark fears that an invasion led by the dead Norwegian king's son, Prince Fortinbras, is imminent.\nOn a cold night on the ramparts of Elsinore, the Danish royal castle, the sentries Bernardo and Marcellus discuss a ghost resembling the late King Hamlet which they have recently seen, and bring Prince Hamlet's friend Horatio as a witness. After the ghost appears again, the three vow to tell Prince Hamlet what they have witnessed.\nThe court gathers the next day, and King Claudius and Queen Gertrude discuss affairs of state with their elderly adviser Polonius. Claudius grants permission for Polonius's son Laertes to return to school in France, and he sends envoys to inform the King of Norway about Fortinbras. Claudius also questions Hamlet regarding his continuing to grieve for his father, and forbids him to return to his university in Wittenberg. After the court exits, Hamlet despairs of his father's death and his mother's hasty remarriage. Learning of the ghost from Horatio, Hamlet resolves to see it himself.\n\nAs Polonius's son Laertes prepares to depart for France, Polonius offers him advice that culminates in the maxim \"to thine own self be true.\" Polonius's daughter, Ophelia, admits her interest in Hamlet, but Laertes warns her against seeking the prince's attention, and Polonius orders her to reject his advances. That night on the rampart, the ghost appears to Hamlet, tells the prince that he was murdered by Claudius (by pouring poison into his ear as he slept), and demands that Hamlet avenge the murder. Hamlet agrees, and the ghost vanishes. The prince confides to Horatio and the sentries that from now on he plans to \"put an antic disposition on\", or act as though he has gone mad. Hamlet forces them to swear to keep his plans for revenge secret; however, he remains uncertain of the ghost's reliability.\n\nAct II\nOphelia rushes to her father, telling him that Hamlet arrived at her door the prior night half-undressed and behaving erratically. Polonius blames love for Hamlet's madness and resolves to inform Claudius and Gertrude. As he enters to do so, the king and queen are welcoming Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, two student acquaintances of Hamlet, to Elsinore. The royal couple has requested that the two students investigate the cause of Hamlet's mood and behaviour. Additional news requires that Polonius wait to be heard: messengers from Norway inform Claudius that the king of Norway has rebuked Prince Fortinbras for attempting to re-fight his father's battles. The forces that Fortinbras had conscripted to march against Denmark will instead be sent against Poland, though they will pass through Danish territory to get there.\nPolonius tells Claudius and Gertrude his theory regarding Hamlet's behaviour, and then speaks to Hamlet in a hall of the castle to try to learn more. Hamlet feigns madness and subtly insults Polonius all the while. When Rosencrantz and Guildenstern arrive, Hamlet greets his \"friends\" warmly but quickly discerns that they are there to spy on him for Claudius. Hamlet admits that he is upset at his situation but refuses to give the true reason, instead remarking \"What a piece of work is a man\". Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell Hamlet that they have brought along a troupe of actors that they met while travelling to Elsinore. Hamlet, after welcoming the actors and dismissing his friends-turned-spies, asks them to deliver a soliloquy about the death of King Priam and Queen Hecuba at the climax of the Trojan War. Hamlet then asks the actors to stage The Murder of Gonzago, a play featuring a death in the style of his father's murder. Hamlet intends to study Claudius's reaction to the play, and thereby determine the truth of the ghost's story of Claudius's guilt.\n\nAct III\nPolonius forces Ophelia to return Hamlet's love letters to the prince while he and Claudius secretly watch in order to evaluate Hamlet's reaction. Hamlet is walking alone in the hall as the King and Polonius await Ophelia's entrance. Hamlet muses on thoughts of life versus death. When Ophelia enters and tries to return Hamlet's things, Hamlet accuses her of immodesty and cries \"get thee to a nunnery\", though it is unclear whether this, too, is a show of madness or genuine distress. His reaction convinces Claudius that Hamlet is not mad for love. Shortly thereafter, the court assembles to watch the play Hamlet has commissioned. After seeing the Player King murdered by his rival pouring poison in his ear, Claudius abruptly rises and runs from the room; for Hamlet, this is proof of his uncle's guilt.\n\nGertrude summons Hamlet to her chamber to demand an explanation. Meanwhile, Claudius talks to himself about the impossibility of repenting, since he still has possession of his ill-gotten goods: his brother's crown and wife. He sinks to his knees. Hamlet, on his way to visit his mother, sneaks up behind him but does not kill him, reasoning that killing Claudius while he is praying will send him straight to heaven while his father's ghost is stuck in purgatory. In the queen's bedchamber, Hamlet and Gertrude fight bitterly. Polonius, spying on the conversation from behind a tapestry, calls for help as Gertrude, believing Hamlet wants to kill her, calls out for help herself.\nHamlet, believing it is Claudius, stabs wildly, killing Polonius, but he pulls aside the curtain and sees his mistake. In a rage, Hamlet brutally insults his mother for her apparent ignorance of Claudius's villainy, but the ghost enters and reprimands Hamlet for his inaction and harsh words. Unable to see or hear the ghost herself, Gertrude takes Hamlet's conversation with it as further evidence of madness. After begging the queen to stop sleeping with Claudius, Hamlet leaves, dragging Polonius's corpse away.\n\nAct IV\nHamlet jokes with Claudius about where he has hidden Polonius's body, and the king, fearing for his life, sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to accompany Hamlet to England with a sealed letter to the English king requesting that Hamlet be executed immediately.\nUnhinged by grief at Polonius's death, Ophelia wanders Elsinore. Laertes arrives back from France, enraged by his father's death and his sister's madness. Claudius convinces Laertes that Hamlet is solely responsible, but a letter soon arrives indicating that Hamlet has returned to Denmark, foiling Claudius's plan. Claudius switches tactics, proposing a fencing match between Laertes and Hamlet to settle their differences. Laertes will be given a poison-tipped foil, and, if that fails, Claudius will offer Hamlet poisoned wine as a congratulation. Gertrude interrupts to report that Ophelia has drowned, though it is unclear whether it was suicide or an accident caused by her madness.\n\nAct V\nHoratio has received a letter from Hamlet, explaining that the prince escaped by negotiating with pirates who attempted to attack his England-bound ship, and the friends reunite offstage. Two gravediggers discuss Ophelia's apparent suicide while digging her grave. Hamlet arrives with Horatio and banters with one of the gravediggers, who unearths the skull of a jester from Hamlet's childhood, Yorick. Hamlet picks up the skull, saying \"Alas, poor Yorick\" as he contemplates mortality. Ophelia's funeral procession approaches, led by Laertes. Hamlet and Horatio initially hide, but when Hamlet realizes that Ophelia is the one being buried, he reveals himself, proclaiming his love for her. Laertes and Hamlet fight by Ophelia's graveside, but the brawl is broken up.\nBack at Elsinore, Hamlet explains to Horatio that he had discovered Claudius's letter among Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's belongings and replaced it with a forged copy indicating that his former friends should be killed instead. A foppish courtier, Osric, interrupts the conversation to deliver the fencing challenge to Hamlet. Hamlet, despite Horatio's pleas, accepts it. Hamlet does well at first, leading the match by two hits to none, and Gertrude raises a toast to him using the poisoned glass of wine Claudius had set aside for Hamlet. Claudius tries to stop her but is too late: she drinks, and Laertes realizes the plot will be revealed. Laertes slashes Hamlet with his poisoned blade. In the ensuing scuffle, they switch weapons, and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned sword. Gertrude collapses and, claiming she has been poisoned, dies. In his dying moments, Laertes reconciles with Hamlet and reveals Claudius's plan. Hamlet rushes at Claudius and kills him. As the poison takes effect, Hamlet, hearing that Fortinbras is marching through the area, names the Norwegian prince as his successor. Horatio, distraught at the thought of being the last survivor and living whilst Hamlet does not, says he will commit suicide by drinking the dregs of Gertrude's poisoned wine, but Hamlet begs him to live on and tell his story. Hamlet dies in Horatio's arms, proclaiming \"the rest is silence\". Fortinbras, who was ostensibly marching towards Poland with his army, arrives at the palace, along with an English ambassador bringing news of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern's deaths. Horatio promises to recount the full story of what happened, and Fortinbras, seeing the entire Danish royal family dead, takes the crown for himself and orders a military funeral to honour Hamlet.\n\nSources\nHamlet-like legends are so widely found (for example in Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Byzantium, and Arabia) that the core \"hero-as-fool\" theme is possibly Indo-European in origin. Several ancient written precursors to Hamlet can be identified. The first is the anonymous Scandinavian Saga of Hrolf Kraki. In this, the murdered king has two sons—Hroar and Helgi—who spend most of the story in disguise, under false names, rather than feigning madness, in a sequence of events that differs from Shakespeare's. The second is the Roman legend of Brutus, recorded in two separate Latin works. Its hero, Lucius (\"shining, light\"), changes his name and persona to Brutus (\"dull, stupid\"), playing the role of a fool to avoid the fate of his father and brothers, and eventually slaying his family's killer, King Tarquinius. A 17th-century Nordic scholar, Torfaeus, compared the Icelandic hero Amlóði (Amlodi) and the hero Prince Ambales (from the Ambales Saga) to Shakespeare's Hamlet. Similarities include the prince's feigned madness, his accidental killing of the king's counsellor in his mother's bedroom, and the eventual slaying of his uncle.\nMany of the earlier legendary elements are interwoven in the 13th-century \"Life of Amleth\" (Latin: Vita Amlethi) by Saxo Grammaticus, part of Gesta Danorum. Written in Latin, it reflects classical Roman concepts of virtue and heroism, and was widely available in Shakespeare's day. Significant parallels include the prince feigning madness, his mother's hasty marriage to the usurper, the prince killing a hidden spy, and the prince substituting the execution of two retainers for his own. A reasonably faithful version of Saxo's story was translated into French in 1570 by François de Belleforest, in his Histoires tragiques. Belleforest embellished Saxo's text substantially, almost doubling its length, and introduced the hero's melancholy.\n\nAccording to one theory, Shakespeare's main source may be an earlier play—now lost—known today as the Ur-Hamlet. Possibly written by Thomas Kyd or by Shakespeare, the Ur-Hamlet would have existed by 1589, and would have incorporated a ghost. Shakespeare's company, the Chamberlain's Men, may have purchased that play and performed a version for some time, which Shakespeare reworked. However, no copy of the Ur-Hamlet has survived, and it is impossible to compare its language and style with the known works of any of its putative authors. In 1936 Andrew Cairncross suggested that, until more becomes known, it may be assumed that Shakespeare wrote the Ur-Hamlet. Eric Sams lists reasons for supporting Shakespeare’s authorship. Harold Jenkins considers that there are no grounds for thinking that the Ur-Hamlet is an early work by Shakespeare, which he then rewrote. Professor Terri Bourus in 2016, one of three general editors of the New Oxford Shakespeare, in her paper \"Enter Shakespeare's Young Hamlet, 1589\" suggests that Shakespeare was \"interested in sixteenth-century French literature, from the very beginning of his career\" and therefore \"did not need Thomas Kyd to pre-digest Belleforest's histoire of Amleth and spoon-feed it to him\". She considers that the hypothesized Ur-Hamlet is Shakespeare's Q1 text, and that this derived directly from Belleforest's French version.\nThe precise combination of Shakespeare's use of the Ur-Hamlet, Belleforest, Saxo, or Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy as sources for Hamlet is not known. However, elements of Belleforest's version which are not in Saxo's story do appear in Shakespeare's play.\nMost scholars reject the idea that Hamlet is in any way connected with Shakespeare's only son, Hamnet Shakespeare, who died in 1596 at age eleven. Conventional wisdom holds that Hamlet is too obviously connected to legend, and the name Hamnet was quite popular at the time. However, Stephen Greenblatt has argued that the coincidence of the names and Shakespeare's grief for the loss of his son may lie at the heart of the tragedy. He notes that the name of Hamnet Sadler, the Stratford neighbour after whom Hamnet was named, was often written as Hamlet Sadler and that, in the loose orthography of the time, the names were virtually interchangeable.\nScholars have often speculated that Hamlet's Polonius might have been inspired by William Cecil (Lord Burghley)—Lord High Treasurer and chief counsellor to Queen Elizabeth I. E. K. Chambers suggested Polonius's advice to Laertes may have echoed Burghley's to his son Robert Cecil. John Dover Wilson thought it almost certain that the figure of Polonius caricatured Burghley. A. L. Rowse speculated that Polonius's tedious verbosity might have resembled Burghley's. Lilian Winstanley thought the name Corambis (in the First Quarto) did suggest Cecil and Burghley. Harold Jenkins considers the idea of Polonius as a caricature of Burghley to be conjecture, perhaps based on the similar role they each played at court, and perhaps also based on the similarity between Burghley addressing his Ten Precepts to his son, and Polonius offering \"precepts\" to his son, Laertes. Jenkins suggests that any personal satire may be found in the name \"Polonius\", which might point to a Polish or Polonian connection. G. R. Hibbard hypothesised that differences in names (Corambis/Polonius:Montano/Raynoldo) between the First Quarto and other editions might reflect a desire not to offend scholars at Oxford University. (Robert Pullen, was the founder of Oxford University, and John Rainolds, was the President of Corpus Christi College.)\n\nDate\n\"Any dating of Hamlet must be tentative\", states the New Cambridge editor, Phillip Edwards. MacCary suggests 1599 or 1600; James Shapiro offers late 1600 or early 1601; Wells and Taylor suggest that the play was written in 1600 and revised later; the New Cambridge editor settles on mid-1601; the New Swan Shakespeare Advanced Series editor agrees with 1601; Thompson and Taylor, tentatively (\"according to whether one is the more persuaded by Jenkins or by Honigmann\") suggest a terminus ad quem of either Spring 1601 or sometime in 1600.\nThe earliest date estimate relies on Hamlet's frequent allusions to Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, itself dated to mid-1599. The latest date estimate is based on an entry, of 26 July 1602, in the Register of the Stationers' Company, indicating that Hamlet was \"latelie Acted by the Lo: Chamberleyne his servantes\".\nIn 1598, Francis Meres published his Palladis Tamia, a survey of English literature from Chaucer to its present day, within which twelve of Shakespeare's plays are named. Hamlet is not among them, suggesting that it had not yet been written. As Hamlet was very popular, Bernard Lott, the series editor of New Swan, believes it \"unlikely that he [Meres] would have overlooked ... so significant a piece\".\nThe phrase \"little eyases\" in the First Folio (F1) may allude to the Children of the Chapel, whose popularity in London forced the Globe company into provincial touring. This became known as the War of the Theatres, and supports a 1601 dating. Katherine Duncan-Jones accepts a 1600–01 attribution for the date Hamlet was written, but notes that the Lord Chamberlain's Men, playing Hamlet in the 3000-capacity Globe, were unlikely to be put to any disadvantage by an audience of \"barely one hundred\" for the Children of the Chapel's equivalent play, Antonio's Revenge; she believes that Shakespeare, confident in the superiority of his own work, was making a playful and charitable allusion to his friend John Marston's very similar piece.\nA contemporary of Shakespeare's, Gabriel Harvey, wrote a marginal note in his copy of the 1598 edition of Chaucer's works, which some scholars use as dating evidence. Harvey's note says that \"the wiser sort\" enjoy Hamlet, and implies that the Earl of Essex—executed in February 1601 for rebellion—was still alive. Other scholars consider this inconclusive. Edwards, for example, concludes that the \"sense of time is so confused in Harvey's note that it is really of little use in trying to date Hamlet\". This is because the same note also refers to Spenser and Watson as if they were still alive (\"our flourishing metricians\"), but also mentions \"Owen's new epigrams\", published in 1607.\n\nTexts\nThree early editions of the text, each different, have survived, making attempts to establish a single \"authentic\" text problematic.\n\nFirst Quarto (Q1): In 1603 the booksellers Nicholas Ling and John Trundell published, and Valentine Simmes printed, the so-called \"bad\" first quarto, under the name The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet Prince of Denmarke. Q1 contains just over half of the text of the later second quarto.\nSecond Quarto (Q2): In 1604 Nicholas Ling published, and James Roberts printed, the second quarto, under the same name as the first. Some copies are dated 1605, which may indicate a second impression; consequently, Q2 is often dated \"1604/5\". Q2 is the longest early edition, although it omits about 77 lines found in F1 (most likely to avoid offending James I's queen, Anne of Denmark).\nFirst Folio (F1): In 1623 Edward Blount and William and Isaac Jaggard published The Tragedie of Hamlet, Prince of Denmarke in the First Folio, the first edition of Shakespeare's Complete Works.\nThis list does not include three additional early texts, John Smethwick's Q3, Q4, and Q5 (1611–37), which are regarded as reprints of Q2 with some alterations.\n\nEarly editors of Shakespeare's works, beginning with Nicholas Rowe (1709) and Lewis Theobald (1733), combined material from the two earliest sources of Hamlet available at the time, Q2 and F1. Each text contains material that the other lacks, with many minor differences in wording: scarcely 200 lines are identical in the two. Editors have combined them in an effort to create one \"inclusive\" text that reflects an imagined \"ideal\" of Shakespeare's original. Theobald's version became standard for a long time, and his \"full text\" approach continues to influence editorial practice to the present day. Some contemporary scholarship, however, discounts this approach, instead considering \"an authentic Hamlet an unrealisable ideal. ... there are texts of this play but no text\". The 2006 publication by Arden Shakespeare of different Hamlet texts in different volumes is perhaps evidence of this shifting focus and emphasis. Other editors have continued to argue the need for well-edited editions taking material from all versions of the play. Colin Burrow has argued that \"most of us should read a text that is made up by conflating all three versions ... it's about as likely that Shakespeare wrote: \"To be or not to be, ay, there's the point\" [in Q1], as that he wrote the works of Francis Bacon. I suspect most people just won't want to read a three-text play ... [multi-text editions are] a version of the play that is out of touch with the needs of a wider public.\"\nTraditionally, editors of Shakespeare's plays have divided them into five acts. None of the early texts of Hamlet, however, were arranged this way, and the play's division into acts and scenes derives from a 1676 quarto. Modern editors generally follow this traditional division but consider it unsatisfactory; for example, after Hamlet drags Polonius's body out of Gertrude's bedchamber, there is an act-break after which the action appears to continue uninterrupted.\n\nQ1 was discovered in 1823. Only two copies are extant. According to Jenkins, \"The unauthorized nature of this quarto is matched by the corruption of its text.\" Yet Q1 has value: it contains stage directions (such as Ophelia entering with a lute and her hair down) that reveal actual stage practices in a way that Q2 and F1 do not; it contains an entire scene (usually labelled 4.6) that does not appear in either Q2 or F1; and it is useful for comparison with the later editions. The major deficiency of Q1 is in the language: particularly noticeable in the opening lines of the famous \"To be, or not to be\" soliloquy: \"To be, or not to be, aye there's the point. / To die, to sleep, is that all? Aye all: / No, to sleep, to dream, aye marry there it goes.\" However, the scene order is more coherent, without the problems of Q2 and F1 of Hamlet seeming to resolve something in one scene and enter the next drowning in indecision. New Cambridge editor Kathleen Irace has noted that \"Q1's more linear plot design is certainly easier [...] to follow [...] but the simplicity of the Q1 plot arrangement eliminates the alternating plot elements that correspond to Hamlet's shifts in mood.\"\nQ1 is considerably shorter than Q2 or F1 and may be a memorial reconstruction of the play as Shakespeare's company performed it, by an actor who played a minor role (most likely Marcellus). Scholars disagree whether the reconstruction was pirated or authorised. It is suggested by Irace that Q1 is an abridged version intended especially for travelling productions, thus the question of length may be considered as separate from issues of poor textual quality. Editing Q1 thus poses problems in whether or not to \"correct\" differences from Q2 and F. Irace, in her introduction to Q1, wrote that \"I have avoided as many other alterations as possible, because the differences...are especially intriguing...I have recorded a selection of Q2/F readings in the collation.\" The idea that Q1 is not riddled with error but is instead eminently fit for the stage has led to at least 28 different Q1 productions since 1881. Other productions have used the probably superior Q2 and Folio texts, but used Q1's running order, in particular moving the to be or not to be soliloquy earlier. Developing this, some editors such as Jonathan Bate have argued that Q2 may represent \"a 'reading' text as opposed to a 'performance' one\" of Hamlet, analogous to how modern films released on disc may include deleted scenes: an edition containing all of Shakespeare's material for the play for the pleasure of readers, so not representing the play as it would have been staged.\n\nAnalysis and criticism\nCritical history\nFrom the early 17th century, the play was famous for its ghost and vivid dramatisation of melancholy and insanity, leading to a procession of mad courtiers and ladies in Jacobean and Caroline drama. Though it remained popular with mass audiences, late 17th-century Restoration critics saw Hamlet as primitive and disapproved of its lack of unity and decorum. This view changed drastically in the 18th century, when critics regarded Hamlet as a hero—a pure, brilliant young man thrust into unfortunate circumstances. \nBy the mid-18th century, however, the advent of Gothic literature brought psychological and mystical readings, returning madness and the ghost to the forefront. Not until the late 18th century did critics and performers begin to view Hamlet as confusing and inconsistent. Before then, he was either mad, or not; either a hero, or not; with no in-betweens. These developments represented a fundamental change in literary criticism, which came to focus more on character and less on plot. In the 18th century, one negative French review of Hamlet would be widely discussed for centuries, in particular in publications throughout the 19th and 20th century. In 1768, Voltaire wrote a negative review of Hamlet, stating that \"it is vulgar and barbarous drama, which would not be tolerated by the vilest populace of France or Italy... one would imagine this piece to be a work of a drunken savage\".\nBy the 19th century, Romantic critics valued Hamlet for its internal, individual conflict reflecting the strong contemporary emphasis on internal struggles and inner character in general. Then too, critics started to focus on Hamlet's delay as a character trait, rather than a plot device. This focus on character and internal struggle continued into the 20th century, when criticism branched in several directions, discussed in context and interpretation below.\n\nDramatic structure\nModern editors have divided the play into five acts, and each act into scenes. The First Folio marks the first two acts only. The quartos do not have such divisions. The division into five acts follows Seneca, who in his plays, regularized the way ancient Greek tragedies contain five episodes, which are separated by four choral odes. In Hamlet the development of the plot or the action are determined by the unfolding of Hamlet's character. The soliloquies do not interrupt the plot, instead they are highlights of each block of action. The plot is the developing revelation of Hamlet's view of what is \"rotten in the state of Denmark.\" The action of the play is driven forward in dialogue; but in the soliloquies time and action stop, the meaning of action is questioned, fog of illusion is broached, and truths are exposed.\nThe contrast between appearance and reality is a significant theme. Hamlet is presented with an image, and then interprets its deeper or darker meaning. Examples begin with Hamlet questioning the reality of the ghost. It continues with Hamlet's taking on an \"antic disposition\" in order to appear mad, though he is not. The contrast (appearance and reality) is also expressed in several \"spying scenes\": Act two begins with Polonius sending Reynaldo to spy on his son, Laertes. Claudius and Polonius spy on Ophelia as she meets with Hamlet. In act two, Claudius asks Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to spy on Hamlet. Similarly, the play-within-a-play is used by Hamlet to reveal his step-father's hidden nature.\nThere is no subplot, but the play presents the affairs of the courtier Polonius, his daughter, Ophelia, and his son, Laertes—who variously deal with madness, love and the death of a father in ways that contrast with Hamlet's. The graveyard scene eases tension prior to the catastrophe, and, as Hamlet holds the skull, it is shown that Hamlet no longer fears damnation in the afterlife, and accepts that there is a \"divinity that shapes our ends\".\nHamlet's enquiring mind has been open to all kinds of ideas, but in act five he has decided on a plan, and in a dialogue with Horatio he seems to answer his two earlier soliloquies on suicide: \"We defy augury. There is special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all. Since no man, of aught he leaves, knows aught, what is't to leave betimes.\"\n\nLength\nThe First Quarto (1603) text of Hamlet contains 15,983 words, the Second Quarto (1604) contains 28,628 words, and the First Folio (1623) contains 27,602 words. Counting the number of lines varies between editions, partly because prose sections in the play may be formatted with varied lengths. Editions of Hamlet that are created by conflating the texts of the Second Quarto and the Folio are said to have approximately 3,900 lines; the number of lines varies between those editions based on formatting the prose sections, counting methods, and how the editors have joined the texts together. Hamlet is by far the longest play that Shakespeare wrote, and one of the longest plays in the Western canon. It might require more than four hours to stage; a typical Elizabethan play would need two to three hours. It is speculated that because of the considerable length of Q2 and F1, there was an expectation that those texts would be abridged for performance, or that Q2 and F1 may have been aimed at a reading audience.\nThat Q1 is so much shorter than Q2 has spurred speculation that Q1 is an early draft, or perhaps an adaptation, a bootleg copy, or a stage adaptation. On the title page of Q2, its text is described as \"newly imprinted and enlarged to almost as much again as it was.\" That is probably a comparison to Q1.\n\nLanguage\nMuch of Hamlet's language is courtly: elaborate, witty discourse, as recommended by Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 etiquette guide, The Courtier. This work specifically advises royal retainers to amuse their masters with inventive language. Osric and Polonius, especially, seem to respect this injunction. Claudius's speech is rich with rhetorical figures—as is Hamlet's and, at times, Ophelia's—while the language of Horatio, the guards, and the gravediggers is simpler. Claudius's high status is reinforced by using the royal first person plural (\"we\" or \"us\"), and anaphora mixed with metaphor to resonate with Greek political speeches.\nOf all the characters, Hamlet has the greatest rhetorical skill. He uses highly developed metaphors, stichomythia, and in nine memorable words deploys both anaphora and asyndeton: \"to die: to sleep— / To sleep, perchance to dream\". In contrast, when occasion demands, he is precise and straightforward, as when he explains his inward emotion to his mother: \"But I have that within which passes show, / These but the trappings and the suits of woe\". At times, he relies heavily on puns to express his true thoughts while simultaneously concealing them. Pauline Kiernan argues that Shakespeare changed English drama forever in Hamlet because he \"showed how a character's language can often be saying several things at once, and contradictory meanings at that, to reflect fragmented thoughts and disturbed feelings\". She gives the example of Hamlet's advice to Ophelia, \"get thee to a nunnery\", which, she claims, is simultaneously a reference to a place of chastity and a slang term for a brothel, reflecting Hamlet's confused feelings about female sexuality. However Harold Jenkins does not agree, having studied the few examples that are used to support that idea, and finds that there is no support for the assumption that \"nunnery\" was used that way in slang, or that Hamlet intended such a meaning. The context of the scene suggests that a nunnery would not be a brothel, but instead a place of renunciation and a \"sanctuary from marriage and from the world’s contamination\". Thompson and Taylor consider the brothel idea incorrect considering that \"Hamlet is trying to deter Ophelia from breeding\".\nHamlet’s first words in the play are a pun; when Claudius addresses him as \"my cousin Hamlet, and my son\", Hamlet says as an aside: \"A little more than kin, and less than kind.\"\nAn unusual rhetorical device, hendiadys, appears in several places in the play. Examples are found in Ophelia's speech at the end of the nunnery scene: \"Th'expectancy and rose of the fair state\" and \"And I, of ladies most deject and wretched\". Many scholars have found it odd that Shakespeare would, seemingly arbitrarily, use this rhetorical form throughout the play. One explanation may be that Hamlet was written later in Shakespeare's life, when he was adept at matching rhetorical devices to characters and the plot. Linguist George T. Wright suggests that hendiadys had been used deliberately to heighten the play's sense of duality and dislocation.\nHamlet's soliloquies have also captured the attention of scholars. Hamlet interrupts himself, vocalising either disgust or agreement with himself and embellishing his own words. He has difficulty expressing himself directly and instead blunts the thrust of his thought with wordplay. It is not until late in the play, after his experience with the pirates, that Hamlet is able to articulate his feelings freely.\n\nContext and interpretation\nReligious\nWritten at a time of religious upheaval and in the wake of the English Reformation, the play is alternately Catholic (or piously medieval) and Protestant (or consciously modern). The ghost describes himself as being in purgatory and as dying without last rites. This and Ophelia's burial ceremony, which is characteristically Catholic, make up most of the play's Catholic connections. Some scholars have observed that revenge tragedies come from Catholic countries such as Italy and Spain, where the revenge tragedies present contradictions of motives, since according to Catholic doctrine the duty to God and family precedes civil justice. Hamlet's conundrum then is whether to avenge his father and kill Claudius or to leave the vengeance to God, as his religion requires.\nMuch of the play's Protestant tones derive from its setting in Denmark—both then and now a predominantly Protestant country, though it is unclear whether the fictional Denmark of the play is intended to portray this implicit fact. Dialogue refers explicitly to the German city of Wittenberg where Hamlet, Horatio, and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern attend university, implying where the Protestant reformer Martin Luther nailed the Ninety-five Theses to the church door in 1517.\n\nPhilosophical\nHamlet is often perceived as a philosophical character, expounding ideas that are now described as relativist, existentialist, and sceptical. For example, he expresses a subjectivistic idea when he says to Rosencrantz: \"there is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so\". The idea that nothing is real except in the mind of the individual finds its roots in the Greek Sophists, who argued that since nothing can be perceived except through the senses—and since all individuals sense, and therefore perceive things differently—there is no absolute truth, but rather only relative truth. The clearest alleged instance of existentialism is in the \"to be, or not to be\" speech, where Hamlet is thought by some to use \"being\" to allude to life and action, and \"not being\" to death and inaction.\nHamlet reflects the contemporary scepticism promoted by the French Renaissance humanist Michel de Montaigne. Prior to Montaigne's time, humanists such as Pico della Mirandola had argued that man was God's greatest creation, made in God's image and able to choose his own nature, but this view was subsequently challenged in Montaigne's Essais of 1580. Hamlet's \"What a piece of work is a man\" seems to echo many of Montaigne's ideas, and many scholars have discussed whether Shakespeare drew directly from Montaigne or whether both men were simply reacting similarly to the spirit of the times.\n\nPsychoanalytic\nSigmund Freud\nSigmund Freud’s thoughts regarding Hamlet were first published in his book The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), as a footnote to a discussion of Sophocles’ tragedy, Oedipus Rex, all of which is part of his consideration of the causes of neurosis. Freud does not offer over-all interpretations of the plays, but uses the two tragedies to illustrate and corroborate his psychological theories, which are based on his treatments of his patients and on his studies. Productions of Hamlet have used Freud's ideas to support their own interpretations. In The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud says that according to his experience \"parents play a leading part in the infantile psychology of all persons who subsequently become psychoneurotics,\" and that \"falling in love with one parent and hating the other\" is a common impulse in early childhood, and is important source material of \"subsequent neurosis\". He says that \"in their amorous or hostile attitude toward their parents\" neurotics reveal something that occurs with less intensity \"in the minds of the majority of children\". Freud considered that Sophocles’ tragedy, Oedipus Rex, with its story that involves crimes of parricide and incest, \"has furnished us with legendary matter which corroborates\" these ideas, and that the \"profound and universal validity of the old legends\" is understandable only by recognizing the validity of these theories of \"infantile psychology\".\nFreud explores the reason \"Oedipus Rex is capable of moving a modern reader or playgoer no less powerfully than it moved the contemporary Greeks\". He suggests that \"It may be that we were all destined to direct our first sexual impulses toward our mothers, and our first impulses of hatred and violence toward our fathers.\" Freud suggests that we \"recoil from the person for whom this primitive wish of our childhood has been fulfilled with all the force of the repression which these wishes have undergone in our minds since childhood.\"\nThese ideas, which became a cornerstone of Freud's psychological theories, he named the \"Oedipus complex\", and, at one point, he considered calling it the \"Hamlet complex\". Freud considered that Hamlet \"is rooted in the same soil as Oedipus Rex.\" But the difference in the \"psychic life\" of the two civilizations that produced each play, and the progress made over time of \"repression in the emotional life of humanity\" can be seen in the way the same material is handled by the two playwrights: In Oedipus Rex incest and murder are brought into the light as might occur in a dream, but in Hamlet these impulses \"remain repressed\" and we learn of their existence through Hamlet's inhibitions to act out the revenge, while he is shown to be capable of acting decisively and boldly in other contexts. Freud asserts, \"The play is based on Hamlet’s hesitation in accomplishing the task of revenge assigned to him; the text does not give the cause or the motive of this.\" The conflict is \"deeply hidden\".\nHamlet is able to perform any kind of action except taking revenge on the man who murdered his father and has taken his father's place with his mother—Claudius has led Hamlet to realize the repressed desires of his own childhood. The loathing which was supposed to drive him to revenge is replaced by \"self-reproach, by conscientious scruples\" which tell him \"he himself is no better than the murderer whom he is required to punish\". Freud suggests that Hamlet's sexual aversion expressed in his \"nunnery\" conversation with Ophelia supports the idea that Hamlet is \"an hysterical subject\".\nFreud suggests that the character Hamlet goes through an experience that has three characteristics, which he numbered: 1) \"the hero is not psychopathic, but becomes so\" during the course of the play. 2) \"the repressed desire is one of those that are similarly repressed in all of us.\" It is a repression that \"belongs to an early stage of our individual development\". The audience identifies with the character of Hamlet, because \"we are victims of the same conflict.\" 3) It is the nature of theatre that \"the struggle of the repressed impulse to become conscious\" occurs in both the hero onstage and the spectator, when they are in the grip of their emotions, \"in the manner seen in psychoanalytic treatment\".\nFreud points out that Hamlet is an exception in that psychopathic characters are usually ineffective in stage plays; they \"become as useless for the stage as they are for life itself\", because they do not inspire insight or empathy, unless the audience is familiar with the character's inner conflict. Freud says, \"It is thus the task of the dramatist to transport us into the same illness.\"\nJohn Barrymore's long-running 1922 performance in New York, directed by Thomas Hopkins, \"broke new ground in its Freudian approach to character\", in keeping with the post-World War I rebellion against everything Victorian. He had a \"blunter intention\" than presenting the genteel, sweet prince of 19th-century tradition, imbuing his character with virility and lust.\nBeginning in 1910, with the publication of \"The Œdipus-Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet's Mystery: A Study in Motive\" Ernest Jones—a psychoanalyst and Freud's biographer—developed Freud's ideas into a series of essays that culminated in his book Hamlet and Oedipus (1949). Influenced by Jones's psychoanalytic approach, several productions have portrayed the \"closet scene\", where Hamlet confronts his mother in her private quarters, in a sexual light. In this reading, Hamlet is disgusted by his mother's \"incestuous\" relationship with Claudius while simultaneously fearful of killing him, as this would clear Hamlet's path to his mother's bed. Ophelia's madness after her father's death may also be read through the Freudian lens: as a reaction to the death of her hoped-for lover, her father. Ophelia is overwhelmed by having her unfulfilled love for him so abruptly terminated and drifts into the oblivion of insanity. In 1937, Tyrone Guthrie directed Laurence Olivier in a Jones-inspired Hamlet at The Old Vic. Olivier later used some of these same ideas in his 1948 film version of the play.\nIn the Bloom's Shakespeare Through the Ages volume on Hamlet, editors Bloom and Foster express a conviction that the intentions of Shakespeare in portraying the character of Hamlet in the play exceeded the capacity of the Freudian Oedipus complex to completely encompass the extent of characteristics depicted in Hamlet throughout the tragedy: \"For once, Freud regressed in attempting to fasten the Oedipus Complex upon Hamlet: it will not stick, and merely showed that Freud did better than T.S. Eliot, who preferred Coriolanus to Hamlet, or so he said. Who can believe Eliot, when he exposes his own Hamlet Complex by declaring the play to be an aesthetic failure?\" The book also notes James Joyce's interpretation, stating that he \"did far better in the Library Scene of Ulysses, where Stephen marvellously credits Shakespeare, in this play, with universal fatherhood while accurately implying that Hamlet is fatherless, thus opening a pragmatic gap between Shakespeare and Hamlet.\"\nJoshua Rothman has written in The New Yorker that \"we tell the story wrong when we say that Freud used the idea of the Oedipus complex to understand Hamlet\". Rothman suggests that \"it was the other way around: Hamlet helped Freud understand, and perhaps even invent, psychoanalysis\". He concludes, \"The Oedipus complex is a misnomer. It should be called the 'Hamlet complex'.\"\n\nJacques Lacan\nIn the 1950s, the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan analyzed Hamlet to illustrate some of his concepts. His structuralist theories about Hamlet were first presented in a series of seminars given in Paris and later published in \"Desire and the Interpretation of Desire in Hamlet\". Lacan postulated that the human psyche is determined by structures of language and that the linguistic structures of Hamlet shed light on human desire. His point of departure is Freud's Oedipal theories, and the central theme of mourning that runs through Hamlet. In Lacan's analysis, Hamlet unconsciously assumes the role of phallus—the cause of his inaction—and is increasingly distanced from reality \"by mourning, fantasy, narcissism and psychosis\", which create holes (or lack) in the real, imaginary, and symbolic aspects of his psyche. Lacan's theories influenced some subsequent literary criticism of Hamlet because of his alternative vision of the play and his use of semantics to explore the play's psychological landscape.\n\nFeminist\nIn the 20th century, feminist critics opened up new approaches to Gertrude and Ophelia. New historicist and cultural materialist critics examined the play in its historical context, attempting to piece together its original cultural environment. They focused on the gender system of early modern England, pointing to the common trinity of maid, wife, or widow, with whores outside of that stereotype. In this analysis, the essence of Hamlet is the central character's changed perception of his mother as a whore because of her failure to remain faithful to Old Hamlet. In consequence, Hamlet loses his faith in all women, treating Ophelia as if she too were a whore and dishonest with Hamlet. Ophelia, by some critics, can be seen as honest and fair; however, it is virtually impossible to link these two traits, since 'fairness' is an outward trait, while 'honesty' is an inward trait.\n\nCarolyn Heilbrun's 1957 essay \"The Character of Hamlet's Mother\" defends Gertrude, arguing that the text never hints that Gertrude knew of Claudius poisoning King Hamlet. This analysis has been praised by many feminist critics, combating what is, by Heilbrun's argument, centuries' worth of misinterpretation. By this account, Gertrude's worst crime is of pragmatically marrying her brother-in-law in order to avoid a power vacuum. This is borne out by the fact that King Hamlet's ghost tells Hamlet to leave Gertrude out of Hamlet's revenge, to leave her to heaven, an arbitrary mercy to grant to a conspirator to murder.\nOphelia has also been defended by feminist critics, most notably Elaine Showalter. Ophelia is surrounded by powerful men: her father, brother, and Hamlet. All three disappear: Laertes leaves, Hamlet abandons her, and Polonius dies. Conventional theories had argued that without these three powerful men making decisions for her, Ophelia is driven into madness. Feminist theorists argue that she goes mad with guilt because, when Hamlet kills her father, he has fulfilled her sexual desire to have Hamlet kill her father so they can be together. Showalter points out that Ophelia has become the symbol of the distraught and hysterical woman in modern culture.\n\nInfluence\nHamlet is one of the most quoted works in the English language, and is often included on lists of the world's greatest literature. As such, it reverberates through the writing of later centuries. Academic Laurie Osborne identifies the direct influence of Hamlet in numerous modern narratives, and divides them into four main categories: fictional accounts of the play's composition, simplifications of the story for young readers, stories expanding the role of one or more characters, and narratives featuring performances of the play.\n\nEnglish poet John Milton was an early admirer of Shakespeare and took evident inspiration from his work. As John Kerrigan discusses, Milton originally considered writing his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667) as a tragedy. While Milton did not ultimately go that route, the poem still shows distinct echoes of Shakespearean revenge tragedy, and of Hamlet in particular. As scholar Christopher N. Warren argues, Paradise Lost's Satan \"undergoes a transformation in the poem from a Hamlet-like avenger into a Claudius-like usurper,\" a plot device that supports Milton's larger Republican internationalist project. The poem also reworks theatrical language from Hamlet, especially around the idea of \"putting on\" certain dispositions, as when Hamlet puts on \"an antic disposition,\" similarly to the Son in Paradise Lost who \"can put on / [God's] terrors.\"\nHenry Fielding's Tom Jones, published about 1749, describes a visit to Hamlet by Tom Jones and Mr Partridge, with similarities to the \"play within a play\". In contrast, Goethe's Bildungsroman Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, written between 1776 and 1796, not only has a production of Hamlet at its core but also creates parallels between the ghost and Wilhelm Meister's dead father. In the early 1850s, in Pierre, Herman Melville focuses on a Hamlet-like character's long development as a writer. Ten years later, Dickens's Great Expectations contains many Hamlet-like plot elements: it is driven by revenge-motivated actions, contains ghost-like characters (Abel Magwitch and Miss Havisham), and focuses on the hero's guilt. Academic Alexander Welsh notes that Great Expectations is an \"autobiographical novel\" and \"anticipates psychoanalytic readings of Hamlet itself\". About the same time, George Eliot's The Mill on the Floss was published, introducing Maggie Tulliver \"who is explicitly compared with Hamlet\" though \"with a reputation for sanity\".\nL. Frank Baum's first published short story was \"They Played a New Hamlet\" (1895). When Baum had been touring New York State in the title role, the actor playing the ghost fell through the floorboards, and the rural audience thought it was part of the show and demanded that the actor repeat the fall, because they thought it was funny. Baum would later recount the actual story in an article, but the short story is told from the point of view of the actor playing the ghost.\nIn the 1920s, James Joyce managed \"a more upbeat version\" of Hamlet—stripped of obsession and revenge—in Ulysses, though its main parallels are with Homer's Odyssey. In the 1990s, two novelists were explicitly influenced by Hamlet. In Angela Carter's Wise Children, To be or not to be is reworked as a song and dance routine, and Iris Murdoch's The Black Prince has Oedipal themes and murder intertwined with a love affair between a Hamlet-obsessed writer, Bradley Pearson, and the daughter of his rival. In the late 20th century, David Foster Wallace's novel Infinite Jest draws heavily from Hamlet and takes its title from the play's text; Wallace incorporates references to the gravedigger scene, the marriage of the main character's mother to his uncle, and the re-appearance of the main character's father as a ghost.\n\nThere is the story of the woman who read Hamlet for the first time and said, \"I don't see why people admire that play so. It is nothing but a bunch of quotations strung together.\"\n — Isaac Asimov, Asimov's Guide to Shakespeare, p. vii, Avenal Books, 1970\n\nPerformance history\nShakespeare's day to the Interregnum\nShakespeare almost certainly wrote the role of Hamlet for Richard Burbage. He was the chief tragedian of the Lord Chamberlain's Men, with a capacious memory for lines and a wide emotional range. Judging by the number of reprints, Hamlet appears to have been Shakespeare's fourth most popular play during his lifetime—only Henry IV Part 1, Richard III and Pericles eclipsed it. Shakespeare provides no clear indication of when his play is set; however, as Elizabethan actors performed at the Globe in contemporary dress on minimal sets, this would not have affected the staging.\nFirm evidence for specific early performances of the play is scant. It is sometimes argued that the crew of the ship Red Dragon, anchored off Sierra Leone, performed Hamlet in September 1607; however, this claim is based on a 19th century insert of a 'lost' passage into a period document, and is today widely regarded as a hoax, likely to have been perpetrated by John Payne Collier. More credible is that the play toured in Germany within five years of Shakespeare's death, and that it was performed before James I in 1619 and Charles I in 1637. Oxford editor George Hibbard argues that, since the contemporary literature contains many allusions and references to Hamlet (only Falstaff is mentioned more, from Shakespeare), the play was surely performed with a frequency that the historical record misses.\nAll theatres were closed down by the Puritan government during the Interregnum. Even during this time, however, playlets known as drolls were often performed illegally, including one called The Grave-Makers based on act 5, scene 1 of Hamlet.\n\nRestoration and 18th century\nThe play was revived early in the Restoration. When the existing stock of pre-civil war plays was divided between the two newly created patent theatre companies, Hamlet was the only Shakespearean favourite that Sir William Davenant's Duke's Company secured. It became the first of Shakespeare's plays to be presented with movable flats painted with generic scenery behind the proscenium arch of Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre. This new stage convention highlighted the frequency with which Shakespeare shifts dramatic location, encouraging the recurrent criticism of his failure to maintain unity of place. In the title role, Davenant cast Thomas Betterton, who continued to play the Dane until he was 74. David Garrick at Drury Lane produced a version that adapted Shakespeare heavily; he declared: \"I had sworn I would not leave the stage till I had rescued that noble play from all the rubbish of the fifth act. I have brought it forth without the grave-digger's trick, Osrick, & the fencing match\". The first actor known to have played Hamlet in North America is Lewis Hallam Jr., in the American Company's production in Philadelphia in 1759.\n\nJohn Philip Kemble made his Drury Lane debut as Hamlet in 1783. His performance was said to be 20 minutes longer than anyone else's, and his lengthy pauses provoked the suggestion by Richard Brinsley Sheridan that \"music should be played between the words\". Sarah Siddons was the first actress known to play Hamlet; many women have since played him as a breeches role, to great acclaim. In 1748, Alexander Sumarokov wrote a Russian adaptation that focused on Prince Hamlet as the embodiment of an opposition to Claudius's tyranny—a treatment that would recur in Eastern European versions into the 20th century. In the years following America's independence, Thomas Abthorpe Cooper, the young nation's leading tragedian, performed Hamlet among other plays at the Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia, and at the Park Theatre in New York. Although chided for \"acknowledging acquaintances in the audience\" and \"inadequate memorisation of his lines\", he became a national celebrity.\n\n19th century\nFrom around 1810 to 1840, the best-known Shakespearean performances in the United States were tours by leading London actors—including George Frederick Cooke, Junius Brutus Booth, Edmund Kean, William Charles Macready, and Charles Kemble. Of these, Booth remained to make his career in the States, fathering the nation's most notorious actor, John Wilkes Booth (who later assassinated Abraham Lincoln), and its most famous Hamlet, Edwin Booth. Edwin Booth's Hamlet at the Fifth Avenue Theatre in 1875 was described as \"... the dark, sad, dreamy, mysterious hero of a poem. [... acted] in an ideal manner, as far removed as possible from the plane of actual life\". Booth played Hamlet for 100 nights in the 1864/5 season at the Winter Garden Theatre, inaugurating the era of long-run Shakespeare in America.\nIn the United Kingdom, the actor-managers of the Victorian era (including Kean, Samuel Phelps, Macready, and Henry Irving) staged Shakespeare in a grand manner, with elaborate scenery and costumes. The tendency of actor-managers to emphasise the importance of their own central character did not always meet with the critics' approval. George Bernard Shaw's praise for Johnston Forbes-Robertson's performance contains a sideswipe at Irving: \"The story of the play was perfectly intelligible, and quite took the attention of the audience off the principal actor at moments. What is the Lyceum coming to?\"\nIn London, Edmund Kean was the first Hamlet to abandon the regal finery usually associated with the role in favour of a plain costume, and he is said to have surprised his audience by playing Hamlet as serious and introspective. In stark contrast to earlier opulence, William Poel's 1881 production of the Q1 text was an early attempt at reconstructing the Elizabethan theatre's austerity; his only backdrop was a set of red curtains. Sarah Bernhardt played the prince in her popular 1899 London production. In contrast to the \"effeminate\" view of the central character that usually accompanied a female casting, she described her character as \"manly and resolute, but nonetheless thoughtful ... [he] thinks before he acts, a trait indicative of great strength and great spiritual power\".\nIn France, Charles Kemble initiated an enthusiasm for Shakespeare; and leading members of the Romantic movement such as Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas saw his 1827 Paris performance of Hamlet, particularly admiring the madness of Harriet Smithson's Ophelia. In Germany, Hamlet had become so assimilated by the mid-19th century that Ferdinand Freiligrath declared that \"Germany is Hamlet\". From the 1850s, the Parsi theatre tradition in India transformed Hamlet into folk performances, with dozens of songs added.\n\n20th century\nApart from some western troupes' 19th-century visits, the first professional performance of Hamlet in Japan was Otojirō Kawakami's 1903 Shinpa (\"new school theatre\") adaptation. Tsubouchi Shōyō translated Hamlet and produced a performance in 1911 that blended Shingeki (\"new drama\") and Kabuki styles. This hybrid-genre reached its peak in Tsuneari Fukuda's 1955 Hamlet. In 1998, Yukio Ninagawa produced an acclaimed version of Hamlet in the style of Nō theatre, which he took to London.\nKonstantin Stanislavski and Edward Gordon Craig—two of the 20th century's most influential theatre practitioners—collaborated on the Moscow Art Theatre's seminal production of 1911–12. While Craig favoured stylised abstraction, Stanislavski, armed with his 'system,' explored psychological motivation. Craig conceived of the play as a symbolist monodrama, offering a dream-like vision as seen through Hamlet's eyes alone. This was most evident in the staging of the first court scene. The most famous aspect of the production is Craig's use of large, abstract screens that altered the size and shape of the acting area for each scene, representing the character's state of mind spatially or visualising a dramaturgical progression. The production attracted enthusiastic and unprecedented worldwide attention for the theatre and placed it \"on the cultural map for Western Europe\".\nThe first modern dress stagings of Hamlet happened in 1925 in London and then New York. Barry Jackson's Birmingham Repertory Theatre opened their production, directed by H.K. Ayliff at the Kingsway Theatre on August 25, 1925. Ivor Brown reported, \"Many of the first night audience came to scoff and remained to hold its breath, to marvel and enjoy. . . .Shakespeare's victory over time and tailoring was swift and sweeping.\" Horace Brisbin Liveright's modern dress production opened at the Booth Theater in New York on November 9, 1925, the same night that the London production moved to Birmingham. It was known \"more dryly, and perhaps with a touch of something more sinister, as 'the plain-clothes Hamlet'\" and did not reach the same level of success.\nHamlet is often played with contemporary political overtones. Leopold Jessner's 1926 production at the Berlin Staatstheater portrayed Claudius's court as a parody of the corrupt and fawning court of Kaiser Wilhelm. In Poland, the number of productions of Hamlet has tended to increase at times of political unrest, since its political themes (suspected crimes, coups, surveillance) can be used to comment on a contemporary situation. Similarly, Czech directors have used the play at times of occupation: a 1941 Vinohrady Theatre production \"emphasised, with due caution, the helpless situation of an intellectual attempting to endure in a ruthless environment\". In China, performances of Hamlet often have political significance: Gu Wuwei's 1916 The Usurper of State Power, an amalgam of Hamlet and Macbeth, was an attack on Yuan Shikai's attempt to overthrow the republic. In 1942, Jiao Juyin directed the play in a Confucian temple in Sichuan Province, to which the government had retreated from the advancing Japanese. In the immediate aftermath of the collapse of the protests at Tiananmen Square, Lin Zhaohua staged a 1990 Hamlet in which the prince was an ordinary individual tortured by a loss of meaning. In this production, the actors playing Hamlet, Claudius and Polonius exchanged roles at crucial moments in the performance, including the moment of Claudius's death, at which point the actor mainly associated with Hamlet fell to the ground.\n\nNotable stagings in London and New York include Barrymore's 1925 production at the Haymarket; it influenced subsequent performances by John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier. Gielgud played the central role many times: his 1936 New York production ran for 132 performances, leading to the accolade that he was \"the finest interpreter of the role since Barrymore\". Although \"posterity has treated Maurice Evans less kindly\", throughout the 1930s and 1940s he was regarded by many as the leading interpreter of Shakespeare in the United States and in the 1938/39 season he presented Broadway's first uncut Hamlet, running four and a half hours. Evans later performed a highly truncated version of the play that he played for South Pacific war zones during World War II which made the prince a more decisive character. The staging, known as the \"G.I. Hamlet\", was produced on Broadway for 131 performances in 1945/46. Olivier's 1937 performance at The Old Vic was popular with audiences but not with critics, with James Agate writing in a famous review in The Sunday Times, \"Mr. Olivier does not speak poetry badly. He does not speak it at all.\" In 1937 Tyrone Guthrie directed the play at Elsinore, Denmark, with Laurence Olivier as Hamlet and Vivien Leigh as Ophelia.\nIn 1963, Olivier directed Peter O'Toole as Hamlet in the inaugural performance of the newly formed National Theatre; critics found resonance between O'Toole's Hamlet and John Osborne's hero, Jimmy Porter, from Look Back in Anger.\nRichard Burton received his third Tony Award nomination when he played his second Hamlet, his first under John Gielgud's direction, in 1964 in a production that holds the record for the longest run of the play in Broadway history (137 performances). The performance was set on a bare stage, conceived to appear like a dress rehearsal, with Burton in a black v-neck sweater, and Gielgud himself tape-recorded the voice for the ghost (which appeared as a looming shadow). It was preserved both on record and on a film that played in US theatres for a week in 1964 as well as being the subject of books written by cast members William Redfield and Richard L. Sterne.\nOther New York portrayals of Hamlet of note include that of Ralph Fiennes's in 1995 (for which he won the Tony Award for Best Actor)—which ran, from first preview to closing night, a total of one hundred performances. About the Fiennes Hamlet Vincent Canby wrote in The New York Times that it was \"... not one for literary sleuths and Shakespeare scholars. It respects the play, but it doesn't provide any new material for arcane debates on what it all means. Instead it's an intelligent, beautifully read ...\" Stacy Keach played the role with an all-star cast at Joseph Papp's Delacorte Theater in the early 1970s, with Colleen Dewhurst's Gertrude, James Earl Jones's King, Barnard Hughes's Polonius, Sam Waterston's Laertes and Raul Julia's Osric. Sam Waterston later played the role himself at the Delacorte for the New York Shakespeare Festival, and the show transferred to the Vivian Beaumont Theater in 1975 (Stephen Lang played Bernardo and other roles). Stephen Lang's Hamlet for the Roundabout Theatre Company in 1992 received mixed reviews and ran for sixty-one performances. David Warner played the role with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in 1965. William Hurt (at Circle Repertory Company off-Broadway, memorably performing \"To be, or not to be\" while lying on the floor), Jon Voight at Rutgers, and Christopher Walken (fiercely) at Stratford, Connecticut, have all played the role, as has Diane Venora at The Public Theatre. The Internet Broadway Database lists sixty-six productions of Hamlet.\nIan Charleson performed Hamlet from 9 October to 13 November 1989, in Richard Eyre's production at the Olivier Theatre, replacing Daniel Day-Lewis, who had abandoned the production. Seriously ill from AIDS at the time, Charleson died eight weeks after his last performance. Fellow actor and friend, Sir Ian McKellen, said that Charleson played Hamlet so well it was as if he had rehearsed the role all his life; McKellen called it \"the perfect Hamlet\". The performance garnered other major accolades as well, some critics echoing McKellen in calling it the definitive Hamlet performance.\nKeanu Reeves performed Hamlet from 12 January to 4 February 1995 at the Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre (Winnipeg, Manitoba). The production garnered positive reviews from worldwide media outlets. Directed by Lewis Baumander the lavish production featured a cast of some of Canada's most distinguished classical actors of that period.\n\n21st century\nHamlet continues to be staged regularly. Actors performing the lead role have included: Simon Russell Beale, Ben Whishaw, David Tennant, Tom Hiddleston, Angela Winkler, Samuel West, Christopher Eccleston, Maxine Peake, Rory Kinnear, Oscar Isaac, Michael Sheen, Christian Camargo, Paapa Essiedu and Michael Urie.\nIn May 2009, Hamlet opened with Jude Law in the title role at the Donmar Warehouse West End season at Wyndham's Theatre. The production officially opened on 3 June and ran through 22 August 2009. A further production with Jude Law ran at Elsinore Castle in Denmark from 25–30 August 2009, and then moved to Broadway, and ran for 12 weeks at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York.\nIn October 2011, a production starring Michael Sheen opened at the Young Vic, in which the play was set inside a psychiatric hospital.\nIn 2013, American actor Paul Giamatti played the title role of Hamlet in modern dress, at the Yale Repertory Theatre, at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut.\nThe Globe Theatre of London initiated a project in 2014 to perform Hamlet in every country in the world in the space of two years. Titled Globe to Globe Hamlet, it began its tour on 23 April 2014, the 450th anniversary of Shakespeare's birth, and performed in 197 countries.\nBenedict Cumberbatch played the role for a 12-week run in a production at the Barbican Theatre, opening on 25 August 2015. The play was produced by Sonia Friedman, and directed by Lyndsey Turner, with set design by Es Devlin. It was called the \"most in-demand theatre production of all time\" and sold out in seven hours after tickets went on sale 11 August 2014, more than a year before the play opened.\nA 2017 Almeida Theatre production, directed by Robert Icke and starring Andrew Scott, was transferred that same year to the West End's Harold Pinter Theatre.\nTom Hiddleston played the role for a three-week run at Vanbrugh Theatre that opened on 1 September 2017 and was directed by Kenneth Branagh.\nIn 2018, The Globe Theatre's newly instated artistic director Michelle Terry played the role in a production notable for its gender-blind casting.\nA production by Bristol Old Vic starring Billy Howle in title role, Niamh Cusack as Gertrude, Mirren Mack as Ophelia opened on 13 October 2022.\n\nFilm and TV performances\nAn early film version of Hamlet is Sarah Bernhardt's five-minute film of the fencing scene, which was produced in 1900. The film was an early attempt at combining sound and film; music and words were recorded on phonograph records, to be played along with the film. Silent versions were released in 1907, 1908, 1910, 1913, 1917, and 1920. In the 1921 film Hamlet, Danish actress Asta Nielsen played the role of Hamlet as a woman who spends her life disguised as a man.\nLaurence Olivier's 1948 moody black-and-white Hamlet won Best Picture and Best Actor Academy Awards and is as of 2024, the only Shakespeare film to have done so. His interpretation stressed the Oedipal overtones of the play and cast 28-year-old Eileen Herlie as Hamlet's mother opposite himself at 41 as Hamlet.\nIn 1953, actor Jack Manning performed the play in 15-minute segments over two weeks in the short-lived late night DuMont series Monodrama Theater. New York Times TV critic Jack Gould praised Manning's performance as Hamlet.\nThe 1964 Soviet film Hamlet (Russian: Гамлет) is based on a translation by Boris Pasternak and directed by Grigori Kozintsev, with a score by Dmitri Shostakovich. Innokenty Smoktunovsky was cast in the role of Hamlet.\nJohn Gielgud directed Richard Burton in a Broadway production at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in 1964–65, the longest-running Hamlet in the U.S. to date. A live film of the production was produced using \"Electronovision\", a method of recording a live performance with multiple video cameras and converting the image to film. Eileen Herlie repeated her role from Olivier's film version as the Queen, and the voice of Gielgud was heard as the ghost. The Gielgud/Burton production was also recorded complete and released on LP by Columbia Masterworks.\n\nThe first Hamlet in color was a 1969 film directed by Tony Richardson with Nicol Williamson as Hamlet and Marianne Faithfull as Ophelia.\nIn 1990 Franco Zeffirelli, whose Shakespeare films have been described as \"sensual rather than cerebral\", cast Mel Gibson—then famous for the Mad Max and Lethal Weapon movies—in the title role of his 1990 version; Glenn Close—then famous as the psychotic \"other woman\" in Fatal Attraction—played Gertrude, and Paul Scofield played Hamlet's father.\nKenneth Branagh adapted, directed, and starred in a 1996 film version of Hamlet that contained material from the First Folio and the Second Quarto. Branagh's Hamlet runs for just over four hours. Branagh set the film with late 19th-century costuming and furnishings, a production in many ways reminiscent of a Russian novel of the time, and Blenheim Palace, built in the early 18th century, became Elsinore Castle in the external scenes. The film is structured as an epic and makes frequent use of flashbacks to highlight elements not made explicit in the play: Hamlet's sexual relationship with Kate Winslet's Ophelia, for example, or his childhood affection for Yorick (played by Ken Dodd). This version was also the first unabridged theatrical film adaptation of the play, and runs four hours long.\nIn 2000, Michael Almereyda's Hamlet set the story in contemporary Manhattan, with Ethan Hawke playing Hamlet as a film student. Claudius (played by Kyle MacLachlan) became the CEO of \"Denmark Corporation\", having taken over the company by killing his brother.\nThe 2014 Bollywood film Haider is an adaptation set in modern Kashmir.\nThe Northman, released on 22 April 2022 and directed by the American director Robert Eggers who also co-wrote the script with Icelandic author Sjón, is based in the original Scandinavian legend that inspired Shakespeare to write Hamlet.\n\nDerivative works\nThis section is limited to derivative works written for the stage.\nTom Stoppard's 1966 play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead retells many of the events of the story from the point of view of the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern and gives them a backstory of their own. Several times since 1995, the American Shakespeare Center has mounted repertories that included both Hamlet and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, with the same actors performing the same roles in each; in their 2001 and 2009 seasons the two plays were \"directed, designed, and rehearsed together to make the most out of the shared scenes and situations\".\nW. S. Gilbert wrote a short comic play titled Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, in which Hamlet's play is presented as a tragedy written by Claudius in his youth of which he is greatly embarrassed. Through the chaos triggered by Hamlet's staging of it, Guildenstern helps Rosencrantz vie with Hamlet to make Ophelia his bride.\nLee Blessing's Fortinbras is a comical sequel to Hamlet in which all the deceased characters come back as ghosts. The New York Times reviewed the play, saying it is \"scarcely more than an extended comedy sketch, lacking the portent and linguistic complexity of Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. Fortinbras operates on a far less ambitious plane, but it is a ripping yarn and offers Keith Reddin a role in which he can commit comic mayhem\".\nCaridad Svich's 12 Ophelias (a play with broken songs) includes elements of the story of Hamlet but focuses on Ophelia. In Svich's play, Ophelia is resurrected and rises from a pool of water, after her death in Hamlet. The play is a series of scenes and songs, and was first staged at a public swimming pool in Brooklyn.\nDavid Davalos's Wittenberg is a \"tragical-comical-historical\" prequel to Hamlet that depicts the Danish prince as a student at Wittenberg University (now known as the University of Halle-Wittenberg), where he is torn between the conflicting teachings of his mentors John Faustus and Martin Luther. The New York Times reviewed the play, saying, \"Mr. Davalos has molded a daft campus comedy out of this unlikely convergence\", and Nytheatre.com's review said the playwright \"has imagined a fascinating alternate reality, and quite possibly, given the fictional Hamlet a back story that will inform the role for the future.\"\nMad Boy Chronicle by Canadian playwright Michael O'Brien is a dark comedy loosely based on Hamlet, set in Viking Denmark in 999 AD.\n\nNotes and references\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nEditions of Hamlet\nSecondary sources\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nHamlet Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine at the British Library\nHamlet at the Internet Broadway Database\nHamlet at the Internet Off-Broadway Database\n Hamlet public domain audiobook at LibriVox\n\nTexts\nThe full text of Hamlet at Wikisource, in multiple editions\nHamlet Archived 7 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine Complete text on one page with definitions of difficult words and explanations of difficult passages.\nHamlet, Folger Shakespeare Library\nHamlet at Standard Ebooks\n\n Hamlet at Project Gutenberg\nHamlet at the Internet Shakespeare Editions – Transcripts and facsimiles of Q1, Q2 and F1.\nShakespeare Quartos Archive – Transcriptions and facsimiles of thirty-two copies of the five pre-1642 quarto editions.\nHamlet at Open Source Shakespeare – A complete text of Hamlet based on Q2.\nHamlet – Annotated text aligned to Common Core standards.\nHamlet – Etext in Spanish available in many formats at Gutenberg.org.\n\nAnalysis\nHamlet on the Ramparts – The MIT's Shakespeare Electronic Archive.\nHamletworks.org – Scholarly resource with multiple versions of Hamlet, commentaries, concordances, and more.\nDepictions and commentary of Hamlet paintings\nClear Shakespeare Hamlet – A word-by-word audio guide through the play.\n\nRelated works\nThe Danish History (Books I–IX) by Saxo Grammaticus at The Online Medieval & Classical Library (public domain translation into English of the Gesta Danorum).",
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"paragraph_text": "Denmark (Danish: Danmark, pronounced [ˈtænmɑk] ) is a Nordic country in the south-central portion of Northern Europe with a population of nearly 6 million; 767,000 live in Copenhagen (1.9 million in the wider area). It is the metropolitan part of and the most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the autonomous territories of the Faroe Islands and Greenland in the North Atlantic Ocean. Metropolitan Denmark is the southernmost of the Scandinavian countries, lying south-west and south of Sweden, south of Norway, and north of Germany, with which it shares a short border.\nAs of 2013, the Kingdom of Denmark, including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, had a total of 1,419 islands greater than 100 square metres (1,100 sq ft) in area; 443 of these have been named and 78 are inhabited. Spanning a total area of 42,943 km2 (16,580 sq mi), metropolitan Denmark consists of the northern part of the Jutland peninsula and an archipelago of 406 islands. Of these, the most populated island is Zealand, on which the capital and largest city, Copenhagen, is situated, followed by Funen, the North Jutlandic Island, and Amager. Denmark has flat, arable land, sandy coasts, low elevations, and a temperate climate. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs. Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948 and in Greenland in 1979; the latter obtained further autonomy in 2009.\nThe unified Kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 8th century AD as a proficient maritime power amid the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea. In 1397, it joined Norway and Sweden to form the Kalmar Union, which persisted until the latter's secession in 1523. The remaining Kingdom of Denmark–Norway endured a series of wars in the 17th century that resulted in further territorial cessions. A surge of nationalist movements in the 19th century were defeated in the First Schleswig War of 1848. The adoption of the Constitution of Denmark on 5 June 1849 ended the absolute monarchy and introduced the current parliamentary system. An industrialised exporter of agricultural produce in the second half of the 19th century, Denmark introduced social and labour-market reforms in the early 20th century, which formed the basis for the present welfare state model and advanced mixed economy. Denmark remained neutral during World War I; Danish neutrality was violated in World War II by a rapid German invasion in April 1940. During occupation, a resistance movement emerged in 1943, while Iceland declared independence in 1944; Denmark was liberated after the end of the war in May 1945. In 1973, Denmark, together with Greenland but not the Faroe Islands, became a member of what is now the European Union, but negotiated certain opt-outs, such as retaining its own currency, the krone.\nDenmark is a developed country with a high standard of living, and was the first country to legally recognise same-sex partnerships. It is a founding member of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, the OSCE, the United Nations where it is a member of the Security Council, and is part of the Schengen Area. Denmark maintains close political, cultural, and linguistic ties with its Scandinavian neighbours. The Danish political system is used in political science as a reference point for near-perfect governance and the term \"getting to Denmark\" is used to describe how other countries can improve their governments.\n\nEtymology\nThe etymology of the name \"Denmark\", the relationship between \"Danes\" and \"Denmark\", and the emergence of Denmark as a unified kingdom are topics of continuous scholarly debate. This is centred primarily on the morpheme \"Dan\" and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -\"mark\" ending.\nMost etymological dictionaries and handbooks derive \"Dan\" from a word meaning \"flat land\", related to German Tenne \"threshing floor\", English den \"cave\". The element mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland (see marches), with probable references to the border forests in south Schleswig.\nThe first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are runestones believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old (c. 955) and Harald Bluetooth (c. 965). The larger of the two stones is popularly cited as the \"baptismal certificate\" (dåbsattest) of Denmark, though both use the word \"Denmark\", in the accusative ᛏᛅᚾᛘᛅᚢᚱᚴ tanmaurk ([danmɒrk]) on the large stone, and the genitive ᛏᛅᚾᛘᛅᚱᚴᛅᚱ \"tanmarkar\" (pronounced [danmarkaɽ]) on the small stone, while the dative form tąnmarku (pronounced [danmarkʊ]) is found on the contemporaneous Skivum stone. The inhabitants of Denmark are there called tani ([danɪ]), or \"Danes\", in the accusative.\n\nHistory\nPrehistory\nThe earliest archaeological finds in Denmark date back to the Eem interglacial period from 130,000 to 110,000 BC. Denmark has been inhabited since around 12,500 BC and agriculture has been evident since 3900 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age (1800–600 BC) in Denmark was marked by burial mounds, which left an abundance of findings including lurs and the Sun Chariot.\nDuring the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BC – AD 1), native groups began migrating south, and the first tribal Danes came to the country between the Pre-Roman and the Germanic Iron Age, in the Roman Iron Age (AD 1–400). The Roman provinces maintained trade routes and relations with native tribes in Denmark, and Roman coins have been found in Denmark. Evidence of strong Celtic cultural influence dates from this period in Denmark and much of North-West Europe and is among other things reflected in the finding of the Gundestrup cauldron.\nThe tribal Danes came from the east Danish islands (Zealand) and Scania and spoke an early form of North Germanic. Historians believe that before their arrival, most of Jutland and the nearest islands were settled by tribal Jutes. Many Jutes migrated to Great Britain, according to legend some as mercenaries of Brythonic King Vortigern, and formed the south-eastern territories of Kent, the Isle of Wight and other areas, where they settled. They were later absorbed or ethnically cleansed by the invading Angles and Saxons, who formed the Anglo-Saxons. The remaining Jutish population in Jutland assimilated in with the settling Danes.\nA short note about the Dani in Getica by the historian Jordanes is believed to be an early mention of the Danes, one of the ethnic groups from whom modern Danes are descended. The Danevirke defence structures were built in phases from the 3rd century forward and the sheer size of the construction efforts in AD 737 are attributed to the emergence of a Danish king. A new runic alphabet was first used around the same time and Ribe, the oldest town of Denmark, was founded about AD 700.\n\nViking and Middle Ages\nFrom the 8th to the 10th century the wider Scandinavian region was the source of Vikings. They colonised, raided, and traded in all parts of Europe. The Danish Vikings were most active in the eastern and southern British Isles and Western Europe. They settled in parts of England (known as the Danelaw) under King Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013, and in France where Danes and Norwegians were allowed to settle in what would become Normandy in exchange of allegiance to Robert I of France with Rollo as first ruler. Some Anglo-Saxon pence of this period have been found in Denmark.\nDenmark was largely consolidated by the late 8th century and its rulers are consistently referred to in Frankish sources as kings (reges). Under the reign of Gudfred in 804 the Danish kingdom may have included all the lands of Jutland, Scania and the Danish islands, excluding Bornholm.\n\nThe extant Danish monarchy traces its roots back to Gorm the Old, who established his reign in the early 10th century. As attested by the Jelling stones, the Danes were Christianised around 965 by Harald Bluetooth, the son of Gorm and Thyra. It is believed that Denmark became Christian for political reasons so as not to get invaded by the Holy Roman Empire. A rising Christian power in Europe, the Holy Roman Empire was an important trading partner for the Danes. As a deterrent against this threat, Harald built six fortresses around Denmark called Trelleborg and built a further Danevirke. In the early 11th century, Canute the Great won and united Denmark, England, and Norway for almost 30 years with a Scandinavian army.\nThroughout the High and Late Middle Ages, Denmark also included Skåneland (the areas of Scania, Halland, and Blekinge in present-day south Sweden) and Danish kings ruled Danish Estonia, as well as the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Most of the latter two now form the state of Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany.\nIn 1397, Denmark entered into a personal union known as the Kalmar Union with Norway and Sweden, united under Queen Margaret I. The three countries were to be treated as equals in the union. However, even from the start, Margaret may not have been so idealistic—treating Denmark as the clear \"senior\" partner of the union. Thus, much of the next 125 years of Scandinavian history revolves around this union, with Sweden breaking off and being re-conquered repeatedly. The issue was for practical purposes resolved on 17 June 1523, as Swedish King Gustav Vasa conquered the city of Stockholm. The Protestant Reformation spread to Scandinavia in the 1530s, and following the Count's Feud civil war, Denmark converted to Lutheranism in 1536. Later that year, Denmark entered into a union with Norway.\n\nEarly modern history (1536–1849)\nAfter Sweden permanently broke away from the personal union, Denmark tried on several occasions to reassert control over its neighbour. King Christian IV attacked Sweden in the 1611–1613 Kalmar War but failed to accomplish his main objective of forcing it to return to the union. The war led to no territorial changes, but Sweden was forced to pay a war indemnity of 1 million silver riksdaler to Denmark, an amount known as the Älvsborg ransom. King Christian used this money to found several towns and fortresses, most notably Glückstadt (founded as a rival to Hamburg) and Christiania. Inspired by the Dutch East India Company, he founded a similar Danish company and planned to claim Ceylon as a colony, but the company only managed to acquire Tranquebar on India's Coromandel Coast. Denmark's large colonial aspirations included a few key trading posts in Africa and India. While Denmark's trading posts in India were of little note, it played an important role in the highly lucrative Atlantic slave trade, through its trading outposts in Fort Christiansborg in Osu, Ghana through which 1.5 million slaves were traded. While the Danish colonial empire was sustained by trade with other major powers, and plantations – ultimately a lack of resources led to its stagnation.\nIn the Thirty Years' War, Christian tried to become the leader of the Lutheran states in Germany but suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Lutter. The result was that the Catholic army under Albrecht von Wallenstein was able to invade, occupy, and pillage Jutland, forcing Denmark to withdraw from the war. Denmark managed to avoid territorial concessions, but King Gustavus Adolphus' intervention in Germany was seen as a sign that the military power of Sweden was on the rise while Denmark's influence in the region was declining. Swedish armies invaded Jutland in 1643 and claimed Scania in 1644. In the 1645 Treaty of Brømsebro, Denmark surrendered Halland, Gotland, the last parts of Danish Estonia, and several provinces in Norway.\n\nSeeing an opportunity to tear up the Treaty of Brømsebro, King Frederick III of Denmark, in 1657, declared war on Sweden, the latter being deeply involved in the Second Northern War (1655–1660), and marched on Bremen-Verden. This led to a massive Danish defeat as the armies of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden conquered Jutland and, following the Swedish March across the frozen Danish straits, occupied Funen and much of Zealand before signing the Peace of Roskilde in February 1658, which gave Sweden control of Scania, Blekinge, Bohuslän, Trøndelag, and the island of Bornholm. Charles X Gustav quickly regretted not having ruined Denmark and in August 1658, he launched a second attack on Denmark, conquered most of the Danish islands, and began a two-year-long siege of Copenhagen. King Frederick III actively led the defence of the city, rallying its citizens to take up arms, and repelled the Swedish attacks. The siege ended following the death of Charles X Gustav in 1660. In the ensuing peace settlement, Denmark managed to maintain its independence and regain control of Trøndelag and Bornholm. Attaining great popularity following the war, Frederick III used this to disband the elective monarchy in favour of absolute monarchy, which lasted until 1848 in Denmark.\nDenmark tried but failed to regain control of Scania in the Scanian War (1675–1679). After the Great Northern War (1700–21), Denmark managed to regain control of the parts of Schleswig and Holstein ruled by the house of Holstein-Gottorp in the 1720 Treaty of Frederiksborg and the 1773 Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo, respectively. Denmark prospered greatly in the last decades of the 18th century due to its neutral status allowing it to trade with both sides in the many contemporary wars. In the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark traded with both France and the United Kingdom and joined the League of Armed Neutrality with Russia, Sweden, and Prussia. The British considered this a hostile act and attacked Copenhagen in 1801 and 1807, in one case carrying off the Danish fleet, in the other, burning large parts of the Danish capital. This led to the so-called Danish-British Gunboat War. British control of the waterways between Denmark and Norway proved disastrous to the union's economy and in 1813 Denmark–Norway went bankrupt.\nThe union was dissolved by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814; the Danish monarchy \"irrevocably and forever\" renounced claims to the Kingdom of Norway in favour of the Swedish king. Denmark kept the possessions of Iceland (which retained the Danish monarchy until 1944), the Faroe Islands and Greenland, all of which had been governed by Norway for centuries. Apart from the Nordic colonies, Denmark continued to rule over Danish India from 1620 to 1869, the Danish Gold Coast (Ghana) from 1658 to 1850, and the Danish West Indies from 1671 to 1917.\n\nConstitutional monarchy (1849–present)\nA nascent Danish liberal and national movement gained momentum in the 1830s; after the European Revolutions of 1848, Denmark peacefully became a constitutional monarchy on 5 June 1849. A new constitution established a two-chamber parliament. Denmark faced war against both Prussia and the Austrian Empire in what became known as the Second Schleswig War, lasting from February to October 1864. Denmark was defeated and obliged to cede Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia. This loss came as the latest in the long series of defeats and territorial losses that had begun in the 17th century. After these events, Denmark pursued a policy of neutrality in Europe.\nIndustrialisation came to Denmark in the second half of the 19th century. The nation's first railways were constructed in the 1850s, and improved communications and overseas trade allowed industry to develop in spite of Denmark's lack of natural resources. Trade unions developed, starting in the 1870s. There was a considerable migration of people from the countryside to the cities, and Danish agriculture became centred on the export of dairy and meat products.\nDenmark maintained its neutral stance during World War I. After the defeat of Germany, the Versailles powers offered to return the region of Schleswig-Holstein to Denmark. Fearing German irredentism, Denmark refused to consider the return of the area without a plebiscite; the two Schleswig Plebiscites took place on 10 February and 14 March 1920, respectively. On 10 July 1920, Northern Schleswig was recovered by Denmark, thereby adding some 163,600 inhabitants and 3,984 square kilometres (1,538 sq mi). The country's first social democratic government took office in 1924.\nIn 1939 Denmark signed a 10-year non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany but Germany invaded Denmark on 9 April 1940 and the Danish government quickly surrendered. World War II in Denmark was characterised by economic co-operation with Germany until 1943, when the Danish government refused further co-operation and its navy scuttled most of its ships and sent many of its officers to Sweden, which was neutral. The Danish resistance performed a rescue operation that managed to evacuate several thousand Jews and their families to safety in Sweden before the Germans could send them to death camps. Some Danes supported Nazism by joining the Danish Nazi Party or volunteering to fight with Germany as part of the Frikorps Danmark. Iceland severed ties with Denmark and became an independent republic in 1944; Germany surrendered in May 1945. In 1948, the Faroe Islands gained home rule. In 1949, Denmark became a founding member of NATO.\n\nDenmark was a founding member of European Free Trade Association (EFTA). During the 1960s, the EFTA countries were often referred to as the Outer Seven, as opposed to the Inner Six of what was then the European Economic Community (EEC). In 1973, along with Britain and Ireland, Denmark joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union) after a public referendum. The Maastricht Treaty, which involved further European integration, was rejected by the Danish people in 1992; it was only accepted after a second referendum in 1993, which provided for four opt-outs from policies. The Danes rejected the euro as the national currency in a referendum in 2000. Greenland gained home rule in 1979 and was awarded self-determination in 2009. Neither the Faroe Islands nor Greenland are members of the European Union, the Faroese having declined membership of the EEC in 1973 and Greenland in 1986, in both cases because of fisheries policies.\nConstitutional change in 1953 led to a single-chamber parliament elected by proportional representation, female accession to the Danish throne, and Greenland becoming an integral part of Denmark. The centre-left Social Democrats led a string of coalition governments for most of the second half of the 20th century, introducing the Nordic welfare model. The Liberal Party and the Conservative People's Party have also led centre-right governments.\n\nGeography\nLocated in Northern Europe, Denmark consists of the northern part of the Jutland peninsula and an archipelago of 406 islands. Of these, the largest island is Zealand, on which the capital Copenhagen is situated, followed by the North Jutlandic Island, Funen, and Lolland. The island of Bornholm is located some 150 km east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea. Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund connects Zealand with Sweden; the Great Belt Fixed Link connects Funen with Zealand; and the Little Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen. Ferries or small aircraft connect to the smaller islands. The four cities with populations over 100,000 are the capital Copenhagen on Zealand; Aarhus and Aalborg in Jutland; and Odense on Funen.\n\nThe metropolitan part occupies a total area of 42,943.9 square kilometres (16,581 sq mi). The area of inland water is 43 km2 (17 sq mi). The size of the land area cannot be stated exactly since the ocean constantly erodes and adds material to the coastline, and because of human land reclamation projects (to counter erosion). Post-glacial rebound raises the land by a bit less than 1 cm (0.4 in) per year in the north and east, extending the coast. A circle enclosing the same area as Denmark would be 234 kilometres (145 miles) in diameter with a circumference of 736 km (457 mi) (land area only: 232.33 km (144.36 mi) and 730 km (454 mi) respectively). It shares a border of 68 kilometres (42 mi) with Germany to the south and is otherwise surrounded by 8,750 km (5,437 mi) of tidal shoreline (including small bays and inlets). No location in Denmark is farther from the coast than 52 km (32 mi). On the south-west coast of Jutland, the tide is between 1 and 2 m (3.28 and 6.56 ft), and the tideline moves outward and inward on a 10 km (6.2 mi) stretch. Denmark's territorial waters total 105,000 square kilometres (40,541 square miles).\nDenmark's northernmost point is Skagen point (the north beach of the Skaw) at 57° 45' 7\" northern latitude; the southernmost is Gedser point (the southern tip of Falster) at 54° 33' 35\" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Blåvandshuk at 8° 4' 22\" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Østerskær at 15° 11' 55\" eastern longitude. This is in the small Ertholmene archipelago 18 kilometres (11 mi) north-east of Bornholm. The distance from east to west is 452 kilometres (281 mi), from north to south 368 kilometres (229 mi).\n\nThe metropolitan part is flat with little elevation, having an average height above sea level of 31 metres (102 ft). The highest natural point is Møllehøj, at 170.86 metres (560.56 ft). Although this is by far the lowest high point in the Nordic countries and also less than half of the highest point in Southern Sweden, Denmark's general elevation in its interior is generally at a safe level from rising sea levels. A sizeable portion of Denmark's terrain consists of rolling plains whilst the coastline is sandy, with large dunes in northern Jutland. Although once extensively forested, today Denmark largely consists of arable land. It is drained by a dozen or so rivers, and the most significant include the Gudenå, Odense, Skjern, Suså and Vidå—a river that flows along its southern border with Germany. The country has 1008 lakes, 16 have an area of more than 500 hectares (1,200 acres). Lake Arresø, located northwest of Copenhagen, is the largest lake.\nThe Kingdom of Denmark includes two overseas territories, both well to the west of Denmark: Greenland, the world's largest island, and the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean. These territories are self-governing under their own parliaments (the Løgting and Inatsisartut) and form, together with continental Denmark, part of the Danish Realm, a country.\n\nClimate\nDenmark has a temperate climate, characterised by cool to cold winters, with mean temperatures in January of 1.5 °C (34.7 °F), and mild summers, with a mean temperature in August of 17.2 °C (63.0 °F). The most extreme temperatures recorded in Denmark, since 1874 when recordings began, was 36.4 °C (97.5 °F) in 1975 and −31.2 °C (−24.2 °F) in 1982. Denmark has an average of 179 days per year with precipitation, on average receiving a total of 765 millimetres (30 in) per year; autumn is the wettest season and spring the driest. The position between a continent and an ocean means that the weather is often unstable.\nBecause of Denmark's northern location, there are large seasonal variations in daylight: short days during the winter with sunrise coming around 8:45 am and sunset 3:45 pm (standard time), as well as long summer days with sunrise at 4:30 am and sunset at 10 pm (daylight saving time).\n\nEcology\nDenmark belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and can be subdivided into two ecoregions: the Atlantic mixed forests and Baltic mixed forests. Almost all of Denmark's primeval temperate forests have been destroyed or fragmented, chiefly for agricultural purposes during the last millennia. The deforestation has created large swaths of heathland and devastating sand drifts. In spite of this, there are several larger second growth woodlands in the country and, in total, 12.9% of the land is now forested. Norway spruce is the most widespread tree (2017); an important tree in the Christmas tree production. Denmark holds a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.5/10, ranking it 171st globally out of 172 countries—behind only San Marino.\nRoe deer occupy the countryside in growing numbers, and large-antlered red deer can be found in the sparse woodlands of Jutland. Denmark is also home to smaller mammals, such as polecats, hares and hedgehogs. Approximately 400 bird species inhabit Denmark and about 160 of those breed in the country. Large marine mammals include healthy populations of Harbour porpoise, growing numbers of pinnipeds and occasional visits of large whales, including blue whales and orcas. Cod, herring and plaice are abundant culinary fish in Danish waters and form the basis for a large fishing industry.\n\nEnvironment\nDenmark stopped issuing new licences for oil and gas extraction in December 2020.\nLand and water pollution are two of Denmark's most significant environmental issues, although much of the country's household and industrial waste is now increasingly filtered and sometimes recycled. The country has historically taken a progressive stance on environmental preservation; in 1971 Denmark established a Ministry of Environment and was the first country in the world to implement an environmental law in 1973. To mitigate environmental degradation and global warming the Danish Government has signed the Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol. However, the national ecological footprint is 8.26 global hectares per person, which is very high compared to a world average of 1.7 in 2010. Contributing factors to this value are an exceptional high value for cropland but also a relatively high value for grazing land, which may be explained by the substantially high meat production in Denmark (115.8 kilograms (255 lb) meat annually per capita) and the large economic role of the meat and dairy industries. In December 2014, the Climate Change Performance Index for 2015 placed Denmark at the top of the table, explaining that although emissions are still quite high, the country was able to implement effective climate protection policies. In 2020, Denmark was placed first in the index again. In 2021 Denmark, with Costa Rica, launched the \"Beyond Oil and Gas alliance\" for stopping use fossil fuels.\nDenmark's territories, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, catch approximately 650 whales per year. Greenland's quotas for the catch of whales are determined according to the advice of the International Whaling Commission (IWC), having quota decision-making powers.\n\nGovernment and politics\nPolitics in Denmark operate under a framework laid out in the Constitution of Denmark. First written in 1849, it establishes a sovereign state in the form of a constitutional monarchy, with a representative unicameral parliamentary system. The monarch officially retains executive power and presides over the Council of State (privy council). In practice, the duties of the monarch are strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other Government ministers. The Monarch is not answerable for his or her actions, and their person is sacrosanct. Hereditary monarch King Frederik X has been head of state since 14 January 2024.\n\nGovernment\nThe Danish parliament is unicameral and called the Folketing (Danish: Folketinget). It is the legislature of the Kingdom of Denmark, passing acts that apply in Denmark and, variably, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Folketing is also responsible for adopting the state's budgets, approving the state's accounts, appointing and exercising control of the Government, and taking part in international co-operation. Bills may be initiated by the Government or by members of parliament. All bills passed must be presented before the Council of State to receive Royal Assent within thirty days in order to become law.\n\nDenmark is a representative democracy with universal suffrage. Membership of the Folketing is based on proportional representation of political parties, with a 2% electoral threshold. Denmark elects 175 members to the Folketing, with Greenland and the Faroe Islands electing an additional two members each—179 members in total. Parliamentary elections are held at least every four years, but it is within the powers of the prime minister to ask the monarch to call for an election before the term has elapsed. On a vote of no confidence, the Folketing may force a single minister or an entire government to resign.\nThe Government of Denmark operates as a cabinet government, where executive authority is exercised—formally, on behalf of the monarch—by the prime minister and other cabinet ministers, who head ministries. As the executive branch, the Cabinet is responsible for proposing bills and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of Denmark. The position of prime minister belongs to the person most likely to command the confidence of a majority in the Folketing; this is often the current leader of the largest political party or, more effectively, through a coalition of parties. A single party generally does not have sufficient political power in terms of the number of seats to form a cabinet on its own; Denmark has often been ruled by coalition governments, themselves usually minority governments dependent on non-government parties.\nFollowing the 2022 Danish general election in November 2022, resident prime minister and Social Democratic leader Mette Frederiksen in December 2022 formed the current Frederiksen II Cabinet, a coalition government with the until then leading opposition party Venstre and the recently founded Moderate party.\n\nLaw and judicial system\nDenmark has a civil law system with some references to Germanic law. Denmark resembles Norway and Sweden in never having developed a case-law like that of England and the United States nor comprehensive codes like those of France and Germany. Much of its law is customary.\nThe judicial system of Denmark is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with jurisdiction over litigation between individuals and the public administration. Articles sixty-two and sixty-four of the Constitution ensure judicial independence from government and Parliament by providing that judges shall only be guided by the law, including acts, statutes and practice. The Kingdom of Denmark does not have a single unified judicial system – Denmark has one system, Greenland another, and the Faroe Islands a third. However, decisions by the highest courts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands may be appealed to the Danish High Courts. The Danish Supreme Court is the highest civil and criminal court responsible for the administration of justice in the Kingdom.\n\nDanish Realm\nThe Kingdom of Denmark is a unitary state that comprises, in addition to metropolitan Denmark, two autonomous territories in the North Atlantic Ocean: the Faroe Islands and Greenland. They have been integrated parts of the Danish Realm since the 18th century; however, due to their separate historical and cultural identities, these parts of the Realm have extensive political powers and have assumed legislative and administrative responsibility in a substantial number of fields. Home rule was granted to the Faroe Islands in 1948 and to Greenland in 1979, each having previously had the status of counties.\nThe Faroe Islands and Greenland have their own home governments and parliaments and are effectively self-governing in regards to domestic affairs apart from the judicial system and monetary policy. High Commissioners (Rigsombudsmand) act as representatives of the Danish government in the Faroese Løgting and in the Greenlandic Parliament, but they cannot vote. The Faroese home government is defined to be an equal partner with the Danish national government, while the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.\n\nAdministrative divisions\nDenmark, with a total area of 43,094 square kilometres (16,639 sq mi), is divided into five administrative regions (Danish: regioner). The regions are further subdivided into 98 municipalities (kommuner). The easternmost land in Denmark, the Ertholmene archipelago, with an area of 39 hectares (0.16 sq mi), is neither part of a municipality nor a region but belongs to the Ministry of Defence. The provinces of Denmark are statistical divisions of Denmark, positioned between the administrative regions and municipalities. They are not administrative divisions, nor subject for any kind of political elections, but are mainly for statistical use.\nThe regions were created on 1 January 2007 to replace the 16 former counties. At the same time, smaller municipalities were merged into larger units, reducing the number from 270. Most municipalities have a population of at least 20,000 to give them financial and professional sustainability, although a few exceptions were made to this rule. The administrative divisions are led by directly elected councils, elected proportionally every four years; the most recent Danish local elections were held on 16 November 2021. Other regional structures use the municipal boundaries as a layout, including the police districts, the court districts and the electoral wards.\n\nRegions\nThe governing bodies of the regions are the regional councils, each with forty-one councillors elected for four-year terms. The councils are headed by regional district chairmen (regionsrådsformand), who are elected by the council.\nThe areas of responsibility for the regional councils are the national health service, social services and regional development. Unlike the counties they replaced, the regions are not allowed to levy taxes and the health service is partly financed by a national health care contribution until 2018 (sundhedsbidrag), partly by funds from both government and municipalities. From 1 January 2019 this contribution will be abolished, as it is being replaced by higher income tax instead.\nThe area and populations of the regions vary widely; for example, the Capital Region has a population three times larger than that of North Denmark Region. Under the county system certain densely populated municipalities, such as Copenhagen Municipality and Frederiksberg, had been given a status equivalent to that of counties, making them first-level administrative divisions. These sui generis municipalities were incorporated into the new regions under the 2007 reforms.\n\nForeign relations\nDenmark wields considerable influence in Northern Europe and is a middle power in international affairs. In recent years, Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been guaranteed a say in foreign policy issues such as fishing, whaling, and geopolitical concerns. The foreign policy of Denmark is substantially influenced by its membership of the European Union (EU); Denmark including Greenland joined the European Economic Community (EEC), the EU's predecessor, in 1973. Denmark held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union on seven occasions, most recently from January to June 2012. Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred-year-long policy of neutrality. It has been a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) since 1949, and membership remains highly popular.\nAs a member of Development Assistance Committee (DAC), Denmark has for a long time been among the countries of the world contributing the largest percentage of gross national income to development aid. In 2015, Denmark contributed 0.85% of its gross national income (GNI) to foreign aid and was one of only six countries meeting the longstanding UN target of 0.7% of GNI. The country participates in both bilateral and multilateral aid, with the aid usually administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The organisational name of Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) is often used, in particular when operating bilateral aid. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Denmark is the 8th most peaceful country in the world.\n\nMilitary\nDenmark's armed forces are known as the Danish Defence (Danish: Forsvaret). The Minister of Defence is commander-in-chief of the Danish Defence, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad. During peacetime, the Ministry of Defence employs around 33,000 in total. The main military branches employ almost 27,000: 15,460 in the Royal Danish Army, 5,300 in the Royal Danish Navy and 6,050 in the Royal Danish Air Force (all including conscripts). The Danish Emergency Management Agency employs 2,000 (including conscripts), and about 4,000 are in non-branch-specific services like the Danish Defence Command and the Danish Defence Intelligence Service. Furthermore, around 44,500 serve as volunteers in the Danish Home Guard.\nDenmark is a long-time supporter of international peacekeeping, but since the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 and the War in Afghanistan in 2001, Denmark has also found a new role as a warring nation, participating actively in several wars and invasions. This relatively new situation has stirred some internal critique, but the Danish population has generally been very supportive, in particular of the War in Afghanistan. The Danish Defence has around 1,400 staff in international missions, not including standing contributions to NATO SNMCMG1. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), with IFOR, and now SFOR. Between 2003 and 2007, there were approximately 450 Danish soldiers in Iraq. Denmark also strongly supported American operations in Afghanistan and has contributed both monetarily and materially to the ISAF. These initiatives are often described by the authorities as part of a new \"active foreign policy\" of Denmark.\n\nEconomy\nDenmark has a developed mixed economy that is classed as a high-income economy by the World Bank. In 2017, it ranked 16th in the world in terms of gross national income (PPP) per capita and 10th in nominal GNI per capita. Denmark's economy stands out as one of the most free in the Index of Economic Freedom and the Economic Freedom of the World. It is the 10th most competitive economy in the world, and 6th in Europe, according to the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2018.\nDenmark has the fourth highest ratio of tertiary degree holders in the world. The country ranks highest in the world for workers' rights. GDP per hour worked was the 13th highest in 2009. The country has a market income inequality close to the OECD average, but after taxes and public cash transfers the income inequality is considerably lower. According to Eurostat, Denmark's Gini coefficient for disposable income was the 7th-lowest among EU countries in 2017.\nAccording to the International Monetary Fund, Denmark has the world's highest minimum wage. As Denmark has no minimum wage legislation, the high wage floor has been attributed to the power of trade unions. For example, as the result of a collective bargaining agreement between the 3F trade union and the employers group Horesta, workers at McDonald's and other fast food chains make the equivalent of US$20 an hour, which is more than double what their counterparts earn in the United States, and have access to paid vacation, parental leave and a pension plan. Union density in 2015 was 68%.\nOnce a predominantly agricultural country on account of its arable landscape, since 1945 Denmark has greatly expanded its industrial base and service sector. By 2017 services contributed circa 75% of GDP, manufacturing about 15% and agriculture less than 2%. Major industries include wind turbines, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment, machinery and transportation equipment, food processing, and construction. Circa 60% of the total export value is due to export of goods, and the remaining 40% is from service exports, mainly sea transport. The country's main export goods are: wind turbines, pharmaceuticals, machinery and instruments, meat and meat products, dairy products, fish, furniture and design. Denmark is a net exporter of food and energy and has for a number of years had a balance of payments surplus which has transformed the country from a net debitor to a net creditor country. By 1 July 2018, the net international investment position (or net foreign assets) of Denmark was equal to 64.6% of GDP.\n\nDenmark is part of the European Union's internal market, which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Support for free trade is high among the Danish public; in a 2016 poll 57% responded saw globalisation as an opportunity whereas 18% viewed it as a threat. 70% of trade flows are inside the European Union. As of 2017, Denmark's largest export partners are Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States.\nDenmark's currency, the krone (DKK), is pegged at approximately 7.46 kroner per euro through the ERM II. Although a September 2000 referendum rejected adopting the euro, the country follows the policies set forth in the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union (EMU) and meets the economic convergence criteria needed to adopt the euro. The majority of the political parties in the Folketing support joining the EMU, but since 2010 opinion polls have consistently shown a clear majority against adopting the euro. In March 2018, 29% of respondents from Denmark in a Eurobarometer opinion poll stated that they were in favour of the EMU and the euro, whereas 65% were against it. The exact same pole conducted in November 2023, was almost unchanged with 31% in favour and 63% against.\nRanked by turnover in Denmark, the largest Danish companies are: A.P. Møller-Mærsk (international shipping), Novo Nordisk (pharmaceuticals), ISS A/S (facility services), Vestas (wind turbines), Arla Foods (dairy), DSV (transport), Carlsberg Group (beer), Salling Group (retail), Ørsted A/S (power), Danske Bank.\nThe Danish government focused into methods to increase taxes on energy dealers in 2023.\n\nPublic policy\nDanes enjoy a high standard of living and the Danish economy is characterised by extensive government welfare provisions. Denmark has a corporate tax rate of 22% and a special time-limited tax regime for expatriates. The Danish taxation system is broad based, with a 25% value-added tax, in addition to excise taxes, income taxes and other fees. The overall level of taxation (sum of all taxes, as a percentage of GDP) was 46% in 2017. The tax structure of Denmark (the relative weight of different taxes) differs from the OECD average, as the Danish tax system in 2015 was characterised by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income and a lower proportion of revenues from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas no revenues at all derive from social security contributions. The proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average\nAs of 2014, 6% of the population was reported to live below the poverty line, when adjusted for taxes and transfers. Denmark had the 2nd lowest relative poverty rate in the OECD, below the 11.3% OECD average. The 6% of the population reporting that they could not afford to buy sufficient food was less than half of the OECD average.\n\nLabour market\nLike other Nordic countries, Denmark has adopted the Nordic Model, which combines free market capitalism with a comprehensive welfare state and strong worker protection. As a result of its acclaimed \"flexicurity\" model, Denmark has the freest labour market in Europe, according to the World Bank. Employers can hire and fire whenever they want (flexibility), and between jobs, unemployment compensation is relatively high (security). According to OECD, initial as well as long-term net replacement rates for unemployed persons were 65% of previous net income in 2016, against an OECD average of 53%. No restrictions apply regarding overtime work, which allows companies to operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. With an employment rate in 2017 of 74.2% for people aged 15–64-years, Denmark ranks 9th highest among the OECD countries, and above the OECD average of 67.8%. The unemployment rate was 5.7% in 2017, which is considered close to or below its structural level.\nThe level of unemployment benefits is dependent on former employment and normally on membership of an unemployment fund, which is usually closely connected to a trade union, and previous payment of contributions. Circa 65% of the financing comes from earmarked member contributions, whereas the remaining third originates from the central government and hence from general taxation.\n\nBusiness\nEstablishing a business in Denmark can be undertaken in a matter of hours and at very low costs. The Danish government operates a \"Danish Business Authority\", and launched a series of initiatives in 2012 aiming to simplify business rules, making it easier to run a business without jeopardizing the intended goals of relevant legislation.\n\nScience and technology\nDenmark has a long tradition of scientific and technological invention and engagement, and has been involved internationally from the very start of the scientific revolution. In current times, Denmark is participating in many high-profile international science and technology projects, including CERN, ITER, ESA, ISS and E-ELT. Denmark was ranked 10th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, down from 6th in 2020 and from 7th in 2019.\nIn the 20th century, Danes have also been innovative in several fields of the technology sector. Danish companies have been influential in the shipping industry with the design of the largest and most energy efficient container ships in the world, the Maersk Triple E class, and Danish engineers have contributed to the design of MAN Diesel engines. In the software and electronic field, Denmark contributed to design and manufacturing of Nordic Mobile Telephones, and the now-defunct Danish company DanCall was among the first to develop GSM mobile phones.\nLife science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Danish engineers are world-leading in providing diabetes care equipment and medication products from Novo Nordisk and, since 2000, the Danish biotech company Novozymes, the world market leader in enzymes for first generation starch-based bioethanol, has pioneered development of enzymes for converting waste to cellulosic ethanol. Medicon Valley, spanning the Øresund Region between Zealand and Sweden, is one of Europe's largest life science clusters.\nDanish-born computer scientists and software engineers have taken leading roles in some of the world's programming languages: Anders Hejlsberg (Turbo Pascal, Delphi, C#); Rasmus Lerdorf (PHP); Bjarne Stroustrup (C++); David Heinemeier Hansson (Ruby on Rails); Lars Bak, a pioneer in virtual machines (V8, Java VM, Dart). Physicist Lene Vestergaard Hau is the first person to stop light, leading to advances in quantum computing, nanoscale engineering, and linear optics.\n\nEnergy\nDenmark has considerably large deposits of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranks as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil and was producing 259,980 barrels of crude oil a day in 2009. Denmark is a long-time leader in wind power: In 2015 wind turbines provided 42.1% of the total electricity consumption. In May 2011 Denmark derived 3.1% of its gross domestic product from renewable (clean) energy technology and energy efficiency, or around €6.5 billion ($9.4 billion). Denmark is connected by electric transmission lines to other European countries.\nDenmark's electricity sector has integrated energy sources such as wind power into the national grid. Denmark now aims to focus on intelligent battery systems (V2G) and plug-in vehicles in the transport sector. The country is a member nation of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).\nDenmark exported roughly 460 million GJ of energy in 2018.\n\nTransport\nSignificant investment has been made in building road and rail links between regions in Denmark, most notably the Great Belt Fixed Link, which connects Zealand and Funen. It is now possible to drive from Frederikshavn in northern Jutland to Copenhagen on eastern Zealand without leaving the motorway. The main railway operator is DSB for passenger services and DB Cargo for freight trains. The railway tracks are maintained by Banedanmark. The North Sea and the Baltic Sea are intertwined by various, international ferry links. Construction of the Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link, connecting Denmark and Germany with a second link, Started in 2021. Copenhagen has a rapid transit system, the Copenhagen Metro, and an extensive electrified suburban railway network, the S-train. In the four largest cities – Copenhagen, Aarhus, Odense, Aalborg – light rail systems are planned to be in operation around 2020.\nCycling in Denmark is a very common form of transport, particularly for the young and for city dwellers. With a network of bicycle routes extending more than 12,000 km and an estimated 7,000 km of segregated dedicated bicycle paths and lanes, Denmark has a solid bicycle infrastructure.\nPrivate vehicles are increasingly used as a means of transport. Because of the high registration tax (150%), VAT (25%), and one of the world's highest income tax rates, new cars are very expensive. The purpose of the tax is to discourage car ownership.\nIn 2007, an attempt was made by the government to favour environmentally friendly cars by slightly reducing taxes on high mileage vehicles. However, this has had little effect, and in 2008 Denmark experienced an increase in the import of fuel inefficient old cars, as the cost for older cars—including taxes—keeps them within the budget of many Danes.\nAs of 2011, the average car age is 9.2 years.\nWith Norway and Sweden, Denmark is part of the Scandinavian Airlines flag carrier. Copenhagen Airport is Scandinavia's busiest passenger airport, handling over 25 million passengers in 2014. Other notable airports are Billund Airport, Aalborg Airport, and Aarhus Airport.\n\nDemographics\nPopulation\nIn April 2020, the population of Denmark, as registered by Statistics Denmark, was 5.825 million. Denmark has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 41.9 years, with 0.97 males per female. Despite a low birth rate, the population is growing at an average annual rate of 0.59% because of net immigration and increasing longevity. The World Happiness Report frequently ranks Denmark's population as the happiest in the world. This has been attributed to the country's highly regarded education and health care systems, and its low level of income inequality. People in Denmark feel responsible for social welfare. The rate of taxation is among the world's highest and can be half a Dane's income but they get most healthcare free, university tuition is also free and students get grants, there is subsidized child care and old people get pensions and care helpers.\nDenmark is a historically homogeneous nation. However, as with its Scandinavian neighbours, Denmark has recently transformed from a nation of net emigration, up until World War II, to a nation of net immigration. Today, residence permits are issued mostly to immigrants from other EU countries (54% of all non-Scandinavian immigrants in 2017). Another 31% of residence permits were study- or work-related, 4% were issued to asylum seekers and 10% to persons who arrive as family dependants. Overall, the net migration rate in 2017 was 2.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population, somewhat lower than the United Kingdom and the other Nordic countries.\nThere are no official statistics on ethnic groups, but according to 2020 figures from Statistics Denmark, 86.11% of the population in Denmark was of Danish descent (including Faroese and Greenlandic), defined as having at least one parent who was born in the Kingdom of Denmark and holds Danish nationality. The remaining 13.89% were of foreign background, defined as immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants. With the same definition, the most common countries of origin were Turkey, Poland, Syria, Germany, Iraq, Romania, Lebanon, Pakistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Somalia. Minorities in Denmark include Turks, Poles, Syrians, Germans, Iraqis, Romanians and people from former Yugoslavia. There are also other Asian and African populations in the country. Small numbers of Romani people and Hungarians live in Denmark. There is also a small Jewish population.\nThe Inuit are Indigenous to Greenland in the Kingdom and have traditionally inhabited Greenland and the northern parts of Canada and Alaska in the Arctic. From the 18th century up to the 1970s, the Danish government (Dano-Norwegian until 1814) tried to assimilate the Greenlandic Inuit, encouraging them to adopt the majority language and culture. Because of this \"Danization process\", some persons of Inuit ancestry now identify their mother tongue as Danish.\n\nLanguages\nDanish is the de facto national language of Denmark. Faroese and Greenlandic are the official languages of the Faroe Islands and Greenland respectively. German is a recognised minority language in the area of the former South Jutland County (now part of the Region of Southern Denmark), which was part of the German Empire prior to the Treaty of Versailles. Danish and Faroese belong to the North Germanic (Nordic) branch of the Indo-European languages, along with Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish. There is some degree of mutual intelligibility between Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish. Danish is more distantly related to German, which is a West Germanic language. Greenlandic or \"Kalaallisut\" is an Inuit language, and is entirely unrelated to Danish, although it has adopted many Danish loanwords including the words for numbers.\nA large majority (86%) of Danes speak English as a second language, generally with a high level of proficiency. German is the second-most spoken foreign language, with 47% reporting a conversational level of proficiency. Denmark had 25,900 native speakers of German in 2007 (mostly in the South Jutland area).\n\nReligion\nChristianity is the dominant religion in Denmark. As of 2024, 71.2% of the population of Denmark were members of the Church of Denmark (Den Danske Folkekirke), the officially established church, which is Protestant in classification and Lutheran in orientation. The membership percentage has been in steady decline since the 1970s, mainly as fewer newborns are being baptised into it. Only 3% of the population regularly attend Sunday services and only 19% of Danes consider religion to be an important part of their life.\n\nThe Constitution states that the sovereign must have the Lutheran faith, though the rest of the population is free to adhere to other faiths. In 1682 the state granted limited recognition to three religious groups dissenting from the Established Church: Roman Catholicism, the Reformed Church and Judaism, although conversion to these groups from the Church of Denmark remained illegal initially. Until the 1970s, the state formally recognised \"religious societies\" by royal decree. Today, religious groups do not need official government recognition, they can be granted the right to perform weddings and other ceremonies without this recognition. Denmark's Muslims make up approximately 4.4% of the population and form the country's second largest religious community and largest minority religion. The Danish Foreign Ministry estimates that other religious groups comprise less than 1% of the population individually and approximately 2% when taken all together. Just under 20% of the Danish population identifies as atheist.\nAccording to a 2010 Eurobarometer poll, 28% of Danish nationals polled responded that they \"believe there is a God\", 47% responded that they \"believe there is some sort of spirit or life force\" and 24% responded that they \"do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force\". Another poll, carried out in 2009, found that 25% of Danes believe Jesus is the son of God, and 18% believe he is the saviour of the world.\nIn its 2024 Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated the country 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.\n\nEducation\nAll educational programmes in Denmark are regulated by the Ministry of Education and administered by local municipalities. Folkeskole covers the entire period of compulsory education, encompassing primary and lower secondary education. Most children attend folkeskole for 10 years, from the ages of 6 to 16. There are no final examinations, but pupils can choose to sit an exam when finishing ninth grade (14–15 years old). The test is obligatory if further education is to be attended. Alternatively pupils can attend an independent school (friskole), or a private school (privatskole), such as Christian schools or Waldorf schools.\nFollowing graduation from compulsory education, there are several continuing educational opportunities; the Gymnasium (STX) attaches importance in teaching a mix of humanities and science, Higher Technical Examination Programme (HTX) focuses on scientific subjects and the Higher Commercial Examination Programme emphasises on subjects in economics. Higher Preparatory Examination (HF) is similar to Gymnasium (STX), but is one year shorter. For specific professions, there is vocational education, training young people for work in specific trades by a combination of teaching and apprenticeship.\nThe government records upper secondary school completion rates of 95% and tertiary enrollment and completion rates of 60%. All university and college (tertiary) education in Denmark is free of charges; there are no tuition fees to enrol in courses. Students aged 18 or above may apply for state educational support grants, known as Statens Uddannelsesstøtte (SU), which provides fixed financial support, disbursed monthly. Danish universities offer international students a range of opportunities for obtaining an internationally recognised qualification in Denmark. Many programmes may be taught in the English language, the academic lingua franca, in bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, doctorates and student exchange programmes.\n\nHealth\nAs of 2015, Denmark has a life expectancy of 80.6 years at birth (78.6 for men, 82.5 for women), up from 76.9 years in 2000. This ranks it 27th among 193 nations, behind the other Nordic countries. The National Institute of Public Health of the University of Southern Denmark has calculated 19 major risk factors among Danes that contribute to a lowering of the life expectancy; this includes smoking, alcohol, drug abuse and physical inactivity. Although the obesity rate is lower than in North America and most other European countries, the large number of overweight Danes results in an annual additional consumption in the health care system of DKK 1,625 million. In a 2012 study, Denmark had the highest cancer rate of all countries listed by the World Cancer Research Fund International; researchers suggest the reasons are better reporting, but also lifestyle factors like heavy alcohol consumption, smoking and physical inactivity.\nDenmark has a universal health care system, characterised by being publicly financed through taxes and, for most of the services, run directly by the regional authorities. One of the sources of income was a national health care contribution (sundhedsbidrag) (2007–11:8%; '12:7%; '13:6%; '14:5%; '15:4%; '16:3%; '17:2%; '18:1%; '19:0%) but it was phased out from January 2019 in favor of income taxes. This means that most health care provision is free at the point of delivery for all residents. Additionally, roughly two in five have complementary private insurance to cover services not fully covered by the state, such as physiotherapy. As of 2012, Denmark spends 11.2% of its GDP on health care; this is up from 9.8% in 2007 (US$3,512 per capita). This places Denmark above the OECD average and above the other Nordic countries.\n\nVulnerable residential areas\nCertain social housing districts in Denmark fulfilling specific statistical criteria of relatively low employment, school attendance, relatively low income, a relatively low educational level or relatively many convicted inhabitants are officially listed by the government as vulnerable residential areas. In some cases, the majority of the neighbourhoods consist of non-Western immigrants and their descendants. Over the years, several government initiatives have been taken to further integration and counter urban decay in these neighbourhoods. Major plans to this end were presented in 1994 and 2000 by the governments of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, in 2004 by the Anders Fogh Rasmussen I Cabinet, in 2010 by the Lars Løkke Rasmussen I Cabinet, in 2013 by the Helle Thorning-Schmidt I Cabinet, in 2018 by the Lars Løkke Rasmussen III Cabinet, and in 2021 by the Mette Frederiksen I Cabinet. Some of the policies have been criticised for undercutting 'equality before law' and for portraying immigrants, especially Muslim immigrants, in a bad light.\nDuring the years 2010–2021, the term \"ghetto\" was used officially to designate some or all of the vulnerable areas. The term was considered controversial, however, and removed in 2021. Denmark is the only country to have officially used the word 'ghetto' in the 21st century to denote certain residential areas. From 2021, four different lists are published, depending on the residents' income levels, employment status, education levels, criminal convictions and origin (a statistical criterion based on parents' geographical birthplace and citizenship). In 2023, there were 19 vulnerable residential areas in Denmark.\n\nCulture\nDenmark shares strong cultural and historic ties with its Scandinavian neighbours Sweden and Norway. It has historically been one of the most socially progressive cultures in the world. In 1969, Denmark was the first country to legalise pornography, and in 2012, Denmark replaced its \"registered partnership\" laws, which it had been the first country to introduce in 1989, with gender-neutral marriage, and allowed same-sex marriages to be performed in the Church of Denmark. Modesty and social equality are important parts of Danish culture. In a 2016 study comparing empathy scores of 63 countries, Denmark ranked 4th world-wide having the highest empathy among surveyed European countries.\n\nThe astronomical discoveries of Tycho Brahe, Ludwig A. Colding's neglected articulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the contributions to atomic physics of Niels Bohr indicate the range of Danish scientific achievement. The fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen, the philosophical essays of Søren Kierkegaard, the short stories of Karen Blixen (penname Isak Dinesen), the plays of Ludvig Holberg, and the dense, aphoristic poetry of Piet Hein, have earned international recognition, as have the symphonies of Carl Nielsen. From the mid-1990s, Danish films have attracted international attention, especially those associated with Dogme 95 like those of Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg.\nA major feature of Danish culture is Jul (Danish Christmas). The holiday is celebrated throughout December, starting either at the beginning of Advent or on 1 December with a variety of traditions, culminating with the Christmas Eve meal.\nThere are seven heritage sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list in Northern Europe: Christiansfeld, a Moravian Church Settlement, the Jelling Mounds (Runic Stones and Church), Kronborg Castle, Roskilde Cathedral, and The par force hunting landscape in North Zealand and 3 in the World Heritage list in North America: Ilulissat Icefjord, Aasivissuit—Nipisat, Kujataa within the Kingdom of Denmark.\n\nHuman rights\nDenmark is usually considered a progressive country, which has adopted legislation and policies to support women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. Human rights in Denmark are protected by the state's Constitution of the Realm (Danmarks Riges Grundlov); applying equally in Denmark proper, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, and through the ratification of international human rights treaties. Denmark has held a significant role in the adoption of both the European Convention on Human Rights and in the establishment of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In 1987, the Kingdom Parliament (Folketinget) established a national human rights institution, the Danish Centre of Human Rights, now the Danish Institute for Human Rights.\nIn 2009, a referendum on changing the Danish Act of Succession were held to grant absolute primogeniture to the Danish throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. As it was not retroactive, the current successor to the throne is the eldest son of the King, rather than his eldest child. The Danish constitution Article 2 states that \"The monarchy is inherited by men and women\".\nThe Inuit have for decades been the subject of discrimination and abuse by the |dominant colonisers from Europe, those countries claiming possession of Inuit lands. The Inuit have never been a single community in a single region of Inuit. From the 18th century up to the 1970s, the Danish government (Dano-Norwegian until 1814) tried to assimilate the Indigenous people of Greenland, the Greenlandic Inuit, encouraging them to adopt the majority language, culture and religion. Denmark has been greatly criticised by the Greenlandic community for the politics of Danization (1950s and 1960s) of and discrimination against the Indigenous population of the country. Critical treatment paying non-Inuit workers higher wages than the local people, the relocation of entire families from their traditional lands into settlements, and separating children from their parents and sending them away to Denmark for schooling has been practised. Nevertheless, Denmark ratified, in 1996, to recognise the ILO-convention 169 on Indigenous people recommended by the UN.\nDenmark was the first country in the world to grant legal recognition to same-sex unions in the form of registered partnerships in 1989. On 7 June 2012, the law was replaced by a new same-sex marriage law, which came into effect on 15 June 2012. Greenland and the Faroe Islands legalised same-sex marriage in April 2016, and in July 2017 respectively. In January 2016, a resolution was implemented by the Danish parliament which prevented transgender identity being classified as a mental health condition. In doing so, Denmark became the first country in Europe to go against the World Health Organisation (WHO) standards, which classified transgender identity as being a mental health issue until June 2018.\nIn its 2024 Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated the country \"free\" with a score of 97 (out of 100).\n\nMedia\nDanish cinema dates back to 1897 and since the 1980s has maintained a steady stream of productions due largely to funding by the state-supported Danish Film Institute. There have been three big internationally important waves of Danish cinema: erotic melodrama of the silent era; the increasingly explicit sex films of the 1960s and 1970s; and lastly, the Dogme 95 movement of the late 1990s, where directors often used hand-held cameras to dynamic effect in a conscious reaction against big-budget studios. Danish films have been noted for their realism, religious and moral themes, sexual frankness and technical innovation. The Danish filmmaker Carl Th. Dreyer is considered one of the greatest directors of early cinema.\nOther Danish filmmakers of note include Erik Balling, the creator of the popular Olsen-banden films; Gabriel Axel, an Oscar-winner for Babette's Feast in 1987; and Bille August, the Oscar-, Palme d'Or- and Golden Globe-winner for Pelle the Conqueror in 1988. In the modern era, notable filmmakers in Denmark include Lars von Trier, who co-created the Dogme 95 movement with Thomas Vinterberg, and multiple award-winners Susanne Bier and Nicolas Winding Refn. Mads Mikkelsen is a world-renowned Danish actor, as is Nikolaj Coster-Waldau.\nDanish mass media date back to the 1540s, when handwritten fly sheets reported on the news. In 1666, Anders Bording, the father of Danish journalism, began a state paper. In 1834, the first liberal, factual newspaper appeared, and the 1849 Constitution established lasting freedom of the press in Denmark.\nModern Danish mass media and news programming are dominated by a few large corporations. In printed media JP/Politikens Hus and Berlingske Media, between them, control the largest newspapers Politiken, Berlingske Tidende and Jyllands-Posten and major tabloids B.T. and Ekstra Bladet. In television, publicly owned stations DR and TV 2 have large shares of the viewers. DR in particular is famous for its high quality TV-series often sold to foreign broadcasters and often with leading female characters like internationally known actresses Sidse Babett Knudsen and Sofie Gråbøl. In radio, DR has a near monopoly, currently broadcasting on all four nationally available FM channels, competing only with local stations.\n\nMusic\nDenmark and its multiple outlying islands have a wide range of folk traditions. The country's most famous classical composer is Carl Nielsen (1865–1931), especially remembered for his six symphonies and his Wind Quintet, while the Royal Danish Ballet specialises in the work of the Danish choreographer August Bournonville. The Royal Danish Orchestra is among the world's oldest orchestras. Danes have distinguished themselves as jazz musicians, and the Copenhagen Jazz Festival has acquired international recognition.\nThe modern pop and rock scene has produced a few names of international fame, including Aqua, Alphabeat, D-A-D, King Diamond, Kashmir, Lukas Graham, Mew, Michael Learns to Rock, MØ, Oh Land, The Raveonettes and Volbeat, among others. Lars Ulrich, the drummer of the band Metallica, has become the first Danish musician to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.\nRoskilde Festival near Copenhagen is the largest music festival in Northern Europe since 1971 and Denmark has many recurring music festivals of all genres throughout, including Aarhus International Jazz Festival, Skanderborg Festival, The Blue Festival in Aalborg, Esbjerg International Chamber Music Festival and Skagen Festival among many others.\nDenmark has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1957 and has won the contest three times, in 1963, 2000 and 2013.\n\nArchitecture and design\nDenmark's architecture became firmly established in the Middle Ages when first Romanesque, then Gothic churches and cathedrals sprang up throughout the country. From the 16th century, Dutch and Flemish designers were brought to Denmark, initially to improve the country's fortifications, but increasingly to build magnificent royal castles and palaces in the Renaissance style.\nDuring the 17th century, many impressive buildings were built in the Baroque style, both in the capital and the provinces. Neoclassicism from France was slowly adopted by native Danish architects who increasingly participated in defining architectural style. A productive period of Historicism ultimately merged into the 19th-century National Romantic style.\nThe 20th century brought along new architectural styles; including expressionism, best exemplified by the designs of architect Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint, which relied heavily on Scandinavian brick Gothic traditions; and Nordic Classicism, which enjoyed brief popularity in the early decades of the century. It was in the 1960s that Danish architects such as Arne Jacobsen entered the world scene with their highly successful Functionalist architecture. This, in turn, has evolved into more recent world-class masterpieces including Jørn Utzon's Sydney Opera House and Johan Otto von Spreckelsen's Grande Arche de la Défense in Paris, paving the way for a number of contemporary Danish designers such as Bjarke Ingels to be rewarded for excellence both at home and abroad.\nDanish design is a term often used to describe a style of functionalistic design and architecture that was developed in the mid-20th century, originating in Denmark. Danish design is typically applied to industrial design, furniture and household objects, which have won many international awards. The Royal Porcelain Factory is famous for the quality of its ceramics. Danish design is also a well-known brand, often associated with world-famous, 20th-century designers and architects such as Børge Mogensen, Finn Juhl, Hans Wegner, Arne Jacobsen, Poul Henningsen and Verner Panton. Other designers of note include Kristian Solmer Vedel in the area of industrial design, Jens Quistgaard for kitchen furniture and implements and Ole Wanscher who had a classical approach to furniture design.\n\nLiterature and philosophy\nThe first known Danish literature is myths and folklore from the 10th and 11th century. Saxo Grammaticus, normally considered the first Danish writer, worked on a chronicle of Danish history (Gesta Danorum). Very little is known of other Danish literature from the Middle Ages. With the Age of Enlightenment came Ludvig Holberg whose comedy plays are still being performed.\nIn the late 19th century, literature was seen as a way to influence society. Known as the Modern Breakthrough, this movement was championed by Georg Brandes, Henrik Pontoppidan (awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature) and J. P. Jacobsen. Romanticism influenced the renowned writer and poet Hans Christian Andersen, known for his stories and fairy tales, e.g. The Ugly Duckling, The Little Mermaid and The Snow Queen. In recent history Johannes Vilhelm Jensen was also awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Karen Blixen is famous for her novels and short stories. Other Danish writers of importance are Herman Bang, Gustav Wied, William Heinesen, Martin Andersen Nexø, Piet Hein, Hans Scherfig, Klaus Rifbjerg, Dan Turèll, Tove Ditlevsen, Inger Christensen and Peter Høeg.\nDanish philosophy has a long tradition as part of Western philosophy. Perhaps the most influential Danish philosopher was Søren Kierkegaard, the creator of Christian existentialism. Kierkegaard had a few Danish followers, including Harald Høffding, who later in his life moved on to join the movement of positivism. Another Danish philosopher of note is Grundtvig, whose philosophy gave rise to a new form of non-aggressive nationalism in Denmark, and who is also influential for his theological and historical works.\n\nPainting and photography\nWhile Danish art was influenced over the centuries by trends in Germany and the Netherlands, the 15th and 16th century church frescos, which can be seen in many of the country's older churches, are of particular interest as they were painted in a style typical of native Danish painters.\nThe Danish Golden Age, which began in the first half of the 19th century, was inspired by a new feeling of nationalism and romanticism, typified in the later previous century by history painter Nicolai Abildgaard. Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg was not only a productive artist in his own right but taught at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where his students included Wilhelm Bendz, Christen Købke, Martinus Rørbye, Constantin Hansen, and Wilhelm Marstrand.\nIn 1871, Holger Drachmann and Karl Madsen visited Skagen in the far north of Jutland where they quickly built up one of Scandinavia's most successful artists' colonies specialising in Naturalism and Realism rather than in the traditional approach favoured by the academy. Hosted by Michael and his wife Anna, they were soon joined by P.S. Krøyer, Carl Locher and Laurits Tuxen. All participated in painting the natural surroundings and local people. Similar trends developed on Funen with the Fynboerne who included Johannes Larsen, Fritz Syberg and Peter Hansen, and on the island of Bornholm with the Bornholm school of painters including Niels Lergaard, Kræsten Iversen and Oluf Høst.\nPainting has continued to be a prominent form of artistic expression in Danish culture, inspired by and also influencing major international trends in this area. These include impressionism and the modernist styles of expressionism, abstract painting and surrealism. While international co-operation and activity has almost always been essential to the Danish artistic community, influential art collectives with a firm Danish base includes De Tretten (1909–1912), Linien (1930s and 1940s), COBRA (1948–1951), Fluxus (1960s and 1970s), De Unge Vilde (1980s) and more recently Superflex (founded in 1993). Notable Danish painters from modern times representing various art movements include Theodor Philipsen (impressionism and naturalism), Anna Klindt Sørensen (expressionism), Franciska Clausen (Neue Sachlichkeit, cubism, surrealism and others), Henry Heerup (naivism), Robert Jacobsen (abstract painting), Carl Henning Pedersen (abstract painting), Asger Jorn (Situationist, abstract painting), Bjørn Wiinblad (art deco, orientalism), Per Kirkeby (neo-expressionism, abstract painting), Per Arnoldi (pop art), and Michael Kvium (neo-surrealism).\nDanish photography has developed from strong participation and interest in the very beginnings of the art of photography in 1839. Pioneers such as Mads Alstrup and Georg Emil Hansen paved the way for a rapidly growing profession during the last half of the 19th century. Today Danish photographers such as Astrid Kruse Jensen and Jacob Aue Sobol are active in key exhibitions around the world.\n\nCuisine\nThe traditional cuisine of Denmark, like that of the other Nordic countries and of Northern Germany, consists mainly of meat, fish and potatoes. Danish dishes are highly seasonal, stemming from the country's agricultural past, its geography, and its climate of long, cold winters.\nThe open sandwiches on rye bread, known as smørrebrød, can be considered a national speciality. Hot meals traditionally consist of ground meats, such as frikadeller (meat balls of veal and pork) and hakkebøf (minced beef patties), or of more substantial meat and fish dishes such as flæskesteg (roast pork with crackling) and kogt torsk (poached cod) with mustard sauce. Denmark is known for its Carlsberg and Tuborg beers and for its akvavit and bitters.\nSince around 1970, chefs and restaurants across Denmark have introduced gourmet cooking, largely influenced by French cuisine. Also inspired by continental practices, Danish chefs have recently developed a new innovative cuisine and a series of gourmet dishes based on high-quality local produce known as New Danish cuisine. As a result of these developments, Denmark now has a considerable number of internationally acclaimed restaurants of which several have been awarded Michelin stars. This includes Geranium and Noma in Copenhagen.\n\nSports\nSports are popular in Denmark, and its citizens participate in and watch a wide variety. The national sport is football, with over 320,000 players in more than 1600 clubs. Denmark qualified six times consecutively for the European Championships between 1984 and 2004, and were crowned European champions in 1992; other significant achievements include winning the Confederations Cup in 1995 and reaching the quarter-final of the 1998 World Cup.\nThe Denmark women's national handball team celebrated great successes during the 1990s and has won a total of 13 medals – seven gold (in 1994, 1996 (2), 1997, 2000, 2002 and 2004), four silver (in 1962, 1993, 1998 and 2004) and two bronze (in 1995 and 2013). On the men's side, Denmark has won 12 medals—four gold (in 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2019), four silver (in 1967, 2011, 2013 and 2014) and four bronze (in 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2007)—the most that have been won by any team in European Handball Championship history. In 2019, the Danish men's national handball team won their first World Championship title.\nIn recent years, Denmark has made a mark as a strong cycling nation, with Michael Rasmussen reaching King of the Mountains status in the Tour de France in 2005 and 2006. Other popular sports include golf—which is mostly popular among those in the older demographic; tennis—in which Denmark is successful on a professional level; basketball—Denmark joined the international governing body FIBA in 1951; rugby—the Danish Rugby Union dates back to 1950; ice hockey—often competing in the top division in the Men's World Championships; rowing—Denmark specialise in lightweight rowing and are particularly known for their lightweight coxless four, having won six gold and two silver World Championship medals and three gold and two bronze Olympic medals; and several indoor sports—especially badminton, table tennis and gymnastics, in each of which Denmark holds World Championships and Olympic medals.\n\nSee also\nIndex of Denmark-related articles\nOutline of Denmark\nReligion in Denmark\n\nExplanatory notes\nCitations\nGeneral and cited sources\nExternal links\n\nDenmark.dk Archived 11 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine \"The site is the official site of Denmark and is edited by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark.\"\nDenmark. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\nDenmark entry at Britannica.com.\nGosse, Edmund William (1878). \"Denmark\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VII (9th ed.). pp. 80–94.\nGosse, Edmund William (1911). \"Denmark\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). pp. 23–44.\nKristiansen, M. (1922). \"Denmark\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 30 (12th ed.).\nDenmark at Curlie\nDenmark profile from the BBC News.\nKey Development Forecasts for Denmark from International Futures.",
"title": "Denmark"
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"paragraph_text": "Jordan William Hunter Luck (born 15 October 1961) is the former lead singer and songwriter of the New Zealand rock band the Exponents. He was born in Vanderhoof in the province of British Columbia, Canada. His family moved to Tokarahi (near Oamaru) and later moved to Geraldine where he grew up. He attended University of Canterbury and College House. He is now in a band called The Jordan Luck Band.\nAt the 2007 APRA Silver Scroll Awards on 18 September, Luck was named as the first inductee to the New Zealand Music Hall of Fame. He was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit for services to music in the 2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours.\nIn 2019, Luck would cover Al Park's \"I Walked Away\" for the covers collection Better Already - The Songs Of Al Park. Park, a singer-songwriter sometimes credited as the father figure for the 'Lyttelton Sound' and the first guy to bring punk music to Otautahi, had featured in the video for \"Victoria\", a top ten hit in 1982 for Luck and his band The Dance Exponents.\nAlso in 2019, Luck would tour New Zealand with The Jordan Luck Band, starting off at Peach & Porker in Te Awamutu on 23 February 2019 and ending the tour in Christchurch on 22 June 2019.\n\nDiscography\nSingles\nSee also\nThe Exponents\n\nAwards\nAotearoa Music Awards\nThe Aotearoa Music Awards (previously known as New Zealand Music Awards (NZMA)) are an annual awards night celebrating excellence in New Zealand music and have been presented annually since 1965.\n\nReferences\nJordan Luck bio on Luck Website\n\nExternal links\nJordan Luck at IMDb",
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"paragraph_text": "The Exponents, formerly The Dance Exponents, is a New Zealand rock group led by vocalist and songwriter Jordan Luck.\nTheir major hits are \"Victoria\", \"Why Does Love Do This To Me\", \"Who Loves Who The Most\" and, \"I'll Say Goodbye (Even Though I'm Blue)\".\n\nHistory\n1980s: Dance Exponents\nThe group formed in 1981 after vocalist Jordan Luck and guitarist Brian Jones disbanded their first group, Basement, and relocated from the South Canterbury town of Timaru to Christchurch with their ex-Splash Alley friend, Steve \"Fingers\" Cowan. Searching for a drummer in Christchurch, the trio met David Gent (bass) and Michael \"Harry\" Harallambi (drums) from punk band Channel 4. Cowan moved from bass to keyboards and guitar and the five piece became the Dance Exponents. Their first gig was at the Hillsborough Tavern on Luck's 20th birthday and Cowan's 22nd – 15 October 1981. A residency at Christchurch's Aranui Tavern quickly earned them a strong live reputation, and on the recommendation of Jim Wilson they were signed by Mushroom Records by Mike Chunn in 1982.\nThe band's debut single \"Victoria\", released in mid-1982 was a top ten hit and was the start of a run of successful songs by Luck. Steve Cowan left the group after the release of \"Victoria\" and was replaced by Martin Morris who only spent six months with the band and left before they began recording their debut album. Cowan died in 1986.\nWith their popularity growing nationally from extensive touring, TVNZ recorded them live at Mainstreet cabaret in Auckland. The show was simulcast on television and FM radio and the companion album released in June 1983 called Live at Mainstreet saw six songs from the Dance Exponents on one side of the album with four songs from the Legionnaires on the other side.\nIn December 1983 the group's debut album Prayers Be Answered was released. The album featured re-recordings of \"Victoria\", \"Your Best Friend Loves Me Too\", \"Poland\" and \"All I Can Do\" and two further singles, \"Know Your Own Heart\", and \"I'll Say Goodbye (Even Though I'm Blue)\". The album stayed in the NZ Album chart for nearly a year, selling double platinum in the process.\nChris Sheehan joined the band on guitar in late 1983 and brought a new edge to the group, best heard on his first recording with them; the Julian Mendlesohn produced single \"Sex & Agriculture\". In late 1984 Harry left the group and moved to Auckland where he drummed for Grey Parade. He was replaced for a short while by Christchurch drummer Steve Birss, who played only a handful of shows.\nAs Birss had not had time to settle with the band before they recorded their second album, Vince Ely from the Psychedelic Furs was hired by producer Ian (Fab) Taylor to drum on the album. The album was called Expectations and featured the singles \"My Love For You\", \"Christchurch (In Cashel St. I Wait)\" and the Australian only single \"Greater Hopes. Greater Expectations\" . It was released in New Zealand in May 1985, and shortly before that Eddie Olson joined the band on drums for the nationwide \"Expectations\" tour.\nThe band's third album Amplifier was co produced by John Jansen and Doug Rogers and released on Roger's Zulu label in 1986. Amplifier featured the single \"Caroline Skies\" and re-recordings of \"Sex and Agriculture\" and \"Only I Could Die (And Love You Still)\". After only a moderate response to the album, Eddie Olson left the group and the band moved to Britain in 1987 and attracted A&R interest, but did not gain a record contract. During their four-year hiatus in the UK, Luck continued to write and accumulated a number of strong songs which were demoed by the band.\n\n1990s: The Exponents\nInterest in the UK demos from PolyGram Records NZ brought the band back to New Zealand in 1990, although Sheehan remained in the UK and went on to form the Starlings. In New Zealand, Harry rejoined the group and to mark the new start of the four original members, they dropped the \"Dance\" from their name to become The Exponents. Their subsequent 1992 album for PolyGram Something Beginning with C, yielded the group's biggest hits of their career in \"Why Does Love Do This to Me\" and \"Who Loves Who the Most\" and the album became the band's first number 1 record in New Zealand. It is included in Nick Bollinger's book \"100 Essential New Zealand Albums\".\nIn 1992, the Exponents relocated to Sydney to record their fifth album Grassy Knoll. The album delivered the singles \"Like She Said\", \"Don't Say Goodbye\" and \"House of Love\". With limited promotion in New Zealand, Grassy Knoll was certified gold but failed to match the success of Something Beginning With C.\nFollowing the release of Grassy Knoll, the band met Rockingham-raised Dave \"Duck\" Barraclough in Sydney in 1994 and he joined them as guitarist and songwriting partner to Luck. His first contribution to the group was his song \"La La Lulu\", which was backed by a song co-written with Luck called \"Summer You Never Meant\". \"La La Lulu\" returned the band to the singles charts and the two songs featured on the group's first hits compilation entitled Once Bitten, Twice Bitten – The Singles 1981–1995 which was released in 1995. The album peaked at Number 1 on the New Zealand album charts and selling 5×Platinum. In 1996, the group recorded a final, one-off single for Warner Music entitled \"Do You Feel in Love\".\nIn 1997, the Exponents signed to Sony Music and released their sixth studio album Better Never Than Late, which featured the singles \"One in a Lifetime\", \"Close\" and \"Change Your Mind\". Produced by Eddie Rayner and the Exponents, it reached number 3 on the album chart.\nIn 1999, Dave Gent took a break from the group and Steve Simpson was drafted in on bass. Shortly after, the Exponents decided to call it quits and went out on a final New Zealand tour in support of their final album Hello, Love You, Goodbye. The record featured Simpson on bass with six new tracks and 8 live tracks recorded at the Poenamo Hotel in Takapuna in 1999. Following the tour, Barraclough returned to Australia and joined Mental As Anything.\n\n2000s: Reformation\nLuck formed his own band, Luck, playing Exponents songs and new compositions with songwriting partner Bryan Bell and he continues to play in the Jordan Luck Band today.\nBrian Jones returned to New Zealand in the early 2000s and began working with former Bird Nest Roys singer Little Ross Hollands in their new group the Diamond Rings which also included a rhythm section of fellow Exponents David Gent and Harry. The Diamond Rings released their debut album The Rasper in June 2009.\nIn 2005 the four original Exponents – Luck, Gent, Jones and Harry got together to record \"Geraldine\" and \"Or a Girl I Knew\" with producer Neil Finn for inclusion in a new Exponents hits compilation called Sex and Agriculture: The Very Best of The Exponents. The album featured one disc of the hits and a second of b-sides and rarities. They played a few shows in support of the album which went platinum and reached number 7 on the charts.\nThe four reunited again in 2010 to play at the \"Band Together\" benefit concert for the 2010 Canterbury earthquake. Their 1985 hit \"Christchurch (In Cashel Street I Wait)\" became the theme song for the concert and the band closed the show with a mass chorus of the song featuring all the artists who performed at the concert.\nOctober 2011 marked the 30th anniversary of the group and on 14 November of that year, almost 30 years after the Dance Exponents first ever show in Christchurch, Jordan, Brian, Dave and Harry got together to play a one-off show at the Ferrymead Speights Alehouse, a venue very close to the Hillsborough Tavern where the band made their debut three decades earlier. To mark the occasion, Universal Music released a new best of album called Why Does Love Do This to Me: The Exponents Greatest Hits.\nThe group's anniversary sparked interest in the band's story from Notable Pictures, who secured funding and support from Prime Television and NZ On Air to produce a feature television documentary about the band. Production commenced in August 2012 and in addition to telling the group's story it documented their return to Neil Finn's Roundhead Studios in Auckland to record some of their earliest songs, most of which had never been recorded or released. Simply entitled The Exponents, the documentary first screened on New Zealand television on Prime on 22 May 2013.\nThe result of their documentary sessions at the studio was a new album Eight Days at Roundhead that featured seven new recordings, an acoustic version of Caroline Skies and two tracks the band recorded with Neil Finn in 2005. Eight Days at Roundhead was released on 10 May 2013 as a stand-alone digital album and as bonus album packaged with the Exponents Greatest Hits album.\nIn December 2014 the Exponents heard the news that Chris Sheehan, who had done so much to shape the group's sound in the eighties, had died in Spain after a long battle with cancer.\nOn 13 October 2015, Recorded Music NZ and The New Zealand Herald announced that the 2015 New Zealand Herald Legacy Award recipients would be The Exponents. The New Zealand Herald Legacy Award pays tribute to notable and celebrated Kiwi artists who have helped shape the NZ music industry. In addition to being presented with the Legacy Award at the Vodafone New Zealand Music Awards on 19 November 2015, The Exponents were inducted into the NZ Music Hall of Fame, joining Jordan Luck who was already there in recognition of his outstanding contribution to New Zealand songwriting. Along with Luck, Jones, Gent and Harry, Recorded Music New Zealand included Steve Cowan, Chris Sheehan and Dave Barraclough into the Hall of Fame induction to recognise their extensive contributions to the group.\nIn April 2018 Dave Barraclough died from pancreatic cancer. \"There will be no funeral\" Luck said. \"David has just gone out to buy some strings.\"\nIn April 2023, The Exponents reunited for a 10 date sold-out tour of New Zealand.\n\nDiscography\nAlbums\nLive albums\nCompilation albums\nSingles\nVideos\nAwards and nominations\nAotearoa Music Awards\nThe Aotearoa Music Awards (previously known as New Zealand Music Awards (NZMA)) are an annual awards night celebrating excellence in New Zealand music and have been presented annually since 1965.\n\nAPRA Awards\nIn 2001, to celebrate 75 years of its existence, APRA invited its members and an academy to vote on what they believe are to be New Zealand's top songs of all time.\nThe Exponents had several songs appearing in the top 100:\n\n#8 – \"Victoria\"\n#47 – \"Why Does Love Do This To Me\"\n#89 – \"I'll Say Goodbye\"\n\nExternal links\nThe Exponents Official Website\nAudioCulture profile\nNotable Pictures' Exponents Documentary Facebook Page\n\n\n== Notes ==",
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"paragraph_text": "Amplifier is the third studio album by the New Zealand band Dance Exponents (later known as The Exponents), released in November 1986. The album peaked at #18 and spent four weeks on the New Zealand Album Chart. The CD version was released in 1992 with an alternative cover and two additional tracks but has since been deleted. In May 2013, Universal Music re-released the album digitally for the first time in New Zealand in a remastered extended edition. The extended edition has the original LP cover and running order and adds three additional tracks, two from the CD release and one additional B-side. It also restores \"Worldwide Wireless\" to its full length after it was edited for the CD release.\n\nTrack listing\n\"Time X Space\" (Sheehan/Dance Exponents)\n\"Only I Could Die (And Love You Still)\" (Luck/Sheehan)\n\"Sex And Agriculture\" (Jones/Luck)\n\"Halcyon Rain\" (Cowan/Luck)\n\"Brodelia The Cat\" (Luck)\n\"Birth Of The Reds\" (Luck/Sheehan)\n\"As I Love You\" (Jones/Luck/Sheehan)\n\"Worldwide Wireless\" (Fitzgerald/Gent/Jones/Luck/Sheehan)\n\"Caroline Skies\" (Luck/Dance Exponents)\nAdditional tracks on 2013 digital extended edition:\n\n\"Victoria\" (Luck)\n\"Brand New Doll\" (Luck)\n\"One Sad River\" (Luck)\n\nBand members\nJordan Luck (vocals)\nBrian Jones (guitar/vocals)\nDavid Gent (bass guitar)\nChris Sheehan (guitars)\nEddie Olson (drums/vocals)\n\nCredits\nCo-produced by John Jansen and Doug Rogers\nRecorded and mixed by Doug Rogers, Rhys Moody and John Jansen\nAssistant engineer - Nelson Ayres\nRecorded at Harlequin Studios, Auckland, New Zealand\nMixed at The House Of Music, New York\n\nCharts\n\n\n== References ==",
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"paragraph_text": "General der Luftwaffe (en: General of the air force) was a General of the branch rank of the Deutsche Luftwaffe (en: German Air Force) in Nazi Germany. Until the end of World War II in 1945, this particular general officer rank was on three-star level (OF-8), equivalent to a US Lieutenant general.\nThe \"General of the branch\" ranks of the Luftwaffe were in 1945:\n\nGeneral of parachute troops\nGeneral of anti-aircraft artillery\nGeneral of the aviators\nGeneral of air force communications troops\nGeneral of the air force\nThe rank was equivalent to the General of the branch ranks of the Heer (army) as follows:\n\nHeer\n\nGeneral of artillery\nGeneral of mountain troops\nGeneral of infantry\nGeneral of cavalry\nGeneral of the communications troops\nGeneral of panzer troops (armoured troops)\nGeneral of engineers\nGeneral of the medical corps\nGeneral of the veterinary corps\n\nOther services\n\nThe rank was also equivalent to the German three-star ranks:\n\nAdmiral of the Kriegsmarine, equivalent to (US Vice admiral) and\nSS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS in the Waffen-SS.\n\nOfficers in this rank\nSee also\nGeneral of the branch\nMilitary ranks of the Luftwaffe (1935–45)\n\nLiterature\nReinhard Stumpf: Die Wehrmacht-Elite - Rang und Herkunftsstruktur der deutschen Generale und Admirale 1933–1945, Harald Boldt Verlag, Boppard/Rhein 1982. ISBN 3-7646-1815-9\nKarl Friedrich Hildebrandt: Die Generale der Luftwaffe 1935–1945 (3 Bde.), Biblio-Verlag, Osnabrück 1991. ISBN 376481701-1",
"title": "General_der_Luftwaffe"
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"paragraph_text": "A general of the branch, general of the branch of service or general of the ... (where instead of the ellipsis an appropriate name of the military branch is being put) is a three or four-star general officer rank in some armies. Several nations divide — or used to divide — their senior general officer ranks by the branch of troops they are qualified to command, or simply as an honorific title.\n\nAustria-Hungary\nIn the Austro-Hungarian Army there were three general of the branch ranks:\n\nGeneral der Infanterie (en: General of the Infantry)\nGeneral der Kavallerie (en: General of the Cavalry)\nFeldzeugmeister (en: General of the Artillery)\nThe rank of General der Infanterie was introduced in 1908, prior to this both infantrymen and gunners were appointed as Feldzeugmeisters.\nHistorically, the rank of general of artillery (German: Feldzeugmeister; literally \"battlefield ordnance master\"; \"gun master\"; in Hungarian Táborszernagy) was equivalent to lieutenant general. In French, the equivalent expression was grand maitre d'artillerie, used since the time of Philip VI of France. The English position of Master-General of the Ordnance was similarly derived.\n\nBulgaria\nThe Third Bulgarian State from its inception in 1878 had a highest military rank of \"general\" (Bulgarian: генерал), but in 1897 this rank was split into three grades - general of infantry (генерал от пехотата), of cavalry (генерал от кавалерията) and of artillery (генерал от артилерията). The rank was replaced after World War II, when Bulgaria fell into the Soviet sphere of influence, with the all-encompassing rank of general.\n\nFinland\nFull generals (4 star; NATO OF-9) in the Finnish military were classified as generals of infantry (jalkaväenkenraali), cavalry (ratsuväenkenraali), jaeger (jääkärikenraali) and artillery (tykistönkenraali). The title is now merely honorific, and only one 4-star general is active at any one time in the modern Finnish military.\n\nGermany\nWehrmacht\nIn the German Wehrmacht a General of a branch (German: General der Waffengattung) was linked to service arms of the Heer (army) and Luftwaffe (air force), depending on where the officer served and what troops he (nominally) commanded. It was equivalent to the three-star ranks of admiral in the Nazi Kriegsmarine, and SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS in the Waffen-SS. A commander-in-chief (Kommandierender General or Befehlshaber) of a German army corps was usually of this rank. In our time this rank might be comparable to NATO OF-8.\n\nHeer\n\nGeneral of the artillery (German: General der Artillerie)\nGeneral of the mountain troops (General der Gebirgstruppe)\nGeneral of the Infantry (General der Infanterie)\nGeneral of the cavalry (General der Kavallerie)\nGeneral of the communications troops (General der Nachrichtentruppe)\nGeneral of the panzer troops (General der Panzertruppe)\nGeneral of the engineers (General der Pioniere)\nGeneral of the medical corps (Generaloberstabsarzt)\nGeneral of the veterinary corps (Generaloberstabveterinär)\nSequence of ranks ascending\n\nLuftwaffe\n\nGeneral of the parachute corps (General der Fallschirmtruppe)\nGeneral of the anti-aircraft artillery (General der Flakartillerie)\nGeneral of the aviators (General der Flieger)\nGeneral of the air force communications corps (General der Luftnachrichtentruppe)\nGeneral of the air force (General der Luftwaffe)\nWaffen-SS\n\nSS-Obergruppenführer and general of the Waffen-SS (SS-Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen-SS)\n\nBundeswehr\nWhen the contemporary German Army, the Bundeswehr, was founded (on November, the 12th 1955) some of the names for general ranks were replaced with the current ones.\nThe denomination General der Panzertruppen, General der Infanterie, General der Artillerie and General der Fernmeldetruppe are still around, but they are not longer ranks but positions. These positions seem to roughly correspond to the pre-Bundeswehr Inspekteur der .... For example Heinz Guderian had the position of Inspekteur der Panzertruppen for a while.\n\nPoland\nIn the Polish armed forces the rank equivalent to lieutenant general is generał broni (\"general of a branch\").\n\nRussian Empire\nGeneral of the Branch is known in Russian as General roda Voysk. Peter the Great created the ranks of general of infantry and general of cavalry in the Imperial Russian Army in early 1700s, though for much of the 18th century a single rank of general-en-chef was used instead. It was Class 2 in the Table of Ranks.\n\nSee also\nComparative military ranks of World War I\nComparative officer ranks of World War II\n\nNotes\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "General_of_the_branch"
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"paragraph_text": "The Luftwaffe (German pronunciation: [ˈlʊftvafə] ) was the aerial-warfare branch of the Wehrmacht before and during World War II. Germany's military air arms during World War I, the Luftstreitkräfte of the Imperial Army and the Marine-Fliegerabteilung of the Imperial Navy, had been disbanded in May 1920 in accordance with the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles which banned Germany from having any air force.\nDuring the interwar period, German pilots were trained secretly in violation of the treaty at Lipetsk Air Base in the Soviet Union. With the rise of the Nazi Party and the repudiation of the Versailles Treaty, the Luftwaffe's existence was publicly acknowledged and officially established on 26 February 1935, just over two weeks before open defiance of the Versailles Treaty through German rearmament and conscription would be announced on 16 March. The Condor Legion, a Luftwaffe detachment sent to aid Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, provided the force with a valuable testing ground for new tactics and aircraft. Partially as a result of this combat experience, the Luftwaffe had become one of the most sophisticated, technologically advanced, and battle-experienced air forces in the world when World War II broke out in September 1939. By the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had twenty-eight Geschwader (wings). The Luftwaffe also operated a paratrooper force known as the Fallschirmjäger.\nThe Luftwaffe proved instrumental in the German victories across Poland and Western Europe in 1939 and 1940. During the Battle of Britain, however, despite inflicting severe damage to the RAF's infrastructure and, during the subsequent Blitz, devastating many British cities, the German Air Force failed to batter the beleaguered British into submission. From 1942, Allied bombing campaigns gradually destroyed the Luftwaffe's fighter arm. From late 1942, the Luftwaffe used its surplus ground support and other personnel to raise Luftwaffe Field Divisions. In addition to its service in the West, the Luftwaffe operated over the Soviet Union, North Africa, and Southern Europe. Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for the destruction of Allied bombers, the Luftwaffe was overwhelmed by the Allies' superior numbers and improved tactics, and a lack of trained pilots and aviation fuel. In January 1945, during the closing stages of the Battle of the Bulge, the Luftwaffe made a last-ditch effort to win air superiority, and met with failure. With rapidly dwindling supplies of petroleum, oil, and lubricants after this campaign, and as part of the entire combined Wehrmacht military forces as a whole, the Luftwaffe ceased to be an effective fighting force.\nAfter the defeat of Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe was disbanded in 1946. During World War II, German pilots claimed roughly 70,000 aerial victories, while over 75,000 Luftwaffe aircraft were destroyed or significantly damaged. Of these, nearly 40,000 were lost entirely. The Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief throughout its history: Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring and later Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim for the last two weeks of the war.\nThe Luftwaffe was deeply involved in Nazi war crimes. By the end of the war, a significant percentage of aircraft production originated in concentration camps, an industry employing tens of thousands of prisoners. The Luftwaffe's demand for labour was one of the factors that led to the deportation and murder of hundreds of thousands of Hungarian Jews in 1944. The Luftwaffe frequently bombed non-military targets, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe organised Nazi human experimentation, and Luftwaffe ground troops committed massacres in Italy, Greece, and Poland.\n\nHistory\nOrigins\nThe Imperial German Army Air Service was founded in 1910 with the name Die Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches, most often shortened to Fliegertruppe. It was renamed the Luftstreitkräfte on 8 October 1916. The air war on the Western Front received the most attention in the annals of the earliest accounts of military aviation, since it produced aces such as Manfred von Richthofen, Ernst Udet, Oswald Boelcke, and Max Immelmann. After the defeat of Germany, the service was dissolved on 8 May 1920 under the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, which also mandated the destruction of all German military aircraft.\nSince the Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to have an air force, German pilots trained in secret. Initially, civil aviation schools within Germany were used, yet only light trainers could be used in order to maintain the façade that the trainees were going to fly with civil airlines such as Deutsche Luft Hansa. To train its pilots on the latest combat aircraft, Germany solicited the help of the Soviet Union, which was also isolated in Europe. A secret training airfield was established at Lipetsk in 1924 and operated for approximately nine years using mostly Dutch and Soviet, but also some German, training aircraft before being closed in 1933. This base was officially known as the 4th squadron of the 40th wing of the Red Army. Hundreds of Luftwaffe pilots and technical personnel visited, studied, and were trained at Soviet Air Force schools in several locations in Central Russia. Roessing, Blume, Fosse, Teetsemann, Heini, Makratzki, Blumendaat, and many other future Luftwaffe aces were trained in the USSR in joint Soviet-German schools that were set up under the patronage of Ernst August Köstring.\nThe first steps towards the Luftwaffe's formation were undertaken just months after Adolf Hitler came to power. Hermann Göring, a World War I ace, became National Kommissar for aviation with former Luft Hansa director Erhard Milch as his deputy. In April 1933 the Reich Aviation Ministry (Reichsluftfahrtministerium or RLM) was established. The RLM was in charge of the development and production of aircraft. Göring's control over all aspects of aviation became absolute. On 25 March 1933 the German Air Sports Association absorbed all private and national organisations, while retaining its 'sports' title. On 15 May 1933, all military aviation organisations in the RLM were merged, forming the Luftwaffe; its official 'birthday'. The National Socialist Flyers Corps (Nationalsozialistisches Fliegerkorps or NSFK) was formed in 1937 to give pre-military flying training to male youths, and to engage adult sport aviators in the Nazi movement. Military-age members of the NSFK were drafted into the Luftwaffe. As all such prior NSFK members were also Nazi Party members, this gave the new Luftwaffe a strong Nazi ideological base in contrast to the other branches of the Wehrmacht (the Heer (army) and the Kriegsmarine (navy)). Göring played a leading role in the buildup of the Luftwaffe in 1933–36, but had little further involvement in the development of the force after 1936, and Milch became the \"de facto\" minister until 1937.\nThe absence of Göring in planning and production matters was fortunate. Göring had little knowledge of current aviation, had last flown in 1922, and had not kept himself informed of the latest events. Göring also displayed a lack of understanding of doctrine and technical issues in aerial warfare which he left to others more competent. The Commander-in-Chief left the organisation and building of the Luftwaffe, after 1936, to Erhard Milch. However Göring, as a part of Hitler's inner circle, provided access to financial resources and materiel for rearming and equipping the Luftwaffe.\nAnother prominent figure in German air power construction this time was Helmuth Wilberg. Wilberg later played a large role in the development of German air doctrine. Having headed the Reichswehr air staff for eight years in the 1920s, Wilberg had considerable experience and was ideal for a senior staff position. Göring considered making Wilberg Chief of Staff (CS). However, it was revealed Wilberg had a Jewish mother. For that reason, Göring could not have him as CS. Not wishing his talent to go to waste, Göring ensured the racial policy of Nazi Germany did not apply to him. Wilberg remained in the air staff, and under Walther Wever helped draw up the Luftwaffe's principle doctrinal texts, \"The Conduct of the Aerial War\" and \"Regulation 16\".\n\nPreparing for war: 1933–1939\nWever years, 1933–1936\nThe German officer corps was keen to develop strategic bombing capabilities against its enemies. However, economic and geopolitical considerations had to take priority. The German air power theorists continued to develop strategic theories, but emphasis was given to army support, as Germany was a continental power and expected to face ground operations following any declaration of hostilities.\nFor these reasons, between 1933 and 1934, the Luftwaffe's leadership was primarily concerned with tactical and operational methods. In aerial terms, the army concept of Truppenführung was an operational concept, as well as a tactical doctrine. In World War I, the Fliegertruppe's initial, 1914–15 era Feldflieger Abteilung observation/reconnaissance air units, each with six two-seater aircraft apiece, had been attached to specific army formations and acted as support. Dive bomber units were considered essential to Truppenführung, attacking enemy headquarters and lines of communications. Luftwaffe \"Regulation 10: The Bomber\" (Dienstvorschrift 10: Das Kampfflugzeug), published in 1934, advocated air superiority and approaches to ground attack tactics without dealing with operational matters. Until 1935, the 1926 manual \"Directives for the Conduct of the Operational Air War\" continued to act as the main guide for German air operations. The manual directed OKL to focus on limited operations (not strategic operations): the protection of specific areas and support of the army in combat.\nWith an effective tactical-operational concept, the German air power theorists needed a strategic doctrine and organisation. Robert Knauss, a serviceman (not a pilot) in the Luftstreitkräfte during World War I, and later an experienced pilot with Lufthansa, was a prominent theorist of air power. Knauss promoted the Giulio Douhet theory that air power could win wars alone by destroying enemy industry and breaking enemy morale by \"terrorising the population\" of major cities. This advocated attacks on civilians. The General Staff blocked the entry of Douhet's theory into doctrine, fearing revenge strikes against German civilians and cities.\nIn December 1934, Chief of the Luftwaffe General Staff Walther Wever sought to mold the Luftwaffe's battle doctrine into a strategic plan. At this time, Wever conducted war games (simulated against France) in a bid to establish his theory of a strategic bombing force that would, he thought, prove decisive by winning the war through the destruction of enemy industry, even though these exercises also included tactical strikes against enemy ground forces and communications. In 1935, \"Luftwaffe Regulation 16: The Conduct of the Air War\" was drawn up. In the proposal, it concluded, \"The mission of the Luftwaffe is to serve these goals.\"\nHistorian James Corum states that under this doctrine, the Luftwaffe leadership rejected the practice of \"terror bombing\" (see Luftwaffe strategic bombing doctrine). According to Corum, terror bombing was deemed to be \"counter-productive\", increasing rather than destroying the enemy's will to resist. Such bombing campaigns were regarded as diversion from the Luftwaffe's main operations; destruction of the enemy armed forces.\nNevertheless, Wever recognised the importance of strategic bombing. In newly introduced doctrine, The Conduct of the Aerial Air War in 1935, Wever rejected the theory of Douhet and outlined five key points to air strategy:\n\nTo destroy the enemy air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories, and defeating enemy air forces attacking German targets\nTo prevent the movement of large enemy ground forces to the decisive areas by destroying railways and roads, particularly bridges and tunnels, which are indispensable for the movement and supply of forces\nTo support the operations of the army formations, independent of railways, i.e, armoured forces and motorised forces, by impeding the enemy advance and participating directly in ground operations\nTo support naval operations by attacking naval bases, protecting Germany's naval bases and participating directly in naval battles\nTo paralyze the enemy armed forces by stopping production in the armaments factories\n\nWever began planning for a strategic bomber force and sought to incorporate strategic bombing into a war strategy. He believed that tactical aircraft should only be used as a step to developing a strategic air force. In May 1934, Wever initiated a seven-year project to develop the so-called \"Ural bomber\", which could strike as far as into the heart of the Soviet Union. In 1935, this design competition led to the Dornier Do 19 and Junkers Ju 89 prototypes, although both were underpowered. In April 1936, Wever issued requirements for the 'Bomber A' design competition: a range of 6,700 kilometres (4,200 mi) with a 900 kilograms (2,000 lb) bomb load. However Wever's vision of a \"Ural\" bomber was never realised, and his emphasis on strategic aerial operations was lost. The only design submittal for Wever's 'Bomber A' that reached production was Heinkel's Projekt 1041, which culminated in the production and frontline service as Germany's only operational heavy bomber, the Heinkel He 177, on 5 November 1937, the date on which it received its RLM airframe number.\nIn 1935, the military functions of the RLM were grouped into the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL; \"Air Force High Command\").\nFollowing the untimely death of Wever in early June 1936 in an aviation-related accident, by the late 1930s the Luftwaffe had no clear purpose. The air force was not subordinated to the army support role, and it was not given any particular strategic mission. German doctrine fell between the two concepts. The Luftwaffe was to be an organisation capable of carrying out broad and general support tasks rather than any specific mission. Mainly, this path was chosen to encourage more flexible use of air power and offer the ground forces the right conditions for a decisive victory. In fact, on the outbreak of war, only 15% of the Luftwaffe's aircraft were devoted to ground support operations, counter to the long-held myth that the Luftwaffe was designed for only tactical and operational missions.\n\nChange of direction, 1936–37\nWever's participation in the construction of the Luftwaffe came to an abrupt end on 3 June 1936 when he was killed along with his engineer in a Heinkel He 70 Blitz, ironically on the very day that his \"Bomber A\" heavy bomber design competition was announced. After Wever's death, Göring began taking more of an interest in the appointment of Luftwaffe staff officers. Göring appointed his successor Albert Kesselring as Chief of Staff and Ernst Udet to head the Reich's Air Ministry Technical Office (Technisches Amt), although he was not a technical expert. Despite this Udet helped change the Luftwaffe's tactical direction towards fast medium bombers to destroy enemy air power in the battle zone rather than through industrial bombing of its aviation production.\nKesselring and Udet did not get on. During Kesselring's time as CS, 1936–1937, a power struggle developed between the two as Udet attempted to extend his own power within the Luftwaffe. Kesselring also had to contend with Göring appointing \"yes men\" to positions of importance. Udet realised his limitations, and his failures in the production and development of German aircraft would have serious long term consequences.\nThe failure of the Luftwaffe to progress further towards attaining a strategic bombing force was attributable to several reasons. Many in the Luftwaffe command believed medium bombers to be sufficient power to launch strategic bombing operations against Germany's most likely enemies; France, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. The United Kingdom presented greater problems. General der Flieger Hellmuth Felmy, commander of Luftflotte 2 in 1939, was charged with devising a plan for an air war over the British Isles. Felmy was convinced that Britain could be defeated through morale bombing. Felmy noted the alleged panic that had broken out in London during the Munich crisis, evidence he believed of British weakness. A second reason was technical. German designers had never solved the issues of the Heinkel He 177A's design difficulties, brought on by the requirement from its inception on 5 November 1937 to have moderate dive-bombing capabilities in a 30-meter wingspan aircraft. Moreover, Germany did not possess the economic resources to match the later British and American effort of 1943–1944, particularly in large-scale mass production of high power output aircraft engines (with output of over least 1,500 kW (2,000 hp). In addition, the OKL had not foreseen the industrial and military effort strategic bombing would require. By 1939 the Luftwaffe was not much better prepared than its enemies to conduct a strategic bombing campaign, with fatal results during the Battle of Britain.\nThe German rearmament programme faced difficulties acquiring raw materials. Germany imported most of its essential materials for rebuilding the Luftwaffe, in particular rubber and aluminum. Petroleum imports were particularly vulnerable to blockade. Germany pushed for synthetic fuel plants but still failed to meet demands. In 1937 Germany imported more fuel than it had at the start of the decade. By summer 1938, only 25% of the requirements could be covered. In steel materials, industry was operating at barely 83% of capacity, and by November 1938 Göring reported the economic situation was serious. The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), the overall command for all German military forces, ordered reductions in raw materials and steel used for armament production. The figures for reduction were substantial: 30% steel, 20% copper, 47% aluminum, and 14% rubber. Under such circumstances, it was not possible for Milch, Udet, or Kesselring to produce a formidable strategic bombing force even had they wanted to do so.\nThe development of aircraft was now confined to the production of twin-engined medium bombers that required much less material, manpower, and aviation production capacity than Wever's \"Ural Bomber\". German industry could build two medium bombers for one heavy bomber and the RLM would not gamble on developing a heavy bomber which would also take time. Göring remarked, \"the Führer will not ask how big the bombers there are, but only how many there are.\" The premature death of Wever, one of the Luftwaffe's finest officers, left the Luftwaffe without a strategic air force during World War II, which eventually proved fatal to the German war effort.\nThe lack of strategic capability should have been apparent much earlier. The Sudeten Crisis highlighted German unpreparedness to conduct a strategic air war (although the British and French were in a much weaker position), and Hitler ordered the Luftwaffe be expanded to five times its earlier size. The OKL badly neglected the need for transport aircraft; even in 1943, transport units were described as Kampfgeschwadern zur besonderen Verwendung (Bomber Units on Special Duties, KGzbV). and only grouping them together into dedicated cargo and personnel transport wings (Transportgeschwader) during that year. In March 1938, as the Anschluss was taking place, Göring ordered Felmy to investigate the prospect of air raids against Britain. Felmy concluded it was not possible until bases in Belgium and the Netherlands were obtained and the Luftwaffe had heavy bombers. It mattered little, as war was avoided by the Munich Agreement, and the need for long-range aircraft did not arise.\nThese failures were not exposed until wartime. In the meantime, German designs of mid-1930s origin such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109, the Heinkel He 111, the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka, and the Dornier Do 17, performed very well. All first saw active service in the Condor Legion against Soviet-supplied aircraft. The Luftwaffe also quickly realised the days of the biplane fighter were finished, the Heinkel He 51 being switched to service as a trainer. Particularly impressive were the Heinkel and Dornier, which fulfilled the Luftwaffe's requirements for bombers that were faster than 1930s-era fighters, many of which were biplanes or strut-braced monoplanes.\nDespite the participation of these aircraft (mainly from 1938 onward), it was the venerable Junkers Ju 52 (which soon became the backbone of the Transportgruppen) that made the main contribution. During the Spanish Civil War Hitler remarked, \"Franco ought to erect a monument to the glory of the Junkers Ju 52. It is the aircraft which the Spanish revolution has to thank for its victory.\"\n\nDive-bombing\nPoor accuracy from level bombers in 1937 led the Luftwaffe to grasp the benefits of dive-bombing. The latter could achieve far better accuracy against tactical ground targets than heavier conventional bombers. Range was not a key criterion for this mission. It was not always feasible for the army to move heavy artillery over recently captured territory to bombard fortifications or support ground forces, and dive bombers could do the job faster. Dive bombers, often single-engine two-man machines, could achieve better results than larger six or seven-man aircraft, at a tenth of the cost and four times the accuracy. This led to Udet championing the dive bomber, particularly the Junkers Ju 87.\nUdet's \"love affair\" with dive-bombing seriously affected the long-term development of the Luftwaffe, especially after Wever's death. The tactical strike aircraft programmes were meant to serve as interim solutions until the next generation of aircraft arrived. In 1936 the Junkers Ju 52 was the backbone of the German bomber fleet. This led to a rush on the part of the RLM to produce the Junkers Ju 86, the Heinkel He 111, and the Dornier Do 17 before a proper evaluation was made. The Ju 86 was poor while the He 111 showed the most promise. The Spanish Civil War convinced Udet (along with limited output from the German munitions industry) that wastage was not acceptable in munition terms. Udet sought to build dive-bombing into the Junkers Ju 88 and conveyed the same idea, initiated specifically by the OKL for the Heinkel He 177, approved in early November 1937. In the case of the Ju 88, 50,000 modifications had to be made. The weight was increased from seven to twelve tons. This resulted in a speed loss of 200 km/h. Udet merely conveyed the OKL's own dive-bombing capability request to Ernst Heinkel concerning the He 177, who vehemently opposed such an idea, which ruined its development as a heavy bomber. Göring was not able to rescind the dive-bombing requirement for the He 177A until September 1942.\n\nMobilisation, 1938–1941\nBy the summer of 1939, the Luftwaffe had ready for combat nine Jagdgeschwader (fighter wings) mostly equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 109E, four Zerstörergeschwader (destroyer wings) equipped with the Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters, 11 Kampfgeschwader (bomber wings) equipped mainly with the Heinkel He 111 and the Dornier Do 17Z, and four Sturzkampfgeschwader (dive bomber wing\") primarily armed with the iconic Junkers Ju 87B Stuka. The Luftwaffe was just starting to accept the Junkers Ju 88A for service, as it had encountered design difficulties, with only a dozen aircraft of the type considered combat-ready. The Luftwaffe's strength at this time stood at 373,000 personnel (208,000 flying troops, 107,000 in the Flak Corps, and 58,000 in the Signals Corps). Aircraft strength was 4,201 operational aircraft: 1,191 bombers, 361 dive bombers, 788 fighters, 431 heavy fighters, and 488 transports. Despite deficiencies, it was an impressive force.\nHowever, even by the spring of 1940, the Luftwaffe still had not mobilised fully. Despite the shortage of raw materials, Udet had increased production through introducing a 10-hour working day for aviation industries and rationalising production. During this period 30 Kampfstaffeln and 16 Jagdstaffeln were raised and equipped. A further five Zerstörergruppen (\"Destroyer groups\") were created (JGr 101, 102, 126, 152 and 176), all equipped with the Bf 110.\nThe Luftwaffe also greatly expanded its aircrew training programmes by 42%, to 63 flying schools. These facilities were moved to eastern Germany, away from possible Allied threats. The number of aircrew reached 4,727, an increase of 31%. However, the rush to complete this rapid expansion scheme resulted in the deaths of 997 personnel and another 700 wounded. 946 aircraft were also destroyed in these accidents. The number of aircrew completing their training was up to 3,941, The Luftwaffe's entire strength was now 2.2 million personnel.\nIn April and May 1941, Udet headed the Luftwaffe delegation inspecting the Soviet aviation industry in compliance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Udet informed Göring \"that Soviet air forces are very strong and technically advanced.\" Göring decided not to report the facts to Hitler, hoping that a surprise attack would quickly destroy the USSR. Udet realised that the upcoming war with the USSR might cripple Germany. Udet, torn between truth and loyalty, suffered a psychological breakdown and even tried to tell Hitler the truth, but Göring told Hitler that Udet was lying, then took Udet under control by giving him drugs at drinking parties and hunting trips. Udet's drinking and psychological condition became a problem, but Göring used Udet's dependency to manipulate him.\n\nLuftwaffe organisation\nLuftwaffe commanders\nThroughout the history of Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe had only two commanders-in-chief. The first was Göring, with the second and last being Generalfeldmarschall Robert Ritter von Greim. His appointment as commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe was concomitant with his promotion to Generalfeldmarschall, the last German officer in World War II to be promoted to the highest rank. Other officers promoted to the second highest military rank in Germany were Kesselring, Hugo Sperrle, Milch, and Wolfram von Richthofen.\nAt the end of the war, with Berlin surrounded by the Red Army, Göring suggested to Hitler that he take over leadership of the Reich. Hitler ordered his arrest and execution, but Göring's SS guards did not carry out the order, and Göring survived to be tried at Nuremberg.\nSperrle was prosecuted at the OKW trial, one of the last twelve of the Nuremberg trials after the war. He was acquitted on all four counts. He died in Munich in 1953.\n\nOrganisation and chain of command\nAt the start of the war the Luftwaffe had four Luftflotten (air fleets), each responsible for roughly a quarter of Germany. As the war progressed more air fleets were created as the areas under German rule expanded. As one example, Luftflotte 5 was created in 1940 to direct operations in Norway and Denmark, and other Luftflotten were created as necessary. Each Luftflotte would contain several Fliegerkorps (Air Corps), Fliegerdivision (Air Division), Jagdkorps (Fighter Corps), Jagddivision (Air Division), or Jagdfliegerführer (Fighter Air Command). Each formations would have attached to it a number of units, usually several Geschwader, but also independent Staffeln and Kampfgruppen. Luftflotten were also responsible for the training aircraft and schools in their operational areas.\nA Geschwader was commanded by a Geschwaderkommodore, with the rank of either major, Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) or Oberst (colonel). Other \"staff\" officers within the unit with administrative duties included the adjutant, technical officer, and operations officer, who were usually (though not always) experienced aircrew or pilots still flying on operations. Other specialist staff were navigation, signals, and intelligence personnel. A Stabschwarm (headquarters flight) was attached to each Geschwader.\nA Jagdgeschwader (hunting wing) (JG) was a single-seat day fighter Geschwader, typically equipped with Bf 109 or Fw 190 aircraft flying in the fighter or fighter-bomber roles. Late in the war, by 1944–45, JG 7 and JG 400 (and the jet specialist JV 44) flew much more advanced aircraft, with JG 1 working up with the Heinkel He 162 \"emergency fighter\" at war's end. A Geschwader consisted of groups (Gruppen), which in turn consisted of Jagdstaffel (fighter squadrons). Hence, Fighter Wing 1 was JG 1, its first Gruppe (group) was I./JG 1, using a Roman numeral for the Gruppe number only, and its first Staffel (squadron) was 1./JG 1. Geschwader strength was usually 120–125 aircraft.\nEach Gruppe was commanded by a Kommandeur, and a Staffel by a Staffelkapitän. However, these were \"appointments\", not ranks, within the Luftwaffe. Usually, the Kommodore would hold the rank of Oberstleutnant or, exceptionally, an Oberst. Even a Leutnant (second lieutenant) could find himself commanding a Staffel.\nSimilarly, a bomber wing was a Kampfgeschwader (KG), a night fighter wing was a Nachtjagdgeschwader (NJG), a dive bomber wing was a Stukageschwader (StG), and units equivalent to those in RAF Coastal Command, with specific responsibilities for coastal patrols and search and rescue duties, were Küstenfliegergruppen (Kü.Fl. Gr.). Specialist bomber groups were known as Kampfgruppen (KGr). The strength of a bomber Geschwader was about 80–90 aircraft.\n\nPersonnel\nThe peacetime strength of the Luftwaffe in the spring of 1939 was 370,000 men. After mobilisation in 1939 almost 900,000 men served, and just before Operation Barbarossa in 1941 personnel strength had reached 1.5 million men. The Luftwaffe reached its largest personnel strength during the period November 1943 to June 1944, with almost three million men and women in uniform; 1.7 million of these were male soldiers, 1 million male Wehrmachtsbeamte and civilian employees, and almost 300,000 female and male auxiliaries (Luftwaffenhelfer). In October 1944, the anti-aircraft units had 600,000 soldiers and 530,000 auxiliaries, including 60,000 male members of the Reichsarbeitsdienst, 50,000 Luftwaffenhelfer (males age 15–17), 80,000 Flakwehrmänner (males above military age) and Flak-V-soldaten (males unfit for military service), and 160,000 female Flakwaffenhelferinnen and RAD-Maiden, as well as 160,000 foreign personnel (Hiwis).\n\nSpanish Civil War\nThe Luftwaffe's Condor Legion experimented with new doctrine and aircraft during the Spanish Civil War. It helped the Falange under Francisco Franco to defeat the Republican forces. Over 20,000 German airmen gained combat experience that would give the Luftwaffe an important advantage going into the Second World War. One infamous operation was the bombing of Guernica in the Basque country. It is commonly assumed this attack was the result of a \"terror doctrine\" in Luftwaffe doctrine. The raids on Guernica and Madrid caused many civilian casualties and a wave of protests from abroad. It has been suggested that the bombing of Guernica was carried out for military tactical reasons, in support of ground operations, but the town was not directly involved in any fighting at that point in time. It was not until 1942 that the Germans started to develop a bombing policy in which civilians were the primary targets, although the Blitz on London and many other British cities involved indiscriminate bombing of civilian areas, 'nuisance raids' which could even involve the machine-gunning of civilians and livestock.\n\nWorld War II\nWhen World War II began in 1939, the Luftwaffe was one of the most technologically advanced air forces in the world. During the Polish Campaign that triggered the war, it quickly established air superiority, and then air supremacy. It supported the German Army operations which ended the campaign in five weeks. The Luftwaffe's performance was as the OKL had hoped. The Luftwaffe rendered invaluable support to the army, mopping up pockets of resistance. Göring was delighted with the performance. Command and control problems occurred, but flexibility and improvisation in both the army and the Luftwaffe solved these problems. The Luftwaffe was to have in place a ground-to-air communication system, which played a vital role in the success of 1940's Fall Gelb.\nIn the spring of 1940 the Luftwaffe assisted the Kriegsmarine and Heer in the invasion of Norway. Flying in reinforcements and winning air superiority, the Luftwaffe contributed decisively to the German conquest.\nIn May and June 1940, the Luftwaffe contributed to the unexpected German success in the Battle of France. It destroyed three Allied Air Forces and helped secure the defeat of France in just over six weeks. However, it could not destroy the British Expeditionary Force at Dunkirk despite intense bombing. The BEF escaped to continue the war.\nDuring the Battle of Britain in summer 1940, the Luftwaffe inflicted severe damage on Britain's Royal Air Force, but did not achieve the air superiority that Hitler had demanded for the proposed invasion of Britain, which was postponed and then canceled in December 1940. The Luftwaffe ravaged British cities during the Blitz of 1940–1941, but failed to break British morale, and the RAF shot down German planes by over a two to one ratio. Hitler had already ordered preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.\nIn spring 1941 the Luftwaffe helped its Axis partner, Italy, secure victory in the Balkans Campaign and continued to support Italy or the Italian Social Republic in the Mediterranean, Middle East and African theaters until May 1945.\nIn June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Despite destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft, the Luftwaffe failed to destroy the Red Air Force altogether. Lacking strategic bombers (the very \"Ural bombers\" that Wever had asked for six years before) the Luftwaffe could not strike at Soviet production-centres regularly or with the needed force. The Axis and Soviet air operations during Operation Barbarossa consumed vast numbers of men and planes. As the war dragged on, the Luftwaffe was eroded in strength. German defeats at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942 and in the Battle of Kursk in 1943 ensured the gradual decline of the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front.\nBritish historian Frederick Taylor asserts that \"all sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids.\"\nThe Luftwaffe defended German-occupied Europe against the growing offensive power of RAF Bomber Command and, starting in the summer of 1942, the steadily building strength of the United States Army Air Forces. The mounting demands of the Defence of the Reich campaign gradually destroyed the Luftwaffe's fighter arm. Despite its belated use of advanced turbojet and rocket-propelled aircraft for bomber-destroyer duties, it was overwhelmed by Allied numbers and a lack of trained pilots and fuel. A last-ditch attempt, known as Operation Bodenplatte, to win air superiority on 1 January 1945 failed. After the Bodenplatte effort, the Luftwaffe ceased to be an effective fighting force.\nGerman day- and night-fighter pilots claimed more than 70,000 aerial victories during World War II. Of these, an estimated 745 victories were attributed to Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighters. Flak shot down 25,000–30,000 Allied planes. Broken down according to the different Allied forces, about 25,000 were American planes, about 20,000 British, 46,100 Soviet, 1,274 French, 375 Polish, and 81 Dutch as well as aircraft from other Allied nationalities.\nThe highest-scoring day-fighter pilot was Erich Hartmann with 352 confirmed kills, all of them on the Eastern front against the Soviets. The leading aces in the west were Hans-Joachim Marseille with 158 kills (most of which were against British Commonwealth forces in the Desert campaign), and Georg-Peter Eder with 56 kills of aircraft from the USAAF (of a total of 78). The most successful night-fighter pilot, Heinz-Wolfgang Schnaufer, is credited with 121 kills. 103 German fighter pilots shot down more than 100 enemy aircraft for a total of roughly 15,400 aerial victories. Roughly a further 360 pilots claimed between 40 and 100 aerial victories for round about 21,000 victories. Another 500 fighter pilots claimed between 20 and 40 victories for a total of 15,000 victories. Part of the reason German pilots scored such high victory totals was that they were in combat for the duration of the war-unlike the Allies, who rotated their flyers out of combat after a certain amount of time to recuperate or to impart their skills in training other pilots - German pilots flew until they were killed, captured, or too badly wounded to keep flying. It is relatively certain that 2,500 German fighter pilots attained ace status, having achieved at least five aerial victories. These achievements were honored with 453 German single and twin-engine (Messerschmitt Bf 110) day-fighter pilots receiving the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross. Intense personal rivalry may have played an important role in motivating high-performing aces (who scored the vast majority of aerial victories). Public recognition in the form of medals and mentions in the army bulletin spurred efforts of peers who had previously flown with award-winners\n. 85 night-fighter pilots, including 14 crew members, were awarded the Knight's Cross. Some bomber pilots were also highly successful. Stuka and Schlachtflieger pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel flew 2,530 ground-attack missions and claimed the destruction of more than 519 tanks and a battleship, among others. He became the most highly decorated German serviceman of the Second World War. Bomber pilot Hansgeorg Bätcher flew more than 658 combat missions, destroying numerous ships and other targets.\nLuftwaffe losses, on the other hand, were high as well. The estimated total number of destroyed and damaged for the war totalled 76,875 aircraft. Of these, about 43,000 were lost in combat, the rest in operational accidents and during training. By type, losses totalled 21,452 fighters, 12,037 bombers, 15,428 trainers, 10,221 twin-engine fighters, 5,548 ground attack craft, 6,733 reconnaissance planes, and 6,141 transports.\nAccording to the General Staff of the Wehrmacht the losses of the flight personnel until February 1945 amounted to:\n\nAccording to official statistics, total Luftwaffe casualties, including ground personnel, amounted to 138,596 killed and 156,132 missing through 31 January 1945.\n\nOmissions and failures\nLack of aerial defence\nThe failure of the Luftwaffe in the Defence of the Reich campaign was a result of a number of factors. The Luftwaffe lacked an effective air defence system early in the war. Hitler's foreign policy had pushed Germany into war before these defences could be fully developed. The Luftwaffe was forced to improvise and construct its defences during the war.\nThe daylight actions over German-controlled territory were sparse in 1939–1940. The responsibility of the defence of German air space fell to the Luftgaukommandos (air district commands). The defence systems relied mostly on the \"flak\" arm. The defences were not coordinated and communication was poor. This lack of understanding between the flak and flying branches of the defence would plague the Luftwaffe throughout the war. Hitler, in particular, wanted the defence to rest on anti-aircraft artillery as it gave the civilian population a \"psychological crutch\" no matter how ineffective the weapons.\nMost of the battles fought by the Luftwaffe on the Western Front were against the RAF's \"Circus\" raids and the occasional daylight raid into German air space. This was a fortunate position since the Luftwaffe's strategy of focusing its striking power on one front started to unravel with the failure of the invasion of the Soviet Union. The \"peripheral\" strategy of the Luftwaffe between 1939 and 1940 had been to deploy its fighter defences at the edges of Axis occupied territory, with little protecting the inner depths. Moreover, the front line units in the West were complaining about the poor numbers and performance of aircraft. Units complained of lack of Zerstörer aircraft with all-weather capabilities and the \"lack of climbing power of the Bf 109\". The Luftwaffe's technical edge was slipping as the only formidable new aircraft in the German arsenal was the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. Milch was to assist Udet with aircraft production increases and the introduction of more modern types of fighter aircraft. However, they explained at a meeting of the Reich Industrial Council on 18 September 1941 that the new next-generation aircraft had failed to materialise, and production of obsolete types had to continue to meet the growing need for replacements.\nThe buildup of the Jagdwaffe (\"Fighter Force\") was too rapid and its quality suffered. It was not put under a unified command until 1943, which also affected the performance of the nine Jagdgeschwader fighter wings in existence in 1939. No further units were formed until 1942, and the years of 1940–1941 were wasted. The OKL failed to construct a strategy; instead, its command style was reactionary, and its measures not as effective without thorough planning. This was particularly apparent with the Sturmböck squadrons, formed to replace the increasingly ineffective twin-engined Zerstörer heavy fighter wings as the primary defence against USAAF daylight raids. The Sturmböcke flew Fw 190A fighters armed with heavy 20mm and 30mm cannon to destroy heavy bombers, but this increased the weight and affected the performance of the Fw 190 at a time when the aircraft were meeting large numbers of equal if not superior Allied types.\nDaytime aerial defence against the USAAF's strongly defended heavy bomber forces, particularly the Eighth Air Force and the Fifteenth Air Force, had its successes through the calendar year of 1943. But at the start of 1944, Eighth AF commander Jimmy Doolittle made a major change in offensive fighter tactics, which defeated the Luftwaffe's day fighter force from that time onwards. Steadily increasing numbers of the superlative North American P-51 Mustang single-engine fighter, leading the USAAF's bombers into German airspace defeated first the Bf 110 Zerstörer wings, then the Fw 190A Sturmböcke.\n\nDevelopment and equipment\nIn terms of technological development, the failure to develop a long-range bomber and capable long-range fighters during this period left the Luftwaffe unable to conduct a meaningful strategic bombing campaign throughout the war. However, Germany at that time suffered from limitations in raw materials such as oil and aluminum, which meant that there were insufficient resources for much beyond a tactical air force: given these circumstances, the Luftwaffe's reliance on tactical mid-range, twin-engined medium bombers and short-range dive-bombers was a pragmatic choice of strategy. It might also be argued that the Luftwaffe's Kampfgeschwader medium and heavy bomber wings were perfectly capable of attacking strategic targets, but the lack of capable long-range escort fighters left the bombers unable to carry out their missions effectively against determined and well-organised fighter opposition.\nThe greatest failure for the Kampfgeschwader, however, was being saddled with an aircraft intended as a capable four-engined heavy bomber: the perpetually troubled Heinkel He 177, whose engines were prone to catch fire in flight. Of the three parallel proposals from the Heinkel engineering departments for a four-engined version of the A-series He 177 by February 1943, one of these being the Heinkel firm's Amerikabomber candidate, only one, the He 177B, emerged in the concluding months of 1943. Only three airworthy prototypes of the B-series He 177 design were produced by early 1944, by which point the Avro Lancaster, the most successful RAF heavy bomber, was already in widespread service.\n\nAnother failure of procurement and equipment was the lack of a dedicated naval air arm. Felmy had already expressed a desire to build a naval air arm to support Kriegsmarine operations in the Atlantic and British waters. Britain was dependent on food and raw materials from its Empire and North America. Felmy pressed this case firmly throughout 1938 and 1939, and, on 31 October 1939, Großadmiral Erich Raeder sent a strongly worded letter to Göring in support of such proposals. The early-war twin-engined Heinkel He 115 floatplane and Dornier Do 18 flying boat were too slow and short-ranged. The then-contemporary Blohm & Voss BV 138 Seedrache (\"seadragon\") flying boat became the Luftwaffe's primary seaborne maritime patrol platform, with nearly 300 examples built; it had a 4,300 km (2,670 mi) maximum range. Another Blohm und Voss design of 1940, the enormous, 46-meter wingspan Blohm & Voss BV 222 Wiking maritime patrol flying boat was capable of a 6,800 km (4,200-mile) range at maximum endurance. The Dornier Do 217 would have been ideal as a land-based choice but suffered production problems. Raeder also complained about the poor standard of aerial torpedoes, although their design was the responsibility of the Kriegsmarine, even considering production of the Japanese Type 91 torpedo used in the Attack on Pearl Harbor as the Lufttorpedo LT 850 by August 1942 .\nWithout specialised naval or land-based, purpose-designed maritime patrol aircraft, the Luftwaffe was forced to improvise. The Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor – developed as a civilian airliner – lacked the structural strength for combat maneuvering at lower altitudes, making it unsuitable for use as a bomber in maritime patrol duties. The Condor lacked speed, armor and bomb load capacity. Sometimes the fuselage literally \"broke its back\" or a wing panel dropped loose from the wing root after a hard landing. Nevertheless, it was adapted for the long-range reconnaissance and anti-shipping roles and, between August 1940 and February 1941, Fw 200s sank 85 vessels for a claimed total of 363,000 GRT. Had the Luftwaffe focused on naval aviation – particularly maritime patrol aircraft with long range, Germany might well have been in a position to win the Battle of the Atlantic. However, Raeder and the Kriegsmarine failed to press for naval air power until the war began, mitigating the Luftwaffe's responsibility. At the same time Göring regarded any other branch of the German military developing its own aviation as an encroachment on his authority and continually frustrated the navy's attempts to build its own airpower.\nThe absence of a strategic bomber force for the Luftwaffe, following Wever's death in 1936 and the end of the Ural bomber programme was not addressed until the authorisation of the \"Bomber B\" design competition in July 1939, which sought to replace the medium bomber force with which the Luftwaffe would begin the war, and the partly achieved Schnellbomber high-speed medium bomber concept with more advanced, twin-engined high-speed bomber aircraft fitted with pairs of relatively \"high-power\" engines of 1,500 kW (2,000 hp) and upwards as a follow-on to the earlier Schnellbomber project, that would also be able to function as shorter-range heavy bombers.\n\n \nThe spring 1942 Amerikabomber programme sought to produce strategic bomber designs for the Luftwaffe to directly attack the United States from Europe or the Azores. Inevitably, both the Bomber B and Amerikabomber programmes were victims of the continued emphasis of the Wehrmacht combined military's insistence for its Luftwaffe air arm to support the Heer as its primary mission, and the damage to the German aviation industry from Allied bomber attacks.\n\nChallenges in directly addressing combat pilots' issues\nThe RLM's apparent lack of a dedicated \"technical-tactical\" department, that would have directly been in contact with combat pilots to assess their needs for weaponry upgrades and tactical advice, had never been seriously envisioned as a critically ongoing necessity in the planning of the original German air arm. The RLM did have its own Technisches Amt (T-Amt) department to handle aviation technology issues, but this was tasked with handling all aviation technology issues in Nazi Germany, both military and civilian in nature, and also not known to have ever had any clear and actively administrative and consultative links with the front-line forces established for such purposes. On the front-line combat side of the issue, and for direct contact with the German aviation firms making the Luftwaffe's warplanes, the Luftwaffe did have its own reasonably effective system of four military aviation test facilities, or Erprobungstellen located at three coastal sites – Peenemünde-West (also incorporating a separate facility in nearby Karlshagen), Tarnewitz and Travemünde – and the central inland site of Rechlin, itself first established as a military airfield in late August 1918 by the German Empire, with the four-facility system commanded later in World War II by Oberst Edgar Petersen. However, due to lack of co-ordination between the RLM and the OKL, all fighter and bomber development was oriented toward short-range aircraft, as they could be produced in greater numbers, rather than quality long-range aircraft, something that put the Luftwaffe at a disadvantage as early as the Battle of Britain. The \"ramp-up\" to production levels required to fulfill the Luftwaffe's front-line needs was also slow, not reaching maximum output until 1944. \nProduction of fighters was not given priority until the Emergency Fighter Program was begun in 1944; Adolf Galland commented that this should have occurred at least a year earlier. Galland also pointed to the mistakes and challenges made in the development of the Messerschmitt Me 262 including the protracted development time required for its Junkers Jumo 004 jet engines to achieve reliability. German combat aircraft types that were first designed and flown in the mid-1930s had become obsolete, yet were kept in production, in particular the Ju 87 Stuka, and the Bf 109, because there were no well-developed replacement designs.\n\nProduction failures\nThe failure of German production was evident from the start of the Battle of Britain. By the end of 1940, the Luftwaffe had suffered heavy losses and needed to regroup. Deliveries of new aircraft were insufficient to meet the drain on resources; the Luftwaffe, unlike the RAF, was failing to expand its pilot and aircraft numbers. This was partly owing to production planning failures before the war and the demands of the army. Nevertheless, the German aircraft industry was being outproduced in 1940. In terms of fighter aircraft production, the British exceeded their production plans by 43%, while the Germans remained 40% \"behind\" target by summer 1940. In fact, German production in fighters fell from 227 to 177 per month between July and September 1940. One of the many reasons for the failure of the Luftwaffe in 1940 was that it did not have the operational and material means to destroy the British aircraft industry, something that the much-anticipated Bomber B design competition was intended to address.\nThe so-called \"Göring programme\", had largely been predicated on the defeat of the Soviet Union in 1941. After the Wehrmacht's failure in front of Moscow, industrial priorities for a possibility in increasing aircraft production were largely abandoned in favor to support the army's increased attrition rates and heavy equipment losses. Milch's reforms expanded production rates. In 1941 an average of 981 aircraft (including 311 fighters) were produced each month. In 1942 this rose to 1,296 aircraft of which 434 were fighters. Milch's planned production increases were initially opposed. But in June, he was granted materials for 900 fighters per month as the average output. By the summer of 1942, the Luftwaffe's operational fighter force had recovered from a low of 39% (44% for fighters and 31% for bombers) in the winter of 1941–1942, to 69% by late June (75% for fighters and 66% for bombers) in 1942. However, after increased commitments in the east, overall operational ready rates fluctuated between 59% and 65% for the remaining year. Throughout 1942 the Luftwaffe was out produced in fighter aircraft by 250% and in twin-engine aircraft by 196%.\nThe appointment of Albert Speer as Minister of Armaments increased production of existing designs and the few new designs that had originated from earlier in the war. However, the intensification of Allied bombing caused the dispersion of production and prevented an efficient acceleration of expansion. German aviation production reached about 36,000 combat aircraft for 1944. However, by the time this was achieved the Luftwaffe lacked the fuel and trained pilots to make this achievement worthwhile.\nThe failure to maximise production immediately after the failures in the Soviet Union and North Africa ensured the Luftwaffe's effective defeat in the period of September 1943 – February 1944. Despite the tactical victories won, they failed to achieve a decisive victory. By the time production reached acceptable levels, as so many other factors had for the Luftwaffe – and for the entire Wehrmacht's weapons and ordnance technology as a whole – late in the war, it was \"too little, too late\".\n\nEngine development\nBy the late 1930s, airframe construction methods had progressed to the point where airframes could be built to any required size, especially in Germany with aircraft like the Dornier Do X flying boat and the Junkers G 38 airliner. However, powering such designs was a major challenge. Mid-1930s aero engines were limited to about 600 hp and the first 1000 hp engines were just entering the prototype stage – for Nazi Germany's then-new Luftwaffe air arm, this meant liquid-cooled inverted V12 designs like the Daimler-Benz DB 601.\nNazi Germany's initial need for substantially more powerful aviation engines originated with the private venture Heinkel He 119 high-speed reconnaissance design, and the Messerschmitt Me 261 for maritime reconnaissance duties. To give enough power in each engine installation, Daimler-Benz coupled two DB 601 engines as single \"power system\" with the propeller gear reduction housing across the front ends of the two engines. The combined powerplant, known as the DB 606, gave 2,700 metric horsepower (2,000 kW) maximum output in February 1937, for a total weight of around 1.5 tonnes.\nDaimler-Benz's was at the same time developing a 1,500 kW class X-configuration engine design resulting in the twenty-four cylinder Daimler-Benz DB 604 (four banks of six cylinders each). Possessing essentially the same displacement of 46.5 litres (2,840 in3) as the initial version of the liquid-cooled Junkers Jumo 222 multibank engine, six banks of four inline cylinders apiece instead; coincidentally, both the original Jumo 222 design and the DB 604 each weighed about a third less (at some 1,080 kilograms or 2,380 pounds of dry weight) than the DB 606. The DB 604's protracted development was diverting valuable German aviation powerplant research resources, and with more development of the \"twinned-DB 605\" based DB 610 coupled engine (itself initiated in June 1940 with a top output level of 2,950 PS (2,170 kW), and brought together in the same way – with the same all-up weight of 1.5 tonnes – as the DB 606 had been) giving improved results at the time, the Reich Air Ministry stopped all work on the DB 604 in September 1942. Such \"coupled powerplants\" were the exclusive choice of power for the Heinkel He 177A Greif heavy bomber, mistasked from its beginnings in being intended to do moderate-angle \"dive bombing\" for a 30-meter wingspan class, heavy bomber design – the twin nacelles for a pair of DB 606s or 610s did reduce drag for such a combat \"requirement\", but the poor design of the He 177A's engine accommodations for these twin-crankcase \"power systems\" caused repeated outbreaks of engine fires, causing the \"dive bombing\" requirement for the He 177A to be cancelled by mid-September 1942.\nBMW worked on what was essentially an enlarged version of its highly successful BMW 801 design from the Focke-Wulf Fw 190A. This led to the 53.7-litre displacement BMW 802 in 1943, an eighteen-cylinder air-cooled radial, weighing 1,530 kg (3,370 lb) matching that of the 24-cylinder liquid-cooled inline DB 606; and the even larger, 83.5-litre displacement BMW 803 28-cylinder liquid-cooled radial, which from post-war statements from BMW development personnel were each considered to be \"secondary priority\" development programmes at best. This situation with the 802 and 803 designs led to the company's engineering personnel being redirected to place all efforts on improving the 801 to develop it to its full potential. The BMW 801F radial development, through its use of features coming from the 801E subtype, was able to substantially exceed the over-1,500 kW output level. \nThe twinned-up Daimler-Benz DB 601-based, 1,750 kW output DB 606, and its more powerful descendant, the 2,130 kW output DB 605-based DB 610, weighing some 1.5 tonnes apiece, were the only 1,500 kW-plus output level aircraft powerplants to ever be produced by Germany for Luftwaffe combat aircraft, mostly for the Heinkel He 177A heavy bomber. Even the largest-displacement inverted V12 aircraft powerplant built in Germany, the 44.52-litre (2,717 cu. in.) Daimler-Benz DB 603, which saw widespread use in twin-engined designs, could not exceed 1,500 kW output without more development. By March 1940, even the DB 603 was being \"twinned-up\" as the 601/606 and 605/610 had been, to become their replacement \"power system\": this was the strictly experimental, approximately 1.8-tonne weight apiece, twin-crankcase DB 613; capable of over 2,570 kW (3,495 PS) output, but which never left its test phase.\nThe proposed over-1,500 kW output subtypes of German aviation industry's existing piston aviation engine designs—which adhered to using just a single crankcase that were able to substantially exceed the aforementioned over-1,500 kW output level—were the DB 603 LM (1,800 kW at take-off, in production), the DB 603 N (2,205 kW at take-off, planned for 1946) and the BMW 801F (1,765 kW (2,400 PS) engines. The pioneering nature of jet engine technology in the 1940s resulted in numerous development problems for both of Germany's major jet engine designs to see mass production, the Jumo 004 and BMW 003 (both axial flow designs), with the more powerful Heinkel HeS 011 never leaving the test phase.\n\nPersonnel and leadership\nThe bomber arm was given preference and received the \"better\" pilots. Later, fighter pilot leaders were few in numbers as a result of this. As with the late shift to fighter production, the Luftwaffe pilot schools did not give the fighter pilot schools preference soon enough. The Luftwaffe, the OKW argued, was still an offensive weapon, and its primary focus was on producing bomber pilots. This attitude prevailed until the second half of 1943. During the Defence of the Reich campaign in 1943 and 1944, there were not enough commissioned fighter pilots and leaders to meet attrition rates; as the need arose to replace aircrew (as attrition rates increased), the quality of pilot training deteriorated rapidly. Later this was made worse by fuel shortages for pilot training caused by the Allied strategic bombing campaign against German oil production. Overall this meant reduced training on operational types, formation flying, gunnery training, and combat training, and a total lack of instrument training.\nAt the beginning of the war, commanders were replaced with younger commanders too quickly. These younger commanders had to learn \"in the field\" rather than entering a front-line post fully qualified. Training of formation leaders was not systematic until 1943, which was far too late, with the Luftwaffe already stretched. The Luftwaffe thus lacked a cadre of staff officers to set up new combat units with carefully selected and skilled combat personnel, and pass on experience.\nMoreover, Luftwaffe leadership from the start poached the training command, which undermined its ability to replace losses, while also planning for \"short sharp campaigns\", which did not pertain. Moreover, no plans were laid for night fighters. In fact, when protests were raised, Hans Jeschonnek, Chief of the General Staff of the Luftwaffe, said, \"First we've got to beat Russia, then we can start training!\"\n\nLuftwaffe ground forces\nThe Luftwaffe was unusual among contemporary independent air forces in possessing an organic paratrooper force called Fallschirmjäger. Established in 1938, they were deployed in parachute operations in 1940 and 1941 and participated in the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael and the Battle for The Hague (alongside the German Army's 22nd Air Landing Division) in May 1940, and en masse during the Battle of Crete in May 1941. However, more than 4,000 Fallschirmjäger were killed during the Crete operation. The associated losses of aircraft and the belief that paratroops no longer enjoyed the advantage of surprise led to reduction in airborne operations. Afterwards, although continuing to be trained in parachute delivery, paratroopers were only used in a parachute role for smaller-scale operations, such as the rescue of Benito Mussolini in 1943. Fallschirmjäger formations were mainly used as light infantry in all theatres of the war. Their losses up to February 1945 were 22,041 killed, 57,594 wounded and 44,785 missing.\nDuring 1942 surplus Luftwaffe personnel was used to form Luftwaffe Field Divisions, standard infantry divisions that were used chiefly as rear echelon units to free up front line troops. From 1943, the Luftwaffe also had an armoured division called Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring, which was expanded to a Panzerkorps in 1944.\nGround support and combat units from the Reichsarbeitsdienst (RAD), the Luftschutzpolizei (LSP), the National Socialist Flyers Corps (NSFK), and the National Socialist Motor Corps (NSKK) were also put at the Luftwaffe's disposal during the war. In 1942 56 RAD companies served with the Luftwaffe in the West as airfield construction troops. In 1943 420 RAD companies were trained as crews of anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) and posted to existing Luftwaffe AAA battalions in the homeland. At the end of the war, these units were also fighting Allied tanks. Beginning in 1939 with a transport regiment, the NSKK had in 1942 a complete division-sized transportation unit serving the Luftwaffe, the NSKK Transportgruppe Luftwaffe serving in France and at the Eastern front. The overwhelming number of its 12,000 members were Belgian, Dutch, and French collaborators.\n\nWar crimes\nForced labour\nIn 1943 and 1944, aircraft production was moved to concentration camps in order to alleviate labour shortages and to protect production from Allied air raids. The two largest aircraft factories in Germany were located at Mauthausen-Gusen and Mittelbau-Dora concentration camps. Aircraft parts were also manufactured at Flossenbürg, Buchenwald, Dachau, Ravensbrück, Gross-Rosen, Natzweiler, Herzogenbusch, and Neuengamme. In 1944 and 1945, as many as 90,000 concentration prisoners worked in the aviation industry, and were about one tenth of the concentration camp population over the winter of 1944–45. Partly in response to the Luftwaffe's demand for more forced labourers to increase fighter production, the concentration camp more than doubled between mid-1943 (224,000) and mid-1944 (524,000). Part of this increase was due to the deportation of Hungarian Jews; the Jägerstab programme was used to justify the deportations to the Hungarian government. Of the 437,000 Hungarian Jews deported between May and July 1944, about 320,000 were gassed on arrival at Auschwitz and the remainder forced to work. Only 50,000 survived.\nAlmost 1,000 fuselages of the jet fighter Messerschmitt Me 262 were produced at Gusen, a subcamp of Mauthausen and a brutal labour camp, where the average life expectancy was six months. By 1944, one-third of production at the crucial Regensburg plant that produced the Bf 109, the backbone of the Luftwaffe fighter arm, originated in Gusen and Flossenbürg alone. Synthetic oil was produced from shale oil deposits by prisoners of Mittlebau-Dora as part of Operation Desert directed by Edmund Geilenberg in order to make up for the decrease in oil production due to Allied bombing. For oil production, three subcamps were constructed and 15,000 prisoners forced to work in the plant. More than 3,500 people died. Vaivara concentration camp in Estonia was also established for shale oil extraction; about 20,000 prisoners worked there and more than 1,500 died at Vaivara.\n\nLuftwaffe airfields were frequently maintained using forced labour. Thousands of inmates from five subcamps of Stutthof worked on the airfields. Airfields and bases near several other concentration camps and ghettos were constructed or maintained by prisoners. On the orders of the Luftwaffe, prisoners from Buchenwald and Herzogenbusch were forced to defuse bombs that had fallen around Düsseldorf and Leeuwarden respectively.\nThousands of Luftwaffe personnel worked as concentration camp guards. Auschwitz included a munitions factory guarded by Luftwaffe soldiers; 2,700 Luftwaffe personnel worked as guards at Buchenwald. Dozens of camps and subcamps were staffed primarily by Luftwaffe soldiers. According to the Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, it was typical for camps devoted to armaments production to be run by the branch of the Wehrmacht that used the products. In 1944, many Luftwaffe soldiers were transferred to concentration camps to alleviate personnel shortages.\n\nMassacres\nLuftwaffe paratroopers committed many war crimes in Crete following the Battle of Crete, including the Alikianos executions, the Massacre of Kondomari, and the Razing of Kandanos. Several Luftwaffe divisions, including the 1st Parachute Division, 2nd Parachute Division, 4th Parachute Division, 19th Luftwaffe Field Division, 20th Luftwaffe Field Division and the 1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division, committed war crimes in Italy, murdering hundreds of civilians.\nLuftwaffe troops participated in the murder of Jews imprisoned in ghettos in Eastern Europe. For example, they assisted in the murder of 2,680 Jews at the Nemirov ghetto, participated in a series of massacres at the Opoczno ghetto, and helped to liquidate the Dęblin–Irena Ghetto by deporting thousands of Jews to Treblinka extermination camp. Between 1942 and 1944, two Luftwaffe security battalions were stationed in the Białowieża Forest for Bandenbekämpfung operations. Encouraged by Göring, they murdered thousands of Jews and other civilians. Luftwaffe soldiers frequently executed Polish civilians at random with baseless accusations of being \"Bolshevik agents\", in order to keep the population in line, or as reprisal for partisan activities. The performance of the troops was measured by the body count of people murdered. 10,000 Luftwaffe troops were stationed on the Eastern Front for such \"anti-partisan\" operations.\n\nHuman experimentation\nThroughout the war, concentration camp prisoners were forced to serve as human subjects in testing Luftwaffe equipment. Some of these experiments were carried out by Luftwaffe personnel and others were performed by the SS on the orders of the OKL.\nIn 1941, experiments with the intent of discovering how to prevent and treat hypothermia were carried out for the Luftwaffe, which had lost aircrew to immersion hypothermia after ditchings. The experiments were conducted at Dachau and Auschwitz. Sigmund Rascher, a Luftwaffe doctor based at Dachau, published the results at the 1942 medical conference entitled \"Medical Problems Arising from Sea and Winter\". Of about 400 prisoners forced to participate in cold-water experiments, 80 to 90 were killed.\nIn early 1942, prisoners at Dachau were used by Rascher in experiments to perfect ejection seats at high altitudes. A low-pressure chamber containing these prisoners was used to simulate conditions at altitudes of up to 20,000 metres (66,000 ft). It was rumored that Rascher performed vivisections on the brains of victims who survived the initial experiment. Of the 200 subjects, 80 died from the experimentation, and the others were executed. Eugen Hagen, head doctor of the Luftwaffe, infected inmates of Natzweiler concentration camp with typhus in order to test the efficacy of proposed vaccines.\n\nAerial bombing of non-military targets\nNo positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed prior to or during World War II. This is also why no Luftwaffe officers were prosecuted at the post-World War II Allied war crime trials for the aerial raids.\nThe bombing of Wieluń was an air raid on the Polish town of Wieluń by the Luftwaffe on 1 September 1939. The Luftwaffe started bombing Wieluń at 04:40, five minutes before the shelling of Westerplatte, which has traditionally been considered the beginning of World War II in Europe. The air raid on the town was one of the first aerial bombings of the war. About 1,300 civilians were killed, hundreds were injured, and 90 percent of the town centre was destroyed. The casualty rate was more than twice as high as Guernica. A 1989 Sender Freies Berlin documentary stated that there were no military or industrial targets in the area, except for a small sugar factory in the outskirts of the town. Furthermore, Trenkner stated that German bombers first destroyed the town's hospital. Two attempts, in 1978 and 1983, to prosecute individuals for the bombing of the Wieluń hospital were dismissed by West German judges when prosecutors stated that the pilots had been unable to make out the nature of the structure due to fog.\nOperation Retribution was the April 1941 German bombing of Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia. The bombing deliberately targeted the killing of civilians as punishment and resulted in 17,000 civilian deaths. It occurred in the first days of the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia. The operation commenced on 6 April and concluded on 7 or 8 April, resulting in the paralysis of Yugoslav civilian and military command and control, widespread destruction in the centre of the city and many civilian casualties. Following the Yugoslav capitulation, Luftwaffe engineers conducted a bomb damage assessment in Belgrade. The report stated that 218.5 metric tons (215.0 long tons; 240.9 short tons) of bombs were dropped, with 10 to 14 percent being incendiaries. It listed all the targets of the bombing, which included: the royal palace, the war ministry, military headquarters, the central post office, the telegraph office, passenger and goods railway stations, power stations, and barracks. It also mentioned that seven aerial mines were dropped and that areas in the centre and northwest of the city had been destroyed, comprising 20 to 25 percent of its total area. Some aspects of the bombing remain unexplained, particularly the use of aerial mines. In contrast, Pavlowitch states that almost 50 percent of housing in Belgrade was destroyed. After the invasion, the Germans forced between 3,500 and 4,000 Jews to collect rubble that was caused by the bombing.\nThe biggest attacks at civilian targets occurred in the Battle of Britain when the Luftwaffe attacked the British Isles and primarily hit non military targets. This resulted in over 22,000 civilians being killed and over 30,000 being wounded.\n\nTrials\nSeveral prominent Luftwaffe commanders were convicted of war crimes, including General Alexander Löhr and Field Marshal Albert Kesselring.\n\nSee also\nReferences\nNotes\nCitations\nBibliography\nFurther reading\nMurry, Williamson (January 1983) Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1933–1945, Air University Press, Maxwell Air Force Base, via Hyperwar Foundation\n\nExternal links\nMyths of the Luftwaffe: lecture on YouTube, via the Museum of Flight\nThe Nazi German Air Force 1935–1945 (Luftwaffe)",
"title": "Luftwaffe"
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"paragraph_text": "Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering; German: [ˈhɛʁman ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈɡøːʁɪŋ] ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and convicted war criminal. He was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, which governed Germany from 1933 to 1945.\nA veteran World War I fighter pilot ace, Göring was a recipient of the Pour le Mérite. He also served as the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG I), the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen. An early member of the Nazi Party, Göring was among those wounded in Adolf Hitler's failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. While receiving treatment for his injuries, he developed an addiction to morphine which persisted until the last year of his life. After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Göring was named as minister without portfolio in the new government. One of his first acts as a cabinet minister was to oversee the creation of the Gestapo, which he ceded to Heinrich Himmler in 1934.\nFollowing the establishment of the Nazi state, Göring amassed power and political capital to become the second most powerful man in Germany. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force), a position he held until the final days of the regime. Upon being named Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan in 1936, Göring was entrusted with the task of mobilizing all sectors of the economy for war, an assignment which brought numerous government agencies under his control. In September 1939, Hitler gave a speech to the Reichstag designating him as his successor. After the Fall of France in 1940, he was bestowed the specially created rank of Reichsmarschall, which gave him seniority over all officers in Germany's armed forces.\nBy 1941, Göring was at the peak of his power and influence. As the Second World War progressed, Göring's standing with Hitler and the German public declined after the Luftwaffe proved incapable of preventing the Allied bombing of Germany's cities and resupplying surrounded Axis forces in Stalingrad. Around that time, Göring increasingly withdrew from military and political affairs to devote his attention to collecting property and artwork, much of which was stolen from Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Informed on 22 April 1945 that Hitler intended to commit suicide, Göring sent a telegram to Hitler requesting his permission to assume leadership of the Reich. Considering his request an act of treason, Hitler removed Göring from all his positions, expelled him from the party, and ordered his arrest. \nAfter the war, Göring was convicted of conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials in 1946. He requested at trial for an execution by firing squad, but was denied, and instead he was sentenced to death by hanging. He committed suicide by ingesting cyanide the night before his scheduled execution.\n\nEarly life and education\nGöring was born on 12 January 1893 at the Marienbad Sanatorium in Rosenheim, Bavaria. His father, Heinrich Ernst Göring (31 October 1839 – 7 December 1913), a former cavalry officer, had been the first governor-general of German South West Africa (modern-day Namibia). Heinrich had three children from a previous marriage. Göring was the fourth of five children by Heinrich's second wife, Franziska Tiefenbrunn (1859–15 July 1943), a Bavarian peasant. Göring's elder siblings were Karl, Olga, and Paula; his younger brother was Albert. At the time that Göring was born, his father was serving as consul general in Haiti, and his mother had returned home briefly to give birth. She left the six-week-old baby with a friend in Bavaria and did not see the child again for three years, when she and Heinrich returned to Germany.\nGöring's godfather was Hermann Epenstein, a wealthy Jewish physician and businessman his father had met in Africa. Epenstein provided the Göring family, who were surviving on Heinrich's pension, first with a family home in Berlin-Friedenau, and then a small castle called Veldenstein, near Nuremberg. Göring's mother became Epenstein's mistress around this time and remained so for some fifteen years. Epenstein acquired the minor title of Ritter (knight) von Epenstein through service and donations to the Crown.\nInterested in a career as a soldier from a very early age, Göring enjoyed playing with toy soldiers and dressing up in a Boer uniform his father had given him. He was sent to boarding school at age eleven, where the food was poor, and discipline was harsh. He sold a violin to pay for his train ticket home, and then took to his bed, feigning illness, until he was told he would not have to return. He continued to enjoy war games, pretending to lay siege to the castle Veldenstein and studying Teutonic legends and sagas. He became a mountain climber, scaling peaks in Germany, at the Mont Blanc massif, and in the Austrian Alps. At age 16, he was sent to a military academy in Berlin-Lichterfelde, from which he graduated with distinction.\nGöring joined the Prince Wilhelm Regiment (112th Infantry, Garrison: Mülhausen) of the Prussian Army in 1912. The next year his mother had a falling-out with Epenstein. The family was forced to leave Veldenstein and moved to Munich; Göring's father died shortly afterwards. It was in Bavaria where Göring developed his \"romantic sense of Germanness\" that further evolved under Nazism. When World War I began in August 1914, Göring was stationed at Mülhausen with his regiment.\n\nWorld War I\nDuring the first year of World War I, Göring served with his infantry regiment in the area of Mülhausen, a garrison town less than 2 km from the French frontier. He was hospitalized with rheumatism, a result of the damp of trench warfare. While he was recovering, his friend Bruno Loerzer convinced him to transfer to what would become, by October 1916, the Luftstreitkräfte (transl. air combat forces) of the German army, but his request was turned down. Later that year, Göring flew as Loerzer's observer in Feldflieger Abteilung 25 (FFA 25); Göring had informally transferred himself. He was discovered and sentenced to three weeks' confinement to barracks, but the sentence was never carried out. By the time it was supposed to be imposed, Göring's association with Loerzer had been made official. They were assigned as a team to FFA 25 in the Crown Prince's Fifth Army. They flew reconnaissance and bombing missions, for which the Crown Prince invested both Göring and Loerzer with the Iron Cross, first class.\nAfter completing the pilot's training course, Göring was assigned to Jagdstaffel 5. Seriously wounded in the hip in aerial combat, he took nearly a year to recover. He then was transferred to Jagdstaffel 26, commanded by Loerzer, in February 1917. He steadily scored air victories until May, when he was assigned to command Jagdstaffel 27. Serving with Jastas 5, 26 and 27, he continued to win victories. In addition to his Iron Crosses (1st and 2nd Class), he received the Zähringer Lion with swords, the Friedrich Order, the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords third class, and finally, in May 1918, the coveted Pour le Mérite. According to Hermann Dahlmann, who knew both men, Göring had Loerzer lobby for the award. He finished the war with 22 victories. A thorough post-war examination of Allied loss records showed that only two of his awarded victories were doubtful. Three were possible and 17 were certain, or highly likely.\n\nOn 7 July 1918, following the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, successor to Manfred von Richthofen, Göring was made commander of the \"Flying Circus\", Jagdgeschwader 1. His arrogance made him unpopular with the men of his squadron.\nIn the last days of the war, Göring was repeatedly ordered to withdraw his squadron, first to Tellancourt airdrome, then to Darmstadt. At one point, he was ordered to surrender the aircraft to the Allies; he refused. Many of his pilots intentionally crash-landed their planes to keep them from falling into enemy hands.\nLike many other German veterans, Göring was a proponent of the stab-in-the-back myth, the belief which held that the German Army had not really lost the war, but instead was betrayed by the civilian leadership: Marxists, Jews, and especially the republicans, who had overthrown the German monarchy. Atop the frustration of military defeat, Göring also experienced the personal disappointment of being snubbed by his fiancée's upper-class family, who broke off the engagement when he returned penniless from the front.\n\nAfter World War I\nGöring remained in aviation after the war. He tried barnstorming and briefly worked at Fokker. After spending most of 1919 living in Denmark, he moved to Sweden and joined Svensk Lufttrafik, a Swedish airline. Göring was often hired for private flights. During the winter of 1920–1921, he was hired by Count Eric von Rosen to fly him to his castle from Stockholm. Invited to spend the night, Göring may at this time have first seen the swastika emblem, which Rosen had set in the chimney piece as a family badge.\nThis was also the first time that Göring saw his future wife; the count introduced his sister-in-law, Baroness Carin von Kantzow (née Freiin von Fock). Estranged from her husband of 10 years, she had an eight-year-old son. Göring was immediately infatuated and asked her to meet him in Stockholm. They arranged a visit at the home of her parents and spent much time together through 1921, when Göring left to study political science at the University of Munich. Carin obtained a divorce, followed Göring to Munich, and married him on 3 February 1922. Their first home together was a hunting lodge at Hochkreuth in the Bavarian Alps, near Bayrischzell, some 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Munich. After Göring met Adolf Hitler and joined the Nazi Party in 1922, they moved to Obermenzing, a suburb of Munich.\n\nEarly Nazi career\nGöring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 after hearing a speech by Hitler. He was given command of the Sturmabteilung (SA) as the Oberster SA-Führer in 1923. He was later appointed an SA-Gruppenführer (Lieutenant general) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945. At this time, Carin—who liked Hitler—often played hostess to meetings of leading Nazis, including her husband as well as Hitler, Rudolf Hess, Alfred Rosenberg, and Ernst Röhm. Hitler later recalled his early association with Göring:\n\nI liked him. I made him the head of my SA. He is the only one of its heads that ran the SA properly. I gave him a dishevelled rabble. In a very short time he had organised a division of 11,000 men.\nHitler and the Nazi Party held mass meetings and rallies in Munich and elsewhere during the early 1920s, attempting to gain supporters in a bid for political power. Inspired by Benito Mussolini's March on Rome, the Nazis attempted to seize power on 8–9 November 1923 in a failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Göring, who was with Hitler leading the march to the War Ministry, was shot in the groin. Fourteen Nazis and four policemen were killed; many top Nazis, including Hitler, were arrested. With Carin's help, Göring was smuggled to Innsbruck, where he received surgery and was given morphine for the pain. He remained in hospital until 24 December. This was the beginning of his morphine addiction, which lasted until his imprisonment at Nuremberg. Meanwhile, the authorities in Munich declared Göring a wanted man. The Görings—acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad—moved from Austria to Venice. In May 1924 they visited Rome, via Florence and Siena. Sometime in 1924, Göring met Mussolini through his contacts with members of Italy's Fascist Party; Mussolini had also expressed an interest in meeting Hitler, who was by then in prison. Hitler penned Mein Kampf while incarcerated, before being released in December 1924.\nMeanwhile, personal problems continued to multiply for Göring. By 1925, Carin's mother was ill. The Görings—with difficulty—raised the money in the spring of 1925 for a journey to Sweden via Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Danzig (now Gdańsk). Göring had become a violent morphine addict; Carin's family were shocked by his deterioration. Carin, who was ill with epilepsy and a weak heart, had to allow the doctors to take charge of Göring; her son was taken by his father. Göring was certified a dangerous drug addict and was placed in Långbro Asylum on 1 September 1925. He was violent to the point where he had to be confined in a straitjacket, but his psychiatrist felt he was sane; the condition was caused solely by the morphine. Weaned off the drug, he left the facility briefly, but had to return for further treatment. He returned to Germany when an amnesty was declared in 1927 and resumed working in the aircraft industry. Carin Göring, ill with epilepsy and tuberculosis, died of heart failure on 17 October 1931.\n\nMeanwhile, the Nazi Party was in a period of rebuilding and waiting. The economy had recovered, which meant fewer opportunities for the Nazis to agitate. The SA was reorganised, but with Franz Pfeffer von Salomon as its head rather than Göring, and the Schutzstaffel (SS) was founded in 1925, initially as a bodyguard for Hitler. Membership in the party increased from 27,000 in 1925 to 108,000 in 1928 and 178,000 in 1929. In the May 1928 elections the Nazi Party only obtained 12 seats out of an available 491 in the Reichstag. Göring was elected as a representative from Bavaria. Having secured a seat in the Reichstag, Göring gained a more prominent place in the Nazi movement, since Hitler saw him as a public relations officer for Nazism in this capacity. Göring continued to be elected to the Reichstag in all subsequent elections during the Weimar and Nazi regimes. Electoral success also afforded Göring with access to powerful sympathizers to the Nazi cause, such as Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia and the conservative-minded businessmen, Fritz Thyssen and Hjalmar Schacht. The Great Depression led to a disastrous downturn in the German economy, and in the 1930 election, the Nazi Party won 6,409,600 votes and 107 seats. In May 1931, Hitler sent Göring on a mission to the Vatican, where he met the future Pope Pius XII.\nIn the July 1932 election, the Nazis won 230 seats to become far and away the largest party in the Reichstag. By longstanding tradition, the Nazis were thus entitled to select the President of the Reichstag, and elected Göring to the post. He would retain this position until 23 April 1945.\n\nReichstag fire\nThe Reichstag fire occurred on the night of 27 February 1933. Göring was one of the first to arrive on the scene. Marinus van der Lubbe, a Communist radical, was arrested and claimed sole responsibility for the fire. Göring immediately called for a crackdown on Communists.\nThe Nazis took advantage of the fire to advance their own political aims. The Reichstag Fire Decree, passed the next day on Hitler's urging, suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 Party members were arrested. Göring demanded that the prisoners should be shot, but Rudolf Diels, head of the Prussian political police, ignored the order. Some researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the Nazi Party itself was responsible for starting the fire.\nAt the Nuremberg trials, General Franz Halder testified that Göring admitted responsibility for starting the fire. He said that, at a luncheon held on Hitler's birthday in 1942, Göring said, \"The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I, because I set it on fire!\" In his own Nuremberg testimony, Göring denied this story.\n\nSecond marriage\nDuring the early 1930s, Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann, an actress from Hamburg. They were married on 10 April 1935, in Berlin. The wedding was celebrated on a huge scale. A large reception was held the night before at the Berlin Opera House. Fighter aircraft flew overhead on the night of the reception and the day of the ceremony, at which Hitler was best man. Göring's daughter, Edda, was born on 2 June 1938.\n\nNazi potentate\nWhen Hitler was named chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Göring was appointed as Reichsminister without portfolio and Reichskommissar of Aviation. This was followed on 11 April 1933 by his appointment as Minister-President of Prussia, Prussian interior minister and chief of the Prussian police. On 25 April 1933, Hitler also delegated his powers as Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor) of Prussia to Göring. On 18 May 1933, Göring secured passage of an enabling act through the Landtag of Prussia that conferred all legislative powers on the cabinet. \n\nUsing this authority, on 8 July 1933 Göring enacted a law abolishing the Prussian State Council, the second chamber of the Prussian legislature that represented the interests of the Prussian provinces. In its place, he created a revised non-legislative Prussian State Council to serve merely as a body of advisors to him. Göring would serve as President of the Council. It would consist, ex officio, of the Prussian cabinet ministers and state secretaries, as well as hand-picked Nazi Party officials and other industry and society leaders selected solely by Göring. In October 1933, Göring was made a member of Hans Frank's Academy for German Law at its inaugural meeting. In July 1934, he was appointed Reichforstmeister, with the rank of a Reichsminister, as the head of the newly created Reich Forestry Office.\nWilhelm Frick, the Reich interior minister, and the head of the SS, Heinrich Himmler, hoped to create a unified police force for all of Germany, but Göring on 26 April 1933 established a special Prussian police force, with Rudolf Diels at its head. The force was called the Geheime Staatspolizei (transl. Secret State Police), or Gestapo. Göring, thinking that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934. By this time, the SA numbered over two million men.\nHitler was deeply concerned that Ernst Röhm, the chief of the SA, was planning a coup. Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich plotted with Göring to use the Gestapo and SS to crush the SA. Members of the SA got wind of the proposed action and thousands of them took to the streets in violent demonstrations on the night of 29 June 1934. Enraged, Hitler ordered the arrest of the SA leadership. Röhm was shot dead in his cell when he refused to commit suicide; Göring personally went over the lists of prisoners—numbering in the thousands—and determined who else should be shot. At least 85 people were killed in the period of 30 June to 2 July, which is now known as the Night of the Long Knives. Hitler admitted in the Reichstag on 13 July that the killings had been entirely illegal but claimed a plot had been under way to overthrow the Reich. A retroactive law was passed making the action legal. Any criticism was met with arrests.\n\nOne of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which had been in place since the end of World War I, stated that Germany was not allowed to maintain an air force. After the 1928 signing of the Kellogg–Briand Pact, police aircraft were permitted. Göring was appointed Air Traffic Minister in May 1933. Germany began to accumulate aircraft in violation of the Treaty, and in 1935 the existence of the Luftwaffe was formally acknowledged, with Göring as Reich Aviation Minister.\nDuring a cabinet meeting in September 1936, Göring and Hitler announced that the German rearmament programme must be sped up. On 18 October, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan to undertake this task. Göring created a new organisation to administer the Plan and drew the ministries of labour and agriculture under its umbrella. He bypassed the Economics Ministry in his policy-making decisions, to the chagrin of Hjalmar Schacht, the minister in charge. Huge expenditures were made on rearmament, in spite of growing deficits. Schacht resigned on 26 November 1937, and Göring took over the Economics Ministry on an interim basis until January 1938. He then managed to install Walther Funk in the position, who also took control of the Reichsbank when Schacht was forced out of that post as well in January 1939. In this way, both of these institutions effectively were brought under Göring's control under the auspices of the Four Year Plan. In July 1937, the Reichswerke Hermann Göring was established under state ownership – though led by Göring – with the aim of boosting steel production beyond the level which private enterprise could economically provide.\n\nIn 1938, Göring was involved in the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, which led to the resignations of the War Minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg, and the army commander, General Werner von Fritsch. Göring had acted as witness at Blomberg's wedding to Margarethe Gruhn, a 26-year-old typist, on 12 January 1938. Information received from the police showed that the young bride was a prostitute. Göring felt obligated to tell Hitler, but also saw this event as an opportunity to dispose of Blomberg. Blomberg was forced to resign. Göring did not want Fritsch to be appointed to that position and thus be his superior. Several days later, Heydrich revealed a file on Fritsch that contained allegations of homosexual activity and blackmail. The charges were later proven to be false, but Fritsch had lost Hitler's trust and was forced to resign. Hitler used the dismissals as an opportunity to reshuffle the leadership of the military. Göring asked for the post of War Minister but was turned down; he was appointed to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall. Hitler took over as supreme commander of the armed forces and created subordinate posts to head the three main branches of service.\n\nAs minister in charge of the Four-Year Plan, Göring became concerned with the lack of natural resources in Germany and began pushing for Austria to be incorporated into the Reich. The province of Styria had rich iron ore deposits, and the country as a whole was home to many skilled labourers who would also be useful. Hitler had always been in favour of a takeover of Austria, his native country. He met the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg on 12 February 1938, threatening invasion if peaceful unification was not forthcoming. The Nazi Party was made legal in Austria to gain a power base, and a referendum on reunification was scheduled for March. When Hitler did not approve of the wording of the plebiscite, Göring telephoned Schuschnigg and Austrian head of state Wilhelm Miklas to demand Schuschnigg's resignation, threatening invasion by German troops and civil unrest by the Austrian Nazi Party members. Schuschnigg resigned on 11 March and the plebiscite was cancelled. By 5:30 the next morning, German troops that had been massing on the border marched into Austria, meeting no resistance.\n\nAlthough Joachim von Ribbentrop had been named Foreign Minister in February 1938, Göring continued to involve himself in foreign affairs. That July, he contacted the British government with the idea that he should make an official visit to discuss Germany's intentions for Czechoslovakia. Neville Chamberlain was in favour of a meeting, and there was talk of a pact being signed between Britain and Germany. In February 1938, Göring visited Warsaw to quell rumours about the upcoming invasion of Poland. He had conversations with the Hungarian government that summer as well, discussing their potential role in an invasion of Czechoslovakia. At the Nuremberg Rally that September, Göring and other speakers denounced the Czechs as an inferior race that must be conquered. Chamberlain and Hitler had a series of meetings that led to the signing of the Munich Agreement (29 September 1938), which turned over control of the Sudetenland to Germany. In March 1939, Göring threatened Czechoslovak president Emil Hácha with the bombing of Prague. Hácha then agreed to sign a communique accepting the German occupation of the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia.\nAlthough many in the party disliked him, before the war Göring enjoyed widespread personal popularity among the German public because of his perceived sociability, colour and humour. As the Nazi leader most responsible for economic matters, he presented himself as a champion of national interests over allegedly corrupt big business and the old German elite. The Nazi press was on Göring's side. Other leaders, such as Hess and Ribbentrop, were envious of his popularity. In Britain and the United States, some viewed Göring as more acceptable than the other Nazis and as a possible mediator between the western democracies and Hitler.\n\nWorld War II\nSuccess on all fronts\nGöring and other senior officers were concerned that Germany was not yet ready for war, but Hitler insisted on pushing ahead as soon as possible. On 30 August 1939, immediately prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, Hitler appointed Göring as the chairman of a new six-person Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich which was set up to operate as a war cabinet. The invasion of Poland, the opening action of World War II, began at dawn on 1 September 1939. Later in the day, speaking to the Reichstag, Hitler designated Göring as his successor as Führer of all Germany, \"If anything should befall me\", with Hess as the second alternate. Big German victories followed one after the other in quick succession. With the help of the Luftwaffe, the Polish Air Force was defeated within a week. The Fallschirmjäger seized vital airfields in Norway (Operation Weserübung) and captured Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium on 10 May 1940, the first day of the Battle of France. Göring's Luftwaffe played critical roles in the Battles of the Netherlands, of Belgium and of France in May 1940.\nAfter the Fall of France, Hitler awarded Göring the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for his successful leadership. During the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony, Hitler promoted Göring to the rank of Reichsmarschall des Grossdeutschen Reiches (transl. Reich Marshal of the Greater German Reich), a specially created rank which made him senior to all field marshals in the military. As a result of this promotion, he was the highest-ranking soldier in Germany until the end of the war. Göring had already received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe.\nThe UK had declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, the third day of the invasion of Poland. In July 1940, Hitler began preparations for an invasion of Britain. As part of the plan, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had to be neutralized. Bombing raids commenced on British air installations and on cities and centres of industry. Göring had by then already announced in a radio speech, \"If as much as a single enemy aircraft flies over German soil, my name is Meier!\", something that would return to haunt him, when the RAF began bombing German cities on 11 May 1940. Though he was confident the Luftwaffe could defeat the RAF within days, Göring, like Admiral Erich Raeder, commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine (navy), was pessimistic about the chance of success of the planned invasion (codenamed Operation Sea Lion). Göring hoped that a victory in the air would be enough to force peace without an invasion. The campaign failed, and Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940. After their defeat in the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe attempted to defeat Britain via strategic bombing. On 12 October 1940 Hitler cancelled Sea Lion due to the onset of winter. By the end of the year, it was clear that British morale was not being shaken by the Blitz, though the bombings continued through May 1941.\n\nDefeat on all fronts\nIn spite of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, signed in 1939, Nazi Germany began Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union—on 22 June 1941. Initially, the Luftwaffe was at an advantage, destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft in the first month of fighting. Hitler and his top staff were sure that the campaign would be over by Christmas, and no provisions were made for reserves of men or equipment. But, by July, the Germans had only 1,000 planes remaining in operation, and their troop losses were over 213,000 men. The choice was made to concentrate the attack on only one part of the vast front; efforts would be directed at capturing Moscow. After the long, but successful, Battle of Smolensk, Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily diverted its Panzer groups north and south to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev. The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilize fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 with the Battle of Moscow. Poor weather conditions, fuel shortages, a delay in building aircraft bases in Eastern Europe, and overstretched supply lines were also factors. Hitler did not give permission for even a partial retreat until mid-January 1942; by this time the losses were comparable to those of the French invasion of Russia in 1812.\n\nIn late October or early November 1941, Hitler and Göring decided on the mass deportation of Soviet prisoners of war—and a larger number of Soviet civilians—to Germany for forced labor, but epidemics soon caused the halting of prisoner-of-war transports. Those who were deported to Germany faced conditions not necessarily any better than existed in the occupied Soviet Union. By the end of the war, at least 1.3 million Soviet prisoners of war had been deported to Germany or its annexed territories. Of these, 400,000 did not survive and most of these deaths occurred in the winter of 1941/1942.\nAfter the attack on Pearl Harbor, Göring, along with Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and Admiral Erich Raeder, urged Hitler to immediately declare war on the United States.\n\nHitler decided that the summer 1942 campaign would be concentrated in the south; efforts would be made to capture the oilfields in the Caucasus. The Battle of Stalingrad, a major turning point of the war, began on 23 August 1942 with a bombing campaign by the Luftwaffe. The German Sixth Army entered the city, but because of its location on the front line, it was still possible for the Soviets to encircle and trap it there without reinforcements or supplies. When the Sixth Army was surrounded by the end of November in Operation Uranus, Göring promised that the Luftwaffe would be able to deliver a minimum of 300 tons of supplies to the trapped men every day. On the basis of these assurances, Hitler demanded that there be no retreat; they were to fight to the last man. Though some airlifts were able to get through, supplies delivered never exceeded 120 tons per day. The remnants of the Sixth Army—some 91,000 men out of an army of 285,000—surrendered in early February 1943; only 5,000 of these captives survived the Soviet prisoner of war camps to see Germany again.\n\nWar over Germany\nMeanwhile, the strength of the US and British bomber fleets had increased. Based in Britain, they began operations against German targets. The first thousand-bomber raid was staged on Cologne on 30 May 1942. Air raids continued on targets farther from England after auxiliary fuel tanks were installed on US fighter aircraft. Göring refused to believe reports that American fighters had been shot down as far east as Aachen in winter 1942–1943. His reputation began to decline.\nThe American P-51 Mustang, with a combat radius of over 1,800 miles (2,900 km) when using underwing drop tanks, began to escort the bombers in large formations to and from the target area in early 1944. From that point onwards, the Luftwaffe began to suffer casualties in aircrews it could not sufficiently replace. By targeting oil refineries and rail communications, Allied bombers crippled the German war effort by late 1944. German civilians blamed Göring for his failure to protect the homeland. Hitler began excluding him from conferences but retained him in his positions at the head of the Luftwaffe and as plenipotentiary of the Four-Year Plan. As he lost Hitler's trust, Göring began to spend more time at his various residences. On D-Day (6 June 1944), the Luftwaffe only had some 300 fighters and a small number of bombers in the area of the landings; the Allies had a total strength of 11,000 aircraft.\n\nEnd of the war\nAs the Soviets approached Berlin, Hitler's efforts to organise the defence of the city became ever more meaningless and futile. His last birthday, celebrated at the Führerbunker in Berlin on 20 April 1945, was the occasion for leave-taking by many top Nazis, Göring included. By this time, Göring's hunting lodge Carinhall had been evacuated, the building destroyed, and its art treasures moved to Berchtesgaden and elsewhere. Göring arrived at his estate at Obersalzberg on 22 April, the same day that Hitler, in a lengthy diatribe against his generals, first publicly admitted that the war was lost and that he intended to remain in Berlin to the end and then commit suicide. He also stated that Göring was in a better position to negotiate a peace settlement.\nOKW operations chief Alfred Jodl was present for Hitler's rant, and notified Göring's chief of staff, Karl Koller, at a meeting a few hours later. Sensing its implications, Koller immediately flew to Berchtesgaden to notify Göring of this development. A week after the start of the Soviet invasion, Hitler had issued a decree naming Göring his successor in the event of his death, thus codifying the declaration he had made soon after the beginning of the war. The decree also gave Göring full authority to act as Hitler's deputy if Hitler ever lost his freedom of action.\nGöring feared being branded a traitor if he tried to take power, but also feared being accused of dereliction of duty if he did nothing. After some hesitation, Göring reviewed his copy of the 1941 decree naming him Hitler's successor. After conferring with Koller and Hans Lammers (the state secretary of the Reich Chancellery), Göring concluded that by remaining in Berlin to face certain death, Hitler had incapacitated himself from governing. All agreed that under the terms of the decree, it was incumbent upon Göring to take power in Hitler's stead. He was also motivated by fears that his rival, Martin Bormann, would seize power upon Hitler's death and would have him killed as a traitor. With this in mind, Göring sent a carefully worded telegram asking Hitler for permission to take over as the leader of Germany, stressing that he would be acting as Hitler's deputy. He added that, if Hitler did not reply by 22:00 that night (23 April), he would assume that Hitler had indeed lost his freedom of action and would assume leadership of the Reich.\n\nThe telegram was intercepted by Bormann, who convinced Hitler that Göring was attempting a coup. Bormann argued that Göring's telegram was not a request for permission to act as Hitler's deputy, but a demand to resign or be overthrown. Bormann also intercepted another telegram in which Göring directed Ribbentrop to report to him if there was no further communication from Hitler or Göring before midnight. Hitler sent a reply to Göring—prepared with Bormann's help—rescinding the 1941 decree and threatening him with execution for high treason unless he immediately resigned from all of his offices. Realizing his situation was untenable, Göring duly resigned. Afterwards, Hitler (or Bormann, depending on the source) ordered the SS to place Göring, his staff, and Lammers under house arrest at Obersalzberg. Bormann made an announcement over the radio that Göring had resigned for health reasons.\nBy 26 April, the complex at Obersalzberg was under attack by the Allies, so Göring was moved to his castle at Mauterndorf. In his last will and testament, Hitler expelled Göring from the party, formally rescinded the decree making him his successor, and upbraided Göring for \"illegally attempting to seize control of the state\". He then appointed Karl Dönitz, the Navy's commander-in-chief, as president of the Reich and supreme commander of the armed forces. Hitler and his wife, Eva Braun, committed suicide on 30 April 1945, a few hours after a hastily arranged wedding. Göring was freed on 5 May by a passing Luftwaffe unit, and he made his way to the U.S. lines in hopes of surrendering to them rather than to the Soviets. He was taken into custody near Radstadt on 6 May by elements of the 36th Infantry Division of the US Army. This move likely saved Göring's life; Bormann had ordered him executed if Berlin had fallen. On 10 May, US Air Forces commander Carl Spaatz conducted an interrogation of Göring along with lieutenant general Hoyt Vandenberg and American historian Bruce Campbell Hopper at the Ritter School in Augsburg, Germany.\n\nTrial and death\nGöring was flown to Camp Ashcan, a temporary prisoner-of-war camp housed in the Palace Hotel at Mondorf-les-Bains, Luxembourg. Here he was weaned off dihydrocodeine (a mild morphine derivative)—he had been taking the equivalent of three or four grains (260 to 320 mg) of morphine a day—and was put on a strict diet; he lost 60 pounds (27 kg). His IQ was tested while in custody and found to be 138. Top Nazi officials were transferred in September to Nuremberg, which was to be the location of a series of military tribunals beginning in November.\nGöring was the second highest-ranking official tried at Nuremberg, behind Reich President (former Admiral) Karl Dönitz. The prosecution levelled an indictment of four charges, including a charge of conspiracy; waging a war of aggression; war crimes, including the plundering and removal to Germany of works of art and other property; and crimes against humanity, including the disappearance of political and other opponents under the Nacht und Nebel (transl. Night and Fog) decree; the torture and ill treatment of prisoners of war; and the murder and enslavement of civilians, including what was at the time estimated to be 5,700,000 Jews. Not permitted to present a lengthy statement, Göring declared himself to be \"in the sense of the indictment not guilty\".\nThe trial lasted 218 days. The prosecution presented its case from November through March, and Göring's defence—the first to be presented—lasted from 8 to 22 March. The sentences were read on 30 September 1946. Göring, forced to remain silent while seated in the dock, communicated his opinions about the proceedings using gestures, shaking his head, or laughing. He constantly took notes and whispered with the other defendants, and tried to control the erratic behaviour of Hess, who was seated beside him. During breaks in the proceedings, Göring tried to dominate the other defendants, and he was eventually placed in solitary confinement when he attempted to influence their testimony. Göring told American psychiatrist Leon Goldensohn that the court was \"stupid\" to try \"little fellows\" like Funk and Kaltenbrunner instead of letting Göring take all the blame on himself. He also claimed that he had never heard of most of the other defendants before the trial.\n\nOn several occasions over the course of the trial, the prosecution showed films of the concentration camps and other atrocities. Everyone present, including Göring, found the contents of the films shocking; he said that the films must have been faked. Witnesses, including Paul Körner and Erhard Milch, tried to portray Göring as a peaceful moderate. Milch stated that it had been impossible to oppose Hitler or disobey his orders; to do so would likely have meant death for oneself and one's family. When testifying on his own behalf, Göring emphasised his loyalty to Hitler, and claimed to know nothing about what had happened in the concentration camps, which were under Himmler's control. He provided evasive, convoluted answers to direct questions and had plausible excuses for all of his actions during the war. He used the witness stand as a venue to expound at great length on his own role in the Reich, attempting to present himself as a peacemaker and diplomat before the outbreak of the war. During cross-examination, chief prosecutor Robert H. Jackson read the minutes of a meeting that had been held shortly after Kristallnacht, a major pogrom in November 1938. At the meeting, Göring had plotted to confiscate Jewish property in the wake of the pogrom. Later, David Maxwell-Fyfe presented evidence that Göring must have known about the killing of 50 airmen who had been recaptured after escaping from Stalag Luft III in time to have saved them. He also presented evidence that Göring knew about the extermination of the Hungarian Jews.\nGöring was found guilty on all four counts and was sentenced to death by hanging. The judgment stated:\n\nThere is nothing to be said in mitigation. For Göring was often, indeed almost always, the moving force, second only to his leader. He was the leading war aggressor, both as political and as military leader; he was the director of the slave labour programme and the creator of the oppressive programme against the Jews and other races, at home and abroad. All of these crimes he has frankly admitted. On some specific cases there may be conflict of testimony, but in terms of the broad outline, his own admissions are more than sufficiently wide to be conclusive of his guilt. His guilt is unique in its enormity. The record discloses no excuses for this man.\n\nGöring made an appeal asking to be shot as a soldier instead of hanged as a common criminal, but the court refused. He committed suicide with a potassium cyanide capsule the night before he was to be hanged.\nSpeculation as to how Göring obtained the poison holds that US Army lieutenant Jack G. Wheelis, who was stationed at the trials, retrieved the capsules from their hiding place among Göring's confiscated personal effects and passed them to Göring, who had earlier presented Wheelis with his gold watch, pen, and cigarette case. In 2005, former US Army private Herbert Lee Stivers, who served in the 1st Infantry Division's 26th Infantry Regiment—the honour guard for the Nuremberg Trials—claimed he gave Göring \"medicine\" hidden inside a fountain pen that a German woman had asked him to smuggle into the prison. Stivers later said that he did not know what was in the pill until after Göring's suicide.\nGöring's body, as with those of the men who were executed, was displayed at the execution ground for witnesses. The bodies were cremated at Ostfriedhof, Munich, and the ashes were scattered in the Isar River.\n\nPersonal properties\nGöring's name is closely associated with the Nazi plunder of Jewish property. His name appears 135 times on the OSS Art Looting Investigation Unit (ALIU) Red Flag Names List compiled by US Army intelligence in 1945-6 and declassified in 1997.\nThe confiscation of Jewish property gave Göring the opportunity to amass a personal fortune. Some properties he seized himself or acquired for a nominal price. In other cases, he collected bribes for allowing others to steal Jewish property. He took kickbacks from industrialists for favourable decisions as Four-Year Plan director, and money for supplying arms to the Spanish Republicans in the Spanish Civil War via Pyrkal in Greece (although Germany was supporting Franco and the Nationalists).\nGöring was appointed Reich Master of the Hunt in 1933 and Master of the German Forests in 1934. He instituted reforms to the forestry laws and acted to protect endangered species. Around this time, he became interested in Schorfheide Forest, where he set aside 100,000 acres (400 km2) as a state park, which is still extant. There he built an elaborate hunting lodge, Carinhall, in memory of his first wife, Carin. By 1934, her body had been transported to the site and placed in a vault on the estate. Through most of the 1930s, Göring kept pet lion cubs, borrowed from the Berlin Zoo, both at Carinhall and at his house at Obersalzberg. The main lodge at Carinhall had a large art gallery where Göring displayed works that had been plundered from private collections and museums around Europe from 1939 onward. Göring worked closely with the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg (transl. Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce), an organisation tasked with the looting of artwork and cultural material from Jewish collections, libraries, and museums throughout Europe. Headed by Alfred Rosenberg, the task force set up a collection centre and headquarters in Paris. Some 26,000 railroad cars full of art treasures, furniture, and other looted items were sent to Germany from France alone. Göring repeatedly visited the Paris headquarters to review the incoming stolen goods and to select items to be sent on a special train to Carinhall and his other homes. The estimated value of his collection, which numbered some 1,500 pieces, was $200 million.\n\nGöring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing. He had various special uniforms made for the many posts he held; his Reichsmarschall uniform included a jewel-encrusted baton. Hans-Ulrich Rudel, the top Stuka pilot of the war, recalled twice meeting Göring dressed in outlandish costumes: first, a medieval hunting costume, practicing archery with his doctor; and second, dressed in a red toga fastened with a golden clasp, smoking an unusually large pipe. Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano once noted Göring wearing a fur coat that looked like what \"a high-grade prostitute wears to the opera\". He threw lavish housewarming parties each time a round of construction was completed at Carinhall, and changed costumes several times throughout the evenings.\nGöring was noted for his patronage of music, especially opera. He entertained frequently and sumptuously and hosted elaborate birthday parties for himself. Armaments minister Albert Speer recalled that guests brought expensive gifts such as gold bars, Dutch cigars, and valuable artwork. For his birthday in 1944, Speer gave Göring an oversized marble bust of Hitler. As a member of the Prussian Council of State, Speer was required to donate a considerable portion of his salary towards the council's birthday gift to Göring without even being asked. Generalfeldmarschall Milch told Speer that similar donations were required out of the Air Ministry's general fund. For his birthday in 1940, Ciano decorated Göring with the coveted Collar of Annunziata. The award reduced him to tears.\nThe design of the Reichsmarschall standard, on a light blue field, featured a gold German eagle grasping a wreath surmounted by two batons overlaid with a swastika. The reverse side of the flag had the Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes (transl. Grand Cross of the Iron Cross) surrounded by a wreath between four Luftwaffe eagles. The flag was carried by a personal standard-bearer at all public occasions.\n\nThough he liked to be called \"der Eiserne\" (transl. the Iron Man), the once dashing and muscular fighter pilot had become corpulent. He was one of the few Nazi leaders who did not take offence at hearing jokes about himself, \"no matter how rude\", taking them as a sign of his popularity among the masses. One such German joke poked fun at Göring in stating that he would wear an admiral's uniform with rubber medals to take a bath, and his obesity, joking that \"he sits down on his stomach\". Another joke claimed that he had sent a wire to Hitler after his visit to the Vatican: \"Mission accomplished. Pope unfrocked. Tiara and pontifical vestments are a perfect fit.\"\n\nRole in the Holocaust\nJoseph Goebbels and Himmler were far more antisemitic than Göring, who mainly adopted that attitude because party politics required him to do so. His deputy, Milch, had a Jewish parent. However, Göring supported the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, and later initiated economic measures unfavourable to Jews. He required the registration of all Jewish property as part of the Four-Year Plan, and at a meeting held after Kristallnacht was livid that the financial burden for the Jewish losses would have to be made good by German-owned insurance companies. He proposed that the Jews be fined one billion marks.\nAt the same meeting, options for the disposition of the Jews and their property were discussed. Jews would be segregated into ghettos or encouraged to emigrate, and their property would be seized in a programme of Aryanization. Compensation for seized property would be low, if any was given at all. Detailed minutes of this meeting and other documents were read out at the Nuremberg trial, proving his knowledge of and complicity with the persecution of the Jews.\nOn 24 January 1939, Göring established in Berlin the head office of the Central Office for Jewish Emigration, modelled on the similar organization established in Vienna in August 1938. Under the direction of Heydrich, it was tasked with using any means necessary to prompt Jews to leave the Reich, and creating a Jewish organization that would co-ordinate emigration from the Jewish side.\nIn July 1941, Göring issued a memo to Heydrich ordering him to organise the practical details of the Final Solution to the \"Jewish Question\". By the time that this letter was written, many Jews and others had already been killed in Poland, Russia, and elsewhere. At the Wannsee Conference, held six months later, Heydrich formally announced that genocide of the Jews was now official Reich policy. Göring did not attend the conference, but he was present at other meetings where the number of people killed was discussed.\nGöring directed anti-partisan operations by Luftwaffe security battalions in the Białowieża Forest between 1942 and 1944 that resulted in the murder of thousands of Jews and Polish civilians.\nAt the Nuremberg trial Göring told first lieutenant and U.S. Army psychologist Gustave Gilbert that he would never have supported the anti-Jewish measures if he had known what was going to happen. \"I only thought we would eliminate Jews from positions in big business and government\", he claimed.\n\nDecorations and awards\nGerman\nKingdom of Prussia:\nIron Cross 2nd Class (15 September 1914)\nIron Cross 1st Class (22 March 1915)\nRoyal House Order of Hohenzollern, Knights Cross with Swords\nOrder Pour le Mérite (2 June 1918)\nGrand Duchy of Baden:\nMilitary Karl-Friedrich Merit Order, Knights Cross\nOrder of the Zähringer Lion, Knights Cross 2nd Class with Swords\nNazi Germany:\n1939 Clasp to the Iron Cross 2nd Class (30 September 1939)\n1939 Clasp to the Iron Cross 1st Class (30 September 1939)\nKnight's Cross of the Iron Cross (30 September 1939)\nGrand Cross of the Iron Cross for \"the victories of the Luftwaffe in 1940 during the French campaign\" (the only award of this decoration during World War II – 19 August 1940)\nGolden Party Badge\nBlood Order (Commemorative Medal of 9 November 1923)\nDanzig Cross, 1st and 2nd class\n\nForeign\nKingdom of Bulgaria: Order of Saints Cyril and Methodius, Knight\nKingdom of Denmark: Order of the Dannebrog, Grand Cross with Breast Star in Diamonds (25 July 1938)\nFinland:\nOrder of the White Rose of Finland\nGrand Cross (6 March 1935)\nGrand Cross with Collar (21 April 1941)\nOrder of the Cross of Liberty, Grand Cross with Swords (25 March 1942)\nKingdom of Hungary: Order of St Stephen, Grand Cross \nKingdom of Italy: Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, Knight (12 January 1940)\nKingdom of Sweden: Order of the Sword Commander Grand Cross with Collar (1939)\nEmpire of Japan: Order of the Rising Sun, Grand Cordon with Paulownia Flowers (4 October 1943)\n\nSee also\nAerial victory standards of World War I\nAir warfare of World War II\nFallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring\nGlossary of Nazi Germany\nGlossary of German military terms\nGöring's Green Folder\nList of Nazi Party leaders and officials\n\nNotes\nCitations\nSources\nFurther reading\nBrandenburg, Erich (1995). Die Nachkommen Karls Des Grossen. Neustadt/Aisch: Degener. ISBN 3-7686-5102-9.\nBurke, William Hastings (2009). Thirty Four. London: Wolfgeist. ISBN 978-0-9563712-0-1.\nButler, Ewan (1951). Marshal Without Glory. London: Hodder & Stoughton. OCLC 1246848.\nFest, Joachim (2004). Inside Hitler's Bunker. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-13577-0.\nFrischauer, Willi (2013) [1950]. Goering. Unmaterial Books. ISBN 978-1-78301-221-3.\nGöring, Hermann (1934). Germany Reborn. London: E. Mathews & Marrot. OCLC 570220 – via Internet Archive.\nLeffland, Ella (1990). The Knight, Death and the Devil. New York: Morrow. ISBN 0-688-05836-1 – via Internet Archive.\nMaser, Werner (2000). Hitlers janusköpfiger Paladin: die politische Biographie (in German). Soesterberg: Aspekt. ISBN 3-86124-509-4.\nMaser, Werner (2004). Fälschung, Dichtung und Wahrheit über Hitler und Stalin (in German). Munich: Olzog. ISBN 3-7892-8134-4.\nPaul, Wolfgang (1983). Wer War Hermann Göring: Biographie (in German). Esslingen: Bechtle. ISBN 3-7628-0427-3.\n\nExternal links\n\nNuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 9 Transcript of Goering's testimony at the trial\n\"Lost Prison Interview with Hermann Goring: The Reichsmarschall's Revelations\" published by World War II Magazine\nGöring at Långbro asylum\nThe Goering Collection: online database (in German as Die Kunstsammlung Hermann Göring) of 4263 artworks in Hermann Göring's collection\nNewspaper clippings about Hermann Göring in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW",
"title": "Hermann_G%C3%B6ring"
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] | What rank did Hermann Goring hold in the Luftwaffe during World War II, before Robert Ritter von Greim, and how does this rank compare to the equivalent ranks in other branches of the German military? | [] | Reichsmarschall, which was a rank above "General de Luftwaffe." This rank does not exist in other branches of the German military and was unique to Goring himself as Robert Ritter von Greim held the title of Generalfeldmarschall after Hermann. | [] | true |
719 | [
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"paragraph_text": "BomBora is a family steel roller coaster currently operating at Lagoon in Farmington, Utah. It is located just outside Lagoon-A-Beach, Lagoon's water park. The name of the coaster comes from an indigenous Australian term for \"a submerged reef\" or \"a turbulent area of sea over such a reef.\"\n\nHistory\nConstruction started in 2010, after lockers for Lagoon-A-Beach were demolished. The roller coaster opened in 2011.\n\nRide experience\nThe ride starts with a left turn out of the station and into the lift hill. At the top of the lift hill, riders fall down the highest drop in the ride and enter a series of drops and twists, while music by The Beach Boys (or similar surf rock songs) plays, before reaching the final brake run and returning to the station.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "BomBora_(Lagoon)"
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"paragraph_text": "Lagoon is a family owned amusement park in Farmington, Utah, located about 18 miles north of Salt Lake City. Lagoon is divided into five main areas: The Midway, containing the majority of the rides; Pioneer Village, which has several exhibits displaying pioneer buildings and artifacts; Lagoon-A-Beach, a water park; Kiddie Land, an area with several rides for small children; and X-Venture Zone, featuring more extreme rides that are upcharged. Lagoon also offers an RV park, a campground, and a walking trail outside the park that stays open all year. Every autumn, the park offers Halloween-themed shows and attractions, collectively known as Frightmares.\nLagoon has eleven roller coasters, six of which are unique: Colossus the Fire Dragon, one of two remaining Schwarzkopf Double Looping coaster still in operation in the United States; Roller Coaster, one of the oldest coasters in the world, operating since 1921; Wicked, designed by Lagoon's engineering department and Werner Stengel in cooperation with ride manufacturer Zierer; BomBora, a family coaster designed in-house; Cannibal, built in-house with one of the world's steepest drops; and Primordial, an interactive dark ride coaster/3-D shooter game attraction inside an artificial mountain.\n\nHistory\n1886–1939\nIn 1886, the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad built a resort called Lake Park on the shores of the Great Salt Lake. It was one of several resorts built along the lake throughout the late 1800s. In the following years, however, the lake level receded drastically until Lake Park was far from the lake, and the park closed by the end of the 1895 season.\n\nSimon Bamberger, who was building his Salt Lake & Ogden Railroad line from Salt Lake City to Ogden, Utah, was vice president of Lake Park. To increase passenger traffic on his line, he bought most of the original Lake Park buildings from the D&RGW and moved them about 3 miles (5 km) east near Farmington, Utah. The resort was named Lagoon for the small body of water located on the original forty acres (162,000 m2) of the park. The original lagoon was enlarged to 9 acres (36,000 m2) by clearing some swampland.\nLagoon opened in Farmington on July 12, 1896, and featured live music and restaurants. In 1900, guests began swimming and rowing boats in Lagoon Lake. Over time, rides were added, such as the authentic Herschell-Spillman Carousel and Cagney Miniature Railroad. In 1901, the park hosted a minor league baseball team in the Inter-Mountain League and in 1902, a team in the Utah State League.\nLagoon's wooden coaster, Roller Coaster, was designed by John Miller and constructed in 1921. Its highest height is 57 feet (17 m), and it has 2,500 feet (760 m) of track. The ride lasts just under two minutes, and reaches speeds up to 45 mph (72 km/h).\n\nIn 1927, a 1.5×10^6 US gal (5.7×10^6 L) swimming pool was built north of Lagoon Lake. It was one of the first filtered swimming pools in western North America, and was a cleaner alternative than swimming in the briny Great Salt Lake.\nLagoon's popularity grew during the 1920s and 1930s. The park's first Fun House was built in 1929, along with many other midway shows, rides, and games. During the \"Big Band\" era, many notable musicians played on Lagoon's stage, including Artie Shaw, Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and Glenn Miller.\n\n1940–1970\nThe park was closed for three seasons during World War II. By 1946, the park was in bad condition and on the brink of permanent closure. The Bamberger family considered razing it. However, Ranch S. Kimball and Robert E. Freed convinced the Bamberger family to lease the park to their newly formed Utah Amusement Corporation. Kimball served as president while Freed served as secretary and assistant manager. The Freed family's Lagoon Corporation later bought the resort outright from the Bamberger family in 1983.\nWhen the Utah Amusement Corporation took over the lease of Lagoon, a Farmington town ordinance prohibited African-Americans from using the swimming pool and the ballroom. By the end of the 1940s, Robert Freed had fully opened Lagoon to the black community, and further extended this policy to the Terrace Ballroom (formerly the Rainbow Gardens) in Salt Lake City.\n\nThe Freed family made several improvements, including an overhaul of the swimming pool in 1949, a rebuilt fun house, the introduction of the \"Dodgem Cars\" and the \"Lakeshore Express\" miniature railway in 1951, and a new Ferris wheel in 1953.\nIn November 1953, a fire damaged much of the park, including the fun house, dance pavilion, and the front portion of the Roller Coaster. The Roller Coaster was rebuilt and reopend for the 1954 season. Many rides were restored, rebuilt, or replaced, and a few new rides were added in 1955. In 1956, Mother Gooseland, Lagoon's first themed section, was opened between the Midway and the swimming pool. It featured rides only for children.\n\nFrom the mid-1950s into the 1960s, Lagoon made many improvements. A showboat was added to the lake, and a new fun house was built, which featured such attractions as a multi-lane giant slide, mazes, mirrors, obstacle courses, and mystery rooms. There was also a mini-car ride added in 1960, followed by the \"Space Scrambler\", spook house, I.Q. Zoo, and shooting gallery in 1961. A Wild Mouse coaster opened in 1965.\nOn the Midway, musicians including the Beach Boys, the Rolling Stones, the Kingston Trio, and Johnny Cash performed on the bandstand throughout the 1960s. The Beach Boys made mention of the park in the song \"Salt Lake City\" on their 1965 album Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!).\nThe 2 ft (610 mm) narrow-gauge Animaland Train began circling Lagoon Lake in 1967. In 1975, authentic steam locomotives built by Crown Metal Products were put into operation around the lake instead, and the railway's name was changed to the Wild Kingdom Train Zoo.\n\n1971–1997\nThe Opera House Square opened in 1968 and showcased melodramas, musicals, and silent movies. In 1976, Lagoon expanded east by purchasing Pioneer Village, an old west town complete with several historic structures. The buildings were moved to Lagoon and the 2 ft (610 mm) narrow-gauge \"Pioneer Village Railroad\" (featuring \"Old Ironsides\", a Crown Metal Products locomotive) circled the town. In addition, the \"Lagoon Miniature Railroad\" looped around the residential area of Pioneer Village using an original miniature gauge steam locomotive acquired in the early 1900s. A log flume ride was brought in from the defunct Pixieland Park in Oregon.\nIn 1976, the Jet Star 2 roller coaster was added. Before Lagoon purchased it, it was an attraction at Spokane, Washington's Expo '74.\n\nColossus the Fire Dragon came to Lagoon in 1983. It was selected by People magazine in 1984 as one of the top 10 coasters in the country. Colossus was Lagoon's first coaster to feature inversions, with a top speed of 55 mph (89 km/h). With its double inverted loops, Colossus had the most inversions of any coaster at Lagoon for 32 years until the opening of Cannibal in 2015.\nIn the late 1980s, both the old fun house and the \"Haunted Shack\", a walk-through dark attraction, were closed due to escalating maintenance costs and safety concerns. The swimming pool closed after its fifth decade in 1987. This made way for the $5.5 million Lagoon-A-Beach water park, which was completed in 1989. Its construction required the closure of miniature railroad operations in Pioneer Village, as some of the supports stood in the way of the track.\n\n1997–2009\nIn 1997, in a major expansion of Pioneer Village, Lagoon added Rattlesnake Rapids, a river rapids ride located in the new Rattlesnake Plaza. In 1998, Lagoon added the Maurer AG Wild Mouse coaster. This ride replaced the wooden Wild Mouse coaster that had been demolished 5 years prior. In 1999, Lagoon opened its first attraction above the height of 200-foot (61 m): The Rocket, an S&S space shot tower with two different ride towers. In 2000, Samurai, a Mondial Top Scan, was built, as well as Double Thunder Raceway. In 2001, a Monidal Top Spin, Cliffhanger, was opened. In 2002, Lagoon expanded its X-Venture Zone by adding Catapult, a reverse bungee ride. Spider, a Maurer AG steel spinning coaster, opened in 2003. In 2004, Lagoon revamped Kiddieland, giving it a garden theme and adding two new rides, Kontiki and Dragon Fly. In 2005, The Bat, an inverted coaster manufactured by Vekoma, was constructed near Lagoon-A-Beach. It is a family-friendly coaster with a minimum height requirement of 42 inches. In 2006, Lagoon expanded Kiddieland further by adding two new rides, Dinosaur Drop and Lady Bug Bop, both of which are Zierer Family Drop Towers.On June 1, 2007, a $10 million roller coaster named Wicked opened. Wicked is a Zierer tower launch coaster, and is powered by linear synchronous motors that launch riders up a 100-foot (30 m) tower at 55 mph (89 km/h) in 2.5 seconds. It has several elements, including an Immelmann turn, a heartline roll, two half-pipe turns, and the signature \"lake turn\" into a final tunnel before returning to the station. Several improvements were made to the park in 2007 as well. On April 5, 2008, Lagoon opened OdySea, a Zierer \"Flying Fish\" ride with aquatic theming. OdySea is an interactive ride with a joystick to control the vehicle's height. Arrows blink to direct the rider to dodge jets of water from the sea creatures that attempt to soak the rider as accompanying audio tells a story. On April 4, 2009, Lagoon opened \"Jumping Dragon\", a Zierer \"Dragon Roundabout\" ride.\n\n2010–present\nIn 2010, Lagoon revamped their Ferris wheel, Sky Scraper. It was dismantled after the 2009 season, and reopened with a new coat of paint in April 2010. As a result of the economic crisis, Lagoon did not install a new ride that season. Instead, the park improved their entertainment division with several new shows. In 2011, Lagoon installed another family roller coaster, named BomBora. The coaster was created by a group of manufacturers and Lagoon itself, and has a height of 45 feet (14 m), as well as a theme based on 1960s surfing. In 2012, Lagoon installed a ride called Air Race. In 2013, Lagoon began work on a new coaster at the site of the former Top Eliminator. Two new family rides opened for the 2013 season, Tipsey Tea Cups and Red Rock Rally, both of which were manufactured by Zamperla. In 2014, Lagoon continued work on a new coaster, building vertically throughout the entire operating season. With much of its focus on the new coaster, no new rides were added this year. Due to maintenance problems, Lagoon-A-Beach's old Rip-Curl slide was replaced with a new slide of the same name. At a press conference on September 4, 2014, Lagoon officially announced Cannibal, their new roller coaster for the 2015 season. On July 2, 2015, Cannibal opened, featuring a 208-foot (63 m) elevator lift hill, a 116° beyond vertical drop, three inversions, and a top speed of 70 mph. Shortly after its opening, the park began the early planning stages of Primordial. In 2016, Lagoon continued work on Cannibal, with no new rides being added. Extensive work was also done on Spider. In 2017, a mural by Sril Art was created at the park. Two new rides were added to Kiddieland: Flying Tigers and Ruka Safari. In 2018, the Roller Coaster was re-tracked. A new ride opened in Kiddieland called Engine 86 in 2020. On December 18, 2021, a fire broke out at the Carousel Candy shop. The fire rekindled that evening and subsequently destroyed the candy shop and the adjacent Scamper, a miniature bumper cars ride. In 2023, Lagoon opened Primordial, a 4D interactive dark ride roller coaster, after eight years of development and construction. The attraction is located inside an artificial mountain and includes multiple ride endings. Work also continued on the reconstruction of Carousel Candy, which also included the newly announced Peacock Parlour. While nothing was added in 2024, work began on a new themed area on the site of the Log Flume, called The District at Pioneer Village, and work continued on Carousel Candy's replacement.\n\nAttractions\nRoller coasters\nLagoon features eleven different roller coasters. The oldest, Roller Coaster, was built in 1921 and is an American Coaster Enthusiasts (ACE) Roller Coaster Landmark.\n\nThrill rides\nDark rides\nWater rides\nFamily rides\nChildren's rides\nAll of these attractions are located in the park's Kiddieland section.\n\nX-Venture Zone\nEach ride in the X-Venture Zone is an upcharge attraction.\n\nControversy\nIn 2012, Lagoon became the focus of animal welfare groups' protests which called for a boycott of the park, citing USDA inspection reports that suggested poor care of animals in the Wild Kingdom Train Zoo. The Utah Animal Rights Coalition and PETA pointed to a range of USDA citations over a 15-year span that included insufficient living space for and unexplained deaths of animals. While admitting to some problems, a Lagoon spokesman denied any abuse taking place and said veterinarians and staff regularly monitored the animals.\n\nNotable incidents\nIn 1989, six-year-old Ryan Beckstead was struck and killed on Puff the Little Fire Dragon after he fell off the ride and stood up in between the track, before being hit in the head by the oncoming train.\nOn August 14, 2021, a 32-year-old man fell 50 feet after dangling from the park's Sky Ride, a chairlift-like ride which transports people from one end of the amusement park to the other. The man succumbed to his injuries in the hospital the next day.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe Beach Boys reference Lagoon by name in the song Salt Lake City on their 1965 album Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!).\n\nMovies and TV shows filmed at Lagoon\nMirror, Mirror: You and Your Self Image is a 1969 film by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Brigham Young University. The opening scenes are filmed at Lagoon.\nLagoon was one of many parks featured in the first roller coaster documentary, America Screams in 1978.\nAn episode of the Werewolf TV series was filmed at Lagoon in fall of 1987, featuring scenes in and around the Dracula's Castle attraction.\nSome scenes in the 1996 TV movie, Terror in the Family, were filmed at the Roller Coaster and Centennial Screamer.\nIn My Sister's Shadow, a 1997 TV movie, featured a scene on the North Midway.\nThe Luck of the Irish, a 2001 Disney Channel original movie. A few scenes were filmed on the North Midway of Lagoon. The dance festival scene was shot in front of the entrance to the Sky Scraper.\nWieners, a movie released in 2008, had a montage featuring scenes filmed at Lagoon in 2007. The name of the park was changed in the film.\nAn episode of The Aquabats featured brief and edited shots of Lagoon.\nIn 2015, Christmas Land was filmed in the Pioneer Village section of the park.\nSeason 3, episode 12 of Andi Mack featured brief and edited shots of Lagoon; including Paratrooper, Cannibal, and Sky Scraper.\n\nNotes\nExternal links\n\nOfficial Lagoon Park website\nLagoon (amusement park) at the Roller Coaster DataBase",
"title": "Lagoon_(amusement_park)"
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"paragraph_text": "The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\n\nPresidents\nSee also\nActing President of the United States\nFounding Fathers of the United States\nList of vice presidents of the United States\nPresident of the Continental Congress\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nExternal links\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote",
"title": "List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"
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] | Who was the president of the United States when the resort housing the BomBora steel roller coaster first opened? | [] | Grover Cleveland | [] | true |
523 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Millennium Stadium (Welsh: Stadiwm y Mileniwm), known since 2016 as the Principality Stadium (Welsh: Stadiwm Principality) for sponsorship reasons, is the national stadium of Wales. Located in Cardiff, it is the home of the Wales national rugby union team and has also held Wales national football team games. Initially built to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup and replacing the National Stadium, it has gone on to host many other large-scale events, such as the Tsunami Relief Cardiff concert, the Super Special Stage of Wales Rally Great Britain, the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain and various concerts. It also hosted FA Cup, League Cup and Football League play-off finals while Wembley Stadium was being redeveloped between 2001 and 2006, as well as football matches during the 2012 Summer Olympics.\nThe stadium is owned by Millennium Stadium plc, a subsidiary company of the Welsh Rugby Union (WRU). The architects were Bligh Lobb Sports Architecture. The structural engineers were WS Atkins and the building contractor was Laing. The total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million, of which the Millennium Commission funded £46 million.\nThe Millennium Stadium opened in June 1999 and its first major event was an international rugby union match on 26 June 1999, when Wales beat South Africa in a test match by 29–19 before a crowd of 29,000. With a total seating capacity of 73,931, it is the largest stadium in Wales and the fourth largest (and second largest outside London) in the United Kingdom by total capacity. In addition, it is the third-largest stadium in the Six Nations Championship behind the Stade de France and Twickenham. It is also the second-largest stadium in the world with a fully retractable roof and was the second stadium in Europe to have this feature. Listed as a category four stadium by UEFA, the stadium was chosen as the venue for the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final, which took place on 3 June 2017. In 2015, the Welsh Rugby Union announced a 10-year sponsorship deal with the Principality Building Society that saw the stadium renamed as the \"Principality Stadium\" from early 2016.\n\nHistory\nBackground\nUntil 1969, Cardiff RFC and Wales both played their home matches on the same pitch at Cardiff Arms Park, but all this changed in the 1969–70 season. As a result of an agreement between Cardiff Athletic Club and the WRU, the National Stadium project established that a new stadium for international matches and events was required, with Cardiff RFC moving to a new, purpose-built stadium on the original cricket ground at the site of the former Cardiff Arms Park stadium. By 7 April 1984 the National Stadium was officially opened. However, in 1994, a committee was set up to consider redeveloping the National Stadium, and by 1995 the WRU had been chosen to host the 1999 Rugby World Cup.\n\nIn 1995, the National Stadium, which was designed in 1962, only had a capacity of 53,000; other nations' stadia, such as Twickenham (England) with a capacity of 75,000, and Murrayfield Stadium (Scotland) with a capacity of 67,000, had overtaken it. France was also about to build the Stade de France, which would have a capacity of more than 80,000 for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The original capacity of the National Stadium was 65,000, but this had been reduced to 53,000, due to the Taylor Report. 11,000 of 53,000 capacity was on the East Terrace and the conversion to an all-seater stadium would have reduced the stadium capacity still further to just 47,500.\nIn addition to the problems of capacity, the National Stadium was also very well hidden by the neighbouring buildings to the south in Park Street, Wood Street and to the east in Westgate Street, and also by Cardiff Rugby Ground in the north. It was only fully visible from across the River Taff in the west. Access to the ground was also very restricted with the main entrance being a narrow opening in Westgate Street to the east which was shared by both vehicles and spectators alike.\nThe options for the new stadium included adding a third tier to the existing National Stadium, or moving to a new site. This last option was discounted because it would have required a vast car parking facility, and that would have put severe short-term pressures on the local transport infrastructure, creating traffic jams and pollution. The committee eventually chose a new stadium on the same site but with considerable increase in its capacity. It would also involve moving the alignment of the stadium from west–east to north–south. This was the option supported by the Millennium Commission. It would become the fourth redevelopment of the Cardiff Arms Park site. It was also decided that the new stadium should have a sliding roof to accommodate a multi-use venue, with a grass pitch for rugby and football. The only other sliding roofs in Europe at the time were at two Dutch stadia – the Amsterdam Arena, completed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000; and Gelredome in Arnhem, a 30,000-capacity ground built from 1996 to 1998.\nTo remain on the Arms Park site, additional space had to be found to allow safe access and to provide room for the increased capacity and improved facilities. This was achieved by the purchase of adjacent buildings to the south and east and by the construction of a new £6 million River Walk by the River Taff on the western side of the stadium.\nBy 1999, the Millennium Stadium had replaced the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park, as the national stadium of Wales for rugby union and association football international matches. Cardiff RFC continued as before to play at Cardiff Arms Park rugby ground, which had replaced the cricket ground in 1969.\n\nConstruction\nThe stadium was designed by a team led by Rod Sheard at Lobb Sport Architecture, who later merged with HOK Sport to become Populous. The building contractor was Laing and the structural engineers were WS Atkins. Mike Otlet of WS Atkins designed the stadium's retractable roof, which was constructed by Kelsey Roofing Industries. Cimolai S.p.A. from Italy fabricated and erected the 72 steel plane frames for the stands and all the 4,500 components of the roof.\n\nConstruction involved the demolition of a number of buildings, primarily the existing National Stadium (Cardiff Arms Park), Wales Empire Pool (swimming pool) in Wood Street, Cardiff Empire Telephone Exchange building (owned by BT) in Park Street, the newly built Territorial Auxiliary & Volunteer Reserve building in Park Street, and the Social Security offices in Westgate Street.\nThe stadium was built by Laing in 1999 on the site of the National Stadium, with the head of construction being Steve Ager. It was built for the 1999 Rugby World Cup, for which Wales was the main host, with seven of the 41 matches, including the final, being played at the stadium.\nThe total construction cost of the stadium was £121 million, which was funded by private investment and £46 million of public funds from the Millennium Commission, the sale of debentures to supporters (which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest-free loan) and loans. The development left the WRU heavily in debt.\n\nThe Millennium Stadium was named as such in recognition of the Millennium Commission's contribution to the building.\nThe stadium was first used for a major event on 26 June 1999, when Wales played South Africa in a rugby union test match before a crowd of 29,000. Wales won 29–19: the first time they had ever beaten the Springboks.\n\n2016 renaming\nOn 8 September 2015 it was announced that the Millennium Stadium would be renamed Principality Stadium as the result of a 10-year naming rights deal with the Principality Building Society. Some fans expressed opposition on social media.\nOn 22 January 2016, the Millennium Stadium was officially renamed as the Principality Stadium. The new name, written bilingually (\"Stadiwm Principality Stadium\") and covering 114 square metres (1,230 sq ft) of the upper stadium, was lit up at a special evening ceremony, to be followed by a festival to encourage grassroots rugby. The change of name also meant a change of logo for the Millennium Stadium. There were three designs shortlisted, and a panel, which included the former Wales international captain Ryan Jones and staff and members of the WRU and Principality Building Society, chose the final design. A spokesperson for the WRU said: \"The new stadium logo takes its inspiration from the venue's iconic architecture; four spires, curved frontage and fully retractable roof.\"\n\nFeatures\nThe all-seater stadium has the capacity for 74,500 supporters and features a retractable roof, only the second stadium of its type in Europe, and the largest football stadium in the world with this feature, by capacity. Additional seating is sometimes added for special events such as a rugby Test against the New Zealand All Blacks, or for the FA Cup Final. The current record attendance is set at just over 78,000, recorded at the Anthony Joshua v Carlos Takam fight, on 28 October 2017, in which Joshua successfully retained his WBA, IBF and IBO titles.\nThe natural grass turf was made up of a modular system installed by GreenTech ITM. It features built in irrigation and drainage. The pitch itself was laid on top of some 7,412 pallets that could be moved so the stadium could be used for concerts, exhibitions and other events.\nIn May 2014, after much trouble with disease and stability, the surface was removed and replaced with a more resilient interwoven sand based Desso pitch.\nThe four ends of the ground are called the North Stand, the West Stand, the South Stand and the BT Stand (east). The South Stand was previously known as the Hyder Stand, until Hyder was sold. The stadium has three tiers of seating with the exception of the North Stand, which has two tiers. The lower tier holds 23,154 spectators, the middle tier holding 15,626 and the upper tier holding 35,151 spectators.\n\nThe stadium was slightly restricted in size due to its proximity to Cardiff Rugby Club's home in the adjacent smaller stadium within Cardiff Arms Park. The WRU were unable to secure enough funding to include the North Stand in the new stadium and the Millennium Commission would not allow any of its funds to be used in any way for the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff RFC. The WRU held talks with Cardiff RFC to see if it would be possible for the club to either move or secure funding for the Cardiff Arms Park to be re-developed, but these were unsuccessful. The stadium thus had to be completed with a break in its bowl structure in the North Stand, known colloquially as Glanmor's Gap, after Glanmor Griffiths, then chairman of the WRU and now a former president.\n\nThe superstructure of the stadium is based around four 90.3-metre (296 ft) masts. The stadium was built from 56,000 tonnes of concrete and steel, and has 124 hospitality suites and 7 hospitality lounges, 22 bars, 7 restaurants, 17 first aid points, 12 escalators and 7 lifts. The stadium has 7 gates for access to the site; Gate 1 is from the River Walk via Castle Street (to the north), Gates 2 and 3 are via Westgate Street (to the east), Gate 4 which was renamed Gatland's Gate (Welsh: Gât Gatland) in honour of Warren Gatland in November 2019, is for team-coaches, celebrity limousines and other uses via Westgate Street, Gate 5 is via Park Street (to the south) and Gates 6 and 7 are via the Millennium Plaza (also to the south).\nAny future renovation to the stadium will involve replacing the old North Stand of the former National Stadium with a new one similar to the three existing stands of the new Millennium Stadium. This will make the stadium bowl-shaped and will increase its capacity to around 80,000. It will resolve the existing problems of deteriorating concrete quality on the old structure in the north stand. However the WRU has been more resistant to the proposal in recent years, stating that the concrete has not been deteriorating in recent years meaning the cost of replacing Glanmor's Gap would not justify the limited increase in capacity it would provide.\nIn each of the stadium's bars, so-called \"joy machines\" can pour 12 pints in less than 20 seconds. During a Wales versus France match, 63,000 fans drank 77,184 pints of beer, almost double the 44,000 pints drunk by a similar number of fans at a game at Twickenham. The stadium has a resident hawk named \"Dad\", who is employed to drive seagulls and pigeons out of the stadium.\nIn 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m × 35 m (30 ft × 115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1 million cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, the Millennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the then Wales Tourist Board. The curtain was supplied by Blackout.\nIn May 2015, the chairman of the WRU, Gareth Davies, announced that the stadium would be fitted with new seats, replacing the original seats from 1999 at a cost of £4 million to £5 million, which would be completed by 2018. In addition a new £3.1 million Desso hybrid pitch will be installed.\nIn February 2019, the stadium increased its disabled capacity from 168 to 214 at a cost of around £100,000. As a result, the overall capacity of the stadium was reduced from 74,500 to 73,931.\n\nStatue of Sir Tasker Watkins\nA statue of Sir Tasker Watkins, the former WRU president between 1993 and 2004, was commissioned to stand outside Gate 3 of the stadium. The bronze statue, 9 feet (2.7 m) tall, was sculpted by Llantwit Major based sculptor Roger Andrews. The Welsh Government contributed £50,000, as did Cardiff Council. It was officially unveiled on 15 November 2009 by his daughter, Lady Mair Griffith-Williams.\n\nUsage\nAs well as international rugby union and association football, the Millennium Stadium has hosted a variety of sports, including, rugby league (including the Challenge Cup Final on three occasions between 2003 and 2005, the opening ceremony of the 2013 Rugby League World Cup and Welsh Rugby League internationals), speedway, boxing, the Wales Rally Great Britain stage of the World Rally Championship, Monster Jam and indoor cricket. The indoor cricket match between The Brits and a Rest of the World team for the Pertemps Power Cricket Cup, which took place on 4 and 5 October 2002.\n\nRugby union\nThe stadium is the home of the Welsh rugby union team, who play all of their home fixtures at the venue. These games include those during the Six Nations, as well as the Autumn Internationals against nations from the Southern Hemisphere. Apart from the national team, the stadium has also hosted the European Rugby Champions Cup finals on five occasions. In total, the site, including the National Stadium, has hosted the final of the European Rugby Champions Cup on seven occasions.\n\nThe stadium has also been used for Celtic League games, and the semi-finals of the Anglo-Welsh Cup in 2006 and 2007. Since 2013, the Millennium Stadium has hosted Judgement Day, a double-header between the four Welsh United Rugby Championship teams. The 2016 edition had 68,262 spectators, the highest in the history of the league.\nThe stadium hosted the first match in the 2005 British & Irish Lions tour to New Zealand when they drew 25–25 against Argentina in a warm-up test match.\nWelsh Varsity rugby matches\nOn 30 March 2011, the stadium hosted the Welsh Varsity rugby match for the first time in the history of the match between the senior teams of Cardiff University and Swansea University. The stadium is used alternating years with Liberty Stadium in Swansea. The Welsh Varsity event celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016.\nRugby World Cup\nThe Welsh Rugby Union hosted the 1999 Rugby World Cup with the Final being played at the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 pool matches and 1 quarter-final match (New Zealand 18–20 France) of the 2007 Rugby World Cup.\n\nOn 15 October 2011, the stadium was open to Welsh Rugby Union fans free of charge, providing that they wear red so that they could watch a live screening of the 2011 Rugby World Cup semi-final between Wales and France that was played at Eden Park, Auckland, New Zealand. The match was screened on the stadium's existing large screens, on all of their television screens and on a screen that was brought in for the occasion. The same was done for the Bronze Final between Wales and Australia which saw Wales defeated and take fourth place.\nThe stadium hosted six pool matches, including two featuring Wales, and two quarter-final matches during the 2015 Rugby World Cup.\n\nRugby league\nThe stadium first hosted rugby league football during the 2000 World Cup: a double header featuring Cook Islands versus Lebanon and Wales versus New Zealand that attracted a crowd of 17,612. It was again used as Wales' home ground during the 2002 New Zealand rugby league tour of Great Britain and France when they again hosted the Kiwis this time attracting 8,746 spectators.\nThe Stadium has hosted three Challenge Cup Finals, which are usually played at Wembley, from 2003 to 2005. In 2003 the Bradford Bulls defeated the Leeds Rhinos 22–20 in front of 71,212 fans. St. Helens defeated Wigan 36–16 in 2004 in front of 73,734 fans, while Hull F.C. defeated Leeds 25–24 in 2005 in front of 74,213 fans, the largest rugby league crowd at the stadium.\nAlso, in 2007 the stadium hosted the inaugural Millennium Magic weekend. This was a two-day event in May when an entire round of Super League matches were played, three games on the Saturday and three games on the Sunday. The event was deemed a success by the sport's governing body, the RFL, and second Millennium Magic event took place in May 2008, although the 2009 and 2010 events were held at Murrayfield Stadium and were renamed Magic Weekend. In 2011, Magic Weekend moved back to Cardiff with the opening round of Super League being played.\nOn 26 October 2013, the Millennium Stadium hosted the opening ceremony and the first two fixtures of the 2013 Rugby League World Cup: a double-header featuring Wales against Italy and England against title favourites and eventual tournament champions Australia. This double header produced an overall attendance of 45,052, which is an international rugby league record at the stadium.\n\nAssociation football\nFrom 2000 to 2009, the stadium was the almost-permanent home of Welsh football. The national team played the vast majority of home matches at the Millennium Stadium, with a handful of friendly matches once or twice a year at the Racecourse Ground, Wrexham or Liberty Stadium, Swansea. The first Welsh football game at the stadium was played against Finland in 2000, and drew a then-record home crowd for Welsh football of over 66,000. This has since been beaten on several occasions. However, since 2010, the majority of home games have been played at the smaller Cardiff City Stadium, the home of Cardiff City. Wales have only played at the stadium twice since 2009; in 2011 against England and in 2018 against Spain.\n\nWhile the Millennium Stadium was under construction, the original Wembley Stadium had hosted the Welsh rugby team during the building of the new ground. The favour was returned from 2001 while the new Wembley Stadium was being built, with the Millennium hosting:\n\nFA Cup Final\nLeague Cup Final\nFootball League Trophy Final\nFootball League play-off Finals\nFA Community Shield\nThe stadium became notorious for an apparent \"away team hoodoo\"; the first 11 major cup finals were all won by the teams occupying the home dressing room. Stoke City beat Brentford 2–0 in 2002 to end the \"hoodoo\", after Paul Darby carried out a feng shui blessing.\nLiverpool were the first team to win the FA Cup at the Millennium Stadium in 2001 after beating Arsenal 2–1. They were also the first team to win the League Cup at the Stadium, defeating Birmingham City in a penalty shoot-out earlier that year. In 2003, Liverpool won the League Cup for the seventh time in their history thanks to a 2–0 win over Manchester United in the final at the stadium. Liverpool also won the last FA Cup Final at the Millennium Stadium in 2006, beating West Ham United 3–1 in a penalty shoot-out that followed a 3–3 draw after extra time in what was billed as 'the best cup final of the modern era'.\nThe Football League Third Division play-offs in 2003 saw AFC Bournemouth beat Lincoln City 5–2. In this game, Bournemouth set a new record for the most goals scored by one team in a single match at the stadium. This record has since been matched but not beaten. The last domestic cup match played was when Doncaster Rovers beat Bristol Rovers 3–2 after extra time in the Football League Trophy Final on 1 April 2007.\nIn 2001, the Football Association of Wales (FAW) confirmed that they had bid to host the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final. The stadium had recently been rated as a five-star stadium by UEFA, making it one of the favorites to host the match, but the final was eventually awarded to Old Trafford, the home of Manchester United.\n\nIt was suggested that the stadium would have been one of the venues of a proposed UEFA Euro 2016 championship hosted jointly by Wales and Scotland. However, the bid did not reach the formal UEFA selection stage, having been abandoned by the Welsh and Scottish Football Associations for financial reasons. In April 2014, the FAW did submit a formal bid to host three group matches and either a round of 16 match or a quarter-final at Euro 2020, which UEFA planned to host at 13 venues across Europe. When the host venues were voted on in September 2014, the Millennium Stadium lost out by a single vote behind Glasgow's Hampden Park, a decision that FAW chief executive Jonathan Ford put down to UEFA politics. The stadium, however, would be selected for UEFA Euro 2028. On 30 June 2015, the Millennium Stadium was chosen as the venue for the 2017 UEFA Champions League Final. UEFA rules meant it could not be branded as the Principality Stadium during the event, resulting in all titles and logos – as well as those of other non-UEFA sponsors – being covered or removed for the duration. The game was played on 3 June 2017 between Italian club Juventus and Spanish club Real Madrid, in a repeat of the 1998 final; Real Madrid won the match 4–1.\nWhen London was selected as the host city for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the Millennium Stadium was named as one of the six venues for the football competition. It had the distinction of hosting the opening event of the Games – a 1–0 win for the Great Britain women's team against New Zealand – as well as four other group games and a quarter-final in the women's tournament, and three group games, a quarter-final and the bronze medal match in the men's.\n\nBoxing\nThere have been five nights of boxing at the stadium.\nOn 8 July 2006 when Matt Skelton beat Danny Williams for the Commonwealth heavyweight title. On 7 April 2007, Joe Calzaghe beat Peter Manfredo to retain his WBO super middleweight belt. On 3 November 2007, Calzaghe beat Mikkel Kessler to retain his WBO super middleweight belt and win the WBA and WBC super middleweight titles.\nOn 28 October 2017 Anthony Joshua successfully retained his WBA (Super), IBF and IBO heavyweight titles against mandatory challenger Carlos Takam with a 10th round stoppage.\nOn 31 March 2018, it hosted the World heavyweight unification fight between Anthony Joshua, holder of the WBA and IBF belts, and Joseph Parker, holder of the WBO belt. Joshua beat Parker on points.\n\nMotorsports\nIn 2001, it staged its first ever motorsport event, hosting the Speedway Grand Prix of Great Britain, and has done so every year since, attracting a record crowd of 44,150 in 2010. The temporary motorcycle speedway track is 278 metres (304 yards) in length and with sections of the stadiums lower seating bowl covered, the capacity of the stadium for the Grand Prix is set at 62,500.\nIn September 2005 the stadium was host to the first ever indoor stage of the World Rally Championship during the Wales Rally Great Britain. The lower tier of the stadium was removed to create a figure-of-eight course. In addition to this, the stadium has also hosted Supercross events. In October 2007, the stadium first hosted the UK leg of the Monster Jam trucks Europe tour, and returned in June 2008, again in 2009, 2010, 2016, 2018 and 2019.\n\nFilm\nThe stadium has been used on numerous occasions as a venue for shooting film and television productions. Scenes from the 2001 Hindi film Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... were filmed there.\nBetween 2004 and 2011, the stadium was used several times as a filming location for episodes of the BBC science fiction television series Doctor Who. The 2005 episode \"Dalek\" was shot primarily on location at the stadium, using its underground areas to represent a bunker in Utah, US, in the year 2012. The location shooting for the episode took place during October and November 2004. The underground areas of the stadium were used again in August 2005 to film Mission Control scenes for the Doctor Who Christmas special, \"The Christmas Invasion\", and again the following year to film scenes in the underground corridors of Torchwood in \"The Runaway Bride\" episode, broadcast on Christmas Day 2006. Shots of the Stormcage Facility in which River Song is incarcerated in series 5 and 6 of Doctor Who are also in the stadium, filmed between October 2010 and January 2011.\nThe stadium has also been used as a location for the filming of Doctor Who spin-off The Sarah Jane Adventures. The 2010 story, \"Death of the Doctor\", included corridor scenes for the UNIT headquarters that were filmed underground at the Millennium Stadium.\nThe Wembley Stadium scene in the film 28 Weeks Later was actually filmed at the Millennium Stadium. Although the outside is footage of Wembley, the inside is all filmed in Cardiff. The visual effects team on the film edited the footage to make it look more like Wembley.\nSébastien Foucan jumped over the gap of the opening of the stadium roof in the parkour documentary \"Jump Britain\".\n\nEventing\nThe inaugural Express Eventing International Cup took place at the stadium on 30 November 2008. The three-event competition made up of dressage, cross-country and show jumping all took place over the one day. The event was won by Oliver Townend.\n\nConcerts\nThe stadium has also been used for a variety of musical events, including the Manic Street Preachers concert held on Millennium Eve, and, on the following day, a recording of the BBC's Songs of Praise, which attracted an attendance of 60,000. Tina Turner performed a sold-out concert at the stadium during her highly successful Twenty Four Seven Tour in 2000. Welsh rockers Stereophonics have played two sold-out shows at the stadium: In July 2001 as part of their two-day \"A Day at the Races\" festival which would later be released to DVD and in 2003, shortly after the departure of the late Stuart Cable.\nAmerican rock band Bon Jovi played the venue during the One Wild Night Tour in 2001. At the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted a tsunami relief concert in aid of the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, with Eric Clapton headlining the event. The stadium has also been host to Madonna on two occasions, the first in July 2006 when she opened the UK leg of her Confessions Tour, and most recently in August 2008 when she kicked off her Sticky & Sweet Tour at the stadium. Other performers who have played at the stadium include Robbie Williams as part of his Weddings, Barmitzvahs & Stadiums Tour, U2 as part of their Vertigo Tour, Red Hot Chili Peppers as part of their By the Way tour, The Rolling Stones as part of their A Bigger Bang Tour, R.E.M. as part of their Monster tour and again for their Around the Sun tour.\n\nPaul McCartney also played at the stadium as part of his Up and Coming Tour, and The Police performed there as part of their Reunion Tour. In late 2005, Oasis played at the stadium during their Don't Believe the Truth Tour and again on their Dig Out Your Soul Tour in 2009. In 2008, the stadium hosted Neil Diamond and Bruce Springsteen with the E Street Band as part of their Magic Tour, On 22 August 2009, U2 again played at the stadium, as part of their European leg of their U2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance of 73,354. On 17 May 2023, Beyoncé performed at the stadium as part of her Renaissance World Tour. Taylor Swift played at the stadium on 18 June 2024 as part of The Eras Tour. In 2024, it was announced Oasis would play at the stadium on the 4th and 5th of July 2025 as part of their UK and Ireland Reunion tour.\n\nConferences\nThe stadium offers conferencing facilities via the foodservice organisation Compass Group. The facilities consist of six individually designed lounges and 124 pitch-facing executive box suites.\nIn addition to business events, the facilities are also available for dinners, banquets, balls, parties and weddings receptions.\n\nTemporary hospital\nOn 28 March 2020 it was announced that the stadium was to be converted at a cost of £8 million into a temporary field hospital to accommodate up to 2000 patients of the COVID-19 pandemic, at the same time as the Excel Centre, London, NEC, Birmingham, and the Manchester Central Convention Complex. By the weekend of 11–12 April 2020, it had a capacity of 330 beds.\n\nProfessional wrestling\nOn 12 April 2022, American professional wrestling company WWE announced that it would hold a major event at Millennium Stadium on 3 September, and opened pre-registration for tickets. The event was announced as being WWE's largest show in the UK since SummerSlam at the original Wembley Stadium in 1992. On 29 April 2022, it was announced that the event would be titled Clash at the Castle, in reference to nearby Cardiff Castle. The event attracted over 59,000 ticket pre-sale registrations, a company record.\n\nSee also\nSport in Cardiff\nMillennium Stadium Charitable Trust\nList of stadiums by capacity\nList of covered stadiums by capacity\nList of stadiums in Wales by capacity\nList of European stadiums by capacity\nList of association football stadiums by capacity\nList of tallest buildings in Cardiff\nLists of stadiums\n\nNotes\nReferences\nGeneral\nWales’ Principality Stadium at 25: 'The Eras Tour', BBC Sport, 26 June 2024.\nInline\n\nExternal links\n Media related to Millennium Stadium at Wikimedia Commons\nOfficial website\nPopulous website on the Millennium Stadium",
"title": "Millennium_Stadium"
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"paragraph_text": "Concerts have been held at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Wales, since the stadium's opening in 1999. The musicians who have played at the stadium include Tina Turner, Beyoncé, Spice Girls, The Rolling Stones, Rod Stewart, Paul McCartney, Madonna and Rihanna. The highest concert audience at the stadium was 73,354, who saw U2 in 2009. In 2018 Ed Sheeran performed for a record-breaking 4 nights at the Stadium on his ÷ Tour. The stadium's total seating capacity for sporting events is 73,434.\n\nHistory\nThe first concert held was on New Year's Eve 1999 when the Manic Street Preachers headlined Manic Millennium, followed two days later by a concert for the BBC's Songs of Praise programme, with Cliff Richard performing his UK number-one single \"The Millennium Prayer\". This event attracted an attendance of 66,000.\n\nDuring 2003, the stadium established a new in-house promotions and events department to attract major concerts to the stadium, taking over from SJM Concerts. The stadium's General Manager Paul Sergeant at the time said of the change, \"We looked at the current way our business was run, (and) realized that if we do it ourselves and have direct contact with the event owners and promoters...we will be able to offer an improved service\".\nAt the end of January 2005, the stadium hosted a Tsunami Relief Cardiff, a tsunami relief concert, in aid of victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, with Eric Clapton headlining the event. On 22 August 2009, U2 played at the stadium as part of their European leg of their U2 360° Tour, playing to a record-breaking concert attendance for a concert at the stadium of 73,354.\nIn 2005 the stadium installed an \"Arena Partition Drape System\" – a 1,100 kg black curtain made up of 12 drapes measuring 9 m (30 ft) x 35 m (115 ft) – to vary the audience from a capacity of over 73,000 down to between 12,000 and 46,000, depending on the four different positions that it can be hung. The curtains can be stored in the roof of the stadium when not in use. The £1m cost of the curtain was funded by the stadium, the Millennium Commission, its caterers Letherby and Christopher (Compass Group) and by the then Wales Tourist Board. The curtain was supplied by Blackout Ltd.\nIt was feared that music concerts and sporting events would take business away from local shops. However, David Hughes Lewis, chairman of Cardiff Retail Partnership, said in 2005 that \"Despite initial concerns that major events in the Millennium Stadium hit trading in the shops, it now believed such events had a positive impact...When people come to Cardiff for the concerts, they more often than not arrive the night before and they'll spend the morning shopping\".\n\nConcerts\nSee also\nMusic of Cardiff\nList of events held at the Millennium Stadium\nList of concerts at the National Stadium, Cardiff Arms Park\nList of highest-grossing concert tours\n\nNotes\nExternal links\n Media related to Concerts at the Millennium Stadium at Wikimedia Commons\n\nUpcoming events at the Millennium Stadium website",
"title": "List_of_concerts_at_the_Millennium_Stadium"
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"paragraph_text": "Manic Street Preachers, also known simply as the Manics, are a Welsh rock band formed in Blackwood, Caerphilly, in 1986. The band consists of Nicky Wire (bass guitar, lyrics) and cousins James Dean Bradfield (lead vocals, lead guitar) and Sean Moore (drums, percussion, soundscapes). They form a key part of the 1990s Welsh Cool Cymru cultural movement.\nFollowing the release of their debut single \"Suicide Alley\" in 1988, Manic Street Preachers became a quartet with the addition of Richey Edwards as co-lyricist and rhythm guitarist. The band's early albums were in a punk vein, eventually broadening to a greater alternative rock sound. Their early combination of androgynous glam imagery and lyrics about \"culture, alienation, boredom and despair\" gained them a loyal following.\nManic Street Preachers' first charting single was \"Motown Junk\" in 1991, followed by their debut album, Generation Terrorists, in February 1992. The band's next two albums were Gold Against the Soul in 1993 and The Holy Bible in 1994, the latter being the last album with Edwards, who disappeared in February 1995 and was legally presumed dead in 2008. The band continued as a trio, and achieved commercial success with the albums Everything Must Go (1996) and This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours (1998).\nThe Manics have headlined festivals including Glastonbury, T in the Park, V Festival and Reading, winning eleven NME Awards, eight Q Awards and four BRIT Awards. They were nominated for the Mercury Prize in 1996 and 1999, and have had one nomination for the MTV Europe Music Awards. The band has sold more than ten million albums worldwide. The Manics have two number-one singles in the UK charts: \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\" (1998) and \"The Masses Against the Classes\" (2000), as well as two number-one albums: This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours and The Ultra Vivid Lament (2021). From 1991 to 2010, the band recorded 33 consecutive top 40 singles in the UK.\n\nHistory\nFormation and early years (1986–1991)\nManic Street Preachers formed in 1986 at Oakdale Comprehensive School, Blackwood, South Wales, which all the band members attended. Bradfield and the slightly older Moore are cousins and shared bunk beds in the Bradfield family home after Moore's parents divorced.\nDuring the band's early years, Bradfield, alongside the classically trained Moore, primarily wrote the music while Wire focused on the lyrics. Some of their earliest performances were held at the Blackwood Miners Welfare Institute in the town. The origin of the band's name remains unclear, but the most often-told story relates that Bradfield while busking one day in Cardiff, got into an altercation with someone (sometimes said to be a homeless man) who asked him \"What are you, boyo, some kind of manic street preacher?\"\nOriginal bassist Flicker (Miles Woodward) left the band in early 1988, reportedly because he believed that the band were moving away from their punk roots. The band continued as a three-piece, with Wire switching from guitar to bass, and in 1988 they released their first single, \"Suicide Alley\". Despite its recording quality, this single provides an early insight into both Bradfield's guitar work and Moore's live drumming. The Manics intended to restore revolution to rock and roll at a time when Britain was dominated by shoegaze and acid house. The NME gave \"Suicide Alley\" an enthusiastic review, citing a press release by Richey Edwards: \"We are as far away from anything in the '80s as possible.\"\nAfter the release of \"Suicide Alley,\" Edwards joined the band on rhythm guitar and contributed to lyrics alongside Wire. Edwards also designed record sleeves and artwork and drove the band to and from gigs.\nIn 1990 the Manic Street Preachers signed a deal with label Damaged Goods Records for one EP. The four-track New Art Riot E.P. attracted as much media interest for its attacks on fellow musicians as for the actual music. With the help of Hall or Nothing management, the Manics signed to indie label Heavenly Records. The band recorded their first single for the label, entitled \"Motown Junk\". Their next single, \"You Love Us\", sampled Krzysztof Penderecki's \"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\" as well as Iggy Pop. The video featured Nicky Wire in drag as Marilyn Monroe and contained visual references to the film Betty Blue and to Aleister Crowley.\nOn 15 May 1991, during an interview with then-NME journalist Steve Lamacq following a gig at Norwich Arts Centre, Edwards carved the phrase \"4REAL\" into his arm with a razor blade in a bid to prove the sincerity of the band. He was taken to hospital and received seventeen stitches. NME subsequently ran a full-page story on the incident, including a phone interview with Richey on his motivations for doing it. A recording of the editorial meeting discussing whether or not they could publish the image was included as a b-side on the band's 1992 charity single Theme from M.A.S.H. (Suicide Is Painless), featuring Lamacq, the then-editor of NME Danny Kelly and James Brown (who went on to edit Loaded and the British version of GQ).\nAs a result of their controversial behaviour, the Manics quickly became favourites of the British music press, which helped them build a dedicated following.\nColumbia Records of Sony Music UK signed the band shortly afterwards and they began work on their debut album.\n\nRichey Edwards era: Generation Terrorists to The Holy Bible (1992–1995)\nThe band's debut album, Generation Terrorists, was released in 1992 on the Columbia Records imprint. The record contained six singles and sold 250,000 copies. The liner notes contained a literary quote for each of the album's eighteen songs and the album lasted just over seventy minutes. The album's lyrics are politicised like those of the Clash and Public Enemy, with the album's songs regularly switching from a critical focus on global capitalism to more personal tales of despair and the struggles of youth. Other tracks combine personal and political themes; \"Nat West-Barclays-Midlands-Lloyds\" was written as a critique of overseas banking credit policies, but also concerned Richey Edwards' issues involving overdrafts and refused loans. The single \"Motorcycle Emptiness\", meanwhile, criticises consumerism as a \"shallow dream\" that makes human life overtly commercialised. \"Little Baby Nothing\", a duet between Traci Lords and Bradfield, was described by Priya Elan of the NME as a \"perfect snapshot of [female] innocence bodysnatched and twisted\".\nThe band also made a cover version of the song \"Suicide Is Painless\" which peaked at number 7 in the UK charts, spending 3 weeks in the Top 10, and giving the band their first ever Top 10 hit single.\nThe group's second album, Gold Against the Soul, had a more commercial, grungy sound. It was released to mixed reviews but performed well, reaching number eight in the UK album chart. \nThe band stated that the choice to work with Dave Eringa again was important for this album. The band have described Gold Against the Soul as their least favourite album and the period surrounding the album as being the most unfocused of their career. The band's vocalist and guitarist James Dean Bradfield has said \"All we wanted to do was go under the corporate wing. We thought we could ignore it but you do get affected.\"\nBy early 1994, Edwards' difficulties became worse and began to affect the other band members as well as himself. He was admitted into The Priory in 1994 to overcome his problems and the band played a few festivals as a three-piece to pay for his treatment. During one such three-piece performance at Reading '94, James played Richey's black Gibson as a mark of respect (although James later commented that he regretted playing Richey's guitar).\nThe group's next album, The Holy Bible, was released in August to critical acclaim, but sold poorly. The album displayed yet another musical and aesthetic change for the band, largely featuring army/navy uniforms. Musically, The Holy Bible marks a shift from the modern rock sound of their first two albums, Generation Terrorists and Gold Against the Soul. In addition to the album's alternative rock sound the album incorporates various elements from other musical genres, such as hard rock, British punk, post-punk, new wave, industrial, art rock and gothic rock.\nLyrically the album deals with subjects including prostitution, American consumerism, British imperialism, freedom of speech, the Holocaust, serial killers, the death penalty, political revolution, childhood, fascism and suicide. According to Q: \"the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned\". There was also an element of autobiographic subjects, like in the song \"4st 7lb\" where the lyrics clearly tackle Richey's own experience with anorexia. The song was named after 4 stones 7 pounds, or 63 pounds (29 kg), because it is the weight below which death is said to be medically unavoidable for an anorexic sufferer.\nThe title \"The Holy Bible\" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that \"everything on there has to be perfection\". Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: \"The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them down [...] I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. [The album] doesn't pretend things don't exist\".\nIn support of the album the band appeared on Top of the Pops, performing its first single, \"Faster\", which reached No. 16. The performance was extremely controversial at the time, as the band were all dressed in army regalia. Bradfield wore a \"terrorist-style\" balaclava. At the time, the band was told by the BBC that they had received the most complaints ever. The album eventually has sold over 600,000 copies worldwide.\nIn April and May 1994 the band first performed songs from The Holy Bible at concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for the Anti-Nazi League at Brockwell Park, London. In June, they played the Glastonbury Festival. In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they played T in the Park in Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal in Cologne, the Parkpop Festival in The Hague and the Reading Festival. During September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe with Suede and Therapy?. In December, three nights at the London Astoria ended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage.\n\nThe disappearance of Richey Edwards\nEdwards disappeared on 1 February 1995, on the day when he and James Dean Bradfield were due to fly to the US on a promotional tour. In the two weeks before his disappearance, Edwards withdrew £200 a day from his bank account, which totalled £2,800 by the day of the scheduled flight. He checked out of the Embassy Hotel in Bayswater Road, London, at seven in the morning, and then drove to his apartment in Cardiff, Wales. In the two weeks that followed he was apparently spotted in the Newport passport office, and the Newport bus station. On 7 February, a taxi driver from Newport supposedly picked up Edwards from the King's Hotel in Newport, and drove him around the valleys, including Blackwood (Edwards' home as a child). The passenger got off at the Severn View service station near Aust and paid the £68 fare in cash.\nOn 14 February, Edwards' Vauxhall Cavalier received a parking ticket at the Severn View service station and on 17 February, the vehicle was reported as abandoned. Police discovered the battery to be flat, with evidence that the car had been lived in. Due to the service station's proximity to the Severn Bridge (which has been a renowned suicide location in the past) it was widely believed that he took his own life by jumping from the bridge.\nManic Street Preachers was put on hold for six months and disbanding the group was seriously considered, but with the blessing of Edwards' family, the other members continued. Edwards was legally \"presumed dead\" in 2008, to enable his parents to administer his estate. The band continue to set up a microphone for Edwards at every live performance.\n\nEverything Must Go to Lifeblood (1996–2006)\nThe first album without Edwards, Everything Must Go, was released on 20 May 1996. The band had chosen to work with new producer Mike Hedges, mainly for his work on Siouxsie and the Banshees' single \"Swimming Horses\" that Bradfield rated highly. Everything Must Go debuted on the UK Albums Chart at number 2, so far the album has gone Triple Platinum in the UK and is their most successful album to date, spending 103 weeks in the Top 100 with the album still in the Top 5 a year after its release. Containing five songs either written or co-written by Edwards the album was released to overwhelmingly positive reviews. The No. 2 hit single \"A Design for Life\" was the first to be written and released by the band following the disappearance of Richey Edwards the previous year. James Dean Bradfield later recalled that the lyric had been a fusion of two sets of lyrics-\"Design for Life\" and \"Pure Motive\"-sent to him from Wales by bassist Nicky Wire, while he was living in Shepherd's Bush. The music was written \"in about ten minutes\" and Bradfield felt a sense of euphoria with the result. The song was credited with having \"rescued the band\" from the despair felt after the disappearance of Edwards, with Wire describing the song as \"a bolt of light from a severely dark place\".\nThe album was shortlisted for the 1996 Mercury Prize award for best album and won the band two Brit Awards for Best British Band and Best British Album, as well as yielding the hit singles \"Australia\", \"Everything Must Go\" and \"Kevin Carter\". The album has sold over two million copies around the world, and it is still considered one of the finest releases of the decade, a classic album from the 1990s and frequently voted in polls in the category of best albums of all time by many publications. The success of Everything Must Go at the 1997 Brit Awards ensured that sales of their earlier albums Generation Terrorists, Gold Against the Soul and The Holy Bible enjoyed a late surge; the band's debut sold an extra 110,000 copies.\nIn 1997 the band performed a special gig at the Manchester Arena for more than 20,000 people. Bassist Nicky Wire said that was the moment he knew that the band had \"made it\". The recording was released as a VHS video on 29 September 1997 and has only been reissued on DVD in Japan.\nThe band's next album, This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours (1998), was the first number 1 of the band in the UK, remaining at the top of the albums chart for 3 weeks, selling 136,000 copies in the first week and spending a total of 74 weeks in the Album Chart. The title is a quotation taken from a speech given by Aneurin Bevan, a Labour Party politician from Wales. The cover photograph was taken on Black Rock Sands near Porthmadog, Wales. Around the world the album also peaked at number 1 in countries like Sweden and Ireland, and it sold over five million copies worldwide.\n\nWith their fifth album, the group also had a No. 1 single, \"If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next\". The song's theme is taken from the Spanish Civil War, and the idealism of Welsh volunteers who joined the left-wing International Brigades fighting for the Spanish Republic against Francisco Franco's military rebels. The song takes its name from a Republican poster of the time, displaying a photograph of a young child killed by the Nationalists under a sky of bombers with the stark warning \"If you tolerate this, your children will be next\" written at the bottom. The song is in the Guinness World Records as the number one single with the longest title without brackets. The album also included the hit singles \"You Stole the Sun from My Heart\", \"Tsunami\" and \"The Everlasting\". The Manics won Best British Band and Album awards at the BRIT Awards in 1999. This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours was also shortlisted for the 1999 Mercury Prize and the band received a further nomination in the category of Best UK & Ireland Act in the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards, where the band performed live the single If You Tolerate This Your Children Will Be Next. In the NME Awards in 1999, the band won every single big prize, Best Band, Best Album, Best Live Act, Best Single and Best Video, as well as the Best Band in the World Today award in the Q Awards 1998.\nAfter headlining Glastonbury Festival, T in the Park and V Festival, the band played the Leaving the 20th Century concert at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff on 31 December 1999, the first concert to be held there, with 57,000 people attending and the final song being broadcast around the world by satellite as part of 2000 Today. The concert is available on VHS and DVD. Subtitled English lyrics, available as an extra, contain errors when compared to the official lyrics in the band's album booklets and in between some of the tracks there are interview clips where the band discusses their history and the songs.\nIn 2000, they released the limited edition single \"The Masses Against the Classes\". Despite receiving little promotion, the single sold 76,000 copies in its first week and reached number one in the UK Singles Chart on 16 January 2000, beating \"U Know What's Up\" by Donell Jones to the top. The catalogue entry for the single was deleted (removed from wholesale supply) on the day of release, but the song nevertheless spent 9 weeks in the UK chart.\nIn 2001, they became the first popular Western rock band to play in Cuba (at the Karl Marx Theatre) and met with President Fidel Castro. Their concert and trip to Cuba was documented and then released as a DVD entitled Louder Than War. At this concert, they revealed many tracks from their upcoming sixth album, Know Your Enemy, which was released on 19 March. The left-wing political convictions of the Manic Street Preachers are apparent in many of the album's songs, such as \"Baby Elián\" as they comment on the strained relations between the United States and Cuba as seen in the Elián González affair, a hot topic around the album's release.\nThe band also pays tribute to singer and civil rights activist Paul Robeson in the song \"Let Robeson Sing\", but the song \"Ocean Spray\", which was a single, was written entirely by James about his mother's battle with cancer. The first singles from the album, \"So Why So Sad\" and \"Found That Soul\", were both released on the same day. The final single \"Let Robeson Sing\" was released later. The Manics also headlined Reading and Leeds Festival.\n\nThe greatest hits (plus remixes) album Forever Delayed was released in 2002, containing two new songs, \"Door to the River\" and the single \"There by the Grace of God\". Several songs were edited for length (\"Motorcycle Emptiness,\" \"You Love Us\", \"Australia,\" \"Everything Must Go,\" \"Little Baby Nothing,\" and \"The Everlasting\") so that more tracks could fit onto the CD (though not listed as edits in the liner notes).\nThe Forever Delayed DVD was released in 2002 together with the greatest hits CD and photo book that bear the same name, and features all the promo music videos from the start of the band's career released before the DVD. Along with the promo videos, there is a selection of 14 remix videos, where the visual material is taken from clips of the other promo videos as well as backdrop visuals from the band's live concerts.\nThe album peaked and debuted on the UK Albums Chart at #4.\nAn album of B-sides, rarities, and cover versions was released in 2003 entitled Lipstick Traces (A Secret History of Manic Street Preachers), which contains the last song the band worked on with Edwards. The album received a far more positive reception from fans than the Forever Delayed greatest hits album, which was heavily criticised for favouring the band's more commercially successful singles. The only recurring criticism of Lipstick Traces was the exclusion of the fan favourite \"Patrick Bateman\", from the \"La Tristesse Durera (Scream to a Sigh)\" single. The band explained that it was excluded mainly because it was almost seven minutes long and simply would not fit on the album.\nThe band's seventh studio album, Lifeblood, was released on 1 November 2004 and reached No. 13 on the UK album chart. Critical response to the album was mixed. The album was more introspective and more focused on the past, Wire talked about the ghosts that haunted this record and stated that the record was a retrospective: \"The main themes are death and solitude and ghosts. Being haunted by history and being haunted by your own past. Sleep is beautiful for me. I hate dreaming because it ruins ten hours of bliss. I had a lot of bad dreams when Richey first disappeared. Not ugly dreams, but nagging things. Until we wrote 'Design for Life', it was six months of misery. Lifeblood doesn't seek to exorcise Edwards' ghost, though, just admits that there are no answers\". Tony Visconti helped the band produce three songs on the album, which was followed by a UK arena tour in December 2004. \"Empty Souls\" and \"The Love of Richard Nixon\" were the two singles released from the album, both reaching No. 2 in the UK.\nA tenth-anniversary edition of The Holy Bible was released on 6 December 2004, which included a digitally remastered version of the original album, a rare U.S. mix (which the band themselves have admitted to preferring to the original UK mix) and a DVD of live performances and extras including a band interview.\nIn April 2005, the band played several shows as the Past-Present-Future tour—announced as their last for at least two years. The band released an EP entitled God Save the Manics with only a limited number of copies available and given out to fans as they arrived at the venue. After all the copies were gone, the band made the EP available as a free download on their website. In September, the band contributed the new track \"Leviathan\" to the War Child charity album Help!: A Day in the Life.\nIn 2006 the band received the prize for the Q Merit Award in the Q Awards 2006 and also the 10th-anniversary edition of Everything Must Go was released on 6 November. It included the original album, demos, B-sides, remixes, rehearsals and alternate takes of the album's songs, spread out over two CDs. An additional DVD, featuring music videos, live performances, TV appearances, a 45-minute documentary on the making of the album, and two films by Patrick Jones, completed the three-disc set.\nIn the 10th-anniversary edition, the band itself claims that they're still fond of the record, and Wire goes further saying: \"I think it's our best record, I am not afraid to say that.\"\n\nSend Away the Tigers to National Treasures (2007–2012)\nThe band's eighth studio album, Send Away the Tigers, was released on 7 May 2007 on Columbia Records. It entered the official UK album charts at No. 2. Critical response to the album was largely positive, with some critics hailing the album as the band's best in a decade. A free download of a song entitled \"Underdogs\" from the album was made available through the group's website on 19 March 2007. The first official single released from the album was \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\", featuring Cardigans vocalist Nina Persson. According to singer Bradfield, the title was the last line of a suicide note left by the friend of someone close to the group. The second single, \"Autumnsong\", and a third, \"Indian Summer\", were released in August. \"Indian Summer\" peaked at number 22, making it the first Manics single not to chart in the Top 20 since 1994's \"She Is Suffering\". The album sleeve features a quotation from Wyndham Lewis: \"When a man is young, he is usually a revolutionary of some kind. So here I am, speaking of my revolution\".\nA Christmas single, \"The Ghosts of Christmas\", was released as a free download on the band's official website throughout December 2007 and January 2008. In February 2008, the band were presented with the God-Like Geniuses Award at the NME Awards ceremony.\nThe ninth Manics album, Journal for Plague Lovers, was released on 18 May 2009 and features lyrics left behind by Edwards. Wire commented in an interview that \"there was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice.\" The album was released to positive critical reviews and reached No. 3 on the UK Album Chart. However, the cover of the album generated some controversy, with the top four UK supermarkets stocking the CD in a plain slipcase, as the cover was deemed \"inappropriate\".\nSeveral tracks refer to Edwards' time in a couple of hospitals in 1994. Bradfield commented that Journal for Plague Lovers was an attempt to finally secure the legacy of their former member Richey Edwards and the result was that, during the recording process, it was as close to feeling his presence since his disappearance: \"There was a sense of responsibility to do his words justice. That was part of the whole thing of letting enough time lapse. Once we actually got into the studio, it almost felt as if we were a full band; it [was] as close to him being in the room again as possible.\"\nThe band's tenth album Postcards from a Young Man was recorded with producer Dave Eringa and was mixed in America by Chris Lord-Alge. The album cover art uses a black and white photograph of British actor Tim Roth. The first single from the album, \"(It's Not War) Just the End of Love\", was released on 13 September. The album was supported by the Manics' most extensive tour of the UK to date, starting in Glasgow on 29 September 2010. British Sea Power were the support act for the band on the tour. Two further singles were released from the album—the McCulloch-featuring \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" and the title track \"Postcards from a Young Man\". \"Some Kind of Nothingness\" peaked at No. 44 in the UK making it the first-ever Manics single to not make the Top 40 since they signed to Sony in 1991.\n\nNational Treasures – The Complete Singles was released on 31 October 2011, preceded by the release of the single \"This Is the Day\", a cover of the song by the The. On 17 December 2011, the group performed 'A Night of National Treasures' at O2 Arena in London to celebrate the band's 25 years to date, and enter into a period of hiatus where the eleventh album was written. The band performed all 38 singles, with around 20,000 people in attendance, as well as guest performers including Nina Persson from the Cardigans who sings with the band on the single \"Your Love Alone Is Not Enough\" and Gruff Rhys from Super Furry Animals who sang with the band that night on the track Let Robeson Sing. In April and May 2012, the band embarked on a European greatest hits tour. The compilation was voted by NME magazine as the best re issue of 2011, beating Nirvana's deluxe and super deluxe edition of Nevermind to the top spot.\nDespite the \"complete singles\" title, National Treasures does not contain every Manic Street Preachers single. Notable omissions are the band's very first single, \"Suicide Alley\" (1989), \"Strip It Down\" from the New Art Riot EP (1990), for which the band's first promotional video was made, and \"You Love Us (Heavenly Version)\" (1991). For singles originally released as double-A sides, only one song is included: therefore from \"Love's Sweet Exile/Repeat\" (1992) and \"Faster/P.C.P.\" (1994), only the first of each pair are included.\nA film-interview-documentary about their album Generation Terrorists was screened on Saturday 20 October 2012 at Chapter Arts Centre as part of the Sŵn Festival, with all profits donated to Young Promoters Network. The film was made available in the 20th-anniversary re-issue of Generation Terrorists.\n\nRewind the Film to The Ultra Vivid Lament (2013–present)\nIn May 2013, the band announced an Australasian tour for June and July, that would see them play their first-ever show in New Zealand. This tour coincided with the British and Irish Lions rugby tour to Australia and the Melbourne concert on the eve of the 2nd Test featured Lions' centre Jamie Roberts as a guest guitarist on \"You Love Us\".\nIn May 2013 the Manics released information about their most recent recording sessions, saying that they had enough material for two albums; the first would be almost exclusively without electric guitars. The name of the first album and title track was revealed to be Rewind the Film on 8 July. In a statement, the band announced, \"(If) this record has a relation in the Manics back catalogue, it's probably the sedate coming of age that was This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours.\" The band also stated via Twitter, \"MSP were in the great Hansa Studios in January with Alex Silva (who recorded The Holy Bible with us). Berlin was inspirational... Sean been playing a french horn in the studio today—sounding wonderful.\" The lead single of the album, \"Show Me the Wonder\", was released on 9 September 2013 to a positive critical reception. The album itself was released on 16 September 2013 and reached No. 4 on the UK Album Chart. The second single of the album \"Anthem for a Lost Cause\" was released on 25 November 2013.\nThe other album, Futurology, the band's twelfth studio album, was released on 7 July 2014 and it received immediate critical acclaim. The lead single from the album, \"Walk Me to the Bridge\", was released as a digital download on the day of the announcement, on 28 April. The album sold about 20,000 copies in its first week and reached No. 2 on the UK Albums Chart. The title track, \"Futurology\", was the second and final single released from the album on 22 September, the video debuted on YouTube on 10 August. The video was directed by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts winner Kieran Evans, who worked with the band on videos from their previous effort Rewind the Film. The band promoted the album with a tour around the UK and Europe from March to May 2014, they also made appearances in festivals like T in the Park in Scotland and Glastonbury Festival in the summer.\nIn December 2014, the band toured The Holy Bible, playing it in full for the very first time, to coincide with its 20th anniversary reissue. After the tour in the UK, the Manics took The Holy Bible tour to North America, in April 2015, they played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago. They also played in the Cardiff Castle on 5 June 2015 with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales. In the NME Awards 2015, the album won \"Reissue of the Year\".\nIn November 2015, the Manic Street Preachers announced that they were going to celebrate the 20th anniversary of their 1996 album Everything Must Go, with their biggest headline show since 1999, in the Liberty Stadium, in Swansea on 28 May 2016, featuring special guests like Super Furry Animals. The album was performed in full, with Nicky Wire teasing \"B-sides, rarities and curios, greatest hits and a few brand-new songs\". Before the final show in Swansea the band played: Liverpool, Echo Arena (13 May), Birmingham, Genting Arena (14 May), London, Royal Albert Hall (16–17 May), Leeds, First Direct Arena (20 May) and Glasgow, the SSE Hydro (21 May). In early 2016 the band announced the European tour of Everything Must Go, they played across Europe, in Finland, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany.\nThe band announced in March 2016 that they would be releasing a theme song for the Wales national team ahead of the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament in the summer, entitled \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\", it was released on 20 May, featuring also a video with the band and the Welsh team, the Manics tweeted: \"It's with great pride we can announce the Manics are providing the official Wales Euro 2016 song – 'Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)'\". All profits from the song went to the Princes Gate Trust and Tenovus Cancer Care. On 8 July the band was at the Cardiff City Stadium to give a home welcome to the Wales football national team after they were knocked out of the UEFA Euro 2016 by Portugal in the semi-finals, the band played a few songs in the stadium including the official theme song \"Together Stronger (C'mon Wales)\". On the next night, 9 July, the Manics headlined a night at the Cornwall's Eden Project, and later the band managed to secure a new recording studio near Newport, Wales. The city's council ensured that only the band can use the studio, there would be an increase on-site parking and a series of soundproofing measures to ensure nearby properties aren't disturbed by noise. To end the summer, the Manics went on to headline another two festivals, Wasa Open Air in Finland in mid-August and in late August the Victorious Festival in Portsmouth. The band also received a nomination in the 25th British Academy Cymru Awards for the best live outside broadcast after their 2015 gig in the Cardiff Castle, celebrating the 20th anniversary of The Holy Bible.\n\nIn February 2017 the band revealed a teaser trailer for a documentary entitled Escape from History, charting the band's journey from The Holy Bible, through to the disappearance of lyricist and guitarist Richey Edwards, to the huge success of Everything Must Go. The documentary aired on Sky Arts on 15 April. The band also stated that they would release an album later in that year.\nThe band released a special edition of their album Send Away the Tigers on 12 May. 2017 marks the 10th anniversary of the record and the Manics said that \"this is a very important album\" in their career. The special edition featured a remastered album as well as B-sides and rarities spread over two discs, plus a DVD which features the band's 2007 Glastonbury performance, rehearsal footage, an album track-by-track, and promo videos.\nOn 17 November 2017, the band announced that their thirteenth album, Resistance Is Futile, would be released on 13 April 2018. After much delay, the band wrote \"The main themes of 'Resistance Is Futile' are memory and loss; forgotten history; confused reality and art as a hiding place and inspiration\", the band say in a statement. \"It's obsessively melodic—in many ways referencing both the naive energy of 'Generation Terrorists' and the orchestral sweep of 'Everything Must Go'. After delay and difficulties getting started, the record has come together really quickly over the last few months through a surge of creativity and some old school hard work.\" It is the first album to be recorded at the \"Door to the River\" studio.\nIn January 2018, Manic Street Preachers signed a publishing contract with Warner/Chappell Music, leaving their longtime home Sony/ATV Music Publishing.\nOn the album, the Manics launched their first single \"International Blue\" as a download on 8 December 2017. The second single \"Distant Colours\" was released, also as a download, on 16 February 2018. About the first single the band said that there was certain naive energy and widescreen melancholia on the song that is reflected through the whole album, comparing it to \"Motorcycle Emptiness\". Furthermore, the album focused on \"(...)things that make your life feel a little bit better. Rather than my internalised misery, I tried to put a sense of optimism into the lyrics by writing about things that we find really inspiring.\" Said Wire, taking inspiration from David Bowie and seen as almost an escape and a wave of optimism, just like the previous album was described.\nOn the other hand, \"Distant Colours\" was written by James Dean Bradfield, rather than Nicky Wire, and inspired by disenchantment and Nye Bevan's old Labour. He said: \"Musically, the verse is downcast and melancholic and the chorus is an explosion of disillusionment and tears.\" The third single \"Dylan & Caitlin\" was released as a download on 9 March 2018. The fourth single \"Liverpool Revisited\" is about a magical day in the city, Nicky added that: \"It was on the Everything Must Go (anniversary) tour and I got up really early at sunrise to walk around Liverpool, polaroid camera in hand on a balmy day. It sounds clichéd I know, but Liverpool in the sun does take on a hypnotic quality, with the Mersey and the stone.\" The band also revealed that they were to support Guns N' Roses during their summer tour. The fifth and final single, \"Hold Me Like a Heaven\", was released as a download on 4 May 2018. Wire said that the song was inspired musically by David Bowie's \"Ashes to Ashes\", something that the band wanted to write about, and Nicky thinks that this the closest that the band is going to get, sharing also that lyrics were informed by the work of Philip Larkin.\nThe album sold around 24,000 copies in the first week, entering the UK Albums Chart at number 2, despite being number 1 during the week. It was the highest new entry on the chart, and on physical sales the album peaked at number 1, both on CD and vinyl.\nIn October 2018, the band announced a twentieth-anniversary collector's edition re-release of This Is My Truth Tell Me Yours. It was made available on digital, CD, and vinyl, with the CD edition featuring bonus demos, live rehearsal recordings, remixes, and B-sides. The album was launched on 7 December 2018 and to promote it, the band went on tour in Spring and Summer 2019, performing the album in full alongside other content.\nIn March 2020, the Manics announced a deluxe reissue of their Gold Against the Soul album for release on 12 June 2020. Bonus content included previously unreleased demos, B-sides from the era, remixes, and a live recording, while the CD was released alongside a book of unseen photographs from the era with handwritten annotations and lyrics from the band. The next day, the unnamed follow-up album to Resistance Is Futile, their fourteenth overall, was confirmed to NME alongside Bradfield's second solo album. The group's album, including a track called \"Orwellian\", was described as \"expansive\" and is due for release in Summer 2021.\nOn 14 May 2021, the Manics announced the title of their fourteenth studio album: The Ultra Vivid Lament. The first single from the album, \"Orwellian\", was released on the same day. \"The Secret He Had Missed\", the second single from the album, was released on 16 July 2021. The Ultra Vivid Lament was released on 10 September 2021 and received generally positive reviews from critics: on Metacritic, the album has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\". The album sold 27,000 copies in the first week, granting the band their second UK Number 1 album as they narrowly beat Steps to the number 1 spot.\nIn May and June 2022, Manic Street Preachers opened for The Killers in some of their UK tour dates.\nIn September 2022, the Manics announced a co-headlining tour of United States and Canada with Suede for November 2022, which would be the first time the two bands would share the stage since they toured Europe together in 1994.\nOn 24 June 2023, the band played the Glastonbury Festival. Speaking to the Other Stage crowd, Nicky Wire said: \"The first time we played was 1994 and it was the four of us, we had the one and only Richard Edwards with us, oh yes, we had a f**king blast. Everything that could go wrong did go wrong, it was f**king fun you know.\"\nAll four band members were honoured with a mural in their hometown of Blackwood in April 2024, designed by street artist Paul Shepherd.\n\nCollaborations and covers\nThe band released a split single in 1992 with the Fatima Mansions, a rock cover of \"Suicide Is Painless\", which became their first UK Top 10 hit. They have recorded many cover versions of songs by other artists, primarily as B-sides for their own singles. Bands and artists to whom the group have paid tribute in this way include the Clash, Guns N' Roses, Alice Cooper, Happy Mondays, McCarthy, Chuck Berry, Faces and Nirvana.\nThe band's first musical appearance since Edwards' departure was recording a cover of \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" for The Help Album, a charity effort in 1995 in support of aid efforts in war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina.\nThe Lightning Seeds' song \"Waiting for Today to Happen\", from their fifth album, Dizzy Heights (1996), was written by Nicky Wire and Ian Broudie. That same year, James Dean Bradfield and Dave Eringa produced Northern Uproar's first single, \"Rollercoaster/Rough Boys\". The 808 State song \"Lopez\" (1997) features lyrics by Wire and vocals by Bradfield. It is featured on their greatest hits album, 808:88:98. Kylie Minogue's sixth album, Impossible Princess (1997), features two songs co-written and produced by the Manics: \"Some Kind of Bliss\" (Bradfield, Minogue and Sean Moore) and \"I Don't Need Anyone\" (Bradfield, Jones and Minogue) were produced by Bradfield and Dave Eringa. Bradfield provided backing vocals, bass guitar and production for the Massive Attack song \"Inertia Creeps\" (1998), which features on their successful third album, Mezzanine. Patrick Jones's album of poetry set to music, Commemoration and Amnesia (1999), features two songs with music written by Bradfield: the title track and \"The Guerilla Tapestry\". Bradfield plays the guitar on both songs. Furthermore, the track \"Hiraeth\" features a section called \"Spoken Word\", in which Nicky Wire talks about Welsh identity.\nIn February 2006, the band contributed a cover version of \"The Instrumental\" to the album Still Unravished: A Tribute to the June Brides.\nIn February 2008, the Manics covered Rihanna's hit pop song \"Umbrella\". Their version appeared on a CD titled NME Awards 2008 given away free with a special souvenir box-set issue of NME magazine, which went on sale 27 February. Additionally, the Manics' version of the song was made available on iTunes from 5 March 2008. Despite being chart-eligible (it reached number 47 in the UK), the release was not intended as an official single. Two further versions (the Acoustic and Grand Slam mixes) were later made available on iTunes and now comprise a three-track Umbrella EP.\nJames Dean Bradfield and Nicky Wire contributed an original song, \"The Girl from Tiger Bay\", to Shirley Bassey's 2009 studio album, The Performance.\n\nMusical style and influences\nManic Street Preachers' music has been variously described as \nalternative rock, Britpop, hard rock glam rock, pop rock, punk metal, and punk rock.\nThe band have stated that the Clash were \"probably our biggest influence of all\". When they saw them on television, \"we thought it was fantastic and got really excited. They were the catalyst for us\". In addition, they have cited artists including Guns N' Roses, Alice in Chains, Red Hot Chili Peppers, PiL, Skids, Gang of Four, Sex Pistols, Magazine, Bruce Springsteen, the New York Dolls, Girls Against Boys, Anna Meredith, Wire, Julia Holter, Rush, Felt, Simple Minds, ABBA, the Associates, and Talk Talk as influences on their music. Bradfield's guitar hero is guitarist John McGeoch: \"He taught me, you can have that rock'n'roll swagger, but still build something into it that's really unsettling, and can cut like a razor blade\".\nThough the band's first album Generation Terrorists was mostly politically charged glam-rock mixed with punk influences, their style shifted towards a darker sound on Gold Against the Soul. When The Holy Bible was released, the Manic Street Preachers had incorporated post-punk into their musical style, starting many songs on the album with either recordings of interviews or quotes, or clean, reverberated guitar sounds before abruptly changing tempo and engaging distortion. After Edwards' disappearance in 1995, the bands sound has become less dissonant and more appealing to a broader mainstream audience. Following albums have been described as string driven and slower-paced than their early work.\nAlluding to the band's early relationship with Britpop, Cam Lindsay of Canadian music publication Exclaim! opined that \"Britpop was rising, the Manics were offering the polar opposite: a bleak, uncompromising work that wanted nothing to do with the party\".\n\nMembers\nTimeline\nDiscography\nGeneration Terrorists (1992)\nGold Against the Soul (1993)\nThe Holy Bible (1994)\nEverything Must Go (1996)\nThis Is My Truth Tell Me Yours (1998)\nKnow Your Enemy (2001)\nLifeblood (2004)\nSend Away the Tigers (2007)\nJournal for Plague Lovers (2009)\nPostcards from a Young Man (2010)\nRewind the Film (2013)\nFuturology (2014)\nResistance Is Futile (2018)\nThe Ultra Vivid Lament (2021)\n\nAwards and nominations\nBest Art Vinyl Awards\nThe Best Art Vinyl Awards are yearly awards established in 2005 by Art Vinyl Ltd to celebrate the best album artwork of the past year. \n\nNME Awards\nThe NME Awards is an annual music award show in the United Kingdom.\n\nQ Awards\nThe Q Awards are the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazine Q.\n\nŽebřík Music Awards\n\n7th Best Band of All Time – 1999 NME Best Ever Category\n7th Best Album of All Time (The Holy Bible) – 1999 NME Best Ever Category\n8th Best Single of All Time (A Design For Life) – 1999 NME Best Ever Category\nThe MOJO Maverick Award 2009\n\nReferences\nSources\nPrice, Simon (1999). Everything (A Book About Manic Street Preachers). London: Virgin Books. ISBN 0-7535-0139-2.\nClarke, Martin (1997). Manic Street Preachers: Sweet Venom. London: Plexus. ISBN 0-85965-259-9.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nManic Street Preachers discography at Discogs\nManic Street Preachers at IMDb",
"title": "Manic_Street_Preachers"
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] | How many letters were in the name of the first single by the artist who played the first concert at Principality Stadium? | [] | 12 | [] | true |
20 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Colosteidae is a family of stegocephalians (stem-group tetrapods) that lived in the Carboniferous period. They possessed a variety of characteristics from different tetrapod or stem-tetrapod groups, which made them historically difficult to classify. They are now considered to be part of a lineage intermediate between the earliest Devonian terrestrial vertebrates (such as Ichthyostega), and the different groups ancestral to all modern tetrapods, such as temnospondyls (probably ancestral to modern amphibians) and reptiliomorphs (ancestral to amniotes such as mammals, reptiles, and birds).\n\nDescription\nColosteids had elongated bodies, with an estimated 40 vertebrae, not including the tail. The skull is relatively flat and composed of many separate bones, like that of other stegocephalians. Colosteids lacked otic notches at the back of the head, unlike temnospondyls and other \"labyrinthodonts\". However, they did possess large mandibular and palatal fangs (on the lower jaw and the roof of the mouth), in addition to smaller marginal teeth (at the edge of the mouth), like \"labyrinthodonts\". The skull was overlaid with wide sensory grooves known as lateral lines, which extended from rear edge of the skull to the tip of the snout. Most aquatic stegocephalians have their lateral lines dip, unbroken, under the nostrils once they reach the tip of the snout, or alternately disconnect into separate grooves separated by the nostrils. However, colosteids evolved a unique alternative; their lateral lines droop below the nostrils so far that they contact the marginal teeth, so that the edge of the skull is responsible for subdividing the grooves, rather than the nostrils.\nThe mandibular fangs were larger than the palatal ones, though those on the palate were still large. Colosteids were unique compared to most stegocephalians in the fact that a pair of palatal fangs were present on the premaxillary bones at the tip of the snout. In conjunction with the forward position of these fangs, the dentary bones of the lower jaw developed a notch on either side near the symphysis (chin). The symphysis itself is formed by a rough area of bone on the left and right dentaries. This rough patch is formed by a complex system of ridges, which have been described as \"brassicate\" (textured like a cauliflower). Only Megalocephalus is known to share this brassicate patch with colosteids. The mandibles were also unique in the fact that they possessed a single elongated hole along their inner surface, known as an exomeckelian foramen (or a meckelian fenestra). Earlier stegocephalians like Ichthyostega possessed a subtle slit in the mandible, while most later groups had a series of smaller, well-defined holes.\n\nRelationships\nThe analysis below was conducted by Swartz in 2012, showing the relationship of colosteids with other tetrapodomorphs.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\"Tetrapoda: Carboniferous Forms. Colosteidae\". Palaeos. Archived from the original on October 6, 2022.\n\"Museum of Geology & Natural History: Selected Fossils\". West Virginia: Geological & Economic Survey. Archived from the original on October 10, 2023.",
"title": "Colosteidae"
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"idx": 1,
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"paragraph_text": "Deltaherpeton is an extinct genus of colosteid from middle Mississippian (late Viséan age) deposits of Delta, Iowa, United States. It was first named by John R. Bolt and R. Eric Lombard in 2010 and the type species is Deltaherpeton hiemstrae.\nDeltaherpeton can be differentiated from other colosteids due to possessing several unique bones along the midline of the skull, separating paired skull bones which typically contact each other along the midline. These include an internasal, an oval-shaped bone which lies at the intersection of the paired premaxillae and nasal bones at the top of the snout. Internasals are known from several of the earliest four-limbed vertebrates, such as Acanthostega, Ichthyostega, and baphetids. Further back, what seems to be a pair of lozenge-shape bones lie at the intersection of the nasal bones and frontal bones. These bones may be interfrontonasals, which have been found in some eryopoids and microsaurs.\nIn addition, Deltaherpeton has a single postparietal (rather than a pair), which separates the left and right supratemporal and tabular bones at the rear edge of the skull. Lone postparietals are rare among non-amniote tetrapods and tetrapod relatives; only Ichthyostega and diadectomorphs are known to possess them. The discovery of Deltaherpeton prompted a review and re-augmentation of the defining characteristics for the family Colosteidae, though it did not help to clarify the relationship between colosteids and other early tetrapods.\nThough it is believed that Deltaherpeton is more derived, the species is thought to have shared its environment with other early four-limbed vertebrates such as Whatcheeria and Siguornea, approximately 339.4 to 336 million years ago.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Deltaherpeton"
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"paragraph_text": "Greererpeton burkemorani (\"crawler from Greer, West Virginia\") is an extinct genus of colosteid stem-tetrapods from the Early Carboniferous period (late Viséan) of North America. Greererpeton was first described by famed vertebrate paleontologist Alfred S. Romer in 1969, based on a skull and partial skeleton from the Bluefield Formation. The skull was redescribed by Timothy R. Smithson in 1982, while postcranial remains were redescribed by Stephen J. Godfrey in 1989.\n\nGreererpeton were probably aquatic, with an elongated body adapted for swimming. Adults have overall length of 1.0–1.4 metres (3.3–4.6 ft) or 1.5 metres (4.9 ft), similar in size to modern Asian giant salamanders (Andrias). The body was elongated, with about 40 vertebrae, while the flattened skull reached about 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long in adult specimens. The most complete adult specimen only preserved 12 tail vertebrae, only about a third the length of the body as in Andrias. However, smaller specimens have been found preserving over 30 vertebrae, so it is not inconceivable that a complete tail was approximately as long as the body. The limbs were short, though not vestigial; the fingers were still well-developed. Greererpeton were carnivores which probably lived in rivers and swamps.\n\nPaleobiology\nThere is a large amount of evidence that Greererpeton and other colosteids were completely aquatic animals. Grooves on the side of the skull indicate that Greererpeton had lateral lines, sensory organs commonly found only in fish and aquatic stem-tetrapods. The stapes bone at the rear of the skull is massive, probably used as a support for the skull. This contrasts with the stapes of terrestrial animals such as frogs, mammals, and lizards. In these groups the bone is thin and sensitive to vibration, so it is used for sensitive hearing. The thick stapes of Greererpeton is an indication that did not have good hearing like terrestrial animals. Greererpeton retains a postbranchial lamina on its shoulder blade, which may have been indicative of internal gills like those of fish. However, the erratic distribution of postbranchial laminae in aquatic and terrestrial fish and amphibians makes this conclusion questionable.\nGodfrey (1989) considered Greererpeton to be biologically similar to the modern Asian giant salamanders (Andrias), the largest living amphibians. Preserved Greererpeton skeletons have their bodies lay completely flat, with their tails twisted over to lay flat perpendicular to the body. These preservational quirks may indicate that the body was flattened dorsoventrally (from top-to-bottom), while the tail was flattened mediolaterally (from side-to-side) into a fin-like structure used for swimming. Young Andrias congregate in shallow water while older individuals were bottom-dwelling predators preferring deeper rivers. Given that small Greererpeton skeletons have been found in groups while larger ones are solitary, it is presumable that Greererpeton behaved similarly.\n\nFootnotes\nExternal links\nGreerpeton & Spathicephalus from Palaeos web\nTHE MANDIBLE OF THE PRIMITIVE TETRAPOD GREERERPETON by JOHN R. BOLT and R. ERIC LOMBARD\nSkull fossil",
"title": "Greererpeton"
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"idx": 3,
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"paragraph_text": "Pholidogaster ('scaly stomach') is an extinct genus of stem-tetrapod that lived during the Middle Carboniferous period (late Viséan to early Serpukhovian). Pholidogaster is known from only two specimens found in Gilmerton, Scotland. Historically it was one of the first to show science the evolutionary link between fish and amphibians.\nThis animal had a very long and slender body, with small and feeble limbs. The shoulder structure is further back than is usual. Belly scales are present (hence its name), suggesting that in life it did not just swim, but scrawled over hard surfaces as well. The structure of the jaw is not clear, since the jaw bones on both specimens are not well preserved. However, there are large fangs in the front of the mouth, presumably used in hunting. It was a small to medium-sized animal around 1 m in length.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\"Pholidogaster\". Palaeos.com. Archived from the original on April 5, 2023.",
"title": "Pholidogaster"
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] | As of August 1 2024, what is the most recently described genus of Colosteidae? | [] | Deltaherpeton, first described in 2010 | [] | true |
616 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Shogi (将棋, shōgi, English: , Japanese: [ɕoːɡi]), also known as Japanese chess, is a strategy board game for two players. It is one of the most popular board games in Japan and is in the same family of games as Western chess, chaturanga, xiangqi, Indian chess, and janggi. Shōgi means general's (shō 将) board game (gi 棋).\nShogi was the earliest historical chess-related game to allow captured pieces to be returned to the board by the capturing player. This drop rule is speculated to have been invented in the 15th century and possibly connected to the practice of 15th-century mercenaries switching loyalties when captured instead of being killed.\nThe earliest predecessor of the game, chaturanga, originated in India in the 6th century, and the game was likely transmitted to Japan via China or Korea sometime after the Nara period. Shogi in its present form was played as early as the 16th century, while a direct ancestor without the drop rule was recorded from 1210 in a historical document Nichūreki, which is an edited copy of Shōchūreki and Kaichūreki from the late Heian period (c. 1120).\n\nEquipment\nTwo players face each other across a board composed of rectangles in a grid of 9 ranks (rows, 段) by 9 files (columns, 筋) yielding an 81-square board. In Japanese they are called Sente 先手 (first player) and Gote 後手 (second player), but in English are conventionally referred to as Black and White, with Black the first player.\nThe board is nearly always rectangular, and the rectangles are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pairs of dots mark the players' promotion zones.\nEach player has a set of 20 flat wedge-shaped pentagonal pieces of slightly different sizes. Except for the kings, opposing pieces are undifferentiated by marking or color. Pieces face forward by having the pointed side of each piece oriented toward the opponent's side – this shows who controls the piece during play. The pieces from largest (most important) to smallest (least important) are:\n\n1 king\n1 rook\n1 bishop\n2 gold generals\n2 silver generals\n2 knights\n2 lances\n9 pawns\nSeveral of these names were chosen to correspond to their rough equivalents in international chess, and not as literal translations of the Japanese names.\nEach piece has its name written on its surface in the form of two kanji (Chinese characters used as syllabograms or as logograms to record texts in Old Japanese), usually in black ink. On the reverse side of each piece, other than the king and gold general, are one or two other characters, in amateur sets often in a different color (usually red); this side is turned face up during play to indicate that the piece has been promoted.\nIn some cases, the backsides of the King pieces (the narrow side which faces back toward the player during normal play) will display kanji containing additional information about the piece manufacturers.\nFollowing is a table of the pieces with their Japanese representations and English equivalents. The abbreviations are used for game notation and often when referring to the pieces in speech in Japanese.\n\nEnglish speakers sometimes refer to promoted bishops as horses and promoted rooks as dragons, after their Japanese names, and generally use the Japanese term tokin for promoted pawns. Silver generals and gold generals are commonly referred to simply as silvers and golds, respectively.\nThe characters inscribed on the reverse sides of the pieces to indicate promotion may be in red ink, and are usually cursive. The characters on the backs of the pieces that promote to gold generals are cursive variants of 金 'gold', becoming more cursive (more abbreviated) as the value of the original piece decreases. These cursive forms have these equivalents in print: 全 for promoted silver, 今 for promoted knight, 仝 for promoted lance, and 个 for promoted pawn (tokin). Another typographic convention has abbreviated versions of the original values, with a reduced number of strokes: 圭 for a promoted knight (桂), 杏 for a promoted lance (香), and the 全 as above for a promoted silver, but と (a hiragana symbol for the syllable \"to\") for tokin.\nThe suggestion that the Japanese characters have deterred Western players from learning shogi has led to \"Westernized\" or \"international\" pieces which use iconic symbols instead of characters. Most players soon learn to recognize the characters, however, partially because the traditional pieces are already iconic by size, with more powerful pieces being larger. As a result, Westernized pieces have never become popular. Bilingual pieces with both Japanese characters and English captions have been developed as have pieces with animal cartoons.\n\nSetup and gameplay\nEach player sets up friendly pieces facing forward (toward the opponent).\n\nIn the rank nearest the player:\nThe king is placed in the center file;\nThe two gold generals are placed in files adjacent to the king;\nThe two silver generals are placed adjacent to each gold general;\nThe two knights are placed adjacent to each silver general;\nThe two lances are placed in the corners, adjacent to each knight.\nThat is, the first rank is\n\nOr\n\nIn the second rank, each player places:\nThe bishop in the same file as the left knight;\nThe rook in the same file as the right knight.\nIn the third rank, the nine pawns are placed one per file.\n\nA furigoma 振り駒 'piece toss' is used to decide who moves first. One of the players tosses five pawns. If the number of tokins (promoted pawns, と) facing up is higher than unpromoted pawns (歩), then the player who tossed the pawns plays gote 後手 'white' (that is, getting the second move).\nAfter the piece toss furigoma, the game proceeds. If multiple games are played, then players alternate turns for who goes first in subsequent games. (The terms \"Black\" and \"White\" are used to differentiate sides although there is no difference in the color of the pieces.) For each turn, a player may either move a piece that is currently on the board (and potentially promote it, capture an opposing piece, or both) or else drop a piece that has been previously captured onto a square of the board. These options are explained below.\n\nRules\nObjective\nThe usual goal of a game is for one player to checkmate the other player's king, winning the game.\n\nMovement\nMost shogi pieces can move only to an adjacent square. A few may move across the board, and one jumps over intervening pieces.\nThe lance, bishop, and rook are ranging pieces: They can move any number of squares along a straight line limited only by intervening pieces and the edge of the board. If an opposing piece intervenes, it may be captured by removing it from the board and replacing it with the moving piece. If a friendly piece intervenes, the moving piece must stop short of that square; if the friendly piece is adjacent, the moving piece may not move in that direction at all.\n\nA king (玉/王) moves one square in any direction, orthogonal or diagonal.\nA rook (飛) moves any number of squares in an orthogonal direction.\nA bishop (角) moves any number of squares in a diagonal direction. Because they cannot move orthogonally, the players' unpromoted bishops can reach only half the squares of the board, unless one is captured and then dropped.\nA gold general (金) moves one square orthogonally, or one square diagonally forward, giving it six possible destinations. It cannot move diagonally backwards.\nA silver general (銀) moves one square diagonally, or one square straight forward, giving it five possible destinations. Because an unpromoted silver can retreat more easily than a promoted one, it is common to leave a silver unpromoted at the far side of the board. (See Promotion).\nA knight (桂) jumps at an angle intermediate to orthogonal and diagonal, amounting to one square straight forward plus one square diagonally forward, in a single move. Thus the knight has two possible forward destinations. Unlike international chess knights, shogi knights cannot move to the sides or in a backwards direction. The knight is the only piece that ignores intervening pieces on the way to its destination. It is not blocked from moving if the square in front of it is occupied, but neither can it capture a piece on that square. It is often useful to leave a knight unpromoted at the far side of the board. A knight must promote, however, if it reaches either of the two furthest ranks. (See Promotion.)\nA lance (香) moves just like the rook except it cannot move backwards or to the sides. It is often useful to leave a lance unpromoted at the far side of the board. A lance must promote, however, if it reaches the furthest rank. (See Promotion.)\nA pawn (歩) moves one square straight forward. It cannot retreat. Unlike international chess pawns, shogi pawns capture the same as they move. A pawn must promote if it arrives at the furthest rank. (See Promotion.) In practice, however, a pawn is usually promoted whenever possible. There are two restrictions on where a pawn may be dropped. (See Drops.)\nAll pieces but the knight move either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. These directions cannot be combined in a single move; one direction must be chosen.\nEvery piece blocks the movement of all other non-jumping pieces through the square it occupies.\nIf a piece occupies a legal destination for an opposing piece, it may be captured by removing it from the board and replacing it with the opposing piece. The capturing piece may not continue beyond that square on that turn. Shogi pieces capture the same as they move.\nNormally, when moving a piece, a player snaps it to the board with the ends of the fingers of the same hand. This makes a sudden sound effect, bringing the piece to the attention of the opponent. This is also true for capturing and dropping pieces. On a traditional shogi-ban, the pitch of the snap is deeper, delivering a subtler effect.\n\nPromotion\nA player's promotion zone consists of the furthest one-third of the board – the three ranks occupied by the opponent's pieces at setup. The zone is typically delineated on shogi boards by two inscribed dots. When a piece is moved, if part of the piece's path lies within the promotion zone (that is, if the piece moves into, out of, or wholly within the zone; but not if it is dropped into the zone – see Drops), then the player has the option to promote the piece at the end of the turn. Promotion is indicated by turning the piece over after it moves, revealing the character of the promoted piece.\nPromoting a piece is usually not compulsory; however, if a pawn or lance is moved to the furthest rank, or a knight is moved to either of the two furthest ranks, that piece must promote (otherwise, it would have no legal move on subsequent turns). A silver general is never required to promote, and it is often advantageous to keep a silver general unpromoted (it is easier, for example, to extract an unpromoted silver from behind enemy lines: a promoted silver, with only one line of retreat, can be easily blocked.) Rooks, bishops and pawns are almost always promoted, as these pieces do not lose any of their powers upon promotion.\n\nPromoting a piece changes the way it moves. The various pieces promote as follows:\n\nA silver general, knight, lance, or pawn has its normal power of movement replaced by that of a gold general.\nA rook or bishop keeps its original movement and gains the power to move one square in any direction (like a king). For a promoted bishop, this means it is able to reach any square on the board, given enough moves.\nA king or a gold general does not promote; nor can a piece that is already promoted.\nWhen captured, a piece loses its promoted status. Otherwise promotion is permanent.\nA promoted rook (literally dragon king (龍王 (ryūō)); shortended forms: 龍 (ryū) and 竜 (ryū)) moves as a rook and as a king. It is commonly referred to as dragon.\n\nA promoted bishop (literally dragon horse (龍馬 (ryūma)); shortened form 馬 (uma)) moves as a bishop and as a king. It is commonly referred to as horse.\n\nA promoted silver (成銀 narigin; alternate forms: 全, cursive 金), a promoted knight (成桂 narikei; alternate forms: 圭, 今, cursive 金), a promoted lance (成香 narikyō; alternate forms: 杏, 仝, cursive 金) and a promoted pawn (と金 tokin; alternate forms: と, 个) all move the same way as a gold general. The promoted pawn is often called by its Japanese name tokin, even by non-Japanese players.\n\nDrops\nCaptured pieces are retained in hand and can be brought back into play under the capturing player's control. The Japanese term for piece(s) in hand is either 持ち駒 mochigoma or 手駒 tegoma. On any turn, instead of moving a piece on the board, a player may select a piece in hand and place it – unpromoted side up and facing the opposing side – on any empty square. The piece is then one of that player's active pieces on the board and can be moved accordingly. This is called dropping the piece, or simply, a drop. A drop counts as a complete move.\nA drop cannot capture a piece, nor does dropping within the promotion zone result in immediate promotion. Capture and/or promotion may occur normally, however, on subsequent moves of the piece.\nRestrictions. There are three restrictions on dropping pieces; the last two of these apply only to pawns.\n\nPiece with No Moves (Japanese: 行き所のない駒 ikidokorononaikoma): Pawns, lances and knights may not be dropped onto the last (9th) rank, and knights may not be dropped onto the penultimate (8th) rank; this is because such dropped pieces would have no legal moves on subsequent turns (as they can only move in the forward direction).\nTwo Pawns (Japanese: 二歩 nifu): A pawn may not be dropped onto a file (column) containing another unpromoted pawn of the same player (promoted pawns do not count).\nDrop Pawn Mate (Japanese: 打ち歩詰め uchifuzume): A pawn may not be dropped to give an immediate checkmate. (This rule only applies specifically to pawns, drops and checkmates − to clarify, a player may deliver an immediate checkmate by dropping a non-pawn piece, a player may checkmate a king with a pawn that is already on the board, and a pawn may be dropped to give an immediate check as long as it does not also result in checkmate.)\nA corollary of the second restriction is that a player with an unpromoted pawn on every file is unable to drop a pawn anywhere. For this reason, it is common to sacrifice a pawn in order to gain flexibility for drops.\nCaptured pieces are typically kept on a wooden stand (駒台 komadai) which is traditionally placed so that its bottom-left corner aligns with the bottom-right corner of the board from the perspective of each player. It is not permissible to hide pieces from full view.\nIt is common for players to swap bishops, which oppose each other across the board, early in the game. This leaves each player with a bishop in hand to be dropped later. The ability for drops in shogi gives the game tactical richness and complexity. The fact that no piece ever goes entirely out of play accounts for the rarity of draws.\n\nCheck\nWhen a player's move threatens to capture the opposing king on the next turn, the move is said to give check to the king and the king is said to be in check. If a player's king is in check, that player's responding move must remove the check. Ways to remove a check include moving the king away from the threat, capturing the threatening piece, or placing another interposing piece between the king and the threatening piece.\nTo announce check in Japanese, one can say ōte (王手), however, this is an influence of international chess and is not required, even as a courtesy. It may be common to announce ōte in beginner matches or for local rules to dictate that you have to announce it. Announcing a check vocally is unheard of in competitive tournaments.\n\nEnd of the game\nThe usual way for shogi games to end is for one side to checkmate the other side's king, after which the losing player will be given the opportunity to admit defeat. Unlike western chess or xiangqi, checkmate is almost always the result in shogi since pieces never retire from play, which gives the players a sufficient number of pieces to deliver checkmate. That said, there are three other possible ways for a game to end: repetition (千日手 sennichite), impasse (持将棋 jishōgi), and an illegal move (反則手 hansokute). The first two – repetition and impasse – are particularly uncommon. Illegal moves are also uncommon in professional games although this may not be true with amateur players (especially beginners).\nUnlike western chess, there is no tradition of offering a mutual draw by agreement.\n\nCheckmate\nIf the king is in check and there is no possible move which could protect the king, the move is said to checkmate (tsumi 詰み) the king. Checkmate effectively means that the opponent wins the game as the player would have no remaining legal moves. (See also: tsumeshogi, hisshi.)\n\nResignation\nThe losing player will usually resign when the situation is thought to be hopeless and may declare the resignation at any time during their turn. Although a player may resign just after they are checkmated, playing up to the checkmate point rarely occurs in practice as players normally resign as soon as a loss is deemed inevitable. Similarly, if a player were to lose in an Entering King situation (see section below) by having less than 24 points (or by any of the other Impasse rules used by amateurs), then the player will usually resign before that point.\nIn traditional tournament play, a formal resignation is required – that is, a checkmate is not a sufficient condition for winning. The resignation is indicated by bowing and/or saying 'I lost' (負けました makemashita) and/or placing the right hand over the piece stands. Placing the hand over the piece stand is a vestige of an older practice of gently dropping one's pieces in hand over the board in order to indicate resignation. In western practice, a handshake may be used.\n\nIllegal move\nIn professional and serious (tournament) amateur games, a player who makes an illegal move loses immediately. The loss stands even if play continued and the move was discovered later in game. However, if neither the opponent nor a third party points out the illegal move and the opponent later resigned, the resignation stands as the result.\nIllegal moves include:\n\nViolating the Two Pawns (nifu) restriction (See §Drops above.)\nViolating the Drop Pawn Mate (uchifuzume) restriction\nDropping or moving a piece to position where it cannot move (such as dropping a knight to an opponent's last two ranks, etc.)\nDropping a piece with its promoted value\nPlaying out of turn, e.g. making more than one move or white moving first instead of moving second.\nMaking perpetual check four times (cf. sennichite)\nLeaving one's king in check, or moving one's king into check\nMoving a piece contrary to how its movements are defined (for example, moving a gold like a silver, or moving an unpromoted bishop off its legal diagonal)\nIn friendly amateur games, this rule is sometimes relaxed, and the player may be able to take back the illegal move and replay a new legal move.\nIn particular, the Two Pawn violation is the most common illegal move played by professional players. The Two Pawn violation played by Takahiro Toyokawa (against Kōsuke Tamura) in the 2004 NHK Cup is infamous since it was broadcast on television. On the 109th move, Toyokawa (playing as Black) dropped a pawn to the 29 square while he already had a pawn in play on the board on the 23 square and, thus, lost the game.\n\nRepetition (draw)\nIf the same game position occurs four times with the same player to move and the same pieces in hand for each player, then the game ends in a repetition draw (千日手 sennichite, lit. \"moves for a thousand days\"), as long as the positions are not due to perpetual check. Perpetual check (連続王手の千日手) is an illegal move (see above), which ends the game in a loss in tournament play.\nIn professional shogi, a repetition draw outcome is not a final result as draws essentially do not count. Each game can only end in either a win or loss. In the case of a repetition draw, professional shogi players will have to immediately play a subsequent game (or as many games as necessary) with sides reversed in order to obtain a true win outcome. (That is, the player who was White becomes Black, and vice versa.) Also, depending on the tournament, professional players play the subsequent game in the remainder of the allowed game time.\nThus, aiming for a repetition draw may be a possible professional strategy for the White player in order to play the second replay game as Black, which has a slight statistical advantage and/or greater initiative. For instance, Bishop Exchange Fourth File Rook is a passive strategy for White with the goal of a repetition draw (as it requires two tempo losses – swinging the rook and trading the bishops) while it is a very aggressive strategy if played by Black.\nRepetition draws are rare in professional shogi occurring in about 1–2% of games and even rarer in amateur games. In professional shogi, repetition draws usually occur in the opening as certain positions are reached that are theoretically disadvantaged for both sides (reciprocal zugzwang). In amateur shogi, repetition draws tend to occur in the middle or endgame as a result of player errors.\n\nImpasse\nThe game reaches an Impasse or Deadlock (持将棋 jishōgi) if both kings have advanced into their respective promotion zones – a situation known as 相入玉 (ai-nyū gyoku \"double entering kings\") – and neither player can hope to mate the other or to gain any further material. An Impasse can result in either a win or a draw. If an Impasse happens, the winner is decided as follows: each player agrees to an Impasse, then each rook or bishop, promoted or not, scores 5 points for the owning player, and all other pieces except kings score 1 point each. A player scoring fewer than 24 points loses. (Note that in the start position, both players have 27 points each.) If neither player has fewer than 24, the game is no contest – a draw. In professional shogi, an Impasse result is always a draw since a player that cannot obtain the 24 points will simply resign. Jishōgi is considered an outcome in its own right rather than no contest, but there is no practical difference. As an Impasse needs to be agreed on for the rule to be invoked, a player may refuse to do so and attempt to win the game in future moves. If that happens, there is no official rule about the verdict of the game.\nHowever, in amateur shogi, there are different practices most of which force a win resolution to the Impasse in order to avoid a draw result.\nThe first draw by Impasse occurred in 1731 in a bishop handicap game between the seventh Lifetime Meijin, Sōkan Itō II, and his brother, Sōkei Ōhashi.\n\nEntering King\nAs a practical matter, when an opponent's king has entered a player's own territory especially with supporting defending pieces, the opponent's king is often very difficult to mate given the forward attacking nature of most shogi pieces. This state is referred to as entering king (入玉 nyū gyoku). If both players' kings are in entering king states, the game becomes more likely to result in an impasse.\nIn the adjacent diagram example, although White's king is in a strong Bear-in-the-hole castle, Black's king has entered White's territory making it very difficult to mate. Therefore, this position favors Black.\n\nAn example of Entering King occurred in the fourth game of the 60th Ōi title match between Masayuki Toyoshima and Kazuki Kimura held on August 20–21, 2019. After being unsuccessful in attacking Kimura and also in defending his own king within his camp, Toyoshima (playing as White) moved his king away from Kimura's attacking pieces by fleeing up the second file, ultimately entering his king into Kimura's camp by move 150. Although Toyoshima had achieved Entering King, he still had only 23 points—one point shy of the required 24 points for an Impasse draw—while Kimura (Black) had 31 points. Toyoshima then spent the next 134 moves trying to bring his point total, which fluctuated between 17 and 23, up to the necessary 24. By the 231st move, the game had reached a Double Entering Kings state, and by move 285 Kimura had successfully kept Toyoshima's point total at bay. Here, Toyoshima with 20 points (and Kimura at 34 points) resigned. Incidentally, this game broke the record of longest game in a title match.\n\nAmateur resolutions\nFor amateur games, there are various guidances with little standardization. Fairbairn reports a practice in the 1980s (considered a rule by the now defunct Shogi Association for The West) where the dispute is resolved by either player moving all friendly pieces into the promotion zone and then the game ends with points tallied.\nAnother resolution is the 27-Point (27点法) rule used for some amateur tournaments. One version of this is simply the player who has 27 or more points is the winner of the Impasse. Another version is a 27-Point Declaration rule. For instance, the Declaration rule on the online shogi site, 81Dojo, is that the player who wants to declare an Impasse win must (i) declare an intention to win via Impasse, (ii) have the king in the enemy camp (the promotion zone for that player), (iii) 10 other pieces must be in the promotion zone, (iv) not be in check, (v) have time remaining, and (vi) must have 28 points if Black or 27 points if White. If all of these conditions are met, then the Impasse declarer will win the game regardless of whether the opponent objects.\nYet another resolution to Impasse is the so-called Try Rule (トライルール torairūru). In this case, after both kings have entered their corresponding promotion zones, then the player who first moves the king to the opponent's king's start square (51 for Black, 59 for White) first will be the winner. As an example, the popular 将棋ウォーズ (Shogi Wars) app by HEROZ Inc. used the Try Rule up until 2014. (Now the app uses a variant of the 27-Point Declaration Rule – although it differs from the variant used on the 81Dojo site.) The idea of the \"Try Rule\" was taken from rugby football (see Try (rugby)).\n\nDraws in tournaments\nIn professional tournaments, the rules typically require drawn games to be replayed with sides reversed, possibly with reduced time limits. They are rare compared to chess and xiangqi, occurring at a rate of 1–2% even in amateur games.\nThe 1982 Meijin title match between Makoto Nakahara and Hifumi Katoh was unusual in this regard with an impasse draw in the first (Double Fortress) game on April 13–14 (only the fifth draw in the then 40-year history of the tournament). This game (with Katoh as Black) lasted for 223 moves with 114 minutes spent pondering a single move. One of the reasons for the length of this game was that White (Nakahara) was very close to falling below the minimum of 24 points required for a draw. Thus, the end of the endgame was strategically about trying to keep White's points above the 24-point threshold. In this match, sennichite occurred in the sixth and eighth games. Thus, this best-of-seven match lasted eight games and took over three months to finish; Black did not lose a single game and the eventual victor was Katoh at 4–3.\n\nTime control\nProfessional games are timed as in international chess, but professional shogi players are almost never expected to keep time in their games. Instead a timekeeper is assigned, typically an apprentice professional. Time limits are much longer than in international chess (9 hours a side plus extra time in the prestigious Meijin title match), and in addition byōyomi (literally \"second counting\") is employed. This means that when the ordinary time has run out, the player will from that point on have a certain amount of time to complete every move (a byōyomi period), typically upwards of one minute. The final ten seconds are counted down, and if the time expires the player to move loses the game immediately. Amateurs often play with electronic clocks that beep out the final ten seconds of a byōyomi period, with a prolonged beep for the last five.\n\nPlayer rank and handicaps\nAmateur players are ranked from 15 kyū to 1 kyū and then from 1 dan to 8 dan. Amateur 8 dan was previously only honorarily given to famous people. While it is now possible to win amateur 8 dan by actual strength (winning amateur Ryu-oh 3 times), this has yet to be achieved.\nProfessional players operate with their own scale, from 6 kyū to 3 dan for pro-aspiring players and professional 4 dan to 9 dan for formal professional players. Amateur and professional ranks are offset (with amateur 4 dan being equivalent to professional 6 kyū).\n\nHandicaps\nShogi has a handicap system (like go) in which games between players of disparate strengths are adjusted so that the stronger player is put in a more disadvantageous position in order to compensate for the difference in playing levels. In a handicap game, one or more of White's pieces are removed from the setup, and instead White plays first.\nThe imbalance created by this method of handicapping is not as strong as it is in western chess because material advantage is not as powerful in shogi.\n\nNotation\nThere are two common systems used to notate piece movements in shogi game records. One is used in Japanese language texts while a second was created for western players by George Hodges and Glyndon Townhill in the English language. This system was updated by Hosking to be closer to the Japanese standard (two numerals). Other systems are used to notate shogi board positions. Unlike chess, the origin (11 square) is at the top right of a printed position rather than the bottom left.\nIn western piece movement notation, the format is the piece initial followed by the type of movement and finally the file and rank where the piece moved to. The piece initials are K (King), R (Rook), B (Bishop), G (Gold), S (Silver), N (Knight), L (Lance), and P (Pawn). Simple movement is indicated with -, captures with x, and piece drops with *. The files are indicated with numerals 1–9. The older Hodges standard used letters a–i for ranks, and the newer Hosking standard also uses numerals 1–9 for the ranks. Thus, Rx24 indicates 'rook captures on 24'. Promoted pieces are notated with + prefixed to the piece initial (e.g. +Rx24). Piece promotion is also indicated with + (e.g. S-21+) while unpromotion is indicated with = (e.g. S-21=). Piece ambiguity is resolved by notating which square a piece is moving from (e.g. N65-53+ means 'knight from 65 moves to 53 and promotes,' which distinguishes it from N45-53+).\nThe Japanese notation system uses Japanese characters for pieces and promotion indication and uses Japanese numerals instead of letters for ranks. Movement type aside from drops is not indicated, and the conventions for resolving ambiguity are quite different from the western system. As examples, the western Rx24 would be 2四飛 in Japanese notation, +Rx24 would be 2四龍, S-21+ would be 2一銀成, S-21= would be 2一銀不成, and N65-53+ would be 5三桂左成 showing that the leftmost knight jumped (implicitly from the 65 square), which distinguishes it from 5三桂右成 in which the rightmost knight jumped.\nAlthough not strictly part of the notational calculus for games, game results are indicated in Japanese newspapers, websites, etc. with wins indicated by a white circle and losses indicated by a black circle.\n\nStrategy and tactics\nShogi is similar to chess but has a much larger game tree complexity because of the use of drops, greater number of pieces, and larger board size. In comparison, shogi games average about 140 (half-)moves per game (or 70 chess move-pairs) whereas chess games average about 80 moves per game (or 40 chess move-pairs) and minishogi averages about 40 moves per game (or 20 chess move-pairs).\nLike chess, however, the game can be divided into the opening, middle game and endgame, each requiring a different strategy. The opening consists of arranging one's defenses usually in a castle and positioning for attack; the mid game consists of attempting to break through the opposing defenses while maintaining one's own; and the endgame starts when one side's defenses have been compromised.\nIn the adjacent diagram, Black has chosen a Ranging Rook position (specifically Fourth File Rook) where the rook has been moved leftward away from its starting position. Additionally, Black is using a Silver Crown castle, which is a type of fortification structure constructed with one silver and two gold pieces and the king moved inside of the fortification – the silver crown name comes from the silver being positioned directly above the king's head on the 27 square as if it were a crown. In the diagram, White has chosen a Static Rook position, in which the rook remains on its starting square. This Static Rook position is specifically a type of Counter-Ranging Rook position known as Bear-in-the-hole Static Rook that uses a Bear-in-the-hole castle. The Bear-in-the-hole fortification has the king moved all the way into very edge corner of the board on the 11 square as if it were a badger in a hole with a silver moved to the 22 square in order to close up the hole and additional reinforcing golds on 31 and 32 squares. This board position required 33 moves (or 12 move pairs as counted in western chess) to construct.\n\nEtiquette\nShogi players are expected to follow etiquette in addition to rules explicitly described. Commonly accepted etiquette include the following:\n\nGreetings to the opponent both before and after the game\nAvoiding disruptive actions both during the game and after, for instance:\nNot changing the move once realized on the board\nFair withdrawal without any disruption, such as scattering pieces on the board to demonstrate frustration\nAnnouncing one's resignation\nShogi piece sets may contain two types of king pieces, 王 (king) and 玉 (jewel). In this case, the higher classed player, in either social or genuine shogi player rank, may take the king piece. For example, in titleholder system games, the current titleholder takes the king piece as the higher.\nThe higher-ranked (or older) player also sits facing the door of the room and is the person who takes the pieces out of the piece box.\nShogi does not have a touch-move rule as in western chess tournament play or chu shogi. However, in professional games, a piece is considered to be moved when the piece has been let go of. In both amateur and professional play, any piece may be touched in order to adjust its centralization within its square (to look tidy).\nTaking back moves (待った matta) in professional games is prohibited. However, in friendly amateur games in Japan, it is often permitted.\nProfessional players are required to follow several ritualistic etiquette prescriptions such as kneeling exactly 15 centimeters from the shogi board, sitting in the formal seiza position, etc.\n\nGame setup\nTraditionally, the order of placing the pieces on the board is determined. There are two commonly used orders, the Ōhashi order 大橋流 and the Itō order 伊藤流. Placement sets pieces with multiples (generals, knights, lances) from left to right in all cases, and follows the order:\n\nKing\nGold generals\nSilver generals\nKnights\nIn ito, the player now places:\n5. Pawns (left to right starting from the leftmost file)\n6. Lances\n7. Bishop\n8. Rook\nIn ohashi, the player now places:\n5. Lances\n6. Bishop\n7. Rook\n8. Pawns (starting from center file, then alternating left to right one file at a time)\n\nFurigoma\nAmong amateur tournaments, the higher-ranked player or defending champion performs the piece toss. In professional games, the furigoma is done on the behalf of the higher-ranked player/champion by the timekeeper who kneels by the side of the higher-ranked player and tosses the pawn pieces onto a silk cloth. In friendly amateur games, a player will ask the opponent to toss the pawns out of politeness. Otherwise, the person who tosses the pawns can be determined by Rock–paper–scissors.\n\nHistory\nFrom The Chess Variant Pages:\n\n The world's first chess variant, chaturanga arose in India in approximately the seventh century AD. From there it migrated both westward and northward, mutating along the way. The western branch became shatranj in Arabia and Orthodox Chess in Europe. The northern branch became xiangqi in China and janggi in Korea. Sometime in the tenth to twelfth centuries, 'chess' crossed the channel to Japan where it spawned a number of interesting variants. One of these was called 'Small Shogi'. Eventually, Small Shogi (though it went through many forms) won out over the larger variants and is now referred to simply as 'Shogi'. It is certain that Shogi in its present form was played in Japan as early as the 16th century.\nIt is not clear when chess was brought to Japan. The earliest generally accepted mention of shogi is Shin Saru Gakuki (新猿楽記) (1058–1064) by Fujiwara Akihira. The oldest archaeological evidence is a group of 16 shogi pieces excavated from the grounds of Kōfuku-ji in Nara Prefecture. As it was physically associated with a wooden tablet written on in the sixth year of Tenki (1058), the pieces are thought to date from that period. These simple pieces were cut from a writing plaque in the same five-sided shape as modern pieces, with the names of the pieces written on them.\nThe dictionary of common folk culture, Nichūreki (二中歴) (c. 1210–1221), a collection based on the two works Shōchūreki (掌中歴) and Kaichūreki (懐中歴), describes two forms of shogi, large (dai) shogi and small (shō) shogi. These are now called Heian shogi (or Heian small shogi) and Heian dai shogi. Heian small shogi is the version on which modern shogi is based, but the Nichūreki states that one wins if one's opponent is reduced to a single king, indicating that drops had not yet been introduced. According to Kōji Shimizu, chief researcher at the Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture, the names of the Heian shogi pieces keep those of chaturanga (general, elephant, horse, chariot and soldier), and add to them the five treasures of Buddhism (jade, gold, silver, katsura tree, and incense).\nAround the 13th century the game of dai shogi developed, created by increasing the number of pieces in Heian shogi, as was sho shogi, which added the rook, bishop, and drunken elephant from dai shogi to Heian shogi. The drunken elephant steps one square in any direction except directly backward, and promotes to the prince, which acts as a second king and must also be captured along with the original king for the other player to win. Around the 15th century, the rules of dai shogi were simplified, creating the game of chu shogi. Chu shogi, like its parent dai shogi, contains many distinct pieces, such as the queen (identical with Western chess) and the lion (which moves like a king, but twice per turn, potentially being able to capture twice, among other idiosyncrasies). The popularity of dai shogi soon waned in favour of chu shogi, until it stopped being played commonly. Chu shogi rivalled sho shogi in popularity until the introduction of drops in the latter, upon which standard shogi became ascendant, although chu shogi was still commonly played until about World War II, especially in Kyoto.\nIt is thought that the rules of standard shogi were fixed in the 16th century, when the drunken elephant was removed from the set of pieces present in sho shogi. There is no clear record of when drops were introduced, however.\nIn the Edo period, shogi variants were greatly expanded: tenjiku shogi, dai dai shogi, maka dai dai shogi, tai shogi, and taikyoku shogi were all invented. It is thought that these were played to only a very limited extent, however. Both standard shogi and Go were promoted by the Tokugawa shogunate. In 1612, the shogunate passed a law giving endowments to top shogi players (Meijin (名人)). During the reign of the eighth shōgun, Tokugawa Yoshimune, castle shogi tournaments were held once a year on the 17th day of Kannazuki, corresponding to November 17, which is Shogi Day on the modern calendar.\nThe title of meijin became hereditary in the Ōhashi and Itō families until the fall of the shogunate, when it came to be passed by recommendation. Today the title is used for the winner of the Meijin-sen competition, the first modern title match. From around 1899, newspapers began to publish records of shogi matches, and high-ranking players formed alliances with the aim of having their games published. In 1909, the Shogi Association (将棋同盟社) was formed, and in 1924, the Tokyo Shogi Association (東京将棋連盟) was formed. This was an early incarnation of the modern Japan Shogi Association (日本将棋連盟, nihon shōgi renmei), or JSA, and 1924 is considered by the JSA to be the date it was founded.\nIn 1935, meijin Kinjirō Sekine stepped down, and the rank of meijin came to be awarded to the winner of a Meijin title match (名人戦, meijin-sen). Yoshio Kimura (木村義雄) became the first Meijin under this system in 1937. This was the start of the shogi title matches (see titleholder system). After the war other tournaments were promoted to title matches, culminating with the Ryūō title match (竜王戦, ryūō-sen) in 1988 for the modern line-up of seven. About 200 professional shogi players compete. Each year, the title holder defends the title against a challenger chosen from knockout or round matches.\nAfter the Second World War, SCAP (occupational government mainly led by US) tried to eliminate all \"feudal\" factors from Japanese society and shogi was included in the possible list of items to be banned along with Bushido (philosophy of samurai) and other things. SCAP's reason for banning shogi was that the game uniquely utilized captured pieces. SCAP insisted that this could lead to the idea of prisoner abuse. Kozo Masuda, then one of the top professional shogi players, when summoned to the SCAP headquarters for an investigation, criticized such understanding of shogi, instead insisting that chess that potentially contained the idea of prisoner abuse, because opposing pieces are removed permanently, while shogi gives prisoners the chance to get back into the game. Masuda also argued that chess contradicts the ideal of gender equality in western society because the king shields itself behind the queen and runs away. Masuda's assertions are said to have eventually led to the exemption of shogi from the list of items to be banned.\n\nTournament play\nThere are two organizations for shogi professional players in Japan: the JSA, and the Ladies' Professional Shogi-players' Association of Japan (日本女子プロ将棋協会, nihon joshi puro shōgi kyōkai), or LPSA. The JSA is the primary organization for men and women's professional shogi while the LPSA is a group of women professionals who broke away from the JSA in 2007 to establish their own independent organization. Both organize tournaments for their members and have reached an agreement to cooperate with each other to promote shogi through events and other activities. Top professional players are fairly well-paid from tournament earnings. In 2016, the highest tournament earners were Yoshiharu Habu and Akira Watanabe who earned ¥91,500,000 and ¥73,900,000. (The tenth highest earner, Kouichi Fukaura, won ¥18,490,000.)\nThe JSA recognizes two categories of shogi professionals: Professional (棋士, kishi), and Female Professional (女流棋士, joryūkishi). Sometimes kishi are addressed as seikishi (正棋士), a term from Go used to distinguish kishi from other classes of players. JSA professional ranks and female professional ranks are not equivalent and each has their own promotion criteria and ranking system. In 2006, the JSA officially granted women \"professional status\". This is not equivalent, however, to the more traditional way of \"gaining professional status\", i.e., being promoted from the \"Shoreikai System\" (奨励会): leagues of strong amateur players aspiring to become a professional. Rather, it is a separate system especially designed for female professionals. Qualified amateurs, regardless of gender, may apply for the \"Shoreikai System\" and all those who successfully \"graduate\" are granted kishi status; however, no woman has yet to accomplish this feat (the highest women have reached is \"Shoreikai 3 dan league\" by Kana Satomi and Tomoka Nishiyama), so kishi is de facto only used to refer to male shogi professionals.\nThe JSA is the only body which can organize tournaments for professionals, e.g., the eight major tournaments in the titleholder system and other professional tournaments. In 1996, Yoshiharu Habu became the only kishi to hold seven major titles at the same time. For female professionals, both the JSA and LPSA organize tournaments, either jointly or separately. Tournaments for amateurs may be organized by the JSA and LPSA as well as local clubs, newspapers, private corporations, educational institutions or municipal governments for cities or prefectures under the guidance of the JSA or LPSA.\nSince the 1990s, shogi has grown in popularity outside Japan, particularly in the People's Republic of China, and especially in Shanghai. The January 2006 edition of Kindai Shogi (近代将棋) stated that there were 120,000 shogi players in Shanghai. The spread of the game to countries where Chinese characters are not in common use, however, has been slower.\n\nIn Europe\nAs of November 2017, there were over 1,200 active players in Europe.\n\nComputer shogi\nShogi has the highest game complexity of all popular chess variants. Computers have steadily improved in playing shogi since the 1970s. In 2007, champion Yoshiharu Habu estimated the strength of the 2006 world computer shogi champion Bonanza at the level of two-dan shoreikai.\nThe JSA prohibits its professionals from playing computers in public without prior permission, with the reason of promoting shogi and monetizing the computer–human events.\nOn October 12, 2010, after some 35 years of development, a computer finally beat a professional player, when the top ranked female champion Ichiyo Shimizu was beaten by the Akara2010 system in a game lasting just over 6 hours.\nOn July 24, 2011, computer shogi programs Bonanza and Akara crushed the amateur team of Kosaku and Shinoda in two games. The allotted time for the amateurs was one hour and then three minutes per move. The allotted time for the computer was 25 minutes and then 10 seconds per move.\nOn April 20, 2013, GPS Shogi defeated 8-dan professional shogi player Hiroyuki Miura in a 102-move game which lasted over 8 hours.\nOn December 13, 2015, the highest rated player on Shogi Club 24 was computer program Ponanza, rated 3455.\nOn April 10, 2016, Ponanza defeated Takayuki Yamasaki, 8-dan in 85 moves. Takayuki used 7 hours 9 minutes.\nIn October 2017, DeepMind claimed that its program AlphaZero, after a full nine hours of training, defeated Elmo in a 100-game match, winning 90, losing 8, and drawing two.\nFrom a computational complexity point of view, generalized shogi is EXPTIME-complete.\n\nVideo games\nHundreds of video games were released exclusively in Japan for several consoles.\nClubhouse Games: 51 Worldwide Classics was released internationally by Nintendo in 2020 for the Nintendo Switch console, offering both Shogi and mini Shogi variants using either traditional or bilingual pieces.\n\nCulture\nAccording to professional player Yoshiharu Habu, in Japan shogi is viewed as not merely a game as entertainment or a mind sport but is instead an art that is a part of traditional Japanese culture along with haiku, tanka, noh, ikebana, and the Japanese tea ceremony. Its elevated status was established by the iemoto system supported by the historical shogunate.\nThe backwards uma (shogi horse symbol) is often featured on merchandise (such as on large decorative shogi piece sculptures, keychains, and other keepsakes) available for sale in Tendō. It also serves as a symbol of good luck. (Cf. Rabbit's foot.) There are multiple theories on its origin. One is that uma (うま ) spelled in the Japanese syllabary backwards is まう mau (舞う), which means (to) dance and dancing horses are a good luck omen.\n\nIn popular culture\nIn the manga and anime series Naruto, shogi plays an essential part in Shikamaru Nara's character development. He often plays it with his sensei, Asuma Sarutobi, apparently always beating him. When Asuma is fatally injured in battle, he reminds Shikamaru that the shogi king must always be protected, and draws a parallel between the king in shogi and the children who would grow up to take care of the Hidden Leaf (Konoha) in the future, as well as his yet-unborn daughter, Mirai, whom he wanted Shikamaru to guide.\nShogi has been a central plot point in the manga and anime Shion no Ō, the manga and anime March Comes in Like a Lion, and the manga and television drama 81diver.\nIn the manga and anime Durarara!!, the information broker Izaya Orihara plays a twisted version of chess, go and shogi, where he mixes all three games into one as a representation of the battles in Ikebukuro.\nIn the video game Persona 5, the Star confidant, a girl named Hifumi Togo, is a high school shogi player looking to break into the ranks of the professionals. The player character will gain a knowledge stat when spending time with the confidant, supposedly from learning to play shogi. The abilities learned from ranking up the confidant comes from Japanese shogi terms.\nIn the manga and anime When Will Ayumu Make His Move?, second-year high school student Urushi Yaotome is the president of her school's shogi club, though the club is considered illegitimate due to not having enough members, the only other member being first-year student Ayumu Tanaka.\n\nSee also\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nSHOGI Magazine (70 issues, January 1976 – November 1987) by The Shogi Association (edited by George Hodges)\nAono, Teruichi (1983). Better Moves for Better Shogi. translated by John Fairbairn. Tokyo, Japan: Sankaido Publishing Co., Ltd. ISBN 978-4-381-00597-7.\nAono, Teruichi (1983). Guide to Shogi Openings: Shogi Problems in Japanese and English. translated by John Fairbairn. Tokyo, Japan: Sankaido Publishing Co., Ltd. ISBN 978-4-381-00598-4.\nFairbairn, John (1986). Shogi for beginners (2nd ed.). Ishi Press. ISBN 978-4-8718-720-10.\nHabu, Yoshiharu; Hosking, Tony (2000). Habu's Words. translated by Tony Hosking and Yamato Takahashi. Stratford-upon-Avon, England: The Shogi Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9531089-2-3.\nHosking, Tony (1997). The Art of Shogi. Stratford-upon-Avon, England: The Shogi Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9531089-0-9.\nHosking, Tony (2006). Classic Shogi: Games Collection. Stratford-upon-Avon, England: The Shogi Foundation. ISBN 978-0-9531089-3-0.\nPritchard, D. B. (1994). \"Shogi\". The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants. Games & Puzzles Publications. pp. 269–79. ISBN 0-9524142-0-1.\nYebisu, Miles (2016). Comprehensive shogi guide in English: How to play Japanese chess. Laboratory Publishing.\n\nExternal links\n\nShogi Shack\nReijer Grimbergen's Shogi Page\nShogi.Net\nShogi Hub Archived 2022-11-30 at the Wayback Machine portal for current information about the shogi world (tournaments, news, etc.)\nShogi-L shogi mailing list\nRicoh Shogi Page Archived 2013-09-22 at the Wayback Machine\nJapanese–English shogi glossary\nHans Geuns' Basic Shogi Vocabulary\nInternational Shogi Magazine\nRules\n\nShogi Harbour: Level 1 Shogi Course by women's professional player Karolina Styczyńska\n40 shogi lessons on YouTube by HIDETCHI\nAn Introduction to Shogi for Chess Players Archived 2006-01-27 at the Wayback Machine\nShogi by Hans Bodlaender and Fergus Duniho, The Chess Variant Pages\nRules and Manners of Shogi by Tomohide Kawasaki (a.k.a. HIDETCHI)\nFESA - Shogi official playing rules Archived 2021-11-06 at the Wayback Machine\nShogi, the Japanese Chess by Jean-Louis Cazaux\nShogi and Dobutsu-Animal shogi rules to download by Filip Marek\nOnline play\n\n81Dojo English-language shogi play online\nLishogi free and open source shogi server\nShogi Dojo 24 shogi server in Japan\nShogi Wars\nShogi Quest\nPlayOK shogi\nGoldToken online turn-based shogi\nWorld Shogi League international online tournament associated with 81Dojo and the Japan Shogi Association\nHamShogi handicap shogi against the computer, instructions\nboardspace.net real time play against human or (weak) computer players.\nOnline tools\n\n将棋DB2 shogi game record database (in Japanese)\nKyokumenpedia game record databases as move decision tree with user-generated wiki annotations (associated with 81Dojo) (in Japanese)\nShogi Playground record or play through games, mate problems, board positions\nCreate Shogi Diagram on the Web",
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"paragraph_text": "Xiangqi (; Chinese: 象棋; pinyin: xiàngqí), commonly known as Chinese chess or elephant chess, is a strategy board game for two players. It is the most popular board game in China. Xiangqi is in the same family of games as shogi, janggi, Western chess, chaturanga, and Indian chess. Besides China and areas with significant ethnic Chinese communities, this game is also a popular pastime in Vietnam, where it is known as cờ tướng, literally 'General's chess'.\nThe game represents a battle between two armies, with the primary object being to checkmate the enemy's general (king). Distinctive features of xiangqi include the cannon (pao), which must jump to capture; a rule prohibiting the generals from facing each other directly; areas on the board called the river and palace, which restrict the movement of some pieces but enhance that of others; and the placement of the pieces on the intersections of the board lines, rather than within the squares.\n\nBoard\nXiangqi is played on a board nine lines wide and ten lines long. As in the game Go (圍碁; or Wéi qí 圍棋), the pieces are placed on the intersections, which are known as points. The vertical lines are known as files (Chinese: 路; pinyin: lù; \"road\"), and the horizontal lines are known as ranks (Chinese: 線/綫; pinyin: xiàn; \"line\").\nCentred at the first to third and eighth to tenth ranks of the board are two zones, each three points by three points, demarcated by two diagonal lines connecting opposite corners and intersecting at the centre point. Each of these areas is known as 宮 , a palace.\nDividing the two opposing sides, between the fifth and sixth ranks, is 河 hé, the \"river\". The river is usually marked with the phrases 楚河 , meaning \"River of the Chu\", and 漢界 , meaning \"Border of the Han\", a reference to the Chu–Han War. Although the river (or Hanchu boundary) provides a visual division between the two sides, only two pieces are affected by its presence: soldiers have an enhanced move after crossing the river, and elephants cannot cross it. The starting points of the soldiers and cannons are usually, but not always, marked with small crosses.\n\nRules\nThe pieces start in the position shown in the diagram above. Which player moves first has varied throughout history and from one part of China to another. Different xiangqi books advise either that the black or red side moves first. Some books refer to the two sides as north and south; which direction corresponds to which colour also varies from source to source. Generally, Red moves first in most modern tournaments.\nEach player in turn moves one piece from the point it occupies, to another point. Pieces are generally not permitted to move through points occupied by other pieces, the exception being the cannon’s capturing move. A piece can be moved onto a point occupied by an enemy piece, in which case the enemy piece is captured and removed from the board. A player cannot capture one of their own pieces. Pieces are never promoted (converted into other pieces), although the soldier gains the ability to move sideways after it crosses the river. Almost all pieces capture using their normal moves, while the cannon has a special capture move described below.\n\nThe game ends when one player checkmates the other's general. When the general is in danger of being captured by the enemy player on their next move, the enemy player has \"delivered a check\" (照將/將軍, abbreviated as 將 ), and the general is \"in check\". A check should be announced. If the general's player can make no move to prevent the general's capture, the situation is called \"checkmate\" (將死). Unlike in chess, in which stalemate is a draw, in xiangqi, it is a loss for the stalemated player.\nIn xiangqi, a player—often with a material or positional disadvantage—may attempt to check or chase pieces in a way such that the moves fall in a cycle, preventing the opponent from winning. While this is accepted in Western chess, in xiangqi, the following special rules are used to make it harder to draw the game by endless checking or chasing, regardless of whether the positions of the pieces are repeated or not:\n\nA player making perpetual checks with one piece or several pieces can be ruled to have lost unless he or she stops such checking.\nA player who perpetually chases any one unprotected piece with one or more pieces, excluding generals and soldiers, will be ruled to have lost unless he or she stops such chasing.\nIf one side perpetually checks and the other side perpetually chases, the checking side has to stop or be ruled to have lost.\nWhen neither side violates the rules and both persist in not making an alternate move, the game can be ruled as a draw.\nWhen both sides violate the same rule at the same time and both persist in not making an alternate move, the game can be ruled as a draw.\nDifferent sets of rules set different limits on what is considered perpetual. For example, club xiangqi rules allow a player to check or chase six consecutive times using one piece, twelve times using two pieces, and eighteen times using three pieces before considering the action perpetual.\nThe above rules to prevent perpetual checking and chasing, while popular, are not the only ones; there are numerous end game situations.\n\nPieces\nEach player controls an army of 16 pieces; the armies are usually coloured red and black. Pieces are flat circular disks labelled or engraved with a Chinese character identifying the piece type, and in a colour indicating which player has ownership. The black pieces are marked with somewhat different characters from the corresponding red pieces.\nOn mainland China, most sets still use traditional Chinese characters (as opposed to simplified Chinese characters). Modern pieces are usually plastic, though some sets are wooden, and more expensive sets may use jade. In more ancient times, many sets were simple unpainted woodcarvings; thus, to distinguish between pieces of the two sides, most corresponding pieces used characters that were similar but varied slightly. This practice may have originated in situations where there was only one material available to make the pieces from and no colouring material available to distinguish the opposing armies. The oldest xiangqi piece found to date is a 俥 (chariot) piece. It is kept in the Three Gorges Museum.\n\nGeneral\nGenerals (or kings) are labelled 將 (trad.) / 将 (simp.) (\"general\") on the black side and 帥 (trad.) / 帅 (simp.) (\"marshal\") on the red side.\nThe general starts the game at the midpoint of the back edge, within the palace. The general may move and capture one point orthogonally and may not leave the palace, with the following exception.\nIf the two generals face each other along the same file with no intervening pieces, the 飛將 (\"flying general\") move may be executed, in which the general to move crosses the board to capture the enemy general. In practice, this rule means that creating this situation in the first place means moving into check, and is therefore not allowed.\nThe Indian name king for this piece was changed to general because of Chinese naming taboos; China's rulers objected to their royal titles being given to game pieces. Despite this, the general is sometimes called the \"king\" by English-speaking players, due to their similar functions as royal pieces.\n\nAdvisor\nAdvisors (also known as guards and less commonly as assistants, mandarins, ministers or warriors) are labelled 士 (\"scholar\", \"gentleman\", \"officer\", \"guardian\") for Black and 仕 (\"scholar\", \"official\", \"guardian\") for Red. Rarely, sets use the character 士 for both colours.\nThe advisors start on either side of the general. They move and capture one point diagonally and may not leave the palace, which confines them to five points on the board. The advisor is probably derived from the mantri in chaturanga, like the queen in Western chess.\nThere is some controversy about whether \"士\" really is intended to mean \"scholar\", \"gentleman\" which would be \"士人\", or \"guard\", \"guardian\" which would be \"衛士\" (simplified Chinese: 卫士). One argument for the latter is that their functionality seems to be to guard/protect the general. The common Western translation \"advisor\" does not reflect this layer of meaning.\n\nElephant\nElephants (or bishops) are labeled 象 xiàng (\"elephant\") for Black and 相 xiàng (\"minister\") for Red. They are located next to the advisors. These pieces move and capture exactly two points diagonally and may not jump over intervening pieces; the move is described as being like the character 田 Tián (\"field\"), in reference to the board's squares. Blocking an elephant with a diagonally adjacent piece is known as \"blocking the elephant's eye\" (塞象眼).\nElephants may not cross the river to attack the enemy general, and serve as defensive pieces. Because an elephant's movement is restricted to just seven board positions, it can be easily trapped or threatened. The two elephants are often used to defend each other.\nThe Chinese characters for \"minister\" and \"elephant\" are homophones in Mandarin () and both have alternative meanings as \"appearance\" or \"image\". However, in English, both are referred to as elephants, and less commonly as \"bishops\", due to their similar movements.\n\nHorse\nHorses (or knights) are labelled 馬 for Black and 傌 mǎ for Red in sets marked with Traditional Chinese characters and 马 mǎ for both Black and Red in sets marked with Simplified Chinese characters. Some sets use 馬 for both colours. Horses begin the game next to the elephants, on their outside flanks. A horse moves and captures one point orthogonally and then one point diagonally away from its former position, a move which is traditionally described as being like the character 日 Rì. The horse does not jump as the knight does in Western chess, and can be blocked by a piece of either colour located one point horizontally or vertically adjacent to it. Blocking a horse is called \"hobbling the horse's leg\" (蹩馬腿). The diagram on the right illustrates the horse's movement.\nSince horses can be blocked, it is possible for one player's horse to have an asymmetric attack advantage if an opponent's horse is blocked, as seen in the diagram on the right.\nThe horse is sometimes called the \"knight\" by English-speaking players, due to their similar movements.\n\nChariot\nChariots (or rooks or cars) are labelled 車 for Black and 俥 for Red in sets marked with Traditional Chinese characters and 车 for both Black and Red in sets marked with Simplified Chinese characters. Some traditional sets use 車 for both colours. In the context of xiangqi, all of these characters are pronounced as (instead of the common pronunciation chē). The chariot moves and captures any distance orthogonally, but may not jump over intervening pieces. The chariots begin the game on the points at the corners of the board. The chariot is often considered to be the strongest piece in the game due to its freedom of movement and lack of restrictions.\nThe chariot is sometimes called the \"rook\" by English-speaking players, since it moves identically to the rook in Western chess. Chinese players (and others) often call this piece a car, since that is one modern meaning of the character 車.\n\nCannon\nCannons are labelled 砲 (\"catapult\") for Black and 炮 pào (\"cannon\") for Red. The names are homophones, though sometimes 炮 is used for both Red and Black. The 石 shí radical of 砲 means \"stone\", and the 火 huǒ radical of 炮 means \"fire\". Both colours' pieces are normally referred to as cannons in English. The black piece is sometimes labelled 包 bāo.\nEach player has two cannons, which start on the row behind the soldiers, two points in front of the horses. Cannons move like chariots, any distance orthogonally without jumping, but can only capture by jumping a single piece of either colour along the path of attack. The piece over which the cannon jumps is called the 炮臺 (trad.) / 炮台 (simp.) pào tái (\"cannon platform\" or \"screen\"). Any number of unoccupied spaces, including none, may exist between the cannon, screen, and the piece to be captured. Cannons can be exchanged for horses immediately from their starting positions.\n\nSoldier\nSoldiers (or pawns) are labelled 卒 (\"pawn\" or \"private\") for Black and 兵 (\"soldier\") for Red. Each side starts with five soldiers. Soldiers begin the game located on every other point one row back from the edge of the river. They move and capture by advancing one point. Once they have crossed the river, they may also move and capture one point horizontally. Soldiers cannot move backward, and therefore cannot retreat; after advancing to the last rank of the board, however, a soldier may still move sideways at the enemy's edge. The soldier is sometimes called the \"pawn\" by English-speaking players, due to the pieces' similar movements.\n\nApproximate relative values of the pieces\nThese approximate values do not take into account the position of the piece in question (except the soldier in a general sense), the positions of other pieces on the board, or the number of pieces remaining. In what follows, “minor piece” will refer to horses and cannons, and \"defensive piece\", unless otherwise specified, will refer to the non-royal pieces that cannot cross the river, namely advisors and elephants.\nOther common rules of assessment:\n\nA horse plus a cannon is generally better than two horses or two cannons.\nThe chariot is not only the strongest piece, but it is also generally stronger than any combination of two minor pieces. When the relative values of both sides' pieces are approximately even, the side with more chariots generally has the advantage, especially when one side has a chariot and one side does not (Chinese: 有車壓無車). However, the chariot is not particularly strong in basic endgames: for example, chariot versus four defensive pieces is generally a draw, while if the offensive side instead has two horses or even three unadvanced soldiers it is a win.\nIn the earlier stages, the cannon is stronger than the horse, because platforms are plentiful and the horse is often blocked by the multitude of pieces on the board. In the endgame, the horse is stronger as an attacking piece, not needing any platforms, but the cannon generally has better defensive abilities.\nThe values of soldiers vary in different stages of the game. In the opening and the middlegame, the initiative and mobility of pieces often require sacrificing soldiers. In these stages, soldiers closer to the middle file are generally more valuable, since they can effectively join the offence. With few attacking pieces on the board, soldiers have more power and can cross the river more easily. In this stage, advanced soldiers are generally less powerful, since soldiers cannot move backward. In basic endgames, three soldiers starting on the 7th rank are approximately equal to a chariot: they can force a win against four defensive pieces or a horse/cannon plus two elephants, while instead a chariot cannot, and a chariot cannot force a win against three soldiers on the 7th rank when well-defended.\n\nNotation\nThere are several types of notation used to record xiangqi games. In each case the moves are numbered and written with the same general pattern.\n\n(first move) (first response)\n(second move) (second response)\n...\nIt is clearer but not required to write each move pair on a separate line.\n\nSystem 1\nThe book The Chess of China describes a move notation method in which the ranks of the board are numbered 1 to 10 from closest to farthest away, followed by a digit 1 to 9 for files from right to left. Both values are relative to the moving player. Moves are then indicated as follows:\n[piece name] ([former rank][former file])-[new rank][new file]\nThus, the most common opening in the game would be written as:\n\n炮 (32)–35 馬 (18)–37\n\nSystem 2\nA notation system partially described in A Manual of Chinese Chess and used by several computer software implementations describes moves in relative terms as follows:\n[single-letter piece abbreviation][former file][operator indicating direction of movement][new file, or in the case of purely vertical movement, number of ranks traversed]\nThe file numbers are counted from each player's right to each player's left.\nIn case there are two identical pieces in one file, symbols + (front) and – (rear) are used instead of former file number.\nDirection of movement is indicated via an operator symbol. A plus sign is used to indicate forward movement. A minus sign is used to indicate backward movement. A dot or period or equals sign is used to indicate horizontal or lateral movement. For a piece that moves diagonally (such as the horse or elephant), the plus or minus sign is used rather than the period.\nThus, the most common opening in the game would be written as:\n\nC2.5 H8+7\nAccording to World Xiangqi Federation (WXF), in the case of tripled, quadrupled, or quintupled soldiers (pawns), there is no need to specify the P for pawn. Instead, the soldiers are numbered starting from the frontmost soldier, and this number replaces the usual piece abbreviation. The file number is given immediately after as usual. \nThus the notation to move the middle of a set of tripled soldiers on the 5th file to the 4th file would be:\n\n25=4\nIn older books written in Chinese the system is the same, except that: \nthe names of the pieces are written in Chinese;\nthe name for the cannon on both sides is 炮;\nthe name for the horse on both sides is 馬;\nforward motion is indicated with 進 (pronounced jìn); \nbackward motion is indicated with 退 (tuì); \nsideways motion is indicated with 平 (píng);\nand numbers are written in Chinese either for both players or for just Black.\nThus, the most common opening in the game might be written as:\n\n炮二平五 馬8進7\n\nSystem 3\nThis system is unofficial and principally used by Western players. It is similar to algebraic notation for Western chess. Letters are used for files and numbers for ranks. File \"a\" is on Red's left and rank \"1\" is nearest to Red. A point's designation does not depend on which player moves; for both sides \"a1\" is the lowest left point from Red's side.\n[single-letter piece abbreviation][former position][capture indication][new position][check indication][analysis]\nPieces are abbreviated as in notation system 2, except that no letter is used for the soldier.\nFormer position is only indicated if necessary to distinguish between two identical pieces that could have made the move. If they share the same file, indicate which rank moves; if they share the same rank, indicate which file moves. If they share neither rank nor file, then the file is indicated.\nCapture is indicated by \"x\". No symbol is used to indicate a non-capturing move.\nCheck is indicated by \"+\", double check by \"++\", triple check by \"+++\", and quadruple check by \"++++\". Checkmate is indicated by \"#\".\nFor analysis purposes, bad moves are indicated by \"?\" and good moves by \"!\". These can be combined if the analysis is uncertain (\"!?\" might be either but is probably good; \"?!\" is probably bad) or repeated for emphasis (\"??\" is a disaster).\nThus, the most common opening in the game would be written as:\n\nChe3 Hg8\nFor example, the following game is tied with several others as the shortest possible xiangqi game:\n\nGameplay\nBecause of the size of the board and the low number of long-range pieces, there is a tendency for the battle to focus on a particular area of the board.\n\nTactics\nXiangqi involves several tactics common to games in the chess family. Some common ones are briefly discussed here.\n\nIn a fork, one piece attacks two or more enemy pieces at once.\nA piece is pinned when it cannot move without exposing a more important piece to capture. Every piece except soldiers and advisors can pin, but only chariot pins exactly resemble pins in western chess; pins by other pieces in xiangqi take on many unique forms: Cannons can pin two pieces at once on one file or rank, horses can pin because they can be blocked, and generals can pin because of the \"flying general\" move rule. In pins by horses and elephants, the pinning piece never attacks the pinned piece, while in a pin by a cannon, only one of the pieces is directly attacked by the cannon. A general can only pin pieces to the enemy general, and the pinning general can never capture the pinned piece, since that would place it in check from the enemy general.\nA piece is skewered when it is attacked and, by moving, exposes a less important piece to be captured. In contrast to pins, only cannons and chariots can skewer.\n\nA discovered check occurs when an attacking piece moves so that it unblocks a line for a chariot, cannon, and/or horse to check the enemy general.\nA double check occurs when two pieces simultaneously threaten the enemy general. Unlike a Western chess double check, a double check in xiangqi may be blockable or, in one case, possibly met with a capture by a piece other than the general. The only blockable cases are either a chariot and cannon on the same file as the general, with the chariot acting as a screen for the cannon, two horses giving discovered check after another piece unblocks the attack from both, or a cannon using an enemy piece as a platform uncovered by a horse (see below). Double checks delivered by other means are not blockable. In one exceptional case, if a horse moves to give a double check by uncovering a cannon, and the cannon’s platform is an enemy chariot or defensive piece (advisor or elephant), the enemy chariot or defensive piece might be able to capture the horse, which removes the cannon’s platform at the same time. Otherwise, capturing either checking piece is insufficient to remove the threat, unless the general makes the capture.\n\nUnique to xiangqi is a triple check, which arises in four combinations. In the first case of a cannon, a chariot or soldier, and a horse, the horse moves to give check, uncovering a double check from the chariot and the cannon. In the second, rarer case of a chariot or soldier and two horses, the chariot moves to give check, uncovering a double check from the two horses. In the third case of two cannons and two horses, one cannon may uncover a double check from the horses and act as a screen for the other cannon. Finally, a chariot or soldier can move to give check, uncovering a check from a horse while acting as a platform for a cannon to give another check. Quadruple check is also possible, arising with two horses, a chariot, and a cannon. Triple and quadruple check cannot be blocked or met by captures (again, unless the general makes the capture).\n\nIn contrast to the ubiquity of pawn chains in western chess, soldiers typically do not support each other until the endgame, because from the initial position it takes a minimum of five moves of a soldier to allow mutual protection between two of them, and they are often prone to capture by other pieces.\nSoldiers, horses, cannons and chariots can form up formations that protect each other. However, lining up chariots must be done with caution, as this risks losing one chariot to an enemy's inferior piece. Horses that support each other are called Linked Horses (Chinese: 連環馬), which is a relatively safe formation of the horses, though it can still be threatened with a soldier, a chariot plus another minor piece, or a piece blocking one of the horses thus making the protection one-sided.\nIt is common to use cannons independently to control particular ranks and files. Using a cannon to control the middle file is often considered vital strategy, because it pins pieces such as the advisors and elephants to the general, which in turn restrict their general’s movement. The two files adjacent to the middle file are also considered important and horses and chariots can be used to push for checkmate there.\nSince the general is usually safest in its original position before the endgame phase, attacking the general commonly involves forcing the general out of its original position with check or with threats. Thus, specific points and formations are very important in xiangqi.\nFor an attacking (Red) horse, the most fatal points are c9 and g9 (Chinese: 臥槽馬), especially since without proper defence a quick mate can follow with an extra chariot or cannon.\n\nFor a cannon, one of the most fatal formations is the exposed cannon (Chinese: 空心炮), where the cannon directly controls the middle file with no other pieces between the cannon and the general. This formation is particularly dangerous since the defensive side cannot move any piece in front of the cannon; while with an extra cannon joining the attack, mate can follow on the spot, and with an extra rook, the offensive side can mount a double check (with the rook in front of the cannon) followed by a windmill (as when the check is blocked, the rook moving laterally discovers a new check from the cannon), often winning at least a piece afterwards. If the defensive side cannot chase the cannon away or capture it, it must move the general forward to avoid these threats, leaving the general vulnerable to attacks.\nAnother fatal formation, called the \"cannon-controlled centroid horse\" (Chinese: 炮鎮窩心馬, diagram at right), also requires particularly bad coordination of the enemy pieces. In the diagram, Black's \"centroid horse\" occupies the centre of the palace, blocking Black's own general and advisors, and being pinned to the general by the red cannon, cannot move. Black's cannon at e8 is also pinned to its own general; it too is unable to move and restricts the movement of Black's two elephants, making them unable to protect each other. Such a formation in the middlegame often produces deadly threats of smothered mates, while in the endgame, as in the diagram, Red's cannon cannot be chased away, rendering Black's general, advisors, cannon on e8, and horse all permanently immobilized. Even though Black is up a minor piece, Red has a clear win: The game concluded 41.Hg7 (forking the elephant and pinned cannon and creating a mating threat) Eg10 42.Hh9 Ci9 43.Hf8+ Cf9 (if not for the other black cannon, it is instant mate) 44.Hxg6, and Black resigned: Black's only active piece (the cannon on f9) is absolutely helpless to stop Red's horse and soldiers, which will soon invade the palace.\nA common defensive configuration is to leave the general at its starting position, deploy one advisor and one elephant on the two points directly in front of the general, and to leave the other advisor and elephant in their starting positions, to the side of the general. In this setup, the advisor and elephant pairs support each other, and the general is immune from attacks by cannons. Losing any defensive pieces makes the general vulnerable to cannon attack, and the setup may need to be abandoned. The defender may move defensive pieces away from the general, or even sacrifice them intentionally, to ward off attack by a cannon.\n\nLong sequences of checks leading to mate or gain of material are common both in chess compositions and in actual play. A skilled xiangqi player would often have to calculate several steps, or even tens of steps ahead for a forced sequence. In the diagram on the right, Black has an immediate mating threat which cannot be parried, forcing Red to check Black on every move. Although it requires 11 moves to mate, its general idea is clear: Induce a smothered check by sacrificing a chariot at the centre of the palace (e9), then force Black to open the centre file, enabling the Red general to assist the attack, and finally mate by facing generals.\n\nOpenings\nSince the left and right flanks of the starting setup are symmetrical, it is customary to make the first move on the right flank. Starting on the left flank is considered needlessly confusing.\nThe most common opening is to move the cannon to the central column, an opening known as 當頭炮 (trad.) / 当头炮 (simp.) dāng tóu pào or \"Central Cannon\". The most common reply is to advance the horse on the same flank. Together, this move-and-response is known by the rhyme 當頭炮，馬來跳 (trad.) / 当头炮，马来跳 (simp.) . The notation for this is \"1. 炮 (32)–35, 馬 (18)–37\", \"1. C2.5 H8+7\", or \"1. Che3 Hg8\" (diagram at right). After Black's 1. ...H8+7 (Hg8) response, the game can develop into a variety of openings, the most common being the 屏風馬 (trad.) / 屏风马 (simp.) or \"Screen Horses (Defence)\" in which Black develops the other horse to further protect their middle pawn (...H2+3 or ...Hc8) either immediately on their second move, or later when Black transposes the game into this opening.\nAlternative common first moves by Black are developing either cannons (1. ...C8.5/1. ...Che8, or 1. ...C2.5/1. ...Cbe8); note that after either of these moves, taking the central soldier with the cannon (2. C5+4 or 2. Cxe7+) is a beginner's trap that impedes development and coordination of Red's pieces if Black plays correctly (for example, 1. Che3 Che8 2. Cxe7+?? Ade9 3. Hg3 Hg8 4. Ce5 Rh10 when Black develops the rook first, and the loss of Black's middle pawn actually enabled Black's horses to occupy the centre on the next moves).\nOther common first moves by Red include moving an elephant to the central column (1. Ege3), advancing the soldier on the third or seventh file (1. c5), moving a horse forward (1. Hg3), and moving either cannon to the 4th or 6th (d- or f-) file (1. Chd3 or 1. Chf3). Compared to the Central Cannon openings, these openings are generally less restricted by theory.\nGeneral advice for the opening includes rapid development of at least one chariot and putting it on open files and ranks, as it is the most powerful piece with a long attack range. There is a saying that only a poor player does not move a chariot in the first three moves (Chinese: 三步不出車，必定要輸棋); however this is not to be taken literally, and is in fact often violated in modern Xiangqi games. Attacking and defending the centre, especially the central soldiers / central pawns, are common themes in the opening, hence the Central Cannon openings. Usually, at least one horse should be moved to the middle in order to defend the central soldier; however undefended central soldiers can also become \"poisoned pawns\" in the early moves, especially if the attacking side does not have an immediate follow-up to retain the pressure on the central file.\n\nMiddlegame strategy\nXiangqi strategy shares common themes with chess, but has some differences:\n\nOccupying the centre is relatively less important in xiangqi, but controlling and attacking the middle file is still one of the vital themes. Since the middle file is often well defended, players would then seek to mount an offense on either of the flanks on the enemy side, especially when the defense of one flank is neglected.\nThe significance of pawn formation in xiangqi and chess are different. In xiangqi, soldiers (pawns) are often pushed to avoid blocking their own horses, and it is uncommon for them to defend each other (in contrast with a Western chess pawn chain). Successfully getting a soldier to cross a river as an attacking force can often tilt the scales of the middlegame by a large margin.\nIn high-level play, the initiative is highly important, and a minor mistake can doom a game.\nSacrifices are common in xiangqi, however they are more often tactical rather than positional. Usually, at most a minor piece is sacrificed for positional advantages, or a semi-tactical attack.\nLike in chess, xiangqi piece values depend highly on the position on the board. The following study from Volume 42 of the Elegant Pastime Manual, dating from the Ming Dynasty, illustrates this dramatically. It is Red to play and win.\n\nIn this position, Red is up two soldiers and a cannon but Black threatens seemingly unstoppable mate with ...Rf1#, since 1.Ec5? Ad8! renews the mate threat. Note that the red chariot is nearly useless, having only two legal moves, in stark contrast to the very active black chariot. However, Red averts the checkmate by sacrificing both the cannon and chariot: 1.Ca10+!! Hxa10 2.Ea3! Rxa1 (or the chariot is lost, since the general protects the elephant on e3, which in turn guards g1, and the red horse guards e2) 3.Eec1:\n\nDespite the substantial sacrifice of material by Red, Black's chariot has now become useless as it is permanently immobilized by the red elephants and horse; the red general prevents the black soldier on g2 from moving laterally to free the chariot (for example 3...g1 4.Gf2). Black's horse similarly has no safe move due to the red soldier on c8, which also, along with the soldier on f9, prevents the black general from attacking the soldier on f9 from the behind. In addition, the black soldier on g6 is undefended and has no safe move, so Red can win it by pushing the soldier on c4 to c6 and moving it laterally to the g-file, after which the position is effectively an endgame of three soldiers against two advisers, an easy win for Red (see below) despite being down a chariot for three soldiers.\n\nEndgame\nThough xiangqi endgames require remarkable skill to be played well, there are a number of widely known book wins and book draws. Without a counterpart to pawn promotion, xiangqi endgames instead focus more directly on forcing checkmate or stalemate, and in this regard resemble pawnless chess endgames. Since stalemate is a loss for the stalemated player instead of a draw, most book draws in xiangqi are due to fortresses, with a few draws due to insufficient material.\nA general rule in xiangqi endgames for the advantageous side is that, when there's less material on the board, do not trade pieces easily, as with fewer attacking pieces on the board, defending is easier (in contrast to Western chess, where it is almost always advantageous to trade pieces when up on material). Hence, if a certain type of endgame can transpose, by trading pieces, into another type of endgame which is a book win, then this endgame itself is a book win.\n\nZugzwang in xiangqi endgames\nInducing zugzwang is a crucial theme in winning simple endgames, and almost exclusively in simple endgames. In the general + soldier vs general endgame shown on the right, Red's first main goal is to occupy the middle file. Red wins with 1. Gd1, a waiting move, and Black is in zugzwang. Black must proceed with 1. ...Ge8, as 1. ...Ge10 instantly loses after 2. f9#. After 1. ...Ge8 2. f9 Gf8 3. e9 Ge8 4. d9 Gf8 5. Ge1, Red's general successfully occupies the middle file. The game would conclude with 5. ...Gf9 6. e9+, and regardless of Black's reply, 7. Ge2# (stale)mates Black.\n\nReciprocal zugzwang is possible, but very rare and usually seen in endgame compositions. In this endgame shown on the right, whoever moves loses, since when either of the two generals moves to an open d- or f- file, it threatens unstoppable mate, while the player to move only helps the enemy general occupy one of the files. For instance, Red can only move their two soldiers if he is to move. Moving the f-(or d-)soldier allows the enemy general to occupy the f-file(d-file). Even if 1. fe9+ Gf10 2. d10, when Red threatens mate in 1, Black still mates immediately with either 2. ...fe2# or 2. ...f1#.\n\nSoldier (pawn) endgames\nA soldier, as long as it does not reach the opposite rank, wins against a bare general easily. With any extra defensive piece on the defensive side, it is a draw; however, soldier vs advisor requires skill to play well.\nTwo unadvanced (i.e., on the 6th or 7th ranks) soldiers win against the following combinations: Two advisors, two elephants, a bare horse/cannon. Generally a draw against one advisor plus one elephant, or a horse/cannon plus a defending piece.\nThree unadvanced soldiers win against the following combinations: All 4 defensive pieces (2 advisors plus 2 elephants, Chinese: 士象全), a horse plus two advisors/two elephants, a cannon plus two elephants.\n\nHorse endgames\nA bare horse wins against a bare advisor, but not a bare elephant.\nA horse plus an unadvanced soldier wins against both combinations of 3 defensive pieces, or any combination of a minor piece plus a defensive piece except horse + elephant. This combination draws against all 4 defensive pieces.\nA horse plus an advanced soldier(on the 8th or 9th rank) draws against either combination of 3 defensive pieces, but defending requires precise positions.\nA horse plus a soldier on the 10th rank wins against two advisors, or one advisor plus one elephant. This combination draws against 2 elephants.\nA horse plus two soldiers can win against one minor piece + one advisor + two elephants. With an extra advisor on the defensive side, it is a book draw.\nTwo horses win against all 4 defensive pieces, or any combination of a minor piece plus 2 defensive pieces except cannon + 2 elephants.\n\nCannon endgames\nA bare cannon, or a cannon with elephants, cannot win against a bare general due to insufficient material. Cannons without other offensive pieces need defensive pieces to act as platforms, especially the advisor, since the advisor can act as a platform on any of the three central files, while an elephant can only act as a platform on the centermost file.\nA cannon needs only one advisor to win against two advisors, or a single elephant. Meanwhile, even with all 4 defensive pieces, it is a book draw against two elephants, one advisor + one elephant, one soldier + one advisor, or any minor piece.\nA cannon with all 4 defensive pieces needs at least an extra soldier to win against 4 defensive pieces. A bare cannon with a soldier on the 6th rank wins against any combination of 2 defensive pieces.\nA cannon + 4 defensive pieces + 2 unadvanced soldiers generally draw against one minor piece + 4 defensive pieces. But if the defensive side lacks a single piece, it is a book win.\n\nHorse+Cannon endgames\nThis type of endgame is considered one of the more complex endgames. Commonly known book wins and book draws are:\n\nHorse + Cannon + 4 defensive pieces vs a minor piece vs 4 defensive pieces: A win if the minor piece is a horse (the attacking side does not need all 4 defensive pieces to win), a draw if it is a cannon.\nWith the same combination of the two minor pieces and all 4 defensive pieces on both sides, one needs two extra soldiers for a book win.\nIf both sides have 2 minor pieces and 4 defensive pieces, and the advantegeous side only has one extra soldier, then regardless of the combination of the two minor pieces, it is a book draw.\n\nChariot endgames\nSingle chariot endgames:\n\nA single chariot generally cannot win against 4 defensive pieces, but with 3 or fewer defensive pieces, it is a forced win.\nChariot vs one minor piece plus 2 defensive pieces: A win if the 2 defensive pieces are not the same, or if the combination is horse + two advisors. If the defensive side has horse + two elephants, a specific fortress is required to draw.\nChariot vs one minor piece plus 3 defensive pieces: A draw.\nChariot vs two minor pieces with no defensive pieces: A draw, but requires good defensive positions.\nChariot + soldiers (unadvanced):\n\nChariot + soldier, with sufficient defensive pieces on their own side, wins against a chariot plus an advisor, a chariot plus two elephants, or a chariot plus a soldier.\nChariot + soldier wins against any 2 minor pieces + 2 advisors. This combination also wins against horse + 4 defensive pieces, but not cannon + 4 defensive pieces.\nChariot + soldier vs 2 unadvanced soldiers + 4 defensive pieces: If the offensive side has no defensive piece, it is a draw since the 2 enemy soldiers can still be a formidable force. If the offensive side has one advisor, it is a win.\nChariot + 2 soldiers cannot force a win against chariot + 4 defensive pieces. In this endgame, both attacking and defending require great skill.\nChariot + horse:\n\nA chariot plus a horse needs one advisor on their own side to win against a chariot plus two advisors.\nChariot + horse vs chariot + two elephants: With enough defensive pieces for the attacking side, it is generally a win if the move limit is not taken into consideration.\nChariot + cannon:\n\nA chariot plus a cannon cannot win against a bare chariot, as long as the defending chariot occupies the middle file. However, with any extra defensive piece on the attacking side, it is a win.\nChariot + cannon + 2 advisors would win against chariot + two elephants.\nChariot + cannon + 4 defensive pieces vs chariot + 4 defensive pieces: Draw.\nTwo chariots:\n\nTwo chariots vs chariot + 4 defensive pieces: A draw with good defensive positions.\nTwo chariots vs chariot + minor piece + 2 defensive pieces: The only drawing combination is chariot + cannon + 2 advisors.\nTwo chariots vs 2 minor pieces + 4 defensive pieces: A win if the 2 minor pieces are 2 horses.\n\nHistory\nA game called xiangqi was mentioned as dating to the Warring States period; according to the first-century-BC text Shuo Yuan (說苑/说苑), it was one of Lord Mengchang of Qi's interests. However, the rules of that game are not described, and it was not necessarily related to the present-day game. Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou wrote a book in AD 569 called Xiang Jing. It described the rules of an astronomically themed game called xiangxi (象戲). The word xiàngqí 象棋 is usually translated as \"elephant game\" or \"figure game\", because the Chinese character 象 means \"elephant\" and \"figure\"; it originated as a stylized drawing of an elephant, and was used to write a word meaning \"figure\", likely because the two words were pronounced the same.\nFor these reasons, Murray theorized that \"in China [chess] took over the board and name of a game called 象棋 in the sense of 'Astronomical Game', which represented the apparent movements of naked-eye-visible astronomical objects in the night sky, and that the earliest Chinese references to 象棋 meant the Astronomical Game and not Chinese chess\". Previous games called xiàngqí may have been based on the movements of sky objects. However, the connection between 象 and astronomy is marginal, and arose from constellations being called \"figures\" in astronomical contexts where other meanings of \"figure\" were less likely; this usage may have led some ancient Chinese authors to theorize that the game 象棋 started as a simulation of astronomy.\n\nTo support his argument, Murray quoted an old Chinese source that says that in the older xiangqi (which modern xiangqi may have taken some of its rules from) the game pieces could be shuffled, which does not happen in the modern chess-style xiangqi. Murray also wrote that in ancient China there was more than one game called xiangqi. Murray also even supposed that chaturanga from India influenced the formation of present-day xiangqi.\nAn alternative hypothesis to Murray's is that xiangqi was patterned after the array of troops in the Warring States period. David H. Li, for example, argues that the game was developed by Han Xin in the winter of 204 BC-203 BC to prepare for an upcoming battle. His theories have been questioned by other chess researchers, however. The earliest description of the game's rules appears in the story \"Cén Shùn\" (岑順) in the collection Xuanguai lu (玄怪錄), written by Niu Sengru in the middle part of the Tang dynasty.\nXiangqi is the same as it is today from Southern Song dynasty.\nJanggi of Korean Peninsula originates from Xiangqi.\nWith the popularization of xiangqi, many different schools of circles and players came into prominence, many books and manuals on the techniques of playing the game were also published, they played an important role in popularizing xiangqi and improving the techniques of play in modern times. With the economic and cultural development during the Qing dynasty, xiangqi entered a new stage. A Western-style Encyclopedia of Chinese Chess Openings was written in 2004.\n\nModern play\nTournaments and leagues\nAlthough xiangqi has its origin in Asia, there are xiangqi leagues and clubs all over the world. Each European nation generally has its own governing league; for example, in Britain, xiangqi is regulated by the United Kingdom Chinese Chess Association. Asian countries also have nationwide leagues, such as the Malaysia Chinese Chess Association.\nIn addition, there are several international federations and tournaments. The Chinese Xiangqi Association hosts several tournaments every year, including the Yin Li and Ram Cup Tournaments. Other organizations include the Asian Xiangqi Federation and a World Xiangqi Federation, which hosts tournaments and competitions bi-annually, with most limited to players from member nations.\nThere are Europeanized versions of boards (10 × 9) and figures of xiangqi.\n\nRankings\nThe Asian Xiangqi Federation (AXF) and its corresponding member associations rank players in a format similar to the Elo rating system of chess. According to the XiangQi DataBase, the top-ranking female and male players in China, as of June 2012, were Tang Dan and Jiang Chuan, with ratings of 2529 and 2667, respectively. Other strong players include Zhao GuanFang (female), Xu Yinchuan (male), Lu Qin (male), and Wang LinNa (female).\nThe Asian Xiangqi Federation also bestows the title of grandmaster to select individuals around the world who have excelled at xiangqi or made special contributions to the game. There are no specific criteria for becoming a grandmaster and there are only approximately 100 grandmasters as of 2020. The titles of grandmaster is bestowed by bodies such as the AXF and the Chinese Xiangqi Association (CXA).\n\nComputers\nThe game-tree complexity of xiangqi is approximately 10150; in 2004 it was projected that a human top player would be defeated before 2010. Xiangqi is one of the more popular computer-versus-computer competitions at the Computer Olympiads.\nComputer programs for playing xiangqi show the same development trend as has occurred for international chess: they are usually console applications (called engines) which communicate their moves in text form through some standard protocol. For displaying the board graphically, they then rely on a separate graphical user interface (GUI). Through such standardization, many different engines can be used through the same GUI, which can also be used for automated play of different engines against each other. Popular protocols are UCI (Universal Chess Interface), UCCI (Universal Chinese Chess Interface), Qianhong (QH) protocol, and WinBoard/XBoard (WB) protocol (the latter two named after the GUIs that implemented them). There now exist many dozens of xiangqi engines supporting one or more of these protocols, including some commercial engines.\n\nVariations\nBlitz chess Each player only has around 5–10 minutes each.\nManchu chessInvented during the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. Red horses, cannons, and one of the chariots are absent, but the remaining chariot can be played as horses and cannons as well.\nSupply chess Similar to the Western chess variant Bughouse chess, this variant features the ability to re-deploy captured pieces, similar to a rule in shogi. Four players play as two-person teams in two side-by-side games. One teammate plays Black and other plays Red. Any piece obtained by capturing the opponent's piece is given to the teammate for use in the other game. These pieces can be deployed by the teammate to give him an advantage over the other player, so long as the piece starts on the player's own side of the board and does not cause the opponent to be in check.\nFormation Similar to Fischer Random Chess, one player's pieces are placed randomly on one side of the river, except for the generals and advisors, which must be at their usual positions, and the elephants, which must start at two of the seven points they can normally reach. The other player's pieces are set up to mirror the first's. All other rules are the same.\nBanqi This variation is more well known in Hong Kong than in mainland China. It uses the xiangqi pieces and board, but does not follow any of its rules, bearing more of a resemblance to the Western game Stratego as well as the Chinese game Luzhanqi.\n\nVariations played with special boards or pieces\nThere are many versions of three-player xiangqi, or san xiangqui, all played on special boards.\nSan Guo Qi \"Game of the Three Kingdoms\" is played on a special hexagonal board with three xiangqi armies (red, blue, and green) vying for dominance. A Y-shaped river divides the board into three gem-shaped territories, each containing the grid found on one side of a xiangqi board, but distorted to make the game playable by three people. Each player has eighteen pieces: the sixteen of regular xiangqi, plus two new ones that stand on the same rank as the cannons. The new pieces have different names depending on their side: huo (\"fire\") for Red, qi (\"flag\") for Blue, and feng (\"wind\") for Green. They move two spaces orthogonally, then one space diagonally. The generals each bear the name of a historical Chinese kingdom—Shu for Red, Wei for Blue, and Wu for Green—from China's Three Kingdoms period. It is likely that San Guo Qi first appeared under the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279).\nSan You Qi \"Three Friends Chess\" was invented by Zheng Jinde from Shexian in the Anhui province during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty (1661–1722). It is played on a Y-shaped board with a full army of xiangqi pieces set up at the end of each of the board's three wide radii. In the centre of the board sits a triangular zone with certain features, such as ocean, mountain, or city walls, each of which is impassable by certain pieces. Two of an army's five soldiers are replaced by new pieces called huo (\"fire\") pieces, which move one space diagonally forward. Two qi (\"flag\") pieces are positioned on the front corners of the palace; they move two spaces forward inside their own camp, and then one space in any direction inside an enemy camp.\nSanrenqi \"Three Men Chess\" is a riverless, commercial variant played on a cross-shaped board with some special rules, including a fourth, neutral country called Han. Han has three Chariots, one Cannon, and one General named \"Emperor Xian of Han\", but these pieces do not move and do not belong to any of the players until a certain point in the game when two players team up against the third player. At that point the third player gets to also control Han.\nSi Guo Qi \"Four Kingdoms Chess\" is also played on a riverless, cross-shaped board, but with four players. Because there are no rivers, elephants may move about the board freely.\nQi Guo Xiang Qi \"Game of the Seven Kingdoms\" is based symbolically on the Warring States Period.\n\nIn Unicode\nXiangqi pieces were added to Unicode version 11.0 in June 2018. They are assigned to the codepoints U+1FA60–U+1FA6D in the Chess Symbols block. For legibility, the red pieces are filled white, while black pieces are filled black.\n\nSee also\nNotes\nReferences\nLau, H. T. (1985). Chinese Chess. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3508-X.\nLeventhal, Dennis A. The Chess of China. Taipei, Taiwan: Mei Ya, 1978. (out-of-print but can be partly downloaded)\nLi, David H. The Genealogy of Chess. Premier Publishing, Bethesda, Maryland, 1998. ISBN 0-9637852-2-2.\nMurray, H. J. R. (1913). A History of Chess (Reissued ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-827403-3.\nWilkes, Charles Fred. A Manual of Chinese Chess. 1952.\n\nFurther reading\nLi, David H. First Syllabus on Xiangqi: Chinese Chess 1. Premier Publishing, Bethesda, Maryland, 1996. ISBN 0-9637852-5-7.\nLi, David H. Xiangqi Syllabus on Cannon: Chinese Chess 2. Premier Publishing, Bethesda, Maryland, 1998. ISBN 0-9637852-7-3.\nLi, David H. Xiangqi Syllabus on Elephant: Chinese Chess 3. Premier Publishing, Bethesda, Maryland, 2000. ISBN 0-9637852-0-6.\nLi, David H. Xiangqi Syllabus on Pawn: Chinese Chess 4. Premier Publishing, Bethesda, Maryland, 2002. ISBN 0-9711690-1-2.\nLi, David H. Xiangqi Syllabus on Horse: Chinese Chess 5. Premier Publishing, Bethesda, Maryland, 2004. ISBN 0-9711690-2-0.\n\nExternal links\n\nXiangqi.com Play Xiangqi for free\nXiangqi Championships\nLearn Chinese Chess in English Rules, openings, strategy, ancient manuals\nAn Introduction to Xiangqi for Chess Players\nXiangqi, Chinese Chess Presentation, rules, history and variants, by Jean-Louis Cazaux\nXiangqi (象棋): Chinese Chess by Hans Bodlaender, ed. Fergus Duniho, The Chess Variant Pages",
"title": "Xiangqi"
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"paragraph_text": "China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the world's second-most populous country after India, representing 17.4% of the world population. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and borders fourteen countries by land. With an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest country by total land area. The country is divided into 33 province-level divisions: 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two semi-autonomous special administrative regions. Beijing is the country's capital, while Shanghai is its most populous city by urban area and largest financial center.\nChina is considered one of the cradles of civilization: the first human inhabitants in the region arrived during the Paleolithic; by the late second millennium BCE, the earliest dynastic states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The eighth to third centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of the Zhou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques, literature, philosophy, and historiography. In 221 BCE, China was unified under an emperor for the first time. Appointed non-hereditary officials began ruling counties instead of the aristocracy, ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including the Qin, Han, Tang, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. With the invention of gunpowder and paper, the establishment of the Silk Road, and the building of the Great Wall, Chinese culture—including languages, traditions, architecture, philosophy and technology—flourished and has heavily influenced both its neighbors and lands further afield. However, China began to cede parts of the country in the late 19th century to various European powers by a series of unequal treaties.\nAfter decades of struggle, the 1911 Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC) the following year. The country under the nascent Beiyang government was unstable and ultimately fragmented during the Warlord Era, which was ended upon the Northern Expedition conducted by the Kuomintang (KMT) to reunify the country. The Chinese Civil War began in 1927, when KMT forces purged members of the rival Chinese Communist Party (CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-led Nationalist government. Following the country's invasion by the Empire of Japan in 1937, the KMT and CCP temporarily agreed to a truce in favor of a united front against the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War eventually ended in a Chinese victory; however, atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre had a lasting impact on the country. The end of war with Japan in 1945 was quickly followed by a resumption of hostilities between the KMT and CCP. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country, proclaiming the People's Republic of China and forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to the island of Taiwan. The country was split, with both sides claiming to be the sole legitimate government of China. Following the implementation of land reforms, further attempts by the PRC to realize communism failed: the Great Leap Forward was largely responsible for the Great Chinese Famine that ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequent Cultural Revolution was a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized by Maoist populism. Following the Sino-Soviet split, the Shanghai Communiqué in 1972 would precipitate the normalization of relations with the United States. Economic reforms that began in 1978 led by reformists within the CCP moved the country away from a socialist planned economy towards an increasingly capitalist market economy, spurring significant economic growth. The corresponding movement for increased democracy and liberalization stalled after the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre in 1989.\nChina is a unitary one-party socialist republic led by the CCP. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council; the UN representative for China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the AIIB, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, and the RCEP. It is a member of the BRICS, the G20, APEC, the SCO, and the East Asia Summit. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, the Chinese economy is the world's largest economy by GDP at purchasing power parity, the second-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the second-wealthiest country, albeit ranking poorly in measures of democracy, human rights and religious freedom. The country has been one of the fastest-growing major economies and is the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer. China is a nuclear-weapon state with the world's largest standing army by military personnel and the second-largest defense budget. It is a great power and a regional power, and has been described as an emerging superpower. China is known for its cuisine and culture, and has 59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the second-highest number of any country.\n\nEtymology\nThe word \"China\" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Cīna, used in ancient India. \"China\" appears in Richard Eden's 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian Chīn (چین), which in turn derived from Sanskrit Cīna (चीन). Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahabharata (5th century BCE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE). In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE). Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources. The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate. Alternative suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing or Chu state.\nThe official name of the modern state is the \"People's Republic of China\" (simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国; traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó). The shorter form is \"China\" (中国; 中國; Zhōngguó), from zhōng ('central') and guó ('state'), a term which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne. It was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the Qing. The name Zhongguo is also translated as 'Middle Kingdom' in English. China is sometimes referred to as \"mainland China\" or \"the Mainland\" when distinguishing it from the Republic of China or the PRC's Special Administrative Regions.\n\nHistory\nPrehistory\nArchaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago. The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire, have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago. The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave. Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 6600 BCE, at Damaidi around 6000 BCE, Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.\n\nEarly dynastic rule\nAccording to traditional Chinese historiography, the Xia dynasty was established during the late third millennium BC, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to underpin China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under increasing scrutiny, in part due to the earliest known attestation of the Xia being written millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites belonging to the Erlitou culture that existed during the early Bronze Age; they have since been characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected. The Shang dynasty that traditionally succeeded the Xia is the earliest for which there are both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence. The Shang ruled much of the Yellow River valley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence dating to c. 1300 BCE. The oracle bone script, attested from c. 1250 BCE but generally assumed to be considerably older, represents the oldest known form of written Chinese, and is the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.\nThe Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though the centralized authority of Son of Heaven was slowly eroded by fengjian lords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left.\n\nImperial China\nQin and Han\nThe Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six states, reunited China and established the dominant order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Qin dynasty, becoming the first emperor of a unified China. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms, notably the standardization of Chinese characters, measurements, road widths, and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Northern Vietnam. The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death.\nFollowing widespread revolts during which the imperial library was burned, the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern Han Chinese. The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world. Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.\n\nThree Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties\nAfter the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, at the end of which Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then rebelled and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581.\n\nSui, Tang and Song\nThe Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war in northern Korea provoked widespread unrest.\nUnder the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age. The Tang dynasty retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road, which brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa, and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan rebellion in the 8th century. In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and the Liao dynasty. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.\nBetween the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang, and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of complexity. However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China.\n\nYuan\nThe Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 with the campaigns against Western Xia by Genghis Khan, who also invaded Jin territories. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty, which conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa.\n\nMing\nIn the early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations. The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and Later Jin incursions led to an exhausted treasury. In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.\n\nQing\nThe Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. The Ming-Qing transition (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts. After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire. Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during the Northern Song period (960–1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830). By the High Qing era China was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution by the end of the 18th century. On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, like the Haijin during the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition, causing some social and technological stagnation.\n\nFall of the Qing dynasty\nIn the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars with Britain and France forced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of what have been termed as the \"unequal treaties\". The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.\nIn the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the late Qing reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. Puyi, the last Emperor, abdicated in 1912.\n\nEstablishment of the Republic and World War II\nOn 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT) was proclaimed provisional president. In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916. After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory. During this period, China participated in World War I and saw a far-reaching popular uprising (the May Fourth Movement).\n\nIn the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as the Northern Expedition. The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented \"political tutelage\", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People program for transforming China into a modern democratic state. The Kuomintang briefly allied with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the Northern Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiang violently suppressed the CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. The CCP declared areas of the country as the Chinese Soviet Republic (Jiangxi Soviet) in November 1931 in Ruijin, Jiangxi. The Jiangxi Soviet was wiped out by the KMT armies in 1934, leading the CCP to initiate the Long March and relocate to Yan'an in Shaanxi. It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949.\nIn 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria. Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II. The war forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation. China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were recognized as the Allied \"Big Four\" in the Declaration by United Nations. Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Penghu, was handed over to Chinese control; however, the validity of this handover is controversial.\n\nPeople's Republic\nChina emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China. Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the ROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan.\nOn 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the People's Republic of China in Tiananmen Square, Beijing. In 1950, the PRC captured Hainan from the ROC and annexed Tibet. However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s. The CCP consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the Land Reform Movement, which included the state-tolerated executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants. Though the PRC initially allied closely with the Soviet Union, the relations between the two communist nations gradually deteriorated, leading China to develop an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons.\nThe Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974. However, the Great Leap Forward, an idealistic massive industrialization project, resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation. In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb. In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.\n\nReforms and contemporary history\nAfter Mao's death, the Gang of Four was arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale political and economic reforms, together with the \"Eight Elders\", most senior and influential members of the party. The government loosened its control and the communes were gradually disbanded. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized. While foreign trade became a major focus, special economic zones (SEZs) were created. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and some closed. This marked China's transition away from planned economy. China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.\n\nIn 1989, there were protests such those in Tiananmen Square, and then throughout the entire nation. Zhao Ziyang was put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests and was replaced by Jiang Zemin. Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down \"iron rice bowl\" (life-tenure positions). China's economy grew sevenfold during this time. British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau returned to China in 1997 and 1999, respectively, as special administrative regions under the principle of one country, two systems. The country joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.At the 16th CCP National Congress in 2002, Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang as the general secretary. Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy. However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment, and caused major social displacement. Xi Jinping succeeded Hu as paramount leader at the 18th CCP National Congress in 2012. Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launched a vast anti-corruption crackdown, that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022. During his tenure, Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation of economic and political reforms.\n\nGeography\nChina's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe.\nThe territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. The geographical center of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at 35°50′40.9″N 103°27′7.5″E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 m) in the Turpan Depression.\n\nClimate\nChina's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.\nA major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people. According to academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation from coal in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise.\nOfficial government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels. Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops. In 2021, 12 percent of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to China, as well as 8% of global cropland.\n\nBiodiversity\nChina is one of 17 megadiverse countries, lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia. The country is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity; its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was received by the convention in 2010.\nChina is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest in the world), 1,221 species of birds (eighth), 424 species of reptiles (seventh) and 333 species of amphibians (seventh). Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, one of the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and traditional Chinese medicine. Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area. Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west. The Baiji was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006.\nChina has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China. China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi.\n\nEnvironment\nIn the early 2000s, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to its rapid pace of industrialization. Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development. China has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, after India, with approximately 1 million deaths. Although China ranks as the highest CO2 emitting country, it only emits 8 tons of CO2 per capita, significantly lower than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6). Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest. The country has significant water pollution problems; only 87.9% of China's national surface water was graded suitable for human consumption by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2022.\nChina has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s. In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 in line with the Paris Agreement, which, according to Climate Action Tracker, would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – \"the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker\".\nChina is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $546 billion invested in 2022; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022. In 2023, 60.5% of China's electricity came from coal (largest producer in the world), 13.2% from hydroelectric power (largest), 9.4% from wind (largest), 6.2% from solar energy (largest), 4.6% from nuclear energy (second-largest), 3.3% from natural gas (fifth-largest), and 2.2% from bioenergy (largest); in total, 31% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources. Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russian crude oil in 2022.\n\nPolitical geography\nChina is the third-largest country in the world by land area after Russia, and the third- or fourth-largest country in the world by total area. China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi). Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook, and The World Factbook.China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and its coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River (Amnok River) to the Gulf of Tonkin. China borders 14 nations and covers the bulk of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan in South Asia; Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. It is narrowly separated from Bangladesh and Thailand to the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such as Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.\nChina has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them. China currently has a disputed land border with India and Bhutan. China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over territory in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the entirety of South China Sea Islands.\n\nGovernment and politics\nThe People's Republic of China is a one-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which considers itself to be Marxist–Leninist. This makes China one of the few countries governed by a communist party. The Chinese constitution states that the PRC \"is a socialist state governed by a people's democratic dictatorship that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants,\" that the state institutions \"shall practice the principle of democratic centralism,\" and that \"the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party.\"\nThe PRC officially terms itself as a democracy, using terms such as \"socialist consultative democracy\", and \"whole-process people's democracy\". However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a dictatorship, with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, free formation of social organizations, freedom of religion and free access to the Internet. China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an \"authoritarian regime\" by the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index, ranking at 148th out of 167 countries in 2023. Other sources suggest that terming China as \"authoritarian\" does not sufficiently account for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in Chinese government.\n\nChinese Communist Party\nAccording to the CCP constitution, its highest body is the National Congress held every five years. The National Congress elects the Central Committee, who then elects the party's Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee and the general secretary (party leader), the top leadership of the country. The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the informal paramount leader. The current general secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012. At the local level, the secretary of the CCP committee of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor. The CCP is officially guided by Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.\n\nGovernment\nThe government in China is under the sole control of the CCP. The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members.\nThe National People's Congress (NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, is constitutionally the \"highest organ of state power\", though it has been also described as a \"rubber stamp\" body. The NPC meets annually, while the NPC Standing Committee, around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months. Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP. The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another eight minor parties having nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership.\nThe president is elected by the NPC. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, but not the constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader and supreme commander of the Armed Forces. The premier is the head of government, with Li Qiang being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the State Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, state councilors, and the heads of ministries and commissions. The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's \"united front\" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by Wang Huning, fourth-ranking member of the PSC.\nThe governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.: 7 Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that involves experimentation and feedback.: 14 Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.: 71 The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.: 71\n\nAdministrative divisions\nThe PRC is constitutionally a unitary state divided into 23 provinces, five autonomous regions (each with a designated minority group), and four direct-administered municipalities—collectively referred to as \"mainland China\"—as well as the special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau. The PRC regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province, although all these territories are governed by the Republic of China (ROC). Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: North China, East China, Southwestern China, Northwestern China, South Central China, and Northeast China.\n\nForeign relations\nThe PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintains embassies in 174. As of 2024, China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the G20, the SCO, the East Asia Summit, and the APEC. China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries. Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit in April 2011.\n\nThe PRC officially maintains the one-China principle, which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China. The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique \"one-China policies\" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, only acknowledge the claim. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan, especially in the matter of armament sales. Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971.Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of \"harmony without uniformity\", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences. This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are regarded as dangerous and repressive by Western nations, such as Sudan, North Korea and Iran. China's close relationship with Myanmar has involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups, including the Arakan Army. China has a close political, economic and military relationship with Russia, and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council. China's relationship with the United States is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.\nSince the early 2000s, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation. It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods. China is increasing its influence in Central Asia and South Pacific. The country has strong trade ties with ASEAN countries and major South American economies, and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.\nIn 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year. BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history. It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020, includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially the maritime Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for debt relief from debtor nations.\n\nMilitary\nThe People's Liberation Army (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades. It has also been accused of technology theft by some countries. Since 2024, it consists of four services: the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF) and the Rocket Force (PLARF). It also has four independent arms: the Aerospace Force, the Cyberspace Force, the Information Support Force, and the Joint Logistics Support Force, the first three of which were split from the disbanded Strategic Support Force (PLASSF). Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the largest in the world. The PLA holds the world's third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons, and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage. China's official military budget for 2023 totalled US$224 billion (1.55 trillion Yuan), the second-largest in the world, though SIPRI estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$296 billion, making up 12% of global military spending and accounting for 1.7% of the country's GDP. According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP. The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA.\n\nSociopolitical issues and human rights\nThe situation of human rights in China has attracted significant criticism from foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and excessive use of the death penalty. Since its inception, Freedom House has ranked China as \"not free\" in its Freedom in the World survey, while Amnesty International has documented significant human rights abuses. The Chinese constitution states that the \"fundamental rights\" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state. China has limited protections regarding LGBT rights.\nAlthough some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action. China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked. The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to \"social stability\". China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country.\n\nChina is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, where significant numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression. Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with around one million Uyghurs and other ethnic and religion minorities being detained in internment camps aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs. According to Western reports, political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities. According to a 2020 Foreign Policy report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide, while a separate UN Human Rights Office report said they could potentially meet the definitions for crimes against humanity. The Chinese authorities have also cracked down on dissent in Hong Kong, especially after the passage of a national security law in 2020.\n\nIn 2017 and 2020, the Pew Research Center ranked the severity of Chinese government restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related social hostilities in China as low in severity. The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in \"conditions of modern slavery\", including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed re-education through labor (laojiao) system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have stopped. The much larger reform through labor (laogai) system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the Laogai Research Foundation has estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate.\n\nPublic views of government\nPolitical concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption. Nonetheless, international surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.: 137 These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness. : 136 According to the World Values Survey (2022), 91% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.: 13 A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history.\n\nEconomy\nChina has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, and the world's largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). As of 2022, China accounts for around 18% of the global economy by nominal GDP. China is one of the world's fastest-growing major economies, with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978. According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022. It ranks at 64th at nominal GDP per capita, making it an upper-middle income country. Of the world's 500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in China. As of at least 2024, China has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest bond market.: 153 \nChina was one of the world's foremost economic powers throughout the arc of East Asian and global history. The country had one of the largest economies in the world for most of the past two millennia, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world—Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020. China has four (Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index.\n\nModern-day China is often described as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism. The state dominates in strategic \"pillar\" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008. According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP.\nChina has been the world's largest manufacturing nation since 2010, after overtaking the U.S., which had been the largest for the previous hundred years. China has also been the second-largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 2012, according to US National Science Foundation. China is the second-largest retail market after the United States. China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021. China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world as of 2022. China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.\n\nTourism\nChina received 65.7 million international visitors in 2019, and in 2018 was the fourth-most-visited country in the world. It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019. China hosts the world's second-largest number of World Heritage Sites (56) after Italy, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations (first in the Asia-Pacific).\n\nWealth\nChina accounted for 17.9% of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the U.S. China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.: 23 From 1990 to 2018, the proportion of the Chinese population living with an income of less than $1.90 per day (2011 PPP) decreased from 66.3% to 0.3%, the share living with an income of less than $3.20 per day from 90.0% to 2.9%, and the share living with an income of less than $5.50 per day decreased from 98.3% to 17.0%.\nFrom 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six. Wages in China have grown significantly in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007. Per capita incomes have also risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself. China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions. It has a high level of economic inequality, which has increased quickly after the economic reforms, though has decreased significantly in the 2010s. In 2021, China's Gini coefficient was 0.357, according to the World Bank.\nAs of March 2024, China was second in the world, after the U.S., in total number of billionaires and total number of millionaires, with 473 Chinese billionaires and 6.2 million millionaires. In 2019, China overtook the U.S. as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by Credit Suisse. China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021, two-thirds of the global total. China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015; the middle-class grew to 500 million by 2024.\n\nChina in the global economy\nChina has been a member of the WTO since 2001 and is the world's largest trading power. By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries. China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market.\nChina's foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024, making its reserves by far the world's largest. In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong. In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second-largest recipient of remittances in the world. China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023, and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.\nEconomists have argued that the renminbi is undervalued, due to currency intervention from the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage. China has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods. The U.S. government has also alleged that China does not respect intellectual property (IP) rights and steals IP through espionage operations. In 2020, Harvard University's Economic Complexity Index ranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.\nThe Chinese government has promoted the internationalization of the renminbi in order to wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system. The renminbi is a component of the IMF's special drawing rights and the world's fourth-most traded currency as of 2023. However, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen in international trade volumes.\n\nScience and technology\nHistorical\nChina was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming dynasty. Ancient and medieval Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement. The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars.\nAfter repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Imperial Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning. After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the Four Modernizations, and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.\n\nModern era\nSince the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research and is quickly catching up with the U.S. in R&D spending. China officially spent around 2.6% of its GDP on R&D in 2023, totaling to around $458.5 billion. According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021. It was ranked 11th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013. Chinese supercomputers ranked among the fastest in the world. Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks.\nChina is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Its academic publication apparatus became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016. In 2022, China overtook the US in the Nature Index, which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals.\n\nSpace program\nThe Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Dong Fang Hong I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently.\nIn 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. As of 2023, eighteen Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, Tiangong-1. In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover Yutu successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the Chang'e 3 mission.\nIn 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on the far side of the Moon. In 2020, Chang'e 5 successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently. In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a rover (Zhurong) on Mars. China completed its own modular space station, the Tiangong, in low Earth orbit on 3 November 2022. On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the Tiangong.\nIn May 2023, China announced a plan to land humans on the Moon by 2030. To that end, China currently is developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, the Long March 10, a new crewed spacecraft, and a crewed lunar lander.\nChina sent Chang'e 6 on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return from Apollo Basin on the far side of the Moon. This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved by Chang'e 5 from the lunar near side 4 years ago. It also carried a Chinese rover called Jinchan to conduct infrared spectroscopy of lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface. The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024, at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024. The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024, at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, which later completed another robotic rendezvous, before docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed on Inner Mongolia in June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission.\n\nInfrastructure\nAfter a decades-long infrastructural boom, China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has the largest high-speed rail network, the most supertall skyscrapers, the largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam), and a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites.\n\nTelecommunications\nChina is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 1.7 billion subscribers, as of February 2023. It has the largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.09 billion Internet users as of December 2023—equivalent to around 77.5% of its population. By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total. China is making rapid advances in 5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials. As of December 2023, China had over 810 million 5G users and 3.38 million base stations installed.\nChina Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018. Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China. Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.\nChina has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed BeiDou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012 as well as global services by the end of 2018. Beidou followed GPS and GLONASS as the third completed global navigation satellite.\n\nTransport\nSince the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2022, China's highways had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world. China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2023. A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents. In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2023, there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China.\nChina's railways, which are operated by the state-owned China State Railway Group Company, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006. As of 2023, the country had 159,000 km (98,798 mi) of railways, the second-longest network in the world. The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest annual human migration takes place. China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2023, high speed rail in China had reached 45,000 kilometers (27,962 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network in the world. Services on the Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Tianjin, and Chengdu–Chongqing lines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.3 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest. The network includes the Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world. The Shanghai maglev train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world. Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated. As of December 2023, 55 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation. As of 2020, China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest.\nThe civil aviation industry in China is mostly state-dominated, with the Chinese government retaining a majority stake in the majority of Chinese airlines. The top three airlines in China, which collectively made up 71% of the market in 2018, are all state-owned. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades, with the number of passengers increasing from 16.6 million in 1990 to 551.2 million in 2017. China had approximately 259 airports in 2024.\nChina has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. Of the fifty busiest container ports, 15 are located in China, of which the busiest is the Port of Shanghai, also the busiest port in the world. The country's inland waterways are the world's sixth-longest, and total 27,700 km (17,212 mi).\n\nWater supply and sanitation\nWater supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution. According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation in 2015. The ongoing South–North Water Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north.\n\nDemographics\nThe 2020 Chinese census recorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old. Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.\nGiven concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a \"1.5\"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits. The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child. In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy. A three-child policy was announced on 31 May 2021, due to population aging, and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed. In 2023, the total fertility rate was reported to be 1.09, ranking among the lowest in the world. In 2023, National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.\nAccording to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth or total population size. However, these scholars have been challenged. The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth. The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population. However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population.\nThe cultural preference for male children, combined with the one-child policy, led to an excess of female child orphans in China, and in the 1990s through around 2007, there was an active stream of adoptions of (mainly female) babies by American and other foreign parents. However, increased restrictions by the Chinese Government slowed foreign adoptions significantly in 2007 and again in 2015.\n\nUrbanization\nChina has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 66% in 2023. China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, including the 17 megacities as of 2021 (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Xi'an, Suzhou, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Linyi, Shijiazhuang, Dongguan, Qingdao and Changsha. The total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million. Shanghai is China's most populous urban area while Chongqing is its largest city proper, the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million. The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large \"floating populations\" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult; the figures below include only long-term residents.\n\nEthnic groups\nChina legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the Zhonghua minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the Han Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population. The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group – outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excluding Tibet, Xinjiang, Linxia, and autonomous prefectures like Xishuangbanna. Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census. Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%. The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.\n\nLanguages\nThere are as many as 292 living languages in China. The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 80% of the population), and other varieties of Chinese language: Jin, Wu, Min, Hakka, Yue, Xiang, Gan, Hui, Ping and unclassified Tuhua (Shaozhou Tuhua and Xiangnan Tuhua). Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwestern China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur. Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language. Taiwanese indigenous peoples, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages.\nStandard Mandarin, a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, is the national language and de facto official language of China. It is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds. In the autonomous regions of China, other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed.\n\nReligion\nFreedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution (Chapter 2, Article 36), although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution. The government of the country is officially atheist. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under the United Front Work Department.\nOver the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The \"three doctrines\", including Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism (Chinese Buddhism), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture, enriching a theological and spiritual framework of traditional religion which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions, consists in allegiance to the shen (神), a character that signifies the \"energies of generation\", who can be deities of the surrounding nature or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history. Amongst the most popular cults of folk religion are those of Huangdi, embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese people, of Mazu (goddess of the seas), Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults — formally recognizing them as \"folk beliefs\" (a category different from that of doctrinal religions), and often reconstructing them into forms of \"highly curated\" civil religion — as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism. China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of Buddhism; the tallest of all is the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.\n\nStatistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious practices. Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable as non-theistic and humanistic, since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being. According to studies published in 2023, compiling reliable demographic analyses holden throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believes in or practices Chinese folk religion; among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as Buddhists, 19.6% as Taoists, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion. Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents of Christianity, and 1.6% are adherents of Islam. Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety of salvationist doctrinal organized movements which emerged since the Song dynasty. There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their own indigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism among Tibetans, Mongols and Yugurs, and Islam among the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz peoples, and other ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country.\n\nEducation\nCompulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15. The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level. More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year. In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.\nChina has the largest education system in the world, with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023. Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020. However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces, only totalled ¥3,204. China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979, to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.\nAs of 2023, China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world. As of 2023, China had the world's highest number of top universities. Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE). China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities (Tsinghua University and Peking University) in Asia and emerging economies, according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings and the QS World University Rankings. These universities are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education.\n\nHealth\nThe National Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population. An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.\nAfter Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion. By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage. By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals, producing around 40 percent of active pharmaceutical ingredients in 2017.\nAs of 2023, the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.: 163 As of 2021, the infant mortality rate is 5 per thousand. Both have improved significantly since the 1950s. Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010. Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution, hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers, and an increase in obesity among urban youths. In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China. Chinese mental health services are inadequate. China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as SARS in 2003, although this has since been largely contained. The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019; pandemic led the government to enforce strict public health measures intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 after protests against the policy.\n\nCulture and society\nSince ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty. The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today.\n\nToday, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival, and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.\n\nArchitecture\nChinese architecture has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture, including in Japan, Korea, and Mongolia. and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines.\nChinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies), a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological, mythological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from pagodas to palaces.\nChinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the stilt houses in the south, the Yaodong buildings in the northwest, the yurt buildings of nomadic people, and the Siheyuan buildings in the north.\n\nLiterature\nChinese literature has its roots in the Zhou dynasty's literary tradition. The classical texts of China encompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects, such as the calendar, military, astrology, herbology, and geography, as well as many others. Among the most significant early works are the I Ching and the Shujing, which are part of the Four Books and Five Classics. These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore. Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber. Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng, it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the Chinese sphere of influence.\nIn the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature. Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism, emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.\n\nMusic\nChinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing and Cantonese opera. Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular.\n\nFashion\nHanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress. The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing. China Fashion Week is the country's only national-level fashion festival.\n\nCinema\nCinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905. China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016; China became the largest cinema market in 2020. The top three highest-grossing films in China as of 2023 were The Battle at Lake Changjin (2021), Wolf Warrior 2 (2017), and Hi, Mom (2021).\n\nCuisine\nChinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the \"Eight Major Cuisines\", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines. Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth of cooking methods and ingredients. China's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. Bean products such as tofu and soy milk remain a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption. There is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Chinese cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables. Offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese cuisine, have emerged in the Chinese diaspora.\n\nSports\nChina has one of the oldest sporting cultures. There is evidence that archery (shèjiàn) was practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football date back to China's early dynasties as well.\nPhysical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and tai chi widely practiced, and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity. Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China. The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association also have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian being held in high esteem. China's professional football league, known as Chinese Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia. Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012. China has the world's largest esports market. Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.\nChina has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – the highest number of any participating nation that year. China also won the most medals at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold. In 2011, Shenzhen hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing, the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou collaboratively hosted the 2022 Winter Olympics, making Beijing the first dual Olympic city by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.\n\nSee also\nOutline of China\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nThis article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO.\n\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nGovernment\nThe Central People's Government of People's Republic of China (in English)\n\nGeneral information\nChina at a Glance from People's Daily\nChina at the Encyclopædia Britannica\nCountry profile – China at BBC News\nChina. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.\nChina, People's Republic of from UCB Libraries GovPubs\n\nMaps\nGoogle Maps—China\n Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China\n Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap",
"title": "China"
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"paragraph_text": "Japan is an island country in East Asia. It is located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The Japanese archipelago consists of four major islands—Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu—and thousands of smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometres (145,937 sq mi). Japan has a population of nearly 124 million as of 2024, and is the eleventh-most populous country. Its capital and largest city is Tokyo; the Greater Tokyo Area is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with more than 38 million inhabitants as of 2016. Japan is divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions. About three-quarters of the country's terrain is mountainous and heavily forested, concentrating its agriculture and highly urbanized population along its eastern coastal plains. The country sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire, making its islands prone to destructive earthquakes and tsunamis.\nThe first known habitation of the archipelago dates to the Upper Paleolithic, with the beginning Japanese Paleolithic dating to c. 36,000 BC. Between the fourth and sixth centuries, its kingdoms were united under an emperor in Nara, and later Heian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators (shōgun) and feudal lords (daimyō), and enforced by warrior nobility (samurai). After rule by the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates and a century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by the Tokugawa shogunate, which implemented an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, a United States fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meiji period, the Empire of Japan pursued rapid industrialization and modernization, as well as militarism and overseas colonization. In 1937, Japan invaded China, and in 1941 attacked the United States and European colonial powers, entering World War II as an Axis power. After suffering defeat in the Pacific War and two atomic bombings, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under Allied occupation. After the war, the country underwent rapid economic growth, although its economy has stagnated since 1990.\nJapan is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature, the National Diet. A great power and the only Asian member of the G7, Japan has constitutionally renounced its right to declare war, but maintains one of the world's strongest militaries. A highly developed country with one of the world's largest economies, Japan is a global leader in science and technology and the automotive, robotics, and electronics industries. It has one of the world's highest life expectancies, though it is undergoing a population decline. Japan's culture is well known around the world, including its art, cuisine, film, music, and popular culture, which includes prominent comics, animation, and video game industries.\n\nEtymology\nThe name for Japan in Japanese is written using the kanji 日本 and is pronounced Nihon or Nippon. Before 日本 was adopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China as Wa (倭, changed in Japan around 757 to 和) and in Japan by the endonym Yamato. Nippon, the original Sino-Japanese reading of the characters, is favored for official uses, including on Japanese banknotes and postage stamps. Nihon is typically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts in Japanese phonology during the Edo period. The characters 日本 mean \"sun origin\", which is the source of the popular Western epithet \"Land of the Rising Sun\".\nThe name \"Japan\" is based on Min or Wu Chinese pronunciations of 日本 and was introduced to European languages through early trade. In the 13th century, Marco Polo recorded the Early Mandarin Chinese pronunciation of the characters 日本國 as Cipangu. The old Malay name for Japan, Japang or Japun, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia, who brought the word to Europe in the early 16th century. The first version of the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, which spelled the name as Giapan in a translation of a 1565 Portuguese letter.\n\nHistory\nPrehistoric to classical history\nModern humans arrived in Japan around 38,000 years ago (~36,000 BC), marking the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic. This was followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture. Clay vessels from the period are among the oldest surviving examples of pottery. The Japonic-speaking Yayoi people entered the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula, intermingling with the Jōmon; the Yayoi period saw the introduction of practices including wet-rice farming, a new style of pottery, and metallurgy from China and Korea. According to legend, Emperor Jimmu (descendant of Amaterasu) founded a kingdom in central Japan in 660 BC, beginning a continuous imperial line.\nJapan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han, completed in 111 AD. Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Baekje (a Korean kingdom) in 552, but the development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China. Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures like Prince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710).\nIn 645, the government led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Fujiwara no Kamatari devised and implemented the far-reaching Taika Reforms. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas and philosophies from China. It nationalized all land in Japan, to be distributed equally among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation. The true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion. The Jinshin War of 672, a bloody conflict between Prince Ōama and his nephew Prince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms. These reforms culminated with the promulgation of the Taihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central and subordinate local governments. These legal reforms created the ritsuryō state, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium.\nThe Nara period (710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture with the completion of the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture. A smallpox epidemic in 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population. In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital, settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in 794. This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged. Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem \"Kimigayo\" were written during this time.\n\nFeudal era\nJapan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan by the Minamoto clan in the Genpei War, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo established a military government at Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shōgun. The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo was defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336, beginning the Muromachi period (1336–1573). The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyō) and a civil war began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period (\"Warring States\").\nDuring the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga used European technology and firearms to conquer many other daimyō; his consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period. After the death of Nobunaga in 1582, his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the nation in the early 1590s and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.\nTokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. He was appointed shōgun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo). The shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyō, and in 1639 the isolationist sakoku (\"closed country\") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868). Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting in roads and water transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers. The study of Western sciences (rangaku) continued through contact with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki. The Edo period gave rise to kokugaku (\"national studies\"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.\n\nModern era\nThe United States Navy sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to force the opening of Japan to the outside world. Arriving at Uraga with four \"Black Ships\" in July 1853, the Perry Expedition resulted in the March 1854 Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and political crises. The resignation of the shōgun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the emperor (the Meiji Restoration). Adopting Western political, judicial, and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution (November 29, 1890), and assembled the Imperial Diet. During the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Empire of Japan emerged as the most developed state in Asia and as an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half of Sakhalin, and annexed Korea in 1910. The Japanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a significant shift to urbanization.\nThe early 20th century saw a period of Taishō democracy (1912–1926) overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization. World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and China in 1920. The 1920s saw a political shift towards statism, a period of lawlessness following the 1923 Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing of laws against political dissent, and a series of attempted coups. This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in Asia. In 1931, Japan invaded China and occupied Manchuria, which led to the establishment of puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932; following international condemnation of the occupation, it resigned from the League of Nations in 1933. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany; the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis powers.\n\nThe Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). In 1940, the Empire invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan. On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among others, beginning World War II in the Pacific. Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many forced into sexual slavery. After Allied victories during the next four years, which culminated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender. The war cost Japan millions of lives and its colonies, including de jure parts of Japan such as Korea, Taiwan, Karafuto, and the Kurils. The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated millions of Japanese settlers from their former colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese Empire and its influence over the territories it conquered. The Allies convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to prosecute Japanese leaders except the Emperor for war crimes.\nIn 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952, and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world; this ended in the mid-1990s after the popping of an asset price bubble, beginning the \"Lost Decade\". In 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history - the Tōhoku earthquake - triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On May 1, 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor, beginning the Reiwa era.\n\nGeography\nJapan comprises 14,125 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. It stretches over 3000 km (1900 mi) northeast–southwest from the Sea of Okhotsk to the East China Sea. The country's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa. The Ryukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu. The Nanpō Islands are south and east of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as the Japanese archipelago. As of 2019, Japan's territory is 377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi). Japan has the sixth-longest coastline in the world at 29,751 km (18,486 mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands, Japan's exclusive economic zone is the eighth-largest in the world, covering 4,470,000 km2 (1,730,000 sq mi).\nThe Japanese archipelago is 67% forests and 14% agricultural. The primarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation. Thus the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high population densities: Japan is the 40th most densely populated country even without considering that local concentration. Honshu has the highest population density at 450 persons/km2 (1200/sq mi) as of 2010, while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2 as of 2016. As of 2014, approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is reclaimed land (umetatechi). Lake Biwa is an ancient lake and the country's largest freshwater lake.\nJapan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and volcanic eruptions because of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire. It has the 17th highest natural disaster risk as measured in the 2016 World Risk Index. Japan has 111 active volcanoes. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century; the 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people. More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami.\n\nClimate\nThe climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.\nIn the Sea of Japan region on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter. In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the Foehn. The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.\nThe Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain. According to the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere. The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), was recorded on July 23, 2018, and repeated on August 17, 2020.\n\nBiodiversity\nJapan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands. Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife as of 2019, including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, the small Japanese field mouse, and the Japanese giant salamander. There are 53 Ramsar wetland sites in Japan. Five sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value.\n\nEnvironment\nIn the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental protection laws in 1970. The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources.\nJapan ranks 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a country's commitment to environmental sustainability. Japan is the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbon dioxide. As the host and signatory of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change. In 2020, the government of Japan announced a target of carbon-neutrality by 2050. Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.\n\nGovernment and politics\nJapan is a unitary state and constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited to a ceremonial role. Executive power is instead wielded by the Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people. Naruhito is the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his father Akihito upon his accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne in 2019.\n\nJapan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. It consists of a lower House of Representatives with 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upper House of Councillors with 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 18 years of age, with a secret ballot for all elected offices. The prime minister as the head of government has the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers of State, and is appointed by the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet. Fumio Kishida is Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the 2021 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election. The broadly conservative Liberal Democratic Party has been the dominant party in the country since the 1950s, often called the 1955 System.\nHistorically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. Since the late 19th century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established a civil code based on the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications. The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world. Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.\n\nAdministrative divisions\nJapan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor and legislature. In the following table, the prefectures are grouped by region:\n\nForeign relations\nA member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one of the G4 countries seeking reform of the Security Council. Japan is a member of the G7, APEC, and \"ASEAN Plus Three\", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit. It is the world's fifth-largest donor of official development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014. In 2024, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world.\nJapan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with which it maintains a security alliance. The United States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with military bases in Japan. In 2016, Japan announced the Free and Open Indo-Pacific vision, which frames its regional policies. Japan is also a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (\"the Quad\"), a multilateral security dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific region, along with the United States, Australia, and India. \nJapan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945. South Korea's control of the Liancourt Rocks is acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan. Japan has strained relations with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and the status of Okinotorishima.\n\nMilitary\nJapan is the third highest-ranked Asian country in the 2024 Global Peace Index. It spent 1.1% of its total GDP on its defence budget in 2022, and maintained the tenth-largest military budget in the world in 2022. The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes. The military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. The deployment of troops to Iraq and Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.\nThe Government of Japan has been making changes to its security policy which include the establishment of the National Security Council, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and the development of the National Defense Program Guidelines. In May 2014, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe said Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security. In December 2022, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida further confirmed this trend, instructing the government to increase spending by 65% until 2027. Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debate over the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society.\n\nLaw enforcement\nDomestic security in Japan is provided mainly by the prefectural police departments, under the oversight of the National Police Agency. As the central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is administered by the National Public Safety Commission. The Special Assault Team comprises national-level counter-terrorism tactical units that cooperate with territorial-level Anti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads. The Japan Coast Guard guards territorial waters surrounding Japan and uses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marine environmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration.\nThe Firearm and Sword Possession Control Law strictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report statistics as of 2018, the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan.\n\nHuman rights\nJapan has faced criticism for not allowing same-sex marriages, despite a majority of Japanese people supporting marriage equality. It is the least developed out of the G7 countries in terms of LGBT equality. Japan legally prohibits racial and religious discrimination under its constitution. Japan is also a signatory to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, while facing criticism for racial profiling by police. Japan is among the few developed countries which still legally retain and actively allow capital punishment.\n\nEconomy\nJapan has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, after that of the United States, China and Germany; and the fourth-largest economy by PPP. As of 2021, Japan's labor force is the world's eighth-largest, consisting of over 68.6 million workers. As of 2022, Japan has a low unemployment rate of around 2.6%. Its poverty rate is the second highest among the G7 countries, and exceeds 15.7% of the population. Japan has the highest ratio of public debt to GDP among advanced economies, with a national debt estimated at 248% relative to GDP as of 2022. The Japanese yen is the world's third-largest reserve currency after the US dollar and the euro.\nJapan was the world's fifth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer in 2022. Its exports amounted to 18.2% of its total GDP in 2021. As of 2022, Japan's main export markets were China (23.9 percent, including Hong Kong) and the United States (18.5 percent). Its main exports are motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, and auto parts. Japan's main import markets as of 2022 were China (21.1 percent), the United States (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, and raw materials for its industries.\nThe Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are common in the Japanese work environment. Japan has a large cooperative sector, with three of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largest consumer cooperative and the largest agricultural cooperative as of 2018. It ranks highly for competitiveness and economic freedom. Japan ranked sixth in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2019. It attracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked eleventh in the world in 2019 for inbound tourism. The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Japan first in the world out of 117 countries. Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion.\n\nAgriculture and fishery\nThe Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of the country's total GDP as of 2018. Only 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. Because of this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% as of 2018. Japan's small agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected. There has been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors.\nJapan ranked seventh in the world in tonnage of fish caught and captured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of 4,000,000 tons over the previous decade. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting critiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna. Japan has sparked controversy by supporting commercial whaling.\n\nIndustry and services\nJapan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the \"largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods\". Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP. The country's manufacturing output is the fourth highest in the world as of 2023.\nJapan is in the top three globally for both automobile production and export, and is home to Toyota, the world's largest automobile company by vehicle production. The Japanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asian neighbors, South Korea and China; a 2020 government initiative identified this sector as a target for increasing exports.\nJapan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its total economic output as of 2021. Banking, retail, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries, with companies such as Toyota, Mitsubishi UFJ, -NTT, Aeon, SoftBank, Hitachi, and Itochu listed as among the largest in the world.\n\nScience and technology\nRelative to gross domestic product, Japan's research and development budget is the second highest in the world, with 867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budget as of 2017. The country has produced twenty-two Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine, and three Fields medalists.\nJapan leads the world in robotics production and use, supplying 45% of the world's 2020 total; down from 55% in 2017. Japan has the second highest number of researchers in science and technology per capita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees.\nOnce considered the strongest in the world, the Japanese consumer electronics industry is in a state of decline as regional competition arises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China. However, Japan's video game sector remains a major industry. In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming. By 2015, Japan had become the world's fourth-largest PC game market by revenue, behind only China, the United States, and South Korea.\nThe Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is Japan's national space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008. The space probe Akatsuki was launched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015. Japan's plans in space exploration include building a Moon base and landing astronauts by 2030. In 2007, it launched lunar explorer SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) from Tanegashima Space Center. The largest lunar mission since the Apollo program, its purpose was to gather data on the Moon's origin and evolution. The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007, and was deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009.\n\nInfrastructure\nTransportation\nJapan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure since the 1990s. The country has approximately 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,000,000 kilometers (620,000 miles) of city, town and village roads, 130,000 kilometers (81,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 54,736 kilometers (34,011 miles) of general national highways and 7641 kilometers (4748 miles) of national expressways as of 2017.\nSince privatization in 1987, dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. The high-speed Shinkansen (bullet trains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality.\nThere are 175 airports in Japan as of 2021. The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport in Tokyo, was Asia's second-busiest airport in 2019. The Keihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98 and 5.22 million TEU respectively as of 2017.\n\nEnergy\nAs of 2019, 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% from hydropower and 2.8% from nuclear power, among other sources. Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010. By May 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some to service. The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant restarted in 2015, and since then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted. Japan lacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence on imported energy. The country has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.\n\nWater supply and sanitation\nResponsibility for the water and sanitation sector is shared between the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, in charge of water supply for domestic use; the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, in charge of water resources development as well as sanitation; the Ministry of the Environment, in charge of ambient water quality and environmental preservation; and the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, in charge of performance benchmarking of utilities. Access to an improved water source is universal in Japan. About 98% of the population receives piped water supply from public utilities.\n\nDemographics\nJapan has a population of almost 125 million, of whom nearly 122 million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates). A small population of foreign residents makes up the remainder. \nJapan is the world's fastest aging country and has the highest proportion of elderly citizens of any country, comprising one-third of its total population; this is the result of a post–World War II baby boom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and a decrease in birth rates. Japan has a total fertility rate of 1.4, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is among the world's lowest; it has a median age of 48.4, the highest in the world. As of 2020, over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one in four out of the Japanese population. As a growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless, Japan's population is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065.\nThe changes in demographic structure have created several social issues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase in the cost of social security benefits. The Government of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age by 2060. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors.\nIn 2022, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities. The capital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022). It is part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the biggest metropolitan area in the world with 38,140,000 people (2016). Japan is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, with the Japanese people forming 97.4% of the country's population. Minority ethnic groups in the country include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan people. Zainichi Koreans, Chinese, Filipinos, Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent, and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are also among Japan's small minority groups. Burakumin make up a social minority group.\n\nLanguages\nThe Japanese language is Japan's de facto national language and the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country. Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on cursive script and radicals used by kanji), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals. English has taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language. As a result, the prevalence of English in the educational system has increased, with English classes becoming mandatory at all levels of the Japanese school system by 2020. Japanese Sign Language is the primary sign language used in Japan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has been historically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educational support.\nBesides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni), part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain. Few children learn these languages, but local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages. The Ainu language, which is a language isolate, is moribund, with only a few native speakers remaining as of 2014. Additionally, a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrant communities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such as Korean (including a distinct Zainichi Korean dialect), Chinese and Portuguese.\n\nReligion\nJapan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom. Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Shinto as its indigenous religion. However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Many Japanese people practice both Shinto and Buddhism; they can identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual. The level of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year. Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.\nToday, 1% to 1.5% of the population are Christians. Throughout the latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity (including Western style weddings, Valentine's Day and Christmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese.\nAbout 90% of those practicing Islam in Japan are foreign-born migrants as of 2016. As of 2018 there were an estimated 105 mosques and 200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals. Other minority religions include Hinduism, Judaism, and Baháʼí Faith, as well as the animist beliefs of the Ainu.\n\nEducation\nSince the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and junior high school, which together last for nine years. Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school. The top-ranking university in the country is the University of Tokyo. Starting in April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary school and junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schooling program; MEXT plans for this approach to be adopted nationwide.\nThe Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) coordinated by the OECD ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world. Japan is one of the top-performing OECD countries in reading literacy, math, and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries. It spent 7.4% of its total GDP on education as of 2021. In 2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25 to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 55.6%. Approximately 65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification, with bachelor's degrees being held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD after South Korea. Japanese women are more highly educated than the men: 59 percent of women possess a university degree, compared to 52 percent of men.\n\nHealth\nHealth care in Japan is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.\nJapan spent 10.82% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2021. In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 85 years (82 years for men and 88 years for women), the highest in the world; while it had a very low infant mortality rate (2 per 1,000 live births). Since 1981, the principal cause of death in Japan is cancer, which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed by cardiovascular diseases, which led to 15% of the deaths. Japan has one of the world's highest suicide rates, which is considered a major social issue. Another significant public health issue is smoking among Japanese men. However, Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level of dementia among developed countries.\n\nCulture\nContemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures. Twenty-two sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance. Japan is considered a cultural superpower.\n\nArt and architecture\nThe history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas. The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.\nJapanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space. Since the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Western modern architecture into construction and design. It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzō Tange and then with movements like Metabolism.\n\nLiterature and philosophy\nThe earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters. In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as kana (hiragana and katakana) was developed. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative. An account of court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.\nDuring the Edo period, the chōnin (\"townspeople\") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi. The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were significant novelists in the early 20th century, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Kafū Nagai and, more recently, Haruki Murakami and Kenji Nakagami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors – Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).\nJapanese philosophy has historically been a fusion of both foreign, particularly Chinese and Western, and uniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago. Confucian ideals remain evident in the Japanese concept of society and the self, and in the organization of the government and the structure of society. Buddhism has profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics.\n\nPerforming arts\nJapanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, dates from the 16th century. Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part of Japanese culture. Kumi-daiko (ensemble drumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in North America. Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop. Karaoke is a significant cultural activity.\nThe four traditional theaters from Japan are noh, kyōgen, kabuki, and bunraku. Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world.\n\nMedia\nAccording to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent of Japanese watch television daily. Japanese television dramas are viewed both within Japan and internationally. Many Japanese media franchises have gained considerable global popularity and are among the world's highest-grossing media franchises. Japanese newspapers are among the most circulated in the world as of 2016.\nJapan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally. Ishirō Honda's Godzilla became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of kaiju films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history. Japanese comics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have become popular worldwide. A large number of manga series have become some of the best-selling comics series of all time, rivalling the American comics industry. Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga and have become highly popular globally.\n\nHolidays\nOfficially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays. Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the Public Holiday Law (国民の祝日に関する法律, Kokumin no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hōritsu) of 1948. Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented the Happy Monday System, which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend. The national holidays in Japan are New Year's Day on January 1, Coming of Age Day on the second Monday of January, National Foundation Day on February 11, The Emperor's Birthday on February 23, Vernal Equinox Day on March 20 or 21, Shōwa Day on April 29, Constitution Memorial Day on May 3, Greenery Day on May 4, Children's Day on May 5, Marine Day on the third Monday of July, Mountain Day on August 11, Respect for the Aged Day on the third Monday of September, Autumnal Equinox on September 23 or 24, Health and Sports Day on the second Monday of October, Culture Day on November 3, and Labor Thanksgiving Day on November 23.\n\nCuisine\nJapanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients. Seafood and Japanese rice or noodles are traditional staples. Japanese curry, since its introduction to Japan from British India, is so widely consumed that it can be termed a national dish, alongside ramen and sushi. Traditional Japanese sweets are known as wagashi. Ingredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used. More modern-day tastes include green tea ice cream.\nPopular Japanese beverages include sake, a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice. Beer has been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century. Green tea is produced in Japan and prepared in forms such as matcha, used in the Japanese tea ceremony.\n\nSports\nTraditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport. Japanese martial arts such as judo and kendo are taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum. Baseball is the most popular sport in the country. Japan's top professional league, Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), was established in 1936. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League (J.League) in 1992, association football gained a wide following. The country co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times, and the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011. Golf is also popular in Japan.\nIn motorsport, Japanese automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories, with titles and victories in series such as Formula One, MotoGP, and the World Rally Championship. Drivers from Japan have victories at the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domestic championships. Super GT is the most popular national racing series in Japan, while Super Formula is the top-level domestic open-wheel series. The country hosts major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix.\nJapan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 and the Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998. The country hosted the official 2006 Basketball World Championship and co-hosted the 2023 Basketball World Championship. Tokyo hosted the 2020 Summer Olympics in 2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice. The country gained the hosting rights for the official Women's Volleyball World Championship on five occasions, more than any other country. Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country and hosted the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup.\n\nSee also\nIndex of Japan-related articles\nOutline of Japan\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nGovernment\n\nJapanGov – The Government of Japan (in English)\nPrime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet Official website (in English)\nThe Imperial Household Agency – official site of the Imperial House of Japan (archived November 20, 2016)\nNational Diet Library\nGeneral information\n\nJapan from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived April 21, 2009)\nJapan from BBC News\nJapan from the OECD\n Geographic data related to Japan at OpenStreetMap",
"title": "Japan"
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] | As of 2024, how many times could the country where shogi was invented fit inside the country where xiangqi was invented? Round to the nearest whole number. | [] | 25 | [] | true |
89 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Snoopy is an anthropomorphic beagle in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz. He can also be found in all of the Peanuts films and television specials. Since his debut on October 4, 1950, Snoopy has become one of the most recognizable and iconic characters in the comic strip and is considered more famous than Charlie Brown in some countries. The original drawings of Snoopy were inspired by Spike, one of Schulz's childhood dogs.\n\nTraits\nSnoopy is a loyal, imaginative, and good-natured beagle who is prone to imagining fantasy lives, including being an author, a college student known as \"Joe Cool\", an attorney, and a World War I flying ace. He is perhaps best known in this last persona, wearing an aviator's helmet and goggles and a scarf while carrying a swagger stick (like a stereotypical British Army officer of World War I and II).\nSnoopy can be selfish, gluttonous, and lazy at times, and occasionally mocks his owner, Charlie Brown. But on the whole, he shows great love, care, and loyalty for his owner (even though he cannot even remember his name and always refers to him as \"the round-headed kid\"). In the 1990s comic strips, he is obsessed with cookies, particularly the chocolate-chip variety. This, and other instances in which he indulges in large chocolate-based meals and snacks, indicate that chocolate is not poisonous to Snoopy, the way it is for real dogs.\n\nAll of his fantasies have a similar formula. Snoopy pretends to be something, usually \"world famous\", and fails. His short \"novels\" are never published. His Sopwith Camel is consistently shot down by his imaginary rival enemy, the German flying ace the \"Red Baron\". Schulz said of Snoopy's character in a 1997 interview: \"He has to retreat into his fanciful world in order to survive. Otherwise, he leads kind of a dull, miserable life. I don't envy dogs the lives they have to live.\"\nSnoopy imagines himself to speak, but never actually does, other than nonverbal sounds and occasionally uttering \"Woof\". His very articulate thoughts are shown in thought balloons. In the animated Peanuts films and television specials, Snoopy's thoughts are not verbalized. His moods are instead conveyed through moans, yelps, growls, sobs, laughter, and monosyllabic utterances such as \"bleah\" or \"hey\" as well as through pantomime. His vocal effects were usually provided by Bill Melendez, who first played the role during Snoopy's appearances on The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show. The only exceptions are in the animated adaptions of the musicals You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown and Snoopy!!! The Musical, in which Snoopy's thoughts are verbalized by Robert Towers and Cameron Clarke, respectively. (His dialogue, however, is not \"heard\" by the other characters except Woodstock the bird and other non-human characters; however, he does remember Charlie Brown's name.)\nSnoopy's doghouse defies physics and is shown to be bigger on the inside than the outside.\n\nHistory\nSnoopy appeared on October 4, 1950, two days after the first Peanuts strip. He was one of the four original characters, along with Charlie Brown, Patty, and Shermy. He was named Snoopy for the first time in the November 10 strip.\nOn March 16, 1952, his thoughts were first shown in a thought balloon. Snoopy first appeared upright on his hind legs on January 9, 1956, when he was shown sliding across a sheet of ice after Shermy and Lucy had first done so. He is first shown sleeping on top of his doghouse rather than inside it on December 12, 1958, and first adopts his World War I Flying Ace persona on October 10, 1965. Snoopy's final appearance in the comic was on February 13, 2000, when he was shown sitting on top of his doghouse typing Schulz's farewell message to his readers.\n\nPopularity\nSnoopy appeared as a character balloon in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in 1968; the balloon depicted Snoopy in his World War I Flying Ace costume. The beagle has been in almost every parade ever since in different costumes, as an ice skater, a jester (to celebrate the new millennium and the parade's 75th anniversary), and an astronaut.\nThe Dogs Trust and Wild in Arts created a trail called A Dog's Trail which spanned across Cardiff, Caerphilly, and Porthcawl in spring of 2022. The trail raised money for Dogs Trust to use for dog welfare.\n\nRelationship with other Peanuts characters\nCharlie Brown\nDespite his history of conflicted loyalties, his constant disrespect for Charlie Brown, and his inability to remember his name (he refers to him as \"that round-headed kid\"), Snoopy has shown both love and loyalty to his owner. Charlie Brown would often get irritated at Snoopy's flights of fancy with the comment, \"Why can't I have a normal dog like everyone else?\" He joins Charlie Brown in walking out of a game of Ha-Ha Herman when Peppermint Patty insults Charlie Brown, unaware that Charlie Brown is within earshot. He also helps Charlie Brown recover his autographed baseball when a bully takes it and challenges Charlie Brown to fight him for it. When Charlie Brown has to stop dedicating himself to making Snoopy happy, Snoopy replies, \"Don't worry about it. I was already happy.\" In The Peanuts Movie, Snoopy remains loyal to Charlie Brown, supporting and caring for him throughout the movie.\nIn early Peanuts strips, Charlie Brown was not Snoopy's owner (as seen in the February 2, 1951, strip), and it was not made clear who, if anyone, his actual owner was. At various times, it was suggested that he was Patty's or Shermy's dog. Charlie Brown was first portrayed as being responsible for Snoopy in the strips of November 1 and 3, 1955; it was not until September 1, 1958, that Snoopy was specifically said to be Charlie Brown's dog. (In the September 20, 1980, strip, Charlie Brown comments that he once told Snoopy to \"stay\" and \"he never went home.\")\nIn both the early strips and the movie Snoopy Come Home, Charlie Brown says that he got Snoopy after being bullied by another kid. His parents took him to the Daisy Hill Puppy Farm to cheer him up, where he met and bought Snoopy. The special Snoopy's Reunion depicts their first meeting.\n\nLucy\nSnoopy frequently tries to kiss Lucy on the cheek or nose, which Lucy, who is afraid of dog germs, thoroughly hates. Despite her distaste of doggy kisses, Lucy seems to care for Snoopy: in Snoopy Come Home, Lucy is sad to see him go and is (momentarily) glad when he comes back home. In some strips, Lucy goes to Snoopy for help, such as in the April 16, 1961 strip, wherein a jealous Lucy and Frieda are beating each other up at Schroeder's piano, Lucy ends up winning, and shakes hands with Snoopy in the end, looking slightly injured. Snoopy also commandeers Lucy's psychiatric booth either in her absence or when she ends up being the one needing help. In Snoopy!, Lucy and Snoopy hug each other during the song \"If Just One Person\".\n\nLinus\nSnoopy often tries to steal Linus's blanket, leading to slapstick fights and wild chases, the latter of which usually involve Snoopy running up, grabbing the blanket in his mouth, then running off with Linus holding on for dear life, and finally swinging Linus and the blanket around and around in a circular motion through the air before letting go and they both fly off to who-knows-where.\n\nLila\nLila was Snoopy's owner before Charlie Brown. Snoopy visits her in the cartoon Snoopy Come Home and struggles to decide whether to stay with Charlie Brown or go back to Lila. Lila quickly persuades him to leave Charlie Brown so Snoopy can live with her again. However, upon arriving at her apartment complex, Snoopy is very relieved to see a \"NO DOGS ALLOWED\" sign and returns to live with Charlie Brown.\n\nPeppermint Patty\nPeppermint Patty often refers to Snoopy as a \"funny-looking kid with a big nose\", unaware that he is a beagle. In one instance, she has him serve as her attorney in a case involving the school dress code. In the March 21, 1974, strip, Marcie tells Peppermint Patty that Snoopy is a beagle, finally resulting in her realizing his true identity. Snoopy serves as Peppermint Patty's watchdog several times. She is one of the few girls who does not get disgusted after being kissed by him.\n\nSally Brown\nLike Lucy, Sally does not care that much for Snoopy and often calls him a stupid beagle. Sally usually complains when her big brother asks her to feed Snoopy whenever he is away from home. While she is still an infant, Sally has a friendly and playful relationship with Snoopy. In later years, Sally occasionally enlists Snoopy's help in school assignments. She even treats him to an ice cream cone (a very tall ice cream cone, with scoops of about a dozen flavors) when Snoopy helps her get an \"A\" on a report about \"Our Animal Friends\". In one storyline, Sally uses Snoopy as a \"weapon\" to help protect her from bullies on the playground (Snoopy barks loudly at anyone who threatens Sally, leading Snoopy to comment, \"I feel like a can of mace!\"), but this ends in disaster when Snoopy sees an old girlfriend of his and runs off to meet her, abandoning Sally and leaving her to get \"slaughtered\" by the playground bullies.\n\nSchroeder\nSchroeder does not mind much when Snoopy sits against his toy piano, except when Snoopy dances on top of the piano, much to Schroeder's annoyance. He also sometimes plays with the notes coming from the piano.\n\nRerun van Pelt\nRerun, the youngest child character in the strip, plays with Snoopy sometimes. In some strips, Rerun and Snoopy are playing cards with each other, both of them clueless about the rules.\n\nWoodstock\nWoodstock is Snoopy's best friend and sidekick. He is a small, yellow bird of indeterminate species. He speaks in a chirping language that only Snoopy and his other bird friends can understand. In return, the birds somehow understand Snoopy's thoughts. In some strips, Snoopy can be seen telling a joke to Woodstock and both laugh so hard they end up falling off the doghouse. Woodstock sometimes sleeps on top of Snoopy's nose, such as in one strip where Snoopy says \"Never share your pad with a restless bird\".\n\nFifi\nFifi is a major love interest of Snoopy and she appears in Life Is a Circus, Charlie Brown and The Peanuts Movie. In Life Is a Circus, Charlie Brown, Snoopy sees Fifi, a white poodle, at a circus and starts to get attracted to her. He and Fifi do a trapeze act and afterward, he runs away, taking Fifi with him. Fifi decides to go back to the circus, however, leaving Snoopy heartbroken and forced to return to Charlie Brown. In The Peanuts Movie, Fifi (voiced by Kristin Chenoweth) is a pilot just like Snoopy (being redesigned to be bipedal while still retaining her poodle traits), and together they have interaction via Snoopy's typewriter against the Red Baron. He shows how much he cares for her when he cries at Schroeder's house after she is captured by the Red Baron. Snoopy, Woodstock, and the Beagle Scouts set out on a mission to save her. Eventually, they save her, and she shows her affection to Snoopy.\n\nSiblings\nIn the comic strip, Snoopy has seven siblings. Five appeared at various times in the strip: four brothers, Spike, Andy, Marbles, and Olaf; and one sister, Belle. The two others were never mentioned by name in the comic strip, but the whole family appeared in 1991 television special Snoopy's Reunion, introducing the two unknown siblings, identified in the special as Molly and Rover.\nSnoopy having seven siblings was an element of the strip that developed as the strip evolved. Originally described in a June 1959 strip as an \"only dog\", Snoopy went to a family reunion with several unnamed siblings in a May 1965 sequence, stating that they all spoke different languages and couldn't understand each other. In March 1970, Snoopy wrote in his autobiography that he was one of seven puppies, and the number reached its final count of eight beagles in December 1972.\nIn a 1987 interview, Schulz said that he felt introducing Snoopy's siblings was a mistake, similar to the introduction of Eugene the Jeep in Thimble Theatre: \"I think Eugene the Jeep took the life out of Popeye himself, and I'm sure Segar didn't realize that. I realized it myself a couple of years ago when I began to introduce Snoopy's brothers and sisters. I realized that when I put Belle and Marbles in there it destroyed the relationship that Snoopy has with the kids, which is a very strange relationship. And these things are so subtle when you're doing them, you can make mistakes and not realize them.\" Schulz elaborated further in another 1987 interview: \"Snoopy had a sister, Belle, whom I discovered I really didn't like. I brought in Spike and I like Spike a lot. But when I brought another brother in — I thought Marbles would make a great name for a dog — I discovered almost immediately that bringing in other animals took the uniqueness away from Snoopy. So the only other animal character who works now is Spike, as long as Spike stays out in the desert.\"\n\nSpike\nSpike, Snoopy's older brother who lived in the desert, was the most frequently seen sibling in the strip. He was introduced in the August 13, 1975, strip. He was a recurring character between 1984 and 1988, and was also used in one-off appearances sporadically through the rest of Peanuts history. Spike is named after Charles Schulz's childhood dog.\nSpike's appearance is similar to Snoopy's, but he is substantially thinner, has a perpetually sleepy-eyed look, sports long, droopy whiskers that look like a mustache, and wears a fedora. He is called Snoopy's older brother during the first story in which he appears. Spike lives in the middle of a desert near Needles, California, mostly interacting with inanimate saguaro cacti and rocks.\nHe temporarily became Rerun's dog in I Want a Dog for Christmas, Charlie Brown, and also starred in his own television special, It's the Girl in the Red Truck, Charlie Brown. He was also a main character in Snoopy's Getting Married, Charlie Brown, where he is shown traveling from Needles to visit Snoopy to be the best beagle at his wedding.\nA large statue of Spike resides inside the Needles Regional Museum in Needles, California. The Schulz family lived in Needles from 1928 to 1930.\n\nBelle\nBelle is Snoopy's sister, who first appeared in the strip on June 28, 1976. She lives in Kansas City, Missouri with her teenage son, whom Snoopy noted as resembling the Pink Panther. Belle herself bears a strong resemblance to Snoopy, but with longer eyelashes. In addition, she wears a lace collar and sometimes wears a pearl necklace.\nBelle only made a few appearances in the strip but is remembered because of the Belle stuffed animal toys sold in the late 1970s and early 1980s. San Francisco toy merchandiser Determined Productions had the license to make Snoopy plush toys, and they introduced Belle plush after receiving many requests from children who wanted a female \"sister\" doll.\nIn 1984, Snoopy and Belle inspired fashion designers around the world, including Lagerfeld, Armani, and de la Renta, to create one-of-a-kind outfits in their honor. Both beagles modeled for the \"Snoopy in Fashion\" exhibition held that year in Japan. \"Snoopy & Belle in Fashion\" continues to be exhibited as of 2020. Photographs of the exhibition were collected in a 1988 book, Snoopy in Fashion.\nThere was another traveling exhibition of Snoopy and Belle plush in outfits made by fashion designers in 1990, as a celebration of the comic strip's fortieth anniversary. This exhibition began in Paris at the Louvre Museum, and then to the Mitsukoshi department store in Tokyo, followed by showings in Los Angeles, New York City, London, Milan, and Madrid. Photographs from this collection were published as Snoopy Around the World.\n\nReception\nSnoopy and Charlie Brown were ranked by TV Guide as the 8th greatest cartoon characters of all time.\nSome critics feel that the strip suffered a decline in quality after the 1960s. Writing in 2000, Christopher Caldwell argued that the character of Snoopy, and the strip's increased focus on him in the 1970s, \"went from being the strip's besetting artistic weakness to ruining it altogether\". Caldwell felt that Snoopy \"was never a full participant in the tangle of relationships that drove Peanuts in its Golden Age\", as he could not talk. He went on to say that Snoopy \"was way too shallow for the strip as it developed in the 1960s, and the strips he featured in were anomalies.\"\nJim Davis noted that Snoopy was a boon from a marketing standpoint, which inspired him to center his comic strip Garfield around a cat: \"Snoopy is very popular in licensing. Charlie Brown is not.\"\nA toy titled The Snoopy Snowcone Machine was popular in the '80s and was later recreated in the 2010s by Cra-z-art.\n\nAwards and honors\nSchulz was a keen bridge player, and Peanuts occasionally included bridge references. In 1997 the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) awarded both Snoopy and Woodstock the honorary rank of Life Master, and Schulz was delighted.\nOn November 2, 2015, Snoopy was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, becoming the second Peanuts-related figure to be inducted with a star, after Schulz.\n\nIn aviation and space\nUse by NASA\nFollowing the Apollo 1 fire, Snoopy became the official mascot of aerospace safety, testing and the rebuilding of the Apollo Program.\nThe Apollo 10 lunar module was named Snoopy and the command module Charlie Brown. While not included in the official mission logo, Charlie Brown and Snoopy became semi-official mascots for the mission, as seen here and here. Schulz also drew some special mission-related artwork for NASA, and several regular strips related to the mission, one showing Snoopy en route to the Moon atop his doghouse with a fishbowl on his head for a helmet. \"We have mentioned,\" wrote television producer Lee Mendelson, \"that Charles Schulz is a gambler, a man who doesn't sit pat on success. The New York Times headlined: 'Creator of Peanuts Tempts Fate on Apollo Mission.' Certainly, if a tragedy had occurred, as well it might have, the symbols would forever remain in man's mind as symbols of disaster. But Sparky has always had faith in the Apollo program, from the very start, and he felt if those men could risk their lives, the least he could do would be to risk the popularity of the characters.\" The strip that ran on July 21, 1969 – one day after Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo 11 Lunar Module Eagle on the Moon – included a full Moon in the background, with a black mark on it representing the module.\nThe fabric cap worn by NASA astronauts as part of the Extravehicular Mobility Unit is known as a \"Snoopy cap\", a reference to how the white crown and black earflaps of the cap resemble Snoopy's fur and ears.\nThe Silver Snoopy award is a special NASA honor, in the form of a sterling silver pin with an engraving of Snoopy in a spacesuit helmet. It is given by an astronaut to someone who works in the space program that has gone above and beyond in pursuit of quality and safety.\nSnoopy and NASA announced, in April 2019, that Snoopy will return to the Moon aboard NASA Orion in 2024.\nHe was a gravity indicator aboard Artemis 1 mission that orbited the moon.\nIn November 2019, Apple TV made a Snoopy in Space series.\n\nOther uses\nSnoopy is the name of a United States Air Force B-58 Hustler bomber, serial number 55-0665, which was modified to test a radar system.\nAmerican insurance company MetLife used Snoopy as their corporate mascot between 1985 and 2016. Snoopy One, Snoopy Two, and Snoopy J are three airships owned and operated by MetLife that provide aerial coverage of sporting events, and feature Snoopy as the World War I flying ace on their fuselage. As of October 20, 2016, MetLife no longer features Snoopy in its commercials, due to a global rebranding.\nThe Charles M. Schulz–Sonoma County Airport in California, named after Schulz, has a logo featuring Snoopy in his World War I flying ace attire flying atop his doghouse.\nSnoopy is the mascot of the 26th Squadron (Barons, pronounced Barones) of the United States Air Force Academy, appearing on their squadron patch.\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nBrooks, Katherine (October 2, 2013). \"10 Of The Best Snoopy Moments To Celebrate 'Peanuts' 63rd Anniversary\". HuffPost. Archived from the original on June 24, 2023. Retrieved January 30, 2024.\n\nExternal links\n Media related to Snoopy at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to Snoopy at Wikiquote\nSnoopy’s quote was so deep (Part 1)\nThe complete text of Snoopy's It Was a Dark and Stormy Night\n10 Facts About Linus Van Pelt (“Peanuts”)",
"title": "Snoopy"
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"paragraph_text": "The mayor of New York City is the chief executive of the Government of New York City, as stipulated by New York City's charter. The current officeholder, the 110th in the sequence of regular mayors, is Eric Adams, a member of the Democratic Party.\nDuring the Dutch colonial period from 1624 to 1664, New Amsterdam was governed by the Director of New Netherland. Following the 1664 creation of the British Province of New York, newly renamed New York City was run by the British military governor, Richard Nicolls. The office of Mayor of New York City was established in 1665. Holders were appointed by colonial governors, beginning with Thomas Willett. The position remained appointed until 1777. That year, during the American Revolution, a Council of Appointment was formed by the State of New York. In 1821 the New York City Council – then known as the Common Council – began appointing mayors. Since 1834, mayors have been elected by direct popular vote.\nThe city included little beyond the island of Manhattan before 1874, when it annexed the western part of the Bronx, to be followed in 1895 by the rest of the Bronx. The 1898 consolidation created the city as it is today with five boroughs: Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. The first mayor of the expanded city was Robert Anderson Van Wyck.\nThe longest-serving mayors have been Fiorello H. La Guardia (1934–1945), Robert F. Wagner Jr. (1954–1965), Ed Koch (1978–1989) and Michael Bloomberg (2002–2013), each of whom was in office for twelve years (three successive four-year terms). The shortest terms in office since 1834 have been those of acting mayors: William T. Collins served a single day on December 31, 1925, Samuel B. H. Vance served one month (from November 30 to December 31, 1874), and Thomas Coman served five weeks (from Monday, November 30, 1868, to Monday, January 4, 1869).\n\nColonial mayors (1665–1783)\nBefore 1680, mayors served one-year terms. From 1680, they served two-year terms. Exceptions are noted thus (*). A dagger (†) indicates mayoralties cut short by death in office. (When the same man served more than one continuous term, his name is lightly shaded purely for clarity, but the tints have no other significance.)\n\nNote\n\nPeter Delanoy was the first and only directly-elected mayor of New York until 1834. Appointed mayors resumed in the wake of Leisler's Rebellion.\n† died in office\n\nPre-consolidation mayors (1784–1897)\nThe mayor continued to be selected by the Government of New York's Council of Appointment until 1821, when Stephen Allen became the first mayor appointed by a local Common Council. Under the Charter of 1834, mayors were elected annually by direct popular vote. Starting in 1849, mayors were elected to serve two-year terms.\n\nNotes\n\nJohn T. Hoffman resigned after his election as Governor of New York state but before the end of his mayoral term. Thomas Coman, President of the Board of Aldermen, completed Hoffman's term as acting mayor until his elected successor, A. Oakey Hall, took office.\nWhen Hall temporarily retired during the Tweed investigation, the Acting Mayor of New York City was John Cochrane, the President of the New York City Council.\nWilliam F. Havemeyer died during his last term of office. Samuel B. H. Vance, President of the Board of Aldermen, completed Havemeyer's term as acting mayor until his elected successor, William H. Wickham, took office.\nWilliam L. Strong served an additional year in office because New York City mayoral elections were changed to be held in odd-numbered years due to the impending consolidation of New York City.\n† died in office\n\nPost-consolidation mayors (since 1897)\nThe 1898–1901 term was for four years. The City Charter was changed to make the mayor's term a two-year one beginning in 1902, but after two such terms was changed back to resume four-year terms in 1906. George B. McClellan Jr. thus served one two-year term from 1904 to 1905, during which he was elected to a four-year term from 1906 to 1909.\nThe party of the mayor reflects party registration, as opposed to the party lines run under during the general election.\n\nNotes\n\nRandolph Gugghenheimer I (born 1846) served as acting mayor in 1900 while Robert A. Van Wyck was away.\nSeth Low previously served as Mayor of the City of Brooklyn from 1882 to 1885.\nWilliam Jay Gaynor died September 10, 1913. Ardolph L. Kline, the unelected President of the Board of Aldermen, succeeded as acting mayor upon Gaynor's death, but then sought re-election as an alderman (successfully) rather than election as mayor. Kline has thus been the only mayor since 1834 never to win a citywide election (having been appointed Vice President of the Board of Aldermen by his colleagues and then succeeding to the presidency mid-term, rather than winning it by popular election at large).\nJohn Hylan and Police Commissioner Richard Enright resigned December 30, 1925 to ensure that they received their city pensions, which they may not have been entitled to keep had they stayed in office for one more day. William T. Collins became acting Mayor for one day, prior to the inauguration of Jimmy Walker\nJimmy Walker resigned September 1, 1932 and went to Europe, amid allegations of corruption in his administration. Joseph V. McKee, as President of the Board of Aldermen, became acting mayor in Walker's place, but was then defeated in a special election by John P. O'Brien.\nWilliam O'Dwyer resigned August 31, 1950, during a police corruption scandal, after which he was appointed Ambassador to Mexico by President Harry S. Truman.\nVincent R. Impellitteri, President of the New York City Council, became acting mayor when O'Dwyer resigned on August 31, 1950, and was then elected to the office in a special election held on November 7, 1950. He was inaugurated on November 14.\nJohn Lindsay switched party affiliation from Republican to Democrat in 1971 and ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination for president in 1972.\nMichael Bloomberg was a lifelong Democrat before registering as a Republican in 2001 and running for mayor. He then registered as an Independent in 2007, and re-registered as a Democrat in 2018 in preparation for his unsuccessful bid for the Democratic nomination for president in 2020.\nEric Adams is the first sitting mayor of New York City to ever face indictment; he faces two charges of solicitation of a contribution from a foreign national, as well as charges of wire fraud, conspiracy, and bribery.\n† died in office\n\nAppendices\nMayoral terms and term limits in New York City since 1834\nDirect elections to the mayoralty of the unconsolidated City of New York began in 1834 for a term of one year, extended to two years after 1849. The 1897 Charter of the consolidated City stipulated that the mayor was to be elected for a single four-year term. In 1901, the term halved to two years, with no restrictions on reelection. In 1905, the term was extended to four years once again. (Mayors Fiorello La Guardia, Robert F. Wagner Jr. and Ed Koch were later able to serve for twelve years each.) In 1993, the voters approved a two-term (eight-year) limit, and reconfirmed this limit when the issue was submitted to referendum in 1996. In 2008, the New York City Council voted to change the two-term limit to three terms (without submitting the issue to the voters). Legal challenges to the Council's action were rejected by Federal courts in January and April 2009. However, in 2010, yet another referendum, reverting the limit to two terms, passed overwhelmingly.\n\nPrincipal source: The Encyclopedia of New York City especially the entries for \"charter\" and \"mayoralty\".\n\nMayor Strong, elected in 1894, served an extra year because no municipal election was held in 1896, in anticipation of the consolidated City's switch to odd-year elections.\nGeorge B. McClellan Jr. was elected to one two-year term (1904–1906) and one four-year term (1906-1910).\nDavid Dinkins was not affected by the term limit enacted in 1993 because he had served only one term by 1993 and failed to win re-election.\nThe September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in Manhattan coincided with the primary elections for a successor to Mayor Giuliani, who was completing his second and final term of office. Many were so impressed by both the urgency of the situation and Giuliani's response that they wanted to keep him in office beyond December 31, 2001, either by removing the term limit or by extending his service for a few months. However, neither happened, the primary elections (with the same candidates) were re-run on September 25, the general election was held as scheduled on November 6, and Michael Bloomberg took office on the regularly appointed date of January 1, 2002.\nOn October 2, 2008, Michael Bloomberg announced that he would ask the city council to extend the limit for mayor, council and other officers from two terms to three, and that, should such an extended limit prevail, he himself would seek re-election as mayor. On October 23, the New York City Council voted 29–22 to extend the two-term limit to three terms. (A proposed amendment to submit the vote to a public referendum had failed earlier the same day by a vote of 22–28 with one abstention.)\nIn November 2010, yet another popular referendum, limiting mayoral terms to two, passed overwhelmingly.\n\nInterrupted terms\nMayors John T. Hoffman (1866–1868, elected Governor 1868), William Havemeyer (1845–1846, 1848–1849, and 1873–1874), William Jay Gaynor (1910–1913), John Francis Hylan (1918–1925), Jimmy Walker (1926–1932), and William O'Dwyer (1946–1950) failed to complete the final terms to which they were elected. The uncompleted mayoral terms of Hoffman, Walker, and O'Dwyer were added to the other offices elected in (respectively) 1868, 1932, and 1950 [those three elections are listed as \"special\" in the table below because they occurred before the next regularly scheduled mayoral election; the \"regular\" mayoral elections of 1874 and 1913, on the other hand, were held on the same day that they would have happened had the mayoralty not become vacant.]\n\n† Became acting mayor as the president of the board of aldermen or (in 1950) city council.\n(D) = (Democratic)\n(R) = (Republican)\n\nMayor Havemeyer was a Democrat who ran as a Republican against the Democratic Tweed Ring in 1872.\nActing Mayors Coman, Vance, Kline and Collins did not seek election as mayor.\nActing Mayors McKee and Impellitteri were Democrats who lost the Democratic primary to succeed themselves, but still ran in the general election as independents.\nElected Mayor Oakey Hall won re-election, while Mayor Wickham did not seek it. Mayors Mitchel and O'Brien lost attempts at re-election, while Mayor Impellitteri did not run for a full term in the 1953 regular general election after losing the Democratic primary.\n\nMayors of the City of Brooklyn, 1834–1897\nBrooklyn elected a mayor from 1834 until consolidation in 1898 into the City of Greater New York, whose own second mayor (1902–1903), Seth Low, had been Mayor of Brooklyn from 1882 to 1885. Since 1898, Brooklyn has, in place of a separate mayor, elected a Borough President.\n\nMayors of Long Island City, 1870–1897\nLong Island City, now within the Borough of Queens, was incorporated as a city in its own right on May 4, 1870 and (like the City of Brooklyn) consolidated into the present Greater New York City on January 1, 1898.\n\nSee also\nElection results for Mayor of New York\nHistory of New York City\nHistory of Brooklyn\nList of governors of New York\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n Media related to Mayors of New York City at Wikimedia Commons",
"title": "List_of_mayors_of_New_York_City"
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"paragraph_text": "John Vliet Lindsay (; November 24, 1921 – December 19, 2000) was an American politician and lawyer. During his political career, Lindsay was a U.S. congressman, the mayor of New York City, and a candidate for U.S. president. He was also a regular guest host of Good Morning America. Lindsay served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from January 1959 to December 1965 and as mayor of New York from January 1966 to December 1973.\nHe switched from the Republican to the Democratic Party in 1971, and launched a brief and unsuccessful bid for the 1972 Democratic presidential nomination, and later for the 1980 Democratic nomination for Senator from New York.\n\nEarly life\nLindsay was born in New York City on West End Avenue to George Nelson Lindsay and the former Florence Eleanor Vliet. He grew up in an upper-middle-class family of English and Dutch descent. Lindsay's paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from the Isle of Wight, and his mother was from an upper-middle-class family that had been in New York since the 1660s. His mother was a descendant of Dirck Jans van der Vliet (1612–1689) who settled in the then Dutch settlement of New Netherlands around 1659–1660 as son Henderick was born in what is now Livingston, New York. Lindsay's father was a successful lawyer and investment banker. Lindsay attended the Buckley School, St. Paul's School, and Yale, where he was admitted to the class of 1944 and joined Scroll and Key.\n\nMilitary service and legal career\nWith the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined the United States Navy as a gunnery officer. He obtained the rank of lieutenant, earning five battle stars through action in the invasion of Sicily and a series of landings in the Pacific theater. After the war, he spent a few months as a ski bum and a couple of months training as a bank clerk before returning to New Haven, where he received his law degree from Yale Law School in 1948, ahead of schedule. In 1949, he began his legal career at the law firm of Webster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie.\n\nMarriage\nBack in New York City, Lindsay met his future wife, Mary Anne Harrison (1926–2004), at the wedding of Nancy Walker Bush (daughter of Connecticut's Senator Prescott Bush and sister of future President George Herbert Walker Bush and aunt of George W. Bush & Jeb Bush), where he was an usher and Harrison a bridesmaid. She was a graduate of Vassar College and a distant relative of William Henry Harrison and Benjamin Harrison. They married in 1949. That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later. They had three daughters and a son.\n\nU.S. Representative\nLindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth for Eisenhower club in 1951 and as president of the New York Young Republican Club in 1952. He went on to join the United States Department of Justice in 1955 as executive assistant to Attorney General Herbert Brownell. There he worked on civil liberties cases as well as the 1957 Civil Rights Act. In 1958, with the backing of Brownell as well as Bruce Barton, John Aspinwall Roosevelt, and Edith Willkie, Lindsay won the Republican primary and went on to be elected to Congress as the representative of the \"Silk Stocking\" 17th district, exemplified by Manhattan's Upper East Side but also encompassing the diverse Lower East Side and historically bohemian Greenwich Village.\nWhile in Congress, Lindsay established a liberal voting record increasingly at odds with his own party and an amateur harmonica improvisation group. He was an early supporter of federal aid to education and Medicare; and advocated the establishment of a federal United States Department of Housing and Urban Development and a National Foundation for the Arts and Humanities. He was called a maverick, casting the lone dissenting vote for a Republican-sponsored bill extending the power of the Postmaster General to impound obscene mail and one of only two dissenting votes for a bill allowing federal interception of mail from Communist countries. Also known for his wit, when asked by his party leaders why he opposed legislation to combat Communism and pornography, he replied that the two were the major industries of his district and if they were suppressed then \"the 17th district would be a depressed area\". Lindsay voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1960 and 1964, the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.\n\nMayor of New York City\nIn 1965, Lindsay was elected Mayor of New York City as a Republican with the support of the Liberal Party of New York in a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidate Abraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as conservative thinker and National Review founder William F. Buckley Jr., who ran on the Conservative Party line. The unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from a Murray Kempton column, was \"He is fresh and everyone else is tired\".\n\nLabor issues\nOn his first day as mayor, January 1, 1966, the Transport Workers Union of America, led by Mike Quill, shut down the city with a complete halt of subway and bus service. As New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, \"I still think it's a fun city\", and walked four miles (6 km) from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it. Dick Schaap, then a columnist for the New York Herald Tribune, popularized the term in an article titled \"Fun City\". In the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it was not.\nIn 1966, the settlement terms of the transit strike, combined with increased welfare costs and general economic decline, forced Lindsay to lobby the New York State legislature for a new municipal income tax and higher water rates for city residents, plus a new commuter tax for people who worked in the city but resided elsewhere. The transit strike was the first of many labor struggles. In 1968, in an attempt to decentralize the city's school system, Lindsay granted three local school boards in the city complete control over their schools, in an effort to allow communities to have more of a say in their schools. The city's teachers union, the United Federation of Teachers, however, saw the breakup as a way of union busting, as a decentralized school system would force the union to negotiate with 33 separate school boards rather than with one centralized body. As a result, in May 1968 several teachers working in schools located in the neighborhood of Ocean Hill-Brownsville, one of the neighborhoods where the decentralization was being tested, were fired from their jobs by the community-run school board. The UFT demanded the reinstatement of the dismissed teachers, citing that the teachers had been fired without due process. When their demands were ignored, the UFT called the first of three strikes, leading ultimately to a protracted citywide teachers' strike that stretched over a seven-month period between May and November. The strike was tinged with racial and anti-Semitic overtones, pitting Black and Puerto Rican parents against Jewish teachers and supervisors. Many thought the mayor had made a bad situation worse by taking sides against the teachers. The episode left a legacy of tensions between African-Americans and Jews that went on for years, and Lindsay called it his greatest regret.\n\nThat same year, 1968, also saw a three-day Broadway strike and a nine-day sanitation strike. Quality of life in the city reached a nadir during the sanitation strike as mounds of garbage caught fire and strong winds blew the filth through the streets. In June 1968, the New York City Police Department deployed snipers to protect Lindsay during a public ceremony, shortly after they detained a knife-wielding man who had demanded to meet the mayor. With the schools shut down, police engaged in a slowdown, firefighters threatening job actions, the city awash in garbage, and racial and religious tensions breaking to the surface, Lindsay later called the last six months of 1968 \"the worst of my public life.\"\nThe summer of 1971 ushered in another devastating strike as over 8,000 workers belonging to AFSCME District Council 37 walked off their jobs for two days. The strikers included the operators of the city's drawbridges and sewage treatment plants. Drawbridges over the Harlem River were locked in the \"up\" position, barring automobile travel into Manhattan, and hundreds of thousands of gallons of raw sewage flowed into local waterways.\n\nRacial and civil unrest\nLindsay served on the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, known as the Kerner Commission, and was its vice chairman. This body was appointed in 1967 by President Johnson after riots in urban centers of the US, including Newark and Detroit. Lindsay maximized publicity and coverage of his activities on the commission, and while other commissioners made inconspicuous visits to riot-damaged sites, Lindsay would alert the press before his fact-finding missions. Nonetheless, he was especially influential in producing the Kerner Report; its dramatic language of the nation \"moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal\" was consistent with his rhetoric.\nPresident Johnson ignored the report and rejected the Kerner Commission's recommendations. In April 1968, one month after the release of the Kerner report, rioting broke out in more than 100 cities following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. However, in New York City, Lindsay traveled directly into Harlem, telling Black residents that he regretted King's death and was working against poverty. He is credited with averting riots in the city with this direct response, even as other major cities burned. David Garth, who accompanied Lindsay that night, recalled: \"There was a wall of people coming across 125th Street, going from west to east ... I thought we were dead. John raised his hands, said he was sorry. It was very quiet. My feeling was, his appearance there was very reassuring to people because it wasn't the first time they had seen him. He had gone there on a regular basis. That gave him credibility when it hit the fan.\"\nLindsay showed his support for New York's African American community through his administration's sponsorship of the 1969 Harlem Cultural Festival, which is documented in the 2021 music film, Summer of Soul. The host of the festival, Tony Lawrence, introduces the mayor to the Harlem crowd as \"our blue-eyed soul brother.\"\n\nBlizzard of 1969\nOn February 10, 1969, New York City was pummeled with 15 inches (38 cm) of snow. On the first day alone, 14 people died and 68 were injured. Within a day, the mayor was criticized for giving favored treatment to Manhattan at the expense of the other boroughs. Charges were made that a city worker solicited a bribe to clean streets in Queens.\nOver a week later, streets in eastern Queens still remained unplowed by the city, enraging the borough's residents, many who felt that the city's other boroughs always took a back seat to Manhattan. Lindsay traveled to Queens, but his visit was not well received. His car could not make its way through Rego Park, and even in a four-wheel-drive truck, he had trouble getting around. In Kew Gardens Hills, the mayor was booed; one woman screamed, \"You should be ashamed of yourself.\" In Fresh Meadows, a woman told the mayor: \"Get away, you bum.\" Later during his walk through Fresh Meadows, another woman called him \"a wonderful man,\" prompting the mayor to respond: \"And you're a wonderful woman, not like those fat Jewish broads up there,\" pointing to women in a nearby building who had criticized him.\nThe blizzard, dubbed the \"Lindsay Snowstorm,” prompted a political crisis that became \"legendary in the annals of municipal politics\" as the scenes conveyed a message that the mayor of New York City was indifferent to the middle class and poor citizens of the city.\n\nReelection\nIn 1969, a backlash against Lindsay caused him to lose the Republican mayoral primary to state Senator John Marchi, who was enthusiastically supported by William F. Buckley and the rest of the party's conservative wing. In the Democratic primary, the most conservative candidate, City Comptroller Mario Procaccino, defeated several more liberal contenders and won the nomination with only a plurality of the votes. \"The more the Mario,\" he quipped. Procaccino, who ran to Lindsay's right, went on to coin the term \"limousine liberal\" to describe Lindsay and his wealthy Manhattan backers.\nDespite losing the Republican nomination, Lindsay remained on the ballot as the candidate of the New York Liberal Party. In his campaign he said \"mistakes were made\" and called being mayor of New York City \"the second toughest job in America.\" Two television advertisements described his position: In one he looked directly into the camera and said, \"I guessed wrong on the weather before the city's biggest snowfall last winter. And that was a mistake. But I put 6,000 more cops on the streets. And that was no mistake. The school strike went on too long and we all made some mistakes. But I brought 225,000 more jobs to this town. And that was no mistake... And we did not have a Detroit, a Watts or Newark. And those were no mistakes. The things that go wrong are what make this the second toughest job in America. But the things that go right are those things that make me want it.\" The second opened with a drive through the Holland Tunnel from lower Manhattan toward New Jersey and suggested that, \"Every New Yorker should take this trip at least once before election day...\" followed by video of Newark, New Jersey which had been devastated by race riots.\nWhile narrowly losing Brooklyn and the Bronx due to Procaccino's entrenched support among ethnic, working class whites (with Marchi winning his native Staten Island), Lindsay was able to vanquish his opponents with support from three distinct groups. First were the city's minorities, mostly African Americans and Puerto Ricans, who were concentrated in Harlem, the South Bronx and various Brooklyn neighborhoods, including Bedford-Stuyvesant and Brownsville. Second were the white and economically secure residents of certain areas of Manhattan. Third were the whites in the boroughs outside Manhattan who had a similar educational background and \"cosmopolitan\" attitude, namely residents of solidly middle-class neighborhoods, including Forest Hills and Kew Gardens in Queens and Brooklyn Heights in Brooklyn. This third category included many traditionally Democratic Jewish Americans who were repelled by Procaccino's conservatism. This created a plurality coalition (42%) in Lindsay's second three-way race. His margin of victory rose from just over 100,000 more votes than his Democratic opponent in 1965 to over 180,000 votes over Procaccino in 1969, despite appearing on just one third party ballot line (see New York City Mayoral Elections).\n\nHard-hat riots\nOn May 8, 1970, near the intersection of Wall Street and Broad Street and at New York City Hall, a riot started when about 200 construction workers mobilized by the New York State AFL–CIO labor federation attacked about 1,000 high school and college students and others protesting the Kent State shootings, the Cambodian Campaign, and the Vietnam War. Some attorneys, bankers, and investment analysts from nearby Wall Street investment firms tried to protect many of the students but were themselves attacked, and some onlookers reported that the police stood by and did nothing. Although more than 70 people were injured, including four policemen, only six people were arrested. The following day, Lindsay severely criticized the police for their lack of action. Police Department labor leaders later accused Lindsay of \"undermining the confidence of the public in its Police Department\" by his statements and blamed the inaction on inadequate preparations and \"inconsistent directives\" in the past from the mayor's office. Several thousand construction workers, longshoremen and white-collar workers protested against the mayor on May 11 and again on May 16. Protesters called Lindsay \"the red mayor,\" \"traitor,\" \"Commie rat,\" and \"bum.\" The mayor described the mood of the city as \"taut.\"\n\nPolice corruption\nIn 1970, The New York Times printed New York City Police Department Patrolman Frank Serpico's claims of widespread police corruption. As a result, the Knapp Commission was eventually formed that April by Lindsay, with investigations beginning in June, although public hearings did not start until October 18, 1971. Its preliminary report was not issued until August 1972, and final recommendations only released on December 27, 1972. Because of his forming of the Knapp Commission, many NYPD officers disliked him and didn't want him to attend their funerals in case they died on duty and heckled, hissed, jeered and booed him when he did appear. The wife of Rocco Laurie, one of two city police officers who were murdered by Black revolutionaries in 1972, specifically stated that she did not want Lindsay to attend her husband's funeral that year.\n\nAssessments\nA 1993 survey of historians, political scientists and urban experts conducted by Melvin G. Holli of the University of Illinois at Chicago ranked Lindsay as the sixteenth-worst American big-city mayor to have served between the years 1820 and 1993.\n\nParty switch and presidential campaign\nLindsay was mentioned as a Republican Vice Presidential possibility in 1968, but was found to be unacceptable by Southern conservatives, and Spiro Agnew was nominated instead. Lindsay’s original break with the Republican Party began immediately after he failed to win the 1969 Republican mayoral primary, and his subsequent association with the New York Liberal Party for that election. In 1971, Lindsay and his wife cut ties with the Republican Party by registering with the Democratic Party. Lindsay said, \"In a sense, this step recognizes the failure of 20 years in progressive Republican politics. In another sense, it represents the renewed decision to fight for new national leadership.\" Lindsay then launched a brief and unsuccessful bid for the 1972 Democratic presidential nomination. He attracted positive media attention and was a successful fundraiser. Lindsay did well in the early Arizona caucus, coming in second place behind Edmund Muskie of Maine and ahead of eventual nominee George McGovern of South Dakota. Then in the March 14 Florida primary, he placed a weak fifth place, behind George Wallace of Alabama, Muskie, Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, and Scoop Jackson of Washington (though he did edge out McGovern). Among his difficulties was New York City's worsening problems, which Lindsay was accused of neglecting; a band of protesters from Forest Hills, Queens, who were opposed to his support for a low income housing project in their neighborhood, followed Lindsay around his aborted campaign itinerary to jeer and heckle him. His poor showing in Florida effectively doomed his candidacy. Shortly thereafter, influential Brooklyn Democratic Party chairman Meade Esposito called for Lindsay to end his campaign: \"I think the handwriting is on the wall; Little Sheba better come home.\" After a poor showing in the April 5 Wisconsin primary, Lindsay formally abandoned the race.\n\nAssessment\nIn a 1972 Gallup poll, 60% of New Yorkers felt Lindsay's administration was working poorly, nine percent rated it good, and not one person thought its performance excellent. By 1978, The New York Times called Lindsay \"an exile in his own city\".\nLindsay's record remained controversial after he left politics for pursuing his passion of trapeze. Conservative historian Fred Siegel, calling Lindsay the worst New York City mayor of the 20th century, said \"Lindsay wasn't incompetent or foolish or corrupt, but he was actively destructive\". Journalist Steven Weisman observed \"Lindsay's congressional career had taught him little of the need for subtle bureaucratic maneuvering, for understanding an opponent's self-interest, or for the great patience required in a sprawling government.\"\nLindsay's budget aide Peter C. Goldmark, Jr. told historian Vincent Cannato that the administration \"failed to come to grips with what a neighborhood is. We never realized that crime is something that happens to, and in, a community.\" Assistant Nancy Seifer said \"There was a whole world out there that nobody in City Hall knew anything about ... If you didn't live on Central Park West, you were some kind of lesser being.\" Many experts traced the city's mid-1970s fiscal crisis to the Lindsay years, and to the new taxes that he imposed.\nAn alternate assessment was made by journalist Robert McFadden who said that \"By 1973, his last year in office, Mr. Lindsay had become a more seasoned, pragmatic mayor.\" McFadden also credited him for reducing racial tensions, leading to the prevention of riots that plagued Detroit, Los Angeles, Newark and other cities.\n\nLegacy\nMario Cuomo, Carl McCall, and Carter F. Bales were among the many people who started their careers in public service in the Lindsay administration. Rev. Al Sharpton has said that he still remembers Lindsay having walked the streets of Bedford-Stuyvesant and Harlem when these neighborhoods were doing poorly economically.\nLindsay also fought to transform the New York City Civilian Complaint Review Board from an internal police-run department, into a public-minded agency with a citizen majority board.\n\nLater life\nAfter leaving office, Lindsay returned to the law, but remained in the public eye as a commentator and regular guest host for ABC's Good Morning America. In 1975, Lindsay made a surprise appearance on The Tony Awards telecast in which he, along with a troupe of celebrity male suitors in tuxedos, sang \"Mame\" to Angela Lansbury. He presented the award for Best Director Of A Play to John Dexter for the play Equus. Lindsay also tried his hand at acting, appearing in Otto Preminger's Rosebud; the following year his novel, The Edge, was published (Lindsay had earlier authored two non-fiction memoirs): The New York Times, in its contemporary review of the novel, said it was \"as dead-serious as a $100-a-plate dinner of gray meat and frozen candidates' smiles.\"\nAttempting a political comeback in 1980, Lindsay made a long-shot bid for the Democratic nomination for U.S. Senator from New York, and finished third. He was also active in New York City charities, serving on the board of the Association for a Better New York, and as chairman of the Lincoln Center Theater. On his death, The New York Times credited Lindsay with a significant role in the rejuvenation of the theatre.\nMedical bills from his Parkinson's disease, heart attacks, foreign accent syndrome and stroke depleted Lindsay's finances, as did the collapse of two law firms where he worked, and he found himself without health insurance. Lindsay's eight years of service as mayor left him seven years short of qualifying for a city pension. In 1996, with support from City Council Speaker Peter Vallone, Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani appointed Lindsay to two largely ceremonial posts to make him eligible for municipal health insurance coverage. He and his wife, Mary, moved to a retirement community in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, in November 1999, where he died on December 19, 2000, at the age of 79 of complications from pneumonia and Parkinson's disease.\nIn 2000, Yale Law School created a fellowship program named in Lindsay's honor. In 1998, a park in Brooklyn, Lindsay Triangle, was named in his honor, and in 2001, the East River Park was renamed in his memory. In December 2013, South Loop Drive in Manhattan's Central Park was renamed after Lindsay, to commemorate his support for a car-free Central Park.\nHe was featured on a poster picture with Governor Nelson Rockefeller at the groundbreaking of the former World Trade Center in the city history section of the Museum of the City of New York at Fifth Avenue and 103rd Street.\n\nSee also\nList of American politicians who switched parties in office\nList of mayors of New York City\nTimeline of New York City, 1960s–1970s\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nBuckley, William F. The Unmaking of a Mayor. New York: Viking Press, 1966.\nButton, Daniel E. Lindsay: A Man For Tomorrow. New York: Random House, 1965.\nCannato, Vincent J. The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and His Struggle to Save New York. New York: Basic Books, 2002.\nCarter, Barbara. The Road to City Hall: How John V. Lindsay Became Mayor. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967.\nCitron, Casper. John V. Lindsay and the Silk Stocking Story. New York: Fleet Publishing Corp., 1965.\nGottehrer, Barry. The Mayor's Man. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975.\nHentoff, Nat. A Political Life: The Education of John V. Lindsay. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969.\nJohn C. Walker, The Harlem Fox: J. Raymond Jones and Tammany, 1920–1970, New York: State University New York Press, 1989.\nKlein, Woody. Lindsay's Promise: The Dream That Failed; A Personal Account. New York: Macmillan, 1970.\nLindsay, John Vliet Journey into politics Dodd, Mead, 1967\nLindsay, John Vliet The City New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1970.\nLindsay, John Vliet The Edge New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1976.\n\nExternal links\n\nJohn Vliet Lindsay papers (MS 592). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.\nUnited States Congress. \"John Lindsay (id: L000326)\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.\nJohn Vliet Lindsay at nyc.gov\nThe Mayor John Lindsay Collection at The WNYC Archives\nJohn Lindsay's Bright, Shining Failure, City Journal online, October 6, 2010\nJohn Vliet Lindsay UXL Encyclopedia of World Biography\nTriple Canopy\nJohn Lindsay at Find a Grave\nLa Guardia and Wagner Archives/The Lindsay Collection Archived January 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
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] | What was the birthday of the man who was mayor of New York City the year Snoopy debuted in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade? | [] | November 24, 1921 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Sir Peter Cook (born 22 October 1936) is an English architect, lecturer and writer on architectural subjects. He was a founder of Archigram, and was knighted in 2007 by the Queen for his services to architecture and teaching. He is also a Royal Academician and a Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of the French Republic. His achievements with Archigram were recognised by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004, when the group was awarded the Royal Gold Medal.\n\nEarly life and education\nCook was born in Southend-on-Sea, Essex and studied architecture at Bournemouth College of Art from 1953–58. He then entered the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London, graduating in 1960.\n\nCareer\nCook was a director of London's Institute of Contemporary Arts (1970-1972) and chair of architecture at the Bartlett School of Architecture at University College London (1990–2006), and has been director of Art Net in London and curator of the British Pavilion at the Venice Architecture Biennale. He continues to curate, organise and exhibit around the world: in Seoul, LA, Cyprus, the Centre Georges Pompidou, Design Museum, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, as well as in castles, sheds and garages.\nHe is a Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London. Cook's professorships include those of the Royal Academy, University College, London and the Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste (Städelschule) in Frankfurt-Main, Germany.\nCook has built in Osaka, Nagoya, Berlin and Madrid. However it was construction of his arts building in 2003, the Kunsthaus Graz (aka 'The Friendly Alien') in Graz, Austria (with Colin Fournier), that brought his work to a wider public.\nHe practiced from 2007 to 2019 with Gavin Robotham at CRAB (Cook Robotham Architectural Bureau Ltd). In 2013 he completed the Vienna University of Economics and Business's new law faculty and Australia's newest school of architecture, the Abedian School of Architecture at Bond University on the Gold Coast.\nCook was awarded a knighthood in the Queen's 2007 Birthday Honours List, for services to architecture.\nHis first building in the UK, a new drawing studio at the Arts University Bournemouth was opened by Zaha Hadid in March 2016. He also built the innovation studio at the Arts University Bournemouth, which was opened by Odile Decq in 2021.\nCook currently practices with Erlend Blakstad Haffner and Branko Belaćević at CHAP (Cook Haffner Architecture Platform Ltd). CHAP has offices in London, Belgrade and Oslo.\n\nAwards and honours\n1960 – Henry Florence Student A.A. (Building Centre research Scholar)\n1961 – Piccadilly Circus competition (Mention)\n1962 – Gas Council House Design (First Prize)\n1965 – Selected as one of \"Young British Designers\" Sunday Times exhibition\n1996 – Jean Tschumi Medal, International Union of Architects\n1969 – Grant awarded by Graham Foundation, Chicago, for Instant City\n2002 – Annie Spink Award, jointly awarded to David Greene (for contribution to architectural education) by the RIBA\n2002 – Royal Gold Medal (with Archigram) by RIBA\n2003 – Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of the France Republic\n2004 – Finalist for Stirling Prize for Kunsthaus Graz (with Colin Fournier)\n2007 – Knighted in Queen's Honours' list (for services in architecture)\n2008 – Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London\n2010 – Mario Pani Award for Architecture, Mexico City\n2010 – Honorary Doctorate of Technology, Lund University, Sweden\n\nSuccess in architectural competitions\n1970 – Monte Carlo Entertainments Centre (with Archigram)\n1990 – Solar Housing, Landstuhl, Germany (with Christine Hawley)\n1992 – Museum of Antiquities, Austria (with Christine Hawley)\n2000 – Kunsthaus Graz (with Colin Fournier)\n2006 – New Theatre Verbania, Italy (with Gavin Robotham)\n2009 – Faculty of Law (D3) and Central Administration (AD), Vienna Business and Economics University (with Gavin Robotham)\n2010 – 2nd prize in the Taiwan Tower international competition (with Gavin Robotham)\n2011 – Soheil Abedian School of Architecture, Bond University on the Gold Coast, Australia (with Gavin Robotham and Brit Andresen)\n2013 – Finalist in the National Stadium of Israel (CRAB + POPULOUS)\n2013 – Finalist in the Gold Coast Cultural Precinct\n\nCurrent appointments\nProfessor Emeritus at University College London\nProfessor of Architecture at the Royal Academy of Arts\nLife Professor at the Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste (Städelschule) Frankfurt-Main\nSenior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London\nHonorary Fellow of the Arts University Bournemouth\nMember of the Hessische Architektenkammer\nMember of the RIBA, Architects Registration Board (ARB)\nFellow of University College London\n\nExhibitions\nArchigram exhibition – 1994 onwards: Vienna, Paris, New York, London, Pasadena, Chicago, Milan, Hamburg, Seoul, Mito, Taipei, Winnipeg, Zurich, Cracow, Zaragoza, Brussels, Rotterdam.\nCurator of Venice Biennale of Architecture British Pavilion 2004, Cyprus Pavilion 2006\nPersonal exhibitions – various dates: Los Angeles, Tokyo, Oslo, Berlin, Osaka, Frankfurt,\n\nPublications\n1967 – Architecture: Action and Plan. London: Studio Vista.\n1970 – Experimental Architecture. London/New York: Studio Vista/Universal Books.\n1972 – Archigram. London: Studio Vista/Reinhold, Birkhauser\n1975 – Melting Architecture. London: Peter Cook, (published to accompany Art Net exhibition).\n1976 – Art Net The Rally: Forty London Architects. London: Art Net/Peter Cook, (published to accompany Art Net exhibition).\n1976 – Arcadia: The Search for the Perfect Suburb. London: Art Net/Peter Cook.\n1980 – Six Houses (with Christine Hawley). London: AA Publications, (published to accompany exhibition at the Architectural Association).\n1983 – Los Angeles Now (with Barbara Goldstein). London: AA Publications, (published to accompany exhibition at the Architectural Association).\n1985 – Peter Cook – 21 Years, 21 Ideas. Chrisine Hawley; foreword by Reyner Banham. Architectural Association exhibition catalogue. London: AA Publications.\n1985 – Lebbeus Woods (editor; with Olive Brown); Architectural Association exhibition catalogue. London: AA Publications, 1985.\n1987 – Cities (with Christine Hawley); exhibition catalogue. London: Fisher Fine Arts.\n1989 – Peter Cook 1961–89. A+U.\n1991 – New Spirit in Architecture (with Rosie Llewellyn-Jones). New York: Rizzoli.\n1993 – Six Conversations. London: Academy Editions, Architectural Monographs Special Issue, No. 28.\n1996 – Primer. London: Academy Editions.\n1999 – Archigram. London/New York: Princeton Architectural Press (with Japanese, German, and Chinese translations)\n1999 – Zvi Hecker, House of the Book (contributor, with John Hedjuk and Helene Binet). . London: Black Dog.\n1999 – The Power of Contemporary Architecture (with Neil Spiller). London: Academy Editions.\n2000 – Bartlett Book of Ideas. London: Bartlett School of Architecture.\n2001 – The Paradox of Contemporary Architecture (contributor). Chichester: Wiley-Academy.\n2003 – The City, Seen As A Garden Of Ideas. New York: Monacelli.\n2008 – Drawing: The Motive Force of Architecture. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition publiished 2014.\n2016 – Architecture Workbook: Design through Motive. Chichester: Wiley.\n2021 – Lives in Architecture: Peter Cook. London: RIBA Publishing.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Bartlett: Peter Cook Archived 29 July 2003 at archive.today\nArcspace: Kunsthaus Graz\nKnighthood: Peter Cook (06/2007)\nArchinect interview (06/2008)\nArchitectural Record interview (2007)\nRA interview (2005)\nDesignboom interview (09/2002)\nDesign Museum: Archigram\nCHAP\nEl País (spanish journal) interview (2011)\nProfile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections\nInterview with Peter Cook about - What is architecture?, 2014\nInterview with Peter Cook on Archinect – Conversation with Peter Cook on the State of Things\nSimon Sadler, Archigram: Architecture without Architecture, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005 [1] Archived 24 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine\nInterview with Designboom",
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"paragraph_text": "Alexander Guy Cook (born 23 August 1990) is an English music producer and the head of the UK record label PC Music. \nCook released his first solo singles in 2014. He has also collaborated with PC Music artists such as Hannah Diamond, GFOTY, EASYFUN, Danny L Harle and felicita. He formed the one-off project QT with musician Sophie and performance artist Hayden Dunham, producing the 2014 single \"Hey QT\".\nCook came into the public eye as Charli XCX's creative director and has served as executive producer on her mixtapes Number 1 Angel and Pop 2 (both 2017), and albums Charli (2019), How I'm Feeling Now (2020), and Brat (2024). Cook was named #12 in the Dazed 100 for \"redefining style and youth culture in 2015 and beyond\". Cook released his two debut albums, 7G and Apple, and received the Variety Hitmakers Innovator of The Year Award in 2020. In 2022, he co-produced the song \"All Up in Your Mind\" from Beyoncé's album Renaissance, which earned him a nomination for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year.\nSince founding PC Music in August 2013, Cook's label has represented over 20 artists releasing music within a similar style, in which tropes from mainstream 1990s and 2000s pop music are amplified. This style of exaggerated pop tropes grew to serve as the foundation of the hyperpop genre, which Cook is credited for developing and popularising.\n\nEarly life\nAlexander Guy Cook is the son of English architect Sir Peter Cook and Israeli architect Yael Reisner. He attended Goldsmiths, University of London, where he studied music.\nIt was at Goldsmiths he reconnected with Danny L Harle, with whom he had gone to school as a teen. The two bonded over their shared musical tastes and interest in comedy duo Tim & Eric. This grew into a musical project called Dux Content.\n\nCareer\n2011–2013: Career beginnings\nSince they did not have a vocalist, Dux Content focused on musical experiments like compound metres and changes in tempo. One of their earlier works was a collection of compositions for the Disklavier, released with Spencer Noble and Tim Phillips under the name \"Dux Consort\".\n\nCook created Gamsonite, a \"pseudo-label\" collecting his early collaborations. Dux Content released its songs with strange renderings of digital avatars for promotional artwork. They contributed to the score for Alicia Norman's animated film Heart of Death and began considering a children's television show titled Dux Content's Jungle Jam. Cook and Harle explored how to build rhythms out of a vocalist's natural singing tempo and released the results as \"Dux Kidz\". The project was noticed by producer Sophie, who later worked with PC Music's acts. Cook began working on building flashy websites with Hannah Diamond and decided to focus on using websites to promote music.\n\n2013–2015: Foundation of PC Music\nIn August 2013, Cook founded PC Music as a way of embracing an A&R role, with the aim of \"recording people who don't normally make music and treating them as if they're a major label artist.\" In January 2014, Cook released \"Keri Baby\" as his first solo single, with vocals by Diamond. The track uses pop clichés and glitchy vocals to depict Diamond as a digital entity on a screen. His follow-up single \"Beautiful\" was released in June. \"Beautiful\" is a pastiche of Eurodance, featuring high, pitch-shifted vocals and donk sounds. Fact magazine called it PC Music's \"de-facto anthem\", and the song received a remix from Scottish producer Rustie.\n\nCook worked with Sophie to produce a song for QT, a pop singer portrayed by American performance artist Hayden Dunham. She found Cook through his work online and wanted to use a song to market a QT energy drink. Their resulting collaboration \"Hey QT\" was released in August 2014 on XL Recordings.\nOn 22 December 2014, A. G. Cook released \"What I Mean\" from his \"Personal Computer Music\" mix as a single. The single was made available as a free download via radio presenter Annie Mac's \"Free Music Monday\" SoundCloud channel. Opening with muffled dialogue, the song incorporates robotic vocals and a sample of R&B artist Chuckii Booker. Its organ-based arrangement was a more soulful take on Cook's usual style of dance-pop. After discussing a collaboration on a Charli XCX album, Cook contributed an official remix of her single \"Doing It\" featuring Rita Ora.\nCook's work received recognition on year-end lists for 2014. \"Keri Baby\" was listed at number 5 of Dummy magazine's \"20 Best Tracks of 2014\", and BuzzFeed's \"13 Obscure Tracks of 2014\", number 1 on Gorilla vs. Bear's, \"Favourite Tracks of 2014\", number 2 on Dazed & Confused's \"Top 20 Tracks of 2014\". Pitchfork Media ranked \"Beautiful\" number 30 on its list of \"The 100 Best Tracks of 2014\".\nMarch 2015 saw Cook's PC Music head to the US to showcase all 11 of his label's talent at the Empire Garage in Austin, Texas as part of SXSW. The showcase received positive reviews, with The Guardian saying \"AG Cook's entire thundering set [shows] this is a label refusing to be confined by definitions of genre or good taste.\" On 8 May 2015, Cook performed as part of a PC Music show at BRIC House in Brooklyn, New York as part of the Red Bull Music Academy Festival. The show was billed as the premiere of Pop Cube, \"a multimedia reality network\".\n\"Superstar\", Cook's fifth single, was released via PC Music on 13 July 2016. On the day of its release, Cook revealed via Twitter that \"Superstar\" had been in the works for over two years prior, originally beginning as a \"topline pitch\" for electro house DJ Zedd.\nIn April 2016, experimental music producer Oneohtrix Point Never posted a cryptic video to his Instagram that appeared to show Cook working on a remix of \"Sticky Drama\", a single from his 2015 album Garden of Delete. The remix was later surprise-released on 16 December 2016.\n\n2017–2020: Charli XCX, Jonsi and other ventures\nIn March 2017, Charli XCX's mixtape Number 1 Angel was released, prominently featuring production by Cook and others, including PC Music artists and affiliates SOPHIE, Danny L Harle, Life Sim and EASYFUN, who created the project EasyFX with Cook. This was followed by the mixtape Pop 2, also featuring production by Cook and others. Pitchfork Media gave Pop 2 a rating of 8.4 out of 10, calling it \"a vision of what pop music could be\" and \"the best full-length work of both Charli and PC Music's respective careers\".\nIn November 2018, A. G. Cook contributed to Tommy Cash's second studio album ¥€$. Cook is credited as the producer on 5 tracks on the record, including lead single \"X-RAY\" which he co-produced with Danny L Harle.\nCook was announced as the co-executive producer for Charli XCX's third studio album Charli, which was released on 13 September 2019. Cook has produced six of the album's seven singles, including Gone, the third single from the album, which features Christine and the Queens. The song was awarded \"Best New Track\" by Pitchfork and best song of the week by Stereogum.\nOn 6 April 2020, Cook and BJ Burton were announced as co-executive producers for Charli XCX's quarantine album How I'm Feeling Now, which was written in an open-source style, sharing the production process online and utilizing fan input/content.\nCook produced the song \"Exhale\" by Jónsi, his first solo music in a decade, released on 23 April 2020. In July 2020 it was revealed Cook served as executive producer on Shiver, Jónsi's new album which was released on 2 October 2020.\nOn 30 July 2020, Cook announced an upcoming studio album 7G. On 7 August 2020, he held a virtual concert featuring Caroline Polachek, Thy Slaughter and GRRL titled 7 by 7 over Zoom. The album was released through PC Music on 12 August, comprising 49 tracks split over seven discs. On 20 August 2020, Cook announced another studio album, Apple. The announcement came with the release of the single \"Oh Yeah\". The album was released through PC Music on 18 September 2020.\nLeading up to the release of his second album, Apple, Cook hosted another free livestream festival across Zoom, Bandcamp and Twitch entitled 'Appleville'. The festival featured intimate online performances from 100 gecs, Cali Cartier, Alaska Reid, Amnesia Scanner, Astra King, Baseck, Charli XCX, Clairo, Danger Inc, Dorian Electra, Felicita, Fraxiom, Hannah Diamond, Jimmy Edgar, Kero Kero Bonito, Namasenda, Ö, Oklou, Palmistry, Planet 1999 and Quiet Local. The event was described by Cook as \"a pastoral escape in the comfort of your own home, an infinite green field where you can sit back and watch some of your favourite musicians grapple with the limitations of time & space\". VIP tickets for the livestream were sold on Bandcamp and included access to select recordings from the concert. All proceeds from the ticket sales were donated to Mermaids and Black Cultural Archives.\nAfter 5 years of collaborating with Charli XCX, in November 2020 the pair was awarded the Variety Hitmakers Innovator of The Year Award. In December 2020, Cook took part in LUCKYME Records 12 Alternative Futures Advent Calendar Project. Baauer & A. G. Cook's \"Planet's Mad\" Remix was released on 10 December.\n\n2021–2022: 7G, Apple, Hikaru Utada and Beyoncé\nCook has also collaborated with Japanese American singer-songwriter Hikaru Utada, co-producing the movie's theme song \"One Last Kiss\", the soundtrack of the Japanese animated science fiction film Evangelion: 3.0+1.0 Thrice Upon a Time. The song was released on 9 March 2021, and reached #1 on the Japanese Japanese singles charts. He also co-produced another song with Utada, called Kimi ni Muchuu, which reached #1 on Japanese singles charts, and remixed Utada's song \"Face My Fears\" for her album Bad Mode.\nBeginning in April 2021, Cook began releasing remixes of songs from his two 2020 albums. Cook later announced that they would be included on a 21-track joint remix album titled Apple vs. 7G. The album was released on 28 May and features remixes from PC artists Easyfun and Hannah Diamond as well as Caroline Polachek, Charli XCX and No Rome. Cook released the remixed version of No Rome's \"Spinning\", featuring Charli XCX and the 1975, in May 2021. In June 2021, Cook hosted and curated his first show in a 4 part residency on BBC Radio 6 music as part of the 'Lose Yourself with...' series.\n\nCook contributed to Lady Gaga's Chromatica remix album, providing a remix for the track \"911\" alongside Charli XCX. The album, titled Dawn of Chromatica was released in September 2021 and featured remixes from Dorian Electra and Rina Sawayama. In October 2021, Cook partnered with Apple Inc. to release \"Start Up\", a song that incorporates sounds from Apple products from the past 45 years. It was used as the intro music for an Apple media event that same month.\nIn 2022, he worked with Beyoncé co-writing and co-producing the song \"All Up in Your Mind\", which was included on her seventh studio album Renaissance. It earned his first Grammy Award nomination for Album of the Year.\n\n2023–present: Closure of PC Music, Troye Sivan, Thy Slaughter and Britpop\nCook lent additional production to \"Lick the light out\", featuring Madonna, on Christine and the Queens' Paranoïa, Angels, True Love. Cook also produced the majority of Alaska Reid's album Disenchanter, which released in July 2023. He worked again with Hikaru Utada, in a new song called “Gold -Mata Au Hi Made-” (Gold – Till the day we see each other again), the theme song of the movie KINGDOM: The Flame of Destiny, released July 28. Cook also contributed to the score of 2023 film Bottoms, and produced \"How to Stay With You\" from Troye Sivan's Something to Give Each Other album.\nIn July 2023, Cook announced that PC Music would cease to release any further new material after the end of 2023. Some of the label's final releases include felicita's Spalarkle, Hannah Diamond's Perfect Picture, and Thy Slaughter's debut album Soft Rock. Thy Slaughter is a collaboration project between Cook and labelmate EASYFUN, and the album includes features from Charli XCX, Alaska Reid, Caroline Polachek, and Ellie Rowsell.\nOn January 1, 2024, Cook released the single \"Silver Thread Golden Needle\", his first release following the dissolution of PC Music. He announced his next album Britpop on 23 February with the release of its title track featuring vocals by Charli XCX. After working on the Charli XCX singles \"Club Classics\" and \"B2B\", he released the Britpop single \"Soulbreaker\" on 17 April. Britpop was released on 10 May 2024 under Cook's newly set up record label New Alias.\nIn May 2024 Hikaru Utada released a re-recorded version of \"Simple and Clean\" with Cook credited as a producer.\nHe worked with Kesha for her her upcoming album.\n\nArtistry\nCook's style of music amplifies the clichés of mainstream pop music from the 1990s and 2000s. He follows the work of \"mega-producers\" such as Max Martin and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. Cook references Scritti Politti's album Cupid & Psyche 85 for its \"conscious decision to take pop music and make it as shiny and detailed as possible\". He cites Korean and Japanese pop music as influences, as well as gyaru subculture.\nCook begins constructing tracks by constructing chords and melodies note by note. He prefers the sounds of virtual instruments and avoids sound design early in the process, giving his music a deadpan simplicity. He experiments with combining dissonant sounds, and the resulting dense, multi-layered arrangements are influenced by the Black MIDI techniques. Cook's arrangements are inspired by the mechanized music of composer Conlon Nancarrow. When collaborating with other artists, he prepares an extensive demo so that they can complete lyrics and record vocals straight away. Cook thoroughly processes the vocals, chopping them to use as a rhythmic element atop the melody.\nIn contrast to most of the artists on PC Music, Cook wears plain clothing. GFOTY jokingly characterised his style as normcore.\n\nPC Music\nPC Music is a record label founded by A. G. Cook in 2013. Its first song was made available on SoundCloud the same year. PC Music is known for its surreal or exaggerated take on pop music, often featuring pitch-shifted, feminine vocals and bright, synthetic textures. Artists on its roster include Hannah Diamond, Easyfun, Namasenda and Danny L Harle. The label has been characterized as embracing the aesthetics of advertising, consumerism and corporate branding. Its artists often present devised personas inspired by cyberculture. The label has inspired both praise and criticism from journalists and has been called \"polarizing\". In 2019 it was described by Dazed as one of the 'most exhilarating record labels of the 2010s.' In more recent years it has been noted for its influence on mainstream pop due to the production work by PC Music signees for artists such as Kim Petras, Charli XCX and Jónsi.\n\nPersonal life\nCook moved to Los Angeles in 2019.\n\nDiscography\n7G (2020)\nApple (2020)\nBritpop (2024)\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nMusic videos\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nPC Music official site\nA. G. Cook discography at Discogs \nA. G. Cook on Twitter\nA. G. Cook on Instagram",
"title": "A._G._Cook"
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] | What is the name of the "pseudo label" that collected the early collaborations of English architect Sir Peter Cook's son? | [] | Gamsonite | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Marion Couthouy Smith (1853–1931) was a poet from the United States. She published three books of poetry between 1906 and 1918 and individual poems through the Harper's Magazine, Century Magazine, Atlantic Monthly, and The New England Magazine.\n\nBiography\nMarion Couthouy Smith was born in 1853 the daughter of Henry Pratt of Philadelphia (father) and Maria Couthouy Williams. She graduated 1871 from Miss A. M. Anable's school in Philadelphia.\n\nBooks\nChorister No. 13, a poem, cover by Lee Baker, James Pott & Company, Publishers, c1891.\nA Working Woman published in serial in The Living Church\nDr. Marks, Socialist, 1897 Online text\nThe Electric Spirit and Other Poems, 1906 Online text\nThe Road of Life and Other Poems, 1909 Online text\nThe Final Star, poems, 1918 Online text\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nPages with poems from Harpers Magazine\nHer poem, The City\nHer poem, Chicago, with biography for Chicago Worlds Fair",
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"paragraph_text": "Harper's Magazine is a monthly magazine of literature, politics, culture, finance, and the arts. Launched in New York City in June 1850, it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States. Harper's Magazine has won 22 National Magazine Awards.\nThroughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the magazine published works of prominent authors and political figures, including Herman Melville, Woodrow Wilson, and Winston Churchill. Willie Morris's resignation as editor in 1971 was considered a major event, and many other employees of the magazine resigned with him. The magazine has developed into the 21st century, adding several blogs.\n\nHistory\n19th century\nHarper's Magazine began as Harper's New Monthly Magazine in New York City in June 1850, by publisher Harper & Brothers. The company also founded the magazines Harper's Weekly and Harper's Bazaar, and grew to become HarperCollins. The first press run of Harper's Magazine included 7,500 copies and sold out almost immediately. Six months later, the magazine's circulation had grown to 50,000.\nThe early issues reprinted material pirated from English authors such as Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontë sisters. The magazine soon was publishing the work of American artists and writers, and in time commentary by the likes of Winston Churchill and Woodrow Wilson. Portions of Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick were first published in the October 1851 issue of Harper's under the title, \"The Town-Ho's Story\", named after Chapter 54 of Moby-Dick.\n\n20th century\nIn 1962, Harper & Brothers merged with Row, Peterson & Company, becoming Harper & Row (now HarperCollins). In 1965, the magazine was separately incorporated, and became a division of the Minneapolis Star and Tribune Company, owned by the Cowles Media Company.\nIn the 1970s, Harper's Magazine published Seymour Hersh's reporting of the My Lai Massacre by United States forces in Vietnam. In 1971, editor Willie Morris resigned under pressure from owner John Cowles Jr., prompting resignations from many of the magazine's star contributors and staffers, including Norman Mailer, David Halberstam, Robert Kotlowitz, Marshall Frady, and Larry L. King:\n\nMorris's departure jolted the literary world. Mailer, William Styron, Gay Talese, Bill Moyers, and Tom Wicker declared that they would boycott Harper's as long as the Cowles family owned it, and the four staff writers hired by Morris—Frady among them—resigned in solidarity with him.\nRobert Shnayerson, a senior editor at Time magazine, was hired to replace Morris as Harper's ninth editor, serving in that position from 1971 until 1976.\nLewis H. Lapham served as managing editor from 1976 until 1981, when the job was taken over by Michael Kinsley. Lapham returned to the position again from 1983 until 2006. On June 17, 1980, the Star Tribune announced it would cease publishing Harper's Magazine after the August 1980 issue, but on July 9, 1980, John R. MacArthur (who goes by the name Rick) and his father, Roderick, obtained pledges from the directorial boards of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Atlantic Richfield Company, and CEO Robert Orville Anderson to amass the $1.5 million needed to establish the Harper's Magazine Foundation. It now publishes the magazine.\nIn 1984, Lapham and MacArthur, now publisher and president of the foundation, respectively, along with new executive editor Michael Pollan, redesigned Harper's and introduced the \"Harper's Index\" with statistics arranged for, \"Readings\", and the \"Annotation\" departments to complement its fiction, essays, reportage, and reviews.\n\n21st century\nUnder the Lapham and MacArthur's leadership, Harper's Magazine continued publishing literary fiction by John Updike, George Saunders, and others. Politically, Harper's has been a vocal critic of U.S. domestic and foreign policies. Editor Lapham's monthly \"Notebook\" columns have lambasted the Clinton and the George W. Bush administrations. Beginning in 2003, the magazine concentrated on reportage the Iraq War, including long articles on the battle for Fallujah, and the cronyism of the American reconstruction of Iraq. Other reporting has covered abortion issues, cloning, and global warming.\nIn 2007, Harper's added the No Comment blog by attorney Scott Horton about legal controversies, Central Asian politics, and German studies. In April 2006, Harper's began publishing the Washington Babylon blog on its website, written by Washington, D.C. editor Ken Silverstein about American politics; and in 2008, Harper's added the Sentences blog by contributing editor Wyatt Mason, about literature and belles lettres. Since that time, these two blogs have ceased publication. Another website feature, featuring a rotating set of authors, is the \"Weekly Review\", a three-paragraph distillation of the week's political, scientific, and bizarre news. Like \"Harper's Index\" and \"Findings\" in the print edition of the magazine, \"Weekly Review\" items are typically arranged for ironic contrast.\nAs of the December 2019 issue, Julian Lucas writes the print edition's \"New Books\" column.\n\nControversies\nEditor Lewis H. Lapham was criticized for his reportage of the 2004 Republican National Convention, which had yet to occur, in his essay \"Tentacles of Rage: The Republican Propaganda Mill, a Brief History\", published in the September 2004 issue, which implied that he had attended the convention. He apologized in a note. Lapham left two years later, after 28 years as Harper's editor-in-chief, and launched Lapham's Quarterly.\nThe August 2004 issue contained a photo essay by noted photojournalist Peter Turnley, who was hired to do a series of photo essays for the magazine. The eight-page spread in August 2004 showed images of death, grieving, and funerals from both sides of the war in Afghanistan. On the U.S. side, Turnley visited the funeral of an Oklahoma National Guard member, Spc. Kyle Brinlee, 21, who was killed when his vehicle ran over an improvised explosive device (IED) in Afghanistan. During his funeral, Turnley photographed the open casket as it lay in the back of the high school auditorium where the funeral was held to accommodate 1,200 mourners, and the photo was used in the photo essay. Brinlee's family subsequently sued the magazine in federal court. The case ended in 2007 when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the unauthorized publication was in \"poor taste\" but upheld the ruling of the Tenth Circuit that the magazine had not violated the privacy rights of the family, since the family had invited the press and, according the court, \"opened up the funeral scene to the public eye\".\nThe March 2006 issue included an article by Celia Farber, \"Out of Control: AIDS and the Corruption of Medical Science\", presenting Peter Duesberg's theory that HIV does not cause AIDS. It was strongly criticized by AIDS activists, scientists and physicians, the Columbia Journalism Review, and others as inaccurate and promoting a scientifically discredited theory. The Treatment Action Campaign, a South African organization working for greater popular access to HIV treatments, posted a response by eight researchers documenting more than 50 errors in the article.\nIn 2006, Lapham was succeeded as Harper's editor by Roger Hodge. Since that time, the magazine has had a number of shorter-termed editors in chief, several of whom were fired amid various controversies. On January 25, 2010, the firing of the magazine's editor, Roger Hodge, by publisher John R. MacArthur was met with criticism among the magazine's subscribers and staff. MacArthur initially claimed Hodge was stepping down for \"personal reasons\", but later disclosed that he fired Hodge.\nEllen Rosenbush served as editor from 2010 to 2015. She returned in January 2016 when MacArthur fired Christopher Cox, who had been named editor only three months prior in October 2015.\nJames Marcus assumed the post of editor in 2016. In March 2018, an essay by Katie Roiphe on the #MeToo movement excited controversy both online and inside Harper's. Marcus had complained about the piece, suggesting the critique of #MeToo was inappropriate in light of Harper's \"longtime reputation as a gentleman's smoking club\"; he attributed this disagreement as a primary cause of his firing in 2018. In April 2018, Ellen Rosenbush assumed the title of editorial director. In October 2019, the magazine announced that novelist and essayist Christopher Beha would be taking over as editor, with Rosenbush remaining as editor-at-large.\nIn July 2020, Harper's published an open letter called \"A Letter on Justice and Open Debate\" criticizing \"illiberalism\" and promoting a tolerance of different viewpoints. The letter received a mixed response on Twitter with some remarking that the prominent signatories had \"bigger platforms and more resources than most other humans\" and were unlikely to face repercussions for anything they said, and others taking umbrage at particular signatories such as J. K. Rowling, who faced recent criticism for her comments on transgender issues.\n\nNotable contributors\nGallery\nPosters by Edward Penfield\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nGabler-Hover, Janet; Robert Sattelmeyer, eds. (2006). \"Book and Periodical Illustration in America, 1820–1870\". American History Through Literature, 1820–1870. Vol. 1. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. pp. 144–48. ISBN 9780684314600. OCLC 1102155210.\nLilly, Thomas (2005). \"The National Archive: Harper's New Monthly Magazine and the Civic Responsibilities of a Commercial Literary Periodical, 1850–1853\". American Periodicals. Vol. 15, no. 2. pp. 142–162. JSTOR 20771182.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nOfficial archive (subscription required)\nGuide to Harper's Magazine on the Internet (from the Online Books Page)\nHarper's Magazine at the Internet Archive\nHarper's New Monthly Magazine digital archive at Hathi Trust\n\"1842 illustrations from Harper's Magazine\". NYPL Digital Gallery.",
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"paragraph_text": "The Century Magazine was an illustrated monthly magazine first published in the United States in 1881 by The Century Company of New York City, which had been bought in that year by Roswell Smith and renamed by him after the Century Association. It was the successor of Scribner's Monthly Magazine. It was merged into The Forum in 1930.\n\nHistory\nThe initial editor was to have been Scribner's editor and co-owner Josiah G. Holland, but he died prior to the appearance of the first issue. He was succeeded by Richard Watson Gilder, the managing editor of Scribner's, who would go on to helm The Century for 28 years. Gilder largely continued the mixture of literature, history, current events, and high-quality illustrations that Holland had used at Scribner's. \nThe magazine was very successful during the 19th century, most notably for a series of articles about the American Civil War which ran for three years during the 1880s. It included reminiscences of 230 participants from all ranks of the service on both sides of the conflict. According to an author writing in The New York Times, the publication of The Century \"made New-York, instead of London, the centre of the illustrated periodicals published in the English language…\" The magazine was also a notable publisher of fiction, presenting excerpts of Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn in 1884 and 1885 and Henry James' The Bostonians.\nUpon Gilder's death in 1909, Robert Underwood Johnson replaced him as editor. According to Arthur John, the magazine's \"later history was marked by sudden shifts in content, format, and editorial direction.\" Glenn Frank was editor from 1921 to 1925, a period during which The Century was known for its editorials on current events and began to cut back on illustrations, which were eliminated after Frank left the magazine. In 1929, due to competition from cheaper magazines and newspapers, The Century became a quarterly, and in 1930 it was merged with The Forum. At the time it folded, The Century had 20,000 subscribers, less than a tenth of its peak circulation of the late nineteenth century. Scribner's Monthly Magazine, the periodical that became The Century in 1881, should not be confused with the Scribner's Magazine that began publication in 1887.\nThe noted critic and editor Frank Crowninshield briefly served as the magazine's art editor.\n\nPhilosophy and political positions\nThe tone and content of The Century changed over its long history. It began as an Evangelical Christian publication, but over time began to speak to a more general educated audience as it developed into the largest periodical in the country.\n\nReligion\nNovelist and poet Josiah G. Holland was one of the three original founders of Scribner's Monthly and wrote regular editorials for the periodical, setting the tone for the magazine's content. As Holland was deeply religious, Scribner's to a great extent reflected the views and concerns of the Evangelical Christian community. While hostile towards sectarianism within Protestantism, Scribner's initially took a strong stand against both Catholicism and those who doubted the divinity of Christ. In the first issue, under the heading \"Papa and the Dogma\", Holland claimed that it was freedom that made the Protestant nations of Europe strong while their Catholic neighbors were, as a result of their religion, in a state of decay. Less than one year later, the magazine attacked the skepticism of Henry David Thoreau. Mormon polygamy was also a frequent target. One contributor traveled to Utah to observe the Mormon settlement there and argued that the new sect would have to end its practice of plural marriage if it were to survive and American control could be exercised over the western territories.\nAt the same time, Scribner's Monthly, being non-dogmatic in its Protestantism, expressed little hostility towards modern science. For example, a three-part series discussed how believing Christians should meet the intellectual challenges of religious skepticism, and in 1874 two writers engaged one another in a debate over whether Christians should attempt to prove the divinity of Christ through science.\nBy the end of the 1870s, however, Scribner's had departed from its original Evangelical orientation. An April 1879 editorial declared all seekers of truth, whether believing Christians or not, to be allies, regarding this new view as simply an application of the Golden Rule. Catholics were said to have just as much to teach Protestants as Protestants had to teach Catholics. After the magazine became The Century in 1881, it continued to hold onto this secular outlook under Gilder. The break with the past was reflected in the magazine's changing treatment of the question of evolution. In 1875, Scribner's argued that there was insufficient evidence to conclude that Darwinism was true and attributed its wide acceptance to a contemporary bias towards novel ideas, even though the author did not on principle reject the idea that proof could be forthcoming. Upon the death of Charles Darwin in 1883, however, The Century published a laudatory tribute to the scientist written by Alfred Wallace. The magazine remained secular into its later days, in 1923 criticizing the \"poisonous dogmatism\" of the thought of William Jennings Bryan and what the magazine saw as his religious fundamentalism. Over the years, The Century published works by a large number of writers who were agnostics or atheists, including famous skeptic Bertrand Russell.\n\nAmerican nationalism\nFrom the very beginning of his tenure as editor in 1881 to his death in 1909, The Century reflected the ideals of Gilder. He sought to create and help shape a \"refined\" American high culture, often contributing his own poetry to that end Everything from its historical memoirs to political commentary reflected the influence of nineteenth century romanticism.\nAn unsigned May 1885 editorial expressed pride over the belief of the staff that the periodical had achieved wide circulation while remaining a quality product. This reflected the view that as a general matter there was usually a tradeoff between quality and quantity. The Century was generally seen as a conservative magazine and hoped to promote reconciliation between the North and South after the trauma of the Civil War. According to J. Arthur Bond, the magazine was instrumental in creating and shaping post-war American nationalism. In the words of one contemporary, Gilder's \"spirited and tireless endeavor [ ] was to give the organic life of the American people purity of character and nobility of expression.\" During his tenure as editor, he promoted patriotism and the glorification of American historical figures. Seeing itself as having an \"elevating\" mission, its \"mixture of nationalism and cultural advocacy informed even the most 'ordinary' of the magazine's articles.\" Often touching on many of these themes, Theodore Roosevelt wrote as a regular contributor to the magazine over three decades, a span which included one article he published while serving as president. Gilder developed relationships with several contemporary prominent figures, including a close friendship with Grover Cleveland which he wrote about upon the death of the former president. It has been argued that the decline in the popularity of the magazine from the 1890s on was connected to the general triumph of more egalitarian ideologies and the collapse of nineteenth century romanticism and idealism.\nConcerns over national unity and the preservation of traditional American culture were reflected in the magazine's writings on immigration. An 1884 article discussed the composition and geographical distribution of immigrant populations, and expressed optimism over the prospect of the newer Americans assimilating into the larger population. At the same time, the article warned that measures should be taken against potential threats to national unity through fractionalization. As immigration increased over the next few decades, however, The Century became more alarmed over its effects on the future of the country, citing concerns over, among other matters, crime, illiteracy, and the overpopulation of cities. In 1904, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge took to the pages of the magazine to argue for the importance of keeping out \"undesirable\" immigrants. Twenty years later, editor Glenn Frank attacked the Ku Klux Klan and other nativists, but nonetheless wrote that \"[t]he hour for very severe restrictions on immigration has come…\" The same author returned to some of the same themes when he again attacked the KKK several months later for both its religious and racial doctrines.\n\nReconstruction and civil rights\nIn the immediate post-Reconstruction era, contributors to The Century debated what should be done about the postwar South and the newly free slaves, generally advocating for amicable relations between the regions and national unity. In 1873 and 1874, Scribner's ran a number of articles under the title \"The Great South,\" a series which lasted fourteen issues. Based on Edward King's travels, the author's accounts generally portrayed the region in a sympathetic light and the series was warmly received by Southerners.\nIn 1876, Scribner's published a eulogy to Robert E. Lee, along with an editorial postscript praising the spirit of \"sectional friendliness\" of the piece.\nOn the question of the freedmen, a wide variety of contemporary views were represented. Writing for Scribner's in 1874, one author argued that blacks were unfit to be schooled with white children. On the other hand, an 1885 article by George W. Cable despaired over what he saw as the failure to protect the rights of southern blacks after the Civil War and argued that this was the result of the former confederate states evading federal law. Henry W. Grady, responding a few months later, disputed the earlier author's characterization of the situation, claiming that while legal rights had been granted, southern whites would never accept social integration between the races. Cable's criticisms of the ex-Confederacy also drew a rebuke by Robert Lewis Dabney.\nEven when sympathetic to the cause of the newly freed slaves, writers who argued for helping them usually did so on paternalistic grounds. Bishop T. U. Dudley, for example, expressed doubt that much could be done to elevate the status of American blacks, but argued that Christian principles required helping them to the greatest extent possible.\nThe question of how much government policy could do to improve the circumstances of the former slaves continued to be debated over the decades. By the turn of the century, the debates were conducted in the language of science. Robert Bennett Bean, a medical doctor, published a 1906 article arguing that social policy should be based on realistic assessments of the relative mental capacities of blacks and whites. He claimed that blacks had, on average, smaller brains than Asians or Caucasians, a finding he attributed to heredity. Similarly, Charles Francis Adams Jr. spent two years in Egypt and the Sudan and referenced his experiences to argue in 1906 that the unfortunate circumstances of American blacks were mainly due to inherently low capabilities rather than history. In the same issue, however, the editors felt it necessary to mention the dissenting view of Franz Boas, who had painted a more optimistic picture of the potential of Africans in a different periodical two years earlier.\nBooker T. Washington contributed four articles to the magazine in the first decade of the twentieth century, including one on \"Heroes in Black Skins.\" and another that discussed efforts of blacks to become homeowners. A 1903 editorial sang the praises of Washington, calling him the \"Moses of his people\" and contrasting him favorably with W.E.B. Du Bois.\nReflecting the magazine's later shift leftward, Du Bois himself contributed an article to The Century in 1923. Several editorials around that time criticized the revived Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s. Frank Tannenbaum, for example, wrote that the Klan of the Reconstruction era \"was a reflex of the vindictiveness of Northern politicians and of the unscrupulous carpet-baggers who swooped down upon the South as a vulture upon a wounded and stricken victim.\" But the contemporary Klan, according to Tannenbaum, had no such justification and simply reflected fears of change and other pathologies of segments of the white population.\n\nProgressive causes\nThe magazine championed several Progressive causes popular in its time. Among these were several civil service reforms including competitive examinations for public offices, which its writers saw as a way to promote good governance and reduce class privilege. Similarly, in 1894 Henry Cabot Lodge attacked the \"un-American\" practice of patronage. The Century also took up some of the environmental causes of its day, expressing satisfaction over the first attempts by the federal government to preserve the nation's forests, and in its later days supported women's suffrage. Finally, the magazine occasionally published articles in favor of eugenics. Frank, for example, while disparaging the racism of the KKK, encouraged what he called the better individuals of every race to use the tools of modern science to focus on improving the genetic quality of all populations.\n\nSocialism and the labor movement\nScribner's generally defended the principles of classical economics and opposed socialism. William Graham Sumner wrote an article for the magazine in this vein praising traditional capitalist virtues such as self-reliance and individualism and attributing poverty to laziness and vice. On the other hand, Holland occasionally directed his ire towards \"soulless\" corporations that he accused of exploiting workers. In the view of the magazine, both capitalists and workers had moral obligations.\nIn its early days, The Century tended to adopt the same views as its predecessor. It defended capitalism, but refrained from unreflectively denouncing all forms of regulation. For example, an 1886 article opposed socialism but argued that in the future there would be more need for government activism than there had been in the past. Over the next few decades, The Century published several forceful denunciations of socialist theories and practice. In the 1890s Gilder and his editors took the position that labor unions were a foreign imposition, one of the many negative consequences of a relatively open immigration policy. Similarly, socialism was said to punish success, a concept that was anathema to the philosophy of his magazine.\nDespite its conservative leanings, the magazine was open to dissenting views on economic issues in a way that it was not on deeper philosophical matters. The March 1904 issue allowed workers to publish contributions making the case for labor unions as appropriate checks on big business. Two years later, an editorial praised some of the accomplishments of the labor movement, while still maintaining that it needed to be reformed.\nIn its later years, after the Russian Revolution had brought the issue to the attention of the public, The Century opposed the spread of Communism. Employing Nietzschean terminology, Lothrop Stoddard in 1919 called Bolshevism \"the heresy of the Underman,\" in contrast to Prussianism, the \"heresy of the Overman,\" which had been defeated in World War I. He went on to argue that the Bolshevik Revolution had only been the local manifestation of a phenomenon that would have to be defeated worldwide and that Vladimir Lenin was \"a modern Jenghiz Khan plotting the plunder of a world.\"\n\nTurn-of-the-20th-century decline\nWhile remaining extremely influential and well-regarded among the American elite, the popularity of The Century began to decline in the 1890s and never regained the prominence it had enjoyed as the leading American periodical of the late nineteenth century. By 1900, it had about 125,000 subscribers, half of the circulation it had in the 1880s. The Century suffered due to competition from other cheaper magazines, many of which Gilder and his staff considered vulgar.\nAlthough Gilder had been a zealous reformer, as a conservative in politics and values he never embraced the Progressive movement. As its circulation declined, the magazine took a more pessimistic tone and began to write less and less about current events. An 1898 editorial criticized \"the profusion in the literary and pictorial 'output' which has a tendency to befog the intellect and lower the standards of taste.\" A few months later the magazine lamented that the \"age of reflection\" had given way to the \"age of agitation\" spread by \"[f]ast trains and cheap print…\" Similarly, a 1902 editorial argued that divorce was a threat to civilization, and nothing would be more likely to cure this ill than literature \"celebrating the sanctive and ever-lasting virtues of self-control, forbearance, devotion, and honor.\" Gilder characteristically saw a connection between a decline in morals and contemporary social problems and believed, conversely, that ennobling art could be a solution.\nEven in an artistic sense, The Century of the late nineteenth century was slow to adapt to the times. In 1889, after much resistance it became the last major periodical to include photographic illustrations. The editors remained attached to painted drawings, which The Century had become renowned for. In the pages of the magazine Gilder explained this preference by complaining of the trend toward the \"minute and literal representation of the visible world\" seen in photography, as opposed to painting, which preserved only that which deserved to be recorded for posterity. He went on to argue that the spread of printing and writing would have a similar vulgarizing and cheapening effect on the written word.\nThus, the magazine maintained a great deal of self-awareness about the causes of its declining influence. According to one modern author, in the first decade of the twentieth century, Gilder and the other editors \"continued to bear aloft the flame of the ideal\" in a changing era and gave \"no thought of cheapening the magazine to slow the steady drifting away of subscribers.\" After Gilder's death in 1909, The Century survived another two decades, but never regained its position as the leading American periodical.\n\nLater years, 1909-1930\nRobert Underwood Johnson was editor of The Century from Gilder's death in 1909 until his resignation in 1913. The 1910s were marked by financial difficulties and a further decline, as the magazine competed with other periodicals of both similar and lesser quality. The Century still attracted some of the best fiction authors of the day, however. H. G. Wells' \"prophetic trilogy\" The World Set Free was serialized in the magazine in the first three issues of 1914.\nGlenn Frank became editor of The Century in 1921, until he left this position in 1925 to become president of the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He wrote a series of editorials in which he laid out his thoughts on the future of Western civilization. The editorials used colorful language and usually stressed the idea that contemporary social problems had created a need for social engineering and government activism in both domestic and international affairs. For example, in 1923, Frank wrote that Senator Lodge and his isolationist supporters were \"the amoeba of politics, strange survivals from a prehistoric era of the lowest form of political intelligence.\" He later argued for what he called \"an intelligently flexible conservatism.\" While warning of what he referred to as the dangers of reactionaries on the right and radicals on the left, Frank was also known for expressing a great deal of optimism over the prospect of using the social sciences to improve human affairs. This kind of enthusiasm for reform through science rather than moral progress was a noticeable break from the philosophy of the magazine during the eras of Holland and Gilder.\nOther writers stressed similar themes throughout the Frank era. Reflecting the magazine's tilt to the left, a 1924 article called for \"industrial democracy\" to be adopted in American factories. Even the magazine's opposition to socialism was tempered, with Benjamin Stolberg arguing that the Red Scare had been an overreaction and that the Bolshevik threat to the United States had failed to materialize. The leftward shift during this time was not total, however, and, despite the tone that Frank's editorials gave to the magazine, The Century remained open to a wide variety of views. Noted conservative G.K. Chesterton, for example, contributed an essay that was highly critical of contemporary art.\nFrank was succeeded in 1925 by Hewitt H. Howland, who remained as editor until the magazine merged with The Forum in 1930.\n\nHistorical memoirs and major reporting\nCivil War series\nIn 1877, Scribner's published a series of short accounts from those who took part in the Battle of Mobile Bay. The parent publishing house released a series of books, The Army in the Civil War, in 13 volumes penned by U.S. Army veterans who had participated in the operations that they wrote about. This series became a best-seller. The Century continued this kind of historical reporting with Alexander R. Boteler's first-person account of John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry it published in 1883, followed in the same issue by a rejoinder from Frank B. Sanborn, a self-described \"radical abolitionist\" who had helped finance the mission.\nGilder, himself a Union veteran, soon began regularly running the reflections of major Civil War figures. Originally planned to run for twelve months, the series drew so much interest that it lasted for three years and eventually led to a four-volume book. Among the contributors to the series were Union generals Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, Philip Sheridan, and George B. McClellan. As The Century tried to avoid bias and promote American unity, it also sought out and accepted accounts from those on the Confederate side, including the generals James Longstreet and P. G. T. Beauregard The contributions led readers who had served in the war to submit unsolicited recollections and previously unpublished documents to the magazine, in addition to criticisms and rebuttals of published pieces. These submissions were so numerous that in 1885 The Century began to include them in a section titled \"Memoranda on the Civil War.\" The magazine had in effect become a forum for those who had fought each other in battle two decades earlier. In the pages of The Century, they could discuss their battles and mutually celebrate the bravery and heroism of both sides.\nThe idea for soliciting recollections of the Civil War originally came from assistant editor Clarence Buel, who later wrote of the difficulties he had in going about convincing former military leaders to share their experiences. In fact, Grant would not agree to contribute to the series until the former general and president had run into financial difficulties. The editors became engrossed in the Civil War project, and sometimes took tours of the famous battle sites, bringing along commanders to explain their exploits and artists to draw sketches of the scenes for the magazine. The Century office became a regular meeting place for former comrades and adversaries, as reflected in a letter an excited Gilder sent to his wife exclaiming \"Grant one day and Beauregard the next!\"\nBefore the publication of the series, Sherman was the only major figure of the war who had written a first-person account. Afterwards, the works that Grant, Sheridan, and McClellan contributed to The Century led to books by each of those generals.\nAs a result of the Civil War recollections, the number of subscribers to the magazine jumped to 250,000, a then unprecedented number for a magazine of its kind. Edward Weeks wrote that even by 1950 no \"quality magazine\" had ever had as many subscribers as The Century did in the 1880s, even though by that time the reading public had tripled in size. As of 1892, it was also the most widely circulated periodical of its price in England, with 20,000 subscribers.\n\nLincoln biography\nThe Century also acquired the rights to publish excerpts from the manuscript of a biography of President Abraham Lincoln written by his former secretaries John Hay and John G. Nicolay. The result was a series titled Abraham Lincoln: A History, which ran over three years. Decades later, The Century returned to Abraham Lincoln as a symbol of the republic's lost virtue. The February 1909 issue had a drawing of Lincoln on its cover and included twenty-two portraits of the former president within its pages along with pictures of his life mask and a cast of his hands. Gilder's contribution to the issue, \"Lincoln the Leader\", held the subject up as an ideal for modern statesmen to emulate.\n\nRussian dissidents\nIn the late 1880s, George Kennan traveled to Russia and wrote a series of reports on the revolutionaries who had opposed Tsar Alexander II and been sent to prisons in Siberia. Seeing him as a writer sympathetic to the autocratic regime and hostile towards its opponents, the Russian government granted Kennan relative freedom to travel around the country. During his travels, however, the author changed his mind and wrote accounts that were highly critical of the regime. His reports included detailed illustrations of the suffering of those who suffered on account of their opposition to the government. In one article, Kennan told the story of how when the decision to assassinate the Tsar was made, 47 individuals volunteered to carry out the mission. Arguing that individuals fighting for civil liberties were rarely as fanatical as the Russian revolutionaries, Kennan wrote that he believed that it was the treatment of prisoners that led to such stringent opposition to the government. He noted that \"playing upon the deepest and most intense of human emotions as a means of extorting information from unwilling witnesses\" was routine in prisons holding political offenders. For example, a young woman was led to incriminate her loved ones by being told that they had already confessed. Sometimes, a revolutionary would be told that he was going to meet his mother, taken to her, and then stopped and later informed that he would only see her if he answered questions about his past activities. A twenty-two-year-old mother was falsely led to believe that if she did not cooperate with the authorities her infant could be taken from her. The author also reported that it was common practice for prisoners to be left in solitary confinement for years while government officials searched the empire for evidence with which the offenders could be charged. Kennan came to see himself as a voice for the Russian liberals and was subsequently banned from the country. His writings on Russia were eventually published in a two-volume book.\nA representative of the Russian government replied to Kennan's arguments in The Century in 1893. and the magazine subsequently published a rebuttal by the author.\nKennan's writings on Russia and his subsequent activism were perhaps the main causes behind the rise of anti-Tsar sentiment and sympathy for the revolutionary cause among late nineteenth-century American elites. In addition to publishing magazine articles and books, the author also began to give popular lectures on the subject, including dozens of speeches in Chicago, New York City, and Boston. In order to make an impression on the crowd, Kennan would often appear in front of them in the ragged clothes and shackles of a Russian prisoner. This advocacy inspired the formation of a number of American organizations that took up the cause of the exiles, the most prominent of them being the Society of Friends of Russian Freedom.\n\nOther histories and recollections\nIn the early 1900s, The Century continued to publish the writings of some of the most famous historians of the era along with first-person accounts of those who had worked in the highest levels of government.\nJustin Harvey Smith published four articles on the American Revolution in The Century in 1902 and 1903. The next year, S. Weir Mitchell contributed a series on the life of George Washington as a young man.\n\nIn addition to Theodore Roosevelt, The Century claimed a handful of other presidents as contributors. Grover Cleveland provided an account of perhaps the tensest moment of his two presidential administrations, the 1895 Venezuela border controversy with Britain. Andrew D. White contributed a series titled \"Chapters from My Diplomatic Life\" on his experiences serving in Germany and Russia. In September 1901, Woodrow Wilson wrote \"Edmund Burke and the French Revolution\" while still a professor at Princeton. In 1907 future President William Howard Taft wrote about the Panama Canal while serving as Secretary of War.\nOver the years, The Century also published first person accounts of individuals who had worked for various presidents. Col. William H. Cook, a bodyguard who served for over 50 years in the White House, shared his memories of the administrations of Andrew Johnson and Rutherford B. Hayes. Historian James Ford Rhodes also contributed an article on the Hayes Administration, which the editors called a kind of postscript to the last-published volume of his history of the United States.\n\nScience\nIn its early years, Scribner's Monthly published a regular feature titled \"Nature and Science.\" Remaining consistent with its broad mission to educate the public, The Century published articles by some of the most prominent scientists and inventors of the day. Thomas Edison contributed to a symposium on roentgen rays and also once sat for an interview with the magazine. In the June 1900 issue, Nikola Tesla contributed a long article on \"the problem of increasing human energy.\" In a piece that combined the magazine's interests in political and scientific issues, geneticist and Marxist J.B.S. Haldane published a 1923 article on the societal implications of technological progress.\n\nLiterature and the arts\nGilder has been called the \"literary arbiter of his time.\" Support for artistic excellence reflected his belief in the importance of self-improvement and the celebration of high standards. The works that appeared in his time also reflected the magazine's moralism, as they banned references to sex, vulgarity, and insults to Christianity.\nThe Century published the works of a number of major literary figures. In addition to the aforementioned works of Mark Twain and Henry James, pulp magazine author Ellis Parker Butler contributed 30 stories, articles and poems to the magazine between 1896 and 1913, including \"My Cyclone-proof House\", which appeared in the November 1896 issue. This short story was Butler's first piece published in a major magazine. His works were illustrated by such famous artists as Jay Hambidge, May Wilson Preston, Florence Scovel Shinn, Frederic Dorr Steele, and Frederic R. Gruger. The Century published a full-color portrait of Butler (with his wife Ada and daughter Elsie) in the December 1909 issue. The portrait was drawn by family friend Ernest L. Blumenschein. The magazine also published the work of Jack London and the first-person account and ink drawings from Tierra del Fuego of American painter Rockwell Kent.\nNoted engraver Alexander Wilson Drake was a long-time contributor to both The Century Magazine and its earlier incarnation as Scribner's Monthly. The Century Company produced a memorial edition of Alexander Wilson Drake's fiction and art titled Three Midnight Stories in 1916. The Century also employed many notable editorial cartoonists, including Oscar Cesare.\nBohemian composer Antonín Dvořák was another noted contributor to The Century Magazine, writing during his stay at the National Conservatory in New York in the 1890s. In 1894, The Century Magazine published his fine tribute to fellow composer Franz Schubert.\nDuring the 1900s and 1910s the Anglo-Canadian poet, story writer and essayist Marjorie Pickthall was a regular contributor to The Century Magazine.\n\nSee also\nCentury Dictionary\nCentury type family\n\nFootnotes\nCitations\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nWorks by or about The Century Magazine at the Internet Archive\nThe Century illustrated monthly magazine at the HathiTrust\nThe Century at the HathiTrust\nHolland Collection of Literary Letters, University of Colorado Boulder",
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"paragraph_text": "The Atlantic is an American magazine and multi-platform publisher based in Washington, D.C. It features articles on politics, foreign affairs, business and the economy, culture and the arts, technology, and science.\nIt was founded in 1857 in Boston as The Atlantic Monthly, a literary and cultural magazine that published leading writers' commentary on education, the abolition of slavery, and other major political issues of that time. Its founders included Francis H. Underwood and prominent writers Ralph Waldo Emerson, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and John Greenleaf Whittier. James Russell Lowell was its first editor. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the magazine also published the annual The Atlantic Monthly Almanac. The magazine was purchased in 1999 by businessman David G. Bradley, who fashioned it into a general editorial magazine primarily aimed at serious national readers and \"thought leaders\"; in 2017, he sold a majority interest in the publication to Laurene Powell Jobs's Emerson Collective.\nThe magazine was published monthly until 2001, when 11 issues were produced; since 2003, it has published 10 per year. It dropped \"Monthly\" from the cover with the January/February 2004 issue, and officially changed the name in 2007. \nIn 2016, the periodical was named Magazine of the Year by the American Society of Magazine Editors. In 2022, its writers won Pulitzer Prizes for feature writing and, in 2022, 2023, and 2024 The Atlantic won the award for general excellence by the American Society of Magazine Editors. In 2024, it was reported that the magazine had crossed one million subscribers and become profitable, three years after losing $20 million in a single year and laying off 17% of its staff.\nAs of 2024, the website's executive editor is Adrienne LaFrance, the editor-in-chief is Jeffrey Goldberg, and the CEO is Nicholas Thompson.\n\nFounding\n19th century\nIn the autumn of 1857, Moses Dresser Phillips, a publisher from Boston, created The Atlantic Monthly. The plan for the magazine was launched at a dinner party, which was described in a letter by Phillips:\n\nI must tell you about a little dinner-party I gave about two weeks ago. It would be proper, perhaps, to state the origin of it was a desire to confer with my literary friends on a somewhat extensive literary project, the particulars of which I shall reserve till you come. But to the Party: My invitations included only R. W. Emerson, H. W. Longfellow, J. R. Lowell, Mr. Motley (the 'Dutch Republic' man), O. W. Holmes, Mr. Cabot, and Mr. Underwood, our literary man. Imagine your uncle as the head of such a table, with such guests. The above named were the only ones invited, and they were all present. We sat down at three P.M., and rose at eight. The time occupied was longer by about four hours and thirty minutes than I am in the habit of consuming in that kind of occupation, but it was the richest time intellectually by all odds that I have ever had. Leaving myself and 'literary man' out of the group, I think you will agree with me that it would be difficult to duplicate that number of such conceded scholarship in the whole country besides... Each one is known alike on both sides of the Atlantic, and is read beyond the limits of the English language.\nAt that dinner he announced his idea for the magazine:\n\nMr. Cabot is much wiser than I am. Dr. Holmes can write funnier verses than I can. Mr. Motley can write history better than I. Mr. Emerson is a philosopher and I am not. Mr. Lowell knows more of the old poets than I. But none of you knows the American people as well as I do.\nThe Atlantic's first issue was published in November 1857, and quickly gained notability as one of the finest magazines in the English-speaking world.\nIn 1878, the magazine absorbed The Galaxy, a competitor monthly magazine founded a dozen years previously by William Conant Church and his brother Francis P. Church; it had published works by Mark Twain, Walt Whitman, Ion Hanford Perdicaris and Henry James.\nIn 1879, The Atlantic had offices in Winthrop Square in Boston and at 21 Astor Place in New York City.\n\nLiterary history\nA leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published many significant works and authors. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe (\"Battle Hymn of the Republic\" on February 1, 1862), and William Parker, whose slave narrative, \"The Freedman's Story\" was published in February and March 1866. It also published Charles W. Eliot's \"The New Education\", a call for practical reform that led to his appointment to the presidency of Harvard University in 1869, works by Charles Chesnutt before he collected them in The Conjure Woman (1899), and poetry and short stories, and helped launch many national literary careers. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction.\nEditors have recognized major cultural changes and movements. For example, of the emerging writers of the 1920s, Ernest Hemingway had his short story \"Fifty Grand\" published in the July 1927 edition. Harking back to its abolitionist roots, in its August 1963 edition, at the height of the civil rights movement, the magazine published Martin Luther King Jr.'s defense of civil disobedience, \"Letter from Birmingham Jail\", under the headline \"The Negro Is Your Brother\".\nThe magazine has published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies. The classic example is Vannevar Bush's essay \"As We May Think\" (July 1945), which inspired Douglas Engelbart and later Ted Nelson to develop the modern workstation and hypertext technology.\nThe Atlantic Monthly founded the Atlantic Monthly Press in 1917; for many years, it was operated in partnership with Little, Brown and Company. Its published books included Drums Along the Mohawk (1936) and Blue Highways (1982). The press was sold in 1986; today it is an imprint of Grove Atlantic.\nIn addition to publishing notable fiction and poetry, The Atlantic has emerged in the 21st century as an influential platform for longform storytelling and newsmaker interviews. Influential cover stories have included Anne Marie Slaughter's \"Why Women Still Can't Have It All\" (2012) and Ta-Nehisi Coates's \"A Case for Reparations\" (2014). In 2015, Jeffrey Goldberg's \"Obama Doctrine\" was widely discussed by American media and prompted response by many world leaders.\nAs of 2022, writers and frequent contributors to the print magazine included James Fallows, Jeffrey Goldberg, Ta-Nehisi Coates, Caitlin Flanagan, Jonathan Rauch, McKay Coppins, Gillian White, Adrienne LaFrance, Vann R. Newkirk II, Derek Thompson, David Frum, Jennifer Senior, George Packer, Ed Yong, and James Parker.\nOn August 2, 2023, it was announced that Jeffrey Goldberg, who had served as editor-in-chief of The Atlantic since 2016, had been named as Washington Week's tenth moderator, and that the politics and culture publication would also enter into an editorial partnership with the television program – which was retitled accordingly as Washington Week with The Atlantic – similar to the earlier collaboration with the National Journal. The first episode under the longer title, and with Goldberg as moderator, was the one broadcast on August 11, 2023.\n\nPolitical viewpoint\nIn 1860, three years into publication, The Atlantic's then-editor James Russell Lowell endorsed Republican Abraham Lincoln for his first run for president and also endorsed the abolition of slavery.\nIn 1964, Edward Weeks wrote on behalf of the editorial board in endorsing Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson and rebuking Republican Barry Goldwater's candidacy.\nIn 2016, during the 2016 presidential campaign, the editorial board endorsed a candidate for the third time in the magazine's history, urging readers to support Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton in a rebuke of Republican Donald Trump's candidacy.\nAfter Trump prevailed in the November 2016 election, the magazine became a strong critic of him. In March 2019, a cover article by editor Yoni Appelbaum called for the impeachment of Donald Trump: \"It's time for Congress to judge the president's fitness to serve.\"\nIn September 2020, it published a story, citing several anonymous sources, reporting that Trump referred to dead American soldiers as \"losers\". Trump called it a \"fake story\", and suggested the magazine would soon be out of business.\nIn 2020, The Atlantic endorsed the Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election, and urged its readers to oppose Trump's re-election bid. The Atlantic published a special 24-article issue \"If Trump Wins\" in early 2024 in which they warn of a potential second term for Trump being worse than his first.\n\nFormat\nAspen Ideas Festival\nIn 2005, The Atlantic and the Aspen Institute launched the Aspen Ideas Festival, a ten-day event in and around the city of Aspen, Colorado. The annual conference features 350 presenters, 200 sessions, and 3,000 attendees. The event has been called a \"political who's who\" as it often features policymakers, journalists, lobbyists, and think tank leaders.\nOn January 22, 2008, TheAtlantic.com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. By 2011 The Atlantic's web properties included TheAtlanticWire.com, a news- and opinion-tracking site launched in 2009, and TheAtlanticCities.com, a stand-alone website started in 2011 that was devoted to global cities and trends. According to a Mashable profile in December 2011, \"traffic to the three web properties recently surpassed 11 million uniques per month, up a staggering 2500% since The Atlantic brought down its paywall in early 2008.\"\n\nThe Atlantic Wire\nIn 2009, the magazine launched The Atlantic Wire as a stand-alone news aggregator site. It was intended as a curated selection of news and opinions from online, print, radio, and television outlets. At its launch, it published op-eds from across the media spectrum and summarized significant positions in each debate. It later expanded to feature news and original reporting.\nRegular features in the magazine included \"What I Read\", describing the media diets of people from entertainment, journalism, and politics; and \"Trimming the Times\", the feature editor's summary of the best content in The New York Times. The Atlantic Wire rebranded itself as The Wire in November 2013, and was folded back into The Atlantic the following year.\nIn August 2011, it created its video channel. Initially created as an aggregator, The Atlantic's video component, Atlantic Studios, has since evolved in an in-house production studio that creates custom video series and original documentaries.\n\nCityLab\nIn September 2011, The Atlantic launched CityLab, a separate website. Its co-founders included Richard Florida, urban theorist and professor. The stand-alone site has been described as exploring and explaining \"the most innovative ideas and pressing issues facing today's global cities and neighborhoods.\" In 2014, it was rebranded as CityLab.com, and covers transportation, environment, equity, life, and design. Among its offerings are Navigator, \"a guide to urban life\"; and Solutions, which covers solutions to problems in a dozen topics.\nIn December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic.com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as topics related to the mind, body, sex, family, and public health. Its launch was overseen by Nicholas Jackson, who had previously been overseeing the Life channel and initially joined the website to cover technology. TheAtlantic.com has also expanded to visual storytelling, with the addition of the \"In Focus\" photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor.\nIn 2015, TheAtlantic.com launched a dedicated Science section and in January 2016 it redesigned and expanded its politics section in conjunction with the 2016 U.S. presidential race.\nIn 2015, CityLab and Univision launched CityLab Latino, which features original journalism in Spanish as well as translated reporting from the English language edition of CityLab.com. The site has not been updated since 2018.\nIn early December 2019, Atlantic Media sold CityLab to Bloomberg Media, which promptly laid off half the staff. The site was relaunched on June 18, 2020, with few major changes other than new branding and linking the site with other Bloomberg verticals and its data terminal.\nIn September 2019, TheAtlantic.com introduced a digital subscription model, restricting unsubscribed readers' access to five free articles per month.\nIn June 2020, The Atlantic released its first full-length documentary, White Noise, a film about three alt-right activists.\n\nPraise, retractions, legal issues, and controversies\nIn June 2006, the Chicago Tribune named The Atlantic one of the top ten English-language magazines, describing it as the \"150-year-old granddaddy of periodicals\" because \"it keeps us smart and in the know\" with cover stories on the then-forthcoming fight over Roe v. Wade. It also lauded regular features such as \"Word Fugitives\" and \"Primary Sources\" as \"cultural barometers\".\nOn January 14, 2013, The Atlantic's website published \"sponsor content\" promoting David Miscavige, the leader of the Church of Scientology. While the magazine had previously published advertising looking like articles, this was widely criticized. The page comments were moderated by the marketing team, not by editorial staff, and comments critical of the church were being removed. Later that day, The Atlantic removed the piece from its website and issued an apology.\nIn 2019, the magazine published an expose on the allegations against movie director Bryan Singer that \"sent Singer's career into a tailspin\". It was originally contracted to Esquire magazine, but the writers moved it there due to what New York Times reporter Ben Smith described as Hearst magazines' \"timid\" nature. \"There's not a lot of nuance here\", Jeffrey Goldberg said. \"They spiked a story that should have been published in the public interest for reasons unknown.\"\nIn June 2020, The Atlantic faced legal action in Japan that claimed defamation and invasion of privacy in the article \"When the Presses Stop\" by Molly Ball, published in the January/February 2018 edition, which led to numerous removals, corrections and clarifications after a settlement was reached in January 2024. The lawsuit highlighted fact-checking and ethical concerns, bringing attention to the magazine's editorial practices.\nOn November 1, 2020, The Atlantic retracted an article, \"The Mad, Mad World of Niche Sports Among Ivy League–Obsessed Parents\", after an inquiry by The Washington Post. An 800-word editor's note said, \"We cannot attest to the trustworthiness and credibility of the author, and therefore we cannot attest to the veracity of the article.\" The article's author, freelancer Ruth Shalit Barrett, had left the staff of The New Republic in 1999 amid allegations of plagiarism. On January 7, 2022, Barrett sued the magazine for defamation. The lawsuit claimed The Atlantic misrepresented Barrett's background and destroyed her journalistic career through what it publicly said about her. In legal filings, Barrett argued that The Atlantic's handling of allegations and errors in another article written by Molly Ball demonstrated inconsistency in the magazine's editorial standards and accountability measures. Barrett asserted that the factual inaccuracies and ethical violations in Ball's piece, as highlighted by a separate defamation lawsuit that resulted in a settlement and numerous retractions and corrections to Ball's story, were “transgressions far more numerous and incomparably worse” than any mistakes attributed to her own work.\nOn February 5, 2024, The Atlantic cut ties with contributor Yascha Mounk after he was accused of rape. He called the allegation \"categorically untrue.\"\nOn May 17, 2024, The Atlantic published the opinion piece \"The UN’s Gaza Statistics Make No Sense\", questioning the accuracy of the UN OCHA's estimate of 34,000+ fatalities of Palestinian citizens in the Israel-Hamas war, alleging the numbers were inflated and relayed directly from Hamas without confirmation. The article and its writer, Graeme Wood, were condemned for undermining the severity of the ongoing humanitarian crisis, with readers taking Wood's statement regarding the thousands of child fatalities that \"it is possible to kill children legally\" as a justification for Israeli war crimes and genocide against the Palestinian people.\n\nOwnership and editors\nBy its third year, it was published by Boston publishing house Ticknor and Fields, which later became part of Houghton Mifflin, based in the city known for literary culture. The magazine was purchased in 1908 by editor at the time, Ellery Sedgwick, and remained in Boston.\nIn 1980, the magazine was acquired by Mortimer Zuckerman, property magnate and founder of Boston Properties, who became its chairman. On September 27, 1999, Zuckerman transferred ownership of the magazine to David G. Bradley, owner of the National Journal Group, which focused on Washington, D.C. and federal government news. Bradley had promised that the magazine would stay in Boston for the foreseeable future, as it did for the next five-and-a-half years.\nIn April 2005, however, the publishers announced that the editorial offices would be moved from their longtime home at 77 North Washington Street in Boston to join the company's advertising and circulation divisions in Washington, D.C. Later in August, Bradley told The New York Observer that the move was not made to save money—near-term savings would be $200,000–$300,000, a relatively small amount that would be swallowed by severance-related spending—but instead would serve to create a hub in Washington, D.C., where the top minds from all of Bradley's publications could collaborate under the Atlantic Media Company umbrella. Few of the Boston staff agreed to move, and Bradley then commenced an open search for a new editorial staff.\nIn 2006, Bradley hired James Bennet, the Jerusalem bureau chief for The New York Times, as editor-in-chief. Bradley also hired Jeffrey Goldberg and Andrew Sullivan as writers for the magazine.\nIn 2008, Jay Lauf joined the organization as publisher and vice-president; as of 2017, he was publisher and president of Quartz.\nIn early 2014, Bennet and Bob Cohn became co-presidents of The Atlantic, and Cohn became the publication's sole president in March 2016 when Bennet was tapped to lead The New York Times's editorial page. Jeffrey Goldberg was named editor-in-chief in October 2016.\nOn July 28, 2017, The Atlantic announced that billionaire investor and philanthropist Laurene Powell Jobs (the widow of former Apple Inc. chairman and CEO Steve Jobs) had acquired majority ownership through her Emerson Collective organization, with a staff member of Emerson Collective, Peter Lattman, being immediately named as vice chairman of The Atlantic. David G. Bradley and Atlantic Media retained a minority share position in this sale.\nIn May 2019, technology journalist Adrienne LaFrance became executive editor.\nIn December 2020, former Wired editor-in-chief Nicholas Thompson was named CEO of The Atlantic.\n\nList of editors\nSee also\nUnited States portal\n Media portal\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\n\"A History of The Atlantic\" (archived 23 October 1997)\nThe Atlantic archival writings by topic\nOnline archive of The Atlantic (earliest issues 1857 up to 2016) at the Internet Archive\nHathi Trust. Atlantic Monthly digitized issues, 1857–1928, plus search of 1929–1963, 1971, and 1976 (partial)\nAn early history of The Atlantic from The Literary Digest (1897)\nAtlantic Monthly records, at the University of Maryland libraries",
"title": "The_Atlantic"
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"paragraph_text": "The New England Magazine was a monthly literary magazine published in Boston, Massachusetts, from 1884 to 1917. It was known as The Bay State Monthly from 1884 to 1886.\nThe magazine was published by J. N. McClinctock and Company.\nThe magazine has no connection to the 1830s publication The New-England Magazine.\n\nReferences\nThe New England Magazine, Online Books Page\n\nExternal links\nThe Bay State Monthly: PDF copies (Cornell University)\nThe New England Magazine (1886–1900): PDF copies (Cornell University)\nNew England magazine and Bay State monthly at the HathiTrust",
"title": "The_New_England_Magazine"
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] | Where did Marion Couthouy Smith publish her books and poems between 1906 and 1918? Which years did each of these magazine companies first start? | [] | Marion Couthouy Smith published her books and poems in Harper's Magazine, Century Magazine, Atlantic Monthly, and The New England Magazine. Harpers Magazine was first published in 1850. Century Magazine was published in 1881. The Atlantic was founded in 1857. Lastly, The New England Magazine was first published in 1884. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "On January 6, 1994, Nancy Kerrigan, an American figure skater, was struck on the lower right thigh with a baton by assailant Shane Stant as she walked down a corridor in Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan. Kerrigan had been practicing skating on an ice rink in the arena shortly beforehand.\nThe attack was planned by Jeff Gillooly, then-husband of fellow American figure skater Tonya Harding, and his co-conspirator Shawn Eckardt. They hired Stant, and his uncle Derrick Smith, to carry out the attack. Gillooly and Eckardt both claimed that Harding was involved in the attack and had knowledge of it beforehand. Harding initially denied all knowledge of the attack, but soon accepted a plea agreement admitting to helping cover up the attack after the fact. Later, both a grand jury and a disciplinary panel from the United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA) found further evidence of Harding's involvement during the planning and execution phases.\nThe attack was intended to prevent Kerrigan from taking part in the ongoing 1994 United States Figure Skating Championships and the forthcoming Winter Olympics, thus increasing the prospects of Harding in both figure skating events. Kerrigan could not compete in the US Championship but recovered in time to compete in the Winter Olympics. Both women competed in the 1994 Olympics, and Harding was later banned for life from USFSA figure skating events.\n\nBackground\nNancy Kerrigan is an American former figure skater who, in January 1994, was about to take part in the United States Figure Skating Championships in Detroit, Michigan. Her main rival in that tournament was Tonya Harding. The attack took place just days before the tournament, and rendered Kerrigan unable to take part. The Winter Olympics were also set to take place in February, where Kerrigan and Harding were likely to be the two female figure skaters representing the United States. The attack benefited Harding as it allowed her to win the U.S. Championships with ease and could have benefited her if it had taken Kerrigan out of the Olympics.\nJeff Gillooly was Tonya Harding's ex-husband. At the time of the attack, the couple were together and still referred to each other as husband and wife. Shawn Eckardt, a friend of Gillooly's who was also Harding's bodyguard before the attack, had originally been hired by the figure skater after she received an anonymous death threat. Shane Stant later testified that Harding was part of staging the death threat against herself. Derrick Smith, an associate of Eckardt, was paid $6,500 to carry out the attack; Eckardt had received the money from Gillooly. Shane Stant, Smith's nephew, initially planned to carry out the attack by himself and had travelled to Kerrigan's home rink in Cape Cod in late December 1993, but was unable to locate her. Stant then followed Kerrigan to the Nationals in Detroit in early January 1994. Gillooly opposed carrying out an attack in Detroit, feeling it too likely they would be caught, and instructed Eckardt to wire Stant funds to return home without carrying out the attack. Eckardt instead wired the funds to Smith, who then traveled to join Stant in Detroit. Stant and Smith then planned to carry out the attack together.\n\nAttack\nOn the afternoon of January 6, 1994, Kerrigan was practicing for the U.S. Championships on an ice rink inside Cobo Arena. A camera crew was recording her practice session and showed her leaving the ice rink and walking through a curtain and down a hallway; the camera then cuts out. Stant stated in a 2018 interview that he was standing \"about a foot and a half\" (around half a meter) behind the camera crew and waited for them to stop filming before he followed Kerrigan through the curtain. Stant approached Kerrigan from behind, extended a telescopic baton, struck her lower right thigh and walked away. He then escaped from the arena by smashing through a locked glass door. Smith was waiting in a car outside and acted as a getaway driver. The camera crew began recording again shortly after the attack and recorded Kerrigan sitting on the floor crying surrounded by arena staff. Here, Kerrigan exclaimed the now-famous line, \"Why? Why? Why?\" This footage was later broadcast around the world in news programs. Kerrigan was then carried away to a changing room by her father. The attack severely bruised her knee and quadriceps tendon and forced her to withdraw from the U.S. Championships.\n\nCriminal investigation and testimonies\nHarding and Gillooly's relationship\nHarding met Jeff Gillooly in 1986 when she was skating at the Clackamas Town Center; she was 15, he was 17. They later exchanged phone numbers and went out to the movies, chaperoned by her father. In 1988, the couple moved into a home together, and Harding claimed she began experiencing physical abuse from Gillooly. They married on March 18, 1990. Harding's mother, LaVona, said she opposed the marriage: \"I knew Jeff had a violent streak [...] he tried to break down the door because he thought [Tonya] had gone out with another boy.\" On June 17, 1991, Harding filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. Two days later, she received a restraining order against Gillooly: \"He wrenched my arm and wrist, pulled my hair and shoved me [...] he bought a shotgun, and I am scared for my safety.\"\nHarding later claimed she was the victim of acquaintance rape sometime during her separation from Gillooly in 1991, \"by a friend of mine, who I knew for eight years.\" In summer 1991, she became engaged to mechanical engineer Mike Pliska. He ended their engagement after he saw Harding disrespecting people and giving her phone number to another man. In autumn 1991, Harding dated a Canadian banker. In October, she decided to reconcile with Gillooly and withdraw the divorce, saying they were still in love and seeking counseling: \"I know he's changed. I see it in his eyes, and I believe in him... I don't want to lose him. I really don't.\"\nOn March 10, 1992, Harding had a roadside physical altercation with a female motorist in Portland, Oregon. The first deputy on the scene observed Harding holding a baseball bat after breaking the motorist's eyeglasses. The incident ended in apologies and no criminal charges were filed.\nIn both March and July 1993, police came to Harding and Gillooly's shared apartment after reported arguments. In a July affidavit, Harding wrote that she had been in an abusive marriage for two years, \"he has assaulted me physically with his open hand and fist [...] put me down to the floor on several occasions.\" Harding was granted another restraining order and filed for divorce. In spring 1993, she dated Tom Arant who spoke about Harding to The Oregonian, saying she would complain about Gillooly, yet still contacted him often: \"she couldn't stop talking to him.\" That summer, a man from Harding's gym claimed to The Oregonian that Harding offered to pay him to \"take care\" of Gillooly, \"slap him around a little.\" He said he was offended and declined.\nOn August 28, 1993, Harding and Gillooly were granted a divorce. Ten days later, Harding's lawyer asked the restraining order to be lifted because the couple again wished to reconcile. On October 2, at approximately 3 a.m., neighbours of the couple called the police when they heard them arguing outside and a single gunshot. The neighbours reported seeing Gillooly pick Harding up and place her in a truck, and feared Harding had been shot. A police officer stopped the truck and confiscated a found shotgun and a 9mm Beretta pistol that had recently been discharged. The officer then interviewed Harding and Gillooly separately about what had happened, but their stories did not match. Gillooly first stated that the gun had fired when he was carrying it. Harding then admitted that she had fired the gun and was worried about the publicity. Gillooly said that Harding had been moving her possessions into his truck when they started an argument over his former girlfriend; he declined to press charges. In November 1993, the couple were evicted from their apartment for failing to pay rent.\n\nHarding's FBI testimony and other claims\nDuring Tonya Harding's FBI testimony on January 18, 1994, she requested and received some ice to treat her swollen ankle. When asked about her finances, Harding said she had one bank account which was currently $109 overdrawn. She was also asked about her relationship with Gillooly and replied she still considered him her husband. When asked whether Gillooly had ever threatened her, Harding said he had not. FBI agent James Russell then asked if she was at Shawn Eckardt's house at any time on January 11, Harding replied that she \"definitely\" had not been. Russell then advised her that while concealing criminal knowledge did not violate Oregon law, lying to the FBI would violate federal law. Harding said she understood that. Russell then told her that he knew she had lied to him. Harding's lawyer, Robert Weaver, then stated he wished to speak privately with his client. When Harding returned, she testified that she and Gillooly went to Eckardt's home on December 28, 1993; he went inside, she drove away. Harding said that Gillooly phoned her one hour later asking her to pick him up.\nAfter Harding's plea deal on March 16, 1994, she has since made other claims about the assault scandal. In 2018, she said she had prior knowledge of Gillooly and Eckardt discussing \"[taking] out\" one of her competitors in late 1993. Harding said she protested that she wanted to win fairly, and asked them what they were talking about.\nIn Harding's 2008 authorized biography, The Tonya Tapes (written by Lynda D. Prouse from recorded interviews), Harding denied ever asking Vera Marano for the name of Nancy Kerrigan's training rink and that Marano may not have remembered details properly and \"was a little bit out there.\" Harding also expressed anxiety when Prouse asked about Marano's testimony:\n\n\"I really didn't do anything wrong except ask questions to win a bet...It's just that this sounds bad...I think [the bet] was for a quarter or something like that. Big deal.\"\n\nGillooly's FBI testimony\nJeff Gillooly first testified about the attack plot on January 26, 1994. He said that in early December 1993, Harding phoned him after the 1993 NHK Trophy competition and was upset about her placement. He said he was also upset for her and later spoke about figure skating politics to his friend Shawn Eckardt. According to Gillooly, Eckardt then wondered aloud what would happen if Nancy Kerrigan were to receive a threat. Gillooly said he liked that idea. According to him, Eckardt wanted to keep the idea of injuring Kerrigan a secret from Harding, but Gillooly explained that injuring a competitor might psychologically affect Harding's performance too. Gillooly claimed that when he told Harding about plotting to injure Kerrigan, she thought it was \"a good idea.\" However, she was skeptical about Eckardt's ability to arrange it. Gillooly assured her Eckardt knew people who could carry out the attack, and they could abort the plot if they did not like Eckardt's plan.\nShortly after Eckardt had spoken on the phone with Derrick Smith, he visited Gillooly and Harding at their home and quoted $4,500 to execute the plot. Gillooly replied that it was too much and said he could pay $2,000. On December 25, Gillooly had an answering machine message from Smith asking for more details about the plan. He claimed that he then phoned Eckardt to cancel the deal. Eckardt replied that Smith was already driving to Portland and that he needed more information about Kerrigan — a photograph and the location of the ice rink where she practiced. On December 27, Harding phoned her friend Vera Marano, a Pennsylvania figure skating writer, saying she and Gillooly had a \"bet\" about where Nancy Kerrigan trained. Marano then called a USFSA contact to find the name of the rink and left a message on Harding and Gillooly's answering machine. He said the message was difficult to understand, it sounded like \"Tunee Can.\" Harding then phoned Marano again asking her to spell the arena name, and Gillooly said he watched as Harding wrote out \"Tony Kent Arena.\"\nSmith and his nephew, Shane Stant, arrived in Portland on December 27, drove to Eckardt's home, and asked for a meeting with Gillooly tomorrow at 10 a.m. Gillooly said Harding would be training at that time, but he agreed to meet them. On December 28, Harding finished her practice session at 10:30 a.m., then Gillooly drove them to Eckardt's home. According to him, she knew about the meeting and was anxious about Gillooly talking to dangerous people. He also testified that Harding told him she wanted Kerrigan injured either at her home or skating rink. Gillooly said he would phone her after the meeting, and Harding then drove to Gillooly's mother's house.\nHe arrived at 11 a.m. to the meeting held at Eckardt's home office, knocking on the door with Stant letting him in. Eckardt introduced Gillooly to Derrick Smith, using only his first name, Stant was introduced as Smith's \"friend.\" Stant said it was \"a pleasure\" to meet Gillooly, then remained silent. Smith told Gillooly he could solve \"problems,\" and Gillooly said he wanted Kerrigan out of the National Championships so Harding could win an Olympic gold medal. Once this was achieved, Harding would receive endorsements and he could offer $1,000 per week for her security. Gillooly said he could pay $6,500 for this plan and wanted to know what they could do. Eckardt suggested cutting Kerrigan's Achilles tendon, using a beater car to run her off the road, or \"just kill her,\" but those ideas were opposed. Gillooly said only her right leg needed to be disabled, her landing leg; he claimed to have previously verified this with Harding. They settled on injuring Kerrigan's right leg. Gillooly was told his money would be returned if the deed was not completed. He then phoned Harding asking her to pick him up.\nAccording to Gillooly, as he was driving himself and Harding home, she asked if the meeting went well. When he told her about their \"money-back guarantee,\" Harding laughed out loud. Gillooly said he felt \"pretty good\" about the meeting and thought Smith was competent. He then told her, \"I think we should go for it.\" According to Gillooly, Harding replied, \"Let's do it.\"\nHe said the men would need another photo of Kerrigan and her \"skating times.\" Gillooly suggested that Harding call the Tony Kent Arena because she knew ice skating terminology. According to him, she did phone the arena asking for Kerrigan's \"patch and freestyle times,\" and phoned again for the address. They also found two photos of Kerrigan from the World Team handbook and Olympian magazine. Gillooly said Harding told him to tear off the magazine's mailing label because it had their home address. They drove to Eckardt's home that night with the photos, practice times, and $2,700 in cash. Gillooly said he paid Eckardt while Harding was in another room having coffee with Eckardt's mother. He remembered Harding briefly talking to him and Eckardt saying Kerrigan's photo was \"flattering.\" Gillooly and Harding were surprised that Eckardt's mother seemed to know about the plot too.\nGillooly testified that by January 1994, he and Harding were upset that the plot had apparently failed. When Eckardt said it could still be done for more money, Gillooly asked \"Do I have stupid written across my forehead?\" Harding told him that Eckardt should return the money. On January 1, 1994, she had a late-night skating session from 11:30 p.m to 1 a.m., and Gillooly asked Eckardt to meet them at the rink. When Eckardt arrived, Gillooly agreed to pay more if Kerrigan could still be disabled before the Nationals competition.\nAccording to Gillooly, Harding then approached both men and asked Eckardt if his previous back pains were better. She then angrily asked him why \"this thing\" (the plot) was not completed. Eckardt was flustered and said he did not know why.\n\nMarano's FBI testimony\nOn January 22, 1994, Vera Marano was interviewed by the FBI. She said she worked as a freelance writer and had written some figure skating articles about Harding, regularly trading phone calls with her. Marano stated that Harding had phoned her about a \"bet\" regarding Nancy Kerrigan. She said Harding then asked for the name of Kerrigan's training rink and also wanted to know if Kerrigan owned property in Cape Cod.\n\nEckardt's FBI testimony\nShawn Eckardt first testified about parts of the attack plot on January 12, 1994. He had known Gillooly since they were in the first grade at school. In 1993, Eckardt was enrolled in a paralegal course at Pioneer Pacific College and trying to build a business called World Bodyguard Services. He claimed that in mid-December, Gillooly approached him to ask if he knew anyone who could disable Kerrigan.\nOn December 22, 1993, Eckardt received a call from his friend Derrick Smith who lived in Phoenix, Arizona. Smith wanted to know if Eckardt was still interested in moving to Phoenix to help set up an anti-terrorist training camp as they had previously discussed. Eckardt claimed he had a contract to disable a female figure skater issued by her rival's husband, that it involved good money because one of the rival's sponsors was George Steinbrenner. It was true that Steinbrenner had recently given Harding a $10,000 donation through the USFSA. Smith was interested in the deal and agreed to drive to Portland with his nephew, Shane Stant, to meet with Eckardt and Gillooly.\nOn December 28, as the men were waiting for Gillooly to arrive at his office, Smith persuaded Eckardt to tape record the meeting to use as \"leverage.\" Eckardt hid the tape recorder on his desk under a paper towel. After the meeting, Gillooly left, returning that night to pay Eckardt in cash. He later gave the money to Smith who then drove Stant to the Seattle airport so Stant could fly to Boston. Smith returned to Arizona and was communicating separately with Stant and Eckardt by phone, while Eckardt reported back to Gillooly. Eckardt did not know where exactly Stant was and told Gillooly that Smith needed more money. Gillooly refused to pay more until he had receipts proving that someone was in Boston for their plan.\nOn January 1, 1994, Eckardt met Gillooly and Harding at the skating rink during her late-night session. He remembered Gillooly saying he would pay more money if the plot happened. Eckardt said Harding then skated up to him and commiserated about his ongoing back pain. According to him, she then said \"You need to stop screwing around with this and get it done.\"\n\nSmith's FBI testimony\nWhen Derrick Smith was first interviewed by FBI on January 12, 1994, he held to the cover story that had been agreed upon with his co-conspirators until later in the day when he confessed to his part in the plot. He had met Eckardt when they were students at Mt. Hood Community College, shared an interest in espionage and survivalism, and had discussed opening a school together someday. Smith later worked for the United States Army as an \"intelligence analyst\" for about 3 years until he was discharged. He then worked in Milwaukie, Oregon as a group home coordinator for Developmental Systems Inc., a company that employed and trained mentally retarded adults to sort laundry hangers. The company claimed Smith was good at his work, remaining quiet and patient if a little anti-social. He quit that job in late 1993 and moved to Arizona with his wife. Smith then applied for a police officer job and was waiting for his interview to be scheduled before Eckardt told him about possible bodyguard work in Oregon.\nWhen he phoned Eckardt on December 22, 1993, Eckardt told Smith he had a client who needed someone physically \"taken down,\" saying the job would entail more bodyguard work in the future. Smith did not want to commit the assault himself because he had no criminal record, but said he might know someone who would do it. He knew his nephew, Shane Stant, was currently unemployed so Smith told him about his conversation with Eckardt.\nOn December 28, he and Stant were in Portland to discuss the attack plan. Before Gillooly arrived to the meeting, Smith asked Eckardt to tape-record the impending plotting for security. During the meeting, he thought Eckardt was leading Gillooly to think he had many \"underground\" contacts. After the meeting, he and Stant agreed not to injure Kerrigan \"too badly.\"\n\nStant's FBI testimony\nShane Stant first testified about the attack plot after he turned himself in to the FBI on January 14, 1994. He was the son of Derrick Smith's wife's sister. Stant and his girlfriend also moved to Arizona along with Smith after once serving 15 days in jail for stealing cars. He was interested in bodybuilding, martial arts, and helping Smith open his training camp someday.\nWhen Smith told Stant about his phone call with Eckardt, Stant wanted to know more specifics. Eckardt then phoned him to say the plot involved making \"an accident happen\" to a skater, maybe cutting an Achilles tendon. Stant said he would not cut anyone. Eckardt then offered more money than Gillooly stated and said more bodyguard work would follow. Stant agreed to go to Portland with Smith for a meeting, then he paid $59 for a 21-inch (53 cm) ASP tactical baton from a store called Spy Headquarters.\nOn December 29, 1993, Stant agreed to execute the plot and took a flight to Boston, yet discovered he could not rent a car with his girlfriend's credit card. He received his own credit card from an evening mail delivery the next day. On December 31, Stant drove to Yarmouth, Massachusetts, reaching the Tony Kent Arena that afternoon. Nancy Kerrigan had already finished her practice session and departed to Stoneham, Massachusetts for the weekend. Stant, thinking Kerrigan would still be training at the arena, frequented the parking lot for two days and relocated his car every half hour.\n\nAftermath\nImmediate aftermath\nOn January 11, Ann Schatz interviewed Harding for KOIN-TV in Portland, Oregon. Schatz asked Harding whether someone she knew could have planned the attack. Harding replied, \"I have definitely thought about it.\" Gillooly stood in her view behind the camera during the interview. The interview ended with Harding saying, \"No one controls my life but me...if there's something in there that I don't like, I'm going to change it.\" Harding also confirmed she had spoken with FBI agents in Detroit and again in Portland. On January 13, Eckardt and Smith were arrested. On January 14, the United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA) made a statement on whether Eckardt's arrest affected Harding's Olympic placement: \"We will deal only with the facts.\" Harding and Gillooly's separate lawyers confirmed the couple were in daily contact and cooperation with law enforcement. On January 15, Harding and Gillooly spoke with reporters, but declined to comment about the investigation. On January 16, Harding's lawyer held a news conference in which he read a statement denying Harding's involvement in the attack on Kerrigan. Harding left her home that evening to practice figure skating with her coaches, where she spoke with reporters and performed a triple Axel.\n\nUSFSA disciplinary panel\nOn February 5, 1994, the USFSA disciplinary panel stated there were reasonable grounds to believe Harding had violated the sport's code of ethics. Her admitted failure to report about an assault on a fellow competitor, supported by her FBI transcripts, led to Harding being formally charged with \"[making] false statements about her knowledge\". The USFSA also recommended that she face a disciplinary hearing. Claire Ferguson, president of the USFSA, decided not to suspend Harding's membership before a hearing took place. If she had been suspended, she likely still would have competed at the Olympics after filing suit, seeking an injunction against the USFSA, and asserting her rights under the Amateur Sports Act of 1978. The panel examined evidence including the testimonies of Stant and Smith, Harding and Gillooly's telephone records, and notes found in a Portland saloon trash bin on January 30. Harding was given thirty days to respond.\n\nSentences\nOn February 1, 1994, Gillooly's attorney negotiated a plea agreement in exchange for testimony regarding all involved parties in the attack. In July, Gillooly was sentenced to two years in prison after publicly apologizing to Kerrigan – adding \"any apology coming from me rings hollow.\" Gillooly and Eckardt pleaded guilty to racketeering, while Stant and Smith pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit second-degree assault. Judge Donald Londer noted the attack could have injured Kerrigan more seriously. Eckardt died in 2007.\nOn March 16, Harding pleaded guilty to conspiracy to hinder prosecution as a Class C felony offense at a Multnomah County court hearing. She and her lawyer, Robert Weaver, negotiated a plea agreement ensuring no further prosecution. Judge Londer conducted routine questioning to make certain Harding understood her agreement, that she was entering her plea \"knowingly and voluntarily.\" Harding told Londer she was. Her plea admissions were knowing of the assault plot after the fact, settling on a cover story with Gillooly and Eckardt on January 10, witnessing payphone calls to Smith affirming the story on January 10 and 11, and lying to FBI. Law enforcement investigators had been following and videotaping the co-conspirators since January 10, and knew about the payphone calls. Harding's penalties included three years of probation, a $100,000 fine, and 500 hours community service. She agreed to reimburse Multnomah County $10,000 in legal expenses, undergo a psychiatric examination, and volunteered to give $50,000 to the Special Olympics Oregon (SOOR) charity. Oregon sentencing guidelines carried a maximum penalty of five years imprisonment for the offense.\n\nGrand jury indictment\nOn March 21, 1994, a Portland grand jury issued an indictment stating there was evidence Harding participated in the attack plot. The indictment concluded more than two months of investigation and witness testimonies from Diane Rawlinson; Harding's choreographer Erika Bakacs; freelance figure skating writer Vera Marano; and Eckardt's college instructor and classmates. It stated there was evidence Harding fraudulently used USFSA-provided skating monies to finance the assault. It also read that Harding, Gillooly, Eckardt, Smith, and Stant agreed to \"knowingly cause physical injury ... by means of a dangerous weapon.\" The grand jury foreman said the evidence implied Harding as \"involved from the beginning or very close.\" She was not charged in the indictment due to the terms of her March 16 plea agreement.\n\nSecond disciplinary panel meeting\nOn June 29, the USFSA disciplinary panel met for nine hours over two days to consider Harding's alleged role in the attack. On June 30, chairman William Hybl stated,\n\n\"By a preponderance of the evidence, the panel did conclude that she had prior knowledge and was involved prior to the incident. This is based on civil standards, not criminal standards ... bank records, phone records – the way they came together to establish a case.\"\nThe panel decided that pertinent FBI reports, court documents, and Harding's March 16 plea agreement presented\n\n\"a clear disregard for fairness, good sportsmanship, and ethical behaviour.\"\nHarding chose neither to attend nor participate in the two-day hearing. Weaver said the decision disappointed her but was not a surprise, and that she had not decided on an appeal. Harding was stripped of her 1994 U.S. Championship title and banned for life from participating in USFSA events as either skater or coach. The USFSA has no dominion over professional skating events, yet Harding was also persona non grata on the pro circuit. Few skaters and promoters would work with her, and she did not benefit from the ensuing boom in professional skating after the scandal.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe attack and the scandal surrounding it were depicted in the 2017 film I, Tonya, with Margot Robbie portraying Harding, Ricky Russert portraying Stant, and Caitlin Carver portraying Kerrigan.\nThe character of Karla Keller in the cancelled Data East arcade fighting game Tattoo Assassins is largely based on Kerrigan, Keller's backstory directly referencing the assault.\nThe attack was mentioned in \"Weird Al\" Yankovic's song \"Headline News\", a parody of the Crash Test Dummies hit \"Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm\".\nThe event is referenced in the songs \"Strange Clouds\" by B.o.B featuring Lil Wayne, \"Stay Frosty Royal Milk Tea\" by Fall Out Boy, \"Tonya Harding\" by Sufjan Stevens, \"Nancy Kerrigan\" by Frog, and “TONYA” by Brockhampton.\nFran Drescher says: “Call Gillooly” in the 1994 The Nanny episode S1 E22: \"I Don't Remember Mama\".\nIn the 1994 Animaniacs segment \"Baloney and Kids\", as the Warners panic when Baloney the Dinosaur shakes off their cartoonish brand of violence, Yakko yells out \"Call in the National Guard,\" to which Dot adds, \"Or Tonya Harding's bodyguard.\"\nThe event is mentioned in the 1997 South Park episode S1 E10: \"Damien\".\nGillooly is mentioned as a former Barder College student is the seventh episode of 3-South, \"Coke Addicts\".\nA sidequest in the video game Spyro: Year of the Dragon centers around defending a polar bear ice dancer named Nancy from getting assaulted by Rhynoc hockey players as she attempts to rehearse for a performance.\nAn episode of the animated comedy Futurama, \"Stench and Stenchibility\", features a devilish six-year-old girl named Tonya (voiced by Tara Strong; a reference to Harding), who is the opponent of Bender Rodriguez (John DiMaggio) in a tap dancing competition held by Randy Munchnik. As Bender attempts to sabotage her performance by filling her tap shoes with tacks in the locker room, Tonya catches him in the act, and breaks his leg with a nightstick in a similar manner to the attack on Kerrigan.\nBarack Obama referenced the attack while giving a speech in 2007 in Iowa during his run in the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries, stating \"Folks said there's no way Obama has a chance unless he goes and kneecaps the person ahead of us, does a Tonya Harding.\"\nThe rap-duo group $UICIDEBOY$ referenced both Harding and Kerrigan, the 1994 Lillehammer Olympic Free Skate, and Kerrigan’s attack on a two and half minute song on their 2021 album “Long Term Effects of SUFFERING”. The title of, and lyric video for the song features Harding and video of the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympic Free Skate (“If Self-Destruction Was an Olympic Event, I’d Be Tonya Harding” - featuring Harding in her iconic sparkling purple, gold, and silver outfit/costume), and Kerrigan/Kerrigan’s assault at the end of the song (a sound clip of a few seconds of Kerrigan screaming “why, why, why!?” in pain, following the assault.)\n\nNotes\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Assault_of_Nancy_Kerrigan"
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"paragraph_text": "Awake is the third studio album by American progressive metal band Dream Theater, released on October 4, 1994, through East West Records. It is the final Dream Theater album to feature original keyboardist Kevin Moore, who announced his decision to leave the band during the mixing process of the album.\nMuch of the material for Awake was written in writing sessions between February and April 1994, during which Dream Theater were under pressure from their record label to produce an album as successful as Images and Words (1992) with a single similar to \"Pull Me Under\". The label wanted the band to produce a more metal-oriented album, hoping it would be easier to market. John Purdell and Duane Baron produced, engineered and mixed the album. The album's cover, again designed by Larry Freemantle, features numerous references to the album's lyrics.\nReleased at the height of the popularity of grunge music, Awake initially received mixed reviews, though the album was later referred to as one of the band's finest releases. The album peaked at 32 on the US Billboard 200, the highest position a Dream Theater album would reach on that chart until 2007's Systematic Chaos, which peaked at 19. \"Lie\" and \"The Silent Man\" were released as singles but failed to be as successful as \"Pull Me Under\" had been. The band's record label considered the album a commercial failure, which would lead to the band being pressured to write more radio-friendly songs on their subsequent studio album.\n\nBackground\nAfter a month-long break, Dream Theater started working on their third studio album in February 1994. The band's two-month writing sessions were located at Prince Studios, New York City. The lack of a leader within the band increased tensions in what were already tense sessions. Keyboardist Kevin Moore noted at the time that \"there are arguments that last forever because there's nobody to come in and draw the line\". \"When it came to the music, you had [guitarist] John Petrucci and I playing the roles we still kind of play, and Kevin was also a forceful element,\" drummer Mike Portnoy said. \"In those days, [bassist] John Myung was a little bit more out of his shell, so the bass was a bit more predominant in the band. The fighting never came to blows, but there was a lot of bickering over every single element, like the fine details of what the third note on the sixty-fourth bar should be.\"\nThe success of Dream Theater's previous album, Images and Words, particularly the single \"Pull Me Under\", put pressure on the band to produce a similarly successful follow-up album. \"Somebody once said that you have your whole life to prepare for your first album and have about two months to prepare the follow-up, and that was very much the situation we faced in early 1994,\" Portnoy noted. The popularity of alternative metal and groove metal meant that the band's record label, East West, were keen for the band to create a heavier, darker album. Awake featured Petrucci's use of a seven-string guitar for the first time, establishing a more riff-based writing style. \"This style would further cement the fusion of metal and progressive music, which is what Dream Theater are known for,\" Petrucci said. \"I think it paved the way for many of our strongest and heaviest later songs like 'A Change of Seasons', 'The Glass Prison' and 'The Dark Eternal Night'.\" Vocalist James LaBrie described his vocals on Awake as \"more varied and a lot more aggressive\" than on Images and Words to the extent that people may think the band had a new singer for the album.\n\nRecording\nThe recording sessions for the album began in May 1994 at One On One Studios in North Hollywood, Los Angeles, with overdub work done at Devonshire Studios in Los Angeles. John Purdell and Duane Baron, whose credits included Ozzy Osbourne's No More Tears (1991), were hired to produce the album. The band, which had a difficult relationship with David Prater, who produced Images and Words, enjoyed working with Purdell and Baron. \"I think everyone felt we were able to express ourselves a lot more genuinely,\" Petrucci said. \"The experience from the road, learning more about our sound and what we like and don't like enabled us to be more prepared. The producers were totally into capturing that and being patient with us. So everybody walked away being completely satisfied with their performances and their sounds.\" Awake is the band's only studio album to date that was not recorded on the east coast of the United States.\n\nDeparture of Moore\nTowards the end of the recording sessions, Kevin Moore announced to his bandmates that he was leaving the band. Petrucci, who was childhood friends with the keyboardist, found the news particularly hard to take. Myung noted that the announcement \"didn't come out of the blue\". LaBrie noticed changes in Moore at the end of the Images and Words tour. \"He seemed to be more distant and wrapped up in himself... It wasn't that he was rude or unpleasant with anyone,\" he said. \"But when Mike, John Petrucci and John Myung were in the rehearsal studio putting together the music for Awake, he wasn't there as he had been in the past. And when he was there, the guys told me he'd be sitting reading a magazine when they were trying to work out riffs.\" \"After the record was recorded in Los Angeles, he returned to New York, sold his belongings, packed everything into his station wagon and said 'I'm moving away from Long Island,'\" Dream Theater's co-manager Jim Pitulski recalled. \"So I asked him where he was moving to, and he said, 'I'll let you know when I get there.' He really had no idea what he was doing and he just started driving across the country. I kind of admired that.\"\nMoore stated that he decided to leave because his approach to writing music had changed. He had become more interested in writing and recording his own material. Myung said that Moore left the band out of \"peace of mind and what he wanted to do musically that he couldn't do in the band\". The band's business manager, Rob Shore, suggested that the idea of prolonged touring was a contributing factor in Moore's decision. Describing Moore as \"a very private person\", Portnoy thought that he might have left because \"the whole machine of the music business just wasn't his cup of tea\". When Moore announced his decision to leave, he was single, while LaBrie was married, Portnoy and Petrucci had girlfriends and Myung, according to Portnoy, \"was kind of in his own world\". Portnoy speculated that any resentment or jealousy Moore felt because of this may have influenced his decision. After leaving Dream Theater, Moore continued to release music, musically far-removed from his work with the band.\n\nMixing\nAwake was mixed at Unique Studios, New York City. When mixing, Purdell and Baron were initially joined by the remaining members of the band. \"We were all in the studio when it first started and it was just unfair to the producers,\" vocalist James LaBrie said. \"Obviously each guy was focusing on his instrument, so it was like 'Wait, I want me up more!' So they were trying to please everyone and you just can't do that.\" The band had to be banned from the mixing sessions to allow Purdell and Baron to mix the album to a high enough standard. \"The one great thing, though – even though we were out of the studio – was that they were aware of what we wanted and didn't want,\" LaBrie said. \"When David Prater mixed Images and Words it was really unfortunate because he forgot to bring some sections out and he really didn't understand what we wanted from the final music. When Duane and John went in, they knew everything that needed to be there and how we wanted it to be represented.\"\n\nSongs\n\"6:00\" and \"Innocence Faded\"\nThe album's opening track, \"6:00\", features lyrics written by Moore, hinting at the growing distance between him and the rest of the band. Petrucci wrote the lyrics of \"Innocence Faded\", inspired by his deteriorating friendship with Moore. \"The way I wrote lyrics a lot of the time is that I'll take an initial spark of an idea... But then I'll kind of generalize and add in other situations,\" Petrucci said. \"So I couldn't say it was solely about that, but it was definitely inspired by that. There was a feeling of it not being the same way it had been, and the realization that things were not always going to remain the same.\"\n\n\"Caught in a Web\"\nAccording to James LaBrie, \"Caught in a Web\" is about a protagonist that has finally determined to live the way they want, after being told by society they have to live their life a certain way. He says it deals with \"... a person that's... it's not male or female, it could be either. And it's... a person who has suppressed their feelings for so long and has finally had enough of it and feels that the only way that they can really live life to its fullest is to live from the inside out. And that's basically what this person has come to terms with. And they're sick of society inducements and they feel the only way that they can go on with life is to live it the way they feel is the truth...\"\n\n\"A Mind Beside Itself\" trilogy: \"Erotomania\", \"Voices\", and \"The Silent Man\"\n\"Erotomania\", \"Voices\" and \"The Silent Man\" form a three-part suite titled \"A Mind Beside Itself\". Portnoy stated that the instrumental \"Erotomania\" was written \"off the cuff\" as \"a bit of a joke and parody\". Petrucci penned the lyrics to \"Voices\", dealing with the subject of mental illness. He researched schizophrenia and similar disorders and used religious terms \"to make things more vivid\". \"When I was writing it, I saw these terms and medical things that were just brilliant,\" he said. \"Like there was a guy who felt that his skin was inside out. I read that and was like 'Oh my God! That's unbelievable; I've got to write about that.'\" Petrucci wrote the music and lyrics to the acoustic \"The Silent Man\". LaBrie described the lyrics as dealing with \"communication breakdown, for instance between a father and a son. We feel that we have to play certain roles when around one of our parents, and we never really get to know the real person. I'm lucky that I behave with my own father like I would a friend. We can joke around and go for a beer.\"\n\n\"The Mirror\"\nPortnoy wrote the lyrics to \"The Mirror\", describing his battle with alcoholism. He would return to the subject on later Dream Theater albums with the group's so-called \"Twelve-step Suite.\"\nNotably, although this is the first song released on a studio album with lyrics fully written by Portnoy, he had previously written part of the lyrics for Take the Time on Images and Words.\n\n\"Lie\"\n\"Lie\", the lead single from Awake, demonstrates the heavier, darker style of the album. The song is a live staple of the band. \"Lie\" was originally part of \"The Mirror\", but LaBrie thought it was strong enough to be a song in itself. \"I remember one of the first tapes [the band] sent me to start jamming with up in Canada was 'The Mirror',\" LaBrie said. \"We used to jam instrumentally to it on the last tour and then we built it into a song, with the lyrics and melodies but also within the song was 'Lie'. I heard this groove and I was going 'Oh my God, that's a song in itself!' So I called up the guys and said 'Man, I really feel strong about this song. Can't we take that groove and build a song?'\"\n\n\"Lifting Shadows Off a Dream\"\n\"Lifting Shadows Off a Dream\" began as a poem and two chords brought to the band by Myung. \"We worked on it, racked our brains, recorded the jam and by the end of the night we were like 'Ahh fuck it. This sucks,'\" Petrucci recalled. \"We came by the next day, listened to the recording and thought it could be really cool. All of a sudden it evolved into this song.\"\n\n\"Scarred\"\nThe lyrics to \"Scarred\" were initially inspired by a mishearing of the lyrics to The Clash's \"Rock the Casbah\". The song eventually took on a darker tone as the tempo changed and guitarist John Petrucci began writing lyrics about depression. The lines inspired by \"Rock the Casbah\", while present on the working demo, were removed entirely for the final release.\n\n\"Space-Dye Vest\"\n\"Space-Dye Vest\" was written by Moore, who brought the piece into the studio as a completed song.\n\nArtwork\nLarry Freemantle, who had designed the cover of Images and Words, provided the artwork for Awake. As with Images and Words, the band instructed Freemantle to include several lyrical references in the cover, such as a clock showing the time 6:00, a mirror and a spider in the middle of a web. \"The band were very definite about what they wanted, and where they wanted it,\" Freemantle said. \"The mirror was to be buried in the sand with a factory in the background, so it was just a case of putting it together.\" Access Images, the company Freemantle had used for Images and Words, had broken up, meaning that he had to put the cover together using stock images himself. \"It was done really quickly and I always felt frustrated with that sleeve as I lost too much time on it,\" Freemantle said. \"I was always up against deadlines on certain things and it got away from me.\"\n\nRelease and promotion\nAwake was released on October 4, 1994, through East West Records. LaBrie considered the album's title to be \"the perfect word to describe the album's lyrics. What we're basically talking about is the awareness of your existence - becoming closer and more in touch with yourself and ultimately discovering what works best for you as an individual as you try to get through life.\" Portnoy dedicated the album to his biggest inspiration, Frank Zappa, who died in 1993.\nThe album sold 36,160 copies the first week it was released. \"Lie\", the album's lead single, was released in late September. The accompanying music video featured the band, then a four-piece, playing the track at various locations in New York City, including the Brooklyn Bridge, Tribeca and a tunnel in Manhattan (which had to be temporarily closed in order to complete the shoot). It was hoped that \"Lie\" would be as successful as \"Pull Me Under\" had been, but the single failed to make an impact on the charts. \"Caught in a Web\" and \"The Silent Man\" were the album's second and third singles respectively. Portnoy was keen to direct the music video for \"The Silent Man\", but East West only offered him a co-directing credit with Pamela Birkhead. On the day of the shoot, Portnoy became violently ill, and when not needed to perform rested in his tour bus bunk.\n\nTouring\nWith Moore no longer a member of Dream Theater, the band needed to find a replacement keyboardist for the forthcoming world tour in support of Awake. Before the tour started, the band had a headlining concert on September 9, 1994, at the Foundations Forum in Burbank, California. The album was to be unveiled in a live setting for the first time. Jordan Rudess's audition impressed the band, with Portnoy claiming that it had \"blown his mind\" and that Rudess was the \"best keyboard player we'd ever seen\". Rudess accepted the band's offer to perform with them at the Burbank show, but decided against joining the band for the entire tour. At the same time, he had received an offer to perform with the Dixie Dregs for shorter runs of shows and had a job with Kurzweil. Rudess also had a young family and was unsure if Dream Theater \"was just going to be a flash in the pan\". \"I decided I would be better off going with the Dregs, continuing with Kurzweil, and being around for my family as much as possible,\" Rudess said. The show was not a success; the band were nervous of playing without Moore and were out of practice from not having played live for some time. Rudess eventually joined Dream Theater as a full band member in 1999.\nThe band held another round of auditions and were impressed with Derek Sherinian. Sherinian, who studied at Berklee College of Music the year before Petrucci, Portnoy, and Myung did, had previously played with Alice Cooper and Kiss and enjoyed similar music to the other members of Dream Theater. He was offered the position on a trial basis at the beginning of October 1994, giving him just two weeks to learn two hours of highly complex music. \"It's one thing going in to play for an artist with hit songs that you've heard since you were a kid, and the songs are ingrained in your mind,\" Sherinian said. \"It was another thing altogether going in with music you've never heard before that is totally off the charts as far as technical prowess... But it is amazing what one will do to ascend... when I was in New York at the rehearsals, I would play the songs at night over and over on a loop so that I would be subliminally programmed and it would ingrain it in my head.\" Sherinian was officially asked to join the band as a full member in February 1995.\nThe US leg of the Waking Up The World tour began on October 20, 1994, and finished on December 9. Over Christmas, LaBrie went on holiday to Cuba with his wife, where he had violent food poisoning. Upon his return home he consulted an ears, nose, and throat specialist, who told LaBrie that he had ruptured his vocal cords, advising him not to sing for six months to a year. \"I was in total shock and devastated,\" LaBrie said. \"On the US leg I had been so psyched and couldn't wait to blow everyone away around the rest of the world. We weren't in a position for me to take a six-month break so I had to keep touring.\" LaBrie was able to continue performing, but his voice became unpredictable. \"It was absolutely miserable, and it was an extremely dark and depressing period for me,\" he recalled. \"Literally every fucking night on the European leg, I wouldn't know if my voice would be there or if it would cooperate... I didn't feel that my voice really started to come back until maybe the Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence tour in 2002. That's when I started to feel my range and strength coming back.\"\nThe Great Hanshin earthquake struck Japan while Dream Theater were touring there. Although none of the band was injured, they seriously considered calling off the tour, but only ended up canceling one show. The band held a minute's silence at every show in Japan in memory of those who had died. During the soundchecks for the Japanese shows, the band rehearsed a series of cover songs. These were performed at a special covers-only show in Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club, London. The show, performed to an invitation-only audience of three hundred, featured guest musicians such as Barney Greenway, Steve Hogarth, Steve Rothery and Steve Howe. A selection of covers and medleys performed by Dream Theater at this show were released on A Change of Seasons.\n\nReception\nAwake peaked at 32 on the Billboard 200, remaining in the charts for six weeks. This would remain the band's highest-charting release in the US until Systematic Chaos in 2007, which was eventually topped by 2009's Black Clouds & Silver Linings, which peaked at No. 6. The album peaked in the top 20 in four countries. Derek Oliver, Dream Theater's label representative considered the album to be a commercial failure. This led to the band once again working with David Prater on A Change of Seasons and to the record label putting increasing pressure on the band to make songs on their next studio album, Falling into Infinity, more commercial and radio-friendly.\n\nAwake received acclaim from music critics. Q wrote that \"fans of Marillion may well love this, and even the sceptical listener can enjoy the crunching, radio-friendly choruses of \"Scarred\" and \"Caught in a Web\".\" Guitar World ranked the album as one of the top ten releases of the year, stating that \"this shred party left me punch drunk and, for once in my life, fully Awake.\" Metal Hammer dismissed Awake as \"musical masturbation\": \"Progressive rock is basically a very adolescent notion of what 'grown up' music might sound like - more notes, longer solos and, best/worst of all, convoluted concepts... Their propensity for pomposity extends to the ballad \"Silent Man\", which would probably like to be Queensrÿche's \"Silent Lucidity\" but in fact sounds like Stryper on a particularly pious day\". The album has since sold nearly 400,000 copies.\nLater reviews were more favorable. Reviewers praised the album's production, noting the album is darker and heavier than previous Dream Theater releases. The musicianship of the band has been praised. Phil Carter of AllMusic highlighted Petrucci and Portnoy's performances; Metal Storm praised LaBrie and Portnoy; Murat Batmaz of Sea of Tranquility praised all the performances, but singled out Moore's contribution as \"immense\" and complimented him on \"a lucid layer of atmosphere around [the album] built by none other than Kevin Moore.\" Carter ranked \"Lie\", \"Scarred\", \"Caught in a Web\" and \"Space-Dye Vest\" as the best tracks. Metal Storm praised \"6:00\" and the \"A Mind Beside Itself\" suite.\nIn a 1995 Guitar World interview, Chuck Schuldiner praised Awake and the band Dream Theater in general, claiming that \"their music is very complex, but they definitely have hooks, which is crucial to making music listenable\", citing them as an influence on the more progressive nature of his band Death's later material as opposed to the stagnant death metal scene at the time. In 2005, Awake was ranked number 390 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. In July 2014, the album was ranked number 1 in Guitar World magazine's list of \"Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994\".\n\nTrack listing\nPersonnel\nChart positions\nCertifications\nReferences\n\nWilson, Rich (2009). Lifting Shadows: The Authorized Biography of Dream Theater (Classic ed.). London: Essential Works. ISBN 978-1-906615-02-4.",
"title": "Awake_(Dream_Theater_album)"
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"paragraph_text": "Inside Out is the seventh studio album by progressive metal band Fates Warning, released on July 26, 1994 through Metal Blade Records. The album continues with the commercial sound that Parallels began. It was the last to feature long-time bassist Joe DiBiase, who left after its release, as well as the last to feature guitarist Frank Aresti until his return to band in 2005. Aresti later appeared on their 2013 album Darkness in a Different Light as a full-time member and on the 2016 album Theories of Flight as a guest. DiBiase would return in 2010 and 2016 for a number of shows, but did not officially rejoin.\nThis album was re-released in 2006 in Germany as part of a 2-CD Set with the album Disconnected featuring bonus tracks.\n\nOriginal Track listing\nMetal Blade Records re-mastered 2012 version\nOn June 5, 2012, the album was remastered with a second disc of live and demo material, along with a DVD with videos and the album played live.\n\nDisc 1 - Original album remastered\nDisc 2\nAll live tracks were recorded at Düsseldorf, February 11, 1995\n\nDVD - Inside Out Live\nDVD EXTRAS\nLive In Still Water (1994)\nThrough Different Eyes (1995)\nGuardian (Mike Portnoy Drums) (1994)\nShades of Heavenly Death (1995)\nMTV Europe Interview (1995)\nEye to Eye (1994/1995)\nFace The Face Of Fear (1994)\nDon't Follow Me (1994)\nShortest Show Ever (1994)\nGuardian (Arch/ Alder Duet) (1994)\n\nCredits\nRay Alder - Vocals\nJim Matheos - Guitar\nFrank Aresti - Guitar\nJoe DiBiase - Bass\nMark Zonder - Drums & Percussion\nProduced by Bill Metoyer & Fates Warning\nRecorded by Bill Metoyer during May 1994 at Track Record, North Hollywood and Silver Cloud, Burbank, CA\nMixed at Cornerstone Recorders, Chatsworth, CA\nAssistant Engineers - Mike Ainsworth & Eric Stitt Greedy\nGuest Musicians - George Hideous, Fidel Horrendous, Sal Mortadelli, Arthur Letsgoberg, Mike White\nMastered at Futuredisc by Eddy Schreyer\nArt Direction & Design - Hugh Syme\nBand Photography - Mark Husmann\nReptilian Portrait - Tony Frederick\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Inside_Out_(Fates_Warning_album)"
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"paragraph_text": "Promised Land is the fifth studio album by the American heavy metal band Queensrÿche and their highest charting record to date. It was released by EMI on October 18, 1994, four years after their successful Empire album. The album was re-released on June 10, 2003, in a remastered edition with bonus tracks.\n\nSong overview\nThe album opens with \"9.28 a.m.\", a musique concrète sequence put together by drummer Scott Rockenfield. The band wanted to create a cinematic and moody intro, and Rockenfield was given complete freedom to make something. Rockenfield recorded natural sounds using a portable ADAT tape recorder, which he processed through a rack of effects and designed his own sound effects out of it. Some of the recorded sounds appear on other tracks, such as the sound of a train on \"Disconnected\". \"9.28 a.m.\" follows a soul from death through the ether into a reincarnation, and rebirth, followed by the sound of a crying baby. The title refers to the time Rockenfield was born.\n\"9.28 a.m.\" segues into \"I Am I\". This song is driven by a heavy riff and Geoff Tate's vocals to a background of percussion instruments. Chris DeGarmo performs cello and sitar parts as well as the guitar solo. After almost four minutes it merges into \"Damaged\", a straightforward heavy rocker.\n\"Out of Mind\" and the subsequent \"Bridge\" are quiet acoustic pieces, with lyrics written by Chris DeGarmo. The last one deals with the relationship with his father, who died during the Promised Land sessions.\nThe eight-minute title track is the first track in the Queensrÿche catalogue to be credited to the entire group. It is a dark piece, full of Rockenfield tape effects, DeGarmo/Wilton twin guitar work, and marks Tate's first appearance as a saxophonist. On this track, the theme deals with the drawbacks of success. It ends in a bar scene of people talking and drinking (slightly reminiscent of the ending of \"Welcome to the Machine\" on Pink Floyd's Wish You Were Here, which deals with a similar subject matter). These sound effects merge into \"Disconnected,\" an alienating piece dealing with American consumer society. It features Tate on sax again.\nThe subsequent \"Lady Jane\" deals with the similar theme of the influence of commercials. It is a ballad featuring DeGarmo on piano and another twin solo.\n\"My Global Mind\" is another rock song dealing with globalization. After that, \"One More Time\" is an acoustic rocker, with lyrics in the vein of the title track.\nThe album's final track, \"Someone Else?\", only features Tate on vocals and DeGarmo on piano.\n\nLegacy\nIn July 2014, Guitar World ranked Promised Land at number 23 in their \"Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994\" list.\n\nTrack listing\nAll credits adapted from the original liner notes.\n\nPersonnel\nQueensrÿche\nGeoff Tate – vocals, saxophone, keyboards\nChris DeGarmo – lead & rhythm guitar, piano, cello, sitar\nMichael Wilton – lead & rhythm guitar\nEddie Jackson – bass guitar\nScott Rockenfield – drums, percussion, tape effects\nProduction\nQueensrÿche - producers, engineers, mixing at Bad Animals Studio, Seattle, Summer 1994\nJames Barton – producer, engineer, mixing\nPhil Brown – assistant to the producer\nTom Hall – engineer\nEric Fischer – assistant engineer\nMatt Gruber – mixing assistant\nDon Tyler - digital editing\nStephen Marcussen – mastering\nEvren Göknar – 2003 remastering\nHugh Syme – art direction, design, illustrations\n\nCharts\nCertifications\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Promised_Land_(Queensrÿche_album)"
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"paragraph_text": "Dreamspace is the third studio album by power metal band Stratovarius, released on 9 February 1994 through Noise Records. It is the last Stratovarius album to feature guitarist Timo Tolkki on vocals (after which Timo Kotipelto became the lead singer on 1995's Fourth Dimension), as well as the first to feature bassist Jari Kainulainen.\n\nCritical reception\nSteve Huey at AllMusic gave Dreamspace four stars out of five, saying that it \"demonstrates the band coming into its own, honing its melodic Euro-metal attack to a razor-sharp point.\"\n\nTrack listing\nPersonnel\nTimo Tolkki – vocals, guitar, engineering, mixing, production\nAntti Ikonen – keyboards, computer\nTuomo Lassila – drums (tracks 1, 2, 5, 8–12, 14), percussion, flute\nSami Kuoppamäki – drums (tracks 3, 4, 6, 7, 13)\nJari Kainulainen – bass guitar\nSole – oboe\nMikko Karmila – mixing\n\nCharts\nReferences\nExternal links\nDreamspace at stratovarius.com",
"title": "Dreamspace"
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] | Which of the following albums came out on a date closest to the date that Nancy Kerrigan was assaulted? What about which album was closest to the date of Harding's plea deal? Awake by Dream Theater Inside Out by Fates Warning Promised Land by Queensryche Dreamspace by Stratovarius | [] | Dreamspace' by Stratovarius. | [] | true |
811 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The United States of America is a federal republic consisting of 50 states, a federal district (Washington, D.C., the capital city of the United States), five major territories, and various minor islands. Both the states and the United States as a whole are each sovereign jurisdictions. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution allows states to exercise all powers of government not delegated to the federal government. Each state has its own constitution and government, and all states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two senators, while representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the president of the United States, equal to the total of representatives and senators in Congress from that state. The federal district does not have representatives in the Senate, but has a non-voting delegate in the House, and it is also entitled to electors in the Electoral College. Congress can admit more states, but it cannot create a new state from territory of an existing state or merge two or more states into one without the consent of all states involved, and each new state is admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.\nThe United States has control over fourteen territories. Five of them (American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands) have a permanent, nonmilitary population, while nine of them (the United States Minor Outlying Islands) do not. With the exception of Navassa Island, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, which are located in the Caribbean, all territories are located in the Pacific Ocean. One territory, Palmyra Atoll, is considered to be incorporated, meaning the full body of the Constitution has been applied to it; the other territories are unincorporated, meaning the Constitution does not fully apply to them. Ten territories (the Minor Outlying Islands and American Samoa) are considered to be unorganized, meaning they have not had an organic act enacted by Congress; the four other territories are organized, meaning an organic act has been enacted by Congress. The five inhabited territories each have limited autonomy in addition to having territorial legislatures and governors, but residents cannot vote in federal elections, although all are represented by non-voting delegates in the House.\nThe largest state by population is California, with a population of 39,538,223 people, while the smallest is Wyoming, with a population of 576,851 people; the federal district has a larger population (689,545) than both Wyoming and Vermont. The largest state by area is Alaska, encompassing 665,384 square miles (1,723,340 km2), while the smallest is Rhode Island, encompassing 1,545 square miles (4,000 km2). The most recent states to be admitted, Alaska and Hawaii, were admitted in 1959. The largest territory by population is Puerto Rico, with a population of 3,285,874 people (larger than 21 states), while the smallest is the Northern Mariana Islands, with a population of 47,329 people. Puerto Rico is the largest territory by area, encompassing 5,325 square miles (13,790 km2); the smallest territory, Kingman Reef, encompasses only 0.005 square miles (0.013 km2).\n\nStates\nFederal district\nTerritories\nInhabited territories\nUninhabited territories\nDisputed territories\nSee also\nAboriginal title in the United States\nHistoric regions of the United States\nList of Indian reservations in the United States\nList of regions of the United States\nLists of U.S. state topics\nLocal government in the United States\nOrganized incorporated territories of the United States\nProposals for a 51st state\nTerritorial evolution of the United States\nU.S. territorial sovereignty\nCompact of Free Association\n\nExplanatory notes\nReferences\nRadan, Peter (2007). Creating New States: Theory and Practice of Secession. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9780754671633.\n\nExternal links\n\nState Resource Guides, from the Library of Congress\nState and Territorial Governments on USA.gov",
"title": "List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States"
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"paragraph_text": "This is a list of United States senators from Maryland, which ratified the United States Constitution April 28, 1788, becoming the seventh state to do so. To provide for continuity of government, the framers divided senators into staggered classes that serve six-year terms, and Maryland's senators are in the first and third classes. Before the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913, which allowed for direct election of senators, Maryland's senators were chosen by the Maryland General Assembly, which ratified the amendment on April 1, 2010. Until the assembly appointed George L. Wellington of Cumberland in 1897, senators in class 3 were chosen from the Eastern Shore while senators in class 1 were chosen from the remainder of the state. Barbara Mikulski has been Maryland's longest-serving senator (1987–2017).\n\nList of senators\nSee also\nUnited States congressional delegations from Maryland\nList of United States representatives from Maryland\nElections in Maryland\n\nReferences\n\nByrd, Robert C. (October 1, 1993). Wolff, Wendy (ed.). The Senate, 1789-1989: Historical Statistics, 1789-1992. United States Senate Historical Office (volume 4 Bicentennial ed.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160632563.",
"title": "List_of_United_States_senators_from_Maryland"
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"paragraph_text": "Benjamin Louis Cardin (born October 5, 1943) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the senior United States senator from Maryland, a seat he has held since 2007. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the U.S. representative for Maryland's 3rd congressional district from 1987 to 2007. Cardin served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1967 to 1987 and as its speaker from 1979 to 1987.\nCardin was elected as U.S. Senator to succeed Paul Sarbanes in 2006, defeating Republican Michael Steele, the Lieutenant Governor of Maryland, by a margin of 54% to 44%. He was reelected in 2012 taking 56% of the vote. He became Maryland's senior U.S. senator on January 3, 2017, upon Barbara Mikulski's retirement. Cardin won reelection to a third term in 2018, taking 65% of the vote. Cardin will retire rather than run for reelection in 2024.\n\nEarly life and career\nBenjamin Louis Cardin was born in Baltimore, Maryland. The family name was originally \"Kardonsky\", before it was changed to \"Cardin\". Cardin's grandparents were Russian Jewish immigrants. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Green, operated a neighborhood grocery store that later turned into a wholesale food distribution company. His mother Dora was a schoolteacher and his father, Meyer Cardin, served in the Maryland House of Delegates (1935–1937) and later sat on the Baltimore City Supreme Bench (1961–1977).\nCardin and his family attended the Modern Orthodox Beth Tfiloh Congregation near their home, with which the family had been affiliated for three generations. Cardin attended Baltimore City College, graduating in 1961. In 1964, he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree cum laude from the University of Pittsburgh, where he was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity. He earned a Juris Doctor from the University of Maryland School of Law in 1967, graduating first in his class. Cardin was admitted to the Maryland Bar that same year, and joined the private practice of Rosen and Esterson until 1978.\n\nEarly political career\nMaryland House of Delegates\nWhile still in law school, Cardin was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in November 1966. He held the seat once held by his uncle, Maurice Cardin, who had decided to not run for re-election so that his nephew could instead pursue the seat. He was chairman of the Ways & Means Committee from 1974 to 1979, then served as the 103rd Speaker of the House until he left office. At age 35, he was the youngest Speaker in Maryland history at the time. As Speaker, he was involved with reform efforts involving Maryland's property tax system, school financing formula, and ethical standards for elected officials.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives\nIn 1986, with Congresswoman Barbara Mikulski mounting what would be a successful bid for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by retiring Senator Charles Mathias, Cardin ran for Mikulski's seat representing the 3rd congressional district, which covered a large slice of inner Baltimore, as well as several close-in suburbs. Cardin won the Democratic nomination with 82 percent of the vote—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district. He won the general election with 79 percent of the vote against a perennial candidate, Republican Ross Z. Pierpont.\nCardin served as one of the House impeachment managers that successfully prosecuted the case in the 1989 impeachment trial of Judge Walter Nixon.\n\nCardin was reelected nine times, rarely facing serious opposition and even running unopposed in 1992. In the 2000 round of redistricting, his district was redrawn to add significant portions of Anne Arundel County, including the state capital of Annapolis. His last two opponents hailed from Anne Arundel and nearly carried the district's portion of that county.\nIn the House, Cardin was involved with fiscal issues, pension reform, and health care. His legislation to increase the amount individuals can store in their 401k plans and IRAs was passed in 2001. His bill to expand Medicare to include preventive benefits such as colorectal, prostate, mammogram, and osteoporosis screening was also enacted. He also authored legislation to provide a Medicare prescription drug benefit for chronic illnesses; fund graduate medical education; and guarantee coverage for emergency services.\nCardin has also advocated, via proposed legislation, welfare reform. His bill to increase education and support services for foster children between ages 18 and 21 was signed into law in 1999. He authored bills to expand child support, improve the welfare-to-work program, and increase the child care tax credit.\nIn 1998, Cardin was appointed Chairman of the Special Study Commission on Maryland Public Ethics Law by the Maryland General Assembly. In 1997, he co-chaired the Bipartisan Ethics Task Force in an effort to reform ethics procedures in the House of Representatives. He also held leadership positions on the Organization, Study and Review Committee and the Steering Committee of the House Democratic Caucus, and served as Senior Democratic Whip.\nCardin has been commended for his work with fiscal policy. He has been honored by Worth magazine and by Treasury and Risk Management for his work protecting retirement plans and government-supported medical care for the elderly. He has also received scores of 100 percent from the League of Conservation Voters and the NAACP, indicating stances that are in favor of environmental protection and civil rights. Cardin was also one of 133 members of Congress to vote against the 2002 Iraq Resolution.\n\nHouse committee assignments\nAs of May 2006, Cardin served on the following House committees:\n\nMember of the Ways and Means Committee.\nRanking member of the Trade Subcommittee.\nMember of the Human Resources Subcommittee.\nChairman of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe.\n\nU.S. Senate\nElections\n2006\nOn April 26, 2005, Cardin announced that he would seek the U.S. Senate seat of long-standing senator Paul Sarbanes (D-MD), following the announcement by Sarbanes that he would not be running for re-election in 2006. On September 12, 2006, Cardin faced a challenging primary battle with other Maryland Democrats, including Allan Lichtman, Josh Rales, Dennis F. Rasmussen, and his former House colleague Kweisi Mfume. Cardin won, however, with 44 percent of the vote, compared to 40 percent for Mfume, five percent for Rales, and two percent for Rasmussen.\nCardin won election on November 7, 2006, defeating Republican challenger Michael Steele 54 percent to 44 percent. Cardin became the third consecutive Representative from Maryland's 3rd congressional district to be elected Senator (following Sarbanes and Mikulski). John Sarbanes, Paul's son, succeeded Cardin in the 3rd district.\n\n2012\nCardin ran for re-election to a second term in 2012. He turned back a primary challenge from State Senator C. Anthony Muse, defeating him 74% to 16%, with seven other candidates taking the remaining 10%.\nIn the general election, he faced Republican Dan Bongino, a former United States Secret Service agent, Independent Rob Sobhani, an economist and businessman, and Libertarian Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad, President of the Minaret of Freedom Institute. Cardin easily won the election, taking 56% of the vote to Bongino's 26.3%, Sobhani's 16.4% and Ahmad's 1%.\n\n2018\nCardin was re-elected for a third term in 2018.\n\n2024\nOn May 1, 2023, Cardin announced that he would retire and not seek re-election in 2024.\n\nTenure\nCardin was participating in the certification of the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count when the January 6 United States Capitol attack happened. Cardin was on the Senate chamber floor when the rioters breached the Capitol. He was \"ushered quickly — and I do mean quickly — away from the Capitol\" after Vice President Mike Pence was removed from the chambers. During the attack, while Cardin hid with other senators in a safe location, he tweeted, blaming President Donald Trump for encouraging the rioters. He called for Trump to stop the protestors so the event would end \"peacefully.\" Cardin also compared the police involvement during the attack to that seen during Black Lives Matter protests, calling it a \"stark contrast.\" After the Capitol was secure, Cardin joined Congress to certify the count. After, he said that Trump should be held accountable for the insurrection and called for Republican leaders to tell Trump that he needs to resign. Two days later, on January 8, Cardin called for the invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution or impeachment to remove Trump.\nIn 2024, Cardin advocated for the federal government to fund the reconstruction of the Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore after it collapsed when a ship crashed into it.\n\nSenate committee assignments\nSource:\n\nCommittee on Environment and Public Works\nSubcommittee on Clean Air and Nuclear Safety\nSubcommittee on Fisheries, Water, and Wildlife\nSubcommittee on Transportation and Infrastructure\nCommittee on Finance\nSubcommittee on Health Care (Chair)\nSubcommittee on International Trade, Customs, and Global Competitiveness\nSubcommittee on Taxation and IRS Oversight\nCommittee on Foreign Relations (Chair)\nSubcommittee on Europe and Regional Security Cooperation\nSubcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism\nSubcommittee on State Department and USAID Management, International Operations, and Bilateral International Development (Chair)\nSubcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Transnational Crime, Civilian Security, Democracy, Human Rights and Global Women's Issues\nCommittee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship\nCardin was selected by Majority Leader Chuck Schumer to fill in for Dianne Feinstein on the Judiciary Committee until she returned.\nIn 2015, Cardin became the ranking Democratic member on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee after the departure of Senator Robert Menendez as ranking Democrat and Chairman. Two weeks after Menendez departure, Cardin was credited with facilitating achievement of a unanimous committee vote in favor of the markup for the bill on the USA's involvement in the negotiations with Iran on nuclear technology.\nSenator Menendez returned to chair the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in 2021.\n\nCaucus membership\nSenate Oceans Caucus\nSenate Military Family Caucus\nSenate Ukraine Caucus\nCongressional Coalition on Adoption\n\nLegislation sponsored\nThe following is an incomplete list of legislation that Cardin has sponsored:\n\nAffordable College Textbook Act (S. 1864; 115th Congress)\n\nInternational experience\nCardin has been a Commissioner on the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (the U.S. Helsinki Commission) since 1993, serving as Ranking Member from 2003 to 2006. He subsequently served two terms as co-chair of the commission, from 2007 to 2008, and 2011 to 2012; and also two terms as chair, from 2009 to 2010, and 2013 to 2014. From 2015 to 2016 he was again ranking member. In 2006 he was elected vice president of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly, and served through 2014.\n\nHonors\nCardin holds honorary degrees from several institutions, including the University of Baltimore School of Law (1990); University of Maryland, Baltimore (1993); Baltimore Hebrew University (1994); Goucher College (1996); and Villa Julie College (2007).\nAs of 2016 Cardin sits on the Board of Visitors of the University of Maryland School of Law, his law school alma mater.\nFrom 1988 to 1995, he chaired the Maryland Legal Services Corp. Through much of his political career, he has continued to work with law policy.\nFrom 1988 to 1999, Cardin served on the St. Mary's College of Maryland Board of Trustees, and in 2002, he was appointed to the St. Mary's Advisory Board for the Study of Democracy. In 1999, he was appointed to the Goucher College Board of Trustees.\nCardin has been awarded the following foreign honor:\n\n Commander of the Order of the Star of Romania, Romania (June 8, 2017)\n\nPolitical positions\nOn a list by Congressional Quarterly of the members of Congress who were most supportive of President Barack Obama's legislative agenda in 2009, Cardin was tied for fifth most supportive senator with five other senators. In 2013, National Journal rated him as tied with six other Democratic senators for fifth most liberal Senator. The American Conservative Union gave him a 4% lifetime conservative rating in 2020.\n\nAgriculture\nIn June 2019, Cardin and eighteen other Democratic senators sent a letter to USDA Inspector General (IG) Phyllis K. Fong with the request that the IG investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making and asserted that not conducting an investigation would mean these \"actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists.\"\n\nDeath penalty\nSenator Cardin is a supporter of the death penalty but says it should only be applied to the \"worst of the worst\".\n\nEconomy\nIn March 2019, Cardin was one of six senators to sign a letter to the Federal Trade Commission requesting it \"use its rulemaking authority, along with other tools, in order to combat the scourge of non-compete clauses rigging our economy against workers\" and espousing the view that such provisions \"harm employees by limiting their ability to find alternate work, which leaves them with little leverage to bargain for better wages or working conditions with their immediate employer.\" The senators furthered that the FTC had the responsibility of protecting both consumers and workers and needed to \"act decisively\" to address their concerns over \"serious anti-competitive harms from the proliferation of non-competes in the economy.\"\n\nEducation\nIn 2007, Cardin supported the United States Public Service Academy Act. The Act would serve to create \"an undergraduate institution devoted to developing civilian leaders.\" Like the Military Academies, this would give students 4 years of tuition-free education in exchange for 5 years of public service upon graduation.\n\nEnvironment\nLiberal environmentalists criticized Cardin for compromising too much while working with conservative James Inhofe on an amendment to Cardin's Chesapeake Bay legislation. Josh Saks, senior legislative representative for water resources campaigns with the National Wildlife Federation, praised Cardin as \"the lead voice for clean water and the restoration of America's great waters in Congress.\"\nIn November 2018, Cardin was one of twenty-five Democratic senators to cosponsor a resolution specifying key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change report and National Climate Assessment. The resolution affirmed the senators' acceptance of the findings and their support for bold action toward addressing climate change.\nIn March 2019, Cardin was one of eleven senators to sponsor the Climate Security Act of 2019, legislation forming a new group within the State Department that would have the responsibility for developing strategies to integrate climate science and data into operations of national security as well as restoring the post of special envoy for the Arctic, which had been dismantled by President Trump in 2017. The proposed envoy would advise the president and the administration on the potential effects of climate on national security and be responsible for facilitating all interagency communication between federal science and security agencies.\n\nElections\nIn October 2018, Cardin cosponsored, together with Chris Van Hollen and Susan Collins, a bipartisan bill that if passed would block \"any persons from foreign adversaries from owning or having control over vendors administering U.S. elections.\" Protect Our Elections Act would make companies involved in administering elections reveal foreign owners, and informing local, state and federal authorities if said ownership changes. Companies failing to comply would face fines of $100,000.\n\nEqual Rights Amendment\nCardin has sponsored legislation in support of the Equal Rights Amendment.\n\nGun control\nCardin has an \"F\" rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund.\nIn 2013, he co-sponsored the Large Capacity Ammunition Feeding Device Act in an effort to ban large-capacity ammunition.\nIn response to the Orlando nightclub shooting, Cardin questioned the legality of military style assault weapons stating that \"in my observations in Maryland, I don't know too many people who need to have that type of weapon in order to do hunting in my state or to keep themselves safe.\"\nCardin opposed the 2016 sale of approximately 26,000 assault rifles to the national police of the Philippines. His opposition led to the U.S. State Department halting the sale.\nIn the wake of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, Cardin stated that thoughts and prayers were not going to save more people from dying in mass shootings. He also made a call for action to change gun laws, stating on Twitter that \"Automatic weapons aren't needed to hunt deer or ducks; they're meant to kill people.\" In response to the shooting, Cardin sponsored Dianne Feinstein's proposal to ban bump stocks, which were used by the shooter to kill 58 individuals and injure over 500.\n\nJournalism\nIn July 2019, Cardin and Rob Portman introduced the Fallen Journalists Memorial Act, a bill that would create a new memorial that would be privately funded and constructed on federal lands within Washington, D.C. in order to honor journalists, photographers, and broadcasters that have died in the line of duty.\n\nHealthcare\nIn the 111th Congress, Cardin helped secure dental benefits in the State Children's Health Insurance Plan.\nIn August 2019, Cardin was one of nineteen senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of the Treasury Steve Mnuchin and United States Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar requesting data from the Trump administration in order to aid in the comprehension of states and Congress on potential consequences in the event that the Texas v. United States Affordable Care Act (ACA) lawsuit prevailed in courts, citing that an overhaul of the present health care system would form \"an enormous hole in the pocketbooks of the people we serve as well as wreck state budgets\".\nIn October 2019, Cardin was one of twenty-seven senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer advocating for the passage of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it \"would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans.\"\n\nHousing\nIn April 2019, Cardin was one of forty-one senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Section 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing \"HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country\" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget \"has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development.\" The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020.\n\nInternational policy\nOn October 31, 2011, Cardin endorsed the proposal for the United Nations Parliamentary Assembly (UNPA). He is one of only six persons who served as members of the United States Congress ever to do so and is the only one who did so while in office.\nCardin has often supported positions that aim to strengthen America's relationship with Israel. In 2017, Cardin sponsored a bill, the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S. 720), that would penalize commercial businesses that wanted to aid International NGOs and/or organizations in boycotting Israel. Cardin has argued that Israel's human rights record should not be considered in regard to sending U.S. military aid to Israel.\nHe supported civilian nuclear cooperation with India.\nWeeks after the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign and Umbrella Movement broke out which demands genuine universal suffrage among other goals, Cardin among bipartisan colleagues joined U.S. Senator Sherrod Brown and Rep. Chris Smith's effort to introduce Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act which would update the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992 and U.S. commitment to Hong Kong's freedom and democracy. \"Civil society and democratic freedoms are under attack around the world and Hong Kong is on the front lines. The United States has a responsibility to protect human rights and defend against these threats,\" Cardin, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee said.\nIn July 2017, Cardin voted in favor of the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act that placed sanctions on Iran together with Russia and North Korea. On October 11, 2017, in a joint statement, Cardin and Senator John McCain questioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill.\n\nIn October 2017, Cardin condemned the genocide of the Rohingya Muslim minority in Myanmar and called for a stronger response to the crisis.\nIn August 2018, Cardin and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible for human rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in western China's Xinjiang region. They wrote: \"The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in 'political reeducation' centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response.\"\nCardin condemned President Erdoğan's wide-ranging crackdown on dissent following a failed July 2016 coup in America's NATO ally Turkey.\nIn April 2019, Cardin was one of thirty-four senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him \"to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America\", asserting that Trump had \"consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance\" since becoming president and that he was \"personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity\" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries.\nIn 2023 Senator Cardin became the chair of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. According to Jewish Insider, Cardin's office communicated to some activists that it does not have a plan to move the Mahsa Amini Human rights and Security Accountability Act (MAHSA Act) forward through the committee, likely killing the bipartisan Iran sanctions bill.\n\nOnline privacy\nCardin supports Net Neutrality, as shown by his vote during the 109th Congress in favor of the Markey Amendment to H.R. 5252 which would add Net Neutrality provisions to the federal telecommunications code. Cardin also supports Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which gives DOJ the tools to target those site owners who are engaged in illegal digital piracy.\n\nTaxes\nCardin is opposed to eliminating the tax deduction for charitable donations and supports raising taxes on higher-income earners. During a December 20, 2012, interview with Maria Bartiromo on CNBC, Cardin stated, \"We're now a few days away from Christmas. The easiest way to get the revenues is to get the rates from the higher income, uh, taxpayers.\" In response to the question, \"Are you prepared to vote to limit the loophole of charitable deductions?\" Cardin responded, \"No.\"\nCardin has, on multiple occasions, introduced a bill to adopt a \"Progressive Consumption Tax\", which is a variation of Michael J. Graetz's Competitive Tax Plan. This tax reform would abolish income tax for a large portion of American taxpayers, replacing the lost revenue with a 10% value-added tax. As of 2022, the Progressive Consumption Tax has not made it out of committee.\nCardin spoke out after the Pandora Papers were revealed in 2021. Cardin said, \"The Pandora Papers are a wake-up call to all who care about the future of democracy. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, it is time for democracies to band together and demand an end to the unprecedented corruption that has come to be the defining feature of the global order. We must purge the dirty money from our systems and deny kleptocrats safe haven.\"\n\nWhistleblowers\nIn November 2011, Cardin's intended update of the 1917 Espionage Act upset some public disclosure advocates. They complained that it \"would make it harder for federal employees to expose government fraud and abuse.\"\n\nIsrael\nCardin is a co-sponsor of a Senate resolution expressing objection to the UN Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemned Israeli settlement building in the occupied Palestinian territories as a violation of international law. Cardin said that \"Congress will take action against efforts at the UN, or beyond, that use Resolution 2334 to target Israel.\"\nCardin supported President Donald Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: \"Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Israel and the location of the US Embassy should reflect this fact.\"\nCardin and Senator Rob Portman (R-Ohio) proposed the Israel Anti-Boycott Act in late 2018 which would make it illegal for companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories. The bill would expand the Export Administration Act (EAA) to foreign boycotts imposed by international organizations like the European Union, Arab League and the United Nations. Cardin and Portman were strongly in promotion of the bill, and worked to integrate it into larger spending legislation to be signed by then-President Trump.\nIn January 2024, Cardin rejected Bernie Sanders' resolution that would have required the State Department to report to Congress on any evidence of human rights violations by Israel in Gaza. In May 2024, Cardin stated that \"Israel has not violated International Humanitarian Law\" and \"military assistance to support Israel's security remains in the U.S. interest and should continue.\"\n\nPersonal life\nCardin married high school sweetheart Myrna Edelman, a teacher, on November 24, 1964. They have a daughter, Deborah. Their son Michael (born 1967 or 1968) died of suicide on March 24, 1998, at age 30.\nIn 2002, Cardin's 32-year-old nephew, Jon S. Cardin, was elected as a Delegate representing the 11th district of western Baltimore County. With the 11th legislative district overlapping the 3rd congressional district, there were two Cardins on the ticket in this area in 2002. Present at Jon's swearing in was the oldest living former member of the House of Delegates at 95 years of age, Meyer Cardin, Jon's grandfather and Ben's father. Also in attendance was Cardin, who remarked, \"The next generation's taking over.\"\n\nVolunteer service\nFor many years Cardin served on the board of trustees for St. Mary's College of Maryland. He was very active on the board and also played key roles in the establishment of the Center for the Study of Democracy at the college, where he also served on the advisory board.\n\nElectoral history\nNotes and references\nNotes\nReferences\nSee also\nList of Jewish members of the United States Congress\n\nFurther reading\nBiography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress\nFinancial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission\nLegislation sponsored at the Library of Congress\nProfile at Vote Smart\n\nExternal links\n\nSenator Ben Cardin official U.S. Senate website\nBen Cardin for Senate\nBen Cardin at Curlie\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
"title": "Ben_Cardin"
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"paragraph_text": "Maurice Cardin (July 19, 1909 – March 23, 2009) was an American politician who served in the Maryland House of Delegates from Baltimore City's 5th district from 1951 to 1966. His nephew is current Maryland U.S. Senator Ben Cardin, who took over his seat in the Maryland House of Delegates when he retired from politics.\nHe died of heart failure on March 23, 2009, in Lake Worth Beach, Florida at age 99.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Maurice_Cardin"
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] | What is the difference between the number of years served in the seventh-ratified US state's House of Delegates between that state's senator elected in 2007 and his uncle? | [] | The seventh-ratified US state is Maryland. The senator of Maryland elected in 2007 is Ben Cardin. Ben Cardin served 20 years (1967 to 1987) and his uncle, Maurice Cardin, served 15 years (1951 to 1966) in the Maryland House of Delegates. 20 - 15 = 5 years difference, with Ben serving 5 more years. | [] | true |
714 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Lego Avatar (stylized as LEGO Avatar) is a Lego theme based on the film series of the same name created by James Cameron. It is licensed from 20th Century Studios, The Walt Disney Company and Lightstorm Entertainment. The theme was first introduced on 1 October 2022. Subsequent sets were released in 2023, alongside the next film, Avatar: The Way of Water.\n\nOverview\nLego Avatar is based on the James Cameron's Avatar film series. The product line focuses on an epic conflict on Pandora, an inhabited Earth-sized moon of Polyphemus, one of three gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A. On Pandora, human colonists and the sentient humanoid indigenous inhabitants of Pandora, the Na'vi, engage in a war over the planet's resources and the latter's continued existence. Lego Avatar aimed to recreate the main characters in Lego form, including Colonel Miles Quaritch, Dr. Grace Augustine, Jake Sully, Jake Sully (Avatar), Neytiri, Norm Spellman, Mo’at, Tsu’tey, and Trudy Chacón. The Na'vi minifigures were modified with extra long legs and other new molds.\nIn December 2022, The Lego Group confirmed that the Lego Avatar’s longer minifigure legs aren’t the same as those used for Lego Toy Story (later known as Lego Disney)'s minifigures in 2010.\n\nDevelopment\nLego Avatar designer Atticus Tsai-McCarthy discussed the concept of the Lego Avatar theme and said, \"That actually emerged fairly early in the concept phase. In certain themes, like Jurassic World as one example, we are designing primarily for young kids who love dinosaurs and vehicles, whereas Avatar is intended for a slightly older demographic. This was my first experience designing for older builders and focusing on displayability was really rewarding, without losing the play value. You can play with the models, but also display them easily on a shelf and even combine them if you have several sets.\" and continued, \"With 75572 Jake & Neytiri’s First Banshee Flight specifically I wanted to give the two ikran a sense of movement when designing the set. I was aiming to create a frozen moment from the movie, without needing a full diorama base.\"\n\nLaunch\nThe Lego Avatar theme revealed at the San Diego Comic-Con and was launched in October 2022. The Lego Group had a partnership with 20th Century Studios, The Walt Disney Company and Lightstorm Entertainment. As part of the marketing campaign, The Lego Group released 4 sets based on the James Cameron's Avatar film series. Each set featured different Pandoran beasts, such as Banshees, Thanators, Direhorses, and Toruks. Minifigures were released as well, including Colonel Miles Quaritch, Dr. Grace Augustine, Jake Sully, Jake Sully (Avatar), Neytiri, Norm Spellman, Mo’at, Tsu’tey, and Trudy Chacón. The sets were designed primarily for children with an age rating of 9+ or above.\nIn September 2022, at the D23 Expo, Avatar: The Way of Water producer Jon Landau confirmed in an interview that additional five sets based on Avatar: The Way of Water film will be released in 2023. These sets included 3 new Pandoran beasts, such as the Ilu, Skimwing, and Payakan the Tulkun and minifigures of Tsireya, Tuk, Ronal, Tonowari, Neytiri and Kiri, Spider, Lo'ak and Tsireya, Neteyam, Ao'nung, Recombinant Quaritch and a Crabsuit Driver.\n\nCharacters\nHumans\nJake Sully: A disabled former Marine who becomes part of the Avatar Program after his twin brother is killed. His military background helps the Na'vi warriors relate to him.\nColonel Miles Quaritch: The head of the mining operation's security detail. Fiercely consistent in his disregard for any life not recognized as human, he has a profound disregard for Pandora's inhabitants that is evident in both his actions and his language.\nDr. Grace Augustine: An exobiologist and head of the Avatar Program. She is also Sully's mentor and an advocate of peaceful relations with the Na'vi, having set up a school to teach them English.\nTrudy Chacón: A combat pilot assigned to support the Avatar Program who is sympathetic to the Na'vi.\nDr. Norm Spellman: A xenoanthropologist who studies plant and animal life as part of the Avatar Program. He arrives on Pandora at the same time as Jake and operates an avatar. Although he is expected to lead the diplomatic contact with the Na'vi, it turns out that Jake has the personality better suited to win the natives' respect.\nMiles \"Spider\" Socorro: The 16-year-old son of Quaritch born on Pandora, who was adopted into Jake and Neytiri's family.\n\nNa'vi\nThe Na'vi are humanoid creatures that inhabit Pandora along with other creatures. They use animals ranging from direhorses to even viperwolves.\n\nJake Sully: A disabled former Marine who becomes part of the Avatar Program after his twin brother is killed. After sympathizing with them, Jake rebelled against the RDA. After Quaritch killed his human form, Sully merged with his Na'vi Avatar permanently, and now identifies himself as one of them.\nNeytiri: The daughter of the leaders of the Omaticaya (the Na'vi clan central to the story). She is attracted to Jake because of his bravery, though frustrated with him for what she sees as his naiveté and stupidity. She serves as Jake's love interest.\nMo’at: The Omaticaya's spiritual leader, Neytiri's mother, and consort to clan leader Eytukan.\nTsu'tey: The finest warrior of the Omaticaya. He is heir to the chieftainship of the tribe. At the beginning of the film's story, he is betrothed to Neytiri.\nRonal: A free diver of the Metkayina and Tonowari's wife, who is pregnant.\nTonowari: The chief of the Metkayina clan and Ronal's husband.\nKiri: The 14-year-old daughter of Dr. Grace Augustine's Na'vi avatar who was adopted by Jake and Neytiri.\nLo'ak: Jake and Neytiri's 14-year-old son.\nTuktirey \"Tuk\": Jake and Neytiri's 8-year-old daughter and their youngest child.\nTsireya: A graceful and strong free diver of the Metkayina, Tonowari and Ronal's daughter, and Ao'nung's sister.\nAo'nung: A young male hunter and free diver of the Metkayina, Tonowari and Ronal's son, and Tsireya's brother.\n\nToy line\nAccording to BrickLink, The Lego Group released a total of nine Lego sets as part of Lego Avatar theme.\n\nAvatar sets\nIn 2022, The Lego Group revealed at the Lego Con in 2022 a brand new set named Toruk Makto & Tree of Souls (set number: 75574) was released on 1 October 2022. Additional four sets revealed at the San Diego Comic-Con in 2022 and were released at same time.\n\nNeytiri & Thanator vs. AMP Suit Quaritch\nNeytiri & Thanator vs. AMP Suit Quaritch (set number: 75571) was released on 1 October 2022 and based on James Cameron's Avatar film series. The set consists of 560 pieces with 2 minifigures. The set included Neytiri's \nThanator (Palulukan in Na'vi), Pandoran rainforest environment with some glow in the dark pieces and Colonel Miles Quaritch's AMP suit. Colonel Miles Quaritch's AMP suit included a combat knife and an enormous yellow chainsaw. The set included Lego minifigures of Neytiri and Colonel Miles Quaritch.\n\nJake & Neytiri’s First Banshee Flight\nJake & Neytiri's First Banshee Flight (set number: 75572) was released on 1 October 2022 and based on James Cameron's Avatar film series. The set consists of 572 pieces with 2 minifigures. The set included two Banshee (Ikran in Na'vi) and Hallelujah Mountains with some glow in the dark pieces. The set included Lego minifigures of Jake Sully and Neytiri. Lego Avatar designer Atticus Tsai-McCarthy discussed about Ikran used plastic wings instead of brick-built wings and explained, \"Yes, that was pretty much the reason! Recreating the artistry of these creatures onscreen was very important. We thought it would be really nice to translate the wing shape and patterning as accurately as possible, which meant using the decorated vinyl.\"\n\nFloating Mountains: Site 26 & RDA Samson\nFloating Mountains: Site 26 & RDA Samson (set number: 75573) was released on 1 October 2022 and based on James Cameron's Avatar film series. The set consists of 887 pieces with 5 minifigures. The set included RDA Samson helicopter, Floating Mountains, Site 26 and Direhorse (Pa'li in Na'vi ). Floating Mountains with some glow in the dark pieces and a Technic pin that allows to connect the RDA Samson helicopter. The set included Lego minifigures of Jake Sully, Dr. Grace Augustine, Trudy Chacon, Jake Sully (Avatar) and Norm Spellman.\n\nToruk Makto & Tree of Souls\nToruk Makto & Tree of Souls (set number: 75574) was released on 1 October 2022 and based on James Cameron's Avatar film series. The set consists of 1212 pieces with 4 minifigures. The set included a Toruk (meaning last shadow in Na'vi), 3 rainforest environment builds and the Tree of Souls. The set included Lego minifigures of Jake Sully (Avatar), Neytiri, Mo’at and Tsu’tey. The Toruk is the Great Leonopteryx allow Jake Sully (Avatar) to ride on and become Toruk Makto. The 3 rainforest environment builds included some glow in the dark pieces and a Technic pin that allows to connect the Toruk Makto. Toruk Makto & Tree of Souls (set number: 75574) was designed by Lego Group Designer Woon Tze Chee. Lego Avatar designer Atticus Tsai-McCarthy discussed about Toruk Makto & Tree of Souls (set number: 75574) with a Technic pin and explained, \"I think this came about when we were constructing the Floating Mountains or the archway in 75574 Toruk Makto & Tree of Souls, where you can place the leonopteryx. Early on, we were using normal Technic beams in black and figuratively asking builders not to notice them, with the colour contrast.\" and continued, \"However, we later discovered that the Super Mario team was producing something similar to the City scaffolding piece, with Technic pin holes. Given its transparent colours, that was just perfect for Avatar and supporting the floating sections.\"\n\nAvatar: The Way of Water sets\nIn November 2022, five new sets were announced for release on 1 January 2023 and based on Avatar: The Way of Water film, including Ilu Discovery (set number: 75575), Skimwing Adventure (set number: 75576), Mako Submarine (set number: 75577), Metkayina Reef Home (set number: 75578) and Payakan the Tulkun & Crabsuit (set number:75579). Each of the sets included new designed bow and arrow.\n\nIlu Discovery\nIlu Discovery (set number: 75575) was released on 1 January 2023 and based on based on Avatar: The Way of Water film. The set consists of 179 pieces with 2 minifigures. The set included Tuk's Ilu and Pandoran coral-reef with a Technic pin that allows to connect the Ilu. The set included Lego minifigures of Tsireya and Tuk.\n\nSkimwing Adventure\nSkimwing Adventure (set number: 75576) was released on 1 January 2023 and based on based on Avatar: The Way of Water film. The set consists of 259 pieces with 2 minifigures. The set included Jake Sully's Skimwing (\"Tsurak\" in Navi) and Pandoran coral-reef with a Technic pin that allows to connect the Skimwing. The set included Lego minifigures Tonowari and Jake Sully.\n\nMako Submarine\nMako Submarine (set number: 75577) was released on 1 January 2023 and based on based on Avatar: The Way of Water film. The set consists of 553 pieces with 4 minifigures. The set included RDA Quaritch's Mako Submarine, stingray and 3 seabeds. The set included Lego minifigures Neteyam, Ao'nung, RDA Quaritch and Spider.\n\nMetkayina Reef Home\nMetkayina Reef Home (set number: 75578) was released on 1 January 2023 and based on based on Avatar: The Way of Water film. The set consists of 179 pieces with 4 minifigures. The set included Metkayina village, a canoe and Pandoran coral reef. The set included Lego minifigures Ronal, Tonowari, Neytiri and Kiri.\n\nPayakan the Tulkun & Crabsuit\nPayakan the Tulkun & Crabsuit (set number:75579) was released on 1 January 2023 and based on based on Avatar: The Way of Water film. The set consists of 761 pieces with 3 minifigures. The set included Payakan the Tulkun, crabsuit submersible and 2 seabeds. The set included Lego minifigures Crabsuit Driver, Lo'ak and Tsireya.\n\nLego BrickHeadz sets\nJake Sully & his Avatar\nJake Sully & his Avatar (set number: 40542) was released on 1 October 2022 as part of the Lego BrickHeadz theme and based on James Cameron's Avatar film series. The set consists of 246 pieces and 1 baseplate. The set included 2 versions of Jake Sully in his human form with wheelchair and his Avatar form with spear.\n\nWeb short\nThe product line was accompanied by a series of animated short films that was released on YouTube.\n\nBuild your bond with LEGO Avatar was an official web short was released on YouTube on 1 January 2023 that inspired by both Lego Avatar sets as well as the James Cameron's Avatar film series.\n\nSee also\nLego Exo-Force\nLego Prince of Persia\nLego Pirates of the Caribbean\nLego The Lone Ranger\nLego Disney\nLego The Simpsons\nLego Ninjago\nLego Monkie Kid\nLego Nexo Knights\nLego Overwatch\nLego Minifigures (theme)\nLego BrickHeadz\nLego DOTS\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "Lego_Avatar"
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"paragraph_text": "Avatar is an American epic science fiction media franchise created by James Cameron, which began with the eponymous 2009 film. Produced by Lightstorm Entertainment and distributed by 20th Century Studios, it consists of associated merchandise, video games, and theme park attractions. Avatar is set in the mid-22nd century on Pandora, a lush habitable moon of a gas giant in the Alpha Centauri star system. The film's central conflict is between the indigenous Na'vi led by Jake Sully and Neytiri, and humans led by Colonel Miles Quaritch from the Resources Development Administration (RDA), a megacorp which has arrived on Pandora to colonize and pillage it for its natural resources. The title of the series refers to the genetically engineered Na'vi body operated from the brain that humans pilot to interact with on Pandora.\nThe first installment, Avatar, was released on December 18, 2009, and is the highest grossing motion picture of all-time when ticket price inflation is not reckoned. The second installment, The Way of Water, was released on December 16, 2022. The planned sequel series was announced by 20th Century Fox on December 11, 2009, one week before Avatar was released to theaters. 20th Century Fox had confirmed the series on January 15, 2010. The Avatar franchise is one of the most expensive franchises undertaken, with the combined budget of the first film and its four sequels estimated at $1 billion. The franchise has grossed over $5.2 billion worldwide; it is the 15th-highest-grossing film series of all time.\nLike the original film, the four sequels have \"fully encapsulated\" stand-alone plots that \"come to their own conclusions\". The four films have an overarching meta-narrative that connects them to create a large interconnected saga. Cameron described the sequels as \"a natural extension of all the themes, and the characters, and the spiritual undercurrents\" of the first film. However, Cameron eventually acknowledged that series co-producer Jon Landau, who Cameron developed a working relationship with in 1993, was in fact \"the heart of the Avatar family\" and \"the center of gravity of our bubble universe.\"\n\nFilms\nAvatar (2009)\nAvatar was written and directed by James Cameron, The cast includes Sam Worthington, Zoë Saldaña, Sigourney Weaver, Michelle Rodriguez, Stephen Lang, Joel David Moore, Giovanni Ribisi, CCH Pounder, Dileep Rao, Matt Gerald, Laz Alonso, and Wes Studi, and was set in the year 2154.\nThe story focuses on an epic conflict on Pandora, an inhabited Earth-sized moon of Polyphemus, one of three gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A. On Pandora, human colonists and the sentient humanoid indigenous inhabitants of Pandora, the Na'vi, engage in a war over the planet's resources (such as unobtanium) and the latter's continued existence. The film's title refers to the remotely controlled, genetically engineered human-Na'vi bodies used by the film's human characters to interact with the natives. The protagonist, Jake Sully, is a paraplegic young man who travels to Pandora from Earth. Assisting the corporate monolith known as the Resources Development Administration (RDA), he is given an avatar which he uses to interact with the story's heroine, Neytiri, as well as her clan known as the Omatikaya.\n\nAvatar: The Way of Water (2022)\nAvatar: The Way of Water was written and directed by James Cameron, The cast includes Sam Worthington, Zoë Saldaña, Joel David Moore, Sigourney Weaver, CCH Pounder, Stephen Lang, Giovanni Ribisi, Kate Winslet, Cliff Curtis, Trinity Bliss, Jamie Flatters, Britain Dalton, and Jack Champion, and was set 13 years after the first film in the year 2009.\nSet over a decade after the events of the first film, The Way of Water focuses on the return of the RDA, which prompts Jake's family to seek refuge in the water regions of Pandora in an effort to keep one another safe. Cameron said in an interview that while the first film was about the \"awe and wonder\", the sequel focuses more on the characters. The film was originally planned for a December 2014 release, but was delayed several times and released on December 16, 2022. Production began in August 2017. It wrapped in September 2020.\n\nAvatar: Fire and Ash (2025)\nA third film is planned for release on December 19, 2025. Interviews in mid-2010 suggested that the third film would explore more of the Alpha Centauri system, but the script was not completed until late 2015. Fire and Ash started shooting simultaneously with The Way of Water in New Zealand on September 25, 2017; filming was completed in late December 2020. The film will introduce a new aggressive Na'vi clan known as 'Ash People' who reside near volcanoes. Cameron stated that Avatar: The Seed Bearer is being considered as a possible title for the film, but Landau debunked the rumor in December 2023.\n\nAvatar 4 (2029)\nA fourth film is planned for release on December 21, 2029. Jon Landau said that, due to a six-year time skip in the first act, a third of Avatar 4 has already been filmed to account for the aging of the child actors, and on September 9, 2022, it was announced at the D23 Expo that principal photography had officially begun for Avatar 4. However in January 2024, Cameron said that he will not start filming the remainder of Avatar 4 until after the release of Avatar: Fire and Ash. Cameron stated that Avatar: The Tulkun Rider is being considered as a possible title for the film.\n\nAvatar 5 (2031)\nA fifth and tentatively final film has been announced and is scheduled for December 19, 2031. Jon Landau stated that part of Avatar 5 will take place on Earth, with Neytiri visiting the planet. Cameron stated that Avatar: The Quest for Eywa is being considered as a possible title for the film.\n\nFuture\nIn December 2022, Cameron revealed that he has plans for a sixth and seventh film, expressing his willingness to create them if there is sufficient demand. In February 2024, Cameron confirmed his intentions for these two follow-up films and stated that he would likely pass the baton off to another director.\n\nCast and characters\nProduction details\nReception\nBox office performance\nThe first film grossed $2.92 billion worldwide and is the highest-grossing film in history. The second film, The Way of Water, has grossed $2.32 billion worldwide and currently ranks as the third highest-grossing film. The third, fourth, and fifth films in the series are expected to have a budget of $250 million.\n\nCritical and public response\nAccolades\nMusic\nAvatar (Music from the Motion Picture) was scored by James Horner and released on December 15, 2009, by Atlantic Records and Fox Music.\nAvatar: The Way of Water (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was scored by Simon Franglen and released on December 15, 2022, by Hollywood Records.\nAvatar: Frontiers of Pandora (Original Game Soundtrack) was scored by Pinar Toprak and released on December 8, 2023, by Lakeshore Records.\n\nSingles\n\"I See You (Theme from Avatar)\"\n\"Nothing Is Lost (You Give Me Strength)\"\n\nOther media\nVideo games\nNovels\nFollowing the release of Avatar, Cameron initially planned to write a novel based on the film, \"telling the story of the movie, but [going] into much more depth about all the stories that we didn't have time to deal with.\"\nIn 2013, this plan was superseded by the announcement of four new novels set within the \"Avatar expanded universe\", to be written by Steven Gould. The books were due to be published by Penguin Random House, although since 2017, but there has been no update on the planned book series.\nIn July 2022, the first graphic novel based on the Avatar franchise was announced.\n\nBooks\nThe Art of Avatar is a film production art book released on November 30, 2009, by Abrams Books.\nThe World of Avatar: A Visual Exploration Is a book that celebrates, explores, and explains the spectacular world of Pandora. The book was released on May 31, 2022, by DK Books\nThe Art of Avatar The Way of Water takes an exclusive look behind-the-scenes on the production and creative process of James Cameron's Avatar: The Way of Water. It was released on December 16, 2022, by DK Books\nAvatar The Way of Water The Visual Dictionary is a visual guide that showcases characters, vehicles, weapons, locations, and more from the movie, as well as many stunning exclusive details. This book was released on December 16, 2022, by DK Books\n\nComic books\nIn October 2015, Dark Horse Comics signed a 10-year partnership to publish Avatar comics.\nOn May 6, 2017, Dark Horse Comics published a Free Comic Book Day one-shot entitled FCBD 2017: James Cameron's Avatar / Briggs Land, which included a short story set in the world of Avatar entitled \"Brothers\".\nFrom January to August 2019, Dark Horse published a six-issue miniseries called Avatar: Tsu'tey's Path.\nTsu'tey's Path was collected in trade paperback format on November 27, 2019, with \"Brothers\" included as supplementary material.\n\nCollected editions\nLive show\nToruk – The First Flight is an original stage production by the Montreal-based Cirque du Soleil which ran between December 2015 and June 2019. Inspired by Avatar, the story is set in Pandora's past, involving a prophecy concerning a threat to the Tree of Souls and a quest for totems from different tribes. Audience members could download an app in order to participate in show effects. On January 18, 2016, it was announced via the Toruk Facebook page that filming for a DVD release had been completed and was undergoing editing.\n\nExhibition\nAvatar The Exhibition is a touring exhibition based on the first film. It opened in Chengdu, China on May 1, 2021, and closed on December 31, 2021. It is currently touring Asia with future stops planned around the globe.\n\nTheme park attractions\nPandora: World of Avatar\nIn 2011, Cameron, Lightstorm, and Fox entered an exclusive licensing agreement with The Walt Disney Company to feature Avatar-themed attractions at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts worldwide, including a themed land for Disney's Animal Kingdom in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. The area, known as Pandora – The World of Avatar, opened on May 27, 2017. The themed land is set generations after the events of the films and features two attractions: Avatar Flight of Passage, a flying simulator attraction, and Na'vi River Journey, a boat dark ride.\n\nAvatar Land\nIn February 2023, Disney CEO Bob Iger announced that a new attraction based on the Avatar films, named the Avatar Experience, would open at Disneyland. In August 2024, it was announced that the Avatar land will be built at Disney California Adventure. The land will be inspired by The Way of Water (2022), its upcoming sequel Fire and Ash (2025), and future Avatar films.\n\nCultural considerations\nSome indigenous groups, including Native Americans, have called for a boycott of the franchise over \"tone-deaf\" handling of indigenous cultures and cultural appropriation. Both Avatar films have drawn criticism for casting several white and other non-indigenous actors in the roles of the alien native people. Cameron said he tried to move away from a white savior narrative. The film series was criticized for \"romanticization of colonization\" and putting forward a monolithic portrayal of Indigenous people.\nCameron faced criticism for comments made after the release of the first film. In 2010, Cameron and Avatar actors supported the Xingu peoples in opposing the construction of the Belo Monte Dam.\nIn 2012, Cameron said Avatar is a fictional retelling of the history of North and South America in the early Colonial period, \"with all its conflict and bloodshed between the military aggressors from Europe and the indigenous peoples\".\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "Avatar_(franchise)"
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] | What date did the Lego Avatar theme debut? How many years are there between the release of the original movie and the release of the Lego theme? | [] | The debut date was October 1st, 2022. It debuted 13 years after the release of the movie. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Mark William Calaway (born March 24, 1965), better known by his ring name The Undertaker, is an American retired professional wrestler. Widely regarded as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time, Calaway spent the vast majority of his career wrestling for WWE and in 2022 was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame.\nCalaway began his career in 1987, working under various gimmicks for World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) and other affiliate promotions. He signed with World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in 1989 for a brief stint, and then joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in 1990.\nCalaway rebranded himself as \"The Undertaker\" when he joined the WWF. As one of WWE's most high-profile and enduring characters, The Undertaker is famed for his undead, funereal, macabre \"Deadman\" persona, which gained significant mainstream popularity and won him the Wrestling Observer Newsletter award for Best Gimmick a record-setting 5 years in a row. He is the longest-tenured wrestler in company history at 30 years. In 2000, the Undertaker adopted a biker identity nicknamed \"American Badass\". Calaway resurrected the Deadman gimmick in 2004, with residual elements of the \"American Badass\" remaining.\nFor the better part of his career, the Undertaker was observed as a focal point of WWE's flagship annual event, WrestleMania, where he became esteemed for The Streak — a series of 21 straight victories, and headlined the event five times (13, 24, 26, 33 and 36). He is also known for pairing with his in-storyline half-brother Kane, with whom he alternatively feuded and teamed (as the Brothers of Destruction) from 1997 through 2020. During his wrestling career under the Undertaker gimmick, Calaway won the WWF/E Championship four times, the World Heavyweight Championship three times, the Hardcore Championship once and the World Tag Team Championship six times. He also won the Royal Rumble match in 2007.\n\nEarly life\nMark William Calaway was born in Houston, Texas, on March 24, 1965, the son of Frank Compton Calaway (died July 2003) and Betty Catherine Truby. He has four older brothers named David, Michael, Paul, and Timothy (died March 2020, age 63). He attended Waltrip High School, where he was a member of the football and basketball teams. He graduated in 1983 and began studying on a basketball scholarship at Angelina College in Lufkin, Texas. In 1985, he enrolled in Texas Wesleyan University in Fort Worth, Texas, where he majored in sport management and played as a center for the Rams in the 1985–1986 season. In 1986, Calaway dropped out of university to focus on a career in sports and briefly considered playing professional basketball in Europe, before deciding to focus on professional wrestling.\n\nProfessional wrestling career\nEarly career (1987–1989)\nCalaway began training under Buzz Sawyer in late 1986; he disliked Sawyer, who reportedly lacked commitment and provided a limited education. Calaway learned \"on the job\" thereafter. Performing under a mask as Texas Red, Calaway wrestled his first match on June 26, 1987, for World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW), losing to Bruiser Brody at the Dallas Sportatorium. He was accompanied to the ring by Percival \"Percy\" Pringle III, who would later serve as his manager in the WWF as Paul Bearer. Two myths have circulated regarding Calaway's beginnings in the industry, the first being that he made his in-ring debut in 1984, and the second being that he was trained by former WCCW colleague Don Jardine (aka The Spoiler). While never trained by Jardine, Calaway was an admirer of his work and would emulate Jardine's top rope walk. PWInsider's Mike Johnson stated, \"Undertaker using some of Jardine's style eventually morphed into this story that he was trained by Jardine.\"\nHe wrestled in Durban, South Africa on August 22, 1987, as \"Texas Red Jack\", losing to Tiger Singh. He would also wrestle in prison shows under the name Boris Dragu, a Russian grave digger.\nIn 1988, Calaway developed a military gimmick named The Commando. Under this persona, he mainly wrestled in the Chicago area for Central Illinois Wrestling. He would also have a brief stint in Georgia for Southern Championship Wrestling.\nBy the end of 1988, Calaway joined the Continental Wrestling Association, wrestling under several gimmicks. On February 2, 1989, managed by Dutch Mantel, he was reintroduced as The Master of Pain, a former murderer. On April 1, The Master of Pain won his first professional wrestling championship by defeating Jerry Lawler for the USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion. Just over three weeks had passed when Lawler became the first man to pin him, giving it back to him. While performing as The Punisher upon returning to Dallas, Calaway won the USWA Texas Heavyweight Championship on October 5, 1989, when Eric Embry forfeited the title.\n\nWorld Championship Wrestling (1989–1990)\nBy the end of 1989, Calaway joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as a villain and adopted the ring name \"Mean Mark\" Callous, a name devised for him by Terry Funk. He was portrayed as a sinister force, wearing predominantly black ring attire and was described by commentator Jim Ross as having a fondness for pet snakes and the music of Ozzy Osbourne. Callous was promptly drafted into The Skyscrapers tag team to replace a legitimately injured Sid Vicious, and made his debut on January 3, 1990, in a match later televised against Agent Steel and Randy Harris. The new team gained some notoriety at Clash of the Champions X when they beat down The Road Warriors after their match. However, Callous's partner Dan Spivey left WCW days before their Chicago Street Fight against the Road Warriors at WrestleWar. Callous and a replacement masked Skyscraper were defeated in the street fight and the team broke up soon afterwards. Now a singles wrestler, Callous took on the guidance of Paul E. Dangerously (Paul Heyman).\nCalaway later began to question his future in WCW after being told by company booker, Ole Anderson, during contract renewal discussions that nobody would ever pay money to watch him perform. It was in response to this that Calaway made numerous efforts to join the World Wrestling Federation, going to many lengths to land a meeting with Vince McMahon. However, accessing and securing an interview with McMahon was described by Calaway as a despairing task.\nAmong routes Calaway took to land a meeting with McMahon was trying to convince individuals acquainted with McMahon or already existing WWF talent to recommend him into the WWF, such as Hulk Hogan, Paul Heyman, and Bruce Prichard, crediting the latter two for arranging the meeting at McMahon's mansion.\nCalaway immediately gave notice to WCW before the interview took place. McMahon initially declined to hire Calaway; however, several days later the owner pitched the idea an \"Old West Undertaker,\" a concept he had intended to create for several years but had never found an appropriate wrestler to play the part.\nCalaway's final WCW match was on September 7 at a WorldWide taping in Amarillo, Texas in which he defeated Dave Johnson. During his time in WCW, Calaway briefly wrestled in New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) as \"Punisher\" Dice Morgan. After leaving WCW, he briefly returned to the USWA to participate in a tournament to determine the new USWA Unified World Heavyweight Champion; Calaway defeated Bill Dundee in the first round, but lost to Jerry Lawler in the quarterfinals.\n\nWorld Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE\nDebut of The Undertaker (1990–1991)\nIn October 1990, Calaway signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), set to portray the \"brainchild\" of McMahon that he had assigned to him, originally entitled Kane the Undertaker (\"Kane\" later added on to \"the Undertaker\" moniker by the time of his arrival at the urgings of Bruce Prichard, who had always desired a Cain and Abel effect for his character). Despite Calaway's perplexed, pessimistic feelings about McMahon's gimmick idea, he was readily accepting of the role, feeling anything better than the laughingstock gimmicks of that time, such as The Gobbledy Gooker. Kane the Undertaker was characterized as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers depicted in television westerns. Resulting from that, this first edition of the Undertaker's series of Deadman incarnations has been distinguished in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\". He made his overall WWF debut on a November 19, 1990, taping of WWF Superstars quickly defeating his first opponent, Mario Mancini, in a singles match (this match was filmed three days prior to the Undertaker's televised debut at the November 22 Survivor Series, but did not air on television until December 15, 1990). Also prior to his Survivor Series appearance, Kane the Undertaker had a match on November 20 against Rick Sampson, which later aired on the December 9, 1990 episode of WWF Wrestling Challenge.\nCalaway's official televised debut was the Survivor Series event in which he was presented as the heel mystery partner of Ted DiBiase's \"Million Dollar Team\". Approximately one minute into the match, the Undertaker eliminated Koko B. Ware with his finisher, the Tombstone Piledriver. (In 2018, Koko B. Ware shared that directly following this match that night, he confronted the Undertaker with serious objections to what he felt was a botched Tombstone. Though Ware also shared that he always admired Mark Calaway and perceived him as a great performer). During the match, the Undertaker also eliminated Dusty Rhodes before being counted out; however, his team won the match with DiBiase being the sole survivor. During the match, Calaway was referred to as simply the Undertaker, omitting the portion \"Kane\", which was dropped shortly after the event (and seven years later at the urgings of Prichard, given to another wrestler once he took on the role of the Undertaker's younger brother). Throughout the end of 1990, the Undertaker mostly picked up squash victories against jobbers on Superstars of Wrestling and Wrestling Challenge tapings. He was a participant in the 1991 Royal Rumble match which was won by Hulk Hogan.\nIn February 1991, Brother Love delegated his short-lived management role of the Undertaker over to Paul Bearer (real-life funeral director), Love communicating the need for someone who better aligned with the Undertaker's \"deadman\" themes. Histrionic, wailing and ghostly in character, Bearer complemented the Undertaker and was almost always seen bearing an urn which he raised in the air to transmit supernatural healing powers to the Undertaker; this typically resulted in the Undertaker recovering from attacks and counterattacking his adversaries. During his early years, the Undertaker took to a post-match ritual of placing his defeated opponents (almost always jobbers) in a body bag and carrying them backstage. He continued picking up victories in squash matches leading up to his first feud in the WWF with \"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka.\n\nWWF Champion and beginning of The Streak (1991–1994)\nThe Undertaker made his WrestleMania debut at WrestleMania VII on March 24, 1991, quickly defeating \"Superfly\" Jimmy Snuka. He began his first major feud shortly thereafter, which was with The Ultimate Warrior when The Undertaker attacked him and locked him in an airtight casket on the set of Paul Bearer's Funeral Parlor segment. Resulting from this, the Warrior enlisted the assistance of Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts to get him mentally psyched for The Undertaker's morbid alarmist tactics: Roberts would drill the Warrior with \"know your enemy\" training, setting up the Warrior in a series of creepy, terrorizing circumstances, such as by locking him in caskets and in rooms with snakes. This culminated in a final stage of Roberts's training in which Roberts proved to be stringing Warrior along the entire time by assisting The Undertaker in an ambush. The Undertaker would later suffer his first losses in the WWF to The Ultimate Warrior, including in a first ever body bag challenge, a casket match, and (at house show) standard pin-fall match. The feud was, however, cut short after the Warrior's suspension and ongoing issues with Vince McMahon. In the 1991 King of the Ring, Undertaker defeated Animal in a qualifying match before fighting Sid Vicious to a double disqualification in the semifinal, which saw both men eliminated from the King of the Ring tournament.\nThe Undertaker defeated Hulk Hogan to win his first WWF Championship at Survivor Series with the help of Ric Flair and thus became the youngest WWF Champion in history to that point, 26 years of age—this record was later broken by Yokozuna in April 1993 at WrestleMania IX. The Undertaker's Tombstone of Hogan to win the WWF Championship at the 1991 Survivor Series created real-life, offscreen discord between the two, which Undertaker attributes his short title reign, lack of title runs during his early career and distrust of Hogan. In storyline, however, WWF President Jack Tunney ordered a rematch between the two at This Tuesday in Texas six days later, where The Undertaker lost the title back to Hogan. However, due to the controversial endings of the two title matches between The Undertaker and Hogan, the title was vacated from Hogan the next night by Tunney. The company was without a WWF Champion until Ric Flair earned it by winning the 1992 Royal Rumble match.\nIn February 1992, The Undertaker's ally Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts tried to attack \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage's manager/wife Miss Elizabeth with a steel chair when Undertaker stopped him, turning him (and Paul Bearer) face for the first time. Their face turn was solidified on the February 29 episode of Superstars when Roberts confronted The Undertaker on the Funeral Parlor set over the matter (aired on Saturday Night's Main Event XXX). After demanding to know whose side The Undertaker was on and getting the reply, \"Not yours\", Roberts attacked both Bearer and The Undertaker, only for The Undertaker to stand his ground and run Roberts off. The Undertaker defeated Roberts at WrestleMania VIII. He then feuded extensively with wrestlers managed by Harvey Wippleman throughout 1992 and 1993, such as Kamala and Giant González. Also during this time, The Undertaker headlined the debut episode of Monday Night Raw on January 11, 1993, with a victory over Damien Demento. According to Calaway, working with González \"...was survival every night trying to figure out what he could do\" and \"took years off my career\". He faced González at WrestleMania IX, which is notable as The Undertaker's only disqualification win at WrestleMania after the use of chloroform. The Undertaker's next rivalry initiated at Survivor Series with Yokozuna when a clash between the two lost control, causing them to be counted out in an elimination tag match. In the weeks following, The Undertaker and Bearer spooked Yokozuna with multiple segments from their wintery and remote rural area workshop. There, Bearer presented The Undertaker hard at work carpentering Yokozuna what would eventually become a \"double wide, double deep casket\" custom-built for Yokozuna's immensely overweight size. The feud culminated in a WWF Championship casket match at the Royal Rumble in January 1994. During the match, Yokozuna sealed The Undertaker in the casket with the assistance of a multitude of heel wrestlers (some of them Whippleman-managed) hired by Yokozuna's vindictive managers Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji, which was in retaliation for Bearer's casket match stipulation that he snuck into their Royal Rumble match contract. After being trapped inside the casket by the pack, green vapor emitted from the casket and the arena lights went out. Undertaker then appeared from inside the casket on the video screen, representing the spirit of his dead corpse, warning that he would produce a future \"rebirth\" of himself, explaining to his antagonists that he cannot and will not Rest in Peace. The Undertaker did not appear in the WWF for seven months after his loss to Yokozuna. In reality, he was given time off to allow a back injury to heal.\n\nRebirthed Deadman (1994–1996)\nFollowing the death angle at the Royal Rumble during The Undertaker's absence, the WWF promoted reported sightings of him through video clips of random people claiming to have seen him. After WrestleMania X, Ted DiBiase introduced an Undertaker back to the WWF. This Undertaker, however, played by Brian Lee (one of Calaway's real-life best friends) was an impostor Undertaker (dubbed \"The Underfaker\" by fans) rejuvenated by Dibiase's money rather than Bearer's urn. His actions led to the return of the real Undertaker at SummerSlam, defeating the impostor and appearing as a reincarnation of his Deadman gimmick, one of a more shadowy, mysterious and secret presence. Represented now by cool colors, The Undertaker replaced details of his wrestling gear that were previously colored gray with purple, and effected scenes with blue/purple semidarkness. Many details that would become associated with The Undertaker for the remainder of his career were produced during this rebirth incarnation, such as the addition of sleeve tattoos and Godlike supernatural elements (thunder, lightning and windy weather-like effects used to indicate The Undertaker's presence and wrath).\nSeeking retribution, The Undertaker revisited his feud with Yokozuna and eventually faced him in a casket rematch at Survivor Series. Chuck Norris (portraying his Walker, Texas Ranger persona) was involved in the match as special guest enforcer, preventing interference from wrestlers that Yokozuna, Jim Cornette and Mr. Fuji had again enlisted for help. Unable to rely on much as far as interference this time around (only Irwin R. Schyster able to get in a brief ambush) due to Norris averting the attempts of several heel wrestlers, Yokozuna was defeated by The Undertaker and sealed in the casket. Throughout most of 1995, Undertaker feuded with members of Ted DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation. The chain of wrestlers DiBiase enlisted to do away with The Undertaker started with Irwin R. Schyster at the Royal Rumble for which The Undertaker was victorious, but assaulted by another member of the Million Dollar Team, King Kong Bundy. While being assaulted, Bearer was deprived of his urn by the Corporation. At WrestleMania XI, The Undertaker made short work of Bundy in a singles match. This edition of WrestleMania included the first mention of The Undertaker's historic WrestleMania-winning Streak, acknowledged on commentary by Vince McMahon as Undertaker made his entrance: \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania.\" During The Undertaker's WrestleMania encounter, DiBiase issued him with yet another antagonist in \"The Supreme Fighting Machine\" Kama, who had stolen the briefly recaptured urn from Bearer during the match. Kama followed this up with a series of malicious acts, including destroying the stolen urn and recycling it into bling. While sporting the flashy bling around his neck, he repeatedly cost The Undertaker matches and attacked diehard Undertaker fans, dubbed \"Creatures of the Night\". In August, Undertaker settled the score with Kama, defeating him in a casket match at SummerSlam. Several weeks later, Undertaker suffered a serious orbital bone injury when King Mabel unintentionally struck him in the eye with his fist during a house show, forcing The Undertaker into a period of absence for surgery. Due to the incident happening at a house show, Vince McMahon had it presented to the audience as though it had occurred from Mabel and Yokozuna's exchange of leg drops and splashes on The Undertaker on the Monday Night Raw that had aired 2 days prior. The Undertaker returned a couple months later at Survivor Series, in which he single-handedly eliminated an entire team of wrestlers led by King Mabel, The Undertaker leading his own team to victory. It was at that Survivor Series return in which he began wearing a Phantom of the Opera-like, gray upper-face mask to safeguard his orbital injury while it healed. The following month in December, The Undertaker defeated Mabel in a casket match at In Your House, retrieving the urn, which had been traded between several of The Undertaker's antagonists over the course of the year.\nIn the main event of the Royal Rumble in January 1996, The Undertaker was unmasked of his Phantom of the Opera-like facial covering in a WWF Championship match against Bret Hart. The Undertaker was eventually able to hit the Tombstone Piledriver on Hart, but Diesel interfered, costing The Undertaker the championship. A rematch for the title on the February 5 episode of Raw saw similar interference. At that month's In Your House: Rage in the Cage, while Diesel was facing Hart in a steel cage match for the WWF Championship, The Undertaker delivered a surprise attack, emerging from a hole he had ripped through the ring canvas and dragging Diesel with him down under amid a cloud of smoke, allowing Hart the victory. After several weeks of more retaliatory one-upmanship between Diesel and The Undertaker, their feud culminated in a singles match at WrestleMania XII, where Undertaker was victorious.\nThe Undertaker's next feud commenced the next night on Raw when Mankind, a twisted and tortured soul, made his debut and randomly interfered in Undertaker's match against Justin \"Hawk\" Bradshaw. For the next few months, Mankind viciously ambushed The Undertaker and cost him multiple matches. Among them, Mankind cost The Undertaker the WWF Intercontinental Championship by interfering in his casket match against Goldust at In Your House 8: Beware of Dog. In interfering in this match, Mankind proved to have mystifying horror tactic capabilities that matched The Undertaker's, mysteriously appearing from inside the casket and sealing The Undertaker inside. The Undertaker, however, had vanished amid a cloud of smoke once the casket lid was opened. As a result of the interference and repeated ambushes from Mankind on The Undertaker throughout the ensuing weeks, The Undertaker and Mankind competed in their first on-screen bout at the 1996 King of the Ring, a heated encounter in which The Undertaker presented as uncharacteristically intense. During the match, Bearer inadvertently hit The Undertaker with the urn, allowing Mankind to incapacitate The Undertaker with his finisher, the Mandible Claw, and score the win. With Mankind insatiably continuing to cost The Undertaker matches even following their King of the Ring encounter, The Undertaker began firing back with rage and the feud spiraled out of control: the two routinely interrupted other matches already in progress, battling each other at random intervals outside of having arranged matches—their chaos also spilling into audiences, arena backstage communal areas, and arena boiler rooms, all of this unprecedented at the time. As a result, the first ever Boiler Room Brawl (Mankind's specialty match) was booked between the two at SummerSlam. After more than 20 minutes of brawling with Mankind in the Cleveland Gund Arena's boiler room, the arena corridors, the SummerSlam entrance area and aisleway to the ring, The Undertaker reached for Paul Bearer's urn in an attempt to win the match, but Bearer struck him with it, betraying The Undertaker. This followed with Bearer allowing Mankind to take hold of the urn, thus winning this match. According to Paul Bearer in shoot interviews the WWF wanted Bearer to betray him during that match because it was a storyline that Kane was coming and they wanted The Undertaker to get ready for the angle with Kane the following year by having Bearer turn on him. After Bearer's betrayal, The Undertaker grew more aggressive, resolving his feud against Goldust (Mankind's comrade in tormenting The Undertaker) at In Your House 10: Mind Games. The Undertaker then took his rivalry with Mankind to new lengths in a specialty match of his own, and at that time unprecedented Buried Alive match to take place in the main event of In Your House 11: Buried Alive. The Undertaker won the match after chokeslamming Mankind into the open grave and subsequently shoveling enough dirt on him so that he was covered. However, after interference from the debuting Executioner, as well as the help of several other heel wrestlers apparently enlisted by Bearer, Mankind escaped the grave and together the mob all shoveled dirt onto The Undertaker to the point that the grave was completely filled, resulting in The Undertaker fully buried alive. Not without a parting message for the pack, however, The Undertaker's purple glove fit hand emerged from his burying place amid a bolt of lightning that had erupted over the gravesite. The scene sent all of his antagonists fleeing.\n\nLord of Darkness (1996–1998)\nAfter being buried alive and a following month-long hiatus, The Undertaker returned at the Survivor Series again pitting him against Mankind, but with a unique stipulation: Hanging 6.1 m (20 ft) above the ring would be Paul Bearer, enclosed in a steel cage. And if The Undertaker were to win the match, he would be rewarded the opportunity to assault Bearer however he pleased. Even though The Undertaker won this match, interference from The Executioner enabled Bearer to escape Undertaker's clutches. It was also at this event that The Undertaker had developed a comparatively more humanized and more informal yet still superhuman \"Deadman\" incarnation. In this then new form, he took on a Goth appearance and persona, with a brash, rebelling, Championship-driven mean streak (perhaps to better fit in with the then-budding, more adult-oriented Attitude Era). This delivering, dubbed \"The Lord of Darkness\", was the 3rd incarnation of his Deadman persona. Following Survivor Series, The Undertaker briefly turned his attention to The Executioner, who had been interfering in his matches since his arrival. At In Your House 12: It's Time, The Undertaker defeated The Executioner in an Armageddon Rules match even with Mankind heavily involved throughout the entire encounter. The Undertaker then moved on to feud with Vader, whom he faced in January 1997 at the Royal Rumble in a singles match, which The Undertaker lost after Bearer interfered on behalf of his new protégé. The two then clashed in the Royal Rumble match itself as they made it to the final moments of the match, but both were eliminated by Stone Cold Steve Austin, who had crept back into the match after his elimination was unseen. He faced both Vader and Austin in a four-corners elimination match for the vacant WWF Championship at In Your House 13: Final Four, but Bret Hart won. However, the following month, The Undertaker managed to win the WWF Championship for the second time by defeating Sycho Sid at WrestleMania 13. Reviving his first Deadman incarnation for that night only, The Undertaker appeared as the \"Old West Mortician\", donning the trademarked gray wrestling gear accessories (boot spats, tie, gloves), along with a pitch-black entrance with only a white spotlight shined over him, contrasted from the purple/blue semidarkness associated with the rest of his Deadman incarnations.\nFollowing his WWF Championship win at WrestleMania 13, Paul Bearer attempted to rejoin The Undertaker as his manager. After The Undertaker refused and attacked Bearer, Bearer had Mankind set a fireball to the Undertaker's face, leading up to a match at In Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker, for which The Undertaker was victorious. Evening the score at \"Revenge of the 'Taker\", The Undertaker set a fireball to Bearer's face directly following the match. Following the event, Bearer bandaged up from fire burns, likened The Undertaker's assault to a past incident he described as The Undertaker's \"deepest, darkest secret\". Through giving The Undertaker the ultimatum of revealing his deepest, darkest secret to the world, Bearer was able to reunite with him as manager and protégé. After only a few months of abrasive behaviors from Bearer, however, The Undertaker lost his patience and rejected Bearer as his manager. In retaliation, Bearer disclosed that The Undertaker had intentionally killed his family by burning down his parents' family funeral home for which they raised him and his younger brother. (Note that the younger brother, Kane, was not revealed to be The Undertaker's half-brother until the following year, April 1998, when Bearer disclosed to the world that he is Kane's father, The Undertaker's mother having had an affair with him. Bearer later verified this with DNA test results). At this point in his career, The Undertaker denied the charges of committing the arson murder that killed his family; however, Bearer claimed to have proof in the form of The Undertaker's alive and well younger brother, Kane, who had survived though scarred and burned. Bearer raised Kane after the fire, having him institutionalized from the date of the fire into adulthood. Ever since the fire, Kane had been awaiting to exact vengeance on his older half-brother. In defense, Undertaker responded that Kane, a \"pyromaniac\", had been the one to set the fire and, as a result, could not have possibly even survived. (Note that it would not be until a year and a half later from this point, in latter 1998, in which The Undertaker would shamelessly confess to intentional acts of arson to the funeral home that killed his parents and scarred his brother).\n\nIn spite of Bearer projecting himself as a constant source of mental distress to The Undertaker during his Championship title reign, The Undertaker managed to secure successful title defenses against Stone Cold Steve Austin (A Cold Day In Hell: In Your House), Faarooq (King of the Ring) and Vader (Canadian Stampede: In Your House, revisiting and settling their Royal Rumble feud from earlier on in the year), respectively. Concurrent to the \"deep, dark secret\" storyline directed by Bearer, Undertaker began a then new rivalry at SummerSlam when special guest referee Shawn Michaels accidentally hit him with a steel chair shot intended for his archnemesis Bret Hart, in effect, costing The Undertaker the WWF Championship. The accidental chair shot led to Michaels feeling betrayed by the now booing WWF fans, and quickly becoming heel. Thus, a severely violent storyline with The Undertaker followed, one revolving around repeated intentional chair shots by Michaels on the Undertaker, Michaels taunting The Undertaker throughout. After the duo's first match, which was a chaotic and uncontrolled encounter that resulted in a double count-out draw at Ground Zero: In Your House, Undertaker challenged Michaels to the first ever Hell in a Cell match to take place at Badd Blood: In Your House. Despite the inclusion of the cell for more order and to prevent Michaels from receiving help from his D-Generation X stable, the encounter ended up even more uncontrolled and savage than their first and is considered one of The Undertaker's best matches of his career. Seemingly about to emerge the victor after striking Michaels with a chair shot of his own, The Undertaker was interrupted by his storyline half-brother Kane, finally making his debut. Under the control of Paul Bearer, Kane stormed the arena, ripped off the cell door, and laid out a nonplussed Undertaker with his own trademarked finisher, The Tombstone Piledriver, allowing Michaels to pin him for the victory. As the storyline progressed through Bearer having Kane mow down much of the WWF roster, Kane repeatedly challenged The Undertaker, going to lengths of tormenting and humiliating him. However, The Undertaker consistently refused to fight his half-brother, claiming he had made a vow to his parents never to do harm to his own \"flesh and blood\". The Undertaker's final encounter with Michaels during this chapter of his career was in a casket match for the WWF Championship at the Royal Rumble. The week before on Raw, Kane had duplicitously presented as allying with his brother against Michaels's D-Generation X stable; however, at the Royal Rumble, Kane trapped The Undertaker in the coffin, padlocked the lid shut, and set the casket ablaze, allowing Michaels another victory. After a two-month hiatus in which Kane wreaked havoc over the WWF, The Undertaker returned on the March 2, 1998 episode of Raw in a most notable resurrection—his druids interrupting Kane and Bearer by presenting them with a coffin on the entrance stage amid a large number of bell tolls. The coffin was struck and dismantled by a lightning bolt, revealing a lied out Undertaker who sat up in a fury state and challenged Kane to do battle with him. At WrestleMania XIV in their first match, The Undertaker defeated Kane. Kane challenged Undertaker to a rematch—Kane's specialty and first ever Inferno match—that occurred one month later at Unforgiven: In Your House. The Undertaker won the encounter by setting Kane's right arm on fire.\nThe Undertaker and Mankind's wildly violent, outlandish feud from over a year previous to this point was revitalized over the next month, ultimately taken to a new graphic height and decisively resolved when they faced each other in a Hell in a Cell match at King of the Ring. The match became one of the most famous matches in professional wrestling history. During the match, the Undertaker threw Mankind off the roof of the 4.9 m (16 ft) cell onto a broadcast table below, in what was a preplanned move. He later performed a chokeslam on Mankind through the roof of the cell into the ring, which was not preplanned and legitimately knocked Mankind unconscious. In jumping from the top of the cell to the ring canvas, The Undertaker suffered a broken ankle. Escalating as things progressed, blood flowed from both wrestlers as they attacked each other with steel steps, chairs, the cell wall, etc. Topping that off, Mankind introduced multitudes of thumbtacks scattered across the ring canvas but was back body dropped on them, and subsequently chokeslammed onto them before The Undertaker won the match with his Tombstone Piledriver. At Fully Loaded: In Your House, the Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Kane and Mankind to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. The Undertaker and Austin's reign as tag team champions lasted only two weeks, as Kane and Mankind regained the titles from them in a fatal four-way tag-team match on the August 10 episode of Raw. The Undertaker then became the number one contender for the WWF Championship, held by Austin at that point, for a match at SummerSlam. Shortly before SummerSlam and after much speculation, The Undertaker finally disclosed that he and his half-brother were working together. Despite this revelation, The Undertaker told Kane before his SummerSlam bout that he did not want him interfering, even sending Kane away during the match itself when he appeared. Even though The Undertaker lost the match at SummerSlam, he handed Austin his championship belt back after the match with a show of respect and sportsmanship.\nIn September as the storyline matured however, The Undertaker subtly began showing some heel characteristics, becoming a tweener. This began when he and Kane revealed the fact that they were in cahoots to rid Austin of his title for villainous company owner Mr. McMahon—Austin and McMahon immersed in a bitter rivalry during this era. At Breakdown: In Your House, The Undertaker and Kane were booked in a triple threat match with Austin for the WWF Championship, in which McMahon stated that the brothers were not allowed to pin each other. The Undertaker and Kane pinned Austin simultaneously after a double chokeslam, ending the match in a no contest, so the title was vacated by McMahon. This event led to a match at Judgment Day: In Your House between The Undertaker and Kane for the title, with Austin as the special guest referee. Near the end of the match, Paul Bearer seemed about to assist Kane by handing him a steel chair to hit The Undertaker with, but as Kane had his back turned, both Bearer and The Undertaker hit Kane with chair shots. The Undertaker went for the pin, but Austin refused to count the fall, attacked The Undertaker and counted out both of them. Finally the next night on Raw, The Undertaker reconciled with Bearer and claimed that he and Bearer would unleash their \"Ministry of Darkness\" on the WWF, turning heel for the first time since 1992. As part of the then new storyline angle, The Undertaker admitted that he had indeed intentionally set the fire that killed his parents and scarred Kane, for which he had previously blamed on Kane.\n\nMinistry of Darkness Deadman (1998–1999)\nAfter Survivor Series, The Undertaker returned his attention to his previous feud with Austin for costing him the title at Judgment Day, hitting Austin in the head with a shovel during a title match with The Rock on the November 16 episode of Raw, returning the favor for what happened a month earlier. With this twist in the storyline, Mr. McMahon scheduled a Buried Alive match between The Undertaker and Austin at Rock Bottom: In Your House. In the weeks leading up to Rock Bottom, The Undertaker attempted to embalm Austin alive, tried to have Kane committed to a mental asylum, and had his druids chain Austin to an immense structure of his Undertaker crucifix-like logo (which took the appearance of a capital T combined X) before having that structure lifted up on high into the air. However, The Undertaker lost the Buried Alive match to Austin at Rock Bottom after Kane interfered.\nAfter the buildup to his second heel run in the latter part of 1998, The Undertaker introduced an updated version of his Deadman identity by January 1999—a dark priest-like character who in the initial period of this persona reigned over a stable known as The Ministry of Darkness. In this form, he took on a wicked, demonic presence, much more so than ever before. He often proclaimed to be invoking and taking orders from a \"Higher Power\". Moreover, he often appeared in a hooded black robe and sat on a throne with a towering backrest specially designed into his crucifix-like logo. With the help of his minions, he often performed sacrifices on select WWF wrestlers, using various incantations and magic words with intent to extract out the dark side of the wrestlers in question to recruit them into his Ministry. The completed Ministry of Darkness consisted of The Brood (Christian, Edge and Gangrel), The Acolytes (Bradshaw and Faarooq), Mideon and Viscera. Calaway himself did not wrestle for a period, having undergone a hip replacement. As part of the angle, Undertaker had his Ministry members fight his battles, carry out his evil wishes and do all his dirty deeds. In this manner, he expressed his desires to take over the World Wrestling Federation, displacing its owner, Mr. McMahon. These ambitions culminated into a rivalry between The Ministry and The Corporation, ultimately resulting in a match between Undertaker and Corporation enforcer, Big Boss Man. The two faced off in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XV, which Undertaker won. At Backlash: In Your House, Undertaker defeated Corporation member Ken Shamrock after interference from Ministry member Bradshaw.\nThereafter, The Undertaker kidnapped Stephanie McMahon, forcing Mr. McMahon to enter into a reluctant alliance with his longtime nemesis Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Undertaker attempted to marry Stephanie before sacrificing her in an eldritch ceremony conducted by Paul Bearer, but Austin was able to rescue her. At the Over the Edge pay-per-view, The Undertaker defeated Austin for his third WWF Championship with help from Shane McMahon, the special guest referee. The Ministry eventually merged with Shane McMahon's Corporation alliance to form The Corporate Ministry. The Undertaker later revealed that Mr. McMahon had been his \"Higher Power\" all along as a scheme against Austin. After The Undertaker lost the WWF Championship back to Austin on the Raw following King of the Ring and lost to him in a First Blood match at Fully Loaded, his relationship with the McMahons dissolved and The Corporate Ministry disbanded.\nThe Undertaker then began a storyline where he teamed with Big Show in a tag team known as \"The Unholy Alliance\", which held the WWF Tag Team Championship twice. After their victory at SummerSlam, The Undertaker suffered a groin tear and was seen limping in several matches. He avoided competing in wrestling matches in the following weeks, instead overbearingly ordering Big Show to fight his battles and do all his dirty deeds. Developing a comedy horror smart mouth during this time, elements of The Undertaker's trash-talking biker identity (that he would eventually introduce in 2000) began peeping out during this phase of his career. According to an interview with Kevin Nash, this was a move to allow Calaway to return to WCW with a non-trademarked persona; had he entered WCW, it would have been as Mark Calaway. According to Nash, although negotiations were described as close, Calaway ultimately re-signed with the WWF. Conversely, while on Steve Austin's Broken Skull Sessions podcast on November 22, 2020, Calaway revealed that there was no way he was ever going to rejoin WCW, that the gimmick's biker transition was just a matter of him mixing things up because he didn't feel the character's Deadman side properly fit with the then ongoing Attitude Era.\nTo compensate for his lack of physical activity, Undertaker became increasingly overbearing and vocal, often mouthing off with a weirdness and making sinisterly smart-aleck remarks in promos and on commentary. On the September 23, 1999, episode of SmackDown!, Mr. McMahon threatened that he would remove Undertaker from the Unforgiven main event if he refused to participate in a casket match against Triple H. Undertaker retorted that he did not care and maybe he would not be participating in anything WWF any longer, from there walking out on the WWF. In reality, Calaway went on a hiatus from the WWF in order to treat his groin injury. He made his return to action on December 14, teaming with Viscera in a losing effort against Kane and The Godfather at a house show in Coamo, Puerto Rico. The Undertaker was advertised on the Armageddon promotional poster to return, but meanwhile also tore his pectoral muscle, taking him out of action for almost eight months.\n\nAmerican Badass (2000–2001)\nIn May 2000, Calaway expanded on The Undertaker gimmick, returning under a human alter ego of the gimmick—a smack-talking, redneck biker, dubbed \"The American Badass\", known for motorcycle-riding, tobacco chewing/spitting, and donning a sporty appearance and manner. In stark contrast to his horror-themed and fully fictional Deadman persona, Calaway's Badass persona was only semifictional with traits and features adopted from who he is out of character—hence, why he desired to transform The Undertaker. While explained off screen years later for the above reasons, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it.\nWhen The Undertaker returned near the end of the iron man match for the WWF Championship between Triple H and The Rock at Judgment Day, he took out all the members of the McMahon-Helmsley Faction, which created for a face turn after having left things off as a heel before his hiatus. He also targeted their leader, then WWF Champion Triple H. At the King of the Ring pay-per-view, The Undertaker teamed with The Rock and Kane to defeat the team of Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince McMahon. Afterward, he was booked to team with Kane to contend for the WWF Tag Team Championship. They defeated Edge and Christian, earning the right to face them the following week for the championship, which Edge and Christian retained. During an August 14 Raw bout against Chris Benoit, Kane became involved and betrayed The Undertaker by hitting him with two chokeslams, the second one causing the ring apron to cave in underneath The Undertaker. This incident led to another match between the two at SummerSlam, which ended in a no contest as Kane fled from the ring area after The Undertaker removed Kane's mask.\nThe Undertaker then challenged Kurt Angle for the WWF Championship at Survivor Series. Angle, however, defeated The Undertaker after he switched places with his real-life brother, Eric Angle. The Undertaker demanded and was awarded a spot in the six-man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship at Armageddon. The Undertaker promised to make someone famous and did so when he performed a chokeslam on Rikishi from the roof of the cell into hay-filled cargo bed of a truck.\nIn 2001, The Undertaker reunited with Kane as the Brothers of Destruction, issuing a challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship once again. They received a title shot at No Way Out, facing Edge and Christian and then champions The Dudley Boyz in a tables match but were unsuccessful. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Triple H at WrestleMania X-Seven. He and Kane continued a storyline that focused on Triple H, who formed a \"surprise alliance\" with then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin. The Brothers of Destruction were granted an opportunity to face Triple H and Austin for their titles (Triple H was the WWF Intercontinental Champion). After The Undertaker and Kane won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Edge and Christian on the April 19 episode of SmackDown!, Triple H pinned Kane after attacking him with a sledgehammer at Backlash, where the Brothers of Destruction lost their championships. With Kane injured, The Undertaker feuded briefly with Austin for his WWF Championship, but he failed to win the title at Judgment Day.\nAs part of \"The Invasion\" storyline, The Undertaker's next nemesis was Diamond Dallas Page, who was obsessively stalking The Undertaker's wife, Sara. At SummerSlam, WCW Tag Team Champions The Undertaker and Kane defeated Page and his partner Kanyon in a steel cage match to win the WWF Tag Team Championship. At Survivor Series, The Undertaker teamed with Kane, The Rock, Chris Jericho and Big Show to take on The Alliance's Stone Cold Steve Austin, Booker T, Rob Van Dam, Shane McMahon and Kurt Angle (this was the last time The Undertaker and Kane teamed until 2006). Angle pinned The Undertaker due to interference by Austin. Despite this, Team WWF won the match.\n\nBig Evil (2001–2003)\nAfter The Alliance was defeated, The Undertaker inducted commentator Jim Ross into the Mr. McMahon: Kiss My Ass Club, which involved The Undertaker pressing the lips of Ross against McMahon's exposed buttocks, turning heel in the process. In transitioning his \"American Badass\" biker identity into a heel, The Undertaker eventually cut his long hair short and went by the nickname \"Big Evil\". At Vengeance, The Undertaker defeated Rob Van Dam to win the WWF Hardcore Championship.\n\nThe Undertaker's next storyline began at the Royal Rumble in January 2002, when Maven eliminated him from the Royal Rumble match by hitting him with a dropkick from behind. Subsequently, The Undertaker eliminated Maven in return and brutally assaulted him backstage. Thereafter, on an episode of SmackDown!, The Rock inflamed The Undertaker's anger by mentioning his elimination at the Royal Rumble. He responded by costing The Rock the number one contendership for the Undisputed WWF Championship. The storyline continued when The Rock cost The Undertaker the WWF Hardcore Championship against Maven on the February 7 episode of SmackDown!. The two faced off at No Way Out, where The Undertaker lost due to interference from Ric Flair. This interference began a storyline with Flair, who declined a challenge to wrestle The Undertaker at WrestleMania X8. As a result, The Undertaker assaulted his son David Flair. Flair eventually accepted the match after The Undertaker threatened to inflict the same punishment on Flair's daughter. A no-disqualification stipulation was added to the match and The Undertaker defeated Flair at WrestleMania.\n\nAfter the storyline with Flair, The Undertaker was drafted to the Raw brand after the WWF split its roster into two brands and defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin at Backlash to become the number one contender for the Undisputed WWF Championship. Later that night, he helped Hollywood Hulk Hogan win the title against then champion Triple H. The Undertaker then defeated Hogan for the renamed WWE Undisputed Championship at Judgment Day. The next night on Raw, The Undertaker lost to Rob Van Dam for the WWE Undisputed Championship; however, Raw owner Ric Flair restarted the match (Van Dam pinned The Undertaker when his foot was on the rope, thus invalidating the pin attempt) and The Undertaker retained the championship. On the July 1 episode of Raw, The Undertaker defeated Jeff Hardy in a ladder match to retain the WWE Undisputed Championship and raised Hardy's hand as a show of respect, turning face once again. The Undertaker, however, lost the title at Vengeance to The Rock in a triple threat match that also involved Kurt Angle. On the August 29 episode of SmackDown!, The Undertaker was moved to the SmackDown! brand (where he remained until the first brand extension ended in 2011), and defeated Chris Benoit and Kurt Angle in a triple threat match to become the number-one contender for the renamed WWE Championship and challenged Brock Lesnar for the title at Unforgiven that ended in a double disqualification. Their feud carried over to No Mercy in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker performed with a legitimately broken hand and ultimately lost to Lesnar.\nThe Undertaker took a break after Big Show threw him off the stage on the October 24 episode of SmackDown!, sparking a feud. The Undertaker returned at the Royal Rumble in January 2003. He immediately continued his feud with Big Show and defeated him by submission at No Way Out with a triangle choke. A-Train entered the storyline by attempting to attack The Undertaker after the match, but Nathan Jones came to his aid. The storyline resumed as The Undertaker began to train Jones to wrestle and the two were scheduled to fight Big Show and A-Train in a tag team match at WrestleMania XIX. However, Jones was removed before the match, making it a handicap match, which The Undertaker won with the help of Jones.\nOver the remainder of the year, The Undertaker entered a brief feud with John Cena (defeating him at Vengeance) and was booked to have two WWE Championship opportunities. The first, on the September 4 SmackDown!, against Kurt Angle, ended in a no contest, due to interference from Brock Lesnar. The second, at No Mercy, was a Biker Chain match between The Undertaker and Lesnar, which Lesnar won with the help of Vince McMahon. This match resulted in a feud with McMahon, culminating at Survivor Series where The Undertaker lost a Buried Alive match against McMahon when Kane interfered. The Undertaker disappeared for some time following this match, with Kane claiming that he was \"dead and buried forever\".\n\nReturn of the Deadman (2004–2007)\nIn the storyline leading up to WrestleMania XX, Kane was tormented by horror-themed mind games, paranormal activities, and spooking vignettes proclaiming The Undertaker's Deadman return. The first was during the Royal Rumble when The Undertaker's bells tolled, distracting Kane and allowing Booker T to eliminate him. Accompanied by Paul Bearer at WrestleMania XX, The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity, defeating Kane in a singles match. Introduced was a more dramatic, theatrical and supernatural Deadman than in years past, his presence, mannerisms, and entrances significantly elaborated on as well, such as with more intensity, special effects and rising and falling flames. At the same time, The Undertaker maintained elements of his American Badass identity, thus a composite character more humanized than all of his previous Deadman incarnations (The Undertaker would present in this particular hybrid Deadman form until No Mercy 2005 when Randy Orton sealed him in a casket and set it on fire). At Judgment Day, The Undertaker defeated Booker T. One week later, Paul Heyman ordered The Dudley Boyz to kidnap Bearer. Thus, Heyman \"took control\" of Undertaker. At The Great American Bash, The Undertaker fought a handicap match against The Dudley Boyz, with the stipulation that if he did not lay down and purposely lose, Heyman would bury Paul Bearer in cement. The Undertaker won and stopped Heyman from burying Bearer, but after claiming Bearer was merely a liability he had no use for, buried him himself.\nThe Undertaker began a feud with then WWE Champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) by challenging him to a title match at SummerSlam, which The Undertaker lost by disqualification. At No Mercy, The Undertaker and JBL competed in the first-ever Last Ride match, although The Undertaker lost after Heidenreich interfered. After defeating Heidenreich in a match at Survivor Series, The Undertaker turned his focus to the WWE Championship once again. Along with Eddie Guerrero and Booker T, he challenged JBL to a championship rematch at Armageddon in a fatal four-way match, in which The Undertaker was unsuccessful, again due to Heidenreich's interference. The feud culminated in a casket match between The Undertaker and Heidenreich at the Royal Rumble, where The Undertaker sealed Heidenreich in a casket for the victory.\nSoon after, Randy Orton challenged The Undertaker to a match at WrestleMania 21, uppishly proclaiming that he would end his WrestleMania winning Streak. Even with help from his father, Orton lost as The Undertaker improved his WrestleMania record to 13–0. After a two-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the June 16 episode of SmackDown!, but lost to JBL due to interference from Randy Orton, who was drafted to SmackDown! as part of the draft lottery. Despite his interference, the Randy Orton/Undertaker feud was put on the back burner until late summer of that year, resulting from Orton on the injured list.\nIn the meantime and in one of the most controversial moments in WWE history on an episode of SmackDown! taped on July 4, 2005 (aired on July 7), SmackDown! General Manager Theodore Long scheduled Muhammad Hassan in a match against The Undertaker at The Great American Bash, and placed Daivari in a match that night against Undertaker: Undertaker quickly defeated Daivari. After the match, however, Hassan began to \"pray\" on the ramp, summoning five masked men, dressed in black shirts, ski-masks and camouflage pants. Armed with clubs and a piano wire, the masked men assaulted and choked out The Undertaker before Hassan then placed The Undertaker in a camel clutch. Afterward, the masked men lifted Daivari above their heads and carried him away. Three days later, the London bombings took place. The footage aired unedited on UPN in the United States and on The Score in Canada with an advisory warning shown several times during the broadcast. It was removed from the Australian and European (including in the United Kingdom) broadcasts.\nThe angle elicited national attention in the New York Post, TV Guide, Variety and other major media outlets. In response to the criticism, UPN decided that it would monitor the storyline closely and that it did not want the Hassan character on its network that week. In a promo hosted on WWE's website - UPN had edited it from the July 14, 2005 episode of SmackDown! - Hassan reiterated that he was an Arab American and that the American people automatically and unfairly assumed that he was a terrorist. Despite being in character, he referred to the real-world media coverage of the storyline, singling out the New York Post's Don Kaplan by name and denouncing his description of the events on SmackDown!, such as Kaplan's comment of the masked men being \"Arabs in ski masks\". On the July 14, 2005 episode of SmackDown!, Hassan's absence was explained by a statement delivered by his attorney, Thomas Whitney, that Hassan refused to appear on the show until The Great American Bash due to the way he was treated by the American media and WWE fans.\nIt was revealed in late July 2005 that UPN had pressured WWE to keep Hassan off their network, effectively removing him from SmackDown!. Undertaker defeated Hassan at The Great American Bash to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship. After the match, The Undertaker delivered a Last Ride through an open stage ramp onto a concrete floor to Hassan. It was reported that Hassan sustained serious injuries and had to be rushed to a nearby medical facility, writing Hassan off television. Several days later, Long (kayfabe) banned Hassan from SmackDown!. It was revealed years later that Hassan was about to receive a major push by winning the World Heavyweight Championship from Batista at SummerSlam and thus breaking Randy Orton's record for being the youngest World Heavyweight Champion in WWE history.\nOn the following episode of SmackDown!, The Undertaker lost to JBL in a number-one contender's match, once again due to interference from Orton, reviving their feud that was put on hiatus. At SummerSlam, Orton defeated The Undertaker in a WrestleMania rematch. The storyline intensified as the two tried to get into the head of one another with dark mind game tactics and use of caskets, leading to a handicap casket match at No Mercy, in which The Undertaker lost to Randy and his father \"Cowboy\" Bob Orton. After the match, the Ortons poured gasoline on the casket and set it on fire (a throwback moment to one of The Undertaker's most infamous attacks received and done by Kane doing the same to him at the 1998 Royal Rumble). When the charred casket was opened, however, The Undertaker was absent, presented as having vanished.\nThe Undertaker resurrected at the Survivor Series when the druids delivered a casket that was struck by lightning and went up in flames. The Undertaker then burst from the flaming casket in rage, battering and brutalizing an entire ring full of wrestlers as a message to Orton. Here, he reappeared still in hybrid form but with lessened Badass characteristics, eliminating several elements of his biker identity so that his Deadman side projected, most notably, replacing loose-fitting cargo pants with his Deadman spandex, and less use of the Last Ride finisher. The Undertaker returned on SmackDown! in early December to haunt Orton and set up a Hell in a Cell match at Armageddon. After The Undertaker won their brutal Hell in a Cell encounter, in effect, settling his 9 month long feud with Orton, Calaway took a brief hiatus from professional wrestling.\n\nIn January 2006 at the Royal Rumble, The Undertaker returned on a horse-drawn cart during Kurt Angle's celebration of his World Heavyweight Championship defense against Mark Henry. In this appearance, The Undertaker signaled for a title shot by using his supernatural powers to collapse the wrestling ring that Angle stood in as a means to spook him. As part of their storyline angle, The Undertaker lost his match with Angle at No Way Out after a 30-minute bout—described as underrated and among Undertaker's top matches, in which he versatilely took to a more ground-based submission style to combat Angle's trademarked freestyle wrestling. The Undertaker cornered Angle after the match and told him he was not finished with him. In a rematch with Angle (similarly described as underrated and among The Undertaker's top matches that utilized the wrestling styles of their previous encounter on the March 3 episode of SmackDown!) Henry attacked The Undertaker from behind, costing him the title. This led to The Undertaker challenging Henry to a casket match at WrestleMania 22 and Henry vowing to end The Undertaker's WrestleMania winning Streak. The match resulted in The Undertaker sealing Henry in the casket, winning the match and extending his streak to 14–0 at WrestleMania. During a rematch on the next episode of SmackDown!, The Undertaker was assaulted by the debuting Great Khali.\nThe Undertaker was not heard from until the May 5 episode of SmackDown! when Theodore Long delivered a challenge from The Undertaker to Khali for a match at Judgment Day. The Undertaker lost to Khali at Judgment Day, and he did not appear again until the July 7 episode of SmackDown! when he accepted Khali's challenge to a Punjabi Prison match at The Great American Bash. However, Khali was removed from the match due to not being medically cleared. He was thus replaced by then ECW World Champion Big Show, over whom The Undertaker gained the victory. In storyline, Theodore Long replaced Khali with Big Show as punishment for an attack on The Undertaker shortly before the match. Khali was then challenged by The Undertaker to a Last Man Standing Match for SummerSlam after interfering in The Undertaker's match with then World Heavyweight Champion King Booker. Khali refused the challenge but Long scheduled the Last Man Standing Match ahead of time, for the August 18 episode of SmackDown! instead. The Undertaker won the match by striking Khali with steel stairs and finishing him with a chokeslam. It was Khali's first defeat and effectively ended his feud with The Undertaker.\nThe Undertaker's next match was with then United States Champion Mr. Kennedy at No Mercy, but was disqualified in the match after he hit Kennedy with the championship belt. On the November 3 episode of SmackDown!, The Undertaker reunited with Kane to reform the Brothers of Destruction for the first time in five years, defeating reluctant opposition in the form of Mr. Kennedy and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP), with whom Kane was feuding with at the time. As part of the storyline, Kennedy defeated The Undertaker in a First Blood match at Survivor Series after interference from MVP, but finally defeated Kennedy in a Last Ride match at Armageddon. The two continued to feud into 2007 as Kennedy cost The Undertaker two World Heavyweight Championship opportunities for a championship match at the Royal Rumble. However, The Undertaker eventually qualified for the 2007 Royal Rumble match, by winning a battle royal on the January 26 episode of SmackDown!.\n\nWorld Heavyweight Champion (2007–2010)\nThe Undertaker won his first Royal Rumble match in January 2007, in doing so becoming the first man to enter the Rumble at number 30 and win the match, after lastly eliminating Shawn Michaels. On the February 5 episode of Raw, The Undertaker elected to face World Heavyweight Champion Batista at WrestleMania 23, before attacking him with the chokeslam. At No Way Out, The Undertaker and Batista reluctantly teamed together to face John Cena and Shawn Michaels, but lost after Batista gained revenge on The Undertaker by hitting him with a spinebuster, allowing Cena to pin him. At WrestleMania 23, The Undertaker defeated Batista to win his first World Heavyweight Championship and extend his Streak to 15–0. The Undertaker faced Batista in a rematch at Backlash, this time in a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a draw after neither man got to their feet by the referee's count of ten, meaning The Undertaker retained the championship. The Undertaker and Batista then fought once again in a steel cage match on the May 11 episode of SmackDown! that also ended in a draw when both men's feet touched the floor at the same time. After the match, Mark Henry made his return by assaulting an already battered The Undertaker, after which Edge ran to the ring and cashed in his Money in the Bank briefcase, forcing The Undertaker into a second title defense. Although he kicked out of two quick pin attempts, The Undertaker was pinned by Edge after two spears and lost the World Heavyweight Championship. After this match, The Undertaker took time off due to a torn right biceps.\n\nDuring his rehabilitation, Henry bragged about his assault on The Undertaker, until vignettes began playing that promoted The Undertaker's return. The Undertaker returned at Unforgiven on September 16, defeating Henry. Batista and The Undertaker reignited their feud at Cyber Sunday with the fans choosing the special guest referee to be Stone Cold Steve Austin, however, Batista retained the World Heavyweight Championship. They battled again in a Hell in a Cell match at Survivor Series, where Edge returned and interfered to help Batista retain the World Heavyweight Championship. In response to this, The Undertaker delivered a Tombstone Piledriver to General Manager Vickie Guerrero on the November 23 episode of SmackDown!, sending her to the hospital. Returning assistant-General Manager Theodore Long declared a triple threat match for the title between the three men at Armageddon, which Edge won after interference from The Major Brothers.\nAt the 2008 Royal Rumble, The Undertaker competed in the Royal Rumble match itself, entering at number 1, but eliminated by Shawn Michaels after lasting for most of the bout. At No Way Out, The Undertaker defeated Batista, Finlay, The Great Khali, MVP and Big Daddy V in the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match to become the number one contender for Edge's World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXIV. At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Edge with the Hell's Gate submission hold to win his second World Heavyweight Championship in what was his 16th WrestleMania win. In a WrestleMania rematch, The Undertaker defeated Edge once again at Backlash to retain the World Heavyweight Championship. Vickie Guerrero then banned The Undertaker's Hell's Gate submission hold and stripped him of the World Heavyweight Championship on the May 2 episode of SmackDown. The Undertaker battled Edge for the vacant title at Judgment Day, which he won by countout. Guerrero ordered that the title remain vacant, because titles could not change hands in this way. Edge and The Undertaker faced each other again for the vacant championship at One Night Stand in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match, which The Undertaker lost after interference from La Familia. As a result of the stipulation, The Undertaker was forced to leave WWE.\n\nOn the July 25 episode of SmackDown, Vickie Guerrero reinstated The Undertaker and scheduled Edge to face him at SummerSlam in a Hell in a Cell match, which The Undertaker won. After the match, The Undertaker chokeslammed Edge from the top of a ladder and through the ring canvas. Following this match, Guerrero tried making a peace offering with The Undertaker on SmackDown by apologizing, but The Undertaker told her that he was not the forgiving kind. At Unforgiven, as The Undertaker approached the ring to \"take Guerrero's soul\" and seal her in a casket, Big Show, who appeared at first to be aiding The Undertaker ended up assaulting him. Resulting from that, The Undertaker and Big Show faced each other in a match at No Mercy, where Big Show won by knockout. At Cyber Sunday, The Undertaker defeated Big Show in a Last Man Standing match after choking him out with Hell's Gate. At the same time, The Undertaker was engaged in a short feud with Jeff Hardy, who interfered during his match with Vladimir Kozlov on the November 7 episode of SmackDown. Hardy defeated The Undertaker in an Extreme Rules match the following week on SmackDown due to interference from Big Show. The Undertaker then went on to defeat Big Show in a casket match at Survivor Series and again in a steel cage match by submission on the December 5 episode of SmackDown to end their feud. At No Way Out, The Undertaker was part of the WWE Championship Elimination Chamber match along with Triple H, Jeff Hardy, Big Show, Vladimir Kozlov and Edge; however, he was unsuccessful at winning the match as he was the runner-up behind Triple H.\nIn early 2009, The Undertaker began a second chapter to his unresolved feud with Shawn Michaels from the late 1990s, over a decade prior to this point (their tensions gradually increasing in the years immediately preceding this from heated run-ins at the 2007 and 2008 Royal Rumble matches). Their renewed feud by this point was two-dimensional, in part focusing on the wonder of The Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania Streak in relation to, however, the fact that he had never before defeated Michaels in a singles match, only vice versa. Michaels also made the buildup to their WrestleMania encounter personal, repeatedly demonstrating his Christian objections to the demonic dark side nature of The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick, even creating his own heaven-esque bright side spin-off of what he felt The Undertaker's gimmick should be (Michaels having become a real-life born again Christian by this point in his career). The feud culminated in a WrestleMania 25 singles match between the two in which Michaels made a heaven-sent entrance descending from up on high portraying his bright side anti-Deadman, while The Undertaker made a grave-risen entrance emerging from the ground. After what was widely described as a suspenseful, competitive match, The Undertaker defeated Michaels, thus extending his WrestleMania winning streak to 17–0. Their encounter was highly acclaimed by critics and audiences alike and is considered by many to be one of the greatest WrestleMania matches of all time. On the April 24 episode of SmackDown, after losing a match against Big Show by knockout with Big Show taking advantage of The Undertaker's battered neck state from his previous WrestleMania encounter, The Undertaker attacked Big Show. Following this, The Undertaker took another hiatus from the WWE.\nAfter a four-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned at SummerSlam in August by attacking CM Punk, who had just won the World Heavyweight Championship from Jeff Hardy in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match. At Breaking Point, The Undertaker faced Punk in a submission match. The Undertaker had originally won the match with his Hell's Gate submission hold, but the match was restarted by SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who ruled that the ban placed on the move by Vickie Guerrero was still in effect. Punk went on to win the match with his anaconda vise when referee Scott Armstrong called for the bell, despite The Undertaker never submitting—a recreation of the Montreal Screwjob, which took place in the same venue in 1997. On the September 25 episode of SmackDown, Theodore Long officially lifted the ban after being released from a casket that The Undertaker had him placed inside of, among a series of other horror-themed mind game tactics. With Long out of the way, the feud between The Undertaker and Punk pressed on and at Hell in a Cell, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship from him in a Hell in a Cell match. The Undertaker successfully defended the title against CM Punk on the October 23 episode of SmackDown, in a fatal four-way match at Bragging Rights against Punk, Batista and Rey Mysterio and in a triple threat match against Chris Jericho and Big Show at Survivor Series. He faced Batista at TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs in a chairs match for the championship and won when the match was restarted by Long, after Batista had originally won after utilizing a low blow. The next night on Raw, The Undertaker competed in a tournament to crown the 2009 Superstar of the Year, losing to Randy Orton by countout in the first round after a distraction by Orton's protegès Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase.\n\nAfter successfully defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Rey Mysterio at the Royal Rumble, The Undertaker lost the championship at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view. It was also at this event that a notorious shoot incident (non-kayfabe) befell The Undertaker: a pyrotechnics malfunction momentarily engulfed him in flames up to three times during his ring entrance. He was, however, able to continue with his scheduled match that night despite suffering first and second-degree burns on his chest and neck. According to a WWE spokesman, it \"looked like a bad sunburn\". The Undertaker lost the title to Chris Jericho after interference from Shawn Michaels that night; Jericho has said on multiple occasions that the pyrotechnician responsible for the accident was immediately escorted from the arena and relieved of his employment with WWE, following a threat of violence from Calaway. Calaway himself explained that he had previously expressed concerns to the technician regarding the pyro arrangement, but was ignored. He feels he was saved from severe injury by applying water to his hair, and altering his attire from a sleeveless to a sleeved jacket, just minutes before the accident.\nThe Undertaker then accepted Michaels's rematch offer, after initially declining, at WrestleMania XXVI in a Streak vs. Career match, where The Undertaker was victorious and Shawn Michaels was forced to retire. This match also made both The Undertaker and Michaels the first men in WWE history to main event WrestleMania in three different decades (Undertaker main evented WrestleMania 13 and XXIV in 1997 and 2008 and Michaels main evented WrestleMania XII and XIV in 1996 and 1998 and XX and 23 in 2004 and 2007, respectively). After a hiatus (which included wrestling two matches on Raw), he returned to SmackDown on May 28, defeating Rey Mysterio to qualify for a spot at the Fatal 4-Way pay-per-view to compete for the World Heavyweight title. During the Rey Mysterio match, The Undertaker suffered a concussion, broken orbital bone and broken nose; he was visibly bleeding profusely on camera by the end of this match. To cover for the injury, Kane revealed that The Undertaker had been found in a vegetative state on the June 4 episode of SmackDown; Mysterio took his place in the match and won the World Heavyweight Championship. While attempting to learn which wrestler had attacked The Undertaker, Kane defeated Mysterio to win the World Heavyweight Championship at Money in the Bank. Kane and Mysterio continued to clash as they accused one another of being the assailant behind the mysterious ambush of The Undertaker.\nAt SummerSlam, The Undertaker returned to confront Kane and Rey Mysterio, only to be attacked with a Tombstone Piledriver by Kane. With Kane revealed as his attacker, the two feuded for the next few months over the World Heavyweight Championship. After losing to Kane in a No Holds Barred match at Night of Champions, Paul Bearer returned as The Undertaker's manager on the September 24 episode of SmackDown. However, Bearer turned on him at Hell in a Cell to help Kane win once again in a Hell in a Cell match. The feud ended at Bragging Rights when The Nexus helped Kane defeat The Undertaker in a Buried Alive match (the half-brothers' final singles match against one another). The Undertaker needed surgery for a torn rotator cuff, causing him to be written off.\n\nFinal years of The Streak (2011–2014)\nAfter the 2011 Royal Rumble, promotional videos began airing, showing The Undertaker entering and standing within a Western-style, dilapidated shack on a rainy desert in Death Valley, The birthplace. Each promo ended with the date 2–21–11 being \"burned into\" the screen. On the February 21 episode of Raw, The Undertaker returned, but before he could speak, Triple H also returned and confronted him. The two challenged each other to a match at WrestleMania XXVII, which was later made a No Holds Barred match and which The Undertaker won by submission. However, he had to be carried away from the ring on a stretcher. Following WrestleMania XXVII in 2011, The Undertaker would take on a more part-time role within the company; he would not have another match on Raw or SmackDown until 2013.\n\nOn the January 30, 2012 episode of Raw SuperShow, The Undertaker returned after a nine-month hiatus to confront Triple H. On the February 13 episode of Raw SuperShow, Triple H refused The Undertaker's challenge for a WrestleMania rematch. After The Undertaker accused Triple H of living in the shadow of Shawn Michaels on the February 20 episode of Raw SuperShow, Triple H accepted the challenge on the condition that it would be a Hell in a Cell match; Michaels was later inserted as guest referee in the match. At WrestleMania XXVIII, The Undertaker, while debuting his new look, a mohawk, defeated Triple H to extend his Streak to 20–0. After the match, The Undertaker and Michaels carried Triple H to the entrance stage, where the three embraced. Later in 2012, The Undertaker appeared on the 1000th episode of Raw on July 23 to help Kane, who had been confronted by Jinder Mahal, Curt Hawkins, Tyler Reks, Hunico, Camacho and Drew McIntyre. The Brothers of Destruction overcame and dominated the six other wrestlers.\nThe Undertaker's next television appearance was on Old School Raw on March 4, 2013, where he opened the show by performing his signature entrance. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show and Sheamus fought in a fatal four-way match to determine who would face him at WrestleMania 29, which Punk won. After the real-life death of Paul Bearer on March 5, 2013, a storyline involving Punk regularly spiting The Undertaker through displays of flippancy and disrespect towards Bearer's death began. Punk interrupted The Undertaker's ceremony to honor Bearer on Raw, stealing the trademark urn and later using it to attack Kane, humiliate The Brothers of Destruction and mock Bearer. The Undertaker defeated Punk at WrestleMania 29 to extend his Streak to 21–0 and then took back the urn. The following night on Raw, The Undertaker came out to pay his respects to Bearer, but was interrupted by The Shield, who attempted to attack Undertaker before Team Hell No (Kane and Daniel Bryan) made the save. The Undertaker would wrestle his final Raw match (his first since 2010) on the April 22 episode, teaming with Kane and Bryan against The Shield in a losing effort. Four days later, he wrestled his final SmackDown match (also his first since 2010), defeating Shield member Dean Ambrose by submission. Afterward, The Undertaker was attacked by Ambrose and the rest of The Shield, who performed a triple powerbomb through the broadcast table on him.\n\nOn the February 24, 2014, episode of Raw, The Undertaker returned to confront Brock Lesnar and accepted his challenge for a match at WrestleMania XXX. After 25 minutes and three F-5s, Lesnar won the match at WrestleMania by pinfall, ending The Undertaker's Streak in what was described as \"the most shocking result in WWE history\". Following the match, The Undertaker was hospitalized with a severe concussion which he suffered in the first minutes of the match. In a December 2014 interview, Vince McMahon confirmed that it was his final decision to have Lesnar end The Streak and that The Undertaker was initially shocked at the decision. McMahon justified his decision that it would significantly enhance Lesnar's formidability to set up the next WrestleMania event and that there were no other viable candidates to fill Lesnar's role. In 2014, The Undertaker was also offered to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame, but he declined the offer, feeling it wasn't time yet.\n\nFinal feuds (2015–2020)\nIn February 2015, Bray Wyatt began a series of cryptic promos which led to Fastlane, where Wyatt challenged The Undertaker to a match at WrestleMania 31, which The Undertaker accepted. At WrestleMania, The Undertaker defeated Wyatt after two Tombstone Piledrivers.\nAt Battleground in July, The Undertaker made his return by attacking Lesnar as he was on the verge of defeating Seth Rollins during his WWE World Heavyweight Championship match, causing the match to end in a disqualification win for Lesnar. The next night on Raw, The Undertaker explained his actions as revenge, not against Lesnar breaking The Streak, but rather the constant taunting he allowed Paul Heyman to engage in. Later that night, after The Undertaker and Lesnar brawled throughout the arena and had to be separated, a rematch was scheduled for SummerSlam in August, where The Undertaker controversially defeated Lesnar. Lesnar put The Undertaker in a kimura lock and the timekeeper rang the bell after seeing The Undertaker supposedly indicating submission, but since the referee had not seen a submission and never stopped the match, the match continued. The confusion allowed The Undertaker to surprise Lesnar with a low blow and apply Hell's Gate, in which Lesnar passed out. At Hell in a Cell, The Undertaker was defeated by Lesnar in a Hell in a Cell match after Lesnar hit him with his own low blow, returning the favor, and executing what was his third F-5 of the match.\nWhile the crowd gave The Undertaker an ovation after his loss to Lesnar, he was attacked and captured by The Wyatt Family (Bray Wyatt, Luke Harper, Erick Rowan and Braun Strowman), who carried him away from the ring. After ambushing and capturing Kane the next night on Raw, Wyatt explained that he had claimed their souls and stole their demonic powers. The Brothers of Destruction returned on the November 9 episode of Raw and attacked The Wyatt Family, setting up a tag team match at Survivor Series, which honored The Undertaker's 25 years in WWE. At Survivor Series on November 22, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Wyatt and Harper.\nOn the February 22, 2016, episode of Raw, Vince McMahon placed his son Shane McMahon, who returned to WWE for the first time since 2009, in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania 32 against The Undertaker with the stipulation that if Shane won, he would gain control of Raw. Vince later decided that should Undertaker lose the match against Shane, it would be his final match at WrestleMania. After weeks of random physical confrontations and mind games exchanged between the pair, The Undertaker defeated Shane McMahon at WrestleMania 32. The Undertaker would not appear again until the 900th episode of SmackDown on November 15, issuing a threat to Team SmackDown if they failed to defeat Team Raw at the upcoming Survivor Series pay-per-view.\n\nThe Undertaker appeared on the January 23 episode of Raw, confronting Brock Lesnar and Goldberg. During the Royal Rumble on January 29, The Undertaker entered at number 29, eliminating Goldberg, The Miz, Baron Corbin and Sami Zayn, before being eliminated by the number 30 entrant, Roman Reigns. The Undertaker returned on the March 6 episode of Raw and performed a chokeslam on Reigns. This led to a No Holds Barred match between The Undertaker and Reigns at WrestleMania 33, in which The Undertaker lost to Reigns after five spears in his fourth WrestleMania main event. After the match, The Undertaker left his gloves, coat and hat in the center of the ring before slowly making his exit.\nThe Undertaker took part in the Raw 25 Years broadcast on January 22, 2018, his first post-WrestleMania 33 appearance. In the months prior to WrestleMania 34, John Cena challenged The Undertaker to a singles match. At WrestleMania, after Elias confronted Cena and was beaten down, The Undertaker's hat and coat appeared in the center of the ring and were struck by lightning. The Undertaker then appeared and beat Cena in a three-minute squash match. Three weeks later, The Undertaker defeated Rusev at WWE's Greatest Royal Rumble event in a casket match. At Super Show-Down in Australia on October 6, The Undertaker faced Triple H in a no disqualification match billed as the \"Last Time Ever\"; they were accompanied by Kane and Shawn Michaels, respectively. The Undertaker lost the match after interference from Michaels. After the match, the four men shook hands as a sign of respect, however, The Undertaker and Kane would follow this by attacking them. As a result, the duos reunited their respective tag teams—the Brothers of Destruction and D-Generation X—and faced each other at Crown Jewel on November 2, where The Undertaker and Kane lost their final match as a tag team.\nOn the April 8, 2019 episode of Raw, the night after WrestleMania 35—the first WrestleMania in 19 years without his involvement—The Undertaker appeared to interrupt and attack Elias during a musical performance. The Undertaker made his return to the ring to face Goldberg at Super ShowDown in Saudi Arabia on June 7, defeating him in the main event of the night in their first match against each other. On the June 24, 2019 episode of Raw, during a handicap match in which Roman Reigns was dominated by Shane McMahon and Drew McIntyre, The Undertaker suddenly appeared and attacked McMahon and McIntyre. The Undertaker and Reigns were later scheduled to face McMahon and McIntyre in a No Holds Barred tag team match at Extreme Rules. At Extreme Rules, The Undertaker and Reigns won. This turned out to be The Undertaker's final match in front of a live audience in the United States.\nThe Undertaker returned at Super ShowDown in Saudi Arabia on February 27, 2020, as a surprise replacement in a gauntlet match. He entered the match last, replacing Rey Mysterio and defeating AJ Styles to win the Tuwaiq Mountain Trophy. At Elimination Chamber during a match between Styles and Aleister Black, The Undertaker made another surprise appearance with an attack on Styles. The following night on Raw, Styles challenged The Undertaker to a match at WrestleMania 36. Over the following weeks that led up to WrestleMania, a resentful Styles made unprecedented efforts to expose The Undertaker, going so far as departing from bashing his Deadman gimmick, instead taking to a metafiction form of bashing Calaway himself. The feud saw Styles solely referring to The Undertaker by his real name, Mark Calaway, referencing his age and his wife, Michelle McCool. In response, The Undertaker cut promos of ominous warning against Styles in which for the first time in years, he broke from the Deadman gimmick by presenting as himself out of character. In doing so, elements of his American Badass gimmick were reflected with Calaway making appearances in his biker gear. At WrestleMania 36, The Undertaker presented his third and final identity, \"The Unholy Trinity,\" a combination of The Deadman, American Badass, and himself as Mark Calaway, this blend allowing him to trash talk Styles over real life matters during their encounter, while also able to maintain his superhuman horror capabilities. In what was subsequently learned to be The Undertaker's final match, he and Styles fought in a cemetery at a secluded rural locale, competing in what was a cinematic, narrative-heavy brawl similar to \"Buried Alive matches\", named the \"Boneyard match\". Despite the assistance of Gallows and Anderson, The Undertaker buried Styles in the grave to win this match and ride off on motorcycle into the sunset, scoring his 25th WrestleMania victory to complete his professional wrestling career.\n\nRetirement and Hall of Fame (2020–2022)\nOn June 21, 2020, in the final episode of the Undertaker: The Last Ride documentary, Callaway retired from the professional wrestling industry. Later on that November, he confirmed that he was \"officially retired\" in an interview. Many wrestlers and other public figures paid tribute to him on their social media pages. Madison Square Garden, regarded as the most famous venue in professional wrestling, also paid tribute to him.\nUndertaker, wearing his trademark mortician trench coat and stetson hat, made an appearance at the conclusion of the Survivor Series event on November 22, 2020. The event is dedicated to him, commemorating thirty years from that time since his WWE debut. There, he reiterated that his career had been completed, giving an emotional farewell speech which ended in typical Undertaker fashion: \"My time has come to let The Undertaker Rest in Peace.\" A ten-bell salute was also given for The Undertaker character as he did his traditional take-the-knee pose, and a holographic image of Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager, was projected in the ring.\nNews that the Undertaker would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2022 were responded to with extensive praise from WWE fans, the professional wrestling community and media outlets alike. On March 3, 2022, on The Pat McAfee Show, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon stated that he would be Undertaker's WWE Hall of Fame inductor. In praising Undertaker both inside and outside of character in a heartfelt message, McMahon said that the induction would be one of the most difficult endeavors of his life because of his longtime history with Undertaker, and how close they were behind the scenes. Undertaker issued a Twitter response later on that same day, which read:\n\nAfter over 30 years of long roads traveled, countless hours of TV, and one hell of a ride together… couldn't think of anyone better to put me in the #WWEHOF than @VinceMcMahon. One final ride together, old-timer!!!On April 1, 2022, The Undertaker was formally inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame at the American Airlines Center. At his induction, Calaway made a 137-minute speech that opened with a 10-minute, emotional standing ovation from the live audience, bringing Calaway to tears. Calaway's acceptance speech, hailed by media outlets as matchless and beyond compare, was motivational and shared his collection of self-reflections and life philosophies for success. In making his speech, he stood before several genres of his Deadman character, through the varying costumes displayed on mannequins. Later that same weekend, Calaway made appearances on the entrance stage on both nights of WrestleMania.\n\nSporadic appearances (2023–present)\nOn January 23, 2023, The Undertaker made an appearance at the Monday Night Raw 30th Anniversary special, Raw is XXX. He appeared under his American Badass gimmick, confronting LA Knight and seemingly giving his approval to Bray Wyatt. On October 10, 2023, The Undertaker made his first appearance on WWE NXT chokeslamming Bron Breakker.\nOn April 5, 2024, The Undertaker inducted Muhammad Ali into the 2024 WWE Hall of Fame. On April 7, 2024, The Undertaker appeared briefly during the Night 2 main event of WrestleMania XL between Roman Reigns and Cody Rhodes where he aided Cody Rhodes and chokeslammed The Rock.\n\nUndertaker gimmick, identities and character evolution\nThe Deadman identity\nUnder his undead, funereal, and macabre horror-themed gimmick, in which The Undertaker is subtitled \"The Deadman\", he routinely took to alarmist tactics to disrupt the focus and confidence of his rivals. Often, these alarmist tactics were morbid and applied the use of props that reflected demise as the consequence of a wrestling match against him: caskets (sometimes personalizing casket designs to represent his opponents), body bags, corpse-like effigies, cemeteries, hearses. To that end, the gimmick evoked funerals and death down to finer details, such as in the character's birthplace of Death Valley, catchphrase of \"Rest in Peace\", signature finishing maneuver of the Tombstone Piledriver, a wrestling pin that had the opponent resemble a corpse with their arms crossed over their chest, etc. Adding to his many effects of treating his wrestling matches as funeral services, The Undertaker frequently served a list of specialized matches that were personalized to his Deadman gimmick: Casket Match, Body Bag Match, Buried Alive Match, Last Ride Match, Hell in a Cell, Boneyard Match, etc.\nFilled with bells and whistles, The Undertaker's godlike superhuman presence and indignation were signaled by funeral tolls, settings of pitch-black darkness and blue/purple semidarkness, flickering lights, hazy fog, thunder, lightning strikes, and other bone-chilling scenes and sound activity. Portrayed as miraculously resilient to destruction, The Undertaker yielded numerous resurrections, which sometimes gave way to reincarnations of his Deadman gimmick. While maintaining his general character premise as death personified with accompanying alarmist tactics throughout all sagas of the Deadman, each incarnation took on its own distinct appearance and characterization. For example, some Deadman incarnations were unearthly and zombie-like while others were Goth and comparatively more human.\nThe earliest of The Undertaker's Deadman incarnations (nicknamed in external media as \"The Old West Mortician\" to distinguish from his other Deadman incarnations) depicted him as a menacing derivative of the Wild West undertakers in television westerns. In his own rendition, he was garbed in a black trench coat; gray-striped tie; black-ribboned, black stetson; gray boot spats; and gray gloves (black gloves for first few appearances before gray). However, most of The Undertaker's Deadman character development (sleeve tattoos, longer/straightened/black hair, purple/blue color representation, elements of thunder and lightning, etc.) would not surface until his first reincarnation into what was his rebirthed Deadman variation, lasting from SummerSlam 94' (resurrection from a death angle with Yokozuna) through Buried Alive: In Your House (The Undertaker buried alive by Mankind and numerous other WWF heel wrestlers). In these initial zombie-like incarnations of his gimmick, he was portrayed as impervious to pain, something accomplished by Calaway not selling his opponents' attacks. Among the many ways this was showcased was The Undertaker's maneuver of raising up from a taken down supine position into a high Fowler's position, dubbed \"the sit-up\" (often accompanied by his sharp hissing sound).\nBeginning early on, The Undertaker's persona was complemented with histrionically spooky, wailing manager Paul Bearer, introduced to represent and guide The Deadman. Playing a key role, Bearer used an urn to transmit mysterious powers to The Undertaker that had supernatural healing effects on him during combat. Also linked to The Undertaker's Deadman gimmick were the druids–a team of mysterious, incognito cult-like members, completely disguised in black hooded clergy robes. A mysterious choir chanting sounded whenever the druids presented. The druids typically appeared for the purposes of removing The Undertaker where he had seemingly been extinguished by his enemies (as opposed to EMTs or medical personnel used for the rest of WWF/E talent). The druids were also seen reproducing The Undertaker in recovered, wrathful states to those same enemies who were thought to have extinguished him.\nThe Undertaker took to many trademarked idiosyncrasies and themes, including a stylized throat-slashing gesture, grimacing facial expressions fit with eyeballs rolled back so that only the whites of his eyes displayed, backwards hair-whips so as to expose his ominous facial expressions, fixed stares on adversaries, protruding tongue displays, jolting of his head with a fury so that it faced the direction of his antagonists, his celebratory take-the-knee pose, sonorous vocalizations, collectively labeling his fanbase as \"Creatures of the Night\", voice of God-like promos in which things were interrupted with dimmed lights and thunder while The Undertaker's communications were heard booming throughout the arena with no physical trace of him; messages filled with death threats of a deeply posthumous insight into impending corpse decomposition, maggot feasting, unsouling and so on. A main attraction of the Deadman gimmick, The Undertaker mesmerized his opponents and viewers alike through elaborately \"bone-chilling\" entrances. The character's godlike powers were routinely put on display in these moments, triggering lights back to the arena either gradually or suddenly dependent on his either slowly or abruptly raised arms. During the vast majority of his wrestling career as the Deadman, The Undertaker used an extended remix of Frédéric Chopin's Funeral March as his theme music. WWF Composer Jim Johnston embellished on the Chopin march, using the historic melody as a pre- and post-chorus to a main chorus of bell tolls, along with an original transition section to the song of a slow, lugubrious instrumental feel. Of his entrances, Calaway has stated, \"When that gong went off, that was go time. The music fit the character. That's the key element of it: the end is at hand for whoever's going to be standing in that ring waiting for me to come down. That was the mindset behind the gong. And the music was just doom and gloom, you knew what was coming.\"\n\nAlternate identities of The Undertaker gimmick\nAfter a hiatus, Calaway returned in 2000 adopting a human form of the Undertaker gimmick. Under the character's alter ego, he is a semifictional smack-talking, redneck biker, thoroughly absent of his fully fictional Deadman zombie-like traits and wizardry. In performing this alternate identity, he rode to the ring on motorcycles, chewed tobacco, donned cargo garments and/or denim, printed shirts, and sporty fashion accessories (sunglasses, necklaces, bandanas). His theme music was replaced with popular rock songs of the time, initially Kid Rock's \"American Bad Ass\" (from which The Undertaker's subtitle used to refer to this second identity derived), and eventually Limp Bizkit's \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\". His American Badass catch phrases, such as threats of “I'll make you famous” or references to the wrestling ring as his “yard”, became popular during this era. According to Bruce Prichard, Calaway requested this metamorphosis of character since he wanted to be \"the biker–he wanted to be the guy that he is in everyday life\".\nWhile explained off-screen for the above reason years later, Calaway's sudden appearance as American Badass Undertaker after hiatus in which he left off as Deadman Undertaker was never explained within WWE storylines or the WWE's fictional universe. Rather, the expectation was for fans to just go with it. This transition lasted 3+1⁄2 years until 2004 when The Undertaker resurrected his Deadman identity in hybrid form—residual features of his American Badass identity remaining. Among subtle details left over from his biker identity were his in-ring MMA style between his stances, strikes, and submissions; penchant to sporadically lower his tank top for a barechested appearance; celebrating victories with an arm-raised fist; etc. This hybrid Deadman (Deadman incarnation most closely based on Calaway himself) would last many years and for the remainder of The Undertaker's professional wrestling career, excluding his final wrestling match. For The Undertaker's final encounter, a Boneyard Match at WrestleMania 36 in 2020, he introduced a three-dimensional identity that brought all of his identities into one, dubbed \"The Unholy Trinity:\" a mix of his Deadman identity, American Badass identity, and his natural and genuine identity as Mark Calaway.\n\nGimmick reflective nicknames\nThe Undertaker generated many nicknames from commentators throughout the course of his active wrestling career, some of those names more associated with his Deadman Undertaker identity, including \"The Grim Reaper\" (variants of this used were \"The Reaper\" and \"The Reaper of Wayward Souls\"), \"The Demon of Death Valley\", \"The Man from the Dark Side\", \"The Prince of Darkness\", \"The Lord of Darkness\". He also generated nicknames associated with his American Badass Undertaker identity, including \"Big Evil\" (used in reference to his American Badass heel side), \"Booger Red\". Some of his nicknames were not identity specific but used for the character in general, such as \"The Phenom\".\n\nDomestic backstory, parents and brother\nThe Undertaker's gimmick has a dark and disturbed family backstory which involves him intentionally burning down his family funeral home as a teenager, resulting in the deaths of his parents and purportedly a brother of his as well. Undertaker initially denied his then ex-manager Paul Bearer's charges of him committing the arson murder of his family, (though later confessed in late 1998). Instead, Undertaker blamed his younger brother of whom he thought long dead from the incident, describing him as a \"pyromaniac\". This led to Bearer's shocking warnings to proof in the form of the brother, \"Kane\", as alive and well. In late 1997 at In Your House Badd Blood, Bearer unleashed a vengeful Kane: the fire-personified, juggernaut half-brother of Undertaker, who was fit with a mask to conceal the scarring from Undertaker's arson. In what became a fickle sibling relationship with Bearer (later revealed to be Kane's father) only adding to the pendulum and complexities, Undertaker and Kane went back and forth from one extreme to the other, feuding barbarically at points and yet teaming as the Brothers of Destruction at other points. In the duo's final feud in late 2009 through 2010, Kane emerged victorious in all of their matches.\n\nGimmick fused with wrestling move set and style\nThe Undertaker's wrestling performance and move set were carried out with significant amounts of character-driven physical theater and kinesics. In keeping with his Deadman routine for example, Undertaker was forbiddingly slow and measured in much of his maneuvering and offense. Taking his opponents and audience by surprise, however, he combined his slow, measured physicality with wrestling moves and action uncharacteristic of a wrestler of his vast height and weight. Not limited to just ground offense and power moves, Undertaker was conspicuously aerial, swift, agile, loose-limbed and animated in the other half of his wrestling style and move set: flying clotheslines, guillotine leg drops, running DDTs, ability to land on his feet poised and motionless if thrown from the ring, over-the-top-rope suicide dives (on one occasion, over the top rope and combined active flames during an Inferno match at In Your House Unforgiven), etc. During matches, Undertaker would also pay homage to Don Jardine by performing an arm twist ropewalk chop, dubbed \"Old School.\"\n\nCalaway's performance of The Deadman\nMost famed for his Deadman Undertaker identity in particular, the role won Calaway the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards for Best Gimmick a record-setting 5 years in a row (1990–1994). Calaway was highly protective of his Deadman public image: for the vast majority of his career while performing the gimmick, he was so private that he wasn't seen outside of character in the media. Calaway's approach of presenting only in character publicly was done in order to maintain the mystique of the Deadman and facilitate disbelief suspension. However, during the last few years of his wrestling career, he allowed himself to be seen out of character, giving interviews as Mark Calaway and filming a documentary called The Last Ride.\n\nLegacy and reception\nRecognitions and acclaim\nThe Undertaker has been named one of the greatest wrestlers of all time; and the greatest character, and most iconic figure, in WWE history. He was voted the greatest WWE wrestler ever in a 2013 Digital Spy poll. In naming him the second greatest wrestler ever, IGN described Undertaker as, \"one of the most respected wrestlers, and characters, in the business; treated with actual reverence. Like a cherished, invaluable artifact\". Luis Paez-Pumar of Complex wrote that the Undertaker character is \"easily the best gimmick in the history of professional wrestling\". Luke Winkie of Sports Illustrated listed Undertaker as the fifth greatest wrestler of all time. His consecutive matches with Shawn Michaels at WrestleManias XXV and XXVI were met with critical acclaim, with both matches winning the Pro Wrestling Illustrated and Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards for Match of the Year in 2009 and 2010 respectively. His Hell in a cell match with Triple H at WrestleMania XXVIII won the 2012 Slammy Award for the match of the year as well as being voted the match of the year on Pro Wrestling Illustrated.\nWrestler Big Show named The Undertaker as the greatest professional wrestler of all time, while Mark Henry and WWE chairman Vince McMahon have called him their favorite. WWE Hall of Famer and former company executive, Jim Ross, said: \"Without question, The Undertaker is the greatest big man in the history of wrestling... There is no greater WWE star ever than The Undertaker\".\nGuinness World Records Gamer's Edition recognized Undertaker as having the most consecutive victories at WrestleMania in 2016. In November 2015, Telegraph journalist Tom Fordy called Undertaker \"the world's greatest sportsman\". The Undertaker is also one of two wrestlers (the other being The Rock) that has main evented WrestleMania in four different decades: 1990s: 13 (1997); 2000s: XXIV (2008); 2010s: XXVI (2010), 33 (2017); 2020s: 36 (2020).\nUndertaker's Deadman character in particular has been praised as one of the best in professional wrestling. He received the Wrestling Observer Newsletter's Best Gimmick award from 1990 to 1994. Tim Friorvant of ESPN named Undertaker \"a character that has been a cornerstone of the WWE for more than three decades\". Shawn Valentino of Pro Wrestling Torch said \"The Undertaker may have been the greatest character in the history of professional wrestling\".\nA 12-minute match between Undertaker and Stone Cold Steve Austin drew a 9.5 rating on June 28, 1999. It stands as the highest-rated segment in Raw history.\n\nReception to later career\nIn contrast to the high praise The Undertaker received during the vast majority of his professional wrestling career, he was heavily criticized for continuing to perform throughout the latter part of his wrestling career, particularly after his first defeat at WrestleMania in 2014. Calaway would later reveal that after suffering a severe concussion in his WrestleMania match against Lesnar, he lost his confidence. At WrestleMania 33, after his second defeat against Roman Reigns, Luis Paez-Pumar of Rolling Stone said that Undertaker \"should have retired when The Streak was broken\" but \"lived on to pass the rub on to Reigns in the sloppiest, saddest manner possible\". Undertaker himself said he was disappointed by his performance against Reigns. After his match against John Cena at WrestleMania 34, IGN posted an article titled \"Undertaker's return was awesome, but now he needs to retire\". After his match at Crown Jewel in November 2018, Pro Wrestling Torch's Wade Keller wrote that Undertaker looked \"brittle\" and Jason Powell of Pro Wrestling Dot Net said \"they [Undertaker, Kane, Michaels and Triple H] need to accept their limitations, stop pretending they belong in main events, and stop acting like being in these main events isn't stealing the spotlight\". His subsequent match with Goldberg at Super ShowDown in June 2019 was also widely pilloried, with Bryan Rose of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter calling it \"sad more than anything\". In reviewing the show, Dave Meltzer of the same publication wrote that Goldberg \"has juice left, while Undertaker doesn't\". Undertaker himself called the match \"a disaster\" in 2020.\nDespite the media criticism, two of Undertaker's later matches—teaming with Roman Reigns against Drew McIntyre and Shane McMahon at Extreme Rules 2019, as well as his cinematic Boneyard match against AJ Styles at WrestleMania 36—were both widely praised, with critics citing both matches as his best performances in recent years. The former would be ranked #25 on WWE.com's 25 best matches of 2019, and the latter was ranked #1 on WWE.com's 25 best matches of 2020. The Boneyard match would also win WWE's Half-Year Award for best Cinematic Match, as well as winning the Slammy Award for 2020's Match of the Year.\n\nPersonal life\nCalaway was married to his first wife Jodi Lynn from 1989 until 1999; they have a son, Gunner Vincent Calaway, born in 1993. Calaway married his second wife, Sara Frank, in 2000. In 2001, she made televised appearances with the WWE (then known as the WWF) as part of a feud between Calaway and Diamond Dallas Page, in which she was acknowledged as Calaway's wife. They have two daughters together, Chasey and Gracie Calaway, but ended up divorcing in 2007. In 2010, he married former wrestler Michelle McCool. Their first child together, a daughter named Kaia Faith Calaway, was born in 2012. They also have a younger adopted son named Kolt.\nIn the 1990s, Calaway started a backstage \"posse\" called the Bone Street Krew which consisted of some of his best friends and fellow wrestlers Yokozuna, Savio Vega, Charles Wright, The Godwinns, and Rikishi. Each member had the initials \"BSK\" tattooed onto themselves, with Undertaker's prominently marked across his stomach.\nCalaway invests in real estate with his business partner, Scott Everhart. The two finished construction on a $2.7 million building in Loveland, Colorado, called \"The Calahart\" (a portmanteau of their last names), in 2007. A dog lover, Calaway and his ex-wife Sara established The Zeus Compton Calaway Save the Animals Fund at the Texas A&M College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences to help pay for lifesaving treatments for large-breed dogs.\nCalaway is a fan of boxing and mixed martial arts, which he incorporated into his Undertaker gimmicks (American Badass and hybrid Deadman). He has practiced Brazilian jiu-jitsu and earned a black belt in 2011. Calaway is a supporter of the Blue Lives Matter countermovement, which advocates for protection of police officers. In November 2020, sports journalist Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that Calaway had made several donations totaling $7,000 to Donald Trump's re-election campaign. In February 2021, Calaway shared that he would endorse Dwayne \"The Rock\" Johnson if he were to ever run for president, expressing that he felt Johnson could be the great \"uniter\" and ease the United States political divide.\n\nAppearances and references in external media forums\nCalaway made his film debut as Hutch in the 1991 film Suburban Commando. He had guest roles on Poltergeist: The Legacy and Celebrity Deathmatch. In 2002, Calaway appeared out of character on the Canadian sports show Off the Record with Michael Landsberg.\nOn January 15, 2022, 45th and former United States President Donald Trump used Undertaker's theme music as part of his \"Save America\" rally held in Florence, Arizona. The song that was played, entitled \"The Graveyard Symphony\", incorporates funeral bell tolls and was created by WWE composer Jim Johnston as an embellished remix of Frédéric Chopin's \"Funeral March\". During the rally, the song was accompanied with a music video playing on big-screen monitors, advancing through multitudes of scenes intended to alarm the public of looming danger resulting from the presidency of Joe Biden (46th and current President of the United States). The song continued to play out for 30 seconds following the attack ad against Biden, ending just short of Trump making his entrance. Other than his music being played, Undertaker was not reported to have any association with the affair.\n\nBig screen and small screen roles\nVideo games\nCalaway's WWE character has been included in numerous WWE video games, beginning with WWF Super WrestleMania (1992). A special Undertaker-themed version of WWE 2K14 was released in 2013. The Undertaker is also the most featured wrestler in WWF/E's video game collection, having been presented on every game in the franchise:\n\nChampionships and accomplishments\nThe Baltimore Sun\nFeud of the Year (2007) vs. Batista\nBest Match of the Decade (2000s) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 25\nMatch of the Year (2009) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 25\nMatch of the Year (2010) vs. Shawn Michaels in a career vs. streak match at WrestleMania XXVI\nCBS Sports\nWorst Angle of the Year (2018) with Kane vs. Triple H and Shawn Michaels\nPro Wrestling Illustrated\nComeback of the Year (2015)\nFeud of the Year (1991) vs. The Ultimate Warrior\nFeud of the Year (2015) vs. Brock Lesnar\nMatch of the Year (1998) vs. Mankind in a Hell in a Cell match at King of the Ring\nMatch of the Year (2009) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 25\nMatch of the Year (2010) vs. Shawn Michaels in a career vs. streak match at WrestleMania XXVI\nMatch of the Year (2012) vs. Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XXVIII\nRanked No. 2 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2002\nRanked No. 21 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the \"PWI Years\" in 2003\nUnited States Wrestling Association\nUSWA Unified World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nWorld Class Wrestling Association\nWCWA Texas Heavyweight Championship (1 time)\nWorld Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE\nWWF/WWE Championship (4 times)\nWorld Heavyweight Championship (3 times)\nWWF Hardcore Championship (1 time)\nWWF World Tag Team Championship (6 times) – with Stone Cold Steve Austin (1), Big Show (2), The Rock (1), and Kane (2)\nWCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Kane\nRoyal Rumble (2007)\nWWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2022)\nTuwaiq Mountain Trophy (2020)\nUndisputed WWF Championship #1 contender's Tournament (April 2002)\nSlammy Award (15 times)\nBest Entrance Music (1997)\nBest Tattoo (1997)\nMatch of the Year (2009, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2020) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 25, vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania XXVI, vs. Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XXVIII, vs. Brock Lesnar at Hell in a Cell, and vs. AJ Styles in a Boneyard match at WrestleMania 36.\nMoment of the Year (2010) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania XXVI\nMost Intimidating (1994)\nOMG Moment of the Year (2011) Kicking out of Triple H's Tombstone Piledriver at WrestleMania XXVII\nRivalry of the Year (2015) vs. Brock Lesnar\nStar of the Highest Magnitude (1997)\nWWF's Greatest Hit (1996) Sucking Diesel into the abyss at In Your House 6: Rage in the Cage\nMoment of the Year (2020) The Undertaker's final farewell at Survivor Series\nWWE Network Documentary of the Year (2020) Undertaker: The Last Ride\nNXT Year-End Award\nMoment of the Year (2023 - appearing on the October 10 episode of NXT)\nWWE Bronze Statue (2022)\nWrestling Observer Newsletter\nBest Gimmick (1990–1994)\nBest Heel (1991)\nFeud of the Year (2007) vs. Batista\nMatch of the Year (2009) vs. Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania 25\nMatch of the Year (2010) vs. Shawn Michaels in a career vs. streak match at WrestleMania XXVI\nWorst Worked Match of the Year (2001) with Kane vs. KroniK at Unforgiven\nWorst Match of the Year (2018) with Kane vs. Triple H and Shawn Michaels at Crown Jewel\nMost Overrated (2001)\nReaders' Least Favorite Wrestler (2001)\nWorst Feud of the Year (1993) vs. Giant González\nMost Disgusting Promotional Tactic (2005) Involvement in a terrorist angle that aired on day of London bombings\nWrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2004)\n\nOther awards and honors\nEyegore Award (2000)\n\nWrestleMania record\nLuchas de Apuestas record\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Undertaker on WWE.com \nThe Undertaker on the Internet Archive\nThe Undertaker on Facebook \nMark Calaway at IMDb \nThe Undertaker's profile at Cagematch.net , Wrestlingdata.com , Internet Wrestling Database",
"title": "The_Undertaker"
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"paragraph_text": "The Streak was a series of 21 victories for professional wrestler The Undertaker (Mark Calaway) at WWE's premier annual event, WrestleMania. It began at WrestleMania VII in 1991 when he beat Jimmy Snuka, with the final win coming against CM Punk at WrestleMania 29 in 2013; the Undertaker was absent from WrestleMania X in 1994 and WrestleMania 2000, owing to injury. Overall, he defeated 18 men during the Streak, which included three bouts with Triple H and two each opposite Kane and Shawn Michaels, as well as a handicap match against A-Train and Big Show at WrestleMania XIX.\nThe Streak became the cornerstone of WrestleMania, with a potential win over The Undertaker at the event being described as a greater honor than winning the WWE Championship. For years, debate had revolved around who, if anybody, should break the Streak, with prominent wrestlers giving comment. At WrestleMania XXX in 2014, The Undertaker lost by pinfall to Brock Lesnar, thus ending the Streak.\n\nBackground\nWrestleMania\nWrestleMania is the premier annual event of the largest professional wrestling promotion in the United States, WWE. Formed as a counter to Jim Crockett Promotions' successful Starrcade event, WrestleMania I was broadcast to one million nationwide via closed-circuit television and pay-per-view. WrestleMania's widespread success helped transform professional wrestling and made WWE the most successful wrestling promotion in the world, prompting WWE to promote the event as the \"Super Bowl of sports entertainment\".\n\nThe Undertaker\nBorn Mark William Calaway on March 24, 1965, in Houston, The Undertaker is a former American professional wrestler. He is currently retired from the WWE, where he had worked since 1990, making him the company's longest-tenured in-ring performer. Holding the streak for most wins at WrestleMania, Calaway began his wrestling career with World Class Championship Wrestling (WCCW) in 1987. After wrestling for World Championship Wrestling (WCW) as \"Mean\" Mark Callous from 1989 to 1990, he signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later WWE) in 1990. In WWE, The Undertaker is a seven-time world champion, having won the WWF/E Championship four times and the World Heavyweight Championship three times, as well as the winner of the 2007 Royal Rumble. He is recognized as the fourth youngest WWF/E Champion in history, having won the championship aged 26 years, 8 months, and 3 days.\n\nMatch statistics\nThe Streak\nThe beginning of the Streak (1–0)\nEarly into The Undertaker's career, he would defeat various jobbers and other established stars in squash matches, leading to a match with Jimmy \"Superfly\" Snuka. The match at WrestleMania VII ended when Snuka's attempted springboard maneuver was countered as The Undertaker caught him, and he then hit the Tombstone Piledriver before pinning Snuka. The match has been described retrospectively as \"incredibly important\" for a match seen at the time as a throwaway match.\nIn mid-1991, The Undertaker aligned himself with Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts in his feud with The Ultimate Warrior. However, during an episode of Saturday Night's Main Event in February 1992, The Undertaker turned face and defended Randy Savage's manager and wife, Miss Elizabeth, from Roberts's attack. Two weeks later during a \"Funeral Parlor\" segment, when berated by Roberts regarding whose side he was on, The Undertaker responded, \"Not yours\". The feud culminated in a match at WrestleMania VIII, where, after delivering his finishing move, the DDT, for the second time, Roberts went to the outside to attack The Undertaker's manager Paul Bearer. The Undertaker then recovered and delivered a Tombstone Piledriver to Roberts on the floor, before rolling him inside the ring and pinning him. Wrestler Bret Hart was critical of the finish, in particular Roberts' role, describing him as \"sneaky\" for receiving The Undertaker's finishing move outside the ring, preventing a clean victory for the younger wrestler. Calaway credits Roberts for providing him with advice and insight in his early career, while Roberts said he knew from the very beginning Calaway would become a superstar as The Undertaker.\nIn late 1992 and into early 1993, The Undertaker had been feuding with Harvey Wippleman and engaged in matches with the various wrestlers managed by Wippleman. During the 1993 Royal Rumble, Wippleman introduced Giant Gonzáles. Gonzáles then illegally entered the Royal Rumble match and eliminated The Undertaker. This set up a match between the two at WrestleMania IX, in which Giant Gonzáles was disqualified when he covered The Undertaker's face with a cloth covered in chloroform. This was the only disqualification victory in The Undertaker's streak, as all other wins were obtained by pinfall, submission, or casket. Calaway has described it as the most physically and mentally straining match he ever wrestled, and is rated as amongst the worst matches in his career.\nThroughout 1994, The Undertaker was sidelined through legitimate injury and missed WrestleMania X as a consequence. In the months that followed, Ted DiBiase, leader of The Million Dollar Corporation, introduced his own Undertaker, prompting a long-running feud between The Undertaker and the Corporation. King Kong Bundy would represent the Million Dollar Corporation when he faced The Undertaker at WrestleMania XI in 1995. The match, refereed by baseball umpire Larry Young, finished when The Undertaker first bodyslammed and then delivered a flying clothesline to King Kong Bundy before pinning him. The Undertaker never losing at WrestleMania was acknowledged for the first time on commentary during Undertaker's entrance in this match.\n\nMajor feuds (5–0)\nAt the 1996 Royal Rumble, The Undertaker faced Bret Hart for the WWF Championship, but Diesel cost him the match due to interference. As revenge, The Undertaker cost Diesel his WWF Championship match at In Your House: Rage in the Cage the following month. The two settled their feud at WrestleMania XII, which would be Diesel's final match at the annual event before leaving the company and moving to WCW a couple of months later. Diesel lost via pinfall after The Undertaker delivered the Tombstone Piledriver.\nIn February 1997, Shawn Michaels vacated the WWF Championship 3 days before the In Your House 13: Final Four event, leaving the championship to be decided at the event in a four corners elimination match between The Undertaker, Bret Hart, Vader and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin. Hart won the match and the championship, but lost it to Sycho Sid in a match the following night on Raw. While Hart and Austin continued their feud, The Undertaker challenged Sid for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13. Hart interfered in the match at WrestleMania 13 by hitting Sid with a steel chair. The Undertaker followed up the chair shot by Hart with a Tombstone Piledriver to Sid before pinning him to claim the WWF Championship for the second time, his first reign in five years.\n\nAt SummerSlam 1997, The Undertaker lost the WWF Championship to Bret Hart after an accidental attack by special guest referee Shawn Michaels, setting up a Hell in a Cell match between the two at Badd Blood: In Your House. During the match, Kane was introduced by Paul Bearer to cost The Undertaker the match. After being defeated by Michaels at the 1998 Royal Rumble in a casket match thanks to Kane, Kane locked The Undertaker in the casket and set it on fire, leaving people to presume The Undertaker had met his demise However, The Undertaker would return a month later and challenged Kane to a match at WrestleMania XIV. After Kane had kicked out of two Tombstone Piledrivers (the first man ever to do so), The Undertaker delivered a third to pick up the win over his (storyline) brother.\nLate-1998 saw the creation of The Undertaker's Ministry of Darkness, and in turn, reignited his pursuit for the WWF Championship. Along the way, he opted to switch targets, and aimed to take control of the entire World Wrestling Federation. In feuding with The Corporation, The Undertaker faced the stable's enforcer, Big Boss Man at WrestleMania XV inside Hell in a Cell. The first WrestleMania match to take place inside Hell in a Cell ended when The Undertaker executed a Tombstone Piledriver to Big Boss Man, who was then hanged from a noose with the help of The Brood and Paul Bearer. The match is regarded as one of the worst and most controversial Hell in a Cell matches of all time.\n\nThe American Bad-Ass years (9–0)\nIn early 2001, The Undertaker found Triple H's statement of having \"already beaten everyone in the business\" as arrogant and untrue as the two had never met in a one-on-one match before (in fact, they had met several times on RAW is WAR in 1999). Following various brawls between their respective allies, The Undertaker and Kane held Stephanie McMahon hostage until then-commissioner, William Regal, gave them matches against Triple H and the Big Show at WrestleMania X-Seven, respectively. Following a match involving a brawl through the crowd, The Undertaker finally pinned Triple H after using the Last Ride. This bout marked his first WrestleMania appearance under his \"American Badass\" biker persona.\nAt the No Way Out 2002 PPV, The Undertaker faced The Rock amidst a rivalry between the two, but would lose the match when Ric Flair interfered, sparking a feud between the two which led to a match at WrestleMania X8. Fought under No Disqualification rules, The Undertaker beat Flair after delivering a Tombstone Piledriver, despite interference from Arn Anderson. After the match, The Undertaker gestured his number of WrestleMania wins. In 2020, Calaway revealed in an interview with Stone Cold Steve Austin that he had chosen to face Flair over Rob Van Dam after receiving the two options from Vince McMahon, citing Flair's legendary wrestling status. Also, according to Ric Flair, he mentioned that prior to the storyline feud between the two, Triple H told him that the Undertaker wanted to wrestle him.\nIn late-2002, Big Show kayfabe injured The Undertaker, who would make his return at the 2003 Royal Rumble. Although The Undertaker defeated Big Show at No Way Out, A-Train would attack The Undertaker, while newcomer Nathan Jones would aid The Undertaker. Just prior to their match at WrestleMania XIX, however, Jones would be attacked by The Full Blooded Italians on Heat, turning the tag team match into a two-on-one handicap match instead. Jones helped The Undertaker win by delivering kicks to both Big Show and A-Train, and allowing The Undertaker to hit a Tombstone Piledriver on A-Train to get the pinfall win. This bout at WrestleMania XIX would be the final match The Undertaker would have under the \"American Badass\" persona.\n\nDefending the Streak (12–0)\nSurvivor Series 2003 marked the end of The Undertaker's Big Evil persona, when he lost a Buried Alive Match against Vince McMahon due to interference from Kane. Reverting to his former Deadman persona, The Undertaker would haunt Kane throughout various matches in vignettes in the build up to the match, before his eventual return at WrestleMania XX. The Undertaker defeated Kane for the second time at WrestleMania by executing a Tombstone Piledriver.\nAs part of his \"Legend Killer\" gimmick, Randy Orton began seeking out The Undertaker, hoping to be the one to finally end the Streak at WrestleMania 21. Orton would go as far as attacking his on-screen girlfriend, Stacy Keibler, and WWE Legend Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts turning heel in the process, before The Undertaker accepted the challenge. The finish to the match came when Randy Orton attempted to execute a Tombstone Piledriver, only for it to be reversed by The Undertaker into one of his own. Speaking to Yahoo Sports in 2015, Orton reflected on the success of the match, saying: \"We killed it. I reversed the chokeslam into the RKO, everybody bought it, he beat my ass and that was it. He picked up another win at 'Mania, and rightfully so, because I think the WrestleMania brand and Undertaker go hand in hand\". This match marked the first time \"The Streak\" had been properly acknowledged since WrestleMania XI and 6 years later at WrestleMania X-Seven.\nDuring the start of 2006, The Undertaker began his pursuit for the World Heavyweight Championship, held by Kurt Angle at the time. On an episode of SmackDown! that aired on March 3, Mark Henry cost The Undertaker the match, as well as the World Heavyweight Championship. As a result, Undertaker then challenged Henry to a casket match at WrestleMania 22. The Undertaker won the match when he put Henry inside the casket. In 2019, former WWE producer Bruce Prichard claimed that the initial plan set out by Vince McMahon was for Henry to win the match, with The Undertaker and other producers unreceptive to the idea. Kurt Angle claimed that Undertaker wanted to wrestle with him for a \"5-star match\" and let Angle break the Streak, but this plan wasn't accepted by McMahon.\n\nChallenging for the World Heavyweight Championship (15–0)\nHaving won the 2007 Royal Rumble, The Undertaker earned the opportunity to select his opponent for WrestleMania 23. With the option to wrestle Raw's WWE Champion John Cena, ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley, or SmackDown!'s World Heavyweight Champion Batista; The Undertaker chose Batista, thus staying on SmackDown!.\nThe Undertaker used his signature moves Snake Eyes, Old School, and a flying clothesline early on, before executing a suicide dive to Batista, who then retaliated by performing a running powerslam through the ECW broadcast table. Batista put The Undertaker back in the ring and attempted a pin to no avail as he kicked out. The Undertaker recovered with a Last Ride and a chokeslam, but was unable to score a pin from either move. Batista then hit a spear and his finishing move the Batista Bomb, but The Undertaker stunned everybody by kicking out. Batista tried another, but was countered and The Undertaker hit a Tombstone Piledriver to win the World Heavyweight Championship.\nThe genesis of the feud between The Undertaker and Edge began on the May 11, 2007, episode of SmackDown!, which saw The Undertaker successfully defend his World Heavyweight Championship in a draw against Batista in a steel cage match, after which The Undertaker was attacked by a returning Mark Henry; Edge capitalized by cashing in his Money in the Bank briefcase to win the championship from The Undertaker. When The Undertaker returned later that year, he restarted his feud with Batista, leading to championship matches between the pair at October's Cyber Sunday, followed by a Hell in a Cell match at Survivor Series in November, with Batista emerging victorious in both, the latter due to interference from a returning Edge. The trio would have a Triple Threat match at December's Armageddon PPV for the championship, which saw Edge become champion. In February 2008, The Undertaker would prevail in the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out to become the number one contender for Edge's championship at WrestleMania XXIV. Although The Undertaker entered the event undefeated to much acclaim, Edge had also never lost a singles match at WrestleMania. Edge described the match as \"the biggest match of my career, bar none. The main event, against The Undertaker for the world championship, it doesn't get any better\".\nThe match was full of reversals by Edge, including The Undertaker's signature moves Old School, the big boot, the Last Ride, and the Tombstone Piledriver, while hitting big moves of his own such as the Impaler DDT and the Edge-o-matic. The end of the match came when, despite Edge using a camera as a weapon, and interference from La Familia members The Edgeheads (Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder), The Undertaker performed his Hell's Gate submission hold after being hit with Edge's finisher, the spear. Edge would submit, and for the second year in a row, The Undertaker won the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania. Meanwhile, Edge later revealed in a podcast, that the original plan for the match was to be \"Streak vs. Streak\", as he was originally slated to win WrestleMania 23's Money in the Bank Ladder Match, but booking eventually shifted the win to Mr. Kennedy instead. Calaway's wife, Michelle McCool, revealed in 2020 that Edge refused the opportunity to break the Streak.\n\nShawn Michaels challenges the Streak (17–0)\nAfter defeating Vladimir Kozlov on the March 2, 2009, episode of Raw, Shawn Michaels earned the right to challenge The Undertaker at WrestleMania 25. The feud revolved around a \"good vs evil\" story, with Michaels being a born again Christian, and Undertaker a Lucifer-type figure.\n\nDuring the match, The Undertaker attempted his signature suicide dive, but Michaels pulled a cameraman in the way, leaving The Undertaker to land awkwardly on his neck; the spot was said to have \"added more drama and emotion to the match, and gave it an element of realism\". The cameraman was portrayed by Jimmy Snuka's son Sim Snuka, as a nod to The Undertaker's first WrestleMania match. The finish, described as \"emotionally charged\", involved The Undertaker using all four of his recognized finishers (Tombstone Piledriver, Last Ride, Chokeslam, Hell's Gate) without managing to finish the match on any occasion; The Undertaker's \"wide-eyed look of sadness and desperation on his face\" after Michaels kicked out of the Tombstone Piledriver was described as a \"snapshot of the heart and passion that was on display at the spectacle\". Michaels made a comeback, and eventually hit Sweet Chin Music, but The Undertaker kicked out. Soon after, Michaels attempted a top-rope moonsault, but was caught, and The Undertaker quickly executed a second Tombstone Piledriver to finally win the match. The match was described as \"show-stealing\" and an \"instant classic\", and was eventually hailed by many as the greatest bout in WrestleMania history.\nThe Undertaker initially rejected a rematch with Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania XXVI, saying \"a rematch at this year's WrestleMania will only result in more bitter disappointment for yourself\", before Michaels retaliated by saying \"I'll see you at WrestleMania. Your streak, your title, your soul will be mine\". At the Elimination Chamber PPV, Michaels cost The Undertaker his World Heavyweight Championship, coming out from under the ring and connecting with Sweet Chin Music and allowing Chris Jericho to pin him.\nTowards the end, Michaels hit Sweet Chin Music on the outside, leaving The Undertaker lay on the broadcast table, before performing a top-rope moonsault, breaking the table. At the end of a 24-minute match, after kicking out of a Tombstone Piledriver, Michaels slapped The Undertaker, leading to The Undertaker executing a jumping Tombstone Piledriver on Michaels. As a result of the loss per the pre-match stipulations, Michaels retired from professional wrestling, a moment described as \"the end of an era\".\n\nFinal wins (21–0)\nIn the lead-up to WrestleMania XXVII, Triple H vowed to do what his best friend Michaels could not: end the Streak. After a near-30 minute bout, in a match contested under No Holds Barred rules, and after The Undertaker kicked out of a Tombstone Piledriver by Triple H, The Undertaker was triumphant when he locked in the Hell's Gate on Triple H; Triple H attempted to use a sledgehammer while in the hold, but was unable to do so before tapping out. Although victorious, Calaway legitimately could not walk out of the arena, and had to be stretchered to the back by paramedics.\n\nThe Undertaker made the challenge, as he wanted to redeem himself against Triple H from the previous year, where he had to be stretchered out of the arena. Triple H initially rejected before accepting for WrestleMania XXVIII. Contested inside Hell in a Cell, and refereed by Shawn Michaels, the match, billed as the \"End of an Era\" began with both men brawling in and around the ring. Shortly afterwards, with the steel steps inside the ring, Triple H hit a spinebuster on The Undertaker, who then managed to lock in the Hell's Gate, which was countered when Triple H lifted him up and slammed him on the steel steps. The match was littered with weapon shots, including 16 consecutive chair shots by Triple H, followed by a sledgehammer shot to the skull, all the while The Undertaker instructed Michaels not to stop the match.\nWhen being checked on by Michaels, The Undertaker locked him in the Hell's Gate, leaving him out cold. Replacement referee Charles Robinson ran down to the ring after The Undertaker hit a chokeslam on Triple H, but could only make a two-count, and was then on the receiving end of a chokeslam himself. Michaels recovered and hit The Undertaker with Sweet Chin Music followed by a Pedigree by Triple H, but this wasn't enough for the three count. Both men traded finishing moves for near-falls, before The Undertaker delivered his own series of chair shots for another two count. The Undertaker won shortly afterwards with a Tombstone Piledriver. It was praised as one of the greatest Hell in a Cell matches of all time, while Triple H thought it was one of his favorite matches of his career.\n\nIn a controversial angle the week before WrestleMania 29, CM Punk's manager Paul Heyman, dressed as, and using the mannerisms of, the recently deceased Paul Bearer, came out to confront The Undertaker whilst flanked by The Undertaker's signature druids. As The Undertaker attempted to assault them, Punk, in disguise as a druid, assaulted him before pouring the ashes of an urn, purporting to be those of Bearer's, over The Undertaker. In a 2020 interview, Calaway said that he was initially conflicted about the angle, but realized that Bearer \"would have loved it\", with storyline brother Kane stating it was \"the biggest compliment and that's the biggest tribute\". Heyman has described it as intentionally offensive and controversial. Punk has spoken of his frustrations with the build of the match, saying that he was disappointed not to be presented on television as a legitimate threat to the Streak, feeling he was \"just another guy\".\nDuring the 22 minute match, Punk delivered a Macho Man elbow drop from the top rope onto The Undertaker, who was lay on the Spanish broadcast table. The Undertaker survived this, and, after Punk hit The Undertaker with the urn containing the alleged ashes of Paul Bearer, he still kicked out. The Undertaker reversed Punk's attempt to use his Go To Sleep (GTS) finishing move, and hit a Tombstone Piledriver to mark the final victory in the Streak.\n\nEnd of the Streak and aftermath\nWrestleMania XXX (21–1)\nOn October 23, 2010, after losing his UFC Heavyweight Championship to Cain Velasquez at UFC 121, Brock Lesnar was confronted by The Undertaker, who asked, \"you wanna do it?\" The incident led to speculation about a WrestleMania match between the two, and was described by Fox Sports as the \"genesis\" of their feud. In a 2020 interview with Stone Cold Steve Austin following his retirement, Calaway said that the interaction with Lesnar at UFC 121 was to \"start a buzz.\" At the time, he said he did not know if Lesnar was going to return to WWE, but he wanted to position himself for a match with him just in case and that came later than expected.\nOn the February 24, 2014, episode of Raw, The Undertaker appeared for the first time since The Shield performed a powerbomb on him through a broadcast table ten months earlier, to answer Lesnar's challenge for a match at WrestleMania XXX, scheduled for April 6 at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans. The Undertaker went into the match as the massive odds-on favorite, but after three F-5s, Lesnar pinned The Undertaker in 25 minutes and 12 seconds to end the undefeated WrestleMania streak, silencing and shocking the entire crowd in the process. Calaway was legitimately hospitalized afterwards with a severe concussion suffered early in the match. Lesnar's music was not played for a few minutes while WWE cameramen continued to highlight the reaction of a stunned crowd, and his manager Paul Heyman would compare the crowds' reaction to when Ivan Koloff defeated Bruno Sammartino for the WWWF Championship in Madison Square Garden in 1971. Heyman thereafter began using the victory to further promote his on-screen client and referred to himself as \"the one behind the one in 21 and 1\". Heyman later described himself as \"giddy\" at the prospect.\n\nThe match has been described as having the most shocking result since the Montreal Screwjob. A great number of fans objected to the outcome; Justin Henry of WrestleCrap made an impassioned defense of the decision, arguing that it elicited an emotional response that reduced him and other viewers \"to the most base-ishness of our fanhood\". Questioned by Austin about his decision to end the Streak, Vince McMahon said it was done to make a big deal of Lesnar and that there were no other viable candidates for the role. He added that Calaway was shocked by the decision, but willingly participated since he wanted to give back to the business. According to wrestling journalist Dave Meltzer, McMahon made the decision to end the Streak on the day of the show, believing it doubtful he would have anymore matches. During an interview on the Broken Skull Sessions with Stone Cold in November 2020 following his retirement, Calaway confirmed that the decision to end the Streak was made the day of the show, stating that he was still going over as of that morning. He also confirmed McMahon's opinion of there being no other viable candidate, but Calaway felt that Lesnar did not need the win as he was already a huge star. Jim Ross believes the Streak should not have been broken, as it was a unique selling point of WrestleMania. The only people who knew Undertaker would be losing to Lesnar at the time of the match itself were Calaway, Lesnar, Vince McMahon, Stephanie McMahon, and Triple H; the shocked reactions of everyone else were legitimate.\n\nAfter the streak (2015–2020)\nTaking exception to Lesnar's boasting about ending The Streak, The Undertaker cost him a WWE World Heavyweight Championship victory at Battleground in July 2015, instigating a rematch between the two at the next month's SummerSlam. At that event on August 23, after a distraction and a low blow, The Undertaker gained his first televised singles victory over Lesnar when the latter passed out to Hell's Gate. A Hell in a Cell match between the pair at October's Hell in a Cell, billed as their final meeting, was won by Lesnar after a low blow and an F-5.\nFollowing The Undertaker's WrestleMania XXX loss to Lesnar, he had five more matches at the annual event against:\n\nBray Wyatt at WrestleMania 31\nShane McMahon at WrestleMania 32 in a Hell in a Cell match\nRoman Reigns at WrestleMania 33 in a No Holds Barred match\nJohn Cena at WrestleMania 34\nAJ Styles at WrestleMania 36 in a Boneyard match\nHe won all but the match with Reigns, making his overall WrestleMania record 25–2. In a 2020 interview following his retirement, Calaway said losing the Streak to Reigns would have made \"a lot more sense\" for the impact on their respective careers.\n\nReaction, discussion, and legacy\nShawn Michaels described the Streak as \"phenomenal\", and Stone Cold Steve Austin said it was \"special\".\n\nMedia\nWWE has released various DVDs covering the Streak, including one for the 15–0 milestone in 2008, and a four-disc set to mark the 20–0 milestone in 2012. An updated version including the final victory over CM Punk, as well as the loss to Brock Lesnar, was issued in 2015.\nVideo game WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011 features a Road to WrestleMania storyline in which the player can attempt to break the Undertaker's streak. WWE 2K14 features a more detailed the Streak mode, in which players can attempt to defend the Streak as The Undertaker. Alternatively, they can try to break it as any other wrestler in the game.\n\nNotes\nSee also\nGoldberg win streak\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Undertaker's WrestleMania undefeated streak in numbers",
"title": "The_Streak_(professional_wrestling)"
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"idx": 2,
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania VII was the seventh annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 24, 1991, at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena in Los Angeles, California in the United States. Fourteen matches were shown during the live broadcast, with one dark match held before the event.\nThe main event saw Hulk Hogan defeat Sgt. Slaughter for the WWF Championship as part of a storyline in which Sgt. Slaughter portrayed an Iraqi sympathizer during the United States' involvement in the Gulf War. Significant events on the undercard included The Undertaker's WrestleMania debut and the beginning of his renowned winning streak, a retirement match between Randy Savage and The Ultimate Warrior leading to the former's reunion with estranged love Miss Elizabeth, as well as the final televised match of the original Hart Foundation, after which Bret Hart became primarily a singles wrestler.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania VII was originally scheduled to be held on March 24, 1991, in Los Angeles, California at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, but the WWF decided to move the event to the adjacent Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena.\nThe WWF's stated reason for the venue change was that it had security concerns in the wake of Sgt. Slaughter's portrayal of an Iraqi sympathizer during the Gulf War. This was dismissed by outlets such as SLAM! Sports of Canada, who chalked up the venue change to poor advanced ticket sales, and the company having difficulty filling the estimated 100,000 seats available. According to former WWF executive Bruce Prichard, both were accurate statements. In his Something to Wrestle With podcast, Prichard said that even if the WWF had sold out the Coliseum, the scope of the event was too large for police to ensure its security. Prichard explained further in an interview with Kayfabe Commentaries that the WWF would have had to foot the entire bill for the amount of security necessary to keep the wrestlers and fans safe from all potential issues, citing both the possibility of an outside attack and the crime rate of the surrounding neighborhood. Dave Meltzer in the Wrestling Observer Newsletter wrote that between 11,900 and 15,000 tickets were sold before the move. He also reported that no tickets had to be refunded, indicating that sales were under 15,500. Comp tickets were believed to help fill the show's crowd.\nThe tagline for the event was \"Superstars and Stripes Forever,\" and is remembered for its theme of American patriotism in the wake of the Gulf War. American flags were hung all over the arena and the ring apron and banners were colored red, white, and blue, which was the basis for the main event between Hulk Hogan and Sgt. Slaughter for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship.\nThis was the first WrestleMania not to feature Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura as a color commentator. Gorilla Monsoon hosted the event with Bobby Heenan. When Heenan had to manage at ringside in the opening match and again during Mr. Perfect's Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship defense, Monsoon was joined on the commentary by Jim Duggan and \"Lord\" Alfred Hayes respectively. In addition, Regis Philbin helped with commentary on the main event while Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek served as the ring announcer.\nWillie Nelson sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" before the show. Other celebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania VII included Philbin, Trebek, and Marla Maples as backstage announcers. George Steinbrenner, Paul Maguire, Macaulay Culkin, Donald Trump, Lou Ferrigno, Chuck Norris, Beverly D'Angelo and Henry Winkler appeared as spectators. Bob Costas was scheduled to make an appearance, but he canceled weeks before the event due to his objection to the main event angle.\nThe artist for the promotional poster is renowned illustrative painter Joe Jusko known mainly for his work within the comic book industry.\nRandy Savage required surgery on a broken thumb in late January before the event. The injury required him to miss several matches leading up to WrestleMania.\n\nStorylines\nThe two main feuds entering WrestleMania in 1991 were between Hulk Hogan and WWF Champion Sgt. Slaughter and The Ultimate Warrior and \"Macho King\" Randy Savage, and in a way, both were intertwined.\nWarrior had defeated Hogan for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania a year earlier and entered 1991 as the champion. In the meantime, Sgt. Slaughter had returned to the WWF near the end of 1990 after spending five years wrestling in the American Wrestling Association. When he returned, Slaughter announced that he had turned his back on his country and had become an Iraqi sympathizer and follower of Saddam Hussein. He had also revealed an alliance with an Iraqi military leader, General Adnan, who became his advisor (Adnan having followed Slaughter from the AWA to participate in the angle). This coincided with the increasing tension in the Middle East that was going on at that time, which eventually would lead to Operation Desert Storm and American involvement in the conflict. Slaughter would eventually set his sights on the Warrior, and the two agreed to a match at the Royal Rumble in January 1991.\nSavage, meanwhile, was trying to regain the WWF Championship that he had lost at WrestleMania V to Hogan and challenged Warrior repeatedly to give him a shot. Warrior continually refused to do so and Savage decided to seek another remedy. During the match between Warrior and Slaughter, Savage and his manager Queen Sherri came to ringside and got involved in the match. Warrior picked up an interfering Sherri and tossed her from the ring onto Savage. Slaughter capitalized by driving Warrior down, leaving him hanging over the second rope. Savage then struck Warrior with his royal scepter as Slaughter kept the referee's attention, knocking the champion unconscious. Slaughter then hit an elbow drop on the Warrior and pinned him to become the new champion. After he came to and realized what Savage had done, Warrior charged to the back looking for Savage. He then issued a challenge for a retirement match for the two at WrestleMania, which Savage accepted.\nHogan, having no connection with the ongoing story to this point, entered the Royal Rumble match as its defending champion. He won the match by eliminating his old rival Earthquake last, then went backstage to be interviewed by Gene Okerlund. During the course of the interview, the word was relayed to the two that Slaughter and Adnan were celebrating their triumph by defacing an American flag. Hogan then promised to stand up for his country and take the title from Slaughter as soon as possible, and was later named the #1 contender for the WWF Championship, which he had not contended for since losing the title to the Warrior at WrestleMania VI.\nLeading up to the show, Hogan continued to cite the ongoing real-life war in their feud. On one episode of WWF Prime Time Wrestling, Hogan stated that Iraq would surrender in the war at the moment he defeated Slaughter.\n\nEvent\nThe opening bout was a singles match pitting the Brooklyn Brawler against Koko B. Ware. Ware defeated the Brooklyn Brawler by pinfall. This was a dark match that did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast.\nThe pay-per-view broadcast began with a performance of \"America the Beautiful\" by Willie Nelson.\nThe second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a tag team match pitting the Barbarian and Haku against the Rockers. In the end, Shawn Michaels hit Haku with a flying bodypress and pinned him for the three count.\nAfter that, Dino Bravo and the Texas Tornado faced off in the ring. In the end, The Texas Tornado won the bout by pinfall following a discus punch.\nNext, the British Bulldog took on the Warlord. In the end, The British Bulldog performed a running powerslam on Warlord to win the match.\nAfter that, the WWF Tag Team Champions were on the line with the Hart Foundation defended their titles against the Nasty Boys. In the end, Jerry Sags struck Jim Neidhart with a motorcycle helmet, enabling Brian Knobbs to pin him, earning The Nasty Boys their first tag team championship in WWF.\nNext, Jake Roberts and Rick Martel competed in a blindfold match. In the end, Roberts struck Martel with a DDT and pinned him, winning the match.\nAfter that, Jimmy Snuka faced off against The Undertaker. Although Snuka attempted to bring Undertaker off his feet, he was unable too. In the end, Snuka attempted a Springboard crossbody maneuver on Undertaker but Undertaker caught him and hit Snuka with Tombstone Piledriver for the victory. This marked the beginning of the Undertaker's streak.\n\nNext, was the retirement match between Randy Savage and the Ultimate Warrior. Before both men came out, Bobby Heenan spotted Savage's former valet Miss Elizabeth in the crowd. Savage and Queen Sherri came to the ring carried on a throne and Warrior walked out instead of his trademark running. The match started slow, both men initially insisted on chain wrestling until Savage started using strikes on Warrior. Savage went to the top rope and attempted a crossbody on Warrior but he caught him but put Savage on his feet and slapped him. Savage retreated from the ring and grabbed a chair at ringside and threw it at Warrior but it missed. Savage snuck back into the ring after being distracted by the referee picking up the chair and attacked Warrior. Warrior irish whipped Savage into the corner and attempted a splash but Savage got out of the way and Warrior fell to the outside. Sherri picked up Warrior and struck his throat when the referee wasn't looking and Savage performed a diving axe handle from the top turnbuckle to outside the ring. Savage got back into the ring but Sherri picked up Warrior again and began hitting him but Warrior pushed her over. Savage then came out of the ring and attacked Warrior from behind. Eventually, Warrior got back in the ring and Savage hit Warrior with a body slam for a two count. After a brief back and fourth, Savage attempted to wear Warrior down with a sleeper hold but Warrior got out of it and ran on the ropes but both men collided with each other in the center of the ring. Savage got Warrior up but Warrior countered with a small package but Sherri distracted the referee and when the referee turned around he counted but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior began arguing with the referee and Savage took advantage by delivering a running knee lift which propelled Warrior into the referee, taking him out. Savage then held Warrior in place and Sherri took her shoe off so she could hit Warrior with it. She climbed to the top turnbuckle and attempted and axe handle with the shoe but Warrior got out of the way and she struck Savage with it instead. Warrior chased Sherri around ringside until Savage intervened and rolled up Warrior for a two count. Savage performed a stun gun on Warrior and performed a clothesline to the back of the head. After body slamming Warrior, Savage climbed to the top rope and performed five diving elbow drops on Warrior and pinned him but Warrior kicked out. Warrior then got a surge of energy and fought back against Savage and delivered a gorilla press slam and splash to the back and pinned him but Savage kicked out at two. Warrior then began talking to his hands and asking his gods if he should step aside and lose the match and questioning whether his destiny is to lose to Savage. Warrior stepped out of the ring to give Savage a count out win after apparently receiving an answer from above. Before Warrior could do that though, Savage attacked him while he was on the apron. Savage then attempted an axe handle to the outside but Warrior moved out the way and Savage hit the barricade instead. Warrior got Savage in the ring and performed three shoulder tackles on Savage and pinned him for the three count.\nAfter winning, Warrior put on his entrance coat and celebrated in the ring before leaving. After he had left, Sherri berated Savage who was still lying on the ring canvas trying to recover from his match. Sherri began attacking Savage in the ring but Elizabeth hopped over the barricade and got into the ring and grabbed Sherri and threw her to the outside. Elizabeth began crying and both Savage and Elizabeth embraced in the ring. The two then left the ring.\n\nAfter that, Demolition took on Genichiro Tenryu and Kōji Kitao. In the end, Tenryu performed a powerbomb on Smash and stacked him up for the win.\nNext, was a singles match between WWF Intercontinental Champion Mr. Perfect against Big Boss Man with Perfect's title on the line. In the end, Big Boss Man was attacked by The Barbarian and Haku causing a disqualification victory for Big Boss Man.\nAfter that, Earthquake and Greg Valentine faced off and Earthquake took an advantage early on and performed an Earthquake Splash for the three count.\nNext, Legion of Doom took on Power and Glory. In the end, The Legion of Doom performed a 'doomsday device on Paul Roma and Animal pinned him for the victory.\nAfter that, was a match between Ted DiBiase and Virgil. In the end, Roddy Piper came out and distracted DiBiase. When Virgil threw DiBiase to the outside Piper continued distracting him and was unable to enter the ring thus Virgil won by countout.\nIn the penultimate match, The Mountie faced off against Tito Santana. In the end, Jimmy Hart distracted the referee and The Mountie zapped Santana with his cattle prod and pinned him for a quick victory.\nIn the main event the reigning WWF Champion Sgt. Slaughter defend his title against Hulk Hogan. Slaughter entered with General Adnan who was waiving the Flag of Iraq. Hogan entered waiving the Flag of the United States to a thunderous ovation. Both men started the match circling one another. They began chain wrestling and Slaughter pinned Hogan in the corner and the referee had to separate them. Slaughter once again pinned Hogan in the corner but Hogan shoved Slaughter who was sent to the other side of the ring. Hogan then knocked down Slaughter who retreated to the outside. Hogan went to the outside to get Slaughter but Adnan hit him from behind but Hogan wasn't phased and began chasing Adnan and Slaughter hit Hogan in the back with a steel chair but Hogan still wasn't phased. Hogan grabbed Slaughter and sent him into the ring. Slaughter begged for mercy and then poked Hogan in the eye. Slaughter then began wearing down Hogan. Hogan then knocked Slaughter down and Adnan got on the apron to taunt Hogan but Hogan hit him which sent him down on the floor. Hogan then took control and began beating Slaughter. Hogan then went to the top rope but Adnan grabbed Hogan's foot and Slaughter grabbed Hogan and threw him into the middle of the ring. Slaughter then clotheslined Hogan out of the ring and began hitting him with a steel chair. Slaughter then grabbed some TV cables and began choking Hogan with them. Slaughter took Hogan inside the ring and delivered a backbreaker for a two count. Slaughter began arguing with the referee and continued to beat Hogan and then put him in a Boston Crab submission. Hogan grabbed the ropes to break the hold but Slaughter thought he had won but the referee told him he hadn't. Slaughter began giving knees to Hogan's back and went to the top rope and delivered a foot stomp to Hogan's back and pinned him but Adnan accidentally distracted the referee. When the referee turned around and began counting Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter went to the outside and grabbed a steel chair. Hogan, who was leaning on the ropes facing the outside was hit in the hide by Slaughter with the steel chair. Slaughter then pinned Hogan but Hogan kicked out at two. Slaughter then began hitting Hogan in the head, causing him to bleed. Hogan attempted a comeback but was not able too. Slaughter then put Hogan in the Camel clutch but would release the hold to stomp a few times on Hogan's back, only to put the hold on again. Hogan got up while Slaughter still had the hold applied and attempted to ram Slaughter into the turnbuckle but Slaughter released the hold and shoved Hogan into the turnbuckle. Slaughter then asked Adnan for the flag of Iraq and Adnan handed him it. Slaughter then placed the flag of Iraq on Hogan and pinned him but Hogan kicked out at two and Hogan grabbed the flag and tore it in front of Slaughter. Hogan then hulked up and even though Slaughter began hitting him, his punches had no effect. Hogan then irish whipped Slaughter off the ropes and delivered a big boot. Hogan then peformed a leg drop on Slaughter for the three count and thus became a record three-time WWF World Heavyweight Champion. Hogan then waived the Flag of the United States and celebrated in the ring.\n\nReception\nThe official attendance of WrestleMania VII held at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena was 16,158. Journalist Dave Meltzer reported that the paid attendance was approximately 10,500.\n\nAftermath\nThe Undertaker's victory debut at the event marked the beginning of his WrestleMania streak. \nBackstage as Hogan was being interviewed on his victory over Sgt. Slaughter, Slaughter attacked Hogan by throwing a fireball in his face. Hogan quickly recovered from the attack and defended the belt primarily against Slaughter, largely in \"Desert Storm\" (i.e., no-disqualification) matches. He also had to deal with the returning Iron Sheik, who was now competing as Colonel Mustafa. Hogan and the Ultimate Warrior eventually teamed up at SummerSlam 1991, defeating Slaughter, Mustafa, and their manager, General Adnan, in a two-vs.-three handicap match.\nSavage returned to television in a non-wrestling role as a color commentator for the WWF's flagship syndicated program, Superstars; although a fan favorite to the crowd, much of his commentary was heel-leaning. Meanwhile, the storyline with Miss Elizabeth continued, culminating with Savage proposing to her in the ring leading to an on-air wedding at SummerSlam 1991 dubbed The Match Made in Heaven. (The wedding was kayfabe, as Savage and Elizabeth were already legally married.)\nVirgil and Ted DiBiase feuded with each other until November 1991, including facing off at SummerSlam 1991 when DiBiase lost his Million Dollar Belt to Virgil. After DiBiase won his belt back in November with the help of The Repo Man (formerly Smash of Demolition), their feud ended at the This Tuesday in Texas PPV when DiBiase and Repo Man defeated Virgil and Tito Santana in a tag team match.\nGenichiro Tenryu and Kōji Kitao were on loan from the Japanese promotion Super World of Sports. The WWF co-promoted several cards in Japan with the group, including two Tokyo Dome shows on March 30 and December 12, 1991. Although SWS folded in June 1992, Tenryu's follow-up promotion, WAR, co-promoted the WWF's first Japanese tour in 1994.\nAfter WrestleMania VII, The Hart Foundation disbanded. Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart went into singles competition. Bret Hart went on to singles success, defeating Mr. Perfect for the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1991, and later in 1992 would win the WWF Championship when he defeated Ric Flair in his father's home town of Saskatoon in Saskatchewan, Canada. Neidhart would later in 1991 form a tag team called \"The New Foundation\" with Hart's younger brother Owen. \nThis would be the final WrestleMania appearance for André the Giant. André would appear at ringside during the Intercontinental Championship match and assist the Big Boss Man in fending off the Heenan Family. He would make sporadic appearances for the rest of the year before his passing in 1993.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\nWrestleMania VII at IMDb",
"title": "WrestleMania_VII"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania VIII was the eighth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 5, 1992, at the Hoosier Dome in Indianapolis, Indiana in the United States. Nine matches were shown during the live broadcast, with one dark match occurring before the event.\nMatches held at WrestleMania VIII included WWF Intercontinental Champion Roddy Piper defending his title against former champion Bret Hart, WWF Champion Ric Flair defending his title against Randy Savage, Hulk Hogan facing his rival Sid Justice.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania VIII was scheduled to be held on April 5, 1992, at the Hoosier Dome in Indianapolis, Indiana.\n\nStorylines\nThe original plan for the main event was the long-awaited bout between Ric Flair and Hulk Hogan for the WWF Championship, the meeting between the two legends was even promoted on television in a mock press conference where WWF President Jack Tunney had announced Hogan as the number one contender to Flair's WWF Championship. Both Flair and Hogan had wrestled against each other in several house show matches and a televised tag match, but not in a televised main event singles match. WrestleMania VIII was changed to a double main event with Hogan wrestling Sid Justice, while Flair wrestled Randy Savage. For storyline purposes, Sid Justice lobbied to wrestle Hulk Hogan due to tensions starting between the two at that year's Royal Rumble, where Hogan was eliminated by Sid Justice. This maneuver on Sid's part led Hogan to helping rival Ric Flair eliminate Justice and then win not only the Royal Rumble but the WWF Championship in the process. This would make Ric Flair only the second man to win both the WWF and NWA World Heavyweight Titles, the first being the original \"Nature Boy\", Buddy Rogers.\n\nEvent\nA scheduled match between the British Bulldog and The Berzerker was cut due to time constraints. \nThe opening bout was a tag team match pitting the Beverly Brothers against the Bushwhackers. The Bushwhackers won the match by pinfall. This was a dark match that did not air on the pay-per-view broadcast.\nThe pay-per-view broadcast opened with country music singer Reba McEntire performing \"The Star-Spangled Banner\".\nThe second bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast, was a Singles match between Shawn Michaels and Tito Santana. Michaels won the match by pinfall after reversing a body slam attempt into a body press.\nFollowing the second bout, the Legion of Doom and their manager Paul Ellering were interviewed by Gene Okerlund. The Legion of Doom were originally supposed to challenge Money Inc for the WWF Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania VIII but due to Hawk being under suspension until after WrestleMania they were replaced in the match by the Natural Disasters.\nThe third bout was a singles match between Jake Roberts and the Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall after giving Roberts a Tombstone Piledriver outside of the ring.\nThe fourth bout was a singles match in which WWF Intercontinental Champion Roddy Piper defended his title against Bret Hart. Hart defeated Piper by pinfall after reversing Piper's sleeper hold into a pin, thus winning the WWF Intercontinental Championship.\nFollowing the fourth bout, a pre-recorded interview with Lex Luger aired in which he promoted the World Bodybuilding Federation.\nThe fifth bout was an eight-man tag team match pitting Big Boss Man, Jim Duggan, Sgt. Slaughter, and Virgil against The Mountie, The Nasty Boys, and Repo Man. Family Feud host Ray Combs was a guest ring announcer for the eight-man tag match. Big Boss Man, Duggan, Slaughter, and Virgil won the match by pinfall when Jerry Sags accidentally punched Brian Knobbs, enabling Virgil to pin Knobbs.\n\nThe sixth bout was a singles match in which WWF Champion Ric Flair defended his title against Randy Savage. Savage defeated Flair by pinfall using a roll-up to win the title. At the time the company had a \"no blood\" policy. Nonetheless, Ric Flair was caught blading directly on camera and was fined several thousand dollars. In one of his first appearances in the WWF, Shane McMahon was one of the backstage officials who attempted to keep Miss Elizabeth away from ringside during the Flair/Savage match. He then restrained Savage in the ensuing brawl after the contest.\nThe seventh bout was a singles match between Rick Martel and Tatanka. Tatanka won the match by pinfall using a cross body block.\nThe eighth bout was a tag team match in which WWF Tag Team Champions Money Inc. defended their titles against the Natural Disasters. The Natural Disasters won the bout by countout after Money Inc abandoned the match.\nThe ninth bout was a singles match between Owen Hart and Skinner. Hart won the match by pinfall using a roll-up.\nThe main event bout was a singles match between Hulk Hogan and Sid Justice. Hogan won the match by disqualification after Justice's manager Harvey Whippleman interfered. The finish to the Justice-Hogan match actually did not occur as planned - the original plan was for Hogan to hit the leg drop on Justice and for Papa Shango to do a run in and break up the pin causing a disqualification; however, Papa Shango either missed or misjudged his cue and was late in getting down to the ring, causing Justice to have to improvise by kicking out of the leg drop. Following the match, Justice and Shango attacked Hogan until the Ultimate Warrior made a surprise return, helping Hogan drive Justice and Shango away.\n\nReception\nCritics praised the Intercontinental Championship match between Piper and Hart. Thomas Golianopoulos of Complex Sports ranked it at number 15 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, describing it as \"A stiff match that veers from amateur wrestling to all-out street fight with a great finish.\" Golianopoulos also ranked the Flair vs. Savage match at number 19 on the same list, praising the in-ring psychology despite an abrupt finish. On the other hand, Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter gave the Hogan/Justice main event negative two stars, citing their lackluster performance and the late entry of Papa Shango, which necessitated a hastily rewritten ending. The main event was also ranked by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic as the worst WrestleMania main event of all time in their 2019 ranking of every WrestleMania Main Event, while saying that the WWF Championship Match between Flair and Savage should've been the main event in their 2020 list of 10 WrestleMania Matches That Closed The Show.\n\nAftermath\nSavage's primary opponent during the spring and summer of 1992 was Ric Flair, with the storyline over Flair's alleged past relationship with Elizabeth continuing to play a major factor. It was revealed later in WWF Magazine that the photos that Flair had shown of himself with Elizabeth were fakes, and that they were actually of Savage and Elizabeth. In real life, Savage and Elizabeth were about to separate, and did, with Elizabeth making her final WWF appearance on April 19, 1992 at the UK Rampage pay-per-view. WrestleMania VIII marked Elizabeth's last major pay-per-view appearance in the United States for the WWF.\nAlthough Savage and Flair continued feuding, the Elizabeth aspect was dropped from the storyline, and the former couple's divorce was finalized in September 1992. Savage briefly addressed the divorce in an issue of WWF Magazine, but it was otherwise not mentioned in kayfabe.\nShawn Michaels began receiving his first major push as a main-event singles competitor, as he would challenge Randy Savage for the WWF Championship in Europe, while challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in the United States, while occasionally teaming with Ric Flair in tag team matches against Hart and Savage. Michaels eventually won the WWF Intercontinental Championship from The British Bulldog (who had won the title from Hart at the SummerSlam event in London, England in August) in October.\nThe Hulk Hogan-Sid Justice match was billed as Hogan's \"last match\", when in actuality, Hogan took a hiatus, due to the steroid scandal which was beginning to emerge in the news media. Piper also took a hiatus from the ring following WrestleMania VIII. Roberts left the company and would return four years later, using a \"born-again Christian\" gimmick. Sid Justice was largely unsuccessful in post-WrestleMania matches against the Ultimate Warrior and The Undertaker and eventually left the company, returning in 1995.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\nWrestleMania VII at IMDb",
"title": "WrestleMania_VIII"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania IX was the ninth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). The event took place on April 4, 1993, at Caesars Palace in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada. It was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors.\nWrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines. The first was the seemingly unstoppable Yokozuna challenging Bret Hart for the WWF Championship in the main event, a right he earned by winning the 1993 Royal Rumble. The other major storyline was the return of Hulk Hogan, who had departed the WWF following WrestleMania VIII but returned to team with Brutus Beefcake against the WWF Tag Team Champions, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster). Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match, but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu, unadvertised 22-second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship. In addition, Shawn Michaels retained the Intercontinental Championship, though he lost his match against Tatanka.\nThe event has been panned by critics and fans alike. The most frequent criticism has been related to the match between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez, Hulk Hogan's title win, and the Roman togas worn by announcers. Both the pay-per-view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year's WrestleMania.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were eventually dubbed the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania IX was scheduled to be held on April 4, 1993, at Caesars Palace in the Las Vegas suburb of Paradise, Nevada.\nEarly TV promos for WrestleMania IX ticket sales, airing in December 1992, focused on shots of Hulk Hogan and Bret Hart, with quick shots of Doink the Clown, Razor Ramon, Crush, Shawn Michaels, Ric Flair, and Randy Savage also shown. Hogan had notably not appeared on WWF TV since April of that year. Flair would not be on the roster at the time of the event.\nThis was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors, a concept the company did not use again until WrestleMania XXIV in 2008. Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace, the WWF promoted the event as the \"World's Largest Toga Party\". The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum, and the event featured guards, trumpeters, and several live animals. The company built on this theme by having the commentators, including debuting announcer Jim Ross, wear togas. Ring announcer Howard Finkel was also renamed \"Finkus Maximus\" for the day. Randy Savage came to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards. Bobby Heenan made his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards.\n\nHulk Hogan's visibly damaged eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match. In reality, the cause of injury has been open to debate. One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex-wife Elizabeth Hulette had an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married (the couple divorced in September 1992). WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of a jet ski accident.\nA match was scheduled between Bam Bam Bigelow and Kamala, but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began.\n\nStorylines\nOne of the feuds heading into the event was between Tatanka and Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels. Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX. Tatanka pinned Michaels in a singles match on the February 13, 1993, episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling and later teamed with The Nasty Boys in a six-man match against Michaels and the Beverly Brothers; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well. Michaels was also feuding with Sensational Sherri, who stood in Tatanka's corner during the match. Sherri had been Michaels' valet. When Marty Jannetty tried to hit Michaels with a mirror, however, Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself. Sherri's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her to turn on him at Royal Rumble 1993.\n\nThe match between The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) and The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu) had little background, although Afa, who managed The Headshrinkers, claimed that his team would \"tear [the Steiners'] heads off\". Doink the Clown and Crush had been feuding since the January 2, 1993, episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling. After Crush's match on that show, he confronted Doink, who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience. Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children. Doink, wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing, came to ringside during Crush's match on the January 18 episode of WWF Monday Night Raw. He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower; when Crush walked away, Doink removed a prosthetic arm from his cast and attacked Crush, who was later taken away in an ambulance due to kayfabe (storyline) injuries. For storyline purposes, Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match. Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recording video messages to Crush, which showed two Doinks on the screen.\nThe feud between The Mega-Maniacs (Brutus Beefcake and Hulk Hogan) and WWF Tag Team Champions Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) stemmed from a legitimate parasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face. He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15, 1993, episode of Raw. He faced DiBiase in his return match, after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him. DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase, but Jimmy Hart, who managed Money Inc., repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring. Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase. Hart later claimed that he felt the need to \"step up and do the right thing\" and that he \"had a change of heart\", and his intervention led to him becoming a babyface, or crowd favorite. Shortly thereafter, Hulk Hogan made his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake, and manager Jimmy Hart, to form The Mega-Maniacs and challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship.\n\nMr. Perfect's rivalry with Bobby Heenan dated back to Survivor Series (1992). Perfect and Ric Flair were managed by Heenan, but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series. Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return to World Championship Wrestling. Lex Luger had joined Vince McMahon's World Bodybuilding Federation, but he signed with McMahon's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed. He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993, where he was unveiled as Heenan's latest wrestler, Narcissus (although the ring name was changed to \"The Narcissist\" Lex Luger).\nThe Undertaker's feud with Giant Gonzalez was an offshoot of The Undertaker's feud with manager Harvey Wippleman. The Undertaker defeated Kamala, who was managed by Wippleman, at SummerSlam 1992. A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992, and The Undertaker beat Kamala in a coffin match. Wippleman vowed revenge, and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker. The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference, and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX.\nBeginning with his debut with the company in 1992, Yokozuna was pushed by the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel. Weighing over 500 pounds, he used the Banzai Drop, a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent's chest, to defeat several of the WWF's biggest stars. In a notable match on the February 6, 1993, episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling, Yokozuna attacked \"Hacksaw\" Jim Duggan and performed the Banzai Drop four times. Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack, Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months. Yokozuna earned a title shot against WWF Champion Bret Hart by winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match. During the contract signing, Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him.\n\nEvent\nBefore the televised broadcast began, Tito Santana defeated Papa Shango in a dark match, which became available for viewing on April 4, 2019 in the Hidden Gems section on WWE Network and is also notable as the WWE debut of Jim Ross on commentary.\nIn the first match of the pay-per-view event, WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet, Luna Vachon. Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match. During the match, Vachon approached Tatanka twice outside the ring, but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering. Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with an armbar hold. Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with a victory roll, but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy. Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack, but Tatanka moved. Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds; he pulled the referee out of the ring. Tatanka was awarded the victory by countout but did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall or submission. Vachon attacked Sherri after the match by pulling her off the ring apron and delivery a devastating clothesline, body slam and kicks to the ribs. Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms; however, she would be attacked again at the first aid station by Vachon, who choked her, hit her head against a wall, and dropped a machine on top of her and then Vachon was arrested by security.\nIn the next match, The Steiner Brothers (Rick Steiner and Scott Steiner) faced The Headshrinkers (Samu and Fatu). The advantage switched back and forth several times, as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with several suplex variations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes. The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners. At one point, Fatu picked Rick Steiner upon his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope. Rick caught Samu instead and performed a bodyslam on Samu from Fatu's shoulders. The match ended when Scott Steiner performed a Frankensteiner to pin Samu and win the match.\n\nCrush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match. After getting Doink inside the ring, Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink. Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope. Crush used more power moves to wear down Doink, and Doink tried to crawl under the ring. Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed the Cranium Crunch, a head vice submission hold, on Doink. Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold. Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious; as a result of this staged ref bump, a second Doink the Clown (portrayed by Steve Keirn) was able to interfere. He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm, which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness.\nRazor Ramon faced Bob Backlund next. Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match, but Backlund used hip tosses to attempt a comeback. Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with a small package.\nIn the following match, Money Inc. (Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship against The Mega-Maniacs (Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake). Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face, and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye, which led the announcers to speculate about the cause. Money Inc. gained the early advantage, but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake's mask. Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out. Referee Earl Hebner announced, however, that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match. DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with the Million Dollar Dream chokehold. Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying a sleeper hold and then turned his attention to Schyster, but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster's briefcase. Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask, but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster. The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious, and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake's facemask. He tried to make the cover for a pinfall, but the referee was still unconscious. Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside-out to reveal a striped referee jacket; he made the three-count and declared The Mega-Maniacs the winners of the match. Referee Danny Davis came to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon. Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship, but The Mega-Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash. They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd.\nLex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women dressed in bikinis as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect. The match began with technical wrestling, and Perfect tried to injure Luger's knee while Luger worked on Perfect's back. Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing a dropkick from the top rope. Luger's foot was on the ropes, however, so the referee halted the three-count and continued the match. Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect; Perfect's feet were on the rope, but the referee did not see them. Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm, which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident. When Perfect got up, he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage.\n\nIn the next match, The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez. Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match. Gonzalez used a reverse chinlock to wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring. The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees. Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked with chloroform, which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker. After the match, The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez.\nIn the main event and final scheduled match on the card, Bret Hart defended the WWF Championship against Yokozuna. Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna, while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match. Hart gained control at the beginning, but Yokozuna came back with a clothesline, leg drop, and nerve hold. Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed a running splash. Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again. He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring, but Hart removed the protective padding on the turnbuckle in the corner of the ring. He threw Yokozuna's head into the turnbuckle and applied the Sharpshooter, his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent's legs and back. Mr. Fuji, Yokozuna's manager, threw salt in Hart's eyes, which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF Championship.\nIn an impromptu main event and the final match on the card, Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart's condition. Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match, and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout. Hogan agreed and entered the ring. Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan's eyes, but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna. Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds.\n\nReception\nThe event was attended by 16,891 fans, who paid a total of $1,100,000 in admission fees. This represents less than one-third of the number of fans at WrestleMania VIII, which had an attendance of 62,167. The pay-per-view drew a 2.3 buyrate, which was lower than the previous year's 2.8 buyrate. It was higher, however, than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias.\nWrestleMania IX received overwhelmingly negative reviews. The event has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event. Writing for SLAM! Wrestling, John Powell states that, aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily-clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring, the rest of the broadcast was poor. He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event, notably Jim Ross's toga and Giant Gonzalez's spray-painted suit. Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught, Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill-conceived conclusions. He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a \"dud\" and that Hulk Hogan's ego made the conclusion the \"worst WrestleMania ending ever\". RD Reynolds, owner of the website WrestleCrap, has inducted the event into the site's list of \"the very worst in pro wrestling\". He cites Giant Gonzalez, Papa Shango, Luger's \"narcissist\" gimmick, and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list.\nWWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments: Bobby Heenan's entrance on the camel, which the company calls \"one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history\", and Hulk Hogan's title victory. Matt Anoa'i, who wrestled for WWE as Rosey, and was the brother of Roman Reigns, cousin of Yokozuna, Samu and Fatu, has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania.\nWrestleMania IX was released on VHS by Coliseum Video. It was then released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Collection (1985–1997) box set in 1997. The video was re-released six years later in March 1999. That month, it was also released as part of the WWF's WrestleMania: The Legacy box set. It was also released on DVD for WWE's History of WrestleMania I-IX box set on September 14, 2004.\nIn the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 5, 1993. Packaged together with WrestleMania X, it was released on DVD for the WWE Tagged Classics series on May 8, 2006.\n\nAftermath\nA feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect. They faced each other at SummerSlam 1993, and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard, Diesel attacked Perfect. Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF.\n\nMoney Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14, 1993. Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16, but the Steiners won them again three days later. Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title; they soon focused on singles competition, and DiBiase retired at the end of August.\nThe Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman. On the June 12, 1993, episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling, Wippleman, Giant Gonzalez, and Mr. Hughes attacked The Undertaker, and his manager Paul Bearer, and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power. The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in a Rest in Peace match, in which neither wrestler could be disqualified. The Undertaker won the match to end the feud. After the match, a frustrated Gonzalez choke slammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans and turned face in the process.\nBret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon, he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF Championship to him. However, Hulk Hogan stated that, during a conversation with Vince McMahon, a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time, Yokozuna, at the following King of The Ring. All three men eventually wound up in a meeting, where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him.\nAfter regaining the title, Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of the USS Intrepid on July 4, 1993. After many challengers failed, Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna. Luger became a fan favorite and changed his gimmick to an American patriot. He faced Yokozuna for the WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993; he won the match by count-out but did not win the title. Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match, but Hart won the championship later that night.\n32 years after WrestleMania IX, the event will once again be held in the city, with the 41st edition taking place at the Allegiant Stadium on April 19 and 20, 2025.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania IX\nWrestleMania IX at Profightdb\nWrestleMania IX at IMDb",
"title": "WrestleMania_IX"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XI was the 11th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on April 2, 1995, at the Hartford Civic Center in Hartford, Connecticut. Seven matches were contested at the event.\nThe main event featured former NFL linebacker Lawrence Taylor against Bam Bam Bigelow, a match which came as the result of an argument that took place between the two at the 1995 Royal Rumble. Taylor won the match, which led to Bigelow being kicked out of Ted DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation. Shawn Michaels faced WWF Champion Diesel in a title match but was unable to win the championship. Jeff Jarrett retained his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Razor Ramon. Owen Hart and his mystery partner, Yokozuna, challenged The Smoking Gunns for the WWF Tag Team Championship and won the title belts.\nThe match between Taylor and Bigelow brought the WWF mainstream press coverage. The reactions to the match were mixed; some people thought that Taylor performed surprisingly well for a non-wrestler. Others thought that the WWF pushing a football player to defeat a wrestler made professional wrestling look bad. Reviews of the event as a whole were mixed, with the event called both the worst WrestleMania of all time and the event that saved the WWF.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania XI was scheduled to be held on April 2, 1995, at the Hartford Civic Center in Hartford, Connecticut.\nSpecial Olympian Kathy Huey sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" during the event, replacing the previously advertised band, Fishbone. Prior to Lawrence Taylor's match against Bam Bam Bigelow, Salt-n-Pepa sang Whatta Man. Several other celebrities also had roles at WrestleMania. Nicholas Turturro, one of the stars of NYPD Blue, conducted interviews and served as a guest ring announcer. Jonathan Taylor Thomas of Home Improvement was a guest timekeeper for the match between Diesel and Shawn Michaels. WrestleMania XI marked the first time that the WWF featured an interview on the Internet as Diesel and Shawn Michaels were interviewed by Bob Ryder.\nOn September 30, 1995, a one-hour special including the Diesel vs. Shawn Michaels match and the Lawrence Taylor vs. Bam Bam Bigelow match was broadcast on the FOX Network. At the WrestleMania weekend, the WWF also held its Fan Fest, a promotional event during which wrestlers interacted with fans and signed autographs.\n\nStorylines\nThe most heavily promoted feud going into the event was between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. At the 1995 Royal Rumble, Bigelow teamed with Tatanka in the final round of a tournament for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Bigelow was pinned at the end of the match, which led to the crowd heckling him. He responded by pushing NFL player Lawrence Taylor, who was sitting at ringside. Bigelow refused to apologize and instead challenged Taylor to a wrestling match. Taylor agreed and trained with WWF Champion Diesel to prepare for the match. The storyline between Bigelow and Taylor brought the WWF much mainstream exposure, as the match was discussed by several news outlets.\n\nThe other main event at WrestleMania was a match for the WWF Championship between Diesel and Shawn Michaels. Diesel had originally entered the WWF as Michaels's bodyguard but later began wrestling and forming a tag team with Michaels. The pair held the WWF Tag Team Championship together in 1994. At Survivor Series 1994, however, Michaels accidentally kicked Diesel in the face. This led to an argument during which Diesel dissolved the tag team and vacated the championship. Three days later, Diesel defeated Bob Backlund to become the new WWF Champion. At the Royal Rumble, Michaels won the titular match, which earned him a match against Diesel for the title belt at WrestleMania.\nThe WWF Intercontinental Championship was also defended at WrestleMania. Jeff Jarrett, the champion, had been feuding with Razor Ramon, the challenger, for several months. At the Royal Rumble, Jarrett was accompanied by The Roadie, who interfered on Jarrett's behalf and helped Jarrett win the championship. To even the sides in the rematch at WrestleMania, Ramon was accompanied by his friend, the 1–2–3 Kid.\nIn a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship, The Smoking Gunns defended their title. Their opponents were Owen Hart and a mystery partner. Hart refused to tell anyone the name of his partner, which left the Gunns uncertain who they would be facing and led to much speculation about the identity of the mystery partner.\nBret Hart faced Bob Backlund in an \"I Quit\" match at WrestleMania. The feud began the previous summer, when Hart defended the WWF Championship against Backlund. Backlund mistakenly thought he won the match and began celebrating, but Hart pinned him to retain the title. After the match, Backlund turned heel by attacking Hart. This led to a title match at Survivor Series 1994, in which Backlund won the title from Hart. Although Backlund soon lost the belt, the feud continued and Backlund attacked Hart during Hart's match at the Royal Rumble.\nAlso at the Royal Rumble, The Undertaker faced Irwin R. Schyster as part of The Undertaker's feud with Ted DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation. During the match, King Kong Bundy, another Corporation member, interfered and enabled the Corporation to steal The Undertaker's urn, which was said to be the source of his power.\n\nEvent\nIn the opening match, The Allied Powers (Davey Boy Smith and Lex Luger) faced the Blu Brothers (Eli Blu and Jacob Blu). Smith started out on the offensive, but Jacob gained control with a running bulldog throw. The Blus capitalized on the fact that they are identical twins by switching places without tagging while the referee was not looking. Luger came into the match near the end and performed a running forearm smash on Eli. Jacob tried to throw Luger with a powerbomb, but Luger tagged in Smith, who performed a sunset flip to pin Jacob and win the match.\nThe second match pitted Razor Ramon, with the 1–2–3 Kid in his corner, against WWF Intercontinental Champion Jeff Jarrett, who had The Roadie in his corner. Ramon took control at the beginning of the match by using power moves against Jarrett. Jarrett tried to leave the match, but the 1–2–3 Kid forced him back into the ring. Jarrett took advantage of one of Ramon's mistakes to gain the advantage. He applied a sleeper hold on Ramon, who used his strength advantage to escape the move. After Ramon threw Jarrett, the Kid attempted to interfere but was kicked by Jarrett. Ramon jumped off the ropes to attack Jarrett, but Jarrett avoided the move and applied a figure four leglock on Ramon. Ramon reversed the move to place the pressure on Jarrett's legs. He then threw Jarrett to the mat with a suplex from the second rope and prepared to execute the Razor's Edge, his finishing move. The Roadie entered the ring and attacked Ramon, prompting the referee to disqualify Jarrett; because titles cannot change hands on a disqualification, Jarrett retained his championship.\n\nIn the next match, The Undertaker faced King Kong Bundy. Ted DiBiase was at ringside holding the urn that his wrestlers had stolen from The Undertaker. Larry Young, a legit American League umpire, was the special referee for the match. Young's storyline was as an out-of-work sports official because of the recently ended MLB Players Association strike and a lockout of the Major League Umpires Association umpires (which led to the eventual dissolution of the MLUA in 2000; prior to the new union, umpires were split by league). The Undertaker took control at the beginning of the match by jumping off the top rope and hitting Bundy. He then performed several clothesline attacks on Bundy. Bundy responded with a clothesline that knocked The Undertaker out of the ring. Seeing DiBiase close, The Undertaker took back his urn. After The Undertaker returned to the ring, DiBiase called Kama, another Corporation member, to the ring. Kama stole the urn, and Bundy attacked The Undertaker in order to let Kama escape backstage. Bundy picked The Undertaker up and powerslammed him to the mat. He then performed an Avalanche Splash to crush The Undertaker against the corner of the ring. The Undertaker was unharmed, however, and performed a powerslam and a clothesline on Bundy before pinning him to win the match.\nThe Smoking Gunns defended their WWF Tag Team Championship in the next match against Owen Hart and his mystery partner, who was revealed to be Yokozuna. The Gunns worked together to control the match at the beginning, but Yokozuna gained control by performing a leg drop on Billy Gunn. Hart attempted to perform a dropkick from the top rope but accidentally hit Yokozuna. The Gunns briefly took control until Yokozuna performed a belly to belly suplex and landed on Billy. He then performed a Banzai Drop, jumping from the second rope and sitting on Billy's chest. Hart tagged in and considered performing the Sharpshooter submission hold; instead, he pinned Billy Gunn to win the title belts for his team.\nThe next match, an \"I Quit\" match, took place between Bret Hart and Bob Backlund, with Roddy Piper as the guest referee. It was explained that, in order to win the match, a wrestler must force his opponent to say \"I quit\" into a microphone held by Piper. Hart attempted to perform the Sharpshooter early in the match; when Backlund blocked it, Hart executed a figure four leglock instead. Backlund escaped the hold and began trying to injure Hart's arm with an armbar hold. Hart then tried to attack Backlund in the corner of the ring, but Backlund moved and Hart hit his shoulder against the ring post. Backlund tried to perform the crossface chickenwing, his signature submission hold. Hart blocked him and performed the same hold on Backlund instead. Backlund made an unintelligible sound into the microphone, and Piper determined that he had submitted. As a result, the win was awarded to Bret Hart.\nIn the next match, which was for the WWF Championship, challenger Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by Jenny McCarthy and Diesel, the champion, was escorted by Pamela Anderson. Michaels relied on his quickness in the opening stages, while Diesel used his strength advantage against Michaels. Diesel threw Michaels out of the ring and onto the arena floor, but Michaels later performed a clothesline that knocked Diesel out of the ring. Michaels capitalized on his advantage by performing several aerial moves, including a flying crossbody, flying bulldog throw, and a diving elbow drop. He was unable to pin Diesel, however, so he performed a sleeper hold to wear Diesel down. They brawled outside the ring, after which Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music, his finishing move, but Sid, Michaels's bodyguard, had the referee distracted and unable to count the pinfall. Diesel recovered and controlled the remainder of the match with power moves before throwing Michaels to the mat with a botched Jackknife and getting the pinfall victory.\nThe final bout of the event was the main event match between Bam Bam Bigelow and Lawrence Taylor. Bigelow was accompanied by the members of DiBiase's Million Dollar Corporation: King Kong Bundy, Tatanka, Irwin R. Schyster, Kama, and Nikolai Volkoff. To prevent the Corporation members from interfering, Taylor brought several football players: Ken Norton Jr., Chris Spielman, Rickey Jackson, Carl Banks, Reggie White, and Steve McMichael. Taylor gained the advantage early and performed a clothesline that knocked Bigelow out of the ring. Once he returned to the ring, Bigelow took control of the match by kicking Taylor repeatedly and performing a Boston crab submission hold to hurt Taylor's back. Taylor got out of the hold and threw Bigelow with a suplex. Bigelow recovered and performed several headbutts on Taylor before executing a moonsault flip to knock Taylor down to the mat. Taylor began to take control of the match again, but Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head and then performed a headbutt from the top rope. Bigelow was unable to pin Taylor, however. Taylor climbed to the second rope, jumped off, and used his forearm to hit Bigelow. He then covered Bigelow to win the match.\n\nReception\nThe event was attended by 15,000 fans, who paid a total of $750,000 in admission fees. This was down from the previous year's attendance of 18,065, but the decline could be attributed to the smaller size of the venue for WrestleMania XI. The attendance figure was also lower than the following year's figure of 18,852 fans at WrestleMania XII. The pay-per-view buyrate for WrestleMania XI was 1.3, which was lower than the 1.68 buyrate for WrestleMania X but higher than the 1.2 buyrate for WrestleMania XII.\nWriting for 411mania, columnist Dustin James rated the event as the seventeenth best of the first twenty-three WrestleManias. He stated that the event did not have any truly amazing matches but that Lawrence Taylor put on a solid performance. John Powell of SLAM! Wrestling rated the event as the worst WrestleMania of all time. The specific concerns he mentioned in his review are Diesel's championship reign and WWF allowing a football player to defeat a wrestler in what he describes as a \"sham of a match\". In contrast, Pro Wrestling Illustrated columnist Dave Rosenbaum stated that WrestleMania \"saved\" the WWF in its feud with rival World Championship Wrestling (WCW). He argued that Taylor \"looked like a pro\" and contributed to an \"incredible\" match. He also observed that the tag team matches helped rejuvenate an area of wrestling that had been suffering in the WWF and that the match between Michaels and Diesel was a candidate for match of the year. Bret Hart was critical about his match against Bob Backlund, claiming it was \"probably my worst pay-per-view match I ever had\".\n\nAftermath\nShortly after WrestleMania, Diesel offered Shawn Michaels a rematch. Michaels blamed Sid for the loss and informed him that he would not be needed during the match. Sid got angry and attacked Michaels until Diesel saved him. Diesel and Michaels became allies once again, and they teamed up to win the WWF Tag Team Championship later that year. Diesel feuded with Sid and defeated him at the In Your House 1 and In Your House 2 pay-per-view events. The animosity lingered between Michaels and Sid, but they did not face each other to settle the feud until the September 11, 1995 episode of Monday Night Raw.\n\nBam Bam Bigelow was embarrassed after losing to Lawrence Taylor. To redeem himself, he challenged Diesel to a match for the WWF Championship. During the match, Tatanka turned on Bigelow and caused him to get pinned. Bigelow was kicked out of the Million Dollar Corporation and attacked by DiBiase's wrestlers. Diesel saved Bigelow from the attack, which led to a friendship being formed between the two. Bigelow defeated Tatanka in a dark match at In Your House 2. At King of the Ring 1995, Sid, DiBiase's latest addition to the Corporation, teamed with Tatanka in a loss to the team of Diesel and Bigelow.\nRazor Ramon and the 1–2–3 Kid was scheduled to face Jeff Jarrett and The Roadie at In Your House 1 the month after WrestleMania. The Kid sustained a legit injury, however, and was unable to compete. As a result, Ramon wrestled a two-on-one handicap match against Jarrett and The Roadie instead. Ramon won the bout, but the feud continued. At In Your House 2, The Roadie faced the 1–2–3 Kid and defeated him. Ramon and Jarrett wrestled several times, and Ramon regained the Intercontinental Championship on May 19, 1995. He held the belt for three days before dropping it back to Jarrett.\nAfter WrestleMania, Kama melted down The Undertaker's urn and made it into a necklace. The Undertaker defeated Kama in a dark match at In Your House 1, and again in a casket match at In Your House 2. He then won another casket match against Kama at SummerSlam 1995 to end the feud. The Undertaker was not able to recapture the remnants of the urn until he ended his feud with King Mabel in another Casket match. The Undertaker's streak of 21 consecutive WrestleMania victories was first acknowledged during his entrance for his encounter with King Kong Bundy by play-by-play commentator Vince McMahon, who stated, \"The Undertaker, on his way to the ring—a man who's never lost at WrestleMania\".\nThe Smoking Gunns were given a rematch for the WWF Tag Team Championship at In Your House 1. Hart pinned Bart Gunn to retain the championship for his team. Hart and Yokozuna then moved on to face other competition, and the Gunns did not become serious contenders for the title again until late in 1995 when they defeated Hart and Yokozuna to regain the championship.\nSteve McMichael, who accompanied Lawrence Taylor, joined World Championship Wrestling (WCW) later in 1995 as a color commentator then eventually as an in-ring performer, joining the famous Four Horseman when he turned on and betrayed his tag team partner and former NFL star Kevin Greene at The Great American Bash '96 near the end of their tag team match against Ric Flair and Arn Anderson. Going by the name \"Mongo\" McMichael, he eventually went on to win the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship.\nThe WWF released the event on VHS in North America in 1995. The VHS version was then re-released on March 2, 1999. The event was also released on DVD in North America as part of the WrestleMania Complete Anthology boxed set on November 1, 2005. In the United Kingdom, the event was released on VHS on July 10, 1995. Packaged together with WrestleMania XII, it was then released on DVD in the United Kingdom as part of the WWE Tagged Classics line on August 7, 2006.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XI",
"title": "WrestleMania_XI"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XII was the 12th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 31, 1996, at the Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim in Anaheim, California in the United States. Eight matches were held at the event, including two on the Free for All pre-show.\nIn the main event, Bret Hart lost the WWF Championship to Shawn Michaels in the first televised Iron Man match in company history, lasting over 60 minutes. In his return to the company after a four-year hiatus, The Ultimate Warrior defeated Hunter Hearst Helmsley. Roddy Piper had his first match since 1994.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania XII was scheduled to be held on March 31, 1996, at the Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim in Anaheim, California.\n\nStorylines\nThe main attraction of this WrestleMania was the WWF Championship contested in an Iron Man match; whereby the winner would be the man to win most falls over sixty minutes. Michaels had earned the opportunity to face reigning champion Bret Hart by winning the 1996 Royal Rumble, and had also defeated Owen Hart at In Your House 6 for the right to keep the WrestleMania title shot.\nThe main event was built on Bret Hart wanting to retain the WWF Championship against Shawn Michaels, who had suffered a number of setbacks over the course of the previous year, including failing to win Diesel's WWF Championship the previous year at WrestleMania XI in April 1995, being accosted at a Syracuse, New York nightclub in October 1995 (and subsequently forfeiting the WWF Intercontinental Championship to Dean Douglas at In Your House 4), and suffering a storyline concussion at the hands of Owen Hart in November 1995.\nHunter Hearst Helmsley made his debut in the WWF in May 1995, with his wrestling gimmick being in that he was a rich snob born with a silver spoon in his mouth. He went on an undefeated winning streak throughout the year until the Royal Rumble. The Ultimate Warrior meanwhile had left the WWF in 1992 after failing a drug test. His last match was on the November 14, 1992 edition of Saturday Night's Main Event XXXI, where he and \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage defeated Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster in a tag team match. WWF officials later signed on a match between Ultimate Warrior, who re-signed to the WWF in an attempt to increase ratings, and Helmsley for WrestleMania XII.\nDiesel began feuding with The Undertaker after interfering in a bout between The Undertaker and Bret Hart at the 1996 Royal Rumble. In an episode of Monday Night Raw that aired on March 18, 1996, Diesel was battling Barry Horowitz when he caught a glimpse of Paul Bearer pushing a casket up the entrance ramp. Believing it to be The Undertaker's casket, Diesel armed himself with a wrench before opening the casket's lid and seeing his own \"corpse\" lying in repose inside (which was actually an illusion made possible by having live footage cut to a pre-recorded close-up footage of Diesel himself in the same casket, lying in a relaxed position with his eyes closed, filmed at some time before the episode, thus avoiding showing the mannequin in the casket up-close); seeing \"himself\" in the casket terrified him, as it foreshadowed The Undertaker's upcoming match against Diesel in WrestleMania XII.\n\nEvent\nThe opening bout, which aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was a tag team match for the vacant WWF Tag Team Championship between the Bodydonnas (Skip and Zip) and the Godwinns (Henry O. Godwinn and Phineas I. Godwinn). This match was the final bout of a tournament held to determine the new champions after the titles were vacated in February 1996. The match ended when Skip pinned Phineas I. Godwinn using a roll-up, making the Bodydonnas the new WWF Tag Team Champions.\nThe second bout, which also aired on the free-for-all broadcast, was a singles match (billed as a \"geriatric match\") between \"The Huckster\" and \"Nacho Man\", two characters created to parody Hulk Hogan and \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage (former WWF performers who had joined its competitor World Championship Wrestling). The referee for the match was \"Billionaire Ted\", a parody of Ted Turner, the owner of World Championship Wrestling's parent company Turner Broadcasting System. This bout marked the culmination of a series of skits the WWF had aired featuring the three characters. This match did not take place in the Arrowhead Pond, having been pre-recorded elsewhere. The match ended in a no contest when both competitors, along with Billionaire Ted, seemingly expired in the ring.\nThe third bout, and the first bout to air on the pay-per-view broadcast proper, was a six-man tag team match pitting The British Bulldog, Owen Hart, and Vader (Camp Cornette) against Ahmed Johnson, Jake Roberts, and Yokozuna, with the stipulation that if Yokozuna's team won he would receive five minutes in the ring with Jim Cornette, the manager of Camp Cornette. The match ended when Roberts attempted to give Cornette a DDT, only for Vader to knock Roberts down and pin him following a Vader Bomb.\nThe fourth bout was a \"Hollywood Backlot Brawl\" between Goldust and Roddy Piper. The match began in a parking lot, with the men brawling and using weapons. After Goldust fled in a golden Cadillac, Piper pursued him in a white Ford Bronco.\nThe fifth bout was a singles match between Savio Vega and Stone Cold Steve Austin. Austin won the bout by technical knockout after hitting Vega with the Million Dollar Championship then applying the Million Dollar Dream to Vega until he passed out.\nDuring and after the fifth bout, footage aired of what was purportedly Piper pursuing Goldust (the actual footage aired was from the Los Angeles Police Department's pursuit of O.J. Simpson in 1994).\nThe sixth bout was a singles match between Hunter Hearst Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior. Early in the match, Helmsley performed his finishing move, The Pedigree, on The Ultimate Warrior. However, The Ultimate Warrior no-sold the move and went on to pin Helmsley following a flying shoulder tackle, gorilla press slam, and Warrior Splash.\n\nFollowing the sixth bout, Todd Pettengill interviewed the debuting Marc Mero backstage. The interview was interrupted by Hunter Hearst Helmsley, resulting in a brawl between Helmsley and Mero.\nThe seventh bout was a singles match between Diesel and The Undertaker. The Undertaker won the match by pinfall following a chokeslam and Tombstone Piledriver, marking his fifth consecutive win at WrestleMania.\nFollowing the seventh bout, Goldust and Piper arrived at the Arrowhead Pond, with Piper crashing his car into Goldust's car. Piper then chased Goldust to the ring, where the match continued. The match ended when Piper tore off Goldust's bodysuit - revealing him to be wearing woman's lingerie - and gave him a low blow, after which Goldust fled from the ring, leaving Piper the winner.\nThe main event saw WWF Champion Bret Hart defend his title against Shawn Michaels in an Iron Man match, with the stipulation that whichever wrestler won the most falls in 60 minutes would win the match. Towards the end of the match, with neither men having won any falls, Hart applied his Sharpshooter hold to Michaels, but time expired without Michaels submitting. As Hart began to leave with his title, WWF President Gorilla Monsoon instructed referee Earl Hebner to continue the match under \"sudden death\" rules, with ring announcer Howard Finkel announcing that \"there must be a winner!\" The match ended shortly thereafter when Michaels pinned Hart after giving him Sweet Chin Music twice, thus becoming the new WWF Champion.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania XII received generally positive reviews from critics, who aimed praise, particularly at the main event. Rob McNew of 411mania called the opening match \"really good,\" and gave it 3 and 1/4 stars (out of 5 stars). However, he called the match between Helmsley and The Ultimate Warrior the worst of the night, going on to call it the \"funniest squash ever, considering that HHH is now arguably a bigger star than Warrior was.\" He gave the main event the highest score of the night, with 4 stars. However, he says the match \"isn't for everyone.\" Continuing, he says, \"It's about a three-star match for the first 40 minutes, the last 20+ are an easy five stars.\" He gave the entire event a score of 7 out of 10. In 2015, Ryan Dilbert of Bleacher Report called it the 16th greatest of the first 30 WrestleMania events.\nWhile the Iron Man match got positive reviews, PWInsider's Mike Johnson pointed that in the match both wrestlers \"were working in spite of each other, not together\".\n\nResults\nWWF Tag Team Championship tournament\nIn February 1996, WWF Tag Team Champions The Smoking Gunns were forced to vacate the titles after Billy Gunn sustained a neck injury. As a result, a tournament was staged in February and March 1996 to determine the new champions, with the matches airing on tape delay Superstars throughout March. The tournament final was held at WrestleMania XII, with The Bodydonnas defeating The Godwinns to be crowned the new champions.\n\nOther on-screen personnel\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\nWrestleMania XII at IMDb",
"title": "WrestleMania_XII"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania 13 was the 13th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). The event was presented by PlayStation and held on March 23, 1997, at the Rosemont Horizon in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. Eight matches were held at the event, including one on the Free for All pre-show.\nThe main event was a no disqualification match between The Undertaker and Sycho Sid for the WWF Championship, which Undertaker won following interference from Bret Hart. The main matches on the undercard were Bret Hart versus Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Submission match, Legion of Doom and Ahmed Johnson versus Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight, and Rocky Maivia versus The Sultan for the WWF Intercontinental Championship.\nWrestleMania 13 was the second WrestleMania to take place in the Chicago metropolitan area, following WrestleMania 2. The event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees, and drew a 0.77 buy rate. The event as a whole received mixed to negative reviews. However, the submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin was highly praised, being called one of the greatest matches in wrestling history, and has been cited as the beginning of the Attitude Era.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania 13 was scheduled to be held on March 23, 1997, at the Rosemont Horizon in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. The event was presented by PlayStation.\n\nStorylines\nThe main feud heading into WrestleMania 13 was between The Undertaker and Sycho Sid, with the two battling over the WWF Championship. At In Your House 13 in February, Bret Hart last eliminated The Undertaker in the Final Four match to win the vacant WWF Championship. Hart's reign, however, lasted only one day as he lost the title the next night on Monday Night Raw to Sycho Sid after interference by Stone Cold Steve Austin, one of the other participants in the Final Four match (the other was Vader, who had no further involvement in the ongoing storyline). Due to being the runner-up to the title at Final Four, Undertaker was made the number one contender and was booked to challenge Sycho Sid for the title at WrestleMania. However, on the March 17 edition of Raw Is War, Sid defended the title against Hart in a steel cage match, with the winner defending his title at WrestleMania. During the match, both Undertaker and Austin interfered. Undertaker came out to help Sid because he wanted to wrestle Sid for the title while Austin helped Hart because he wanted to make his scheduled submission match with Hart a title match. Sid won the match and retained his title and as a result, Sid vs. Undertaker remained the main event of WrestleMania.\n\nThe second main match on the card was Bret Hart versus Stone Cold Steve Austin in a Submission match. Hart and Austin's rivalry began after Austin won the 1996 King of the Ring tournament and began taunting Hart, who was inactive at the time. Austin insulted Hart in his speeches so Hart would accept his challenge to a match. Hart returned in October and accepted Austin's challenge, with the two facing each other at Survivor Series 1996 where Hart defeated Austin. Their rivalry continued as Hart and Austin were the final two participants in the 1997 Royal Rumble match. Hart had originally eliminated Austin from the match but Austin's elimination was considered unofficial because the officials did not see it as they were busy attending to a brawl between eliminated wrestlers Mankind and Terry Funk. They were participants in a Four Corners Elimination match for the vacant WWF Championship at Final Four, which Hart won. The next night on Monday Night Raw, Austin cost Hart the WWF Championship against Sycho Sid when Hart had applied the Sharpshooter on Sid, Austin nailed Hart with a steel chair followed by Sid powerbombing Hart for the win. Hart and Austin were booked to wrestle in a submission match at WrestleMania, but Hart got a shot at the WWF Championship in a steel cage match on the March 17 edition of Raw Is War, with the winner defending the title against The Undertaker at WrestleMania 13. Hart almost had the match won, until Undertaker interfered and helped Sid in getting the victory.\nOne of the main undercard matches was a Chicago Street Fight featuring Ahmed Johnson and Legion of Doom (Hawk and Animal) against Nation of Domination (Faarooq, Crush and Savio Vega). Johnson was attacked by a newcomer Faarooq Asad, a Roman gladiator on the July 22, 1996 edition of Monday Night Raw during a match for the WWF Tag Team Championship. Ahmed was scheduled to defend his Intercontinental Championship against Faarooq at SummerSlam 1996 but legitimate kidney problems forced him to vacate the Intercontinental Championship. In the storyline, it was explained that Faarooq had caused Ahmed's kidney problem. Ahmed returned from his injury in early 1997 and continued with Faarooq, who had formed The Nation of Domination during Ahmed's absence. Ahmed joined forces with the Legion of Doom and the trio were scheduled to wrestle the Nation of Domination in a Chicago Street Fight at WrestleMania 13.\n\nEvent\nBefore the event aired live on pay-per-view (PPV), Billy Gunn faced Flash Funk at Free for All. Gunn defeated Funk by pinning him following a tornado DDT.\nThe first match that aired on television was a Four-Way Tag Team Elimination Match. The match featured The Headbangers (Mosh and Thrasher), The Godwinns (Henry O. Godwinn and Phineas I. Godwinn), The New Blackjacks (Blackjack Windham and Blackjack Bradshaw) and the team of Doug Furnas and Phil LaFon. All the teams wrestled each other and sometimes in the match, teammates also fought against each other. Barry Windham and Phil LaFon brawled to the outside the ring. Bradshaw attacked the referee and got disqualified, which led to the first elimination of the match while Furnas was counted-out. Headbangers and Godwinns were the remaining teams and they battled for five minutes and 39 seconds before Thrasher hit Phineas with a Cannonball Senton and won the match via pinfall. As a result of winning the match, Headbangers earned a shot at the WWF Tag Team Championship.\nThe second match was between Rocky Maivia and The Sultan for Maivia's WWF Intercontinental Championship. The Honky Tonk Man provided commentary for the match. Sultan had an early advantage in the match due to his size and power but Maivia used his quicker moves to push the big man outside the ring. Sultan overpowered Maivia with slams and punches but was unable to pin him. Maivia gained advantage on Sultan by nailing him with a belly to belly suplex, Maivia Hurricane and a flying crossbody before pinning Sultan with a roll-up to win the match and retain the title. After the match, Sultan and his managers, Bob Backlund and The Iron Sheik attacked Maivia before his father, Rocky Johnson, came out to help his son.\nThe third match was between Hunter Hearst Helmsley and Goldust. Goldust dominated the early portion of the match. Helmsley had brief flurries of offense but Goldust had still the advantage. Helmsley began using submission maneuvers to keep the advantages for himself. Goldust was going to hit his maneuver until Helmsley's bodyguard Chyna manhandled Goldust's wife Marlena to distract him. Helmsley took advantage and hit Goldust with a Pedigree, enabling him to pin Goldust for the win.\n\nThe fourth match was a tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship, as Owen Hart and The British Bulldog defended the titles against Mankind and Vader. The big Vader made easy work of Owen in the beginning of the match. Vader tagged in with Mankind while Owen tagged in with Bulldog. Bulldog and Mankind punched each other but Bulldog had more advantage. He applied a sleeper hold on Mankind which caused both of them to fall to the outside. They continued to brawl outside. The referee was distracted due to the brawl. Vader took advantage and hit Bulldog with Paul Bearer's urn and dragged him into the ring. Vader and Mankind both took turns and continued to attack Bulldog. Owen tried to save his partner, but Vader used his strength while Mankind used his cheating tactics to overwhelm Owen. Mankind trapped Bulldog to the outside and applied the mandible claw on him. Both men were counted out as the match resulted in a draw. As a result, Hart and Bulldog retained the championship.\nThe fifth match was a No Disqualification Submission match between Bret Hart and Stone Cold Steve Austin. UFC fighter Ken Shamrock was the special guest referee for this match. Austin attacked Hart, who was still in his entrance attire. The two first beat each other in the ring before the action spilled outside the ring. Hart tossed Austin into the steel ring post while Austin drove him onto the steel barrier. The two men began fighting in the crowd, where both men hit each other with several foreign objects. They moved up the steps high into the crowd. Shamrock followed them and brought them back towards the ring where Austin attempted to use steel steps on Hart, but Hart stopped him with a kick to the midsection. As the action began in the ring, Hart focused on Austin's leg. He busted Austin open with an Irish whip into the steel barricade and Austin's head began to bleed profusely. Hart tried to use a steel chair on Austin's leg, but Austin choked Hart with a television cable. Hart hit Austin in the head with the ring bell. He applied a Sharpshooter on Austin who did not submit and tried to resist but passed out from the pain and loss of blood. Shamrock awarded the match to Hart, but Hart continued to attack Austin which led to a double-turn as the fans turned on Hart and began cheering for Austin. Shamrock pulled Hart off of Austin and executed a waistlock takedown and physically challenged him to a fight. Hart declined to fight Shamrock and left the ring to a chorus of boos. Austin, meanwhile, after regaining consciousness, hit a Stunner on a referee when he tried to help Austin out, then slowly limped away to backstage, while the crowd chanted his name.\nThe sixth match of the event was a Chicago Street Fight between the Legion of Doom (Hawk and Animal) and Ahmed Johnson and Nation of Domination (Faarooq, Crush and Savio Vega). All the two teams hit each other with many foreign objects. The match continued inside the ring and outside the ring in the same fashion. Finally, Animal hit Crush with a 2x4 and then pinned him to win the match.\n\nMain Event\nThe main event was a No Disqualification Match between The Undertaker and reigning champion Sycho Sid for the WWF Championship. Shawn Michaels provided commentary for the match. The then-heel superstar, Bret Hart, came out during the match and insulted Undertaker, Michaels and particularly Sid because he claimed that Sid had screwed him out of the title. Sid powerbombed Hart while Undertaker took advantage and began attacking the champion from behind. Undertaker went for an Old School but Sid took him in a bearhug. Sid attacked Undertaker with various moves and attacked him with television monitors, and applied a camel clutch on Undertaker. Sid had the advantage in the match until Hart came back and attacked Sid with a steel chair. He recovered and got Undertaker in the powerbomb but Hart returned again and distracted Sid which allowed Undertaker to hit Sid with the Tombstone and pin him to win the match.\n\nReception\nThe event was attended by 18,197 who paid a total of $837,150 in admission fees and drew a 0.77 buy-rate.\nIn 2011, Marc Elusive of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 and noted that \"The Attitude Era began here...\" and that the main event was \"a very boring match\". John Canton of The John Report gave the event an overall score of 4 out of 10 and said that the show was \"poor\" and noted that the main event \"sucked for the first 15 minutes, but the ending was okay\".\nDespite the lackluster reviews towards the event, the submission match between Hart and Austin was highly praised. In 2007, it was placed #1 on IGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History, and described as a match that \"launched an era.\" Thomas Golianopoulos of Complex Sports also ranked it at number 1 in his list of the 50 Greatest Matches in WrestleMania History, citing the match's six factors of storyline, innovation, psychology, finish, post-match angle, and fallout. Elusive of 411mania described the match as \"outstanding\" and \"that helped propel Steve Austin into the stratosphere and become the star of the late 90s and the early 00s\", while also noting the double-turn after the match. John Canton called the match a \"wrestling perfection\". It received a five-star rating from Dave Meltzer and was also voted Match of the Year (1997) by readers of his Wrestling Observer Newsletter publication. Pro Wrestling Illustrated readers named it Match of the Year (1997). The submission match would also be the last time a WrestleMania match would receive a five-star rating until WrestleMania 39 in 2023 when Kevin Owens and Sami Zayn vs Jimmy and Jey Uso on Night 1 and Gunther vs Sheamus vs Drew McIntyre on Night 2 both received the five-star rating. Hart would call it his favourite match, labeling it \"a real masterpiece.\" Ken Shamrock would call it \"one of the greatest matches in wrestling history\", and Jim Ross called it the greatest match he'd called at WrestleMania and the most \"well-executed\" match he'd seen.\n\nAftermath\nStone Cold Steve Austin and Bret Hart continued their rivalry after WrestleMania, but Austin was now a babyface and his popularity would start to increase considerably while Hart was a heel. Hart recruited British Bulldog, Owen Hart, Brian Pillman and former tag team partner Jim Neidhart to reform The Hart Foundation. At In Your House 14: Revenge of the 'Taker in April, Hart and Austin had a match which Austin won by disqualification. Their feud continued until In Your House 16: Canadian Stampede in July, where the Hart Foundation (working as faces in Canada) defeated the American team of Austin, Ken Shamrock, Legion of Doom (Hawk and Animal) and Goldust.\nThe Undertaker received a push after he won his second WWF Championship at WrestleMania 13. He spent a reign of 133 days which included battles with Mankind, Steve Austin, Faarooq and Vader. At SummerSlam 1997, Undertaker's long reign finally ended when he lost the title to Bret Hart when special guest referee Shawn Michaels accidentally struck Undertaker with a steel chair, which was intended for Hart.\nAfter losing the WWF Championship to The Undertaker at WrestleMania, Sycho Sid's push began to diminish and after King of the Ring, he began to disappear from WWF programming. In actuality, Sid quietly left WWF to focus on recovering from a neck injury. Sid eventually returned to rival promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in 1999 and continued to wrestle as Sid Vicious until he suffered a near career-ending leg injury at WCW Sin on January 14, 2001.\n\nResults\nOther on-screen personnel\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania 13",
"title": "WrestleMania_13"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XIV (marketed as WrestleMania dX raided) was the 14th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on March 29, 1998, at the FleetCenter in Boston, Massachusetts. A total of eight matches were held at the event.\nThis pay-per-view event was notable for the involvement of boxer Mike Tyson, who acted as a ring enforcer for the main event. In the main event, Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Shawn Michaels to win the WWF Championship for the first time; Michaels performed despite a severe injury sustained during a match at the Royal Rumble and would not compete again until SummerSlam in 2002. This was the first WrestleMania of The Attitude Era and also the first WrestleMania event since 1985 not to feature Bret Hart, who jumped to the rival World Championship Wrestling the previous year.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania XIV was scheduled to be held on March 29, 1998, at the FleetCenter in Boston, Massachusetts. In print advertisements, the event was billed as \"WrestleMania: dX raided\".\n\nStorylines\nAfter the Legion of Doom lost their WWF Tag Team Championship to The New Age Outlaws, they were then assaulted by the Outlaws and D-Generation X. At the Royal Rumble, the LOD lost a championship match, thanks in large part to Road Dogg handcuffing Hawk outside of the ring. Following this, they suffered two defeats at the hands of NWA members Jeff Jarrett and Barry Windham. Finally, on the February 23 episode of Raw Is War, the LOD once again lost to The New Age Outlaws when, despite having the match all but won following a Doomsday Device, the non-legal Hawk did not leave the ring as Animal was making the cover; while the referee was busy removing Hawk, Animal was struck by the title belts, causing them to lose the match. Following the match, the two men brawled all the way to the back and announced their dissolution, not appearing again until WrestleMania.\nAfter the Montreal Screwjob, Owen Hart was left as the only member of the Hart family to remain with the company; and after a temporary absence, Owen returned during the closing moments of D-Generation X: In Your House to attack Shawn Michaels. Following this, he turned his attention to Hunter Hearst Helmsley (who would later be known simply as Triple H) and the European Championship that Michaels had given to Helmsley as a Christmas present. After weeks of deterring a championship match by way of a fractured kneecap (which was, in fact, legitimate), Triple H finally acquiesced to a match on the January 26 edition of Raw Is War, only for The Artist Formerly Known as Goldust (who was dressing up from week-to-week in a bid for attention) to appear in Helmsley's place. After Hart won the match, WWF Commissioner Sgt. Slaughter declared the disguise to be so convincing that he upheld the decision and awarded the championship to Hart. On the March 2 episode of Raw Is War, Owen defended the title against Mark Henry. During the match, Chyna came to the ring and pushed Hart off the turnbuckle allowing Henry to lock on a bearhug, but before Owen could submit, Chyna delivered a blatant low blow to Henry, resulting in a disqualification in favor of Hart. The following week in a match against Barry Windham, Hart landed awkwardly on his ankle, suffering a sprained ankle with ligament damage as a result. On a special Tuesday edition of Raw Is War on March 17, Hart joined the commentary team with a supportive cast on his leg. This would bring Triple H to ringside, where he goaded Owen into an impromptu title defense despite his cast. During the match, Chyna appeared and struck Owen's ankle with a baseball bat, allowing Helmsley to capitalize and win the title back.\n\nDue to his jealousy over the attention his wife and valet, Sable, was garnering from the crowd, Marc Mero would try to intentionally cover up Sable's provocative clothing and eventually send her to the back during his matches, replacing her with The Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, who at the time was dressing up from week-to-week in his own bid of self-attention. Although the two initially worked well together, Goldust's valet Luna Vachon grew vocally disdainful of Sable, who was also being mocked by Mero and Goldust, causing Sable to eventually grow tired of the disrespect and fight back. As the two women brawled, their partners tried to separate them; but when Goldust grabbed Sable in order to restrain her, Mero's jealousy took over and he attacked him. The two men then had a match on Raw, where both women were handcuffed to the ring posts in an effort to prevent their brawling. But after the referee was knocked down, Goldust stole the key and unchained Luna who attacked Sable with make up, painting her face before also throwing water on her. Goldust then challenged Mero and Sable to a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania XIV.\nAfter successively beating members of the Nation of Domination week after week, Ken Shamrock initially defeated the Intercontinental Champion Rocky Maivia (later known as The Rock) at the Royal Rumble despite being hit with a foreign object, seemingly winning the title. However, The Rock convinced the referee that it was, in fact, he who suffered an illegal attack and the referee reversed his decision (Maivia had placed the foreign object in Shamrock's trunks after hitting him with it). The following month at No Way Out of Texas: In Your House, Shamrock capitalized on the in-fighting of the Nation, due to leadership disputes between Faarooq and The Rock, by making the champion tap out in a ten-man tag team match.\nAt the end of the inaugural Hell in a Cell match at Badd Blood: In Your House, just as The Undertaker looked to win the match against Shawn Michaels, the lights went out and a huge masked man came to the ring and delivered a tombstone piledriver to the shocked Undertaker. The masked man was revealed to be Kane, Undertaker's (kayfabe) half-brother and, despite the animosity and the presence of Paul Bearer, Undertaker vowed never to fight his little brother. Before Undertaker's casket match with Michaels at the Royal Rumble, D-Generation X claimed Kane had joined them, but in fact, he came to the ring to assist Undertaker. The alliance was short-lived, however, as during the Royal Rumble, Kane came to the ring and turned on his brother, allowing Michaels to win the match before locking Undertaker in the casket and setting it ablaze, presuming his brother dead. On the March 2 episode of Raw Is War, Kane's scheduled opponent, Stone Cold Steve Austin, was taken out by D-Generation X before the match could begin. With nothing else to do, Bearer ordered the timekeeper to deliver a ten-bell salute for The Undertaker's passing, before then telling Kane to tombstone him. After he did, more bells were heard ringing, this time signaling Undertaker's arrival. The ringing continued much longer than normal, with Bearer vehemently denying the possibility of it being Undertaker. Eventually, a sarcophagus appeared on the top of the ramp. After the sarcophagus was struck by a bolt of lightning, The Undertaker sat up before revealing that he had been to Hell and talked with his parents, telling them that he would have to go back on his vow before finally challenging Kane to a match at WrestleMania. The week before WrestleMania, Kane came to the ring and began to display similar supernatural powers as his brother, striking the TitanTron with lightning, as well as the announce table, before finally striking a crew worker with lightning, setting him on fire; Undertaker was shown on the same episode speaking to his parents' gravestones, revealing it may have to take the damnation of his soul to reunite the troubled family.\nIn January, Stone Cold Steve Austin won the Royal Rumble match while Shawn Michaels retained his WWF Championship, all while Mike Tyson looked on from the director's box. The following night on Raw Is War, Vince McMahon was set to reveal that Tyson would be the special guest referee for WrestleMania's main event; however, Austin appeared and gave the finger to Tyson, offering him a fight and proclaiming the wrestling ring to be his, not Tyson's. Austin and Tyson then engaged in a massive brawl that garnered headlines all around the world. At the ensuing press conference, McMahon officially announced that due to the explosive situation, Tyson's role was being changed to that of ring enforcer. On the February 2 episode of Raw Is War, in a scheduled match against Road Dogg, D-Generation X stormed the match and tied Austin in the ropes, allowing Shawn Michaels to hurl insults at Austin and rub the championship belt in his face, taunting him with it until Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie came to his aid. The following week, Austin stole the championship belt from Michaels in the hope of baiting him into a singles match, but the partnership of D-Generation X and The New Age Outlaws continued, allowing Michaels to retrieve the belt back. This all led to a \"non-sanctioned\" eight-man tag match at No Way Out of Texas: In Your House, which Michaels was unable to participate in due to a back injury; Austin won the match for his team by pinning Road Dogg. With WrestleMania drawing closer, on the March 2 episode of Raw Is War, Mike Tyson appeared once again to be interviewed by Vince McMahon, only for DX to interrupt; Shawn Michaels then challenged Tyson to a fight. After both men's entourages left the ring, the two taunted each other for a bit until Michaels would rip off Tyson's shirt, revealing a DX T-shirt underneath, showing the enforcer's degenerate alliance; Later in the evening, as Austin came out to take place in a match against Kane, Triple H appeared on the ramp and lured Austin to him. Austin fell for the trap, and promptly turned around into a Sweet Chin Music by Michaels which knocked him out, a trap which occurred again the following week. Also that week, during a St. Patrick's Day Tuesday broadcast of Raw Is War on March 17, Austin called out Vince McMahon and verbally berated him for describing Mike Tyson as \"the baddest man on the planet\", but McMahon would not be goaded into a fight, as he instead forced Austin to fight Rocky Maivia the following episode, just before WrestleMania.\n\nEvent\nChris Warren and The DX Band opened the show by performing hard rock versions of \"America the Beautiful\" and \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". The audience did not react well to the performance, booing the band during and after their songs. This segment was edited off all subsequent home video releases, as well as the WWE Network and Peacock.\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe night began with the mystery entrants in the tag team battle royal being revealed as the reunited Legion of Doom, now known as LOD 2000, with Sunny as their new valet. Savio Vega was first eliminated by Chainz meaning his tag team partner, Miguel Perez, had to leave too. Kurrgan illegally entered the ring to enact revenge on Sniper and Recon by eliminating them on behalf of The Jackyl. Barry Windham also illegally entered to eliminate Chainz, and so left his partner Bradshaw. The final four teams lasted a while until Skull would be eliminated by Henry Godwinn, which meant The Disciples of Apocalypse were eliminated. 8-Ball then eliminated Phineas Godwinn, which meant The Godwinns were then eliminated. Afterwards, The Godwinns attacked LOD 2000 with slop buckets before leaving. The Midnight Express tried to keep Animal out of the ring while double-teaming Hawk, but once Animal re-entered the ring, LOD 2000 simultaneously eliminated both Bob and Bart, leaving LOD 2000 the last team standing and the winners of the battle royal.\nThe second match was a Light Heavyweight Championship match, with Taka Michinoku defending his title against Águila; this would be the first and only time the championship was defended at WrestleMania, though its successor, the Cruiserweight Championship would be defended at the event more than once. After throwing Taka out the ring and baseball sliding into him, Águila hit an asai moonsault outside the ring, but was soon the victim of a springboard crossbody after Taka reversed a suplex from the apron. Águila almost won the match with a moonsault crossbody into a pin, but remained on the offensive with a frankensteiner. Taka tried to land the Michinoku Driver, but as Aguila flipped out and attempted a hurricanrana, Taka managed a powerbomb reversal. Taka then stopped a high flying dive attempt by Aguila with a dropkick, before successfully executing a Michinoku Driver and picking up the win. After the match, both contestants shook each other's hand and celebrated together. Also, partway into the matchup, Jim Ross made a fleeting comment about the date of Taka's title win, December 7, the date of the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, calling it \"ironic enough\". This incident went largely unnoticed, only causing a slight stir in the wrestling community.\nTriple H made his way to the ring with his theme being played by the DX Band. Before Owen Hart came to the ring, Commissioner Sgt. Slaughter handcuffed himself to Chyna so that she would not interfere, despite her protestations. The match began with Hart pummeling Helmsley with fists before sliding out of the ring. Triple H tried to jump from the apron onto Hart, but made contact with the crowd barrier instead. After executing a powerbomb, Hart attempted to lock in the sharpshooter, but Helmsley reversed it and started some offensive maneuvers of his own, kicking Hart in the turnbuckle and delivering a suplex. Hart then suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose from a boot to the face, after which Triple H began to work on Hart's damaged ankle, dropping his knee onto it and stretching it. After avoiding another kick to the face and crouching Helmsley onto the ring post, Owen managed to take advantage, reversing a Pedigree attempt into the sharpshooter. Chyna, having to pull Slaughter, pulled Triple H to the rope for the break. As Slaughter was distracted, Chyna then threw white powder into Slaughter's face, causing the referee a worried Hart to check on him. While the referee was distracted and as Owen turned around to confront Triple H, Chyna low-blowed him from outside, allowing Triple H to successfully nail the Pedigree and retain the title. After she was freed from the handcuffs, Chyna nailed Slaughter with a forearm and shoved him over the barricade into the crowd.\nNext up was the mixed tag team match. Marc Mero and Goldust began the match, but Goldust soon tagged in Luna Vachon, requiring Sable to be tagged in too, as per the rules. However, Vachon simply ran around the outside of the ring with Sable chasing her, before tagging Goldust back in. Wanting to get her hands on Vachon, Sable double-teamed Goldust with a boot to the face after an Irish whip from Mero, but could not get Vachon to enter the ring. A near-pinfall came from a running crossbody from Mero and following this, the two ran into each other, causing both men to crawl and tag in the women. Sable then took Luna down and punched her around the face before kicking her in the midsection and face in the turnbuckle and attacking Goldust, before running back to clothesline Vachon over the ropes. Vachon tagged Goldust in, but before Sable would do the same, she struck him in the face, then let Mero take over who had his TKO reversed into a DDT. Mero would then reverse the Curtain Call, allowing him the chance to try a moonsault pin to a standing Goldust. After Vachon struck a running Mero with her knee, Mero went to punch her, but ducked out of the way as Goldust ran to her rescue, causing him to inadvertently knock her off the apron. Mero then executed the TKO, but Luna interrupted the pin count, jumping on Mero's back resulting in Sable tagging in as Mero wandered around the ring with Vachon on his back. Sable tried pinning Goldust, but the referee was distracted and as he finally began to count, Sable leapt off Goldust so the interfering Vachon would inadvertently bodysplash Goldust. Sable then performed a powerbomb and Mero's TKO to win the bout.\nGennifer Flowers, who was accompanied by Jeff Jarrett and Tennessee Lee, then came to the ring as the special guest ring announcer for the upcoming Intercontinental Championship match between Ken Shamrock and Rocky Maivia. The fight began in the aisleway with a brawl that saw Shamrock get whipped into the steel steps before both men entered the ring. Maivia then delivered his People's Elbow, but could not secure a three-count. Shamrock then rolled out of the ring and grabbed a steel chair; when the referee tried to take it off him, he threw the referee into the corner; Maivia quickly grabbed the chair and hit Shamrock with it as the referee recovered. Shamrock kicked out and quickly re-gained the advantage, delivering a belly-to-belly suplex off an Irish whip and then securing his ankle lock submission in the center of the ring, making Maivia tap to win the match and the title. The surrounding members of the Nation quickly jumped into the ring, but Shamrock dispatched them all with suplexes, including the four hundred pound Mark Henry, before then reapplying the ankle lock to a bloody Maivia. Faarooq then ran down from the back and jumped onto the apron, only to look on at Maivia with a smile, before walking away. A number of referees (the ones Shamrock attacked were actually independent wrestlers, or stuntmen put in referee uniforms) and officials would appear, trying to subdue Shamrock. After being surrounded, Shamrock suplexed a referee and then an official before calming down as Maivia was wheeled away on a gurney. Howard Finkel then announced Shamrock had been disqualified for not breaking his ankle lock submission, meaning The Rock would retain the Intercontinental championship. This would cause Shamrock to become enraged and chase Rocky, and dump him off of the gurney and fighting him on the Chris Warren band stage.\nThe WWF Tag Team Championship match was a \"Dumpster match\", the objective being the first tag team to put their opponents into a dumpster with the lids being closed shut would be the winners. The match began with Billy Gunn facing Chainsaw Charlie and Road Dogg exchanging blows with Cactus Jack. Trying a cannonball on Road Dogg from the apron, Cactus missed and slammed himself into the dumpster instead. The Outlaws then focused on Charlie, using a back drop to deposit him into the dumpster and, as he attempted to climb out, they simultaneously slammed the lid shut on the hardcore legends' heads. With Cactus and Charlie both in the dumpster, the Outlaws shut the lid down on them, but Cactus managed to get back up while the Outlaws were celebrating and pushed Road Dogg down to the ground with a mandible claw, pulling him into the dumpster. Both teams took time to recover and began to brawl with weapons in the ring, Cactus Jack pulling out a ladder and climbing it opposite Billy Gunn, only for both men to be pushed off straight into the dumpster outside the ring, thanks to a dazed Chainsaw Charlie. Road Dogg pulled his partner out and the two then focused their efforts on Charlie, powerbombing him into the dumpster, but Cactus had managed to escape in the meantime. The fight eventually found its way to the backstage area, with both Outlaws throwing Cactus into boxes and promotional displays, but Jack replied with a chair shot to both of them and planted Billy Gunn onto a wooden pallet with a double-arm DDT. Charlie then reappeared on a forklift and elevated the wooden pallet as Jack dragged Road Dogg onto it too. Charlie then drove the forklift above a backstage dumpster and dropped both opponents inside as Cactus Jack closed the lid to win the WWF Tag Team Championship.\n\nMain event matches\nBefore The Undertaker's match with Kane, baseball record-holder Pete Rose came to the ring as the special ring announcer. However, after insulting the hometown team and introducing Kane, he received a tombstone piledriver, starting a tri-year tradition. The Undertaker was preceded by a league of torch-bearing druids to the tune of \"O Fortuna\". As the match began, The Undertaker cornered Kane and threw a flurry of punches into him, ducking and reversing Kane's attempts until Kane hit him with a clothesline that he instantly sat up from. Kane then set Undertaker up in a tree of woe to begin his assault of punches and Irish whips, before suplexing Undertaker onto the ropes and delivering a flying club to the neck from the turnbuckle. As The Undertaker began to fight back, Kane threw him into the ropes, but Undertaker retaliated by jumping onto his back, which was met a face-first electric chair. Paul Bearer kept the referee distracted while Kane landed the steel steps onto Undertaker, and repeated the effort a second time while Undertaker was lying on the steps, crushing him in-between them. As the referee tried to keep Kane in check, Bearer slapped Undertaker while walking past him. Kane caught his brother running and delivered a chokeslam, but Undetaker lifted his shoulders off the mat before the three-count could be made. Kane put The Undertaker into a sleeper hold that he eventually fought out of with a flurry of punches. Undertaker then dropped Kane on top of the ropes and punched him off the apron; he followed this with an over the top rope suicide dive that Kane managed to sidestep, sending Undertaker crashing through the Spanish announce table. As Undertaker made it back into the ring, Kane hit him with a flying lariat. Undertaker then attempted to give Kane the Tombstone Piledriver, but Kane managed to shift his weight, reversing the positions and allowing Kane to deliver the tombstone to Undertaker instead. Undertaker kicked out and after landing a running clothesline, Undertaker choke slammed Kane and then delivered a tombstone piledriver of his own; but Kane kicked out. This would mark the first time anyone had ever kicked out of Undertaker's tombstone piledriver. It would take three tombstones with a guillotine leg drop and flying clothesline in between to stop Kane. But in the end, Undertaker scored the pin and was victorious. As soon as the match was over, Bearer attacked Undertaker and ordered Kane to attack him, which he did with a chair shot to the head and then a tombstone piledriver onto the chair. After Kane and Bearer left, Undertaker sat up and left the ring.\n\nWith Mike Tyson enforcing from ringside, the WWF Championship match began with both wrestlers taunting each other, engaging in a few light punches before Shawn Michaels escaped the ring and ran back in to take advantage of Stone Cold Steve Austin, but was met with a standing clothesline. Austin followed up by pulling down Michaels' tights, exposing Michaels' backside. Michaels then tried to run at Austin, but was back dropped over the top rope onto Triple H. As Triple H threw Austin into the crowd barrier, the referee ordered he and Chyna to leave ringside. As they were leaving Austin followed and fought with Triple H up to the entrance gate. Michaels caught up and hit Austin with a cymbal from the DX Band's stage, before Irish whipping Austin into the dumpster. As the match resumed in the ring, Austin met Michaels's high-risk maneuver with a clothesline and then ran him into the turnbuckle before picking him up for an inverted atomic drop. Michaels' attempt to pick up some momentum saw him picked up and dropped onto the ropes, but Michaels managed to push Austin away as he attempted a stunner. When Michaels tried to escape the ring though, Austin delivered a right hand, forcing the champion to fall upon the announce table. After Austin slowed the match down with a sleeper hold, Michaels tried to pull his knee into the ring post but was instead pulled into it himself. Austin then tried to rush at Michaels, but was back dropped into the crowd and struck with the ring bell. Michaels used the momentum to take advantage inside the ring, delivering a snapmare and then a low kick to the grounded Austin, while also taking time to taunt the audience. Austin briefly picked up some speed throwing Michaels out of the ring, but just as quickly lost ground as Michaels repeatedly worked on Austin's left knee, throwing it into the ring post before kicking and dropping onto it back inside the ring. When Austin tried to recover outside of the ring, he was met with a baseball slide that launched him over the announce table. Austin was then thrown back into the ring by Miks Tyson, where he soon suffered a figure-four leglock that Michaels illegally elevated using the second and third ring rope. Austin's eventual counter was stopped by a rope break. Austin then tried to reverse a standing sleeper hold by throwing Michaels back into the turnbuckle, but unwittingly trapped referee Mike Chioda who fell unconscious. With both men on the floor, Michaels recovered with a kip-up and landed a high-flying elbow drop, getting in position for Sweet Chin Music. As Austin eventually stood up, he ducked the superkick, attempting a stunner on Michaels. Michaels responded by throwing Austin into the ropes before once again attempting Sweet Chin Music. However, Austin grabbed Michaels' foot, spun him around and nailed him with a Stone Cold Stunner. Mike Tyson jumped into the ring to make a quick three count and the new champion celebrated by tossing the enforcer an \"Austin 3:16\" t-shirt. When Shawn Michaels stood up, he confronted Tyson about his turn, but was met with a punch that instantly floored him, before Tyson then draped Michaels with Austin's t-shirt.\n\nAftermath\nThe result of the main event heralded a changing of the guard in the World Wrestling Federation. Shawn Michaels, who had been a major superstar in the company for many years, having won his first WWF Championship at WrestleMania two years previously, took a four-year hiatus from wrestling due to a severe back injury sustained during the casket match against Undertaker at the Royal Rumble. During his retirement, Shawn made several ostensible one-off appearances as a guest commentator during episodes of Raw Is War in the summer of 1998, and eventually replacing Sgt. Slaughter as the WWF commissioner at the end of the year, holding onto the position for a year and a half. After what was supposed to be a one-time match four years later at SummerSlam, Michaels and the now renamed World Wrestling Entertainment realized that his injuries had healed, and he made a full-time return to wrestling, eventually retiring permanently in 2010 at WrestleMania XXVI, 12 years after this event.\nWith Stone Cold Steve Austin as the new WWF Champion, the \"Attitude Era\" was fully ushered in. The company's iconic scratch logo had started to replace the \"New Generation\" logo and began to appear on ring aprons and promotional material during and after this event. The next night on Raw Is War after WrestleMania, the old WWF \"winged eagle\" world championship belt was retired, and a new belt design with a larger eagle and blue globe debuted (eventually being retired in 2002). The Attitude Era saw Austin's feud with Vince McMahon escalate and two weeks later, Raw Is War defeated World Championship Wrestling's Monday Nitro in the ratings war for the first time in eighty-four weeks.\nShawn Michaels' loss was criticized by Triple H the following night on Raw Is War, with Triple H blaming Michaels for overlooking Tyson's potential double-cross. Helmsley delivered a promo saying that he would now lead D-Generation X and turn it into an army, saying \"the first thing you do is look to your blood. You look to your buddies. You look to your friends. You look...to the Kliq\", before introducing a returning Sean Waltman, now under the \"X-Pac\" persona, who had re-signed with the company after being fired from World Championship Wrestling (WCW). Later in the evening, it was revealed that Road Dogg and Billy Gunn were also part of the DX Army.\nThe ongoing saga between The Undertaker and Kane continued to escalate even further. The following night, Paul Bearer challenged Undertaker on behalf of Kane to a match at Unforgiven: In Your House, where the ring would be surrounded by fire. The first man to be set ablaze would lose, thus giving birth to the Inferno Match.\nBy winning the fifteen-team battle royal, LOD 2000 won the right to face the WWF Tag Team Champions at Unforgiven. The champions by rights were Cactus Jack and Chainsaw Charlie, but some legal wrangling from The New Age Outlaws saw the match held up on account of the wrong dumpster being used. The vacant titles were then decided in a steel cage match between the two teams the following night, which the Outlaws won after interference from the newly formed DX Army, concreting their ties, and by handcuffing Charlie to the cage by his neck. Charlie returned to his Terry Funk persona, whilst Cactus Jack became Dude Love again. Meanwhile, the New Age Outlaws became part of the DX Army, achieving further success.\nIn a tag team match against Ken Shamrock and Steve Blackman, Rocky Maivia promised to show Faarooq that the Nation was stronger and more connected than ever before. The promise was a sour one as, during the match, Rocky left Faarooq to suffer the wrath of Shamrock and Blackman. Afterwards, Faarooq demanded that Rocky come back out so the two could fight. When Rocky returned and squared up to Faarooq, the other members of the Nation turned on him, and Maivia proclaimed himself as the new \"ruler\" of the faction.\nBefore Marc Mero's match with Taka Michinoku the next night, Luna Vachon appeared and challenged Sable to a singles match, which Sable promptly accepted. Vachon also announced that it was not to be a traditional wrestling match, because she wanted to humiliate Sable, and so it would be an evening gown match to be held at Unforgiven.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XIV",
"title": "WrestleMania_XIV"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XV was the 15th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE). It took place on March 28, 1999, at the First Union Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Ten professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event's card. The ticket sales of 20,276 drew a gross of $1,437,050.\nThe main event saw the challenger Stone Cold Steve Austin face The Rock in a no disqualification match for the WWF Championship. The penultimate match saw The Undertaker wrestle Big Boss Man in a Hell in a Cell match. Lower on the card, six of the promotion's seven active championships were defended, including the first WrestleMania defense of the Hardcore Championship. Also on the undercard was a Brawl for All match, an unscripted type of shootfight between wrestler Bart Gunn and boxer/mixed martial artist Butterbean. This event also marked the final WWF appearance for Gorilla Monsoon, who died in October that year.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" pay-per-views, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania XV was scheduled on March 28, 1999, at the First Union Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n\nStorylines\nWhen Road Dogg Jesse James and \"Bad Ass\" Billy Gunn lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to The Corporation, they tried their hand at singles wrestling for some time. Gunn failed in his attempts to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship, but Road Dogg becoming Hardcore Champion until an injury prevented him from honoring a championship match with Al Snow. Snow ended up fighting himself and then Bob Holly for the vacant belt at St. Valentine's Day Massacre: In Your House, with Holly winning the title at the banks of the Mississippi River. When Road Dogg won the Intercontinental Championship on Raw Is War Gunn fought Holly (now Hardcore Holly) and won when Holly crashed into an ad-hoc announcers table Jim Ross had constructed for his pirate broadcast of the show. Holly felt enraged that circumstances had conspired against him, while Snow still wanted another chance at the belt.\nIn the previous year, due to the suddenly enlarged roster, a shootfighting (unscripted) knockout tournament titled Brawl for All was organized on a voluntary basis, with Bart Gunn winning the tournament on August 24 after defeating every opponent by knockout aside from his opening-round opponent Bob Holly. When Holly rechristened himself Hardcore Holly on February 15, decrying poor gimmicks and tag-team partners he had been given in the past, Gunn made his first appearance since winning the tournament, to remind Holly that not all his partners were of a poor caliber. After a hardcore match between the two, which Gunn dominated until a masked assailant, revealed to be \"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams, threw him off the stage. Williams did this out of revenge for losing to Gunn in the Brawl for All. The week after on Raw Is War, Williams' manager Jim Ross announced to Gunn he would be facing noted mixed martial artist and boxer Eric \"Butterbean\" Esch, who held a 43–1–1 record at the time, who challenged him to a Brawl for All fight.\nFrom November's Survivor Series until the night after St. Valentine's Day Massacre, The Rock and Mankind (Mick Foley) traded the WWF Championship numerous times as Mr. McMahon screwed Mankind time and time again on his quest to headline WrestleMania. In their final match, a Raw Is War ladder match, Paul Wight delivered the Showstopper to Mankind as he was about to win the match, removing his chances of appearing the main event. However, as Mr. McMahon's conspiracy of appointing Big Show as special guest referee to secure The Rock as champion began to fall apart, Mankind constantly offered his services as a second official. With The Rock and Big Show causing infighting in the Corporation, Mankind successfully canvassed for a chance to referee; rather than have two conflicting referees, a match was booked to give the winner the right to officiate.\nWhen Ryan Shamrock (Alicia Webb) appeared front row on Raw Is War on January 11, she gained attention not only from her brother but also Val Venis, who performed a flirtatious dance for her, and \"Badd Ass\" Billy Gunn, who lived up to his moniker by mooning her. Enraged, Ken Shamrock fought Gunn at the Royal Rumble, then Venis at St. Valentine's Day Massacre, with Venis winning the Intercontinental Championship thanks to help from Ryan. Venis soon dumped Ryan, and she began a relationship with Goldust (Dustin Rhodes). Venis also unwittingly lost his championship to Road Dogg on Raw Is War and found himself defending his championship against the important men in Ryan Shamrock's life in a four-corners elimination match.\n\nAfter The Rock won his \"I Quit\" match against Mankind at the Royal Rumble by playing a recording of his voice, Triple H demanded an I Quit match of his own, but as he was about to put Rock through the announcers table, The Corporation came to the ring and Kane held his manager/girlfriend Chyna hostage, demanding that he quit the match. As soon as the match was over, Chyna low blowed Triple H and revealed her alliances with The Corporation, promising a Valentine's Day present at the subsequent pay-per-view. Despite almost having the match won, Triple H suffered at the hands of an interfering Shane McMahon and illegal man Kane's chokeslam. Triple H took revenge on the February 22 Raw Is War by interfering in X-Pac's (Sean Waltman) match with Chyna, causing her to lose. Chyna called Triple H out on March 8, but before they could fight, Kane came to the ring. Chyna held up Triple H as Kane shot a fireball at him, though he would duck out of the way causing (kayfabe) severe retinal damage to Chyna. Despite not receiving any damage, Triple H maintained that the fireball was meant for him, an insult he took personally and an intended injury he wanted to return at WrestleMania. On March 22, Kane prepared to have a match against Goldust, but as he threw off his entrance robes and wig, it turned out he was Triple H holding a flamethrower, shooting flames in Kane's face. Meanwhile, X-Pac, who had altercations with Shane McMahon prior to the February event, was frustrated with Shane's interference in the match and goaded into putting his European Championship on the line in a tag-team match with Triple H against Kane and Shane, which Shane won thanks to Triple H being distracted by Chyna. With Shane claiming himself to be a fighting champion, he agreed to a rematch at WrestleMania, but regularly interfered in X-Pac's matches up until that point, culminating in a Greenwich Street Fight on March 22 that ended in a no-contest when the Mean Street Posse ambushed X-Pac and drove off with Shane in their car.\n\nTori was sitting front row as a plant as early as September 14's Raw Is War, but it was not until late December that she began to act with stalker tendencies, sending flowers and notes to Sable, the Women's Champion and even helping her to defend her title against Luna Vachon at the Royal Rumble. On Raw Is War the night after the previous pay-per-view, Tori invaded the ring again and was publicly shouted at and humiliated by Sable. Vachon then brought Tori to the ring a fortnight after, reprimanding Sable for her ego, but a still-obsessed Tori helped attack Vachon. The following week on March 8's Raw Is War, Tori fought Vachon with Sable in her corner but after receiving a squash from Vachon, Sable also gave Tori a Sable Bomb, leading to Tori interrupting Sable's Playboy interview by demanding a championship match at WrestleMania.\nHaving been buried alive in a Royal Rumble qualification match at Rock Bottom: In Your House, The Undertaker disappeared from television while The Acolytes, Faarooq (Ron Simmons) and Bradshaw (John Layfield), began to act strangely, eventually abducting Dennis Knight and leaving him tied up in a darkened room. On January 11, The Undertaker returned in slightly new attire, taking a seat in a ceremonial throne on the Raw Is War stage while Paul Bearer stood beside him and The Acolytes brought Knight out and tied him to a table. There, Undertaker performed a ritualistic ceremony, rechristening him Mideon. Undertaker began delivering ambiguous apocalyptic messages, but after recruiting Mabel, now Viscera (Nelson Frazier, Jr.) and The Brood, he began to be more direct, revealing his plan to attack Mr. McMahon and take over the World Wrestling Federation.\nThe security of Mr. McMahon's Corporation, Big Boss Man, challenged the Ministry to a six-man tag team match, which ended in a no-contest when the Ministry abducted Shane McMahon and took him to Undertaker, who threatened him while choking him then gave him a letter to give to his father. McMahon replied the following week on February 22 by booking The Undertaker in an Inferno match with Kane on Raw Is War, the first network television airing of that type of match. During the match, McMahon provided commentary, nonchalantly revealing he had placed Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match against Big Boss Man for WrestleMania. During the match, Paul Bearer gave an ominous gift to McMahon, a teddy bear. After Undertaker set Kane on fire, he turned to the enraged McMahon, taking the teddy bear (later revealed to belong to Stephanie McMahon) and setting it alight, reducing Vince to his knees. Trying to defeat either of his problems, McMahon declared he'd never show such weakness again and put Mankind against Undertaker, which ended with Undertaker almost chokeslamming McMahon through the announcers table until Boss Man saved him. Undertaker continued with his mind games on March 8, ordering his Ministry to look for Boss Man all night and attacking any innocents in his way, eventually capturing Boss Man and crucifying him. Boss Man managed to escape while police were being beaten off by Undertaker's minions until he offered himself to the police while being derided by McMahon. The following week he continued his assault, with videos playing throughout the evening of the Ministry at McMahon's mansion ending in McMahon coming to the ring while Triple H brawled with Kane, begging Kane to help him. Kane ripped off his mask to reveal it was actually The Undertaker who grabbed McMahon by the throat as the lights turned off in the arena and when they came up, he was gone with McMahon alone in the ring.\nThe main event of the evening was another chapter in the ongoing rivalry between Stone Cold Steve Austin and McMahon, which dated back to when Austin won the Royal Rumble in 1998. After Austin won the WWF Championship at WrestleMania XIV, McMahon set on a six-month-long quest to take the championship from him. With the exception of a one day reign by Kane, who won the championship in a First Blood Match at King of the Ring when his (kayfabe) brother The Undertaker caused Austin to bleed first, Austin thwarted each attempt by McMahon until Breakdown: In Your House in September 1998. There, Austin defended the championship against Undertaker and Kane in what was billed as a triple threat match. McMahon added a stipulation, however, that neither brother could pin the other to win the match;this led to both men simultaneously pinning Austin, causing him to lose the match and the championship. This had been part of a deal McMahon had made with the two men to protect him from Austin, with the reward of the championship if they were successful. However, McMahon went back on his word after Austin attacked him on the next night’s Raw and announced he was forcing Undertaker and Kane to wrestle for the vacant championship at Judgment Day: In Your House. He also named Austin the special guest referee, hoping to humiliate him by forcing him to declare a new champion. Austin, however, had other ideas and counted both men out, declaring himself the winner of the match and leaving the championship vacant.\nA Deadly Games tournament was scheduled for Survivor Series in November, in which it turned out that The Rock, not Mankind, was McMahon's choice for winner and had the tournament manipulated to his advantage, while Austin lost in a match when McMahon's son Shane, acting as referee, refused to count a pinfall to go to the finals. Knowing Rock would be busy feuding with Mankind, McMahon realized Austin was likely to use the 1999 Royal Rumble, rather than a personal attack, to attempt to reclaim the belt and laid down the stipulation that he must win a Buried Alive match against The Undertaker to be in the Rumble. When he did, with some help from Kane, McMahon further tried to prevent Austin winning back the championship by \"randomly\" drawing him as the first entrant in the Rumble and drawing himself as the 30th. Having annoyed commissioner Shawn Michaels, McMahon was placed into the match as the second entrant. McMahon would later try to incentivize other wrestlers to eliminate Austin by putting a $100,000 bounty on him during the Royal Rumble match. \nDespite this, Austin (and, for that matter, McMahon) managed to stay in the match to the very end, although this was mostly due to he and McMahon leaving the ring at various points to brawl around the arena. Late in the match The Rock, who earlier in the evening had regained the WWF Championship, came to the ring and started arguing with Austin. McMahon took advantage of the distraction and threw Austin over the top rope, thus winning the match.\nSince he was officially now the winner of the Royal Rumble, McMahon was entitled to face whoever the WWF Champion was at WrestleMania. On the following night's episode of Raw, however, he announced that, since he was only a part-timer and the champion was a fellow Corporation member in The Rock, that he had filed paperwork relinquishing his WrestleMania championship opportunity and that he would be naming a replacement later in the evening. To his chagrin, Austin and Michaels informed him shortly thereafter that, according to the rules, his actions resulted in Austin, as the runner-up in the Royal Rumble, taking his place. \nWith McMahon irate, Austin revealed he was willing to put his place on the line and not headline WrestleMania if McMahon would give him the opportunity to fight him one on one with no interference from The Corporation; if McMahon could beat him, Austin would not go to WrestleMania. Their steel-cage match at St. Valentine's Day Massacre mostly consisted of McMahon running away, but eventually the two fought with Austin winning the match under unusual circumstances when Big Show made his debut, coming from under the ring and throwing Austin into the cage with the walls of it coming open, meaning that Austin had inadvertently won.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nThe event was marked with a Rage Party the preceding evening at the Pennsylvania Convention Center, playing on the tagline of the event, much like Fan Axess that would come in later years. It included music from Isaac Hayes, Big Pun, and the Cherry Poppin' Daddies.\nDuring the Sunday Night Heat pre-show, Jacqueline (Jacqueline Moore) pinned Ivory (Lisa Moretti) after a back suplex. After the match, Terri Runnels burned her cigar into Ivory's cheek. The second Heat match saw a 21-man battle royal match with the last two competitors becoming a tag team for the evening to face the Tag Team Championship holders. In the event, D'Lo Brown and Test (Andrew Martin) were the last two, still fighting without realizing the match was over when Droz (Darren Drozdov) and The Godfather (Charles Wright) eliminated each other. The show officially began with Boyz II Men singing \"America the Beautiful\" in the ring before the opening video.\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe inaugural WrestleMania Hardcore Championship match began with Al Snow striking Billy Gunn as he tried to make a pre-match speech. With Gunn in the corner, Snow fought with Hardcore Holly outside the ring, wrapping his neck in cable but, after some fighting from Gunn, Holly was able to suplex Snow. After Gunn again interjected himself, Snow was able to go underneath the mat to find some weapons including a Philadelphia Flyers hockey stick much to the delight of the crowd. The match ended when Gunn put Snow through a table in the corner, originally intended for Gunn and then used the Fameasser on Snow, driving him into a chair on the mat. As the referee counted, Holly struck Gunn with a weapon, quickly covering Snow to steal his second championship reign. The WWF Tag Team Championship match began with Jeff Jarrett and D'Lo Brown exchanging running maneuvers before both tagging in their respective partners, at which point Test used a pumphandle slam on Owen Hart, but tried again after a failed pin attempt only to be met with an enziguiri and then the Sharpshooter. Brown came in illegally to break it up but was tagged in straight afterward, dominating both Hart and Jarrett with power slams and dropkicks, almost winning the match after a Sky High that was broken up by Jarrett. Referee Jimmy Korderas was distracted when Debra (Debra Marshall) came to the apron to distract Brown only to be pulled down by Ivory (Lisa Moretti), at which point PMS (Terri Runnels and Jacqueline Moore) arrived and all of them began to fight while Test tried to pull them apart. With everyone distracted, Hart missile dropkicked Brown allowing Jarrett to roll Brown up and sit on him, securing a pin count.\nThe Brawl For All match began with the two meetings in the middle, Gunn running into some blows from Butterbean. The two traded punches, neither man managing to contact properly until Butterbean shook Gunn with a left-hand jab followed by a right hook which stunned Gunn allowing Bean to corner him, giving him another right hook which knocked him down. Gunn immediately came back upon his knees but took advantage of the eight seconds before standing up fully. As the fight resumed, Butterbean jabbed Gunn to the body and followed with a clean overhand right which sent Gunn back to the canvas, giving Butterbean a victory via knockout. The match lasted a total of 34 seconds. This was followed with an appearance from the San Diego Chicken, who mocked special referee Vinny Pazienza and was punched to the floor for it.\nOn the WWF WrestleMania special on HSN later during the pay per view, after the Shane McMahon match \"Dr. Death\" Steve Williams cut a promo on Bart Gunn in a backstage interview with Jim Ross by his side, saying the Butterbean's punch \"wasn't lucky\" and that \"Bart deserved what he got\", telling the viewer to keep watching WWF because \"the Doctor hasn't finished his job yet\". This was in hopes of setting up an angle between Williams and Gunn, and to continue building Williams as a credible midcarder. However, because of Gunn being released, their feud instead carried over to All Japan Pro Wrestling in the early 2000s, where in Japan the Brawl For All was better received.\nWhen Mankind entered the ring he was immediately headbutted out, but as Big Show followed him out, Mankind slammed Show's head into the steel steps. He then tried a double-armed DDT into the steps but was shoved over the steps falling backward. Show dominated Mankind in the ring afterward, using his sheer size to punch and throw Mankind, with Mankind eventually being tied up in the ropes, which allowed him to back body drop Show out of the ring. Mankind then took out Mr. Socko, a smelly gym sock, and stuffed the foul-smelling sock into the Big Show’s mouth with the mandible claw three times. The third claw came with a low blow, for which Mankind was not disqualified. When Show stood back up, he had Mankind on his back with the sock in his mouth and jumped backward so that his entire body landed on Mankind, breaking up the hold. As the two recovered, Show kicked his opponent out of the ring, grabbing a steel chair and thrusting it into Mankind's chest then hitting it over his back. Big Show threw that chair and another in the ring, setting them both in seated positions and Show Stopping Mankind through the middle of them. At this point Earl Hebner finally decided to disqualify Big Show, with Show taking out his anger by attacking Mankind more with the chair. Mr. McMahon made his way to the ring afterward, berating Big Show for risking the WWF Championship match at which point Show grabbed him by the throat. He then thought better of it and released him, only to be met with another tirade from McMahon and a slap, causing Show to punch McMahon and knock him out.\nThe four corners Intercontinental match began with Ken Shamrock and Road Dogg in the ring, with the latter being thrown from corner to corner until Goldust tagged his way in, with running shoulder barges that floored Shamrock. Shamrock tagged in Venis who came in and instantly attacked Shamrock until Goldust backdropped him. Goldust tried the Curtain Call but Venis flipped over Goldust's back only to be knocked down again by a clothesline from Goldust who then put Venis on the turnbuckle and attempted a superplex but Venis fought back and replied with a diving bulldog following with a fisherman suplex pin which would only make a two count. The two then collided in the turnbuckle, causing Goldust to fall down and Venis to fall on him, headbutting his crotch. Shamrock took a blind tag from Road Dogg, after he replaced Goldust, immediately putting an ankle lock until Venis grabbed the bottom rope. As Venis grabbed the ropes to stand up again Shamrock charged him but was tossed over the ropes as Ryan Shamrock insulted him. Venis went after Ken Shamrock and the two fought up the walkway with Shamrock running back to the ring but not fast enough to avoid a double count-out. Shamrock, not accepting the decision belly to belly suplex slammed both competitors before leaving. When they recovered Goldust Irish whipped Road Dogg but had it reversed and as Goldust ran into the ropes he had his leg caught by Ryan Shamrock, seemingly trying to grab Road Dogg's leg. Road Dogg charged Goldust and was picked up for a powerslam but managed to roll Goldust round, crashing him into the floor and covering him for a successful pin count.\nBefore Kane's match with Triple H, Kane entered the ring only to be attacked while he was performing his signature entrance by the San Diego Chicken. Kane fought back and unmasked the chicken, revealing it to be Pete Rose, trying to gain revenge for the previous year's incident but receiving a Tombstone piledriver. Triple H also tried to ambush Kane by coming through the crowd while all eyes were on the stage entrance, hitting Kane out of the ring and then hitting him into the ring post and whipping him into the steel steps. Kane then picked Triple H up and straddled him on the crowd barrier, pushing him into the Mean Street Posse who were at ringside, picking him up again to ram his back into the steel post three times. Back inside the ring, Kane dominated Helmsley with his rough fighting style, using his foot to choke Triple H and knocking him down with clotheslines and punches until Triple H gained momentum from a reversal, smashing Kane's face into his knee. Kane was allowed time to recover when Triple H was distracted by Chyna coming to ringside. Triple H tried to Pedigree Kane as he stood up but failed while Chyna pushed the steel steps into the ring. Kane picked them up and ran into Triple H, who used the turnbuckle to swing his feet up and kicked them back into Kane causing Kane to stagger backward and drop them before smashing his face into the steps from a drop toe-hold. Triple H then clotheslined Kane out of the ring, following himself and attempting to Pedigree Kane on the steps but was backbody dropped. When they made it back into the ring Kane chokeslammed Triple H while Chyna entered the ring with a steel chair, telling Kane she wanted to attack Triple H, but as Kane turned, Chyna hit him with the chair, causing him to corner her but again was hit with the chair, this time by Triple H, who followed it up with a Pedigree onto the chair. Chyna and Triple H celebrated the reunion of D-Generation X afterwards.\n\nThe Women's Championship match began with Tori taking her time to enter the ring, Sable grabbing her hair when she finally did and tossing her back out. Tori regrouped outside and pulled Sable out by her legs, ramming her face into the apron and the barricade. She was whipped into the barrier herself and as she recovered, Sable performed a crossbody from the outside apron. Sable continuously assaulted Tori while down on the mat, but Tori delivered two vicious clotheslines to the corner on Sable, then attempted a sunset flip pin which began a series of pinning reversals ending in a stalemate. Afterward Tori tried a running attack on Sable but took out referee Jimmy Korderas unwittingly. Sable then tried to perform her Sable Bomb but Tori jumped out of it. As she tried to perform her own powerbomb, a muscled woman, later identified as Nicole Bass, came into the ring to gorilla press slam Tori. This allowed Sable to Sable Bomb Tori and pin her to retain the championship.\nBefore X-Pac could make his way to the ring Pat Patterson and Gerald Brisco attacked him from behind but caused the little problem to X-Pac who beat them then ran into the ring, with Shane McMahon fleeing. Shane eventually made his way to the ring and was punched into the corner, escaping a Bronco Buster when Test pulled him out of the ring. Shane tried to escape once again but X-Pac chased him and threw him back into the ring, only to be struck down by Test and then have his crotch rammed into the ring post. When he returned to the ring Shane scoop slammed him and attempted a Corporate Elbow, with X-Pac sitting up just before the end but he was brought back down with a low blow as referee Mike Chioda was distracted by Test. Shane continued to push the disqualification boundaries by whipping X-Pac with his belt several times before being back body dropped out of the ring, recovering only to be met with a flying crossbody. The Mean Street Posse tried to restrain X-Pac but he fought back, only to be floored by Test. After a superplex, the pin-count was broken up by Test but he was soon kicked out of the ring then X-Pac whipped McMahon with the belt before round house kicking him into the corner and performing the Bronco Buster. When Chioda checked on McMahon afterward, Test struck X-Pac with the championship belt but by the time McMahon covered him he managed to kick out. Test tried to interfere but took a Bronco Buster too. Triple H and Chyna came to the ring to pull Test out but when McMahon was floored by an X Factor, Chyna distracted the referee to allow Triple H to Pedigree X-Pac and cover him with Shane, turning heel and allowing him to retain the title. The New Age Outlaws ran to the ring and brawled with Triple H and Test until the lights went out and Kane's music began to play but by the time the lights came up The Corporation were clear of the ring and had fled.\n\nMain event matches\nThe Hell in a Cell match began with Big Boss Man punching The Undertaker into the corner until he ducked out and returned the same. Although Boss Man was able to deliver a swinging neckbreaker, Undertaker took control again throwing Boss Man into the cell. Boss Man reversed an Irish whip and threw Undertaker into the cell too, handcuffing one hand to the chain fence. Boss Man taunted Undertaker's lack of control before striking him repeatedly with his night stick causing Undertaker to fall to the floor and rip the handcuffs, though Boss Man carried on using the nightstick and cut Undertaker open. Undertaker fought back by grabbing Boss Man at the throat and throwing him back into the fence again, striking him with a chair and running Boss Man face-first into the chain fence with a fireman's carry. As the two returned to the ring Boss Man tried to clothesline Undertaker but he ducked and performed a leaping flying clothesline of his own before going Old School, ultimately falling into the ropes. The two began a fistfight in the middle of the ring with Undertaker failing a tombstone piledriver attempt, but successfully performing it seconds later and pinned him afterwards. Undertaker stood up and looked to the heavens with his hands upwards, signaling The Brood to descend onto the roof of the cell. They cut open the roof of the cell and passed through a noose, securing the other end to the top of the cell. The Brood then ascended back into the rafters as Undertaker put the noose around Boss Man's neck, with Paul Bearer causing the Cell to rise and take a hanging Boss Man with it. After the match a video package of the Rage Party was shown while Boss Man was taken down and carried off on a stretcher.\n\nBefore the main event, Michael Cole announced Jim Ross returning to call the match. Mr. McMahon then came to the ring as the special guest referee but was confronted by Commissioner Shawn Michaels, who explained that only the commissioner is entitled to appoint a referee for WrestleMania, ordering McMahon to the back and barring all members of The Corporation from ringside. The main event began with the two wrestlers insulting each other before Austin threw the first punch, The Rock instantly returning. The majority of the early part of the match took place outside the ring, with Austin being choked with a T-shirt then taking Rock through the crowd before returning into the secure area and into the crowd the opposite end. When Rock threw Austin back into the secure area he choked him on some cable and took him up the walkway, but Austin fought out of his grasp and threw him into the steel barriers, trying to piledrive him but being backbody dropped so that his knee landed onto light support girders. Rock picked up Austin and threw him into the WrestleMania XV sign but Austin circled round and threw Rock into them instead, then dragged him back towards the ring having a suplex reversed on the concrete walkway. Rock then tried to throw Austin back through the crowd at ringside, spitting water in his face but Austin took control and put him onto the Spanish announce table, performing two elbow drops to break the table and then spat water into Rock's face. Austin threw his opponent into the ring, celebrating to the crowd but when he entered the ring Rock sprang up and drove Austin into the floor with a Rock Bottom, following with an unsuccessful pin cover. The Rock grabbed a chair but Austin took it from him, Rock blocked the oncoming chair shot by pulling referee Mike Chioda in front of him, who took the chair shot. Rock then caught Austin by surprise with a swinging neckbreaker, taking the chair and driving it into Austin's back several times. After another pin attempt, with Tim White now officiating, Austin still kicked out and Rock used a sitting chin hold to subdue him. After holding him for some time, Austin slowly stood up, elbowing Rock and attempting a running attack but was taken out with a Samoan drop, which Austin again kicked out of. The Rock took his frustration out on White, Rock Bottoming him, which gave Austin the time to recover and attack the champion with a Stone Cold Stunner, with Earl Hebner eventually coming in to officiate but only counting to two before Rock kicked out. Mr. McMahon came to the ring, distracting Austin while The Rock low-blowed him; the two men kicking away at Austin in the corner and punching Hebner when he tried to stop them. As the two double-teamed Austin, Mankind came running to the ring in his referee's uniform, throwing McMahon straight out the ring and taking over as referee. Austin tried a roll-up pin, following up with a Lou Thesz Press but Rock soon took the advantage with another Rock Bottom. With Austin in the middle of the ring, The Rock tried the Corporate Elbow but Austin moved out of the way at the last second. Rock caught Austin's foot and spun him around, trying to Rock Bottom him again but Austin elbowed him away and delivered a stunner, finally securing a pinfall and winning the WWF Championship.\n\nReception\nThe event was met with mixed critical response. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event five out of 10 stars. The main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin for the WWF Championship was rated eight out of 10 stars; the Hell in a Cell match between The Undertaker and Big Boss Man was rated five out of 10 stars; the match between Shane McMahon and X-Pac for the WWF European Championship was rated seven out of 10 stars; the match between Sable and Tori for the WWF Women's Championship was rated one out of 10 stars; the match between Triple H and Kane was rated four out of 10 stars; the referee match between Mankind and Big Show was rated four out of 10; the four-corners elimination match for the WWF Intercontinental Championship between Road Dogg Jesse James, Ken Shamrock, Goldust, and Val Venis was rated five out of 10 stars; the tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between D'Lo Brown and Test against Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett was rated three out of 10 stars; and the triple threat match for the WWF Hardcore Championship between Hardcore Holly, Billy Gunn, and Al Snow was rated six out of 10 stars.\nWriting for 411Mania in 2009, Rob McNew gave the event a rating of 5.5/10, stating, \"Like most Attitude Era shows this one doesn’t hold up very well ten years later\" though he praised the main event bout between Rock and Austin. Similarly, Scott Keith gave the event an overall negative rating, while calling the Rock vs. Austin match \"solid by default\" and complimenting Shane McMahon's performance given his lack of wrestling experience. In 2012, Bleacher Report ranked the event 25th out of the 27 Wrestlemanias to that point, calling the event \"underwhelming\" and criticizing the Hell in a Cell match.\n\nAftermath\nStone Cold Steve Austin's feud with The Corporation continued after WrestleMania with Austin demanding the return of his customized smoking skull belt that was taken from him after losing the WWF Championship at Breakdown: In Your House in 1998. With The Ministry of Darkness continuing to threaten his family, Mr. McMahon was forced to comply with his nemesis' demands and requested his son Shane to deliver the belt to Austin. Shane, however, refused and took matters with Austin into his own hands by giving the smoking skull belt to The Rock. This culminated in a rematch between Austin and The Rock at Backlash 1999 while McMahon served as a special guest referee. Austin defeated The Rock to retain the WWF Championship after Mr. McMahon prevented Shane from screwing him and handed the smoking skull belt back to Austin.\nThe Ministry of Darkness continued their ongoing war with The Corporation with The Undertaker going after Mr. McMahon's daughter Stephanie. The Undertaker continued to make sacrifices including Ryan Shamrock leading to a feud between Undertaker and Ken Shamrock who wanted revenge for Undertaker's actions to his family with Undertaker defeating Shamrock at Backlash: In Your House.\nWhen The Undertaker did successfully find Stephanie, Shamrock, in his quest to get revenge on Undertaker, continued to beat down and interrogate members of The Ministry of Darkness for McMahon's whereabouts. After Christian told Shamrock McMahon's whereabouts, Undertaker punished Christian by whipping him and have him face Crucifixion. Edge and Gangrel, who along with Christian were members of their own stable The Brood and were loyal to Christian decided to rescue him, betraying The Ministry. The Ministry got revenge by defeating The Brood in a Six-Man Tag Team Match at Backlash.\nBart Gunn would leave the WWF after his match against Butterbean. On the Dark Side of the Ring episode on the Brawl for All, Gunn said he felt his match against Butterbean was \"punishment\" for winning the Brawl and knocking out Steve \"Dr. Death\" Williams during the event (Williams suffered other injuries during the match) which was not what the bookers wanted (they wanted Williams to win to give him a push against \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin). Gunn would not return to WWF TV until 2007.\nNicole Bass continued to accompany Sable to the ring and destroyed all competition for Sable's WWF Women's Championship. After HHH washed his hands of D-Generation X and joined Chyna in the Corporation, X-Pac teamed up with Kane to form an unlikely tag team, and captured the WWF Tag Team titles from Owen Hart and Jeff Jarrett. \nThe City of Philadelphia would later host the event again in 2024 with this time being held at the nearby Lincoln Financial Field in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the event held in the city and the 40th anniversary of the WrestleMania.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XV",
"title": "WrestleMania_XV"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania X-Seven (also known as WrestleMania 17) was the 17th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). It took place on April 1, 2001, at the Reliant Astrodome in Houston, Texas. It was the first WrestleMania held in the state of Texas. Twelve matches were contested at the event, including one broadcast exclusively on the Sunday Night Heat pre-show.\nThe main event was a No Disqualification match between The Rock and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin for the WWF Championship. The undercard included Triple H versus The Undertaker, the second Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship and a Street Fight between Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon with Mick Foley as special guest referee.\nA record-breaking attendance for the Reliant Astrodome of 67,925 grossed US$3.5 million. Many in professional wrestling considered WrestleMania X-Seven to be the pinnacle of the company's famous Attitude Era, similar to how WrestleMania III was the pinnacle of the 80's wrestling boom. The WWF bought out rival competition World Championship Wrestling (WCW) the week prior. In addition to its commercial success, the event has received acclaim from critics and fans, and is often regarded as the greatest WrestleMania of all time, and the greatest professional wrestling pay-per-view event ever produced.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) first flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania 17, stylized as WrestleMania X-Seven, was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2001, at the Reliant Astrodome in Houston, Texas, the first WrestleMania held in the state of Texas.\n\nStorylines\nThe main feud leading into WrestleMania X-Seven involved \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin challenging The Rock for the WWF Championship. The Rock and \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin had fought for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania XV and Backlash in 1999. Stone Cold Steve Austin earned his opportunity to compete for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania X-Seven by winning the 2001 Royal Rumble match when he last eliminated Kane, while The Rock became the first ever six-time WWF Champion when he defeated Kurt Angle at No Way Out. During their feud, Austin's wife Debra, who was trying to get back into managing, was ordered by WWF chairman, Vince McMahon, to be The Rock's manager against her wishes as well as both Rock and Austin's. As a result, Austin would hold The Rock and McMahon responsible if any harm came to her. On the March 12 episode of Raw is War, The Rock was placed in an overlong Ankle Lock hold during his rematch with Kurt Angle. When Debra went to check on The Rock, Angle also placed her into an Ankle Lock hold. Austin soon ran in to save her and knocked Angle out of the ring. Keeping to his word, he immediately gave The Rock a Stone Cold Stunner as punishment. The following week on Raw is War, during a handicap tag team match involving The Rock, Chris Jericho, Kurt Angle, Chris Benoit, and William Regal, Austin made his way down to the ring and ended up getting a Rock Bottom from The Rock in response to the stunner from the previous week. On the March 29 episode of SmackDown!, Debra was relieved from her managerial role by Mr. McMahon after failing to prevent a brawl between Rock and Austin.\n\nThe secondary feud leading into the event pitted The Brothers of Destruction (The Undertaker and Kane) against Triple H and The Big Show. After defeating \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin in a Three Stages of Hell match at No Way Out, Triple H felt that he deserved to be in the WrestleMania main event having defeated everyone in the WWF, including The Rock and Austin. The Undertaker took exception to that and told him that Triple H had never defeated him. Before WrestleMania X-Seven, the two had never faced each other in a one-on-one match on a pay-per-view event. During his entrance for a Hardcore Championship match against The Big Show, Triple H ambushed Undertaker. Kane ran in and saved the Undertaker from a further attack but was met with his own ambush by The Big Show. On the following episode of SmackDown!, Undertaker tried to break into the limousine of Triple H and his wife, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, on arrival but ended up being arrested by the police. As a result, Kane requested a match against Triple H later that night but lost when The Big Show interfered on behalf of Triple H. In retaliation, Kane interfered in The Big Show's Hardcore Championship match against Raven on Raw is War, helping Raven pin Big Show to become the new Hardcore Champion. Undertaker's arrest led to a restraining order from Stephanie. To circumvent this, the Brothers of Destruction interfered in Triple H's match against Test, with Kane ordered to run after Stephanie. With Stephanie held at ransom by Kane on a balcony in the arena, WWF commissioner William Regal gave Undertaker and Kane matches at WrestleMania against Triple H and The Big Show respectively and the Undertaker told Kane to put her down. After being attacked during a Hardcore Championship title defense, Regal would later include Raven into Kane and Big Show's match, making it a Triple Threat Hardcore match for the Hardcore Championship.\n\nAnother major feud that was built up in the lead to WrestleMania was the one involving Vince McMahon and his son Shane McMahon. The feud started with Vince's disapproval of Mick Foley's job as then-WWF commissioner as well as Foley's decision of holding a six-man Hell in a Cell match at Armageddon 2000, taking into consideration about the well-being of the wrestlers involved in the match. Despite his attempts Foley was given full support by Linda McMahon, Vince's wife and the WWF's CEO. Not pleased with this result, Vince immediately demanded a divorce from Linda. Shortly after Armageddon, secretly to Vince's delight, it was revealed Linda was rushed to hospital suffering with a nervous breakdown. With Linda hospitalized, the Board of Directors appointed Vince as the new CEO of the WWF, allowing him to fire Foley as commissioner. With Linda in a coma-like state, Vince started to have a public affair with Trish Stratus. Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley, was at first far from pleased about the turn of events. At No Way Out, Stephanie and Trish squared off, with Stephanie scoring the victory after a run-in by William Regal. On the February 26 episode of Raw is War, however, during a match that placed Vince and Trish against Stephanie and William Regal, Stratus was turned on by the other participants in the match and had sewage dumped over her. In the following shows, Vince continued to demean Trish by having her do such actions as bark like a dog around the ring and stripping down to her lingerie. Despite this, Trish remained loyal to Vince and begged for his forgiveness. On the March 12 episode of Raw is War, Shane McMahon made his return to the WWF. Angry with his father's actions, Shane started to throw punches at Vince only to be stopped by William Regal. Shane explained his actions on the following episode of SmackDown! as a result of frustrations over the manipulation of his sister, his mother's state and Vince's treatment of Trish. On March 23, World Wrestling Federation Entertainment, Inc. purchased the assets of their longtime rival promotion, World Championship Wrestling (WCW) from AOL Time Warner. With it, the purchase brought in an extra twist to the storyline. On the March 26 episode of Raw is War (which was held at Gund Arena in Cleveland, Ohio), Vince McMahon made a live speech that was also simulcast on the final episode of WCW Monday Nitro (which was held in Panama City Beach, Florida). In the speech, Vince announced that the signing was not final and that he wanted Ted Turner to come to WrestleMania to hand-deliver the contract for signing. He then promised that with the purchase he was going to bury his rival forever. However, Shane, who was at the venue for Nitro, interrupted the speech and said:\n\nBecause, dad, the deal is finalized... with WCW, and the name on the contract does say \"McMahon\". However, the contract reads \"Shane McMahon\". That's right! I now own WCW! And, dad, just like WCW did in the past, how it kicked your ass in the past and it will again, that's exactly what's going to happen to you this Sunday at WrestleMania!\n\nTo make matters worse for Vince, Mick Foley appeared shortly afterward that night and revealed that prior to his firing, Linda had made multiple contracts for him to sign, one of them was for Foley to referee a match of his choice at WrestleMania. Foley then chose the match between Vince and Shane, which was designated a street fight.\nAt the Royal Rumble, Chyna (kayfabe) injured her neck during a match with Ivory, causing her to lose the match and fail to capture the Women's Championship. In order for Chyna to again challenge for the title, Ivory required the match contract to include a \"hold harmless\" clause, stating that if Ivory injures Chyna's neck again, there could be no legal recourse against Ivory. In doing so, the contract also included a provision to ban Ivory's Right To Censor (RTC) stablemates from ringside.\n\nEvent\nBefore the event aired live on pay-per-view, a Sunday Night Heat match was aired with Steve Blackman and Grand Master Sexay squaring off against X-Factor members X-Pac and Justin Credible. Near the end of the match, fellow X-Factor member Albert interfered by pulling Sexay out of the ring, allowing X-Pac and Credible to hit their X Marks the Spot finisher on Blackman for the win.\nThe first match of the event was the WWF Intercontinental Championship match between Chris Jericho and WWF commissioner William Regal. During the match, Regal exposed one of the top turnbuckles to throw Jericho's shoulder into it before giving him a double underhook superplex. Jericho attempted the Walls of Jericho submission hold but had it reversed into a Regal Stretch. After Jericho managed to grab a ring rope to break the hold, he retaliated with numerous chops before throwing Regal into the exposed turnbuckle and finishing him off with a Lionsault to retain the Intercontinental Championship.\nTazz and The APA (Bradshaw and Faarooq) took on Right to Censor (The Goodfather, Val Venis, and Bull Buchanan) next in a short match that ended with Bradshaw pinning the Goodfather after a Clothesline from Hell.\nThe third match was the triple threat hardcore match between Raven, Kane and The Big Show for the WWF Hardcore Championship. Raven came out with a shopping cart full of weapons. Kane and Raven began fighting before Big Show made his entrance. During the match, the three wrestlers fought their way out of the ring and through the crowd into the backstage area. Big Show tried to lock himself, Raven and the referee in a security cage but Kane broke the padlock and afterward threw Raven through a glass window. Big Show and Kane continued to brawl ending with the two throwing each other through a wall. Raven tried to escape by driving off in a golf cart, but Big Show stopped him and caused him to crash. The golf cart also ran over some cords that allegedly almost knocked the power out of the building. Kane shortly followed with another golf cart, accompanied by the referee, and ran into Raven. The fight headed back into the stadium with Big Show attempting to press slam Raven off the entrance stage but both were kicked off it by Kane. Kane followed this with a diving leg drop off the stage onto Big Show, pinning him to become the new Hardcore Champion.\nThe fourth match was the WWF European Championship match between Test and Eddie Guerrero. During the match, Test went over the top rope but got his foot caught between the top two ropes, forcing the referee and Guerrero to have to untangle him. With the help of his fellow Radicalz members Dean Malenko and Perry Saturn, Guerrero hit Test in the face with the European Championship belt while the referee was distracted and pinned him to become the new champion.\nThe fifth match pitted Kurt Angle against Chris Benoit. The match started with mat wrestling between the two but Angle soon punched Benoit out of frustration and threw him out of the ring, so he could throw him into the broadcast table and the steel steps. Back in the ring, both men tried to submit their opponent using the other's signature hold with Benoit using the ankle lock on Angle, and Angle using the Crippler Crossface on Benoit. Benoit eventually succeeded in forcing Angle to tap out to the Crippler Crossface but the referee was knocked down and didn't see it. Near the end of the match, Benoit tried to pin Angle after a diving headbutt but was met with a two-count. Angle then quickly rolled-up Benoit, using the tights for leverage to win the match.\nThe following match saw Chyna challenge the WWF Women's Champion Ivory. After an early bit of offense from Ivory, Chyna performed a Chynabomb and looked to have the pinfall, but picked Ivory up after the 2-count. Chyna then performed a gorilla press drop and nonchalantly pinned Ivory to win the Women's Championship.\nThe seventh match was the street fight between Shane McMahon and Vince McMahon with Mick Foley as the special guest referee. Shane dominated his father during the earlier part of the match by attacking him with various weapons such as a kendo stick and monitors from the Spanish broadcast table. Shane laid Vince on said table and performed a diving elbow drop off the top rope but his sister, Stephanie, pulled Vince out of the way, causing Shane to crash through it. Trish Stratus came towards the ring, pushing Linda McMahon out in a wheelchair, and then slapped Vince, causing her and Stephanie to get into a fight that led them out of the stadium. As referee Foley tried to wheel Linda out to safety, Vince hit him with a steel chair, and then pulled Linda into the ring to make her watch as he beat down Shane with a garbage can. However, Linda stood up and low-blowed Vince, allowing Foley to recover and attack him. With Vince prone in the corner, Shane placed a garbage can in front of Vince's face and hit a Coast-to-Coast dropkick, pinning his father to win the match.\nThe eighth match, dubbed \"TLC II\", was the Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between the Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian and the Dudley Boyz, the defending champions. Respective associates of each tag team, Spike Dudley for the Dudley Boyz, Rhyno for Edge and Christian, and Lita for the Hardy Boyz, interfered during the match. With Spike (who had just taken a chair shot to the head from Lita) and Rhyno (who had already been dispatched by Jeff Hardy) both laying on two tables outside the ring, Jeff Hardy set up a huge ladder beside them and performed a Swanton Bomb onto them through the tables with most of his body landing on Spike, taking him out of the match. Lita was taken out of the match when Bubba Ray and D-Von Dudley performed a 3-D on her. Jeff tried to unhook the belts but had the ladder beneath him pulled away by Bubba Ray, leaving him hanging in the air, and allowing Edge to jump off another ladder and spear Jeff to the ground at a height of 12 feet. Bubba Ray and Matt Hardy climbed the same ladder but Rhyno tipped the ladder over, sending Bubba Ray and Matt through four stacked tables at ringside and taking them out of the match. D-Von then set the ladder up again and attempted to grab the titles, but was held back by Edge. With Edge holding onto D-Von's legs, Christian sat on Rhyno's shoulders as he climbed up the ladder and unhooked the belts, making him and Edge the new Tag Team Champions. A total of 9 tables were destroyed in this match, and every performer involved except D-Von and Lita went through at least one table.\nThe ninth match was a gimmick battle royal, involving nineteen WWF alumni famous for their outlandish gimmicks. To further increase the nostalgia, former announcers \"Mean Gene\" Okerlund and Bobby \"The Brain\" Heenan handled commentary for the match. The Iron Sheik won the match by throwing Hillbilly Jim out of the ring. In revenge for being eliminated, Sgt. Slaughter reentered the ring and put him in the Cobra Clutch.\nThe penultimate match was between The Undertaker and Triple H. For his entrance, Triple H had British heavy metal band Motörhead perform his theme song, \"The Game\", live. The match started with the two fighting outside of the ring with Triple H quickly being put through the replacement Spanish announcers' table. Later on, referee Mike Chioda accidentally had Triple H catapulted into him and was then attacked by Undertaker due to his dissatisfaction over a two-count. With Chioda knocked out, the two brawled outside the ring, through the crowd, and into the technical area. On top of scaffolding, Triple H used a steel chair to attack Undertaker's legs, but Undertaker retaliated with a chokeslam off the scaffolding, followed by a diving elbow drop. Back in the ring, Undertaker hit Triple H with a Tombstone piledriver and went for the pin but Chioda was still unconscious. Later in the match, Triple H tried to pin Undertaker after hitting him in the head with a sledgehammer while in the Last Ride position but only gained a two-count. Triple H sent Undertaker into the corner and stood on the second rope to hit him with more punches, but Undertaker countered with a Last Ride, allowing him to pin Triple H and increase his WrestleMania winning streak to 9–0.\n\nThe final contest of the night was the WWF Championship match between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin, which had a surprise no disqualification stipulation added just before the superstars were introduced. During the match, the two brawled inside and outside of the ring, with both men bleeding after hitting each other with the ring bell. The Rock attempted to place Austin in a Sharpshooter hold, but Austin reversed it into a Sharpshooter of his own. After Rock reached the ropes to force a break, Austin applied the Million Dollar Dream, a submission hold best known from his former gimmick, The Ringmaster. Shortly after, Rock used Austin's own finishing maneuver on Austin by executing a Stunner. Vince McMahon then came to ringside to observe the match. When Rock tried to pin Austin after the People's Elbow, McMahon seized Rock's leg and pulled him off Austin, breaking the pin attempt. After chasing McMahon around the ring, Austin responded by using Rock's signature move, the Rock Bottom. Later, Rock executed a Rock Bottom for a near fall. After Rock attacked McMahon, he was given a Stunner by Austin for a near fall. After Rock kicked out of the Stunner, McMahon handed Austin a steel chair to hit Rock with at Austin's request, revealing that Austin had sided with McMahon, a man he once considered his nemesis. With this, Austin turned heel. Austin attacked him with the steel chair, hitting him sixteen times, before pinning him and becoming the new WWF Champion. The show ended with Austin and McMahon shaking hands and sharing beers.\n\nReception and legacy\nThe event was met with universal acclaim from fans and critics alike. John Powell of Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, with the main event between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin in a No Disqualification Match for the WWF Championship rated 10 out of 10 stars. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boyz, Edge and Christian, and The Dudley Boyz also received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Street Fight between Vince and Shane McMahon rated 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Triple H and The Undertaker rated 6 out of 10 stars and the match between Kurt Angle and Chris Benoit rated 8 out of 10 stars.\nX-Seven was also awarded Best Major Show for 2001 by Dave Meltzer's Wrestling Observer Newsletter. The Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between The Hardy Boys, Edge and Christian and The Dudley Boyz was also placed #5 on IGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History and noted that the match included \"some of the most memorable bumps wrestling fans have ever witnessed.\" D-Von Dudley expressed his belief that the match should be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame, stating: \"In my opinion, I think that we should — you know, the n.W.o got inducted into the Hall of Fame and those guys were already in it. How about a TLC induction? How about recognizing how special that match was? Because think about it, not only was the match special, but they actually named a pay-per-view after it. So, you know, it has some relevance to it to be special, so why not put that match in the Hall of Fame?\" Matt Hardy said it was his favorite career TLC match.\nIn 2013, WWE released a list of their \"15 best pay-per-views ever\", with WrestleMania X-Seven ranked at number one. In 2019, Troy L. Smith of cleveland.com released a list of the \"50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania X-Seven again ranked at number one.\nThe promotional match preview video package for the main event, set to Limp Bizkit's \"My Way\", is widely considered one of the greatest wrestling video packages of all time.\n\nAftermath\nThe following night on Raw, Austin and The Rock faced each other in a rematch held in a steel cage which Triple H entered the cage and teased a fight with Austin before turning on The Rock. For several minutes Austin, Triple H, and Vince McMahon triple-teamed the outnumbered Rock forging an alliance with Triple H and Austin called The Two-Man Power Trip. The Rock was written out of the WWF's storylines with McMahon giving him a suspension. This allowed The Rock time off to begin filming The Scorpion King. The Rock returned on the edition of July 30 of Raw and chose to fight for Team WWF over Team WCW/ECW. Three weeks later at SummerSlam, The Rock won his first WCW Championship by defeating Booker T. The Rock and Austin would face each other again at WrestleMania XIX in a rematch with The Rock winning.\nFollowing The Rock's suspension, Triple H's feud with the Brothers of Destruction continued with Austin now on his side. On the edition of April 5, 2001, of SmackDown!, Triple H challenged Intercontinental Champion Chris Jericho for his title and after interference from Commissioner William Regal and his wife Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley defeated Jericho to win his third Intercontinental Championship. The feud with Undertaker and Kane was temporarily put on hold after Triple H and Austin entered a brief rivalry with the Hardy Boyz, which resulted in Jeff Hardy beating Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship the following week and Triple H promptly regaining the title the next Monday on Raw.\nMeanwhile, the Brothers of Destruction defeated Edge and Christian to become the new WWF Tag Team Champions on the edition of April 19, 2001, of SmackDown! in a no-disqualification match. Austin and Triple H decided to challenge Undertaker and Kane for their newly won titles, but due to some wrangling by Linda McMahon the match between the teams signed for Backlash forced the two to put up their singles titles against the tag team titles in a \"winner-take-all\" match. Triple H scored the pin after attacking Kane with his sledgehammer and the Power Trip became the second team in WWF history to hold both major singles titles and the tag team titles at the same time. The feud came to a climax at Judgment Day when Austin defeated Undertaker to retain the WWF Championship while Kane defeated Triple H for the Intercontinental Championship. The next night Austin and Triple H lost the tag team titles to Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit; during the course of the match Triple H tore his quadriceps tendon and would miss the remainder of the year, leaving Austin to feud with the tag team champions alone. The feud culminated in a Triple Threat Match at King of the Ring, where Austin pinned Benoit to retain the WWF Championship. Ten years later in 2011, Undertaker and Triple H would once again renew their rivalry, went on to face each other in a rematch at WrestleMania XXVII with The Undertaker defeating HHH via submission, to set his WrestleMania winning streak to 19–0. A year later, they faced each other a third time at WrestleMania XXVIII in a Hell in a Cell match with Shawn Michaels as the special guest referee. The Undertaker once again won the match to extend his WrestleMania winning streak to 20–0.\nDue to the acquisition of WCW, Vince's feud with Shane would later spiral into The Invasion storyline that dominated the WWF in the latter half of the year. It consisted of WCW wrestlers \"invading\" the WWF's televised shows in an attempt to \"take over\" the WWF. The Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) promotion would also be involved with Stephanie as its new owner, merging WCW and ECW into The Alliance. Despite giving her own demands for a divorce shortly after WrestleMania, Linda would eventually reconcile with Vince in the wake of the Alliance's threat to the WWF.\nShane McMahon's next feud would involve Kurt Angle as he would crash Angle's Olympic Gold Medal Ceremony reenactment on the May 21 edition of Raw. Angle was celebrating the return of his Gold Medal from Chris Benoit which he won back the previous night at Judgment Day. Shane mocked him while declaring the return of WCW, and he got an Angle slam for his efforts. Shane would return the favor on the June 11 edition of Raw with an assist from The Undertaker. The two would eventually meet in a streetfight at King of the Ring, which was the third of three matches for Kurt Angle on the night.\nThe other two matches were the Semifinals and Final of the King of the Ring tournament which Angle was the defending champion. He would lose to Edge thanks to interference from Shane. Following King of the Ring, Edge let success go to his head and this led to Christian becoming jealous of Edge's success. They would break up on the September 3, 2001, edition of Raw following Christian's loss to The Rock in a WCW title match. After a brief feud for the WWF Intercontinental Championship, both would go on to become successful singles wrestlers in their own right with Edge being best known as the \"Rated R Superstar.\"\nThis would be the only WrestleMania for Paul Heyman as a commentator. However he has served in a variety of roles for the WWE for the better part of the time since, including creative team member and manager of his longtime friend and client Brock Lesnar.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania X-Seven",
"title": "WrestleMania_X-Seven"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania X8 (also known as WrestleMania 18) was the 18th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). It took place on St Patrick’s Day, March 17, 2002, at the SkyDome in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the second WrestleMania at that venue after WrestleMania VI in April 1990. The event marked the final WrestleMania event held under the WWF name and the Attitude Era, as the company entered the Ruthless Aggression Era in April and renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) a month later. It was also the last WrestleMania held before the introduction of the brand extension just a week after the event. The record-breaking attendance for the SkyDome of 68,237 grossed approximately $6.1 million CAD ($3.9 million USD). WrestleMania weekend also included WWF Fan Axxess at the Canadian National Exhibition's Automotive Building.\nThis WrestleMania would be Hulk Hogan's first WrestleMania appearance in nine years, and his 10th overall. He competed in the first nine WrestleMania events, main eventing eight of those nine (an all-time record) (WrestleMania IV would be the only non main event pay-per-view for Hogan). After WrestleMania IX, Hogan left the WWF in late 1993, and signed with rival company WCW in 1994.\nEleven matches were contested at the event. The Rock defeated Hollywood Hulk Hogan in the main attraction match dubbed \"Icon vs. Icon\", while in the main event, Triple H defeated Chris Jericho to win the Undisputed WWF Championship. In other prominent matches on the undercard Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated Scott Hall, The Undertaker defeated Ric Flair in a no disqualification match, and Rob Van Dam defeated William Regal to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered the World Wrestling Federation's (WWF, now WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of the WWF's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, which were dubbed the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. WrestleMania 18, stylized as WrestleMania X8, was scheduled to be held on March 17, 2002, at the SkyDome in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, marking the second WrestleMania at that venue after WrestleMania VI in April 1990.\n\nStorylines\nThe main feud built up in the lead to the event pitted The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin against the New World Order (Hollywood Hogan, Kevin Nash and Scott Hall) with the main attraction being promoted as The Rock vs. Hollywood Hulk Hogan, billed as an Icon vs. Icon, face of the company generational match.\nThe Rock's involvement with the nWo started after his win over The Undertaker at No Way Out, when a photo request from Hogan for his son turned into a trade of insults. On the following episode of Raw, The Rock interrupted Hogan's address to the crowd and challenged Hogan to a match at WrestleMania. When Hogan accepted and shook hands with his future opponent, The Rock kept the hold on and hit the Rock Bottom on Hogan. Before The Rock could leave the arena, Hall and Nash ambushed The Rock. Hogan, Nash, and Hall then attacked The Rock with a belt, a hammer, and all three of their finishers, concluding the assault by spray painting the nWo initials on The Rock's back. With medics attending to The Rock and loading him into an ambulance van, the nWo furthered the attack by forcing the medics to retreat, chaining up all possible exits of the van, and driving a semi-truck into the van with The Rock trapped inside. Stone Cold Steve Austin's involvement also commenced at No Way Out, when after having their gift of beer refused, the nWo interfered with Austin's Undisputed WWF Championship match against Chris Jericho, helping Jericho to retain the title before spray painting the nWo initials on Austin's back. Austin finally got his revenge on the February 21 episode of SmackDown! when, after the nWo had given a half hearted apology for their attack on The Rock, he chased the nWo out of the ring with a tire iron. Austin managed to catch Hall and attack him with the tire iron, but Hogan and Nash saved Hall from being run over by Austin's pickup truck. After the nWo found their limousine spray-painted \"What?\" by Austin, the latter kidnapped Hall and closed the show by embarrassing him in the middle of the ring with \"3:16\" spray-painted on his back. On the following episode of Raw, Hall challenged Austin to a match at WrestleMania which Austin accepted afterward. The feud between Austin and the nWo continued back and forth for the next couple of weeks with Austin attacked by Hall twice with a cinder block and a wrench, while Austin fired a netgun at Nash before beating down Hall. On the March 7 episode of SmackDown!, The Rock made his return and immediately challenged Hogan for a fight. Nash and Hall held Hogan back, leaving Hall to challenge for a match instead. Rock's match with Hall ended in a three-on-one attack by the nWo. The nWo's attack was stopped by Austin, however, who saved The Rock with the aid of a steel chair. On the March 11 episode of Raw, Rock and Austin took on the nWo in a handicap match, resulting in Hogan pinning The Rock after a leg drop.\n\nThe secondary feud leading into WrestleMania X8 involved Triple H against the Undisputed WWF Champion Chris Jericho and Stephanie McMahon. At the Royal Rumble, Jericho defeated The Rock to retain the Undisputed WWF Championship on the same event where Triple H earned his opportunity to compete for the Undisputed WWF Championship at WrestleMania by winning the Royal Rumble match, last eliminating Kurt Angle. The following night on Raw, Triple H interrupted Jericho and warned that he would prove him that he's worthy enough to be in the main event. Meanwhile, some hostility between Triple H and his wife Stephanie was starting to show, with the face Triple H tired of Stephanie's heel characteristics. In order to recover their relationship, Stephanie suggested on Raw that the two should renew their wedding vows on the following week. At first Triple H refused, but Stephanie revealed that she was pregnant, making him change his mind. To further prove it, the two met a doctor on the next episode of SmackDown! with ultrasound images. On the February 11 episode of Raw just before the wedding, Triple H was met with a phone call by his mother-in-law Linda McMahon, who had sent him a video tape revealing that the doctor was in fact an actor and that Stephanie was not pregnant. At the wedding, Triple H turned on Stephanie and attacked her along with her father Mr. McMahon, saying that their marriage was now over. During these weeks, Kurt Angle was given a match with Triple H's WrestleMania title shot on the line at No Way Out. In revenge for the ruined wedding, Mr. McMahon granted Stephanie the chance to be the special guest referee for the match. At No Way Out, with clear bias from Stephanie, Angle defeated Triple H for the title shot. The following night on Raw, WWF co-owner Ric Flair granted Triple H a rematch with Stephanie barred from the ring, enabling him to regain his title shot at Chris Jericho. On the February 21 episode of SmackDown!, Jericho met with Stephanie and put their differences in the past, ending with Stephanie accepting Jericho's proposal to be his new business partner. To further the feud, Jericho later speculated that he ended the marriage by causing Triple H's quadriceps muscle to (legit) tear during their WWF Tag Team Championship match on the May 21, 2001 episode of Raw Is War, thus diverting Triple H's attention to his wife. Under the divorce settlement for the two, the assets would be split between them \"fifty-fifty\" to Stephanie's disgust. Among the assets were Triple H's first wrestling robe, Stephanie's Corvette (which Triple H later gave to her with half of it cut off) and Triple H's bulldog Lucy. Stephanie managed to win Lucy in the settlement and later on the March 11 episode of Raw sent Jericho to walk the dog. Displeased about this, Jericho tied Lucy to a limousine and ordered the unknowing driver to buy some air fresheners, running Lucy over into a critical condition by accident. Wanting retribution, Triple H stormed into the arena and tried to attack Stephanie, but he was met with two sledgehammer shots to his recovered leg by Jericho. On the following episode of SmackDown!, Stephanie noted that the sledgehammer shots had left Triple H's quad in a condition that one false move in his WrestleMania match could reinjure his quadriceps once again. At the end of the show, Triple H and Jericho had a brawl in the ring that almost ended with a Pedigree on Stephanie. However, Jericho saved her and locked the Walls of Jericho on Triple H, leaving the show with the advantage.\nAnother major feud for WrestleMania X8 was the rivalry between The Undertaker and the WWF co-owner, Ric Flair. The feud started over The Undertaker's ambush on The Rock during the buildup to No Way Out, with Undertaker giving The Rock a chokeslam and a Tombstone Piledriver onto a car. Shortly afterward, Ric Flair openly detested The Undertaker's actions. At the No Way Out event, Flair interfered with Undertaker's match against The Rock, finally hitting Undertaker with a lead pipe to aid The Rock in victory. Far from pleased over this result, The Undertaker challenged Flair to a match at WrestleMania. Flair refused, stating that he is an owner and no longer a wrestler. However, Undertaker tried to convince Flair by attacking select members of Flair's friends and family. Following a match on the February 25 episode of Raw, Flair's friend Arn Anderson was ambushed by The Undertaker during his road agent duties. The Undertaker followed this the following week by attacking Flair's son David, threatening that the rest of Flair's children would follow. Upon this attack, Flair accepted the match on the March 7 episode of SmackDown!. Later that night, the two ended up brawling into the audience, resulting in Flair punching out a fan by accident. As a result, Flair was arrested to Undertaker's delight. On the March 11 episode of Raw, Flair's rival co-owner Mr. McMahon asked for an emergency board meeting with the WWF board of directors citing that Flair's attack of a fan was unacceptable and that either he or Flair should have absolute authority and power over the company. With Flair still keen on taking on Undertaker at WrestleMania, CEO Linda McMahon had no choice but to give Vince total control over the company. Despite this, Linda also stated that the ownership situation would also be reviewed after WrestleMania with a final decision. To add further insult, Mr. McMahon booked David Flair in a match against The Undertaker on the March 14 episode of SmackDown!. The Undertaker almost gave David a Last Ride, but was stopped by Ric Flair who saved his son with some steel chair shots.\n\nEvent\nBefore the pay-per-view event aired began, Mr. Perfect, Lance Storm and Test faced Rikishi, Scotty 2 Hotty and Albert in six-man tag team match on Sunday Night Heat. Rikishi won the match for his team after pinning Mr. Perfect following a Banzai Drop.\nThe actual pay-per-view started with a live performance of \"Superstar\" by rock band Saliva (Josey Scott, Wayne Swinny, Chris D'Abaldo, Dave Novotny and Paul Crosby). After that, William Regal defended his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Rob Van Dam. Twice in the match, Regal tried to use brass knuckles to set up the Power of the Punch on Van Dam, but on both occasions Van Dam kicked them away. Van Dam won the match after a Five-Star Frog Splash to win his first Intercontinental Championship.\nThe WWF European Championship match between the champion Diamond Dallas Page and Christian followed. Christian executed a neckbreaker on Page and Page performed a roll-up on Christian but neither man scored a pinfall. Page won the match after a Diamond Cutter on Christian.\nThe WWF Hardcore Champion Maven defended his title against Goldust in a Hardcore match. The match ended when both Goldust and Maven knocked each other out with trashcan lids. Spike Dudley came out and pinned Maven for a three count. Under the title's 24/7 rules, Spike became the new champion. His celebration was short-lived, as Crash Holly chased Spike through the crowd with Maven and Goldust following suit. In a promotion for the show's main event, rock band Drowning Pool (Dave Williams, C. J. Pierce, Stevie Benton and Mike Luce) made a live performance of \"Tear Away\" with a video package playing in the background. After the performance, the show cut to backstage where Crash Holly and Spike Dudley continued to fight. Al Snow tried to interfere by driving a golf cart (along with referee Theodore Long) towards the two but ended up crashing into some boxes. Spike successfully fought off Holly by throwing him into a steel door, but ended up getting kicked by The Hurricane who swung off a rope. Hurricane then pinned Spike to become the new Hardcore Champion.\nNext, Kurt Angle fought Kane. During the match, Angle executed Kane's signature flying clothesline. Confidently, Angle tried another, but Kane countered with a clothesline of his own. Later on, Kane attempted a Tombstone Piledriver, but Angle grabbed Kane's mask, distracting him enough for Angle to execute an Angle Slam. Angle applied the ankle lock on Kane, which was stopped when Kane reached the ropes. With Angle still holding the foot, Kane used the other foot to perform an enzuigiri. A top rope attack by Kane was prevented when Angle rushed to the corner and executed a belly to belly suplex on him. Kane tried a chokeslam but Angle reversed it into a roll-up using the ropes to win the match.\n\nAfter that, Ric Flair took on The Undertaker in a no disqualification match. The match started with a brawl outside the ring with Flair's back getting smashed into the ring post. Undertaker tried Old School but Flair pulled him down. Later, Flair locked Undertaker in a figure-four leglock, which Undertaker countered by executing a chokeslam. Arn Anderson interfered and executed a spinebuster on The Undertaker. Flair pinned Undertaker for a near-fall and Undertaker locked Anderson in a Dragon sleeper but Flair hit Undertaker with a chair. The Undertaker retaliated with a big boot and failed to perform a Last Ride attempt due to exhaustion, but Undertaker executed the Tombstone Piledriver on Flair and pinned him for the win. The Undertaker then acknowledged his WrestleMania winning streak for the first time by holding up his hands with his fingers outstretched to show his ten straight wins.\nIn the sixth match, Edge faced Booker T. Booker T gained the advantage early on in the match. However, Edge recovered by countering Booker's top rope attack with a hurricanrana and followed this up with a spinning heel kick off the top rope. Booker T executed a Scissors Kick, for a near-fall while Edge delivered a spear for a near fall. After performing his own version of Booker's Spinaroonie, Edge won the match with an Edgecution. Backstage, a cautious Hurricane was interviewed by Jonathan Coachman about winning the Hardcore Championship. The Hurricane's sidekick, Mighty Molly, appeared and suggested the two should go to their Hurri-Cycle. Just as Hurricane headed to that direction, Molly smashed a frying pan onto the back of his head and pinned him to become the new Hardcore Champion.\nNext, Stone Cold Steve Austin wrestled Scott Hall. With Kevin Nash in Hall's corner, Austin was left having to fend off both wrestlers. The nWo's teamwork enabled Hall to give Austin an Irish whip into an exposed turnbuckle. Austin executed a Stunner on Hall but Nash pulled the referee out of the ring to break the count and attacked Austin. Austin delivered a Stunner to both Nash and Hall but another pin attempt on Hall was prevented when Nash elbow dropped the second referee. Hall's Razor's Edge attempt was reversed by Austin into a back drop outside of the ring. Eventually, Nash was forced to leave the stadium by WWF officials. Hall then executed a stunner on Austin for a near-fall but Austin retaliated with two stunners for the win.\n\nAfter that, a four corners elimination match pitted for the WWF Tag Team Champions, Billy and Chuck, against the APA, The Dudley Boyz, and The Hardy Boyz. For the Dudleys' entrance, Saliva performed their theme, \"Turn the Tables\", live. The APA were quickly eliminated when D-Von Dudley pinned Bradshaw following a 3D from both Dudleys. The Dudleys then set up a table outside. Stacy Keibler, valet for the Dudley Boyz, tried to distract Jeff Hardy, by showing him her thong, but Hardy spanked and kissed her before shoving her off the ring apron. The Dudleys tried to go for a Whassup headbutt, but Billy pushed D-Von off the top rope, sending him crashing through the table outside. Bubba Ray Dudley was then given a Twist of Fate by Matt Hardy followed by a Swanton Bomb from Jeff. Matt then covered Bubba Ray to eliminate The Dudley Boyz. Billy and Chuck retained their titles when Billy hit Jeff with one of the tag team title belts, enabling Chuck to pin him. Backstage, the battle for the Hardcore Championship continued when Mighty Molly ran straight into the top half of a dutch door shutting. Christian then pinned her to win the title.\nNext, The Rock faced Hollywood Hogan in a match dubbed as \"Icon vs. Icon\". Despite Rock portraying a face and Hogan a heel, the Canadian crowd cheered Hulk Hogan over The Rock instead. During the match, The Rock applied the Sharpshooter but the referee was down and unable to acknowledge a submission. The Rock released the hold and tried to revive the referee, but Hogan hit a low blow and a Rock Bottom for a near-fall. The two tried their respective finishers, the Rock Bottom and the leg drop, but each kicked out. After two more Rock Bottoms and a People's Elbow, The Rock pinned Hogan and won the match. After the match, the two shook hands with respect. As The Rock left the ring, Kevin Nash and Scott Hall came and attacked Hogan, ending Hogan's involvement in the nWo. The Rock returned and saved Hogan from further attack. As a sign of respect, The Rock stopped Hulk from leaving the ring and asked him to pose for the crowd, turning Hogan into a face for the first time since 1999. Hogan gave an interview in 2013 which indicated that he and The Rock changed the thrust of the match on the fly based on the crowd's response.\nIn the penultimate match Jazz defended the WWF Women's Championship in a triple threat match against Trish Stratus and Lita. Near the end of the match, Trish attempted a Stratusfaction but Lita threw her out of the ring. With Lita by the corner, Jazz followed and delivered a fisherman superplex, allowing her to pin Lita and retain the title. At the parking lot, Christian was getting ready to leave the stadium in a taxi. However, Maven pulled Christian out and quickly pinned him to win the Hardcore Championship. Maven then hopped into the taxi and left, leaving him the final Hardcore Champion of the night.\n\nIn the main event, Chris Jericho defended the Undisputed WWF Championship against Triple H. For his entrance, Triple H had Drowning Pool perform their version of his theme song, \"The Game\", live. With Triple H's leg bandaged, both Jericho and Stephanie McMahon gave numerous shots at the leg during the match. Triple H outsmarted the two by dodging Jericho's attack, causing him to collide with Stephanie, who was standing on the apron. Outside the ring, Triple H went for the Pedigree on Jericho through an announce table but Jericho countered into a back body drop through the Spanish announce table. Stephanie tried to hit Triple H with a chair when referee Earl Hebner interceded. Stephanie pushed Hebner aside but was met by a Pedigree from Triple H. Jericho then struck Triple H in the head with the chair while Hebner was attending to Stephanie for an unsuccessful pinfall attempt. Jericho then tried a Pedigree on Triple H, but the latter reversed it into a catapult into the turnbuckle. Triple H executed the Pedigree on Jericho and pinned him to win the title.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania X8 was met with a generally positive critical reception. Writing for SLAM! Wrestling, John Powell gave the overall event 7 out of 10 stars, which was a lower rating than the previous year's event. The main event between Chris Jericho and Triple H for the Undisputed WWF Championship received the highest rating out of all the matches on the card of 8 out of 10 stars, the match between The Rock and Hollywood Hogan received a rating of 7 out of 10 stars, the match between Stone Cold Steve Austin and Scott Hall received a rating of 6 out of 10 stars, the no disqualification match between The Undertaker and Ric Flair was rated 7.5 out of 10 stars and the four corners elimination match for the WWF Tag Team Championship between Billy and Chuck, The APA, The Hardy Boyz, and The Dudley Boyz being rated 5 out of 10 stars.\nAccording to Chris Jericho, he tried to not be the last match of the card despite being the Undisputed Champion. According to him, the true main event was Rock vs. Hogan and Triple H and he could not follow that match. The Rock vs. Hulk Hogan match would go on to be well praised over the years as one of the most iconic wrestling matches ever, as well as being named Pro Wrestling Illustrated's match of the year 2002. Mike Chioda expressed his thoughts on the match, stating, \"Did I know it was gonna be so legendary back then? Hell no, I didn’t know. I didn’t know a few years later. We thought something was gonna at some point top that, and I don’t think at some point since 2002, since Rock and Hogan, has really topped that.\" Cody Rhodes considers it the greatest match ever.\n\nAftermath\nAfter WrestleMania, the WWF board of directors made their final decision over the control of the company. Due to the conflicts between Mr. McMahon and Ric Flair making bad business, Linda McMahon proposed a brand extension, essentially splitting the entire WWF roster into two separate entities, named after their two major television shows, Raw and SmackDown!. Vince took control of the SmackDown! brand while Flair controlled the Raw brand. A draft was held with each owner would get a total of thirty picks between the wrestlers. The draft was held on the March 25 episode of Raw, while the brand extension officially began on April 1.\nTriple H's feud with Stephanie would conclude on the March 25 episode of Raw when he defeated her and Chris Jericho in a triple threat match for the Undisputed WWF Championship. By pinning her, Stephanie was forced to leave the WWF in accordance with the match stipulations. Triple H's feud with Jericho would continue with Jericho and The Undertaker interfering with Triple H's championship match at Backlash against Hollywood Hulk Hogan and costing him the Undisputed WWF Championship. Triple H would finish his feud with Jericho in a Hell in a Cell match at Judgment Day and challenged The Undertaker for the Undisputed WWE Championship at King of the Ring, but lost after interference from the returning Rock.\nAfter the reaction during his return match, Hogan was quickly turned face. Until the brand extension separated both parties, The Rock and Hollywood Hogan feuded with Kevin Nash and Scott Hall, with the latter two having had expelled Hogan from the nWo. On the final SmackDown! before the brand extension, the team of Rock, Hogan and Kane defeated Nash, Hall and new nWo member X-Pac in a six-man tag match. The Rock left shortly after the WWF draft for three months to go on a media tour to promote his movie, The Scorpion King.\nStone Cold Steve Austin no-showed the following two weeks, claiming to be burned out. When he returned, on the April 1 episode of Raw, the show was centered on which brand he would choose. Both McMahon and Flair would attempt to win his signature, with Austin eventually choosing the Raw brand. After being drafted to Raw, Austin would get himself involved in the feud between The Undertaker and Ric Flair, fighting Undertaker at Backlash for an Undisputed WWF Championship shot, which he would lose. The storyline itself evolved into a feud between Austin and Flair, with the nWo's involvement on Flair's behalf.\nWrestleMania X8 was the last WrestleMania held before the introduction of the brand extension on March 25, which split the roster between the Raw and SmackDown! brands, where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform. It was also the last WrestleMania held under the WWF name, as the company was renamed to World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in May.\n\nResults\nFour corners elimination match eliminations\nSee also\nProfessional wrestling in Canada\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania X8",
"title": "WrestleMania_X8"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XIX was the 19th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It featured wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions. The event took place at Safeco Field in Seattle on March 30, 2003, becoming the first WrestleMania held in the state of Washington. A record-breaking 54,097 fans from all 50 states and numerous countries around the world at Safeco Field resulted in ticket earnings of $2.76 million.\nWrestleMania XIX was the first WrestleMania to be promoted under the WWE name after the promotion was renamed from World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in May 2002. It was also the first WrestleMania to take place after WWE introduced the brand extension in March 2002. The official theme song for the event was \"Crack Addict\" by Limp Bizkit, who appeared at the event to perform the song; the band also performed their song \"Rollin' (Air Raid Vehicle)\" during The Undertaker's entrance.\nThe marquee match from the SmackDown! brand, which was the main event, saw Brock Lesnar win the WWE Championship from defending champion Kurt Angle. The marquee match from the Raw brand was the third and final WrestleMania bout between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin (after 15 and X-Seven), which The Rock won, marking Austin's final match before his retirement from in-ring performance due to injuries sustained in previous years (Austin would return for a one-off main event against Kevin Owens 19 years later at WrestleMania 38). \nThe other primary match from the Raw brand saw Triple H retain the World Heavyweight Championship against Booker T, while other matches on the undercard included Shawn Michaels defeating Chris Jericho in his first Mania since 1998, Hulk Hogan defeating Mr. McMahon in a street fight billed \"20 Years in the Making\", and The Undertaker defeating the team of Big Show and A-Train in a handicap match.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\", and was considered one of the \"Big Five\" PPVs, along with King of the Ring until its discontinuation after 2002. WrestleMania XIX was held on March 30, 2003, at Safeco Field in Seattle, Washington. It was the first, and to date, only WrestleMania held in the state of Washington.\nWrestleMania XIX was the first WrestleMania promoted under the WWE name, following the company being renamed from World Wrestling Federation (WWF) to WWE in May 2002 following a lawsuit from the World Wildlife Fund over the \"WWF\" initials. It was also the first WrestleMania to be held under the company's first brand extension that began in March 2002, which split the roster between the Raw and SmackDown! brands, where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform on their respective shows; WrestleMania XIX featured wrestlers from both brands. It was also the first WrestleMania to feature the World Heavyweight Championship that was introduced for Raw in September 2002 after the WWE Undisputed Championship became exclusive to SmackDown! and was renamed to the WWE Championship.\nA documentary entitled The Mania of WrestleMania was filmed live during the event and released the following year. It was the first sole production from WWE Films. WrestleMania XIX also marked the first time that production equipment was suspended from the underside of Safeco Field's roof (while in the closed position) with WWE suspending their lighting truss system from it.\n\nStorylines\nThe main feud heading into WrestleMania on the SmackDown! brand was between Kurt Angle and Brock Lesnar, with the two feuding over the WWE Championship. Angle won the title three months prior at Armageddon by defeating then-champion Big Show with Lesnar's help; Lesnar had lost the title at Survivor Series in November 2002 after his agent, Paul Heyman, betrayed him and assisted Big Show in winning the match. On the episode of SmackDown! immediately following Armageddon, Angle revealed that he too had taken on Heyman as his agent, and together they would ensure Lesnar never received an opportunity to regain the WWE Championship. Lesnar responded by brutally attacking Angle at the end of the show, injuring Angle's knee.\nAt the Royal Rumble, Angle faced Chris Benoit for his championship while Lesnar was forced to wrestle Big Show for a spot in the Royal Rumble match, which guaranteed the winner a shot at his brand's championship at WrestleMania. Angle defeated Benoit by submission to retain his title. Lesnar defeated Big Show, despite interference from Heyman, to win his way into the Royal Rumble, which he entered at number 29 and won after last eliminating The Undertaker. The following month at No Way Out, Lesnar and Benoit defeated Team Angle (Kurt Angle, Shelton Benjamin, and Charlie Haas) in a handicap match. During No Way Out, Edge was supposed to team up with Lesnar and Benoit to wrestle Team Angle in the scheduled Six Man Tag team match but Edge was attacked backstage and it was announced he could not participate in the match. In reality, Edge had suffered a severe neck injury prior to the event, and needed time off for surgery. On the March 6 episode of SmackDown!, Lesnar defeated Heyman in a steel cage match to earn a WWE Championship match against Angle. On the March 13 episode of SmackDown!, Angle defeated Lesnar to retain the WWE Championship. Before the match began, Kurt, who was \"praying\" in the corner, switched places with his brother Eric. Lesnar then came out and the match began. Shortly after the match began, Benjamin and Haas came to the ring and distracted Lesnar, which gave Eric time to switch back with Kurt. As Lesnar regained his focus, Kurt was able to pin him with a small package for the win. The following week on the March 20 episode of SmackDown!, SmackDown! General Manager Stephanie McMahon told Angle that, at WrestleMania, if he tried to get himself disqualified, counted out or if Benjamin, Haas, Heyman, Eric or anyone tried to interfere in their match on Angle's behalf, he would lose the title.\nThe main feud on the Raw brand was between The Rock and Steve Austin. On the February 20 episode of SmackDown!, The Rock returned to WWE after a six-month hiatus from wrestling (his last appearance being at SummerSlam the previous August). On that evening, he was involved in a confrontation with Hulk Hogan before their WrestleMania X8 rematch at No Way Out, officially turning heel in the process. At No Way Out, The Rock defeated Hogan with the help of Mr. McMahon. On the February 24 episode of Raw, The Rock moved to the Raw brand and competed in a 20-man Battle royal that would determine the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship. The Rock however, lost after he was eliminated by Booker T. The Rock would go on to criticize Austin for being chosen as the Superstar of the Decade by the WWE fans in January, beginning the feud between them. On the March 3 episode of Raw, Austin, who had left the company during the summer of 2002 before returning at No Way Out, made his WWE television return. As he cut a promo about the WWE fans, he was interrupted by The Rock, who challenged him to a match at WrestleMania because Rock was obsessed with not beating Austin at a WrestleMania event, since The Rock had lost their two previous encounters at WrestleMania XV and X-Seven, respectively. As soon as the challenge was made, Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff announced that the following week on Raw, The Rock would face Booker T in a match, and if he won, he would have the choice to face either Austin or challenge Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania. On the March 10 episode of Raw, The Rock, with Bischoff's approval, announced that he would pick his own opponent for later that night, which turned out to be The Hurricane, in hopes for The Rock to gain an easy victory. However, during the match, Austin made his way down the entrance ramp, which distracted The Rock and allowed The Hurricane to roll up The Rock into a successful pinfall, thus making the match between Austin and The Rock at WrestleMania official. On the March 24 episode of Raw, Austin was banned from entering the arena, as The Rock proceeded to perform the first ever \"Rock Concert\" that night. However, he managed to enter the arena and attack The Rock during the segment before The Rock fled the ring.\n\nThe secondary feud on the SmackDown! brand was between Hulk Hogan and Mr. McMahon. One month prior at No Way Out, during a match between Hogan and The Rock, McMahon came down to the ring, only to distract Hogan, which allowed the referee, Sylvan Grenier, to give The Rock a chair, which The Rock used to hit Hogan and pin him for the win. After No Way Out, McMahon proclaimed that Hulkamania was dead and proclaiming a new 'mania; \"McMahonamania\". On the March 6 episode of SmackDown!, Hogan informed McMahon that Hulkamania was not dead and that McMahon had nothing to do with creating it. McMahon informed Hogan that he did not hate Hulkamaniacs or Hulkamania, but he hated Hogan. He then told Hogan that he hated him for leaving WWE (then known as the WWF) and signing with Ted Turner's World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and for testifying against him in the infamous steroid trial in the 1990s. McMahon proceeded to challenge Hogan to a Street Fight at WrestleMania where if Hogan lost, he would have to retire from professional wrestling. Hogan accepted his challenge later that night. Two weeks later on the March 20 episode of SmackDown!, McMahon and Hogan had a contract signing for their match at WrestleMania. As Hogan was preparing to sign the contract, McMahon attacked Hogan with a steel chair from behind. Shortly afterward, McMahon hit Hogan several times with the chair in the head, causing him to bleed. McMahon then signed the contract and forced Hogan to sign with his blood.\nAnother feud on the Raw brand was between Triple H and Booker T, with the two feuding over the World Heavyweight Championship. Triple H won the title three months prior at Armageddon by defeating then-champion Shawn Michaels in a 3 Stages of Hell match. In the months following, Triple H wrestled Scott Steiner during the following two pay-per-view events for the World Heavyweight Championship. First was at the Royal Rumble, where Triple H got himself disqualified in order to retain the title when he nailed Steiner with the sledgehammer. Then at No Way Out, he defeated Steiner by pinfall to retain the title. On the February 24 episode of Raw, Booker T won a 20-man battle royal by last eliminating The Rock to become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania. On the March 3 episode of Raw, Triple H cut a somewhat controversial promo on Booker T. Triple H downplayed Booker T's WCW success, pointing out that the WCW World Heavyweight Championship had been held by non-wrestlers like Vince Russo and actor David Arquette calling WCW and its title \"a joke\". He implied that Booker T, as a convicted criminal, would never win a world championship in WWE, telling Booker T that \"people like him\" could never be World Heavyweight Champion. In the WrestleMania XIX press conference, Michael Cole questioned Triple H as to whether or not his promo was racially insensitive. Triple H confirmed this was not the case and was indeed only referring to Booker T's criminal past and nothing more. On the March 10 episode of Raw, Booker T got revenge by attacking Triple H in the bathroom, laying him out. On the March 24 episode of Raw, Booker T and Goldust defeated Triple H and Ric Flair in a tag team match with Booker T pinning Triple H.\nAnother feud from the Raw brand was the rivalry over the Women's Championship. The champion Victoria had captured the title from Trish Stratus at Survivor Series. The next month at Armageddon, Victoria defeated Stratus and Jacqueline in a triple threat match to retain the Women's Championship. Stratus and the returning Jazz had a match on Raw to determine who would challenge Victoria for the title at WrestleMania. During the match, Victoria entered the ring and hit both women with the title belt, earning a double disqualification. It was then announced that Victoria would defend the title against both Stratus and Jazz in a triple threat match at the event.\nA smaller feud, also from the Raw brand was between Chris Jericho and Shawn Michaels. After Michaels lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Triple H at Armageddon, he appeared in an in-ring segment with Jericho, during which Jericho stated that Michaels was washed up. After mocking Michaels and threatening to attack him, Jericho turned around into a superkick. When Michaels was a guest on Jericho's in-ring show The Highlight Reel the following month, Jericho claimed he had idolized Michaels from a young age and that he had been Jericho's inspiration to become a wrestler, even going so far as to emulate Michaels in his early professional years. At the Royal Rumble, Michaels and Jericho entered the Royal Rumble match at #1 and #2, respectively. Jericho eliminated Michaels from the Royal Rumble match, after a sneak attack from behind. Michaels returned later in the match and attacked Jericho out of revenge, helping to lead to his elimination. The two agreed to meet at WrestleMania XIX in a match.\n\nEvent\nSunday Night Heat\nBefore the event aired live on pay-per-view, Kane and Rob Van Dam faced Chief Morley and Lance Storm (with The Dudley Boyz, (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley)) for the World Tag Team Championship on Sunday Night Heat. At the end, while the referee was distracted, the Dudleyz performed the 3D (Dudley Death Drop) on Storm. After which, Bubba dropped an elbow on Van Dam, allowing Storm to pin Van Dam, thus Storm and Morley retained the titles.\n\nPreliminary matches\nAs the event began, Ashanti sang a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\", which was omitted from DVD and WWE Network releases.\nIn the first match that aired, Rey Mysterio faced Matt Hardy for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. The match began with back and forth action between the two, until Hardy performed a Twist of Fate for a near-fall. Mysterio retaliated by delivering a 619 on Hardy, but as Mysterio delivered a West Coast Pop, Hardy ducked into a roll-up that saw Hardy use the ring ropes for leverage and successfully pinned Mysterio, thus Hardy retained the Cruiserweight Championship.\n\nIn the next match, The Undertaker and Nathan Jones faced Big Show and A-Train in a tag team match. Earlier in the night on Sunday Night Heat, Jones was attacked and beaten down by the FBI. It was then announced that The Undertaker would have to face both Big Show and A-Train in a handicap match. Both Big Show and A-Train had the advantage of The Undertaker at the start of the match; however, late into the match, Jones appeared and attacked Big Show, allowing The Undertaker to deliver a Tombstone Piledriver on A-Train for a successful pinfall, thus The Undertaker won the match and remained undefeated at WrestleMania.\nIn the third match, Victoria, Jazz and Trish Stratus fought in a triple threat match for the WWE Women's Championship. Throughout the match, Jazz and Victoria would double-team Stratus and Steven Richards, who was at ringside in Victoria's corner, would intervene in the match. As Jazz was thrown over the top rope onto ringside, however, Richards came in the ring with a steel chair and tried to hit Stratus with it but missed and hit it off the ropes into his face, allowing Stratus to perform the Stratus Faction on him. Victoria went for the Widow's Peak on Stratus, who countered with a Chick Kick to Victoria to win the match and the women's title, tying The Fabulous Moolah's record of four title reigns.\nThe next match was a triple threat WWE Tag Team Championship match between the teams of Rhyno and Chris Benoit, Los Guerreros (Chavo and Eddie Guerrero), and the champions, Team Angle (Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas). Rhyno delivered a Gore on Chavo but Benjamin tagged himself into the match and pinned Chavo, to win the match and retain the Tag Team Championship.\n\nIn the fifth match, Chris Jericho faced Shawn Michaels. Jericho had the advantage over Michaels at the start of the match, as he applied the Walls of Jericho onto Michaels early on. Later in the match, Jericho hit Michaels with a Sweet Chin Music for a near fall and as Michaels attempted Sweet Chin Music, Jericho countered into the Walls of Jericho. After Michaels escaped the hold, he hit Jericho with a Sweet Chin Music for a near fall. Later, Jericho attempted a suplex that Michaels countered into a roll-up giving him the successful pinfall victory. After the match, Jericho offered to shake Michaels's hand and they hugged before Jericho attacked Michaels with a low blow.\nBefore the next match begun, a fatal four-way pillow fight (hosted by Jonathan Coachman) took place between Stacy Keibler, Torrie Wilson, Tanya Ballinger, and Kitana Baker. The match went to a no contest when all four women teamed up, pulling down Coachman's pants and pinning him.\n\nMain event matches\nThe next match was a World Heavyweight Championship match between Booker T and Triple H. The match began with Booker T in control of Triple H, however, Ric Flair, who was at ringside in Triple H's corner, threw Booker T's knee into the steel steps. The attack allowed Triple H to work over Booker T's leg, as he applied various submission holds onto Booker T's leg including the Indian deathlock. Booker T retaliated and took control of the match; after he delivered a Harlem Hangover leg drop, Booker T grasped his knee in pain, which allowed Triple H to recover and perform a Pedigree to win the match and retain the World Heavyweight Championship.\nThe seventh match was a Street fight between Hulk Hogan and the WWE Chairman, Mr. McMahon. Both Hogan and McMahon tested each other's strength in the beginning of the match, until McMahon threw Hogan at ringside. Hogan then countered a chairshot by McMahon into several of his own, that caused McMahon to bleed profusely from the head. Late into the match, Roddy Piper made a shocking appearance as he interfered in the match and hit Hogan with a pipe. Hogan however, recovered and delivered a big boot and three running leg drops to McMahon to successfully pin him and win the match.\n\nThe next and final match on the undercard, was the encounter of The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin. The match began with Austin and The Rock brawling in the ring, which ended up at ringside. Throughout the match, The Rock worked over Austin's leg, which included applying a Sharpshooter on Austin. The Rock then began to constantly taunt Austin, as he put on his vest and imitated his taunts and mannerisms, which led both to use their finishers with unsuccessful pin attempts. Austin performed the Stone Cold Stunner on The Rock for a near-fall, much to Austin's dismay. After he failed to win with the People's Elbow, The Rock then performed two Rock Bottoms on Austin for two near-falls. The Rock performed a third Rock Bottom on Austin, winning the match. This was Austin's last match until WrestleMania 38 in 2022.\n\nIn the main event, Brock Lesnar faced Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship, where if Kurt Angle was disqualified or counted out, he would lose the title. The match began with Lesnar and Angle chain-wrestling back and forth, until Angle countered a shoulder block into a German suplex. Lesnar would then attempt an F-5 on Angle but Angle countered it into an Ankle Lock that Lesnar was able to escape out of. As Lesnar escaped, Angle would hit an Angle Slam for a near fall. As he attempted another Angle Slam, however, Lesnar countered into an F-5 for a near-fall. Lesnar performed another F-5, and instead of covering Angle, Lesnar climbed to the top rope and massively botched a Shooting Star Press on Angle, which Angle covered for by pinning Lesnar for a near-fall. After Lesnar kicked out, Angle picked up Lesnar only to be hit with a third F-5, Lesnar then successfully pinned Angle, winning the match and the WWE Championship. After the match, Angle and Lesnar shook hands and embraced as the show came to a close.\n\nReception\nThe event received highly positive reviews from various websites and wrestling publications. John Powell of Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the event a perfect score of 10 out of 10 stars, which was a higher rating than the previous year's event. The main event between Brock Lesnar and Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship was rated the highest with a score of 9 out of 10 stars, the match between The Rock and Stone Cold Steve Austin was rated 8 out of 10 stars, the match between Booker T and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship was rated 7.5 out of 10 stars (although the finish was generally frowned upon), the match between Shawn Michaels and Chris Jericho was also rated 7.5 out of 10 stars and the Street Fight between Vince McMahon and Hulk Hogan receiving the lowest rating of 4 out of 10 stars. He also noted that \"it was the WWE slugging homeruns last night at WrestleMania XIX. Criticized for not making the most of the talent it has, the WWE had all the bases covered and proved that if the entire organization puts forth the effort, they can deliver a superior sports entertainment product\" and further claimed that \"WrestleMania XIX was not only a outstanding show but it will surely go down as one of the best WrestleManias ever\". In 2019, Troy L. Smith of cleveland.com released a list of the \"50 Greatest Wrestling Pay-Per-Views of All Time\" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with WrestleMania XIX ranked at number eight.\nMost of the critics rated Jericho vs. Michaels as the match of the night. Kazuchika Okada stated that he \"learned so much from that match.\" Jericho reported that Michaels viewed it as the best match of the night and a \"five-star match\". Jericho himself called it \"one of the best matches in Mania history.\"\n\nAftermath\nOn the SmackDown! after WrestleMania, SmackDown! General Manager Stephanie McMahon announced Kurt Angle suffered a pulled hamstring and a neck injury, while Lesnar suffered multiple concussions. She later announced that a tournament would take place to determine the number one contender to Lesnar's WWE Championship at Backlash. On the April 17 episode of SmackDown!, John Cena would become the number one contender after he defeated Chris Benoit in the tournament's final match. At Backlash, Lesnar defeated Cena to retain the WWE Championship. Lesnar would then feud with Big Show, as he defeated him at Judgment Day to retain the WWE Championship in a stretcher match. Lesnar would, however, lose the WWE Championship to Angle at Vengeance in a triple threat match that also involved Big Show. Lesnar then regained the WWE Championship from Angle on the September 18 episode of SmackDown!, in an Iron Man match winning 5-4.\nOn the April 3 episode of SmackDown!, enraged by his loss at WrestleMania, Mr. McMahon indefinitely suspended Hulk Hogan with pay and forced him to sit out the remainder of his WWE contract as a part of their storyline. On the May 1 episode of SmackDown!, \"Mr. America\" (Hogan under a mask) made his debut on Piper's Pit, where McMahon promised to prove Mr. America was actually Hogan. Also involved in the feud was Zach Gowen, a one legged wrestler who was brought into the feud by Mr. America. After multiple failed attempts to prove Mr. America was Hogan, however, McMahon finally succeeded on the July 3 episode of SmackDown!, after he aired footage of Mr. America unmasking and revealing himself to be Hogan. He then announced that Hogan was fired from WWE.\nOn the Raw after WrestleMania, Stone Cold Steve Austin was fired from the WWE in storyline by Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff due to \"medical reasons\". Austin was later re-hired a few weeks later by WWE CEO, Linda McMahon, however, as Raw's Co-General Manager, along with Bischoff. Later that night, The Rock hosted \"Rock Appreciation Night\", where he taunted Austin for getting fired and proclaimed he was leaving WWE, as he had nothing left to accomplish, and because the fans did not appreciate him anymore. Goldberg would officially make his WWE debut by interrupting Rock, telling him \"You're Next!\", which led to Goldberg spearing The Rock. On the April 14 episode of Raw, The Rock would accept the challenge made by Goldberg, which he had previously rejected a week earlier, meaning the two would wrestle each other at Backlash. At Backlash, Goldberg successfully pinned The Rock. After the match, once the show was off the air, Rock gave a farewell speech in which he stated that he was officially taking a sabbatical from professional wrestling.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XIX",
"title": "WrestleMania_XIX"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XX was the 20th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It featured professional wrestlers from both of the promotion's two brand divisions – Raw and SmackDown!. The event took place on March 14, 2004, at Madison Square Garden in New York City. It was the third WrestleMania at Madison Square Garden (after WrestleMania I in 1985 and WrestleMania X in 1994) and the fourth of six WrestleManias in the New York metropolitan area (alongside WrestleMania I, 2, X, 29, and 35). To this date it is the last WrestleMania to have been held at the Garden. Its calendar date of March 14 also stands as the earliest that WrestleMania has ever been held in any year.\nThe match card featured two main events. The pay-per-view main event, which was also the main match for the Raw brand, was a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship, which saw champion Triple H defending the world title against Shawn Michaels, and that year's Royal Rumble match winner, Chris Benoit. Benoit won the match, making Triple H submit via the Crippler Crossface, resulting in his first and only world championship in the WWE. The main match for the SmackDown! brand featured Eddie Guerrero versus Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship, which Guerrero won by a Small Package pin. The event also featured the return of The Undertaker in his Deadman persona, who defeated Kane, after a Tombstone Piledriver. John Cena made his in-ring WrestleMania debut at the event, by defeating Big Show to win his first title in WWE, the WWE United States Championship. \nAlso on the card was a match between Goldberg and Brock Lesnar, with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the special guest referee. This was both Lesnar's and Goldberg's final match with WWE until the 2012 edition of Extreme Rules, and the 2016 edition of Survivor Series, respectively. After Goldberg won the match following a Jackhammer, both men were given a Stone Cold Stunner by Austin on their way out. The event also featured the in-ring return of The Rock, teaming up with Mick Foley and reuniting the Rock 'n' Sock Connection to take on Evolution in a 3-on-2 Handicap match, in which Evolution were victorious. This would be The Rock's final match in WWE until Survivor Series 2011.\nThe event grossed $2.4 million in ticket sales, making the pay-per-view the highest grossing event ever for WWE at Madison Square Garden. More than 20,000 people from 16 countries and 48 states attended the event, which was also televised in more than 90 countries. The event generated an estimated $13.5 million of economic activity for New York City and created an equivalent of 96 full-year jobs.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views – which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series – referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania XX was scheduled to be held on March 14, 2004, at Madison Square Garden in New York City, the third time at this venue, after WrestleMania I in 1985 and WrestleMania X in 1994. The event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions.\n\nStorylines\nThe event comprised 12 matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown! brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Raw and SmackDown!.\nThe main feud heading into the pay-per-view was for the Raw brand, with Triple H, Shawn Michaels, and Chris Benoit feuding over the World Heavyweight Championship. The rivalry began on the December 29 episode of Raw, when Michaels challenged Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship in Michaels' hometown of San Antonio, Texas. It appeared as if Michaels would win, with the then-Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff coming into the ring at the last minute and making the pinfall, counting to three for what appeared to be Michaels winning the title. However, as Michaels' shoulders were on the mat at the same time as Triple H's, the match was later declared a draw, and Triple H retained the championship. At the Royal Rumble, Triple H and Michaels again faced each other in a Last Man Standing match for the title, which resulted in another draw. As a result, Triple H retained the title yet again, but leaving open the question as to which of the two truly deserved the championship. Later that night, during the Royal Rumble match, SmackDown!'s Benoit won the contest by last-eliminating Big Show, after being the first entrant to the event (a feat only 2 other wrestlers had achieved at the time). On the following night, Michaels and Triple H were involved in an in-ring confrontation when Raw's Sheriff Steve Austin made his way to the ring. He stated that, although Michaels should have a rematch, he had to \"enforce the law\", and that even though the Royal Rumble rules gave the winner of the match a shot at \"the (world) championship\", there was not any specification as to which world title that was. Benoit, who at the time was a member of the SmackDown! brand, then came to the ring and said he was taking advantage of the loophole, joining the Raw brand and challenging Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XX. On the February 9 episode of Raw, a contract signing took place between Benoit and Triple H. As Triple H signed his name on the paper, Michaels came out to inform Benoit that the last thing he wanted to do is \"rain on [his] parade\". He then stated that he, more than anybody, can respect Benoit's effort to win the Royal Rumble match and earn a World title shot, but suggested that Benoit should've stayed on SmackDown! to take care of business while Michaels, himself, was trying to finish his feud with Triple H. Benoit refused to relinquish his guaranteed title shot, resulting in Michaels hitting Benoit with Sweet Chin Music and signing the contract himself. After the two men wrestled a match marred by interference from the champion on the February 16 episode of Raw, Austin decided to make Triple H's title defense a triple threat match. On the March 1 episode of Raw, after Michaels and Benoit lost to Randy Orton and Batista, Triple H's stablemates in Evolution, the entire group attacked Michaels and Benoit, ending with Triple H hitting both with the Pedigree and rubbing his World title belt into their faces while they lied motionless in the ring.\nThe main feud for the SmackDown! brand was between Eddie Guerrero and Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship. Angle and Guerrero were initially allies while Guerrero feuded with his nephew Chavo Guerrero. This changed when, on the January 29 episode of SmackDown!, Guerrero last eliminated Angle in a 15-man Royal Rumble match, to earn a shot at the WWE Championship. At No Way Out, Kurt Angle defeated The Big Show and John Cena in a triple threat match to earn a title shot at WrestleMania, and Guerrero defeated Brock Lesnar for the WWE Championship. On the February 19 episode of SmackDown!, Angle was the special guest referee in a WWE Championship match between Eddie Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero. As Eddie was about to gain the victory, Angle stopped the 3-count and turned on Guerrero. On the February 26 episode of SmackDown!, Guerrero was eager to get his revenge on Angle, but when he finally saw Angle, he shoved SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman and his assistant Dawn Marie out of his way, only for Heyman to have Guerrero escorted out of the arena by security. Guerrero was scheduled to team with John Cena to take on Chavo Guerrero and the Big Show in a tag team match on that night, but due to Guerrero being escorted out of the arena, he was replaced by Rey Mysterio for the tag match, which Mysterio and Cena won. Later that night, Angle appeared and stated that he attacked Guerrero for the SmackDown! fans and for the WWE. He then referred to Guerrero as a former drug addict who should not represent SmackDown! as the WWE Champion, and stated that, one day, people would be thanking him for giving them a champion to be proud of. Guerrero then re-entered the arena and assaulted Angle until he was arrested on the orders of Heyman. As Guerrero got taken out of the building in handcuffs, Angle made some insulting comments to him, before the officers drove away with Guerrero in the police car. On the March 4 episode of SmackDown!, during Guerrero's match with Heyman (while he was handcuffed), Angle interfered and knocked him down a few times, until Guerrero defended himself by spitting on Angle. As Guerrero begged Angle to hit him with the WWE Championship belt, Angle did so and raised the title belt over his head to hype their match at Wrestlemania XX.\nThis was the first WrestleMania to have a match billed as \"inter-promotional\", which means that a party from Raw would wrestle a party from SmackDown!. WWE owner Vince McMahon named three matches to be inter-promotional on the February 16 episode of Raw. The first was a tag team match featuring SmackDown!'s Torrie Wilson and Sable, who had recently been featured in a pictorial in Playboy magazine, against Raw's Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie, who had protested the decision made by Hugh Hefner not to feature them in his magazine.\nOn the January 26 episode of Raw, Goldberg came to the ring, and demanded a match between himself and Brock Lesnar, with whom he had problems over the past two months. At the Royal Rumble, Goldberg was entered in the Royal Rumble match, only to have Lesnar (who, as the reigning WWE Champion, was not entered into the match) interfere and execute an F-5, causing Goldberg to be eliminated by Kurt Angle. On the February 2 episode of Raw, as a result of the rivalry between the two programs, Sheriff Steve Austin gave Goldberg the option of attending No Way Out by giving him a front-row ticket. At No Way Out, Goldberg was seen arriving at the arena and being escorted to his front seat by security. Then SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman gave a promotional in-ring speech on how SmackDown! was the better program than Raw. Lesnar then came down to the ring to promote his match and to insult Goldberg. Goldberg immediately jumped over the barricade and entered the ring, where Lesnar performed a running shoulder block to Goldberg's stomach and tried to perform another F-5 on him. However, Goldberg countered it and lifted Lesnar vertically in the air before slamming him down in a Jackhammer. Goldberg was then escorted out of the arena by security. During Lesnar's WWE title defense against Eddie Guerrero later that night, Goldberg returned to the arena and interfered by executing a Spear, which caused Lesnar to lose the title after Guerrero nailed him with a Frog splash. On the February 23 episode of Raw, Vince McMahon set the interpromotional singles match as pitting Lesnar versus Goldberg for WrestleMania XX, with Austin as the special guest referee. Later that night during the match between McMahon and Eric Bischoff, Lesnar appeared and nailed Austin with an F-5 then stole Austin's four-wheeler. On the February 26 episode of SmackDown!, Lesnar stated that he appeared on Raw just to get back at Austin for giving Goldberg the front-row seat ticket and suggesting that Goldberg would attack Lesnar at No Way Out. Behind the scenes, it was widely known that the match would be Goldberg's last in WWE. Only a week before WrestleMania, rumors surfaced that Lesnar, too, was leaving, in order to pursue a career in the National Football League. On the March 11 episode of SmackDown!, Austin appeared to get his four-wheeler back from Lesnar, only for the entire roster to get in his way by orders of SmackDown! General Manager Heyman. Moments later, the entire roster had decided to move aside and let Austin by, to confront Lesnar in the ring. As Austin got into the ring, he and Lesnar traded punches, with Austin ramming Lesnar headfirst into the steel ring post and attempting to nail Lesnar with the Stone Cold Stunner, only for Lesnar to escape, leaving Austin to finally get back his four-wheeler and close the show with his trademark beer bash.\nThe next match was at the request of Kane, and had its roots in a match at Survivor Series, in which Kane's storyline brother, The Undertaker challenged Vince McMahon to a Buried Alive match. Kane interfered in the match and buried his brother under several tons of dirt, apparently killing him. On the November 20 episode of SmackDown!, Kane appeared to give the eulogy for his brother, claiming that The Undertaker was no longer his brother and had died a long time before, as he no longer embraced his dark side. This rewarded him with a match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Armageddon, which was won by Triple H in a Triple Threat Match also involving Goldberg. Kane participated in the Royal Rumble and was eliminated by Booker T when The Undertaker's old theme music began playing and distracted him. Over the following weeks, Kane repeatedly insisted that The Undertaker was \"dead\", only to be met with various paranormal incidents, such as a rainstorm over the ramp on which he stood. On the March 8 episode of Raw, Kane appeared in the ring and saw an empty casket; as he opened it, he saw an urn inside of it. He then grabbed the microphone and stated that it was going to take more than an empty casket and an urn to intimidate him. He then stated that The Undertaker's legacy, his 11–0 WrestleMania streak and his life, was coming to an end. He said: \"it's back to the grave for you for good\". He claimed that it's over and that he's not afraid of The Undertaker. But, the lights went out, and the 10,000-pound wrestling ring lifted off the ground with Kane standing in it and tilted sideways, which would be the final message sent from The Undertaker before their match at WrestleMania XX.\nA rivalry had been simmering for some time between Mick Foley and Randy Orton. On the June 23 episode of Raw, following an on-air ceremony honoring Foley for his achievements, Orton and Ric Flair attacked him backstage and threw him down a flight of stairs. Foley returned as the replacement for Steve Austin as Raw co-general manager and gave himself a shot at Orton's Intercontinental Championship on the December 15 episode of Raw, but he walked out of the match and would not face Orton, even after Orton spat on him. On the January 19 episode of Raw, a furious Austin declared that Foley would be entered in the Royal Rumble match and be expected to return and wrestle, which he did by eliminating Orton (and himself) from the match. On the March 1 episode of Raw, Foley was later joined by The Rock in the feud, and the re-formed Rock 'n' Sock Connection challenged Orton, Batista, and Flair to a handicap tag team match at WrestleMania.\n\nEvent\nPreliminary matches\nWrestleMania XX began with the Boys Choir of Harlem singing \"America the Beautiful\". The first match that aired was a singles match between Big Show and John Cena for the WWE United States Championship, the first time the title was ever defended at the event. The match began with Big Show beating down Cena, who then came back, executing an FU for a near-fall against Big Show. Cena grabbed his signature chain and tried to attack Big Show with it, however, the referee saw the chain and confiscated it due to its being illegal in the match. With the referee distracted, Cena hit Big Show with hidden brass knuckles and executed another FU to win the match and the title.\nThe next match was a fatal four-way tag team match – involving Rob Van Dam and Booker T, Garrison Cade, and Mark Jindrak, the Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley), and La Résistance (René Duprée and Rob Conway) – for the World Tag Team Championship. The match saw quick action between all four teams, and ended when Conway was pinned by Van Dam after Booker T performed a scissor kick on him, which was then followed by Van Dam's Five-Star Frog Splash, leading to the two retaining the titles.\nThe third match was between Christian and Chris Jericho. The match centered around both men furiously attacking each other; Christian won the match after Jericho's love interest, Trish Stratus, attacked Jericho thinking he was Christian, allowing Christian to roll him up for the win. Following the match, Stratus turned on Jericho and slapped him several times, allowing Christian to perform the Unprettier on Jericho. This was the last match officiated by referee Tim White, who retired after this.\nNext up was a handicap match featuring Evolution (Randy Orton, Batista, and Ric Flair) against the Rock 'n' Sock Connection (The Rock and Mick Foley). Evolution won the match when Orton pinned Foley after executing an RKO.\n\"Mean\" Gene Okerlund then introduced the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2004. This was followed by the inter-promotional Playboy Evening Gown match between the team of Torrie Wilson and Sable against Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie, where both teams wore lingerie. Wilson and Sable won after Wilson pinned Jackie with a roll up.\nThe next match was a Cruiserweight Open for the Cruiserweight Championship. Último Dragón and Shannon Moore started the match, with Dragón getting a pinfall victory after a Dragon-DDT, but was then forced to submit by Jamie Noble, with a Dragon Sleeper, who next eliminated Funaki in 8 seconds. Nunzio was then in the match, but was eliminated after being counted out of the match when he was unable to return to the ring by the referee's count of ten. Billy Kidman then entered the match, pinning and eliminating Noble, following a top rope BK-Bomb. Kidman was then pinned and eliminated by Rey Mysterio with a Sunset Flip Powerbomb from the top rope. Tajiri was the next entrant, but was also pinned by Mysterio, following a Victory Roll. Akio was the next scheduled entrant but was unable to compete, due to being inadvertently attacked by Tajiri with his signature green mist that he spat out of his mouth when Mysterio ducked. The Cruiserweight Champion, Chavo Guerrero, was the final entrant; and he pinned Mysterio with a reversal of Mysterio's Sunset Flip to win with the assistance of his father Chavo Classic, thus retaining the title. This was the last time in WrestleMania that the Cruiserweight Championship was defended.\nThe seventh match featured Brock Lesnar and Goldberg, with special guest referee Steve Austin. The beginning of the match began with both men staring each other down, jawing back and forth, with no physical action for several minutes, causing an exasperated Austin at one point to coax them into locking up. The fact that they both were leaving the WWE immediately after the match, as well as the lack of effort brought forth by both Goldberg and Lesnar, drew large heat from the fans throughout the match, with fans chanting, \"You sold out\", the chorus of Steam's \"Na Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye\", \"Austin\", \"This match sucks\", \"We want Bret\", \"Boring\", \"Goldberg sucks\", and \"Hogan\". Goldberg then executed a Spear on Lesnar for a near-fall. Lesnar then executed the F-5 on Goldberg for a near-fall. Afterward, Lesnar tried to use Goldberg's signature spear on him and missed, hitting the ring post, allowing Goldberg to execute another spear and a Jackhammer for the victory. After the match, Lesnar responded to the fans' criticism by gesturing his middle finger, seemingly at the crowd, but which was actually directed towards Vince McMahon, and to Austin. Austin then executed a Stone Cold Stunner on both competitors, to the crowd's delight, and celebrated with beer in the ring.\nThe next match was another four-way tag team match for the WWE Tag Team Championship, involving Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty versus the APA (Bradshaw and Faarooq), the Basham Brothers (Doug Basham and Danny Basham), and the World's Greatest Tag Team (Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas). Rikishi and Scotty retained the title after Rikishi pinned Danny with a Banzai Drop.\n\nThe ninth match was between Victoria and Molly Holly for the WWE Women's Championship, where Holly would have her hair shaved if she lost. Victoria would counter a Widow's peak attempt by Holly into a backslide pin to win the match and retain the WWE Women's Championship. Holly tried running towards the backstage area to escape the match's stipulation, but was eventually stopped by Victoria, who would knock her out and shave her bald.\n\nMain event matches\nThe 10th match of the night was for the WWE Championship, between the champion Eddie Guerrero and the challenger Kurt Angle. The match began with both men maneuvering on the mat. Guerrero then performed a DDT and Frog Splash on Angle that would result in a pin attempt. Angle then recovered and applied an ankle lock, but Guerrero escaped the hold by rolling through it and throwing Angle out of the ring. As Angle was outside, Guerrero loosened his own boot. When Angle returned to the ring, he tried to apply the hold again. This time, Guerrero pushed Angle off with his other foot and allowed his boot to come off and thus break free from Angle's hold. With Angle confused, Guerrero pinned Angle with a roll-up with his feet on the ropes to win the match and retain the WWE Championship.\nThe 11th match of the event was the encounter between The Undertaker and Kane. After Kane made his entrance, he was seen looking toward the entrance ramp saying, \"You're not coming back tonight. You're not coming back, I buried you alive.\" After this, the lights in the arena went out and Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager and Kane's (storyline) father, was heard screaming \"Oh, yes!\". Blue light began to fill the arena as Bearer, carrying the Undertaker's former trademark urn, led a group of Druids, all chanting and carrying torches, onto the entrance ramp. As the Druids made a formation at the top of the ramp, Bearer walked to ringside, turned and said to Kane, \"My son... You're no son of mine.\" He then turned back to face the entryway and raised the urn to summon The Undertaker. As Kane continued to watch in the ring, refusing to believe his brother was back, Undertaker entered the arena in his \"Deadman\" persona, wearing a long black trenchcoat and hat, and walked through the Druid formation. Bearer met him at ringside and directed him to the ring steps, where Undertaker raised his arms to bring the arena lights back up. Before the match officially got underway, a now visibly shaken and distressed Kane began shouting at his brother repeatedly, saying things like \"I killed you!\", \"I buried you alive!\", and \"You're not real!\", while Undertaker simply stood staring stoically at Kane. Eventually, Kane decided to see if Undertaker was indeed standing in front of him by slowly inching forward with his hand outstretched. Undertaker responded by punching Kane, knocking him down; and the match got underway. The two continued brawling until Kane delivered a Chokeslam to Undertaker, who sat up shortly afterward while Kane was taunting Paul Bearer. The Undertaker then retaliated with a Chokeslam of his own and a Tombstone piledriver to win the match and remain undefeated at WrestleMania with a 12–0 record.\n\nThe main event was a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Chris Benoit, Shawn Michaels, and champion Triple H. The match started with Benoit and Michaels wanting to face the champion, but would wrestle each other to try and gain an advantage, before Triple H's intervention led to the match going back-and-forth between all three men, performing their signature holds and maneuvers throughout. Benoit soon gained control over Michaels when he applied the Crippler Crossface. As Michaels was about to submit, Triple H saved the match, attacking both men. Triple H and Michaels then teamed up to suplex Benoit through a broadcast table. Triple H performed the Pedigree on Michaels and Benoit broke up a pinfall. Michaels then attempted Sweet Chin Music on Benoit, who countered it by throwing Michaels out of the ring. As this occurred, Triple H again attempted to execute a Pedigree on Benoit, but Benoit countered and applied the Crippler Crossface, with Triple H submitting, making it the first time ever that a WrestleMania main event ended in a submission. As a result, Benoit won the match and the World Heavyweight Championship, crying tears of joy. After the match, Eddie Guerrero came to the ring and the two champions embraced while confetti showered down as the event ended.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania XX was met with a generally mixed-to-positive critical reception. Robert Leighty Jr. of 411Mania gave the event an overall score of 7.3 out of 10.0 and noted that:\n\nThis is a very long show with a lot of filler to get as many people as possible involved, but the Main Matches all delivered in some way. The 2 Main Title matches were fantastic, and the handicap match was a blast. You throw in a strong Jericho/Christian match and the unique crowd response of Goldberg/Lesnar and you have a strong WrestleMania. Not the greatest ever thanks to a mediocre run in the middle, but a good show that could have been better.\n\nThe triple threat match between Shawn Michaels, Chris Benoit, and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship received critical acclaim, with many wrestling publications and websites calling this match one of the greatest wrestling matches of all time. Leighty wrote that the main event was, \"The greatest three-way match in the history of professional wrestling. Everything was perfect about this match including the finish.\" The match was #2 on IGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History. However, due to the events surrounding the death of Chris Benoit, the match is rarely, if ever, mentioned by the WWE.\nJohn Powell of Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the entire event 4 out of 10 stars, which was a lower rating than he gave to the previous year's event. The Triple Threat match between Shawn Michaels, Chris Benoit, and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship receiving the highest rating of 7.5 out of 10 stars; the match between Eddie Guerrero and Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship was rated 7 out of 10 stars; the match between The Undertaker and Kane was rated 2 out of 10 stars; and the match between Bill Goldberg and Brock Lesnar received the lowest rating, 0 out of 10 stars.\nThe Goldberg–Lesnar match is widely considered one of the worst matches in WrestleMania history. Writing for Bleacher Report, Mike Krakalovich named it the 4th worst match in the history of the event. The match was also inducted into WrestleCrap.\n\nAftermath\nBrock Lesnar and Goldberg left the WWE after their event, but both returned to WWE (Lesnar in 2012, Goldberg in 2016) and reignited their rivalry, including feuding for several months on social media and during promotional work for the WWE 2K17 video game, which featured Lesnar as the cover star and Goldberg as the pre-order bonus. This would set up a rematch between the two at the 2016 Survivor Series, which Goldberg won in one minute and 26 seconds. After Goldberg entered himself into the 2017 Royal Rumble match the next night on Raw, Lesnar's advocate Paul Heyman said that Lesnar would also be in the match after being embarrassed at Survivor Series; however, Goldberg eliminated Lesnar. Lesnar challenged Goldberg to a final match at WrestleMania 33 which Goldberg accepted. The match then became a championship match after Goldberg defeated Kevin Owens at Fastlane to win the Universal Championship. At WrestleMania 33, Lesnar defeated Goldberg to win the championship and end the feud.\nAt Backlash, the original main event match was between Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels for the World Heavyweight Championship. Triple H appeared to be out of the picture, as the annual WWE Draft Lottery took place eight days after WrestleMania; and he was drafted to SmackDown!. Almost immediately after the draft lottery, the dethroned champion was traded back to Raw; and on March 29 he demanded that the intended match at Backlash be changed to Benoit and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship. Raw general manager Eric Bischoff liked the idea of the match, but concluded that he had promised Michaels a World title match at Backlash. To solve this, Bischoff booked a return triple threat match to serve as the main event for Backlash. Benoit emerged victorious by submission for the second consecutive pay-per-view, this time forcing Michaels to submit to a Sharpshooter. Benoit went on to hold the title until August 2004, losing it to Randy Orton at SummerSlam.\nThe feud between Kurt Angle and Eddie Guerrero continued. Angle, however, went in for surgery on his neck shortly after WrestleMania and was not scheduled to return to action for some time. To cover this in storyline, Angle was made the on-screen General Manager of SmackDown! after previous GM Paul Heyman was drafted off the brand and promptly quit rather than work for his hated rival Bischoff. On April 15, Angle's legitimate neck problems were further incorporated into the story by having The Big Show chokeslam Angle off a ledge and render him crippled to the point where he could not walk without crutches and required a wheelchair. At The Great American Bash, Guerrero defended his title in a Texas Bull Rope match against John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL). The match ended with Guerrero appearing to have won, but Angle reversed the decision and awarded the match and WWE Championship to JBL.\nShortly after the Bash, Angle interfered in a Guerrero match under the guise of a masked wrestler named \"El Gran Luchador\", but was exposed by the former champion. On July 22, 2004, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon confronted Angle, who was still using crutches and the wheelchair, demanding his resignation for faking his handicap. When Angle would not do so, McMahon fired him and began attacking him with one of the crutches. McMahon saw that Angle was completely healthy as he fended off the attack and thus put him back on the active roster and ordered Angle to wrestle Guerrero at SummerSlam. Angle defeated Guerrero after he forced Guerrero to submit to the ankle lock. At Survivor Series their feud finally ended in a Four-on-Four Traditional Survivor Series Tag Team Match, with Guerrero's team (composed of Eddie Guerrero, The Big Show, Rob Van Dam, and John Cena) being victorious against Team Angle (composed of Kurt Angle, Luther Reigns, Mark Jindrak, and Carlito).\nAfter WrestleMania XX, Trish Stratus teamed with Christian in a losing effort against Chris Jericho in a handicap match at Backlash. Elsewhere in the Divas Division, Victoria retained her WWE Women's Championship against Lita at the same event. On the SmackDown side, Sable reverted to her heel persona and engaged in a short feud with Torrie Wilson.\nCactus Jack and Randy Orton continued their feud at Backlash, with Jack challenging Orton to a hardcore match for the Intercontinental Championship. Orton won after performing an RKO to slam Cactus Jack onto a barbed wire baseball bat.\nAfter WrestleMania, Kane and The Undertaker went their separate ways. Before the year was out, both men would receive shots at their respective brands' top championships. Kane faced Benoit at Bad Blood for the World Heavyweight Championship, while Undertaker received multiple shots at JBL for the WWE Championship, the last of which came at Armageddon in December. Kane spent the rest of his time in a feud with Lita and Matt Hardy, which led to the debut of Gene Snitsky and a feud with him.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XX",
"title": "WrestleMania_XX"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania 21 (marketed as WrestleMania Goes Hollywood) was the 21st annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions. The event took place on April 3, 2005, at Staples Center in Los Angeles, California.\nThe main event of the show, which was the main match from the Raw brand, saw Batista challenge Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship, which Batista won by pinfall after executing a Batista Bomb. The main match on the SmackDown! brand, which was the event's penultimate match, saw John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) defend the WWE Championship against John Cena, which Cena won by pinfall after performing an FU marking Cena's first world title reign of his world record sixteen. \nAnother primary match was an inter-promotional match between The Undertaker and Randy Orton, which Undertaker won by pinfall after performing a Tombstone Piledriver. The featured matches on the undercard were Kurt Angle versus Shawn Michaels and the first-ever Money in the Bank ladder match. The event also featured the return of Stone Cold Steve Austin who then started his part-time appearances with WWE and also the final WrestleMania event that Eddie Guerrero competed in, going against his tag team partner Rey Mysterio. Guerrero succumbed to heart failure in November that same year.\nWrestleMania 21 was the first WrestleMania held at Staples Center, but the fifth to take place in the Los Angeles metropolitan area (after 2, VII, XII, and 2000). Tickets sold out in less than one minute for the event, making it the fastest ticket sell-out in the company's history as well as the fastest ticket sell-out at Staples Center. The event drew a Staples Center record attendance of 20,193 people from 37 countries and 50 states and grossed more than $7.1 million in ticket sales, making it the highest grossing WWE event ever at Staples Center. In addition to those in attendance, the event was seen by millions of fans in more than 190 countries.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania 21 was scheduled to be held on April 3, 2005, at Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. The event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown! brands. It was the first WrestleMania held at Staples Center, but the fifth to take place in the Los Angeles metropolitan area (after 2, VII, XII, and 2000).\nIn line with the event's location and tagline, WrestleMania 21 was promoted on television with a series of parody movie trailers with WWE talent playing the starring roles from famous movies.\nThe parody movie trailers included:\n\nForrest Gump featuring Eugene playing the role of Tom Hanks, with William Regal making a cameo appearance.\nBraveheart featuring Triple H playing the role of Mel Gibson, with Ric Flair making a cameo appearance.\nBasic Instinct featuring Stacy Keibler playing the role of Sharon Stone, along with Chris Benoit, Chris Jericho, and Christian playing the roles of the interrogators, with The Fabulous Moolah and Mae Young making a cameo appearance.\nPulp Fiction featuring Eddie Guerrero and Booker T playing the roles of John Travolta and Samuel L. Jackson.\nA Few Good Men featuring John Cena and John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield playing the roles of Tom Cruise and Jack Nicholson, with Jonathan Coachman making a cameo appearance.\nDirty Harry featuring The Undertaker playing the role of Clint Eastwood.\nWhen Harry Met Sally... featuring Kurt Angle and Christy Hemme playing the roles of Billy Crystal and Meg Ryan, with Linda McMahon making a cameo appearance.\nTaxi Driver featuring Heidenreich, Batista, Shawn Michaels, Rey Mysterio Jr., Shelton Benjamin, Doug Basham, Danny Basham, Big Show, Candice Michelle, Carlito, Tajiri, Orlando Jordan, Joy Giovanni, Gene Snitsky, Paul London, Tazz, Chavo Guerrero Jr., Hardcore Holly, Molly Holly, and Michael Cole, performing their unique versions of Robert De Niro's \"You talkin' to me?\" line.\nGladiator with Stone Cold Steve Austin playing the role of Russell Crowe, airing as part of the opening video for the event.\nCelebrity guests in attendance for WrestleMania 21 included David Arquette, Motörhead, Adam Sandler, Rob Schneider, Billy Gibbons from ZZ Top, The Black Eyed Peas, Billy Corgan from The Smashing Pumpkins, Anthony Kiedis from Red Hot Chili Peppers, Ice Cube, Carmen Electra, Sylvester Stallone, Marg Helgenberger, Matt Groening, Rick Rubin, Will Sasso, and Macaulay Culkin.\n\nStorylines\nAt New Year's Revolution on January 9, Triple H won an Elimination Chamber match to win the vacant World Heavyweight Championship by last eliminating Randy Orton following outside interference from Evolution members Batista and Ric Flair. Three weeks later at the Royal Rumble, Triple H successfully defended the title against Orton while Batista won the 2005 Royal Rumble match, earning the right to compete in the main event of WrestleMania 21 against the champion of his choice. On the February 7 episode of Raw, Triple H defeated Edge to retain the World Heavyweight Championship due to Batista's interference. Afterward, as Batista raised Triple H's hand and his championship, Batista got a close look at the World Heavyweight Championship, then stared Triple H down, looking as if he was thinking about challenging Triple H for the title. In an attempt to persuade Batista to challenge WWE Champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) rather than him at WrestleMania, Triple H concocted a scheme to have Batista run over by a limousine resembling the one used by JBL. Initially, Batista did not want help from Evolution and wanted to confront JBL by himself. Triple H insisted that Evolution accompany Batista anyway, saving him from the oncoming limousine. Batista became aware of the plot while eavesdropping on his fellow Evolution members and signed a contract guaranteeing him a match with Triple H at WrestleMania, thus leaving Evolution and officially turning him face. Batista pretended to sign with the SmackDown! brand, giving Triple H and Flair the \"thumbs up\", but turned it into a \"thumbs down\" (alluding to the way Randy Orton was kicked out of Evolution after becoming World Heavyweight Champion at SummerSlam 2004) before attacking the pair. This led to Batista's departure from the stable.\nAt No Way Out, John Cena defeated Kurt Angle to earn a spot in the SmackDown! main event at WrestleMania. During the latter event, John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) successfully defended the WWE Championship against the Big Show in a Barbed Wire Steel Cage Match. As a result of Cena's win, he began a feud with JBL and his Cabinet. On the February 24 edition of SmackDown!, JBL was hosting a party as a celebration in honor of his win. Before the party could get started, however, Big Show came out and interrupted the celebration and attacked JBL and the Cabinet. Soon after, Cena came down and smashed the portrait over JBL's head. Later that night, Cena and Big Show defeated JBL and Orlando Jordan. The following week, JBL cut a promo on Cena, and insulted him, while Cena defended his WWE United States Championship against Jordan. Jordan won the match and the United States Championship after the Basham Brothers distracted the referee, and JBL hit Cena with the WWE Championship belt. JBL then destroyed Cena's customized United States Championship belt and replaced it with the original one. Later that night, Cena brought a steel lead pipe to the ring with him and ordered JBL to come out to the ring and fight him, only to have the SmackDown! General Manager, Theodore Long make his way to the ring and inform Cena that he had to wait until WrestleMania to get his hands on JBL. Cena then gave the ultimatum for Long to be part of a solution or part of the problem. Cena then stated, \"Since you're not going to bring JBL out here, then you're part of the problem.\" Cena then nailed Long with an FU and was thrown out of the arena. During JBL's match that night, Cena returned and attacked The Cabinet. The next week, Long announced that if Cena laid a hand on JBL, apart from in matches, he would lose his WrestleMania match. In a Six-Man Tag Team match that night, Cena and the WWE Tag Team Champions, Eddie Guerrero and Rey Mysterio defeated JBL and the Basham Brothers, but Cena had to stop himself from attacking JBL after the bell had rung. On the March 24 edition of SmackDown!, Long clarified that if JBL physically provoked Cena, then Cena could retaliate. Cena then attempted to provoke JBL, by vandalizing his limousine, cutting off his tie, pouring water into his hat and spray painting \"FU\" on his shirt. On the last SmackDown! before WrestleMania, however, JBL interrupted Cena's match against Carlito and had Cena arrested for vandalism. Once Cena was handcuffed, JBL nailed him with a low blow and ended the show by mocking Cena with his signature \"you can't see me\" taunt.\nAt the Royal Rumble, two months before WrestleMania, SmackDown! superstar Kurt Angle relentlessly attacked Raw superstar Shawn Michaels after Michaels had eliminated him from the Royal Rumble match. The next month at No Way Out, Angle lost a number one contenders match to John Cena, losing a spot in the SmackDown! main event at WrestleMania. The next night on Raw, Michaels told SmackDown! General Manager Theodore Long to inform Angle that he had challenged him to a match at WrestleMania. On the February 28 edition of Raw, after Michaels defeated Edge in a Street Fight, Angle attacked Michaels and accepted his challenge. On the next edition of SmackDown!, Michaels ambushed Angle in the ring, and the two of them brawled, until security broke it up. Angle claimed that he was better than Michaels, and said he would prove it by achieving everything that Michaels had, but doing it faster. He then won a ladder match, mocking Michaels' match from WrestleMania X. He then challenged Marty Jannetty, Michaels former tag team partner to a match. He won after Jannetty tapped out. Angle also persuaded Michaels' former manager, Sensational Sherri to do a spoof of Michaels' theme song, \"Sexy Boy\", calling his version \"Sexy Kurt\". Michaels, however, interrupted and played a video highlighting all his accomplishments. When Sherri got emotional from watching the video, Angle put her in the Ankle Lock. Angle also interfered in Michaels' match against Muhammad Hassan on the last edition of Raw before the pay-per-view, which resulted in Michaels defeating Hassan by disqualification.\n\nThe other interpromotional match on the card was between Randy Orton and The Undertaker, with Orton representing Raw and Undertaker representing SmackDown!. The feud first started on the March 7 edition of Raw when Orton challenged Undertaker to a match at WrestleMania billed as \"Legend vs. Legend Killer\" match. Orton had been inspired by Superstar Billy Graham, who encouraged him to \"go where no wrestler has gone before\". Three days later on SmackDown!, Undertaker accepted Orton's challenge. On the March 14 episode of Raw, during Chris Jericho's \"Highlight Reel\" segment, Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts, attempted to give Orton advice about his match with Undertaker at WrestleMania, but received an RKO by Orton when Orton was not cooperating. On March 17, a contract signing for the match was scheduled to take place, and was attended by the SmackDown! General Manager, Theodore Long, and Raw General Manager, Eric Bischoff. The Undertaker immediately signed the contract; however, before Orton signed the contract, he cut a promo on the Undertaker, stating that he has nothing but respect for him and then claimed that the legend of the Undertaker will become a myth when his 12–0 undefeated streak at WrestleMania, would soon be 12–1. Afterwards, he then slapped the Undertaker. Orton fled the ring after the Undertaker began to fill the arena with smoke, and didn't sign the contract. The next week on Raw, Orton claimed that his confidence was at an all-time high, despite what happened on SmackDown! the week before. Shortly thereafter, Orton turned heel and furthered his Legend Killer gimmick by performing an RKO on Stacy Keibler, who was his girlfriend at the time. Orton taunted the Undertaker for the next couple weeks, but the Undertaker responded with taunts of his own, as he attacked other superstars. On the final SmackDown! before WrestleMania, Orton's father, \"Cowboy\" Bob Orton, begged the Undertaker to have mercy on Orton. It ultimately proved to be a set-up, however, as Orton attacked the Undertaker and performed an RKO on him just to show an example of what could happen at WrestleMania when he faces the Undertaker.\nAnother match on the card was the Money in the Bank ladder match between Chris Jericho, Christian, Chris Benoit, Edge, Kane, and Shelton Benjamin. The idea for the Money in the Bank match was introduced by Jericho who proposed a six-man ladder match, for the event in which the winner would receive a contract for a World title match at the place and time of his choosing. Raw General Manager, Eric Bischoff, booked the match at WrestleMania 21 soon after. According to Jericho, the first idea was a submission match between Edge, Jericho and Benoit and a ladder match between the other wrestlers.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nBefore the event went live on pay-per-view, a dark match was held. It was exclusive on DVD releases, not on Sunday Night Heat. A 30-man interpromotional Battle Royal, which featured: Booker T, Paul London, Heidenreich, Spike Dudley, Nunzio, Funaki, Doug Basham, Danny Basham, Orlando Jordan, Mark Jindrak, Luther Reigns, Scotty 2 Hotty, Hardcore Holly, Charlie Haas, Billy Kidman, and Akio from SmackDown and Simon Dean, William Regal, Tajiri, Rob Conway, Sylvain Grenier, Snitsky, The Hurricane, Rosey, Chris Masters, Viscera, Rhyno, Val Venis, Tyson Tomko, and Maven from Raw. Booker T last eliminated Chris Masters to win the Battle Royal.\nLilian Garcia performed \"America the Beautiful\" at the beginning of the event.\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe first televised match was between Rey Mysterio and Eddie Guerrero. At the beginning of the match, Mysterio jumped over the top rope, knocking Guerrero down. Mysterio also attempted another aerial attack but was countered by Guerrero into a Powerbomb. Guerrero performed the Three Amigos on Mysterio and attempted a Frog splash but was unsuccessful. Following a Hurricanrana on Guerrero, Mysterio pinned Guerrero to win. After the match, both men shook hands in the ring.\nJohn \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) and Orlando Jordan were then shown backstage discussing JBL's match against John Cena. Triple H and Ric Flair walked by as Triple H mocked JBL. JBL retaliated by advising Triple H to worry about losing the World Heavyweight Championship to Batista and assured him that Cena would be unsuccessful at defeating JBL for the WWE Championship. Triple H responded that only the end of the night would reveal who would still be champion.\nThe match that followed was the first Money in the Bank ladder match which featured Chris Jericho, Chris Benoit, Shelton Benjamin, Edge, Kane, and Christian with Tyson Tomko at ringside. The match contained many notable moments, including points where Jericho, Christian, Benjamin, and Kane all jumped over the top rope to the outside of the ring to knock down multiple opponents. Another moment included Benjamin executing a T-Bone Suplex on Edge off a ladder and later using an inclined ladder as a ramp to run up and perform a Clothesline on Jericho. Benoit also executed a Diving headbutt off a ladder onto Kane. In the conclusion of the match, Benoit climbed a ladder to attempt to retrieve the Money in the Bank briefcase but was stopped by Kane, who had also climbed the ladder. Benoit used repeated headbutts to knock Kane to the floor and attempted to retrieve the briefcase once more but was knocked down by Edge, who struck him with a steel chair. Edge then climbed the ladder and successfully retrieved the briefcase to win the match.\nIn an interlude, Eugene came down to the ring and shared his excitement about being at his first WrestleMania with the crowd in attendance. While attempting to recall his favorite WrestleMania moments, Muhammad Hassan and Daivari interrupted him, with Hassan expressing his outrage for not being included in a match for the event. Hassan concluded that since he wasn't scheduled to compete at the event and was therefore denied the opportunity to experience his own WrestleMania \"moment\", he would have to create a \"moment\" of his own. Following this remark, Hassan and Daivari began to assault Eugene. With Eugene placed into a Camel clutch while Daivari verbally attacked him, Hulk Hogan came down to the ring, knocking Hassan and Daivari out of the ring. Hogan celebrated by posing in the ring for the crowd.\nThe third match featured The Undertaker and Randy Orton. Bob Orton Jr., Randy's father, interfered and attacked Undertaker with his arm cast, resulting in Orton gaining control of the match. Undertaker attempted to chokeslam Orton, but Orton countered the maneuver with an RKO for a near-fall. Orton then attempted a Tombstone piledriver on Undertaker but it was reversed by Undertaker into a Tombstone of his own to win the match and continued his undefeated streak at WrestleMania with a 13–0 record.\nThe next match was for the WWE Women's Championship, an encounter between Trish Stratus and Christy Hemme with Lita at ringside. Stratus controlled most of the match though Hemme attempted many pinning maneuvers that were unsuccessful. Hemme then executed a Twist of Fate on Stratus for a near-fall. After a roll-up attempt by both Stratus and Hemme, Stratus performed a Chick kick to win the match and retain the WWE Women's Championship.\nThe fifth match was the encounter of Shawn Michaels and Kurt Angle. The beginning of the match saw back-and-forth action between the two. Mid-way in the match, Michaels hit Angle with a low blow, after he countered a suplex from Angle. Following the low blow, which was not seen by the referee, Michaels leapfrogged from the ring and laid out Angle on a broadcast table. Angle would then gain control of the match, as he would force Michaels to submit to the Ankle Lock to win the match. After the match, Shawn Michaels was given a standing ovation from the audience.\n\"Rowdy\" Roddy Piper confronted \"Stone Cold\" Steve Austin in Piper's Pit until Carlito interrupted and insulted them. Carlito received a Stone Cold Stunner from Austin and Piper threw him out of the ring. Both ended the segment celebrating with beer until Austin gave Piper a Stone Cold Stunner.\nThe next match was between Akebono and Big Show in a Sumo match. The match was a little over a minute and Akebono won the match after he threw Big Show out of the ring.\nThe next match was John Cena versus John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) for the WWE Championship. JBL controlled most of the bout. Cena won the match after ducking a Clothesline from Hell attempt and executing an FU to win the title.\n\nMain event\nThe main event was Triple H defending his World Heavyweight Championship against Batista. Triple H entered to \"The Game\" performed live by Motörhead. The action was back and forth, with neither man in control for very long periods. While the referee was down, Triple H attacked Batista with a low blow and the title belt for a near fall. In the climax, Batista would pin Triple H after a Batista Bomb to win the match and title.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania 21 received universally positive reviews from critics and fans. However, critics noted the matches for the WWE Championship and World Heavyweight Championship were disappointing compared to the rest of the card. John Powell of Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section noted that \"The changing of the guard that many people expected came with a whimper instead of a bang. In a total reversal from last year's show – where a largely mundane card was saved by the emotional title victories of Chris Benoit and Eddie Guerrero – this year's elevation of rising stars John Cena and Dave Batista had no such drama. Unable to live up to the high standards set by the Undertaker-Randy Orton and Shawn Michaels-Kurt Angle bouts, the \"main events\" offered the worst kind of anticlimax and would have been right at home buried in the middle of the card.\" He rated the entire event 7 out of 10 stars, which has a higher rating than the previous year's event. The main event between Batista and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship was rated 6 out of 10 stars, the match between John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield and John Cena was rated 5 out of 10 stars, the match between Kurt Angle and Shawn Michaels received the highest rating of 9 out of 10 stars, the match between The Undertaker and Randy Orton and The Money in the Bank ladder match were rated 8 out of 10 stars. Robert Leighty Jr of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 7.0 out of 10.0 noted that \"If the two Title matches would have delivered this would have gone down as one of the greatest WrestleMania's ever, but they didn't and that left a flat ending to the show. Everything up to Shawn/Angle is fantastic and things kind of close with a whimper. Still, this is a historic show as it cemented the rise of Batista/Cena/Orton as Main Event players. It also has two great matches with Shawn/Angle and Money in the Bank. Definitely a good WrestleMania, but it could have been much more.\" J.D. Dunn of 411mania response towards WrestleMania 21 was also positive. He stated that \"this was on its way to being every bit as good as last year's Mania\" but like most of the other critics who thought the main events were disappointing also said that \"then it hit a wall in the last 90 minutes.\" He later stated that \"If this were a regular PPV with the Michaels vs. Angle match being the main event, this would be one of the greatest PPV's ever. Unfortunately, it drags on after that and limps to a finish.\" Although he praised the booking of the event saying that, \"they made all the right moves booking-wise, so while the matches weren't great, they still have a certain historic value.\" \nThe match between Kurt Angle and Shawn Michaels would go on to win the 2005 Pro Wrestling Illustrated match of the year award. In 2019 WWE named it the fifth best WrestleMania match of all time. Dave Meltzer gave the match 4 and 3/4 stars out of 5. Angle himself has called it \"the greatest match of all time.\"\nThe Sumo match between the Big Show and Akebono was universally panned with Dave Meltzer giving it no stars, and it has frequently topped lists for worst WrestleMania matches and worst matches in overall. Reflecting on the match in 2018, Big Show said that he believed it was the \"most embarrassing moment in wrestling.\" \nFor the Staples Center's 10th anniversary in 2009, WrestleMania 21 was ranked number 7 on the list of greatest moments in the venue's history as voted by fans.\n\nAftermath\nBatista and Triple H's feud would continue to Backlash where Batista and Triple H had a rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship. Batista won the match after a Batista Bomb. Following that, the two concluded their storyline at Vengeance where Batista scored the third and final win over his former mentor inside Hell in a Cell. Shortly thereafter, Batista was drafted to the SmackDown! brand, ending their feud and taking the title with him to his new brand, while Triple H went on hiatus. 14 years later, at WrestleMania 35, Triple H (as a face) would defeat Batista (as a heel) in a No Holds Barred match with Triple H's career on the line, which also was's Batista's last match as an in ring competitor as he would retire shortly after.\nJohn Cena and JBL continued to feud until Judgment Day, where they faced off in an \"I Quit\" match for the WWE Championship, which Cena won. Shortly after, Cena was drafted to Raw, ending their feud and taking the title with him.\nEdge would hold on to his Money in the Bank briefcase until the following year at New Year's Revolution, where he cashed in the briefcase on John Cena after Cena just competed in an Elimination Chamber match, to retain his WWE Championship.\nShawn Michaels and Kurt Angle would continue their feud and face off again at Vengeance with Michaels picking up the win.\n\nResults\nWWE Championship #1 Contender's Tournament\nThe tournament to determine the number one contender for the WWE Championship match at WrestleMania 21 was held between February 1 and February 20, 2005. At WrestleMania 21, John Cena defeated John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield to become the new champion. The tournament brackets were:\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania 21",
"title": "WrestleMania_21"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania 22 was the 22nd annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions. The event took place on April 2, 2006, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois.\nThere were two main events, which were the main matches for each brand. The final match, which was the main match from the Raw brand, was John Cena versus Triple H for the WWE Championship, which Cena won after forcing Triple H to submit to the STFU. The predominant match on the SmackDown! brand was a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between champion Kurt Angle, Rey Mysterio, and Randy Orton. Mysterio won the match and the World Heavyweight Championship after pinning Orton following a 619 and a West Coast Pop—during Mysterio's reign, the championship was simply called the World Championship due to Mysterio not being a heavyweight wrestler.\nFeatured matches on the undercard included a No Holds Barred match between Shawn Michaels and Vince McMahon, a Casket match between The Undertaker and Mark Henry, a WWE Women's Championship match between Mickie James and Trish Stratus, and an interpromotional Money in the Bank ladder match featuring Bobby Lashley, Finlay, Matt Hardy, Ric Flair, Shelton Benjamin and Rob Van Dam.\nWrestleMania 22 was the third WrestleMania to take place in the Chicago metropolitan area following WrestleMania 2 (which partially took place in the Chicago metropolitan area as well as Uniondale, NY and Los Angeles, CA) and WrestleMania 13. The Chicago metropolitan area portion of WrestleMania 2 as well as WrestleManias 13 and 22 all emanated from the Rosemont Horizon/Allstate Arena. Coincidentally, all 3 of the aforementioned WrestleManias did not have Roman numerals in their names. Tickets sold out in under two minutes, grossing US$2.5 million for the event, making it the highest grossing one-day event at the Allstate Arena. More than 17,155 people from 16 countries and 43 states attended, with millions more watching in more than 90 countries. WrestleMania 22 also marked the last WrestleMania to be held in a traditional arena, as every subsequent edition, excluding WrestleMania 36, has been held in a stadium.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania 22 was scheduled to be held on April 2, 2006, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. The event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions.\n\nStorylines\nThe main feud heading into WrestleMania on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Triple H over the WWE Championship. After failing to win the Royal Rumble match, Triple H participated in the 2006 Road to WrestleMania Tournament, where the winner would become the number-one contender to the WWE Championship at WrestleMania. In the final match of the tournament, held on the February 20 episode of Raw, Triple H faced Rob Van Dam and Big Show in a triple threat match. Triple H won the match after pinning Van Dam following a Pedigree.\nThe Road to WrestleMania tournament to determine the number one contender for the WWE Championship match at WrestleMania 22 was held between February 6 and February 20, 2006. The tournament brackets were:\n\nNotes:\n^ Due to their double count out in the second round, a triple threat match with Big Show, Rob Van Dam, and Triple H was booked for the final.\nThe predominant feud on the SmackDown! brand was between Kurt Angle, Rey Mysterio, and Randy Orton over the World Heavyweight Championship. Mysterio won the 2006 Royal Rumble match, last eliminating Orton, to earn a world championship match at WrestleMania. At No Way Out, Orton cheated to defeat Mysterio and win his WrestleMania 22 world championship match. Five days later, on the February 24 edition of SmackDown!, SmackDown! General Manager Theodore Long announced that the World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania 22 would be a Triple Threat match involving Mysterio, Orton, and champion Angle.\nAnother primary feud from Raw was between Shawn Michaels and Vince McMahon. On the December 26, 2005, edition of Raw, McMahon and Michaels had words ending with McMahon threatening that he could screw Michaels just like he did Bret Hart anytime he wanted. During the following couple of weeks on Raw, McMahon had inflicted some humiliation on Michaels. On the January 23 edition of Raw when it was between Michaels and Shelton Benjamin with McMahon declaring that if Michaels were to lose, he would also lose his spot in the Royal Rumble match. Michaels won the match and kept his spot in the Royal Rumble match but a few moments later, McMahon met Michaels backstage then stated that lady luck was on his side. He also said that he wanted to turn back the clock to the days of sex, drugs, and rock n' roll then he asked Michaels to join him but got turned down, however, and McMahon last stated that Michaels' luck would run out at the Royal Rumble. At the Royal Rumble, during the Royal Rumble match, McMahon distracted Michaels as his music started to play. During that time, Shane McMahon, who was not an official entrant in the match, eliminated Michaels after attacking him from behind. One month later, on the February 27 edition of Raw, Shane hit Michaels with a steel chair and forced him to \"kiss\" Vince's ass, thus joining Vince's \"Kiss My Ass Club\". Vince then announced that he and Michaels would face off against each other at WrestleMania. On Raw two weeks later, Vince forced Michaels to take a public drug test all due to Michaels being deceived and drugged by Vince's daughter, Stephanie McMahon on the March 6 edition of Raw. During the test, however, Michaels threw his urine on both Vince and Shane. Later that night, Michaels faced off against the Spirit Squad in a Steel Cage match. The Spirit Squad won the match by pinning Michaels after Shane interfered and slammed the cage door on Michaels. After the match, Shane continued attacking Michaels, causing him to bleed in the process, and executed a Coast 2 Coast. At Saturday Night's Main Event XXXII, Michaels faced off against Shane in a Street Fight. Near the end of the match, Shane locked Michaels in the sharpshooter, and Vince ordered the match to end. Vince screwed Michaels, claiming he submitted to the move, and declared Shane the winner via submission. On the March 20 edition of Raw, Vince announced that his match against Michaels at WrestleMania would now be a No Holds Barred match.\n\nOne of the featured matches on the undercard was a Casket match between The Undertaker and Mark Henry. On the March 3 episode of SmackDown!, Undertaker challenged Kurt Angle for the World Heavyweight Championship. During the match, after Undertaker executed a Tombstone piledriver, Henry came out and attacked Undertaker, causing the match to end via disqualification. Undertaker won the match, but since a championship cannot change hands via countout or disqualification, he did not win the title. The following week, on SmackDown!, Undertaker challenged Henry to a casket match at WrestleMania. On the March 18 edition of Saturday Night's Main Event XXXII, Henry, along with his manager Daivari, called out The Undertaker. Undertaker came out, accompanied by Druids carrying a casket, and the two started attacking each other. Shortly after, Undertaker performed a chokeslam, followed by a Tombstone piledriver, on Daivari on the casket.\n\nOne of the main matches on the undercard was a singles match between Mickie James and Trish Stratus for the WWE Women's Championship. James debuted in WWE on the October 10, 2005, episode of Raw coming to the aid of then Women's Champion Stratus from an attack from Victoria. She wrestled under the gimmick of Stratus' biggest fan. The two competed in tag team action together frequently where James was becoming extremely obsessed with Stratus. James became the number one contender for the Women's Championship on the December 12 episode of Raw by defeating Victoria in a match to determine who would face Stratus at New Year's Revolution. She was unable to win the title at New Year's Revolution. The storyline between James and Stratus developed into a lesbian angle after James initiated an intimate kiss with Stratus under the mistletoe and complimented on the size of her breasts. At the Royal Rumble James confessed to Stratus that she loved her. It finally became too much for Stratus as she then told James that they needed time apart. The two teamed together at Saturday Night's Main Event XXXII to defeat the team of Victoria and Candice Michelle. After the match, James honored Stratus' wish to have time apart, but later attempted to kiss her, and attacked Stratus after she refused.\nThe secondary Divas feud entering the event was between Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle. Torrie and Candice became villains when they were traded to the Raw roster on August 22, 2005, and later aligned with Victoria to form the stable known as Vince's Devils. On the February 27, 2006, edition of Raw, Candice failed to defeat Trish Stratus in a match for Stratus' WWE Women's Championship, and slapped Torrie in a backstage segment after the match; showing signs of tension between the two. On the following week's edition of Raw, the evil Candice unveiled her Playboy cover and then attempted to force Torrie to admit that her cover was hotter than both of Torrie's Playboy covers. When Torrie refused, Candice and Victoria both attacked her in the ring, resulting in a face turn from Torrie. It was later announced that Torrie and Candice would face each other in a Playboy Pillow Fight at WrestleMania 22.\n\nEvent\nBefore the event went live on pay-per-view, an 18-man interpromotional battle royal was held. Viscera won by last eliminating Snitsky. Destiny's Child member Michelle Williams sang \"America the Beautiful\" before the show.\nThe opening match was for the World Tag Team Championship between champions Big Show and Kane and Carlito and Chris Masters. Kane executed a big boot on Masters that started with Masters trying to interrupt a choke slam, then chokeslammed Carlito to get the victory and retain the titles.\nThe second match was the Money in the Bank ladder match between Rob Van Dam, Shelton Benjamin, Ric Flair, Finlay, Bobby Lashley, and Matt Hardy. In the end, Van Dam climbed the ladder but was stopped when Benjamin springboarded onto the ladder and the two fought. Hardy came out with a second ladder and joined the two. Van Dam pushed Hardy and Benjamin's ladder, sending them both smashing on the floor. Van Dam grabbed the briefcase and won the match.\nHoward Finkel introduced the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2006: \"Mean\" Gene Okerlund, \"Sensational\" Sherri Martel, Tony Atlas, Verne Gagne, William \"The Refrigerator\" Perry, and The Blackjacks (Blackjack Mulligan and Blackjack Lanza) attended the event while Eddie Guerrero was represented by his wife Vickie Guerrero and Eddie's nephew Chavo Guerrero Jr. Bret Hart did not attend the event as he was not comfortable.\nThe third match was between John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield and Chris Benoit for the WWE United States Championship. During JBL's entrance, the entrance ramp was raised and JBL's limousine drove out from underneath. JBL attempted a Clothesline From Hell on Benoit, who avoided the move and applied in the Crippler Crossface. JBL countered and used the ropes for leverage to win the match.\nThe fourth match was a hardcore match between Edge and Mick Foley. In the end, Foley pulled out a table but Lita hit Foley in between the legs with a barbed wire bat and lit the table, allowing Edge to perform a Spear on Foley through the flaming table on the outside for the victory. Both wrestlers had abrasions and were covered in blood from the barbed wire bat and Foley's barbed wire sock; Edge went into shock after the match.\nNext, Booker T and Sharmell faced The Boogeyman in a handicap match. During the match, Boogeyman kissed Sharmell with a mouth full of worms, causing her to flee to the back. Boogeyman executed a Falling Chokebomb on Booker for the victory.\nThe sixth match was a Divas match between Trish Stratus and Mickie James for the WWE Women's Championship. Mickie executed a Mick Kick on Trish to win the match and the WWE Women's Championship. Despite portraying a psychotic heel, Mickie James was audibly cheered by the crowd during the match.\n\nNext, The Undertaker faced Mark Henry in a casket match. Undertaker took the advantage and executed a Last Ride on Henry. While Henry was out of the ring, Undertaker executed a suicide dive over the top rope. Undertaker then performed a Tombstone Piledriver on Henry and pushed him into the casket to win the match and improve his WrestleMania record to 14–0.\nThe eighth match was a No Holds Barred match between Shawn Michaels and Vince McMahon. Michaels put McMahon on a table and put a trashcan over McMahon's head. Michaels then climbed on the top of a ladder and executed a diving elbow drop on McMahon through the table. Michaels then executed Sweet Chin Music on McMahon to win the match.\n\nNext, Kurt Angle defended his World Heavyweight Championship against Rey Mysterio and Randy Orton in a triple threat match. During Mysterio's entrance, P.O.D. performed Mysterio's music entrance live. In the end, Mysterio performed a 619 on Orton followed by a West Coast Pop to win the title. After the match, Mysterio celebrated with Chavo and Vickie Guerrero.\nThe tenth match was a Playboy pillow fight between Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle. Wilson pulled Candice's dress and Candice later pulled Wilson's dress. The match ended with Wilson pinning Candice with a roll-up for the win.\nIn the main event, John Cena defended his WWE Championship against Triple H. Triple H came out to the ring on a throne dressed as a Conan-type king, while Cena came out with a tommy gun and was accompanied by a group of \"gangsters\" (one of which was future WWE Champion and Chicago native CM Punk, who had recently signed with WWE and, at the time, was performing with Ohio Valley Wrestling,) in a 1940s Chicago-era vehicle. The match was evenly matched with both men getting the advantage over each other. Triple H tried a Pedigree, but Cena countered with an FU for a near-fall. Cena applied the STFU but Triple H reached the ropes. Triple H tried another Pedigree, but was countered into the STF again by Cena, to which Triple H submitted, meaning Cena retained the WWE Championship.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania 22 was largely praised by various wrestling publications and websites. Writing for Canadian Online Explorer's Slam! Sports vertical, Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk stated that \"With more wrestling, fewer interviews, and more pageantry than the last several editions, this year's 'Mania had a \"Big Time\" feel to it\". He rated the overall event 8 out of 10 stars, which was a higher rating than the previous year's event. The main event between Triple H and John Cena for the WWE Championship was rated 8.5 out of 10 stars, the Triple Threat Match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Kurt Angle, Rey Mysterio and Randy Orton was rated 8.5 out of 10 stars, the No Holds Barred match between Shawn Michaels and Vince McMahon received a perfect 10 out of 10 stars, the Casket match between Mark Henry and The Undertaker was rated 7 out of 10 stars, the Hardcore match between Edge and Mick Foley was rated 8.5 out of 10 stars and the Money in the Bank ladder match was rated 7 out of 10 stars. Robert Leighty Jr of 411mania gave the event an overall score of 8.0 out of 10.0 commented on how \"This is a pretty solid show as both title matches deliver in one aspect or another. Shawn tries to steal the show again, but Edge and Foley take that honor in a crazy-ass brawl. This was the last Mania held in an arena and it's a fun atmosphere because of the jacked-up crowd. Throw in another solid Money in the Bank Match, and a memorable Women's Title match, and you have a fun show all around!\"\nOver the years, WrestleMania 22 became regarded as one of the better WrestleManias in its history. In their 2018 ranking of every WrestleMania from worst to best, Cultaholic placed WrestleMania 22 as the fifth best of all time. In their YouTube video explaining their rankings, presenter Adam Pacitti stated that \"fans who attended to this 'Mania were treated to a quadruple-header of wonderful matches,\" praising the main event between Triple H and Cena as well as the hardcore match between Edge and Foley, the Michaels beatdown of McMahon, and the WWE Women's Championship match between Mickie James and Trish Stratus (\"the first good women's match in 'Mania history...intense, controversial, and, most importantly, entertaining\"). John Canton of TJR Wrestling Reviews praised the entire event, and called Edge vs. Mick Foley the best match of the show. To date Edge spearing Mick Foley into a flaming table remains one of the most iconic and memorable moments in pro wrestling history. The match itself has been highly regarded in recent years and was a subject of the WWE's Untold Series on the WWE Network and NBC's Peacock.\n\nAftermath\nThe next night on Raw, Triple H said to John Cena that he lost at WrestleMania 22 because he underestimated the champ. Edge then came out and said to Triple H that he deserved another WWE Championship match because he defeated Mick Foley in a Hardcore match. Over the next few weeks, all three men faced each other in Handicap matches, which all three men won over the three-week period by pinning and making each other submit, respectively. It was then announced that the main event at Backlash would be a Triple Threat Match for the WWE Championship between Cena, Edge and Triple H. At Backlash, Cena won the match and retained the WWE Championship via pinfall on Triple H with a jackknife roll-up, but after the match, Triple H attacked Cena, Edge and the referee with a sledgehammer.\nAfter WrestleMania, Shawn Michaels continued to feud with Vince McMahon. At Backlash, Michaels teamed up with \"God\" to face Vince and Shane McMahon. At Backlash, Michaels suffered a loss when the Spirit Squad interfered on behalf of The McMahons. Triple H became involved in the feud as well, initially on Vince and Shane's side, but on May 22, 2006, he attacked the Spirit Squad after being ordered to the ring by McMahon to \"finish off\" Michaels. On the June 12, 2006, edition of Raw, Vince announced that Triple H would face the Spirit Squad in a 5 on 1 Handicap Gauntlet match. Vince called Mitch out last, as throughout the match he had called out the other four members one-by-one, instead Mitch was thrown out from the curtain by Michaels. Michaels ran down the ramp and started attacking the Spirit Squad with Triple H, marking the return of D-Generation X (D-X). At Vengeance, D-X faced the Spirit Squad in a 5 on 2 Handicap match, which D-X won after both Michaels and Triple H pinned Kenny and Mikey, respectively.\nMickie James continued to feud with Trish Stratus. At Backlash, Stratus won the match by disqualification, legitimately dislocating her shoulder in the process. Due to regulations by the WWE, a title cannot change hands via disqualification. As a result, James was still champion. Whilst injured, Stratus still appeared on-screen and during the storyline, Beth Phoenix made her debut as Stratus' ally, claiming that James had wronged Phoenix in the past. She returned to the ring on the June 26 episode of Raw, where she cleanly lost a Women's Championship match against James, thus ending the feud.\nRey Mysterio went on to feud with John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) over the World Heavyweight Championship. On the May 5 edition of SmackDown!, after Mysterio expressed his feelings about being World Heavyweight Champion, JBL came out and declared himself the number one contender. Mysterio reacted by saying that he would fight anyone at any time. In turn, JBL announced that Mysterio would face off against Mark Henry later that night. Henry won the match via pinfall. The next week on SmackDown!, JBL announced that Mysterio would take on The Great Khali. Khali won the match via pinfall. At Judgment Day, Mysterio defeated JBL by pinfall after performing a Frog Splash. After the pay-per view, the feud ended between the two when JBL's rematch against Mysterio turned into his last match if he failed to win the World Championship.\nThe next night on Raw, saw the return of Jamal, who last appeared on WWE programming in 2003 and going by the name of Umaga, as he attacked Ric Flair. The two would go on to wrestle at Backlash. Umaga's run would saw him winning the Intercontinental Championship and lasted until June 2009; he would later pass away in December at the age of 36 after a heart attack.\nThe Undertaker's feud with Mark Henry would come to an end after the two-faced off on SmackDown!, only to be interrupted by the debuting The Great Khali who attacked The Undertaker.\nRob Van Dam would announce that he would cash in his Money in the Bank against John Cena at ECW One Night Stand. Van Dam would go on to win the match capturing his first WWE Championship.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania 22",
"title": "WrestleMania_22"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania 23 was the 23rd annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW brand divisions. The event took place on April 1, 2007, at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. It was the second WrestleMania to take place in the Detroit metropolitan area (following WrestleMania III, which was held at the Pontiac Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan). It was also the first WrestleMania to feature the ECW brand following its establishment as WWE's third brand in May 2006. It is the highest grossing PPV event in professional wrestling history. \nEight professional wrestling matches were scheduled for the event, which featured a supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. The main event of the show, which was the main match on the Raw brand, was John Cena versus Shawn Michaels for the WWE Championship, in which Cena won. The predominant match on the SmackDown! brand was Batista versus The Undertaker for the World Heavyweight Championship, in which The Undertaker was victorious. The primary match on the ECW brand saw ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley (representing Donald Trump) defeat Raw's Intercontinental Champion Umaga (representing Vince McMahon) in a match where either Trump or McMahon would be shaved bald if their wrestler lost. The match was billed as the \"Battle of the Billionaires\". Other featured matches included an eight-man tag team match between The ECW Originals and The New Breed and an eight-man interpromotional Money in the Bank ladder match.\nTickets for the event went on sale on November 11, 2006. The event set the all-time Ford Field attendance record of 80,103 people; people from all fifty U.S. states, twenty-four countries, and nine Canadian provinces attended the event. WrestleMania 23 grossed $5.38 million in ticket sales, breaking the previous record of $3.9 million held by WrestleMania X8. WWE estimated that $25 million was pumped into the Detroit economy. With about 1.2 million buys, the event, at the time, was the most bought WWE pay-per-view in history. 2012's WrestleMania XXVIII surpassed the event as the most bought WWE pay-per-view, receiving 1.21 million buys. WrestleMania 23 was also the fifth highest attended WrestleMania in history behind only WrestleMania 29 (which drew 80,676 fans), WrestleMania 35 (which drew 82,265 fans) WrestleMania III (which drew 93,173 fans), and WrestleMania 32 (which drew 101,763 fans).\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania 23 was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2007, at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. The event featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW brands. It was the first to feature ECW, a relaunch of the former Extreme Championship Wrestling promotion that became a WWE brand in June 2006, subsequently also being the first to feature the ECW World Championship (although it was not defended at this event as the champion competed in a non-title match).\n\nThe set design for WrestleMania 23 began development in October 2006 after WWE set designer, Jason Robinson, first received the final logo for the event. Robinson and his team first surveyed Ford Field in July 2006 and began planning out the staging and lighting designs. After returning to the stadium in January 2007 for more site surveying, Robinson and his team finalized the set's design in February. The final design resulted in WrestleMania 23 having the largest set ever built for a WrestleMania event. It incorporated 414 LED video screens and automated lights, 10 spotlights, 56 searchlights, 50,000 ft of cable for pyrotechnics and other use, and 35 stage flamethrowers used to produce 30 ft high and 6 ft wide flames, all which gave the set a unique look for each performer's entrance and an expanded stage lighting element of 300 ft in width and 100 ft in height using the specialized stage lighting instruments. The ramp used to reach the ring from the entrance set was 187 ft in length.\nThough it took three weeks to fully prepare Ford Field, set assembly began the week before WrestleMania 23 and was completed shortly before the day of the event. It took a week for 300 staff members, unloading and working from forty semi-trucks, to build the set and assemble the event's lighting within Ford Field, far more than the usual forty hours, 100 staff members, and fourteen semi-trucks required for the production of WWE's weekly television events. After the event concluded, it took around thirty hours to disassemble the set and lighting, also far more than the usual three hours required for WWE's weekly television events.\n\nStorylines\nWrestleMania 23 featured professional wrestling matches involving wrestlers from existing scripted feuds and storylines played out on WWE's television programs. Wrestlers portrayed faces (heroes) or heels (villains) as they followed a series of events that built tension and culminated in a match or a series of matches.\n\nThe main staged rivalry heading into WrestleMania 23 was between WWE Chairman Vince McMahon and future 45th President of the United States Donald Trump. On the January 8 episode of Raw, Trump faced off against his real-life rival, Rosie O'Donnell. Trump won the contest, although local wrestlers portrayed Trump and O'Donnell. During McMahon's \"Fan Appreciation Night\" on the January 29 episode of Raw, Trump interrupted and dropped large sums of money into the arena. The following month, the two came up with a match for WrestleMania, where the stipulations for the match were that they each had to choose a representative to wrestle for them and the loser would have his head shaved bald. This match was then billed as the \"Battle of the Billionaires\". McMahon picked Umaga as his representative, while Trump picked Bobby Lashley. After successfully defending his ECW World Championship against Hardcore Holly in a Steel Cage match, a match in which the ring is surrounded by a steel cage on an edition of ECW on Sci Fi, Lashley charged at the cage, slammed through it, and landed atop of Umaga, who was at ringside. On the March 5 edition of Raw, Steve Austin was appointed as special guest referee for the \"Battle of the Billionaires\" match at WrestleMania 23. On the March 26 edition of Raw, McMahon faced off against Lashley in a No Disqualification match. In the match, several people interfered on McMahon's behalf, including Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch, Chris Masters, Johnny Nitro, and Umaga. This interference allowed McMahon to win the bout.\nThe main rivalry on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Shawn Michaels over the WWE Championship. After The Undertaker, the winner of the 2007 Royal Rumble match, made his decision to face Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania, a match to determine the next challenger to the WWE Championship was announced. Michaels defeated Randy Orton and Edge in a Triple Threat match to win a chance to face Cena at WrestleMania. On an edition of Raw, Orton and Edge, who were tag team partners as Rated-RKO, attempted to attack Cena, but Michaels ran-in and attacked them with steel chairs. Before a scheduled tag team match between Rated-RKO and Cena and Michaels, Orton played a video that highlighted the past friendships that Michaels was involved in, before turning on the friend. In the match, Michaels nearly superkicked Cena after Orton moved. Due to a later disagreement, Edge left Orton and walked off backstage, which allowed Cena and Michaels to win the match. The following week, Michaels responded to the video set-up by Orton, and made comments regarding Cena.\n\nI will have your back until WrestleMania. I've turned against all my partners and more importantly, I've stabbed all my friends in the back. But with you, John, it's different.\nAfter Michaels defeated Orton, Cena ran-down to the ring and saved Michaels from an attack by Edge and Orton. On the final Raw before WrestleMania, Cena and Michaels would team up to face Batista and The Undertaker in a rematch from their match at No Way Out. Cena and Michaels looked set to win after performing a synchronized Five Knuckle Shuffle, but Michaels turned on Cena and superkicked him, which allowed Batista and The Undertaker to win the match.\nThe main feud on the SmackDown! brand was between Batista and The Undertaker over the World Heavyweight Championship. The Undertaker won the 2007 Royal Rumble match to earn a championship match against any one of WWE's three world championships (WWE, World Heavyweight, or ECW World). On the February 5 episode of Raw, The Undertaker chose to challenge Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship when he chokeslammed him at the center of the ring. In the weeks leading to WrestleMania 23, Batista and The Undertaker partook in tag team matches. At the beginning of the feud, Batista claimed to have great respect for The Undertaker; however, after several attacks by The Undertaker, Batista claimed to have lost all respect for him especially at No Way Out when Batista gained some payback by delivering a Spinebuster to The Undertaker, allowing Raw's WWE Champion, John Cena and Shawn Michaels to deliver their signature moves on The Undertaker for the victory during their inter-promotional WrestleMania 23 tag team main event. On the final Raw before WrestleMania during a rematch between Cena and Michaels against Batista and The Undertaker from No Way Out, The Undertaker walked out of the match in response to Batista attacking him during the first encounter, leaving Batista to fight alone against Cena and Michaels. However, Batista and The Undertaker would end up winning the match after Michaels betrayed Cena by hitting him with a superkick, which allowed Batista to pin Cena for the win.\n\nThe main feud on the ECW brand was between two teams of four; The ECW Originals and The New Breed. The feud mainly revolved around which team was the \"dominant force\" in the revived ECW brand. The two factions of four-faced off in several tag team matches throughout the weeks prior to the event. The New Breed seemed to have dominated for several weeks; however, ECW Originals leader, Rob Van Dam, defeated New Breed leader Elijah Burke in a singles match. ECW Original Tommy Dreamer issued the challenge to the New Breed for an eight-man tag team match at WrestleMania 23, which was accepted by Burke on behalf of The New Breed.\nThe last major feud involved eight men. Several weeks before WrestleMania 23, it was announced that the Money in the Bank ladder match would be held again, as it was in the last two years. This year, however, there would be eight men involved, rather than six the two previous years had. Throughout the weeks leading up to WrestleMania 23, qualifying matches took place on all three shows. On an edition of Raw, Edge, the winner of the match held in 2005, defeated Rob Van Dam, the winner of the match held in 2006, to earn the first spot in the match. The next night on ECW, another cross-brand match took place, with CM Punk defeating Johnny Nitro to qualify. On that week's SmackDown!, King Booker became the third man to qualify, defeating Kane in a Falls Count Anywhere match after The Great Khali interfered. On the next edition of Raw, Jeff Hardy pinned Shelton Benjamin in a match to become the fourth man to qualify. The next night on ECW, Mr. Kennedy defeated Sabu in an Extreme Rules match to earn the fifth spot. On the next SmackDown!, two qualifying matches took place, with Matt Hardy and Finlay winning their respective match to qualify when Matt Hardy defeated Joey Mercury and Finlay defeated WWE US Champion, Chris Benoit & Montel Vontavious Porter in the Triple threat qualification match. The final qualifying match took place on Raw between Carlito and Ric Flair. The match was deemed a no-contest after The Great Khali interfered and attacked both men. The following week, on Raw, Randy Orton defeated Flair and Carlito in an elimination match to become the final man to qualify. After Edge and Orton had split as a team, the two attempted to get the other taken out of the Money in the Bank ladder match. Both men failed, however, as Edge won a \"last chance\" battle royal to retain his spot and Orton won a match on ECW to retain his.\nAt No Way Out, WWE United States Champion Chris Benoit and the Hardy Boyz (Matt Hardy and Jeff Hardy) defeated MNM (Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro) and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP). After Benoit and MVP had some matches with the two in them (tag team and triple threat matches), MVP decided to start showing he was the \"true\" United States Champion. MVP would then have matches against the \"champions\" of other countries (including Luxembourg and Scotland, who in reality were jobbers), beating them within minutes. MVP then challenged Benoit for the title at WrestleMania 23.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nBefore the event went live on pay-per-view, Ric Flair and Carlito faced Gregory Helms and Chavo Guerrero in a tag team lumberjack match. Flair and Carlito controlled the early part of the match until Helms threw Flair over the top rope. The lumberjacks attacked Flair before throwing him back into the ring. Helms and Guerrero continued to beat on Flair, but couldn't pin Flair. Guerrero tried to end it with his frog splash, but Flair moved. Guerrero tagged in Helms, but Flair tagged in Carlito. Carlito dominated Helms, leading to Guerrero coming in to help Helms, but Flair came in and fought Guerrero. Flair and Guerrero took each other out of the ring, and before the lumberjacks could throw them back in the ring, Carlito hit the Backstabber on Guerrero to pick up the win for himself and Flair.\nThe event officially began with Aretha Franklin singing a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\", reprising her role from twenty years earlier at WrestleMania III.\n\nPreliminary matches\nIn the first match that aired, Edge, Randy Orton, Jeff Hardy, King Booker (with Queen Sharmell), Mr. Kennedy, Matt Hardy, Finlay, and CM Punk competed in the third annual Money in the Bank ladder match. The match featured many notable spots, including points where Edge performed the Spear on all the other opponents, followed by Orton doing the same by performing the RKO later in the match. Kennedy missed a Kenton Bomb, landing on a ladder, and received a Swanton Bomb from Jeff. Several dangerous ladders spots were also featured, including Orton performing an RKO on Punk off a ladder, and Booker performing a Book End to Orton off the ladder as well. Midway through the match, Jeff climbed a fifteen-foot-high ladder inside the ring and on his brother, Matt's urging, he performed a leg drop off of that ladder onto Edge, through another ladder bridged between the ring apron and the barricade. They were carried off on stretchers by the paramedics. Later, when Booker was about to retrieve the contract briefcase, Matt held Booker's wife, Sharmell as a hostage, threatening to perform a Twist of Fate on her. Booker went to her aid and received the Twist of Fate from Matt. Finlay fought Matt for some time in the ring, and also performed the Celtic Cross to Matt onto a ladder. Finlay's associate Hornswoggle emerged from under the ring and attempted to retrieve the briefcase for Finlay. He was stopped by Kennedy, who performed his Green Bay Plunge on Hornswoggle. Kennedy went on to win the match, only after knocking Punk off a ladder by hitting him with another ladder.\nThe next match was billed as a \"SmackDown! versus Raw Interpromotional match\". Raw's The Great Khali faced SmackDown!'s Kane. It was a short match but contained a notable spot. In homage to Hulk Hogan slamming André the Giant twenty years earlier at WrestleMania III, Kane picked up Khali for the first time and body-slammed him to the mat. The match ended with Khali pinning Kane after a Giant Chokeslam. After the match, Khali choked Kane out with Kane's chained hook, which was a reference to Kane's movie, See No Evil, where his character used the hook as a signature weapon.\nA backstage segment was featured next, which involved Cryme Tyme persuading Eugene to dance with Extreme Expose instead he danced with Mae Young and The Fabulous Moolah, who were dressed as strippers as Cryme Tyme danced with Extreme Exposé. Also featured in the segment were WWE Legends Slick, Ricky Steamboat, Jimmy Hart, Irwin R. Schyster, Dusty Rhodes, Sgt. Slaughter, Howard Finkel, Gene Okerlund, Pat Patterson and Gerald Brisco, many of whom had not been seen on television in years until Farooq interrupted the festivities with his signature \"DAMN!\" catchphrase.\nIn the fourth match, Chris Benoit faced Montel Vontavious Porter for the United States Championship. The match started off with a chain of takedowns, holds, and reversals, with MVP keeping up with Benoit, even going for some submission holds. The match lasted almost ten minutes, with Benoit attempting to lock in some of his signature submission holds, but MVP successfully reversed them, including the Crippler Crossface. The two exchanged suplexes and holds until Benoit executed a Diving headbutt on MVP, which led to Benoit getting the pinfall victory to retain the WWE United States Championship. This was Benoit's last WrestleMania match.\n\nMain event matches\nLong-time ring announcer Howard Finkel then introduced the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2007. The next match featured Batista defending the World Heavyweight Championship against The Undertaker. The match started with Batista performing a Spear on Undertaker as the bell sounded. The match went back and forth, with both men countering each other and performing their finishers. Undertaker performed a Chokeslam, but Batista kicked out of the pinfall attempt. Undertaker was then able to perform a Last Ride to Batista for a near-fall. Midway through the match, Undertaker performed an Over The Top Rope Suicide Dive on Batista. At one point, Batista was able to perform a running powerslam on Undertaker through a broadcast table. Back in the ring, Batista executed a Spinebuster followed by a Batista Bomb for a near-fall. Undertaker then pinned Batista following a Tombstone piledriver to become the World Heavyweight Champion and emerge from WrestleMania with his winning streak intact. The Undertaker's win made him the first wrestler to have won both the World Heavyweight Championship and the WWE Championship at WrestleMania.\n\nThe ECW Originals (Rob Van Dam, Sabu, Tommy Dreamer, and The Sandman) took on The New Breed (Elijah Burke, Kevin Thorn, Marcus Cor Von, and Matt Striker) next. The match started off with Cor Von working over Sabu. That changed when Cor Von tagged Striker, who missed an elbow after whipping Sabu into the ropes, allowing Sandman to get tagged. Sandman dominated Striker, and eventually tagged Van Dam. Van Dam used also dominated Striker but was poked in the eye, allowing Striker to tag in Burke. Burke had early success, but Van Dam regained the advantage and tagged Sandman again. Sandman worked on Burke until tagging Dreamer. Dreamer also beat down Burke until Cor Von received a blind tag and hit Dreamer from behind. Cor Von attacked Dreamer relentlessly and went over and punched Sabu, which distracted the referee and allowed Dreamer to be triple-teamed by Thorn, Burke, and Striker. Cor Von tagged in Burke who almost pinned Dreamer. Thorn entered next and almost performed his finishing move called the Original Sin. Dreamer managed to escape but was unable to tag his partners. Thorn tagged in Cor Von again who also almost pinned Dreamer. Cor Von tagged Thorn again, and Thorn resumed the beat down on Dreamer. Thorn tagged Striker next, and Striker attempted a suplex that Dreamer blocked and Dreamer suplexed Striker instead. Striker did not try to tag his partners and tried to stop Dreamer, but Dreamer tagged in Sabu. Sabu began to manhandle Striker and executed a leg drop from the top rope. Van Dam was then tagged in. Burke broke up Van Dam's pin attempt, which led to all competitors entering the ring. While the referee was distracted, Ariel gave Striker a chair. But Van Dam gave Striker an Van Daminator when he kicked the chair into Striker's face. Van Dam pinned Striker after a Five-Star Frog Splash to win the match for The Originals.\nThe match that WWE billed as the \"Battle of the Billionaires\" was next, as Umaga (accompanied by Vince McMahon and his handler Armando Alejandro Estrada) fought Bobby Lashley (accompanied by Donald Trump). Stone Cold Steve Austin served as the special guest referee. Trump was attended to by Tara Connor. Midway through the match, Austin was attacked by Umaga, causing him to become incapacitated and was taken out of the match for several minutes. Shane McMahon, who attempted to replace him as the referee, called the match while being biased toward Umaga. After Umaga got a near-fall on Lashley, Austin pulled Shane out of the ring, gave him a Stunner, and went back to the ring. Umaga attempted a Samoan Spike on Austin, but he avoided it and Stunned Umaga. Lashley took the opportunity and speared Umaga, then pinned him to get the victory. After the match, Trump and Lashley shaved Vince's head bald, followed by Austin executing a Stunner on Trump.\nThe next match was Melina against Ashley in a Lumberjill Match for the WWE Women's Championship. The match was short, as Melina Bridge pinned Ashley to retain the title. After the match, the lumberjills began brawling in the ring.\nThe main event was John Cena against Shawn Michaels for the WWE Championship. Cena made a grand entrance by driving a Ford Mustang through the streets of Detroit and smashing through a glass panel upon entering the stadium. After a back-and-forth match, the longest of the night, Cena applied the STF on Michaels, Michaels submitted and Cena retained the title. Following the match, Cena embraced while holding his retained championship and offered to shake hands with Michaels, who refused and walked away. He soon turned back and Cena saluted him before walking back into the ring as he celebrated with pyrotechnics and confetti filling the Ford Field.\n\nReception\nThe event received generally positive reviews. Canadian Online Explorer writers Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk rated the entire event 8 out of 10 stars, which was the same rating as the previous year's event. The lowest rated match on the card was Kane versus The Great Khali with a 0.5 out of a 10 star rating, the WWE Women's Championship match between Melina and Ashley was the second lowest rated match; it was rated 2 stars. The \"Battle of the Billionaires\" match was rated an 8 out of 10 stars. Batista versus The Undertaker for the World Heavyweight Championship match, one of the matches from the double main event, was rated 7.5 out of 10 stars. The main event match for the WWE Championship was rated a 9 out of 10 stars, and the Money in the Bank ladder match received the same rating. The attendance was reported to be 80,103 by numerous sources, a Ford Field record.\n\nAftermath\nJohn Cena and Shawn Michaels continued their feud, with Michaels betraying Cena the night after WrestleMania on Raw. During the second of two battle royals, Michaels eliminated himself and Cena, resulting in The Hardys winning the World Tag Team Championship. On the Raw before Backlash, Cena and Michaels wrestled an almost hour long non-title match, which Michaels won.\nBatista also continued his feud with The Undertaker, facing off against him in a Last Man Standing match the following month at Backlash. The match ended in a draw after both men failed to answer the ten count, therefore resulting in Undertaker retaining the title. The two faced each other in a Steel Cage match on the May 11, 2007, edition of SmackDown!, which also ended in a draw after both men escaped the cage at the same time. The feud ended when The Undertaker dropped the World Heavyweight Championship due to a legitimate injury. Edge, who won Kennedy's Money in the Bank contract in a match on Raw the previous Monday, cashed it in and defeated The Undertaker after the Steel cage match to win the title.\nBobby Lashley's feud with Vince McMahon continued for a further three months after the event. Vince, livid after being embarrassed at WrestleMania, vowed to destroy Lashley and take his ECW World Championship. At Backlash, Vince, his son Shane and Umaga teamed up a Three on one handicap match against Lashley, and after two Samoan Splashes by Umaga from the top rope, Vince pinned Lashley to win the ECW World Championship. The feud continued for a further two pay-per-views, with Lashley pinning Shane in a rematch from Backlash at Judgment Day, but Vince ruled that as he did not get pinned, Lashley did not win the title. At One Night Stand, Lashley finally defeated Vince in a Street Fight to reclaim the ECW World Championship.\nThe match between Chris Benoit and Montel Vontavious Porter expanded into a lengthy feud for the WWE United States Championship, resulting in Benoit retaining via pinfall at Backlash and MVP winning the title in a Two out of three falls match at Judgment Day, winning 2–0.\nThe feud between the ECW Originals and the New Breed continued, with the New Breed defeating the ECW Originals in an Extreme Rules match on the next edition of ECW. Sabu was released from the company shortly after WrestleMania, and The Sandman was drafted to Raw a few months later in the 2007 WWE Draft. Kevin Thorn left the New Breed shortly after WrestleMania and Marcus Cor Von was also released shortly thereafter. By this point, Elijah Burke and Matt Striker had ceased associating with one another, with Striker eventually being relegated to a manager role for Big Daddy V. In addition, Rob Van Dam left the company when his contract expired shortly after One Night Stand. As a result of all of this, the feud eventually puttered out and was rarely mentioned again.\nMr. Kennedy lost his Money in the Bank contract to Edge on the May 7 episode of Raw, after Edge defeated Kennedy in a match with the briefcase on the line. Kennedy would be the only Money in the Bank contract holder to never cash in the briefcase until Otis in 2020. On the May 11, 2007, episode of SmackDown!, after the Undertaker retained the World Heavyweight Championship in a steel cage match against Batista via a draw and was attacked by Mark Henry, Edge successfully cashed the contract in on a beaten-down Undertaker and won the World Heavyweight Championship for the first time in his career.\n\nSponsorship controversy\nRockford-Montgomery Labs, through their brand 360 OTC, was named as the official sponsor of the event. On January 19, 2008, WWE filed a lawsuit against the company alleging non-payment of the sponsorship funds. A similar lawsuit was also filed by NASCAR Cup Series team Bill Davis Racing, which had run WWE and WrestleMania 23 sponsorship as part of their sponsorship deal with 360 OTC.\n\nResults\nSee also\nDonald Trump's CNN bodyslam tweet\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe official website of WrestleMania 23",
"title": "WrestleMania_23"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XXIV was the 24th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brand divisions. The event took place on March 30, 2008, at the Florida Citrus Bowl in Orlando, Florida and was the first WrestleMania to be held in the state of Florida. It was also the second WrestleMania to be held outdoors (the first was WrestleMania IX in April 1993). American socialite Kim Kardashian served as the hostess of the event.\nNine professional wrestling matches were scheduled for the event, which featured a supercard, a scheduling of more than one main event. In the final match of the event, which was the main match from SmackDown, The Undertaker defeated Edge to win the World Heavyweight Championship. Raw's main match was a triple threat match, in which Randy Orton defeated Triple H and John Cena to retain the WWE Championship. The main match from the ECW brand was a singles match in which Kane defeated Chavo Guerrero to win the ECW Championship. From the six scheduled bouts on the undercard, three received more promotion than the others. In a No Disqualification match, professional boxer Floyd \"Money\" Mayweather defeated Big Show. The other featured undercard matches saw CM Punk win the inter-promotional Money in the Bank ladder match and a retirement match in which Shawn Michaels defeated Ric Flair, leading to Flair's departure from the WWE and a period of retirement from active wrestling.\nTickets for the event commenced sale to the public on November 3, 2007. WWE and the City of Orlando hosted festivities that spanned a five-day period within the central Florida region. For the second consecutive year, WrestleMania broke the record for the highest-grossing pay-per-view in WWE history. It also set a gate record for the Citrus Bowl, grossing US$5.85 million in ticket sales. According to a study by Enigma Research Corporation of Toronto, the Citrus Bowl's record-breaking attendance brought an estimated $51.5 million – surpassing the projected $25 million – into the local economy and generated $1.8 million in local tax revenue. The Central Florida Sports Commission reported that the event created jobs and brought approximately 60,000 visitors to the city. Over one million people ordered the event on pay-per-view, grossing $23.8 million in revenue. It was also the first WrestleMania PPV broadcast in high definition.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania XXIV featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands.\nOn March 21, 2007, a press conference was held at City Hall in Orlando, Florida, formally announcing that WrestleMania XXIV would be held in Orlando at the Florida Citrus Bowl on March 30, 2008, which would be the first WrestleMania held in Florida. According to an interview with The Daytona Beach News-Journal at the press conference, WWE chairman Vince McMahon mentioned Orlando being one of three front-runners to host the event, the other two being Las Vegas and Paris. McMahon explained that Orlando was chosen as geographically, a WrestleMania was never held in the southeast before.\nAs the second WrestleMania to be held entirely outdoors (after WrestleMania IX), McMahon also announced that the event would have taken place regardless of the weather conditions. In the March 2008 issue of WWE Magazine, WWE set designer Jason Robinson revealed that a steel rig with a tarpaulin roof would be built above the ring itself to prevent rain from falling on the ring; during the Money in the Bank ladder match, it rained briefly. In that same issue, an initial design of the ring setup was revealed showing a larger rig surrounding the tarpaulin rig, with lighting and two giant screens attached. The final design had the lighting and video screens on the tarpaulin rig, as well as the sound system. During an interview, WWE production manager Brian Petree mentioned that video reinforcement should prevent anyone's view from being obstructed by the steel structure. Up to seven generators were used to power up the event.\nThe set design for the entrance stage was at the north end of the stadium and consisted of another steel structure with various video screens hanging from it. The steel beams for the structure were custom built in Belgium and shipped over to Orlando. According to WWE Magazine, the amount of pyrotechnics used would be ten times that of the amount used on Raw. Without the restriction of a roof, the pyrotechnics for the show shot as high as 2,000 feet (610 m) as compared to WrestleMania 23's height of 150 feet (46 m). The fireworks were set off from boats on one of the lakes nearby the stadium. WWE has been said to have spent an estimated $300,000 on the fireworks alone.\n\nWith the Citrus Bowl's locker rooms on the south side and the entrance set on the north side, a tented 40,000 square feet (3,700 m2) mini-city outside the north end served as the show's backstage area and included air conditioning, trailers, VIP areas, showers and restrooms. As a consequence, the road next to the north end zone, W. Church Street, was closed down until a day after the event. Numerous other roads were also closed to allow trucks and forklifts to move in mega equipment for the event. The ring itself was built on the 50-yard line of the Citrus Bowl to give the best view for fans. Heavy-duty plastic flooring had been put over the field, to protect the turf, provide seating, and serve as the steel structures' foundation.\nDevelopment on the set design began in the middle of 2007. The building of the actual set began in the middle of March 2008. 100 people worked 16 hours a day to construct the set for the event. The construction finished on March 29. WrestleMania XXIV was the first WrestleMania event to be filmed in high-definition. It was also the first WWE show and sports related title to be released on the Blu-ray Disc format by WWE Home Video. WrestleMania also led to an increase in sales for musical artists related to the event, including the Red Hot Chili Peppers' album Stadium Arcadium, John Legend's album Live from Philadelphia, Rev Theory's single \"Light It Up\", and Fuel's single \"Leave the Memories Alone\", which was used as part of a tribute to Ric Flair.\n\nStorylines\nWrestleMania XXIV featured nine professional wrestling matches with wrestlers involved in pre-existing scripted feuds, plots, and storylines. Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension-building events, which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. All wrestlers belonged to either the Raw, SmackDown, or ECW brand – storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs.\n\nThe predominant rivalry scripted into WrestleMania on the Raw brand was between Randy Orton, John Cena, and Triple H, over the WWE Championship. At the Royal Rumble pay-per-view event in January, Orton successfully defended the WWE Championship against Jeff Hardy and later that night, Cena returned from an injury and won the Royal Rumble match when he last eliminated Triple H. Instead of challenging Orton for the title at WrestleMania, Cena decided to challenge him at No Way Out, where Orton got himself intentionally disqualified by slapping the referee, thus retaining the WWE Championship. Later, Triple H also became a top contender to the WWE Championship by defeating five other men in an Elimination Chamber match. The next night on Raw, Cena argued that he deserved another WWE Championship match. Raw general manager William Regal then announced that Cena would face Orton later in the night, where if Cena won, he would be added to the WrestleMania match between Triple H and Orton, making it a triple threat match. If Orton won, the main event would remain as Orton versus Triple H in a singles match. However, Cena won the match and was added to the bout at WrestleMania. After the match, Triple H, who was the special guest referee, executed a Pedigree on both Cena and Orton.\nThe predominant rivalry on the SmackDown brand was between Edge and The Undertaker, over the World Heavyweight Championship. On the February 1 episode of SmackDown, assistant general manager Theodore Long announced that at No Way Out, an Elimination Chamber match would be held to determine the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania. The Undertaker won the match by last eliminating Batista. On the following episode of SmackDown, Edge predicted that The Undertaker's 15–0 undefeated streak at WrestleMania would come to an end once he defeated him. Two weeks later on the March 7 episode of SmackDown, the team of Edge and Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder defeated The Undertaker in a Handicap match after Edge pinned The Undertaker. The following week, La Familia (Chavo Guerrero, Edge, Hawkins and Ryder) defeated Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels in a steel cage match. During the match, Undertaker interfered and attacked La Familia. However, Edge escaped the cage to win the match for his team. Two weeks later on SmackDown, Edge, along with Vickie Guerrero, Hawkins and Ryder, held a mock burial entitled \"Burial of The Undertaker's WrestleMania Undefeated Streak\", to celebrate Edge's early victory over The Undertaker. During the \"burial\", however, The Undertaker emerged from a casket, which was inside the ring, and attacked Edge, Hawkins, and Ryder, knocking Hawkins and Ryder outside the ring and chokeslamming Edge through the casket.\n\nAt No Way Out, Big Show made a return to the company after taking time off for injuries beginning in December 2006. In his return promotional interview, Big Show threatened to give Rey Mysterio a chokeslam. Professional boxer and WBC Welterweight Champion Floyd \"Money\" Mayweather, who was in attendance and a close friend of Mysterio's, came to his aid and confronted Big Show. After Big Show dropped to his knees, Mayweather attacked him with a combination of punches, which caused Big Show to bleed from the nose and mouth. The following night on Raw, Big Show challenged Mayweather to a wrestling match, which Mayweather accepted. As part of the storyline, Big Show arranged an exhibition match with fighter Brandon Hill, who was similar in size and stature to Mayweather. Unimpressed with Big Show's display of dominance over Hill, Mayweather told Big Show that \"at WrestleMania, I'm going to break your jaw\". At their weigh-in for their WrestleMania match, Big Show threw Mayweather into a crowd of wrestlers to emphasise the disparity in size.\n\nOn the February 25 episode of Raw, 2008 WWE Hall of Fame Inductee Ric Flair challenged Shawn Michaels to a match at WrestleMania. Michaels accepted after some reluctance, knowing that due to a previous announcement from WWE chairman Mr. McMahon the next match Flair lost would result in his forced retirement. Flair said that \"it would be an honor for [him] to retire at the hands of Shawn Michaels.\"\nOn February 18, WWE announced via its website that the fourth annual Money in the Bank ladder match would take place at WrestleMania XXIV, a match where the objective is to retrieve a briefcase suspended in the air using a ladder. The match involved wrestlers from all three WWE brands. The winner would earn a contract to challenge for any of the three WWE World Championships (the WWE Championship of Raw, the World Heavyweight Championship of SmackDown, or the ECW Championship of ECW) at any time and any place over a one-year period. Qualifying matches occurred to determine the participants in the match at WrestleMania, starting on that night's Raw with Jeff Hardy and Mr. Kennedy defeating Snitsky and Val Venis respectively to qualify. Shelton Benjamin became the third participant when he defeated Jimmy Wang Yang on the following episode of SmackDown. During the next two weeks on Raw, Chris Jericho defeated Hardy, and Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify. At a non-televised SmackDown/ECW house show held on March 8, Montel Vontavious Porter qualified when he defeated Jamie Noble. On the March 11 episode of ECW, CM Punk became the seventh entrant when he defeated Big Daddy V. John Morrison was the final person to qualify when he beat The Miz on the March 14 episode of SmackDown. Hardy was later removed from the match after a legitimate suspension by WWE for a drug violation of the company's Wellness Policy. WWE decided not to add another superstar in his place, making that year's Money in the Bank ladder match the first year to have seven participants.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nBefore the show aired live on pay-per-view, Kane won a 24-man Interpromotional Battle Royal, an elimination style match where the last person remaining was the winner, to win an ECW Championship match against Chavo Guerrero later that night. The event officially began with John Legend singing a rendition of \"America the Beautiful\".\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe first match was a Belfast Brawl between Finlay and John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL), a match in which there were no disqualifications or countouts and the match outcomes could have occurred anywhere. Finlay was accompanied to the ring by his storyline son, Hornswoggle, who was returning from a scripted injury suffered at the hands of JBL. During the match, JBL hit Finlay with a trash can lid when the latter was about to perform a suicide dive on him through the ropes on the outside. Later on, Finlay tossed JBL through a table that he had set up earlier on the turnbuckle. Hornswoggle also got involved during the match by hitting JBL with a kendo stick, while later on JBL threw a trash can at him. Attacking Finlay's knee with a kendo stick, JBL delivered a Clothesline from Hell to Finlay to score a successful pinfall. This was an interpromotional match.\nThe next match of the evening was the fourth-annual Money in the Bank ladder match, in which there were no disqualifications or countouts, and the only way to win the match was to climb a ladder in the ring and retrieve a contract briefcase hanging above. The match featured Chris Jericho, Mr. Kennedy, and Carlito from the Raw brand; CM Punk, Shelton Benjamin and John Morrison from the ECW brand; and Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) from the SmackDown brand. Jeff Hardy was supposed to be in the match, but he violated the wellness program and was taken out of the match. Early in the match, Morrison climbed a turnbuckle and performed a moonsault onto other competitors outside the ring while holding a ladder against his chest. Later, while Kennedy and Morrison were battling on top of a ladder, Benjamin climbed another ladder placed adjacent to the first one and performed a sunset flip powerbomb on Kennedy, who in turn superplexed Morrison from the top of the ladder. Later, Carlito and Kennedy flipped Benjamin off a ladder in the ring, sending him crashing through another ladder set-up between the barricade and the ring apron. When MVP was close to retrieving the contract briefcase, Matt Hardy (returning to action after suffering a legitimate injury), entered the ring from the crowd, climbed the ladder, and delivered a Twist of Fate to MVP off that ladder. As soon as Morrison started to climb a ladder, see-sawing with another ladder, Jericho flipped the other one and Morrison landed on the ring-ropes groin-first. Jericho even performed a Codebreaker on Punk using a ladder. In the end, Jericho and Punk fought each other on a ladder, but Punk trapped Jericho's one leg in the ladder's steps and retrieved the briefcase to win the match. This was an interpromotional match.\nNext after that match, Howard Finkel introduced the 2008 WWE Hall of Fame class: Jack and Gerald Brisco, Gordon Solie (represented by his family), Rocky Johnson, High Chief Peter Maivia (represented by his wife Lia and daughter Ata), Eddie Graham (represented by his son Mike), Mae Young, and Ric Flair (represented by his family).\nThe next match, which was billed as a \"Battle for Brand Supremacy\", was between SmackDown's Batista and Raw's Umaga. Early in the match, both Batista and Umaga exchanged blows and Batista knocked Umaga outside with a shoulder block. Umaga later kicked Batista in the face, which caused him to fall back-first outside the ring from the ring-apron. As a result, Umaga started targeting Batista's injured back. In the end, however, when Umaga tried to perform his Samoan Spike, Batista countered the attempt and gave him a spinebuster. Batista won the match by pinning Umaga after a Batista Bomb.\nThe fourth match for the event featured Chavo Guerrero defending his ECW Championship against Kane. Kane surprised Chavo by emerging from underneath the ring instead of from the entrance stage during his ring entrance. Kane instantly pinned Chavo after a chokeslam and won the ECW Championship in eleven seconds. This was the only ECW match on the show and the only ECW Championship match in WrestleMania history.\n\nMain event matches\nRic Flair's \"Career Threatening\" match against Shawn Michaels was next, which stipulated that Flair would have to retire from wrestling if he had lost. At the start of the match, both superstars engaged in a series of counters, and then Flair shoved Michaels in a corner, making \"Old Yeller\" comments to him. In retaliation, Michaels slapped Flair in the face, which caused him to start bleeding from the mouth. Later, Michaels attempted Sweet Chin Music, but stopped in the process and Flair capitalized by trapping him in his figure four leglock. Afterward, Michaels finally delivered the Sweet Chin Music to Flair for a near-fall. Michaels then trapped Flair in his modified figure four leglock, but Flair delivered a thumb to the eye to Michaels to break the submission. As Flair was delivering chops to Michaels' chest, Michaels executed a second Sweet Chin Music. After getting up on his feet with a worried face, Michaels said to Flair \"I'm sorry, I love you\", before nailing a final Sweet Chin Music and thus pinning Flair to end his 35-year-long wrestling career. After the match, Michaels left quickly and Flair got a standing ovation from the crowd. An emotional Flair embraced his family at ringside and then, as he proceeded to go backstage, he thanked the crowd for their support.\n\nThe sixth match was the Playboy BunnyMania Lumberjack match, in which Maria and Ashley (the latter who replaced Candice Michelle due to injury) faced Beth Phoenix and Melina, who were accompanied to the ring by Santino Marella. Rapper Snoop Dogg served as the official \"Master of Ceremonies\" for the match. In the match, several WWE Divas surrounded the ring and were able to interfere in the match without disqualifications. Due to some technical difficulties, the lights at Citrus Bowl temporarily went out during the match. Near the end, a pin attempt by Maria was prevented when Marella pulled Maria's leg. In response, Raw commentator Jerry Lawler approached and knocked Marella down with a punch. Phoenix executed a Fisherman Suplex and pinned Maria to win the match. After the match, Snoop Dogg executed a Clothesline on Marella and kissed Maria, before leaving with her and Ashley.\nNext was Randy Orton defending his WWE Championship against Triple H and John Cena in a triple threat match, which is a standard match involving three wrestlers with no disqualifications. For his entrance, Cena had the Jones High School Marching Tigers marching band perform an instrumental version of his theme song \"The Time Is Now\" live. During the match, when Triple H had held Orton in a sleeper hold, Cena picked up both Orton and Triple H for an FU, but Triple H dropped down and low blowed him. Orton then dominated the match for some time; one highlight of the match featured Orton performing a crossbody from the top rope on Cena, while the latter was held on Triple H's shoulders in a seating position. Orton also performed a DDT to both Cena and Triple H simultaneously. Orton then tried to perform an RKO on Cena, but he countered and threw Orton onto Triple H. Triple H then started targeting Orton's legs and using some submissions on him. The match came to an end when Cena had Triple H on his shoulders for the FU, but was countered into a Pedigree. As Triple H was in the pin, Orton punted Triple H and pinned Cena to win the match and retain the WWE Championship.\n\nThe next match was the No Disqualification match between Big Show and Floyd Mayweather Jr. Early in the match, Mayweather repeatedly escaped Big Show's grasp and delivered body shots to him. Mayweather and his accomplices tried to \"walk out\" of the match, but Big Show walked up the ramp and brought Mayweather back in the ring. As Big Show was about to chokeslam Mayweather, one of Mayweather's accomplices struck a steel chair on Big Show's back, and the latter chokeslammed him in retaliation. Capitalizing from this distraction, Mayweather grabbed that chair and hit Big Show multiple times on the head with it. Finally, Mayweather removed his right glove and put on a pair of brass knuckles to hit Big Show in the face. As a result, Big Show was knocked out as he could not answer the referee's ten count, and Mayweather was declared the winner.\nThe main event of the night saw Edge putting his World Heavyweight Championship on the line against The Undertaker. This was The Undertaker's first WrestleMania main event in 11 years, last main eventing against Sycho Sid at WrestleMania 13. The early going of the match was slow-paced, in which both superstars countered each other's maneuvers. During the match, Undertaker ran and leapt over the top rope from the ring onto Edge on the outside. Then throughout the match, Edge was able to counter Undertaker's numerous signature moves, including the Chokeslam, Old School and the Last Ride, a variation of the powerbomb. Near the end, Edge hit Undertaker with a television camera while the referee was knocked down. When he proceeded to deliver a Tombstone Piledriver to Undertaker, Undertaker countered it into his own version and successfully delivered it to Edge for a two-count. Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder came to the ring for Edge's aid, but Undertaker took them out. Because of their distraction, Edge was able to execute a spear on Undertaker, but was unable to pin him. When Edge delivered another spear to Undertaker, Undertaker applied Hell's Gate and forced Edge to submit to win the World Heavyweight Championship, improving his WrestleMania record to 16–0.\n\nReception\nApproximately 1,058,000 people ordered WrestleMania XXIV, grossing $23.8 million in revenue. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event 9 out of 10 stars. The rating was higher than WrestleMania 23 which received 8 out of 10 stars. The main event between The Undertaker and Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 9.5 out of 10 stars. The Career Threatening match between Ric Flair and Shawn Michaels was rated a perfect 10 out of 10. Big Show vs. Floyd \"Money\" Mayweather Jr. was rated 7 out of 10 stars, and the Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship between Randy Orton, Triple H and John Cena was rated 8.5 out of 10 stars.\n\nAftermath\nAfter the show, WWE was criticized for a malfunction in the pyrotechnics during The Undertaker's victory celebration. During the celebration, a hot cable for pyrotechnics was sent flying into audience members in the upper seating bowl of the stadium, leaving 45 injured, with some hospitalized. The accident was apparently due to a cable which fireworks were traveling across snapping, thus resulting in the fireworks exploding into the top rows of the upper bowl of the stadium. WWE's corporate website released a statement afterward stating that they would investigate the incident, but the results of the investigation were never released.\nOn the following episode of Raw, Ric Flair made his farewell speech, which led to Triple H introducing various people from Flair's past, such as the Four Horsemen, Ricky Steamboat, and others, each coming out to give an emotional farewell. Afterward, the entire WWE roster came out to say thank you to Flair (Including Undertaker, who came out after Raw went off the air and hugged Flair and did his kneeling stance). Shawn Michaels, who was clearly upset about retiring Flair, was forgiven by Flair. Despite Flair's forgiveness, his former protégé Batista later started a feud with Michaels, citing Michaels' \"selfishness\" at WrestleMania for not lying down for Flair. The two had a match booked at Backlash, and after a confrontation between Michaels and Chris Jericho, Jericho was later added into the match as a Special Guest Referee. Michaels won with a superkick.\nThe feud between Randy Orton, John Cena and Triple H continued after WrestleMania with the added involvement of John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) leading to a Fatal Four-Way Elimination match between all four at Backlash. At Backlash, Triple H won his seventh WWE Championship by last pinning Orton. With Matt Hardy's return at WrestleMania, his feud with Montel Vontavious Porter over the WWE United States Championship, that had started in July 2007, was revived with a match booked at Backlash, which Hardy won. The rivalries between The Undertaker and Edge and the one between Kane and Chavo Guerrero both continued with successful title defenses at Backlash. On the May 2 episode of SmackDown, General Manager Vickie Guerrero stripped The Undertaker of the World Heavyweight Championship because of his continued use of his illegal chokehold, claiming she did it to protect the other wrestlers.\n\nDVD / Blu-ray release\nThe event was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc by WWE Home Video in the U.S. on May 20, 2008, after it had completed broadcast on pay-per-view. It was also released on UMD on August 23 2008. It was the first WWE PPV event to be released via the Blu-ray and UMD format. As well as the event, the DVD/BD release features bonus material in the form of the 2008 Hall of Fame ceremony in its entirety and the battle royal that took place before the event.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XXIV",
"title": "WrestleMania_XXIV"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania 25 (marketed as The 25th Anniversary of WrestleMania and WrestleMania 25th Anniversary) was the 25th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brand divisions. The event took place on April 5, 2009, at Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas. It was the second WrestleMania held in Houston; the first was WrestleMania X-Seven at the Reliant Astrodome, which was held in April 2001. It was also the last WrestleMania to feature the ECW brand and the first WrestleMania of the PG Era.\nEight matches were held on the event's card, which featured a supercard, a scheduling of more than one main bout. The final match of the night, which was the main match of the Raw brand, was a singles match in which Triple H defeated Randy Orton to retain the WWE Championship. The main match of the SmackDown brand was a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship, which saw John Cena defeat defending champion Edge and Big Show to win the championship. The main match of the ECW brand saw WWE Tag Team Champions The Colóns (Carlito and Primo) from SmackDown defeat the World Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz from ECW in a lumberjack match to unify the two championships; the match took place on the event's pre-show. Another marquee match saw The Undertaker defeat Shawn Michaels to extend his undefeated WrestleMania streak to 17–0. Featured matches on the undercard included Matt Hardy defeating Jeff Hardy in an Extreme Rules match, Chris Jericho defeated the team of Roddy Piper, Ricky Steamboat and Jimmy Snuka, and the annual Money in the Bank ladder match which was won by CM Punk.\nTickets for the event commenced sale to the public on November 8, 2008. For the third consecutive year, WrestleMania broke the record for the highest-grossing pay-per-view in WWE history, grossing US$6.9 million in ticket sales, which included fans from all 50 U.S. states, 24 countries, and seven Canadian provinces. WrestleMania 25 generated approximately 960,000 pay-per-view buys, grossing $21.0 million in revenue. The event pumped an estimated $49.8 million into the local economy and generated $5.7 million in local tax revenue, equating to 600 full-time jobs for the area. With an attendance of 72,744, it is the 8th largest attendance in WrestleMania history.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania 25 was held on April 5, 2009, at Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas. The event featured wrestlers from the Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands. The event was marketed as \"The 25th Anniversary of WrestleMania\" and written as \"WrestleMania 25th Anniversary\".\nAs the second WrestleMania to be held in Houston and the state of Texas after WrestleMania X-Seven at the Astrodome, WWE mainly promoted WrestleMania 25 under the tagline \"Everything Is Bigger in Texas, Especially WrestleMania\" since its announcement at WrestleMania XXIV in March 2008. WWE later began using \"The 25th Anniversary of WrestleMania\" name in late 2008 to primarily promote the event. Tickets for WrestleMania 25 were originally scheduled to go on sale September 20, 2008, but had to be postponed out of concern for the residents near the Gulf of Mexico due to Hurricane Ike and the disaster area declaration by Texas Governor Rick Perry. Following another postponement due to the effect of Ike on the state of Texas, WWE announced that ticket sales would be postponed until November 8, 2008.\nThe official theme songs for the event were AC/DC's \"War Machine\" and their live version of \"Shoot to Thrill\", as well as \"So Hott\" by Kid Rock. Other songs used at the event include \"Crash\" by Decyfer Down and \"Touched\" by VAST.\n\nMarketing\nAccording to WWE's executive vice president, Michelle Wilson, WrestleMania 25 featured the most extensive promotional campaign in WrestleMania history. Promotion for the event included a merchandise deal with Kmart enabling discounts on the pay-per-view's retail price, as well as deals with DirecTV and Dish Network to promote through interactive television. The campaign also saw WWE mail to previous purchasers of WrestleMania, professional boxing and mixed martial arts pay-per-views to order their show. WWE spent US$10 million for cross-channel spots on television networks such as ESPN, MTV and the USA Network. The Army National Guard were the primary sponsor for the event, using the event to help enhance their recruitment. To commemorate the event, THQ and Yuke's produced a video game, WWE Legends of WrestleMania, that was released a few weeks prior to the event and featured past competitors from the company.\nAs with previous WrestleMania events, a series of events were held in the week preceding WrestleMania 25. For the second consecutive year, WrestleManiArt, an art exhibition and auction featuring work by WWE wrestlers and local artists, was held at the Julia Ideson Building on April 1, with the proceeds going to Houston Public Library Foundation. WrestleMania's annual fan convention, WrestleMania Axxess, was held from April 2 through April 5 at Reliant Center. On April 4, WWE hosted its annual WWE Hall of Fame ceremony at the Toyota Center, where the Class of 2009 were inducted.\n\nStorylines\nWrestleMania featured professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre-existing scripted feuds, plots, and storylines that were played out on Raw, Friday Night SmackDown, and ECW on Sci Fi—World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) primary television programs. Wrestlers were portrayed as either a villain or a hero as they followed a series of events that built tension, and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches. The event featured wrestlers from WWE's Raw, SmackDown, and ECW brands—a storyline division in which WWE's employees are assigned to a television program of the same name.\nJohn \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) defeated CM Punk on the March 9 episode of Raw to win the WWE Intercontinental Championship. A week later, JBL's old rival Rey Mysterio issued a challenge to face JBL for the Intercontinental Championship at WrestleMania. With the match accepted by JBL, this would be the first time since WrestleMania X8 that the Intercontinental Championship would be defended at WrestleMania. On the March 30 episode of Raw, JBL was pinned by Mysterio in a non-title match.\nAt No Way Out, Shawn Michaels defeated John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) in a match with the added stipulation that if JBL had won, he would have become the owner of Michaels' name and likeness. On the February 16 episode of Raw, Michaels challenged JBL to another match, with the winner advancing to WrestleMania to challenge The Undertaker to attempt to end his undefeated streak at the event. The next week on Raw, Michaels defeated JBL, but it was later announced that another competitor would stand in his way to prevent him from advancing to the show in the form of Vladimir Kozlov, who also made a challenge to Undertaker; the two wrestled the next week on Raw with Michaels defeating Kozlov, and earning his match with Undertaker. The next week on Raw, Undertaker and Michaels defeated Kozlov and JBL in a tag match. After the match, Michaels attacked Undertaker. The pair played mind games with each other over the following weeks.\n\nThe headline of WrestleMania 25 was a confrontation over the WWE Championship, rooted at the Royal Rumble pay-per-view event in January by Randy Orton winning the Royal Rumble match. Per the traditional stipulation of the match, Orton was given the opportunity to choose to wrestle for the WWE, World Heavyweight, or ECW Championship at WrestleMania. Simultaneously, Orton began to assault the McMahon family, the owners of the WWE. During this conflict, Orton punted both Vince and Shane McMahon (father and son, respectively) in the head as well as RKO-ing Stephanie McMahon (Vince's daughter), which enraged the WWE Champion (and Stephanie's husband) Triple H. On the March 2 episode of Raw, Triple H convinced Orton to use his title opportunity in a match for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania. The following weeks saw Triple H attack Orton both backstage and at his house. In retaliation, Orton attacked Triple H's wife Stephanie McMahon. As a result, Triple H recruited his brother-in-law and father-in-law, Shane and Vince McMahon respectively.\n\nAfter the main event of the March 2 episode of Raw, SmackDown general manager Vickie Guerrero announced that her husband Edge would defend his World Heavyweight Championship against Big Show at WrestleMania. A contract to be signed to make the match official was intended to be held on the next episode of SmackDown; however, John Cena, from whom Edge won the World Heavyweight Championship at the previous month's pay per view, No Way Out (in the Elimination Chamber match), interfered with the signing before whispering a message in Vickie's ear prompting the signing to be canceled. The next week on Raw, Vickie announced to the surprise of Edge and Big Show that Cena would be in the match, thus making it a Triple Threat match. It was soon revealed that the match would involve the new challenger based on Cena extorting Guerrero with footage of the general manager having adulterous relations with Big Show. The next week on Raw, Edge, Vickie and Big Show were set to confront Cena due to Cena revealing the affair between Vickie and Big Show, much to the chagrin of all three. As a result, Guerrero arranged a match pitting Edge against Cena with herself serving as a special guest referee. With all that misdirected hostility focused on Cena, who could not touch Vickie or he would sacrifice his World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania, a lopsided confrontation seemed inevitable. As Edge and Cena battled, Big Show walked down the ramp toward the ring. When he arrived, Edge joined him in tying Cena up within the ring ropes. Fittingly, each drove their anger in his direction: Edge speared him, Vickie slapped him and Big Show drove his giant fist into Cena's ribs several times before clocking him in the jaw. Edge then speared Big Show and sent a message that he would retain his title at WrestleMania.\nThe fifth annual Money in the Bank ladder match was announced for WrestleMania 25 on the February 23 episode of Raw. The briefcase holds a symbolic contract which the holder would be able to exchange for a WWE, World Heavyweight, or ECW Championship match at any time or location of his choosing up until one year. To participate in the match, a wrestler had to first qualify for it by winning a match; this process began on the February 23 episode of Raw, in which CM Punk qualified by defeating The Miz and John Morrison in a Triple Threat match. The next week of Raw, Kane defeated Rey Mysterio and Mike Knox in another Triple Threat match. The next night on ECW, Mark Henry qualified for the match by defeating Santino Marella. Both Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP) and Shelton Benjamin qualified for the match on the March 6 episode of SmackDown by defeating Matt Hardy and Jeff Hardy in respective singles matches. On the March 9 episode of Raw, Kofi Kingston qualified by defeating Chris Jericho. Christian qualified the next night on ECW by winning a battle royal when he last eliminated Chavo Guerrero Jr. Finlay was the final wrestler to qualify for the match when he defeated The Brian Kendrick on the March 13 episode of SmackDown. Over the following weeks, the participants competed in eight-man tag team matches and an eight-man battle royal.\n\nThe buildup to WrestleMania 25 also included a rivalry between brothers Matt and Jeff Hardy. During Jeff's match against Edge at the Royal Rumble for the WWE Championship, Matt came down to the ring, appearing to help his brother. Instead, Matt turned on Jeff by hitting him with a steel chair, costing Jeff the match and his WWE title. After losing his Money in the Bank qualifying match to MVP on the March 6 episode of SmackDown, Matt interfered in Jeff's qualifying match later that night by punching Jeff's opponent, Shelton Benjamin, disqualifying Jeff from the match. A week later, Matt provoked Jeff even further by referring to Jeff's recent accidents, including Jeff's incident at the night of Survivor Series where he was found unconscious in a hotel stairwell (which caused him to be removed of the WWE Championship match and being replaced by Edge at that event), the recent account of someone driving Jeff off the road, and the misfiring of the pyrotechnics in his entrance. Matt then talked about the fire to Jeff's house a year prior, killing his dog Jack. This ultimately led to Jeff retaliating against his brother after weeks of passive resistance. Later that night, it was announced that Matt and Jeff would fight each other at WrestleMania with a subsequent announcement a week later declaring the match to be held under Extreme Rules.\nOn the January 23 episode of SmackDown, WWE Tag Team Champions The Colóns (Primo and Carlito) defeated World Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz in a tag team match. After their loss, Miz and Morrison proceeded to harass their defeaters on their weekly Internet show, the Dirt Sheet, as well as profess the brothers' impotence towards their associates, The Bella Twins. The two teams wrestled again on the February 13 episode of SmackDown, with the winning team earning a date with the Bellas. Miz and Morrison won the rematch and the date. The two teams continued their feud in the coming weeks, and while the initial focus of the feud was the competition for the Bella Twins, the feud took on a dual purpose as each team successfully defended their respective titles in subsequent matches with both teams retaining their respective belts; it was announced on the March 17 episode of ECW that the WWE and World Tag Team titles would be unified at WrestleMania into what would be called the \"Unified WWE Tag Team Championship\".\n\nAt the 15th Screen Actors Guild Awards, actor Mickey Rourke, who gained critical acclaim at the time for his role in the film The Wrestler, had announced he would be competing at WrestleMania, specifically targeting Chris Jericho. The announcement led to a storyline confrontation between the two on Larry King Live, which showed signs of second thoughts from Rourke. On January 28, it was announced Rourke's spokesperson that the actor would not compete at the event, but would still be in attendance. Jericho's narrative subsequently evolved towards one of the themes from The Wrestler, which was the respect for older wrestlers after their careers start to decline, of which Jericho disapproved. On the February 9 episode of Raw, Ric Flair appeared to protest Jericho's tirades, professing that the wrestlers should be respected, as they had paved the way for the future generations to make a living, leading to a heated exchange between the two. Over the coming weeks, Jericho was confronted by a number of legends including Roddy Piper, Ricky Steamboat, and Jimmy Snuka on an episode of Piper's Pit hosted by Jericho himself. Each confrontation resulted in Jericho viciously attacking each respective wrestler. The following week, Jericho challenged Flair to a match. Although Flair declined (honoring his retirement from active competition), he offered to be in the corner of Piper, Steamboat, and Snuka for their challenge against Jericho in a handicap match. Jericho accepted the challenge, but subsequently attacked and bloodied Flair.\n\nEvent\nDark match\nBefore the event was aired live, the crowd in attendance were treated to a dark match, which featured the WWE Tag Team Champions The Colóns (Carlito and Primo) compete against the World Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz in a Winner Takes All Lumberjack match, which has a number of wrestlers surround the ring in order to keep any competitor from avoiding the match, to unify the World Tag Team Championship and WWE Tag Team Championship. The Colóns won the encounter after Primo executed the Backstabber on Morrison.\nAs the event went live on pay-per-view and right before the opening pyro, Nicole Scherzinger sang \"America the Beautiful\".\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe Money in the Bank ladder match was the start of the event as the participants: CM Punk, Kane, Mark Henry, MVP, Shelton Benjamin, Kofi Kingston, Christian, and Finlay, fought for the briefcase that was suspended over the ring. The match was littered with many notable moments, including a series of the match's combatants performing dives onto the floor of the arena onto each other, as well as Benjamin diving off of the top of a ladder with a senton bomb onto his opponents. The ladder was also used as a weapon by the competitors, which saw it being thrown at each other or, in the case of Kingston, to be used as extra force dropped on their chest as Kofi incapacitated them by draping the collapsed ladder over their bodies and leg dropping onto the ladder. The finish came with Punk and Kane on top of the ladder, which saw Punk execute a series of kicks on Kane from atop the ladder, knocking him off. Punk went on to win the match after he grabbed the hanging briefcase. Punk's victory marked his second consecutive victory in the match.\n\nAfter the match, Kid Rock performed a live medley of songs: \"Bawitdaba\", \"Rock N Roll Jesus\", \"Cowboy\", \"All Summer Long\", and \"So Hott\". During the last song, the female competitors of the WWE would come to the ring to compete in a 25-Diva battle royal, to crown \"Miss WrestleMania\". The match featured Divas that were employed by WWE at the time and Divas that had worked for WWE in the past. Santino Marella, who portrayed a diva called \"Santina\", his twin sister, won the match and was crowned \"Miss WrestleMania\". Mae Young acted as the special guest timekeeper of the match while Candice Michelle was the one who gave the sash and crown to Santina.\nThe next match featured Chris Jericho facing Ricky Steamboat, Jimmy Snuka, and Roddy Piper (who were accompanied to the ring by Ric Flair) in a three-on-one handicap elimination match. Before long, Jericho had caused Snuka to submit the Walls of Jericho. He then pinned Piper after an enzuigiri. Steamboat, however, would outlast his partners as he was able to execute a number of his signature moves including arm drags, chops, and a plancha. Jericho was able to regain control of the match by connecting with the Codebreaker, pinning Steamboat to win the match. After the match, Jericho challenged Mickey Rourke, sitting at ringside, to come into the ring. Rourke finally entered the ring and knocked Jericho onto the canvas with a punch before being commended by Ric Flair.\nThe fourth bout was the Extreme Rules match between brothers Jeff and Matt Hardy. This featured a multitude of moments that saw the Hardys assault each other with many different weapon-based attacks, which included assaults with numerous objects under the ring and Jeff splash from the top turnbuckle through a pair of tables, with Matt sandwiched between the two and a chair. Jeff, seeking to end the match, attempted to set up a ladder for him to ascend while he would perform a maneuver similar to a leapfrog over the hurdle, and diving down in a seated position known as a leapfrog leg drop, ultimately missing his target, due to Matt's last-minute dodge, which resulted in Matt gaining the advantage over his brother. He then forced Jeff's head in between the seat and back of a steel chair, then executed the Twist of Fate with Jeff's head in the chair to win the match via pinfall.\n\nA singles match for the Intercontinental Championship was next, in which Rey Mysterio faced defending champion John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield. Before the match started, JBL kicked Mysterio and punched him down to the ground for a few seconds. But once the referee started the match, Mysterio surprised JBL by quickly executing the 619 before pinning him for a win via pinfall in twenty-two seconds. Following the match, a frustrated JBL grabbed a microphone and proclaimed, \"I quit!\". This has been JBL's last singles match as an active performer. The match marked the first time since WrestleMania X8 that the Intercontinental Championship has been defended at a WrestleMania event.\n\nMain event matches\nThe next match pitted The Undertaker against Shawn Michaels. Michaels made his entrance descending on a platform to symbolize the light; in sharp contrast, The Undertaker entered second, ascending from the floor with fire shooting up from the stage. The match began with a fast pace by both men going for strikes to have them countered before Michaels feigned a knee injury to gain the advantage, and the pace slowed. This led to an exchange of signature moves and submission holds, which saw Michaels escape The Undertaker's Hell's Gate and dodge multiple attempts at the chokeslam while Undertaker blocked attempts at Michaels' Sweet Chin Music. The action went to the outside of the ring with Michaels attempting a moonsault, only to have The Undertaker avoid the attempt. This led to The Undertaker attempting a suicide dive over the top rope, only to have Michaels pull the nearby cameraman (played by Sim Snuka) into Undertaker. The spot, however, did not go as intended. The idea was for Michaels to push the referee out of the way, and pull Snuka into the path of Undertaker and for Snuka to catch Undertaker before he hit the ground. However, Snuka was standing too far back and Undertaker landed almost head first on the protective mats surrounding the ring. He remained on the floor of the arena for some time, while Michaels revived the referee, rolling him back into the ring and having the referee start to count out the Undertaker. The referee began to count as the Undertaker started to revive, and when the official got to the count of 9, Undertaker rolled into the ring, managing to beat the count of 10. The match continued with both men performing all of their respective finishing moves. The Undertaker executed the Last Ride and chokeslam, Michaels executed Sweet Chin Music twice and Undertaker executed a Tombstone Piledriver on Michaels – all of which scored near-falls. Undertaker won the match after Michaels attempted another moonsault only to be caught in mid-air, and landed into another Tombstone Piledriver. As a result of this victory, The Undertaker remained undefeated at WrestleMania, extending his record to 17–0. Throughout the match, fans were split, chanting for both superstars, and at one point chanted \"This is awesome\", referring to the match itself.\nThe World Heavyweight Championship was contested for in a Triple Threat match between the champion, Edge, Big Show, and John Cena, who entered through an aisle of look-alikes to start the match; Vickie Guerrero was brought out to ringside in a wheelchair by Chavo Guerrero Jr. due to her emotional investment in both Edge and Big Show. The action began with some brawling and some early teamwork from Big Show and Edge before their alliance crumbled. The match spilled to the outside seeing Edge spear Big Show through the guardrail. Cena returned Edge to the ring before applying the STF before Big Show came to his senses, and broke up the action, leading to Cena and Edge teaming up to remove Big Show from the equation before turning on each other. Cena won the match by lifting both Big Show and Edge at the same exact time and set up the Attitude Adjustment on Big Show, then dropping Edge onto Big Show with the same move before pinning Big Show to win his second World Heavyweight Championship.\nNext after that, the 2009 WWE Hall of Fame class was introduced in this order by Justin Roberts: Terry and Dory Funk Jr., \"Cowboy\" Bill Watts, Howard Finkel, Koko B. Ware, the Von Erich family (represented by Kevin Von Erich), Ricky \"The Dragon\" Steamboat, and Stone Cold Steve Austin. After the introductions were made, Austin drove to ringside and all around the ring in an ATV, and toasted the fans with beer.\n\nThe last match of the event was for the WWE Championship; the match was contested between the champion, Triple H, and Randy Orton. As per a pre-match stipulation by Vickie Guerrero, if Triple H had been disqualified or had been counted out during the match, he would have lost the title to Orton. The champion had his signature weapon, the sledgehammer, in hand only to relinquish it prior to entering the ring by throwing it through a glass wall. Early in the match, Triple H did everything in his power to hurt Orton without being disqualified in the process. Orton performed a Back Body Drop to Triple H onto the Spanish announce table. At one point, Orton threw Triple H to a turnbuckle where the referee was standing, causing him to collide, and knocked out the referee. After executing an RKO on Triple H, Orton tried to gain more advantage and went out of the ring to pick up Triple H's signature weapon, the sledgehammer. As Orton made his way back to the ring, Triple H delivered a punt kick to Orton. Triple H took his sledgehammer from Orton, hit him with it and executed the Pedigree to retain the WWE Championship.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania 25 received mixed reviews from various sources. Gordon Holmes of Comcast criticized the mini-concert by Kid Rock, stating that \"Kid Rock gets ten minutes and The Miz and Morrison don't? Blasphemy!\" [sic] He also criticized the 25-Divas Battle Royal which \"was a bit of a mess, we didn't even get proper introductions for returning Divas like Sunny, Molly Holly, and Torrie Wilson.\" Dale Plummer of Canadian Online Explorer's Slam! Sports stated that \"the top of this year's card looked an awful lot like last year's. Just swap out Floyd Mayweather Jr. for Shawn Michaels and everyone else was the same.\" However, he praised the Undertaker vs. Shawn Michaels match by rating it a ten out of ten, his highest rated match. The main event received a seven out of ten. Overall, he rated the event 7.5 out of ten. Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter also criticized Kid Rock's performance, but praised the Undertaker vs. Michaels match. He rated it five out of five, and stated that \"the match that deserved to end this show was Taker-Michaels.\" IGN offered their own review of WrestleMania 25, with IGN TV writer Dan Iverson praising Kofi Kingston, Shawn Michaels, and Ricky Steamboat for their performances, but also criticizing WWE for not showing the Tag Team unification match during the event itself. He finished off the review by stating: \"It was just too bad that the potential of the card wasn't lived up to\", also giving it an overall rating of seven out of 10. Arash Markazi of Sports Illustrated wrote that Mickey Rourke's appearance \"may have been one of the worst executed in WrestleMania history.\"\nThe Randy Orton vs. Triple H main event was generally regarded by critics as a disappointing ending to the show. Holmes of Comcast.net believes that the match \"never seemed to click\" and Kevin Eck of The Baltimore Sun stated that he was \"disappointed that it didn’t feel more special after some great angles on TV.\" Nick Tywalk of Slam! Wrestling wrote that it was \"solid and had its share of drama, but the lack of outside interference or plot twists of any kind failed to spark the same feeling of energy Reliant Stadium had in it a few hours before. It was almost a \"That's it?\" reaction that first came to mind.\" Wade Keller gave the match 3.75 out of 5. He called the match \"good, both well-plotted and well-executed, appropriate to the storyline and feud\", but added that \"it just wasn't able to follow the classic two matches earlier.\"\nThe match between The Undertaker and Shawn Michaels is widely acclaimed, earning the 2009 Match of the Year award from both Pro Wrestling Illustrated and the Wrestling Observer Newsletter, as well as Match of the Year at the 2009 WWE Slammy Awards. Regarded as one of the greatest matches in the history of professional wrestling, Bret Hart called it \"one of the best matches I've seen in years\", while Triple H, Tony Schiavone, and Shane Taylor have dubbed it the greatest ever, as well as publications such as Bleacher Report. Jim Ross stated he had \"never seen a more psychologically compelling match than Shawn and Taker had that night\" and Arn Anderson said \"If you want to sit down and put up with somebody who’s never seen a wrestling match, and you want them to have a favorable impression, show them that match.” Dave Meltzer gave the match 4 and 3/4 stars out of 5 but stated that he felt \"there was a predictableness to it\" which prevented it from being a 5-star match. Undertaker affirmed that both he and Michaels \"delivered on every aspect of storytelling and match quality\", and Michaels himself called the match \"the most perfect, beautiful thing I've ever performed inside a wrestling ring in my life\". WWE ranked it at the top of their list of \"The 100 best matches to see before you die\".\n\nAftermath\nThe rivalry between Triple H and Randy Orton continued after WrestleMania when both men would meet in a six-man tag team match at Backlash on the following episode of Raw. The match would pit Triple H, Shane McMahon and Vince McMahon against The Legacy (Orton with his protégés, Ted DiBiase Jr. and Cody Rhodes). Vince's part in the match was later replaced by a returning Batista. At Backlash, Randy Orton and The Legacy defeated Triple H, Shane, and Batista for the WWE Championship. Triple H was put out of action after being punted by Orton after the events of the pay-per-view, while Shane was attacked by Legacy and was taken out on a stretcher. Two months later, Batista later suffered the same fate and was taken out of the building by security, while Triple H made his return and continued his feud with Randy Orton. They would later battle in a Last Man Standing match on Raw for the WWE Championship which went to a no contest, then at The Bash, Randy Orton defeated Triple H in a Three Stages of Hell match, and would later end their feud in a triple threat Match at Night of Champions, with Randy Orton retaining his title against both Triple H and John Cena. Orton would then begin a feud with Cena while Triple H would go out to re-unite DX.\nOn the same episode of Raw, it was announced that Vickie Guerrero would vacate her role as SmackDown general manager to become the new permanent Raw general manager. As her first act, Guerrero announced that John Cena would defend his World Heavyweight Championship at Backlash against Edge in a Last Man Standing match.\nThe animosity between Matt and Jeff Hardy continued on the episode of SmackDown following WrestleMania, leading to continued assaults between the two; newly appointed SmackDown general manager, Theodore Long would announce one last match between the two at Backlash, an \"I Quit\" match.\nCM Punk would be drafted to the SmackDown brand, which would see him try on multiple occasions to invoke his contractually-guaranteed title match from winning the Money in the Bank ladder match; Punk would be able to get his match at Extreme Rules in June by defeating Jeff Hardy to win the World Heavyweight Championship. Prior to CM Punk defeating Jeff Hardy, Hardy was involved in a World Heavyweight Championship ladder match with Edge. Hardy had managed to trap Edge between the ladder, climb it, and retrieve the hanging belt. It was at this point that CM Punk cashed in his Money in the Bank briefcase. As the briefcase guaranteed a title shot, CM Punk capitalized from an exhausted Jeff Hardy. CM Punk had hit the \"GTS\" (Go to Sleep) yet remarkably Hardy kicked out. CM Punk then hit a second one to win the World Heavyweight Championship.\nAfter the events of WrestleMania, both Shawn Michaels and The Undertaker took a four-month hiatus from the WWE. Shawn came back to reform D-Generation X (D-X) with Triple H so that they came face to face with The Legacy at SummerSlam. The Undertaker also returned at SummerSlam and attacked the then-World Heavyweight Champion, CM Punk. At the Slammy Awards, The Undertaker and Shawn Michaels won the Best Match of the Year, with Michaels expressing that he was glad that he had created history at WrestleMania, but just when he was about to leave, he challenged the Undertaker to a rematch at the next WrestleMania. The Undertaker later denied the challenge, saying he had nothing more to prove to Michaels, and told Michaels that he would have to earn the spot. Michaels later entered the 2010 Royal Rumble, but would be eliminated by Batista. He later tried to enter the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship, but he was defeated by Randy Orton to earn the spot. Then at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view, Michaels cost The Undertaker his World Heavyweight Championship. The next night on Raw, The Undertaker accepted the rematch, but only on the condition that Michaels would retire from WWE if he lost. At WrestleMania XXVI, The Undertaker defeated Michaels in a Streak vs. Career Match, thus ending Michaels' career. The next night on Raw, Michaels said farewell to WWE, with his best friend and D-X member Triple H right next to him as they spent their last time, together before Michaels finally left the building.\nWrestleMania 25 was the last WrestleMania to feature the ECW brand, and subsequently the ECW Championship, as the brand was disbanded in February 2010, deactivating the championship along with it.\n\nResults\na Lumberjacks included The Brian Kendrick, Charlie Haas, Curt Hawkins, Dolph Ziggler, Evan Bourne, Ezekiel Jackson, Hurricane Helms, Goldust, The Great Khali, Jack Swagger, Jamie Noble, Jimmy Wang Yang, JTG, Mike Knox, Paul Burchill, R-Truth, Shad Gaspard, Tommy Dreamer, Vladimir Kozlov, William Regal and Zack Ryder.\nb Also in the match were Alicia Fox, Brie Bella, Eve Torres, Gail Kim, Jackie Gayda, Jillian Hall, Joy Giovanni, Katie Lea Burchill, Kelly Kelly, Layla, Maria, Maryse, Melina, Michelle McCool, Mickie James, Molly Holly, Natalya, Nikki Bella, Rosa Mendes, Sunny, Tiffany, Torrie Wilson and Victoria.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania 25",
"title": "WrestleMania_25"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XXVI was the 26th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on March 28, 2010, at the University of Phoenix Stadium in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona. It was the first WrestleMania since WrestleMania XI with a non-title match as a main event, the first WrestleMania held in Arizona, and the third held in an open-air venue, after WrestleMania IX and WrestleMania XXIV.\nThe card consisted of eight matches, including three main matches. The final match on the card was a no disqualification, no countout match where The Undertaker defeated Shawn Michaels to improve his undefeated WrestleMania streak to 18–0; per the pre-match stipulation, Michaels was forced to retire (though he would wrestle one more match at Crown Jewel 2018). In the main match from the SmackDown brand, World Heavyweight Champion Chris Jericho defeated the 2010 Royal Rumble winner Edge to retain the title. In Raw's main match, John Cena defeated Batista to win the WWE Championship. The undercard also included a No Holds Barred match between Bret Hart and Mr. McMahon and the sixth annual Money in the Bank ladder match, which was the last to be contested at a WrestleMania before it became a stand-alone PPV event in July.\nTickets for the event commenced sale to the public on November 7, 2009. WrestleMania XXVI generated approximately 885,000 PPV buys, grossing US$49 million in revenue. With an attendance of 72,219, the event grossed $5.8 million in ticket sales, making the event the highest grossing and attended entertainment event held at the University of Phoenix Stadium.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania XXVI featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brand divisions.\nGlobal Spectrum, the University of Phoenix Stadium's operator, had worked in previous years with WWE to recruit the event to its venue in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona. On January 18, 2008, Global Spectrum publicly announced its intention to host WrestleMania in 2010. The event gained media attention in the weeks prior when a photo of Wayne Gretzky, then head coach of the Phoenix Coyotes, wearing a shirt promoting the event surfaced in the Swedish newspaper Expressen. At a press conference on February 24, 2009, at the University of Phoenix Stadium, WrestleMania XXVI was formally announced to be held at the venue on March 28, 2010; it marked the first time a WrestleMania had taken place in the state of Arizona. Tickets for the event went on sale November 7, 2009, at 10:00am MST.\n\nThe roof of the University of Phoenix Stadium was opened several times during the event, marking the third time in WrestleMania history after WrestleMania IX and XXIV that the event has been held in an open-air venue. As in the previous open-air events, a steel tarpaulin structure was placed over the ring, which was placed at the 50-yard line. Custom-built from Belgium, the tarpaulin held 30 tons of light and camera equipment, with much of the equipment shipped from the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Over 1,000 lights were used, adapting to the decrease in sunlight as the show continued into the night. The entrance stage stood 8 feet (2.4 m) off the stadium floor and measured 120 feet (37 m) wide. In an interview with The Arizona Republic, production manager Brian Petree described the stage design as a \"completely new design that hasn't been done anywhere and won't be done again\", while production designer Jason Robinson discussed basing his stage design themes often on local flavors, or in simple terms, the stage design of this year's WrestleMania simply resembles to that of a ziggurat. The entrance ramp linking to the stage has been lined with cauldrons of fire, each at a temperature of 1,000 °F (538 °C). In addition, 400,000 individual pieces of pyrotechnic product have been launched 200 feet (61 m) into the open air after Robinson promised to introduce new types of pyrotechnics never used in a WWE show before. Pre-planning for the set-up began six months before the event, while the construction structures and equipment inside the stadium began two weeks before the event. It is estimated that 100 trucks were used to deliver equipment, in comparison to the 12 semi-trucks used in a regular WWE show.\nThe official theme songs for the event were \"I Made It\" by Kevin Rudolf, \"Be Yourself\" by Audioslave, \"Thunderstruck\" by AC/DC, and \"The Show\" by Since October. \"Ain't No Grave (Gonna Hold My Body Down)\" by Johnny Cash was also used to promote the Undertaker-Michaels match. Fantasia Barrino performed the annual rendition of \"America the Beautiful\" at the start of the show. The commentators were Michael Cole, Jerry Lawler, and Matt Striker.\n\nMarketing\nAlong with WrestleMania XXVI, a series of events grouped as \"WrestleMania Week\" were held in the week preceding the event. To begin promotion for the event in Glendale, a \"Kick-off Party\" was held at the Westgate City Center on March 19, which included appearances from WWE wrestlers, autograph signings and live entertainment along with a giant LED screen viewing of that night's episode of SmackDown. The third annual WrestleMania Art (formerly WrestleManiArt), an art exhibition and auction featuring work by WWE superstars, was held on March 24 at the Make-A-Wish Foundation National Headquarters. WrestleMania's annual fan convention, WrestleMania Axxess, was held from March 25 through March 28 at the Phoenix Convention Center. On March 27, WWE hosted its annual WWE Hall of Fame ceremony at the Dodge Theater, where the Class of 2010 were inducted.\n\nStorylines\nThe professional wrestling matches at WrestleMania XXVI featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands—storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs.\nAt The Bash in 2009, Edge and Chris Jericho established a tag team partnership when they won the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship that night. Their partnership was short lived as Edge suffered a torn achilles tendon and had to vacate his half of the championship. Jericho distanced himself from Edge, crediting himself for all of the team's success. Edge made his return from injury at the Royal Rumble during the namesake match. Edge would eliminate Jericho en route to winning the Royal Rumble match, earning himself an opportunity to fight for either the WWE Championship or the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania. In the main event of the Elimination Chamber event three weeks later, Jericho won the World Heavyweight Championship in an Elimination Chamber match. The following night on Raw, Edge challenged Jericho for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania after spearing him.\nOne of the predominant rivalries heading into WrestleMania XXVI was between John Cena and Batista for the WWE Championship. The conflict started when Cena sided with Bret Hart over Hart's hostility with WWE Chairman Mr. McMahon. When Hart and McMahon confronted each other on the February 1 episode of Raw, Batista saved McMahon from an attack and ambushed Hart from behind. After the show ended, Cena tried to help Hart but was too attacked by Batista. In the opening match of the Elimination Chamber event, Cena won the WWE Championship from Sheamus in an Elimination Chamber match but was shortly interrupted by McMahon, who ordered a title match between Cena and Batista to take place on the spot. With Cena too tired to compete, Batista defeated him and won the title. On the February 22 episode of Raw, Cena asked for a rematch for the title at WrestleMania, which McMahon gave him the opportunity to as long as he defeated Batista that night. Later that night, Batista intentionally got himself disqualified by kicking Cena in the groin to set up their match at WrestleMania.\nAt WrestleMania 25, Shawn Michaels was unsuccessful in defeating The Undertaker and ending Undertaker's undefeated streak at the event. When the match won the 2009 Slammy Award for Match of the Year, Michaels stated in his acceptance speech that he could still defeat The Undertaker at WrestleMania and challenged him to a rematch. A month later, The Undertaker, then the World Heavyweight Champion, made his reply and denied a rematch, stating that he had nothing to prove to Michaels. The refusal saw Michaels obsess about facing the Undertaker at the event, attacking referee Charles Robinson and SmackDown general manager Theodore Long respectively after failing his title match opportunities in the Royal Rumble match and Elimination Chamber qualifiers. At the Elimination Chamber event, Michaels snuck into Undertaker's Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship and performed a Sweet Chin Music on The Undertaker, enabling Chris Jericho to defeat The Undertaker and win the World Heavyweight Championship. On the following night, The Undertaker changed his mind and accepted the rematch but with the stipulation that if Michaels loses, he would have to retire. Michaels accepted, noting that if he could not end the streak, there was no reason why his career should continue. Two weeks later, Michaels and The Undertaker agreed on another additional stipulation; that the match would have no disqualifications and no count-outs.\nOn the February 22 episode of Raw, the sixth annual Money in the Bank ladder match was set for WrestleMania XXVI. In this match, numerous participants compete to retrieve a briefcase that is suspended above the ring with a cable by climbing a ladder. The briefcase holds a symbolic contract which the holder would be able to exchange for a WWE or World Heavyweight match at any time or location of his choosing up until WrestleMania XXVII. The first qualifying match was held later that night, in which Christian defeated Carlito to qualify. Three more qualifying matches were held on the February 26 episode of SmackDown, which saw Dolph Ziggler defeat John Morrison and R-Truth in a triple threat match, Kane defeat Drew McIntyre, and Shelton Benjamin defeat CM Punk to qualify. The March 1 episode of Raw saw both Jack Swagger and Montel Vontavious Porter qualify by defeating Santino Marella and Zack Ryder respectively. Matt Hardy was the next to qualify for the match when he defeated Drew McIntyre on the March 5 episode of SmackDown. In what was initially declared as the final qualifying match, Evan Bourne defeated William Regal on the March 9 episode of Raw to become the eighth competitor. Due to his favorable association with Vince McMahon, McIntyre was given a third chance on the March 12 episode of SmackDown to qualify for the match, increasing the number of participants to nine. In what would also be made an Intercontinental Championship defense by Theodore Long, McIntyre defeated local competitor Aaron Bolo to qualify. On the March 22 episode of Raw, the number of participants was once again increased to a record ten, when Kofi Kingston defeated Vladimir Kozlov to qualify.\nAs the guest host of the January 4 episode of Raw, Bret Hart made his return to the show; the first time Hart had appeared since the Montreal Screwjob incident at the 1997 Survivor Series where Vince McMahon was involved in legitimately double-crossing Hart out of the WWF Championship. On Raw, Hart tried to put all hostilities aside and make peace with McMahon, but McMahon again betrayed Hart and kicked him in the groin. The rivalry was further fuelled during Hart's second appearance a month later, where McMahon refused to induct Hart's father, Stu Hart, into the WWE Hall of Fame. On the February 8 episode of Raw, John Cena called out McMahon and told him that Hart wanted to face him at WrestleMania, which McMahon accepted. Hart, who had been banned from the arena, showed up and attacked McMahon. Hiding behind security guards, McMahon changed his mind and canceled the bout. Unable to get his match, Hart addressed the fans a week later and decided to make his goodbye, thanking them. Later on that night, Hart was involved in a car accident when a reversing car smashed the open door from Hart's limousine onto his leg, sending Hart immediately to hospital. McMahon agreed to a \"proper farewell\" from Hart on the March 1 episode of Raw, but the segment ended up as a challenge from McMahon for a WrestleMania match. Despite initial reluctance from Hart due to his leg, Hart was convinced to accept after McMahon said he had no more heart, called him a coward and kicked his crutches from underneath him. A contract signing was held two weeks later, moderated by guest host Stone Cold Steve Austin, who reversed McMahon's decision on Stu Hart's induction into the Hall of Fame. Before the contract was signed, Hart asked for the match to be a No Holds Barred match, which McMahon agreed to. Afterward, Hart revealed that his leg was perfectly fine and that his car accident was a setup created by Cena and himself to force a match out of McMahon.\nOn the March 5 episode of SmackDown, ShoMiz (Big Show and The Miz) were scheduled to defend their Unified WWE Tag Team Championship at the event against a team who won a triple threat match between Cryme Tyme (Shad Gaspard and JTG), The Hart Dynasty (Davey Boy Smith Jr. and Tyson Kidd), and the pairing of The Miz's former partner John Morrison and R-Truth. Morrison and Truth would go on to win the qualifying match.\nAt the previous month's Elimination Chamber event, then-WWE Champion, Sheamus, was eliminated from Raw's Elimination Chamber match by Triple H. Two weeks later, Sheamus ambushed Triple H following his match teaming with Shawn Michaels against The Big Show and The Miz, and beat him down. The following week on Raw, Sheamus issued a challenge to Triple H at WrestleMania, which saw him accept.\nIn early 2009, Randy Orton had formed a contingency known as The Legacy, also featuring Ted DiBiase and Cody Rhodes. Later in that year, Orton had grown frustrated with his group, leading to a number of verbal confrontations and an assault on DiBiase, leading to the three of them having their membership being tested in matches under the threat of expulsion and a beat-down. The tension was staved off until the Royal Rumble which Rhodes accidentally prevented Orton from winning the WWE Championship. A similar result occurred the next month at the Elimination Chamber event with Rhodes trying to aide his partners in their Elimination Chamber match for the title as Orton was caught in the crossfire, leading to DiBiase eliminating Orton. And on the following night of Raw, Orton turned on his associates, leading to a Triple Threat match between the three men at WrestleMania.\nSince the beginning of 2010, CM Punk and his storyline disciples Luke Gallows and Serena had been on a crusade of sorts in order to promote the message of straight edge, a lifestyle that abstains from alcohol, tobacco, and recreational drug use; he did so by preaching his gospel to the crowd and sometimes by \"converting\" members of the crowd by shaving their heads. The three of them would call themselves the Straight Edge Society. On the February 12 episode of SmackDown, Punk faced Rey Mysterio in a losing effort. Following the match, he and his group assaulted Mysterio, leading to a series of interference between the two. The animosity would escalate between the two on the March 12 episode of SmackDown, when Mysterio brought his family into the ring to commemorate his daughter, Aaliyah's, 9th birthday. Punk interrupted the celebration by threatening Mysterio and taunting his children as they left the ring. The events came to a boiling point to Mysterio and Punk preparing to face each other at WrestleMania. Following Mysterio's loss to Gallows, the prematch stipulation for their match would be that if the former would lose, he would join the Straight Edge Society.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nA dark match was scheduled before the actual event, the superstars not involved in the event competed in a 26-man battle royal. Eventually Yoshi Tatsu, Zack Ryder, Finlay and Mike Knox were left. Finlay and Knox were eliminated by Ryder who himself was then kicked and eliminated by Tatsu to win the Battle Royal.\nAs the show went live, singer Fantasia performed the annual rendition of \"America the Beautiful\".\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe first match for the evening was a tag team match for the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship featuring champions ShoMiz (The Miz and Big Show) versus John Morrison and R-Truth. The Miz and Morrison started off the encounter, at one point Morrison attempted to hit Miz with the Starship Pain only for Big Show to come in for the save. Later, R-Truth tried to springboard onto the Big Show but was caught and hit against the ring post. The match ended when Big Show blind tagged himself in and knocked out Morrison, pinning him to win the match and retain the titles.\n\nThe second bout was a triple threat match between Randy Orton, Ted DiBiase, and Cody Rhodes, all formerly of the stable known as Legacy. Rhodes and DiBiase spent most of the match double teaming Orton, however when DiBiase attempted to pin Orton, he was stopped by Rhodes. This turned into a brawl between the two which led to Orton taking the advantage. The match ended when Orton punted Rhodes and executed the RKO on DiBiase to win the fall.\nThe annual Money in the Bank ladder match took place next, with Jack Swagger, Christian, Dolph Ziggler, Drew McIntyre, Evan Bourne, Kane, Kofi Kingston, Montel Vontavious Porter, Shelton Benjamin, and Matt Hardy as the participants. It started off with every superstar trying to incapacitate each other long enough to climb and retrieve the briefcase. In between Swagger was stuck in between a ladder with Christian and Hardy hitting him with two ladders of their own. Another instance was when Bourne performed a shooting star press, known as Air Bourne, on Christian from a vertically placed ladder wedged between another and the middle rope. The match came to an end when Swagger hit Christian with the Money in the Bank briefcase and unhooked it to become the new Mr. Money in the Bank.\nAfter that match, the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2010 was introduced.\nThe fourth match was contested between Triple H and Sheamus. The match started with Sheamus taunting Triple H and calling himself the future of the business. He then spent most of the time dominating Triple H with his backbreaker and submission moves. Triple H then took back control of the match by performing a Facebreaker knee smash and spinebuster on Sheamus. Sheamus then executed a Brogue Kick on Triple H for a near-fall, and then tried to execute a powerbomb only for Triple H to reverse and execute a Pedigree to win the match.\nIn the fifth match, CM Punk faced Rey Mysterio. A malfunction in Mysterio's opening delayed the match. The bout went evenly matched throughout with neither superstars managing to get the advantage for long. CM Punk's disciples Luke Gallows and Serena attempted to interfere throughout the match. The end came when Serena distracted the referee and Gallows tried to distract Rey Mysterio. Punk lifted Mysterio from behind and attempted to execute the G.T.S but was reversed into the 619. Mysterio then executed a diving splash and pinned him for the win.\nMr. McMahon took on Bret Hart next, with Bruce Hart as the special guest referee. McMahon entered and informed Hart that he wanted to give him a \"WrestleMania sized\" screwing and called out Hart's family, asserted he had paid them to turn on Hart. Hart then informed McMahon that his family had informed him about this before and that they would screw Vince instead. The match included members of the Hart family including The Hart Dynasty beating on McMahon. Hart then placed McMahon in the Sharpshooter, with McMahon tapping out to end the match.\n\nMain event matches\nThe seventh match was for the World Heavyweight Championship between Edge and reigning champion Chris Jericho. Each man tried to get the better of each other only to be countered every time. Edge tried for a Spear but Jericho countered with a Codebreaker for a near-fall. He applied the Walls of Jericho, but Edge was able to break the hold. The match ended when Jericho hit Edge with the championship belt and executed a second Codebreaker to win and retain his title. After the match, Jericho attempted to attack Edge but was fought off and speared by Edge through the barricade.\nNext, a ten-diva tag team match pitted Women's Champion Michelle McCool, Divas Champion Maryse, Layla, Alicia Fox, and Vickie Guerrero against Mickie James, Beth Phoenix, Eve, Kelly Kelly, and Gail Kim. Guerrero pinned Kelly to win the match for her team.\nThe penultimate match was Batista defending the WWE Championship against John Cena. Cena entered the ring after a performance from the U.S. Air Force Honor Guard Drill Team. Batista dominated the first half of the match. Cena made a return after hitting a suplex. The match started to go evenly after that. An instance included Cena executing the Five Knuckle Shuffle off the top turnbuckle. Then Batista delivered a Batista Bomb for a two-count and Cena delivered an Attitude Adjustment for a two-count. The match came to an end after Cena reversed a Batista Bomb into an STF. Batista eventually submitted. Cena won the match and the WWE Championship, making him a nine-time World champion.\n\nThe 10th and final match of the event was billed as \"Streak vs Career\" and pitted The Undertaker against Shawn Michaels. The match started out with both men executing their signature moves early on. The Undertaker injured his leg while performing Old School and Michaels focused on his leg. The action then went outside the ring. An instance included The Undertaker executing a Tombstone Piledriver on the stadium floor, but Michaels kicked out when The Undertaker tried to pin him in the ring. Later in the match, Michaels executed a Sweet Chin Music for a near-fall. Soon after, The Undertaker also executed a Chokeslam and a Last Ride successfully, but Michaels kicked out of each. Michaels also applied numerous submission maneuvers on The Undertaker's injured ankle, such as the Ankle Lock, Figure Four Leglock, and Crossface, but The Undertaker was successful in countering all of them. The Undertaker also applied the Hell's Gate, but Michaels reversed it into a pin attempt, with The Undertaker kicking out at two. When the action spilled outside again, The Undertaker attempted a Last Ride on the announce table, but Michaels countered it and executed a second Sweet Chin Music, which placed The Undertaker on top of the announce table. Michaels performed a moonsault aiming at The Undertaker's injured ankle through the announce table. After taking The Undertaker back in the ring again, Michaels then executed his third Sweet Chin Music for a dramatic near-fall. Michaels then attempted Sweet Chin Music again but The Undertaker countered into a Chokeslam, and quickly followed up by executing a second Tombstone Piledriver for a near fall. The Undertaker began to signal the end for Michaels, but stopped his cut-throat action and told Michaels to stay down. Michaels, however, taunted The Undertaker by completing the action on his own and slapping him in the face. Then The Undertaker responded with a third jumping Tombstone Piledriver and pinned the fallen Michaels for the win, and extended his undefeated streak at WrestleMania to 18–0, ending Michaels' career. After the match, the two shook hands and embraced. The Undertaker soon left and Michaels interacted with the fans for the final time as the event came to a close.\n\nReception\nThe event has received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event 6.5 out of 10, down from its WrestleMania 25 rating of 9 out of 10. The Money in the Bank ladder match received 7 out of 10, the World Heavyweight Championship match received 8 out of 10 and the WWE Championship received 6.5 out of 10. The main event received a 9.5 out of 10 rating. WrestleMania 26 was also ranked 1st by YouTube wrestling channel Cultaholic in their 2020 ranking of every 2010 PPV from Worst to Best.\nThe main event was ranked as the best WrestleMania main event of all time by Cultaholic in 2019. Drew McIntyre, who was originally supposed to face The Undertaker at the event, called the bout \"a phenomenal match\".\n\nAftermath\nThe next night on Raw, Shawn Michaels gave his farewell address to the fans. The episode was a tribute to Michaels, with many vignettes airing periodically before commercials, highlighting his accomplishments and his greatest matches. In his address, Michaels thanked all the fans and specifically Vince McMahon, Bret Hart and Triple H on supporting him throughout his career. The Undertaker also made an appearance when he tipped his hat to Shawn as a sign of respect.\nBefore Michaels' farewell speech, Triple H came out and stated how much he would miss him and remembered all the good times they had. Before he could continue any more, however, he was attacked by his WrestleMania opponent Sheamus. This set up a rematch between the two in a Street Fight at Extreme Rules. Not only would Sheamus win that match, but he would also put Triple H out of action indefinitely following a round of Brogue Kicks to Triple H's skull.\nThe feud between Batista and John Cena continued as Batista came out and demanded he be awarded the WWE Championship back and that he never lost the match at WrestleMania in the first place. Later on, after a tag team match, Batista attacked Cena and said that he wouldn't be making anyone tap out anymore as he invoked his rematch clause at Extreme Rules and that it would be a Last Man Standing match. Cena emerged victorious after duct-taping Batista's legs to the ring post. The two would face off one final time at Over the Limit in an \"I Quit\" match, and after making him scream \"I Quit!\", Cena would then slam Batista through the stage set off the top of an automobile. The next night on Raw, an injured Batista quit the company out of frustration over the losses and new Raw general manager Bret Hart denying him a future rematch against Cena.\nOn the episode of SmackDown after WrestleMania, Chris Jericho came out to flaunt the fact that he had defeated Edge at the event. In the middle of his speech, Edge attacked him again and hit him with another spear after stripping Jericho, revealing his injured ribs as a result of Edge's spear at Wrestlemania. Jack Swagger then came from behind and hit Edge with the Money in the Bank briefcase he had won at WrestleMania. He then cashed in his title opportunity and performed a Gutwrench Powerbomb on Jericho, thus winning the World Heavyweight Championship.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XXVI",
"title": "WrestleMania_XXVI"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XXVII was the 27th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on April 3, 2011, at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia. The event was the first WrestleMania held in the state of Georgia and the second to be held in Southeastern United States, following WrestleMania XXIV. It was also the final WrestleMania held during the first brand extension, which ended in August, but was reinstated in July 2016. This was also the company's final event to be promoted under the full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, as immediately following this event, the company strictly began to refer to itself by the WWE abbreviation. Dwayne \"The Rock\" Johnson served as the host of the event.\nThe event's card consisted of eight matches, including three main matches. The final match of the event was the main match from Raw, where The Miz defeated John Cena to retain the WWE Championship thanks to help from The Rock, setting up the main event of WrestleMania XXVIII between Rock and Cena. SmackDown's main match saw Edge defeat Alberto Del Rio to retain the World Heavyweight Championship—this would be Edge's final match until 2020. In the other marquee match, The Undertaker defeated Triple H in a No Holds Barred match to extend his undefeated WrestleMania streak to 19–0. This is the first and so far only WrestleMania in which no championships changed hands.\nTickets for the event commenced sale to the public on November 13, 2010. According to WWE's second-quarter earnings report, WrestleMania XXVII generated 1,059,000 PPV buys, up roughly 30% domestically and 15% internationally from the previous year. The event grossed US$6.6 million in revenue with 71,617 in attendance, making it the third highest grossing event in WWE behind WrestleMania 25 and the next year's event WrestleMania XXVIII. It generated $62.1 million in economic impact for Atlanta, a $17 million increase from the previous WrestleMania event, and also generated approximately $7.8 million in local, state and county taxes.\nCritically, the event received a mixed reception. Praise went towards the World Heavyweight Championship match, Punk vs. Orton, and Triple H vs. The Undertaker. Criticism went towards the tag matches, the main event, and Lawler vs. Cole, the latter of which has been named one of the worst matches in WrestleMania history.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania XXVII was scheduled to be held on April 3, 2011, at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, Georgia. It featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands.\nIn September 2009, it was reported that the city of Atlanta was seeking to host WrestleMania XXVII at the Georgia Dome. Atlanta's main rival bid came from the city of Miami, Florida, which proposed to host the event at Sun Life Stadium along with WrestleMania Axxess at the Miami Beach Convention Center and the WWE Hall of Fame ceremony at the American Airlines Arena. Miami would eventually become the host for WrestleMania XXVIII. Atlanta was formally announced as the site at a press conference on February 1, 2010. According to WWE's senior vice president of special events, John Saboor, Atlanta was ultimately chosen for, among other reasons, \"their track record of success with large events, rich in its tradition with the WWE, and great infrastructure.\" The event marked the first time WrestleMania was held in the state of Georgia.\nAlong with WrestleMania XXVII, a series of events grouped as \"WrestleMania Week\" was held in the week preceding the event including WrestleMania's annual WrestleMania Axxess fan convention, the 2011 WWE Hall of Fame ceremony, the fourth annual WrestleMania Art exhibition and auction, and a Celebrity Pro-Am Golf tournament. WrestleMania Axxess was held at the Georgia World Congress Center, while the WWE Hall of Fame ceremony took place at the Philips Arena. It was the first pay-per-view event under WWE's promotional rights deal with Kmart. Under the deal, Kmart will be the official sponsor for all of WWE's live events in the United States for the rest of 2011. As another part of the promotion for the event, WWE Magazine released a \"Guide to WrestleMania XXVII\" app for the iPhone, iPod Touch and iPad, offering information about the upcoming event as well as trivia from past events.\n\"Written in the Stars\" by Tinie Tempah was the theme song for the event. \"Diamond Eyes (Boom-Lay Boom-Lay Boom)\" by Shinedown served as the secondary theme song, while R&B singer Keri Hilson performed \"America the Beautiful\" at the start of the show. Celebrities and former wrestlers that appeared in WrestleMania XXVII segments include Snoop Dogg, Pee Wee Herman, Gene Okerlund, Mae Young, and Roddy Piper.\nOn August 13, 2011, a one-hour special including the opening segment, the Triple H vs. Undertaker match, and the post-WrestleMania confrontation between The Rock and John Cena was broadcast on NBC under the title WrestleMania XXVII: The World Television Premiere.\n\nStorylines\nThe professional wrestling matches at WrestleMania XXVII featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands—storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs.\nThe predominant rivalry for the Raw brand involved Dwayne \"The Rock\" Johnson, John Cena and the reigning WWE Champion, The Miz. On the February 14 episode of Raw, The Rock was announced as host for WrestleMania XXVII. In his first appearance in a WWE ring in seven years, The Rock publicly mocked both The Miz and Cena. At the following week's Elimination Chamber event, Cena won the Raw brand's annual Elimination Chamber match to earn himself a WWE Championship opportunity against The Miz. One night later on Raw, both Cena and The Miz derided The Rock's previous comments, with Cena producing a rap questioning The Rock's true commitment to WWE over his acting career. Via satellite, The Rock responded to Cena's rap on the February 28 edition of Raw, citing that he started a movie career to help open the door for other wrestlers to go to Hollywood, including The Miz and Cena himself. On the March 28 episode of Raw, The Rock and Cena confronted each other face to face before WrestleMania, until The Miz came out. The Miz and his protégé, Alex Riley, attacked The Rock, who managed to fight back both men. After the assault, Cena performed an Attitude Adjustment on The Rock to end the show.\nStarting from the January 31 episode of Raw, mysterious vignettes began promoting the return of a mysterious wrestler on \"2.21.11\". On the February 21 edition of Raw, The Undertaker was revealed as the mysterious figure, who made his return after a four-month absence. However, The Undertaker's return was interrupted by a returning Triple H. The two men stared each other down and both peered at the WrestleMania sign, teasing a possible challenge at WrestleMania XXVII. The match was confirmed four days later on WWE's official website. This match marks the second time the two would face each other at a WrestleMania, the first being WrestleMania X-Seven ten years earlier. Before their WrestleMania match, both men had a face to face encounter on the March 28 episode of Raw, only to be interrupted by Shawn Michaels, who criticized Triple H for believing that he could defeat The Undertaker at WrestleMania, something that Michaels wasn't able to do at the previous years' event. After The Undertaker stated that Michaels was history, Michaels attempted to perform a Superkick on him, but The Undertaker retaliated with a Chokeslam that was stopped by Triple H, who then asked Michaels why he is going to defeat The Undertaker at WrestleMania. Michaels, however, left the ring, unable to give Triple H an answer, believing that Triple H couldn't defeat The Undertaker at the event.\nSince 1993, the winner of the annual Royal Rumble match at the January event of the same name has won the opportunity to fight for a world championship at WrestleMania. Alberto Del Rio won the match in 2011 and challenged Edge for the World Heavyweight Championship. This led to a series of assaults from Del Rio to Edge in the following weeks. However, Edge was joined by the returning Christian, who aided Edge from Del Rio and his bodyguard Brodus Clay, and proceeded to be in Edge's corner at WrestleMania.\nIn December 2010, Raw color commentator Jerry Lawler began a feud with fellow announcer Michael Cole when the anonymous Raw General Manager gave Lawler a WWE Championship match in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match against defending champion The Miz. As Lawler started to climb the ladder to retrieve the belt, Cole interfered and prevented Lawler from winning the match. On the February 21 edition of Raw, Cole mocked Lawler for losing his rematch against The Miz at Elimination Chamber as well as his dreams of having a WrestleMania match, going as far as even mentioning Lawler's mother who died weeks earlier. Lawler responded by challenging Cole to a match at WrestleMania, which Cole denied before running through the crowd. A week later, Cole accepted Lawler's challenge under two conditions – that his trainer Jack Swagger would be in his corner, and that he could choose a special guest referee – which Lawler accepted. The following week, Cole revealed John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield (JBL) as the special guest referee. However, Steve Austin, who made his return that night, interfered in the contract signing by delivering a Stone Cold Stunner to JBL and signing the contract himself, thereby becoming the special guest referee of their match. Cole continued to insult Lawler on the following weeks, even bringing Lawler's son Brian Christopher, who insulted Lawler, and calling him a bad father, before slapping him in the face and leaving. After that, Jim Ross, Lawler's best friend, confronted Cole and called him a \"rat bastard\", for which Swagger attacked Ross, and later Lawler, who attempted to save Ross.\nAnother plot building up towards WrestleMania involved CM Punk and Randy Orton. At the beginning of the year, Punk became the leader of The New Nexus. At the Royal Rumble pay-per-view, Punk cost Orton his WWE Championship match against defending champion The Miz. The following night on Raw, Orton retaliated by assaulting Punk's fellow New Nexus members Michael McGillicutty and Husky Harris, resulting in Harris being punted in the head. On the February 7 episode of Raw, Punk revealed that his actions were his revenge on Orton for punting him in the head at Unforgiven in September 2008, where Punk was unable to defend his World Heavyweight Championship due to Orton's attack and subsequently forced to vacate his title. On February 28, the anonymous Raw general manager scheduled a match between Punk and Orton at WrestleMania. In addition, the General Manager announced that Orton would face one of the members of the New Nexus throughout the following weeks. If Orton lost, his opponents would be allowed to be in Punk's corner at WrestleMania; if he won, his opponent would be banned from attending the event. Orton won all of his matches, so Michael McGillicutty, David Otunga, and Mason Ryan were all banned from ringside at the event. After each victory, Orton would punt each member in the head in order to send a message to Punk. On the March 21 episode of Raw, Punk distracted Orton during his \"WrestleMania Rewind\" match with Rey Mysterio and used Orton's wife as bait to lure him to the parking lot, where he attacked Orton's knee with a wrench. The following week, on the Raw before WrestleMania, both men brawled with each other, which ended after Punk performed a Go To Sleep on Orton after taking advantage of his injured knee.\nAnother feud heading into WrestleMania was between Rey Mysterio and Cody Rhodes. On the January 21 edition of SmackDown, Mysterio and Rhodes had a match in which Mysterio broke the nose of Rhodes with the 619. Rhodes, who underwent facial reconstruction surgery, later accused Mysterio of forcing him to miss the Royal Rumble match and the Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship, as well as ruining his 'dashing' gimmick. On the February 25 edition of SmackDown, Cody's father, Dusty Rhodes, came out to talk to Mysterio and asked Rhodes to apologize for his accusation, but it turned out to be a setup to allow Rhodes to attack and unmask Mysterio. The next week Rhodes challenged Mysterio to a match at WrestleMania, which was accepted by Mysterio. The following week, Rhodes attacked Mysterio again, during Mysterio's match against Drew McIntyre. However, Mysterio retailed the following week, attacking Rhodes, until Rhodes escaped the ring.\nOn the March 14 episode of Raw, Nicole \"Snooki\" Polizzi appeared as a guest star and exchanged insults with Vickie Guerrero backstage. Later that night, Vickie defeated Trish Stratus with the help of LayCool (Michelle McCool and Layla). After the match, Snooki, who observed the match at ringside, took down LayCool after being provoked by McCool. A brawl ensued between Snooki & Stratus and LayCool until LayCool retreated from the ring. Vickie then proposed a six-person mixed tag team match at WrestleMania between LayCool & her boyfriend, Dolph Ziggler, and Snooki, Stratus, and John Morrison which Snooki accepted. In the buildup to the match, a vignette aired, showing Snooki and Stratus in a bar, where Stratus said that they were training for their WrestleMania match. On the vignette, Snooki fought a man, and later Snooki and Stratus fought LayCool on the bar after LayCool started mocking Snooki and Stratus.\nIn an eight-man tag team match, The Corre (Wade Barrett, Ezekiel Jackson, Justin Gabriel and Heath Slater) were originally scheduled to wrestle Big Show, Kane, Santino Marella and Vladimir Kozlov at WrestleMania. The Corre had been going after Show on SmackDown, but Show and Kane joined forces to beat down The Corre on Raw two weeks before WrestleMania. Later, Kane and Show helped Kozlov & Marella fend off an attack by The Corre. On April 2, after a WrestleMania Axxess match between Kozlov and Tyler Reks, The Corre attacked Kozlov, leaving his shoulder injured. Kofi Kingston, who recently lost the Intercontinental Championship to Barrett, was chosen as Kozlov's replacement.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nBefore the event aired, two dark matches took place. In the first match pitted Sheamus against Daniel Bryan in a lumberjack match for the United States Championship. During the match, a brawl broke out between the lumberjacks outside the ring, resulting in the match ending in a no contest. SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long then called for a battle royal to take place. The Great Khali won the match after last eliminating Sheamus.\n\nPreliminary matches\nAs the show went live on pay-per-view, R&B singer Keri Hilson performed \"America the Beautiful\". Soon after, The Rock, the guest host, walked to the ring and cut a promo, mocking John Cena as well as firing up the crowd for WrestleMania.\n\nIn the first match Edge (with Christian) defended the World Heavyweight Championship against the 2011 Royal Rumble winner Alberto Del Rio (with Ricardo Rodriguez and Brodus Clay). Early in the match, Del Rio focused on Edge's injured arm and Christian fended off Clay and Rodriguez. After some back and forth action, the ending came when Edge applied the Edgecator while Del Rio applied the Cross Armbreaker. When both men got up, Edge delivered the Spear for the win. After the match, Edge and Christian destroyed Del Rio's car. This was Edge's last televised match, as he retired the next week on Raw due to a legitimate neck injury. Edge has since been medically cleared to wrestle again, returning to in-ring competition nearly 9 years later at the 2020 Royal Rumble.\nThe next match pitted Cody Rhodes against Rey Mysterio, who came out dressed as Captain America. Rhodes dominated most of the match, however, Mysterio managed to gain control later on. The ending saw Mysterio removed Rhodes' face mask and deliver headbutts but Rhodes countered by removing Mysterio's knee brace. When Rey went for a dive, Rhodes knocked out Mysterio with the knee brace and executed the Cross Rhodes for the win.\nIn the next match, Kane, Big Show, Santino Marella and Kofi Kingston faced The Corre (Wade Barrett, Ezekiel Jackson, Heath Slater and Justin Gabriel) in an 8-Man Tag Team Match. The match lasted two minutes, ending with Slater receiving a Cobra from Santino and a WMD from Big Show. Big Show then pinned Slater to win.\nIn the next match, Randy Orton faced CM Punk, with the New Nexus banned from ringside. Punk spent most of the match focusing on Orton's injured knee until Orton gained control later in the match. Orton then attempted a punt kick, but his injured knee stopped him. Punk attempted the GTS, but Orton went for an RKO. Punk dodged and went for a Springboard clothesline, but Orton delivered an RKO for the win.\n\nIn the next match, Michael Cole (with Jack Swagger) faced Jerry Lawler, with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the special guest referee. For this match, Booker T and Jim Ross joined Josh Mathews on commentary. The match began with Lawler trying to get Cole out of his \"Cole Mine\", a small glass box that Cole would announce from. After some time, he did so and started attacking him. Cole managed to counter and had the upper hand on Lawler for most of the match. Swagger tried to help Cole by throwing in the towel when Lawler began to take control but was denied and received a Stone Cold Stunner. Lawler then forced Cole to submit with the ankle lock while Stone Cold mocked him. After the match, Stone Cold shared a beer with Lawler and stunned Booker T, who came out to celebrate with Lawler. After Lawler had seemingly won, the anonymous Raw GM reversed the decision in an email read by Mathews because Stone Cold was a biased referee, making Cole the winner by disqualification. Stone Cold then proceeded to stun Mathews as well in retribution. Lawler then replaced Mathews and Booker T as the color commentator for the rest of the night, with Jim Ross doing the play-by-play.\n\nIn the next match, The Undertaker faced Triple H in a No Holds Barred Match. Triple H entered to \"For Whom The Bell Tolls\" by Metallica wearing a mask and suit, then removed it for his normal entrance theme. Undertaker entered to \"Ain't No Grave\" by Johnny Cash wearing a hat and suit, although this is replaced with his original entrance music on the WWE Network. The match began with Undertaker and Triple H brawling outside of the ring, destroying Michael Cole's \"Cole Mine\" in the process. Triple H delivered a spinebuster to Undertaker through a broadcast table. The match went back and forth, as Undertaker delivered a Chokeslam and a Last Ride, but Triple H kicked out of both. After, Triple H performed a Pedigree for a near-fall. Undertaker then performed the Tombstone Piledriver for a near-fall. Triple H then hit Undertaker with a chair to the head and delivered a DDT on the chair. After more back and forth action, Triple H executed a second Pedigree for another near-fall. Triple H immediately delivered the third Pedigree for a near-fall. After many steel chair shots, and telling Undertaker to stay down, Triple H executed Undertaker's Tombstone Piledriver for a near-fall. Triple H then grabbed a sledgehammer, but Undertaker applied Hell's Gate on Triple H. Eventually, Triple H submitted, meaning Undertaker's WrestleMania streak continued to 19–0. The record was displayed on stadium screens. After the match, WWE Medical Staff had to help the Undertaker after he collapsed outside the ring and couldn't walk under his own power.\nThe penultimate match was a six-person mixed tag team match, which saw John Morrison, Trish Stratus, and Nicole \"Snooki\" Polizzi competing against a team consisting of Dolph Ziggler and LayCool (Michelle McCool and Layla). The match lasted a few minutes, with the ending coming when Morrison delivered Starship Pain on the outside of the ring to Ziggler and Snooki performed a cartwheel splash on McCool to get the win for her team.\n\nMain event\nIn the last match, John Cena challenged WWE Champion The Miz (accompanied by Alex Riley). During the match, Cena delivered the Five Knuckle Shuffle to The Miz. Cena attempted the Attitude Adjustment, but The Miz countered with a DDT. There was a lot of back and forth action until The Miz executed the Skull Crushing Finale and Cena executed an Attitude Adjustment on The Miz – both for near-falls. Both men fought outside of the ring, knocking each other out in the process, and were counted out. The Rock came out to intervene, when an email message from the Anonymous Raw General Manager arrived. The Rock went to read it, but then disregarded it and restarted the match under no disqualification, no count-out, no time limit stipulations. Cena dragged The Miz back inside the ring and attempted an Attitude Adjustment. The Rock stalked Cena from behind and performed a Rock Bottom on him, in vengeance for the Attitude Adjustment from the episode of Raw that aired six nights prior. Taking advantage, The Miz then pinned Cena for the win, retaining the WWE Championship, and became the second heel to win in the main event of WrestleMania. After the match, The Rock had a staredown with The Miz until The Rock delivered a spinebuster and a People's Elbow. WrestleMania XXVII went off the air with The Rock posing on top of the turnbuckles for the fans.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania XXVII received mixed reviews from critics. Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event 6.5 out of 10. The World Heavyweight Championship match received an 8 out of 10, the Undertaker–Triple H match received an 8.5 out of 10, the WWE Championship match received a 5 out of 10 and the CM Punk–Randy Orton match received a 7 out of 10.\nThe attendance record for WrestleMania XXVII was announced as 71,617. WWE's number was later confirmed by officials at the Georgia Dome.\nThe match between Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler is considered one of the worst WrestleMania matches of all time, as well as one of the worst in the WWE. Dave Meltzer gave the match 1 star out of 5. Vince McMahon himself stated to Michael Cole after the match that it was \"the worst thing [he'd] ever witnessed in 60 years.\" The match was criticised by fans for being too long, involving a non-wrestler in Cole and for the Anonymous Raw General Manager's reversing of Lawler's initial victory.\n\nAftermath\nThe following night on Raw, John Cena and The Rock agreed to face each other in a match at WrestleMania XXVIII, marking the first time a match had been announced almost a year in advance for any WrestleMania. Later on Cena won the WWE Championship in a Triple Threat Steel Cage match against The Miz and John Morrison at Extreme Rules. The Raw after Extreme Rules, Cena defended the WWE Championship against The Miz in a singles match after being restarted due to the referee noticing interference from Alex Riley after Miz winning, and again later on in an \"I Quit\" match at Over the Limit against Miz. Later in a backstage segment Cena \"congratulated\" The Rock on his birthday, telling him to bring it on for WrestleMania while showing off the WWE Championship, implying that their match at WrestleMania XXVIII will be for the WWE Championship, continuing on with their feud. However, Cena would go on to lose the WWE title three times that year, twice to CM Punk, and once to Alberto Del Rio. In November, at Survivor Series, Cena teamed with the Rock, which would be the latter's first match since WrestleMania XX in 2004 (which coincidentally was at Madison Square Garden in New York City), and defeated the Miz and R-Truth, only for Rock giving a Rock Bottom on Cena after the match. The Rock defeated Cena at WrestleMania XXVIII, and, in 2013, a rematch at WrestleMania 29 took place, with The Rock's WWE Championship on the line, which saw Cena emerging victorious.\nOn the April 11 Raw, Edge retired due to a legitimate neck injury, marking his last match for the company against Del Rio at WrestleMania. Edge vacated the World Heavyweight Championship on the April 15 edition of SmackDown, therefore retiring as world champion and leaving WWE full-time to make part-time appearances for the company. At Extreme Rules, Christian won the title for the first time in a ladder match against Del Rio, only to lose the title to Randy Orton, on the May 6 episode of SmackDown. The next year Edge would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame. However after nine years and two neck surgeries, Edge returned as a surprise entrant in the men's Royal Rumble match at the 2020 Royal Rumble, and then entered into a feud with Randy Orton, 2021 Royal Rumble, won by last eliminating Randy Orton in the Win.\nFollowing their loss at WrestleMania (not to mention failing to regain the Divas Championship), tension rose in LayCool. After two weeks of couples therapy, a bitter Michelle McCool turned on Layla, dissolving their team. Layla and McCool would face off in a match at the Extreme Rules pay-per-view with no count-outs, no disqualifications, and the loser has to leave WWE. Layla went on to win the match, resulting in McCool's subsequent – and legit – departure from WWE.\nAs a consequence of using a chair shot to the head, Triple H and The Undertaker were legitimately fined by the WWE for violating the company's \"concussion policy\" at the event. After a ten-month hiatus, The Undertaker returned on January 30, 2012 episode of Raw to confront Triple H before challenging him to a rematch at WrestleMania XXVIII, having felt unsatisfied with having to leave victorious not under his own power. After Triple H refused despite insistence from Shawn Michaels, The Undertaker mocked him by calling him a coward and knowing that Michaels was better than him. This angered Triple H to the point that he finally accepted The Undertaker's challenge, but under the stipulation that their match be a Hell in a Cell match. Soon after the match was made, Michaels confirmed he would officiate the match as special guest referee. Undertaker defeated Triple H at WrestleMania XXVIII with their match dubbed as an \"End of an Era\" and extended his Undefeated WrestleMania Streak to 20–0.\nWrestleMania XXVII was the last WWE pay-per-view to be promoted under the promotion's full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, as just after the event on April 7, the company began to refer to itself solely as \"WWE\", with the abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. It was also the last WrestleMania held under the first brand split, which ended in August, although the brand split was reintroduced in July 2016.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XXVII",
"title": "WrestleMania_XXVII"
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"idx": 21,
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania XXVIII was the 28th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. It took place on April 1, 2012, at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida.\nThere were eight matches on the event's card and one pre-show match that was streamed on YouTube. The main event saw The Rock defeat John Cena and was advertised a year in advance, being set up in the main event of the previous year's WrestleMania XXVII. In other prominent matches, The Undertaker defeated Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match with Shawn Michaels serving as the special guest referee, CM Punk defeated Chris Jericho to retain the WWE Championship, Big Show defeated Cody Rhodes to win the WWE Intercontinental Championship, and in the opening bout, Sheamus defeated Daniel Bryan to win the World Heavyweight Championship in an 18 second match.\nThe Rock vs. John Cena match was re-broadcast on August 25 2012 on NBC and later issued on DVD and Blu-ray, collected under the title of The Rock vs John Cena: Once in a Lifetime. The match was later included in WWE Best PPV Matches of 2012 as the Most Anticipated WrestleMania Match of All Time. Despite the \"Once in a Lifetime\" tagline, the two would wrestle each other again at WrestleMania 29 in the main event for the WWE Championship, with Cena emerging victorious and winning the title from the Rock.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered WWE's flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985—in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with the \"WWE\" abbreviation becoming an orphaned initialism. It is the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". WrestleMania XXVIII was the first WrestleMania to occur following the end of the first brand extension in August 2011.\nThe city of Miami Gardens, Florida was one of the two major contenders to host WrestleMania XXVII along with Atlanta; in February 2010, Atlanta was awarded the right to host the event. According to the Miami-Dade Sports Commission, WWE management felt that Miami's planning for the event would have been too hectic with many other sporting events held in the area around the same time of the planning, such as Super Bowl XLIV. However, the Miami area was reportedly considered for the next event due to its international ties, facilities, airports, and experience of hosting previous major events.\nBidding documents were sent to seventeen cities in consideration for hosting a WrestleMania event between 2012 and 2014, with fourteen replying in interest. Other cities under consideration for WrestleMania XXVIII included Los Angeles, New Orleans, New York City, Toronto, Detroit, Tampa, Vancouver, St. Louis, Jacksonville, Orlando, and Houston. The city of Dallas also showed interest, but had to withdraw from bidding for the next two years due to hosting events such as the NCAA Final Four.\nMiami was revealed as the site of WrestleMania on February 9, 2011, by The Miami Herald and at a WWE press conference at the Fontainebleau Miami Beach. The event was scheduled to be held on April 1, 2012, at Miami Gardens' Sun Life Stadium. WrestleMania XXVIII was the second WrestleMania event that was hosted in the state of Florida, the fourth open-air event, and the third event to be held entirely outdoors. For hosting the event, WWE received a $250,000 cash incentive from the Miami-Dade Sports Commission raised through grants and sponsorships. Along with WrestleMania XXVIII, a series of events grouped as \"WrestleMania Week\" was held in the week preceding the event including WrestleMania's annual WrestleMania Axxess fan convention at the Miami Beach Convention Center, the 2012 WWE Hall of Fame ceremony at the American Airlines Arena, the finals of the WrestleMania Reading Challenge, and a Celebrity Pro-Am Golf tournament.\n\nStorylines\nThe event included matches that resulted from scripted storylines, in which wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw and SmackDown.\n\nThe main event of WrestleMania XXVIII pitted The Rock wrestling against John Cena, billed as a Once in a Lifetime, face of the company generational match. On the February 14, 2011, episode of Raw, The Rock was revealed as the host of WrestleMania XXVII, and upon his return to WWE, began a feud with John Cena (and Cena's opponent at that WrestleMania, then-WWE Champion, The Miz), which continued for weeks in terms of verbal insults, until the March 28 episode of Raw, where Cena delivered the Attitude Adjustment to The Rock after he fended off attacks from the Miz and his protégé, Alex Riley. At WrestleMania XXVII, The Rock got involved in the main event WWE Championship match between Miz and Cena, which initially ended in a double count-out. After the match was restarted under no disqualifications, no count-outs rules, The Rock delivered a Rock Bottom to Cena as a measure of payback, thus enabling the Miz to win the match. The next night on Raw, Cena challenged The Rock to a one-on-one match; Rock accepted and proposed that it be held at WrestleMania XXVIII. After winning the championship from Miz at Extreme Rules, Cena interrupted The Rock's birthday celebrations during the May 2 episode of Raw to announce his intention to defend the WWE Championship against The Rock at WrestleMania XXVIII. Such intentions were however thwarted by Cena losing the title at Money in the Bank in July. At Survivor Series in November, Cena teamed with The Rock (who wrestled his first WWE match in almost eight years, last competing at WrestleMania XX in 2004). Billed as \"the most charismatic tag team\", they defeated the Miz and R-Truth. After the match, Rock performed a Rock Bottom to Cena.\n\nAnother match billed as the \"end of an era\", saw The Undertaker face Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match. The previous year at WrestleMania XXVII, in a No Holds Barred match, The Undertaker defeated Triple H via submission, in their second encounter at a WrestleMania (the first being at WrestleMania X-Seven in 2001, where The Undertaker won as well). However, in the post-match events, due to the harsh physicality suffered during the bout, The Undertaker, for the first time in his career, was carted away from the Georgia Dome by the medical staff on a stretcher. After a near ten-month long hiatus, The Undertaker returned on the January 30, 2012, episode of Raw, confronting and challenging Triple H to a rematch at WrestleMania XXVIII. The Undertaker, having been dissatisfied of his post-WrestleMania match scenario the previous year, stated that he \"did not want 'that scene' to be a lasting memory\" of him and was willing to give Triple H \"another chance at immortality\". After Triple H refused to accept the challenge the next week his close friend and WWE Hall of Famer, Shawn Michaels appeared on the February 13 episode to instigate him in accepting The Undertaker's challenge, which was in vain as Triple H stated he was willing to put his ego and personal agendas aside for the future of WWE, and viewed The Undertaker's 19–0 undefeated WrestleMania streak as a \"brand\" to cash-in for the company, finally ending the argument saying he would not be the one to end it. Then, on the February 20 episode, The Undertaker still remained adamant in getting a WrestleMania rematch with Triple H, going so far as to label Triple H as a \"coward\", and comparing his abilities and career to that of Shawn Michaels. Enraged by these comments, Triple H finally accepted The Undertaker's challenge at WrestleMania XXVIII, saying that if \"he [Undertaker] wanted an end, they would go all the way\", and proposed that they would compete in a Hell in a Cell match. On the March 5 episode, Michaels confronted Triple H again; Michaels expressed his views on who was better than the other, predicted Triple H's chances of defeating The Undertaker, and revealed himself as the special guest referee in their Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania.\nOn July 17, 2011, at the Money in the Bank event, Daniel Bryan won the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match. On the July 22 episode of SmackDown, Bryan declared his intentions of cashing-in his Money in the Bank contract at WrestleMania XXVIII. However, he apparently cashed-in his contract briefcase on the November 25 episode of SmackDown and pinned the reigning World Heavyweight Champion Mark Henry to supposedly win the title and began to celebrate, but SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long informed Bryan that Henry was not medically cleared to compete, and declared the match void, thereby returning the briefcase to Bryan and the title back to Henry. The next week on Raw, Bryan acknowledged that he went back on his word, saying that headlining WrestleMania was his dream and that his \"plans changed\"; that the briefcase \"doesn't guarantee [him] anything\", since he could be put out of action at any time. WWE continued to maintain the advertisement for WrestleMania, until Bryan successfully cashed in his Money in the Bank contract briefcase on Big Show at the TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event on December 18, 2011, to become the new World Heavyweight Champion. In January 2012, at the twenty-fifth annual Royal Rumble pay-per-view, Sheamus won the thirty-man Royal Rumble match, giving him the right to challenge either the WWE Champion or the World Heavyweight Champion at WrestleMania XXVIII. At Elimination Chamber in February, Sheamus attacked Bryan, after the latter successfully retained his World Heavyweight Championship in an Elimination Chamber match, thus challenging Bryan for his title at WrestleMania.\nIn another match, CM Punk defended the WWE Championship against Chris Jericho. Since the summer of 2011, Punk had successfully defended the WWE Championship numerous times, calling himself the \"best wrestler in the world\". On the January 2, 2012, episode of Raw, after extensive hype through several viral vignettes proclaiming the \"end of the world as we know it\" on that day, Chris Jericho returned to WWE after over a year, and established a villainous persona over the next several weeks. On the February 13 episode of Raw, Jericho accused Punk in an in-ring segment of being a copycat of him, and that Punk stole his proclamation of being the \"best in the world\". While competing in the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view, Jericho was knocked out by a kick to the head by Punk, rendering him unable to compete any further, and Punk went on to win that match and retain the title. This incident further fueled Jericho's animosity towards Punk. On the February 20 episode of Raw, Jericho won a ten-man battle royal to determine the number-one contender to face Punk for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII. In subsequent promos, both wrestlers expressed their desire to prove who is \"the best in the world\".\nAnother title match scheduled was for the Intercontinental Championship between defending champion Cody Rhodes and Big Show. Their feud gained increased momentum week after week when, over January and February 2012, Rhodes began mocking Big Show's less than stellar performances at WrestleMania over the years, calling him \"a reverse Undertaker\" (a direct reference to The Undertaker's undefeated 19–0 record at WrestleMania, compared to Big Show's 3–8 record), in addition to citing the \"ridiculous nature\" of some of his matches, such as his Sumo match against Akebono at WrestleMania 21 in 2005 and a No Disqualification match against Floyd Mayweather Jr. at WrestleMania XXIV in 2008, both of which Big Show lost. Rhodes also cost Big Show a chance at the World Heavyweight Championship, by eliminating him from the Elimination Chamber match at the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view in February, and a shot at the WWE Championship at WrestleMania, when he pulled Big Show over the top rope, aiding in his elimination by Chris Jericho in the end of a number-one contender's battle royal on the February 20 episode of Raw. On the March 2 episode of SmackDown, General Manager Theodore Long scheduled a match between Rhodes and Big Show for the Intercontinental Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII, where the latter has vowed \"to win at all costs.\"\nAt the Elimination Chamber pay-per-view in February 2012, John Laurinaitis, WWE's Executive Vice President of Talent Relations and Interim Raw General Manager, expressed his desire to become the permanent general manager of both Raw and SmackDown. Alberto Del Rio, Mark Henry, and Christian all came out and voiced their support for Laurinaitis over SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long, who later that night put forth his own claim to run both shows. On the February 21 episode of SmackDown, the two General Managers got into an argument following a match between WWE Champion CM Punk and World Heavyweight Champion Daniel Bryan that ended in a draw. The two were then given the chance by the WWE Board of Directors to run the other show for one night in order for the Board to evaluate them, with Long running the March 5 episode of Raw and Laurinaitis in charge of the March 9 episode of SmackDown. But being still not convinced of either man's decision-making, on March 12, the Board of Directors scheduled a 12-man tag team match for WrestleMania XXVIII, with the stipulation that the General Manager of the winning team being awarded stewardship of both Raw and SmackDown. The same night on Raw, Long appointed his assistant, Santino Marella to be the captain of his team, while Laurinaitis appointed his legal counsel, David Otunga to be his team's captain, naming Mark Henry as the first member of his team. Over the following weeks, R-Truth, Kofi Kingston, Zack Ryder, The Great Khali, and Booker T were added to Team Teddy, with Hornswoggle serving as the team's mascot, while Christian, Dolph Ziggler, Jack Swagger, and The Miz joined Team Johnny. Christian, who had joined the team in return for Laurinaitis promising him a shot at the World Heavyweight Championship after WrestleMania, was forced to leave the team due to being (kayfabe) injured by CM Punk on the March 26 episode of Raw (the real reason being Christian not having fully recovered from his real-life ankle injury) and was replaced by Drew McIntyre.\nAnother match scheduled for WrestleMania was between Divas Beth Phoenix and Eve Torres taking on the team of Kelly Kelly and Extra co-host Maria Menounos. The feud between Phoenix and Menounos began on the October 12, 2009, episode of Raw when Menounos accompanied then-Access Hollywood host Nancy O'Dell, who was the guest host of Raw that night. Phoenix, angered over having been traded to the SmackDown brand by O'Dell, barged into their office and got into a confrontation with both women, leading to a Six-Diva tag team match later that night in which Menounos' team defeated Phoenix's team. On the 2011 edition of Tribute to the Troops, Menounos made an appearance, this time in an Eight-Diva tag team match, winning the match for her team by pinning Phoenix. Kelly and Eve, on the other hand, had a falling apart of their friendship after Eve turned villainous and admitted to having used Zack Ryder and John Cena to further her own career. On the March 15 episode of Extra, Phoenix and Eve interrupted an interview between Kelly and Menounos, which resulted in a confrontation. Phoenix would then challenge Menounos to a match at WrestleMania, which the latter accepted. Later that night, WWE officials sanctioned a tag team match pitting Phoenix and Eve against Menounos and Kelly for WrestleMania XXVIII.\nAnother rivalry heading into WrestleMania was between Randy Orton and Kane. On the March 2 episode of SmackDown, Kane interrupted Orton's match against Daniel Bryan, causing Orton to lose via count-out. The two men ensued in a brawl, which ended with Kane performing a chokeslam on Orton to \"welcome [Orton] back\" from being injured at the hands of Bryan a few weeks ago. Orton retaliated on the March 5 episode of Raw, by delivering an RKO to Kane after Kane's match. On the March 9 episode of SmackDown, Orton and Kane once again brawled at the end of the show with no man appearing to gain an advantage. The next week on SmackDown, when Orton demanded Kane to explain the root cause of his attacks on him, the latter referred to his handshake with Orton after a Street Fight on the July 22, 2011 episode of SmackDown, in which Orton had defeated him. Kane, explaining that the handshake made him look weak and \"human\", that this \"wretched\" self was now gone, and now wanted to eliminate that memory, challenging Orton at WrestleMania XXVIII.\nOn March 30, a triple threat tag team match for the Tag Team Championship was scheduled between the defending champions Primo and Epico, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso), and the newly formed team of Justin Gabriel and Tyson Kidd. This match would be streamed online free before the pay-per-view on both WWE.com and the official WWE YouTube channel.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nA non-televised triple threat tag team match for the Tag Team Championship pitted champions Primo and Epico, The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso), and Justin Gabriel and Tyson Kidd against each other. The match began with multiple aerial tactics and many pin attempts. In the midst of the match, Justin Gabriel botched a dive outside resulting in an elbow injury. The match ended when Epico hit Jey Uso with a Backstabber and pinned him to retain the titles.\n\nPreliminary matches\nIn the first televised match, Daniel Bryan defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Sheamus. After receiving a good luck kiss from his (kayfabe) girlfriend AJ Lee, Bryan was surprised by Sheamus, who delivered a Brogue Kick and pinned him to win the title. Lasting only 18 seconds, this was one of the shortest title matches in WWE history.\nIn the second match, Randy Orton faced Kane. After trading moves back and forth, Orton gained the upper hand until Kane made a comeback. Kane continued to dominate the match until Orton kicked out of a chokeslam. Orton gained back momentum but after attempting an RKO from the second rope, Kane delivered a Chokeslam off the second rope and pinned him to win the match.\nNext, the Intercontinental Championship was on the line between champion Cody Rhodes and Big Show. Rhodes attempted to avoid his opponent until Big Show caught him and tossed him back inside. Big Show dominated from there with vicious attacks. Rhodes managed to deliver a disaster kick. As he went for another one, he took a spear mid-air to the groin from Big Show. Big Show knocked out Rhodes with a Knockout Punch and pinned him to win his first Intercontinental Championship.\n\nA tag team match pitted Kelly Kelly and Extra correspondent Maria Menounos against Divas Champion Beth Phoenix and Eve. Kelly began to get the upper hand over Eve. Kelly tagged in Menounos who got off to a good start but was slowed down by interference from Phoenix. Phoenix and Eve would continue to wear down Menounos who had already suffered two cracked ribs prior to the event. Menounos eventually tagged in Kelly who began to dominate. Phoenix managed to wear down Kelly but Kelly countered a Glam Slam with a bulldog and tagged in Menounos. The climax of the match came when Kelly saved Menounos, knocked Phoenix into Eve on the apron, and Menounos rolled up Phoenix for the win.\n\nJim Ross joined the commentators (Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler) for the Hell in a Cell match between Triple H and The Undertaker with Shawn Michaels as special guest referee billed as \"The End of an Era\". The match started with the two going back and forth. The match moved to the outside where The Undertaker dominated. Back in the ring, Triple H assaulted Undertaker with the steel steps and even countered a Hell's Gate. The match intensified when Triple H brought steel chairs and a sledgehammer into the ring. After multiple big moves and weapon shots on each other, the two men repeatedly kicked out. After suffering a Pedigree, a Sweet Chin Music, and multiple chair and sledgehammer shots, Undertaker came back and executed a Tombstone Piledriver; however, Triple H kicked out. Triple H delivered one more Pedigree before The Undertaker kicked out, took back control, performed another Tombstone, and won the match to extend his undefeated streak to 20–0. After the match, Undertaker and Michaels helped Triple H out of the ring and made it to the entrance stage, where they embraced.\nThe following match was a twelve-man tag team match to determine who would run both Raw and SmackDown, pitting teams representing Teddy Long and John Laurinaitis against each other. The match began with a back-and-forth between both teams. After Booker T (of Team Teddy) entered he was worn down by most of Team Johnny until the rest of both teams engaged in an all-out brawl both inside and outside of the ring. Then, Zack Ryder (of Team Teddy) started to dominate Team Johnny's Dolph Ziggler and The Miz, but as he was distracted by his storyline girlfriend Eve, The Miz delivered a Skull Crushing Finale to Ryder and scored a pinfall victory for Team Johnny, giving John Laurinaitis control of both shows.\nThe penultimate match saw CM Punk defend the WWE Championship against Chris Jericho. However, John Laurinaitis told Punk backstage before the match that if Punk were to get disqualified, he would lose the title. Jericho immediately started attacking Punk. Jericho taunted and slapped Punk, trying to provoke him into getting Punk disqualified. Jericho grabbed a chair and attempted to hit him but Punk quickly cleared the chair and continued on with the match. Punk then successfully connected the GTS, only for a near fall. Punk then applied the Anaconda Vise, forcing Jericho to crawl through and was able to tip the rope. Punk missed the Turnbuckle Shining Wizard, which Jericho countered with a roll-up for a near fall. Jericho caught by Punk with a dropkick, then Punk prepared for a GTS, which Jericho noticed and he fled to the outside of the ring. The match began as Jericho was able to apply several Clothesline, followed by a seated dropkick. Jericho went for his signature submission, Walls of Jericho, but Punk countered. Punk missed the running knee as Jericho hit him with an unexpected 'Codebreaker' for a near fall. At the match's climax, Punk won the match by reversing Jericho's Walls of Jericho into the Anaconda Vise, forcing Jericho to submit.\nIn a filler segment, Brodus Clay came out with his background dancers, Cameron and Naomi, followed by a group of dancers. Clay then presumably called his \"momma\", after which, Clay's \"momma\" came out and started dancing with rest of the other dancers.\n\nMain event\nThe main event pitted John Cena and The Rock in a match billed \"Once In A Lifetime\". Cena and Rock viciously went back-and-forth with each other throughout the match. During the course of the match, The Rock kicked out of two Attitude Adjustments, Cena out of a Rock Bottom and People's Elbow. When Cena attempted a People's Elbow on The Rock, throwing his sweatband in the crowd in similar fashion to Rock, he ran into another Rock Bottom from the Rock, which allowed The Rock to pin Cena and pick up the win.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania XXVIII received generally positive critical reception, with praise going to The Rock vs. John Cena, the WWE Championship match between CM Punk and Chris Jericho, and the match between The Undertaker and Triple H. However, the World Heavyweight Championship match between Daniel Bryan and Sheamus was heavily criticized for its short length and perceived burial of Bryan.\nEric Larnick of The Huffington Post praised the main event match giving it a verdict of good; he applauded Dwayne Johnson, opining that he worked \"his butt off to prove that he can still go in the squared circle\". The post also praised the WWE Championship and Hell in a Cell matches, ranking them alongside the main event. IGN called Daniel Bryan vs Sheamus the \"worst match of the night\" and The Undertaker vs. Triple H the \"match of the night\". They also applauded the main event match, calling the unexpected outcome a good way for the crowd to go home happy. Wrestling-Edge rated all the matches on a scale of 5 and gave a full 5 star ratings to The Undertaker vs. Triple H Hell in a Cell match.\nThe Baltimore Sun's Adam Testa led with a headline that WrestleMania XXVIII was unable to live up to the hype, while the main event did. He labeled the match as being the match that could break or make the WrestleMania and ended in \"an amazing sequence\". The Rock's victory was again stated as shocking and welcome, leaving people curious about the aftermath of the event. Yahoo's A. Orien Avery found The Rock vs. Hulk Hogan from WrestleMania X8 as the only comparable match from previous WrestleManias, though according to him The Rock being in his prime would make the match more symbolic.\nWrestleMania XXVIII garnered 1,300,000 buys, making it the most purchased wrestling event in history, surpassing WrestleMania 23's buyrate of approximately 1.2 million, with global gross sales in excess of $67 million. The event also set a new record for the highest grossing live event in WWE history, grossing $8.9 million.\nThe Undertaker vs. Triple H Hell in a Cell match won the 2012 Slammy Award for the match of the year as well as being voted the match of the year on Pro Wrestling Illustrated. It has since been regarded as one of the greatest Hell in a Cell matches of all time, as well as one of the best matches in professional wrestling history.\n\nAftermath\nThe following night on Raw, John Cena talked about his loss to The Rock. He asked for The Rock to come out so that he could offer his congratulations. Instead, Brock Lesnar, in his first appearance since WrestleMania XX in 2004, appeared and laid out Cena with an F-5. The following week, a match between Cena and Lesnar was scheduled for Extreme Rules, which was later changed to an Extreme Rules match. At the event, Cena defeated Lesnar.\nOn the April 10 episode of SmackDown, it was announced that a two out of three falls match between Daniel Bryan and Sheamus for the World Heavyweight Championship would take place at Extreme Rules. At the event, Sheamus defeated Bryan to retain the title and end the feud.\nOn the following episode of SmackDown, Randy Orton and Kane faced each other again, this time in a No Disqualification match, which Orton won. A Falls Count Anywhere match between the two was later scheduled for Extreme Rules, which Orton won to end the feud.\nA tables match between Big Show and Cody Rhodes was scheduled for Extreme Rules, where Rhodes defeated Show to reclaim the title.\nAlso, a Chicago Street Fight between CM Punk and Chris Jericho for the WWE Championship was scheduled for Extreme Rules, where Punk retained the title.\nAt the 2013 Royal Rumble, John Cena won the Royal Rumble match to earn himself a world title match at WrestleMania 29. Later that night, The Rock defeated CM Punk to end Punk's 434 day reign as champion. The following night on Raw, Cena chose to face The Rock for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29. At the event, Cena defeated The Rock to win the title.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Official Website of WrestleMania XXVIII",
"title": "WrestleMania_XXVIII"
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"paragraph_text": "WrestleMania 29 (marketed as WrestleMania NY/NJ) was the 29th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. It took place on April 7, 2013 at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Nine professional wrestling matches were contested at the event, with one match contested on the Pre-Show.\nIn the main event, John Cena defeated The Rock to win his record eleventh WWE Championship, as well as avenging his loss to The Rock in the main event of WrestleMania XXVIII the previous year. John Cena vs The Rock was the second time that a WrestleMania main event was back-to-back (the first being Bret Hart vs Yokozuna WrestleMania IX and X). Other prominent matches included The Undertaker defeating CM Punk, concluding a storyline revolving around Paul Bearer's death and The Undertaker's WrestleMania undefeated streak. In the penultimate match, Triple H defeated Brock Lesnar in a No Holds Barred match; had Triple H lost, he would have retired. Also, Alberto Del Rio retained the World Heavyweight Championship against Jack Swagger in the title's final defense at WrestleMania, as it was unified with the WWE Championship in December 2013. Due to that, this was the last WrestleMania to feature two world titles until WrestleMania 33 in 2017.\nWrestleMania 29 was a commercial success; it drew 80,676 fans, which became the third highest attended event in the history of WWE after WrestleMania 32 and WrestleMania III, and it became the highest grossing live event in WWE history, grossing $72 million.\n\nProduction\nBackground\nWrestleMania is considered WWE's flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It is the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views, which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, referred to as the \"Big Four\". The event has been described as the Super Bowl of sports entertainment. Announced on February 16, 2012, WrestleMania 29, promoted as WrestleMania NY/NJ, was scheduled to be held on April 7, 2013, at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey.\nThis was the fifth WrestleMania in the New York metropolitan area; WrestleMania I, X, and XX were held at Madison Square Garden, and a portion of WrestleMania 2 was held at Nassau Coliseum. It was the third WrestleMania held in the state of New Jersey after WrestleMania IV and V, both of which were held at Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City. The event was the fifth WrestleMania to be held outdoors (after IX, XXIV, XXVI, and XXVIII), but the first to be held outdoors in a cold-weather city. To combat this, WWE added a heater that was hanging above the ring. Additionally, six electric furnaces were plumbed underneath the ring and vented into the ring posts to supply warm air.\nTickets went on sale on November 10, 2012, during which WWE set a first-day sales record of 52,029 tickets, beating the WrestleMania X8 record of 51,620 tickets. Partly due to increased ticket prices, WWE also set a first-day revenue record of more than $10 million, which topped WrestleMania XXVIII's previous record of $6.3 million. For the first time, WrestleMania was streamed on mobile devices via the WWE app and on Xbox Live.\nWrestleMania's set included replicas of several New York City landmarks, including the Brooklyn Bridge and Empire State Building on top of the entrance ramp, the Statue of Liberty on a podium above the ring. There are three official theme songs for the event, \"Coming Home\" by Diddy – Dirty Money feat. Skylar Grey, \"Bones\" by Young Guns and \"Letters from the Sky\" by Civil Twilight.\nSean \"Diddy\" Combs performed a medley of tracks during the event, and Living Colour performed \"Cult of Personality\" as CM Punk made his way to the ring.\n\nStorylines\nThe professional wrestling matches at WrestleMania 29 featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters played out on WWE's primary television programs, Raw and SmackDown.\n\nOn January 27, John Cena won the 2013 Royal Rumble match, making him the fourth multiple Rumble winner, and earning himself either a WWE Championship or World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania 29. Later that same night, The Rock won the WWE Championship from previous champion CM Punk. The next night on the January 28 edition of Raw, Cena announced he would challenge the reigning WWE Champion, thus challenging The Rock. At the Elimination Chamber event on February 17, Rock successfully defended the championship against Punk. The next night on Raw, Punk challenged Cena for his spot in the main event, and Cena accepted. Cena won the match on February 25, setting up a rematch of his \"Once in a Lifetime\" match from the previous year against Rock. Cena blamed Rock for sending his life into a downward spiral, citing events such as being attacked by Brock Lesnar on the post-WrestleMania Raw, Big Show turning heel and attacking him, being embarrassed by John Laurinaitis at Over the Limit, failing to cash in his Money in the Bank, losing to CM Punk multiple times and losing to Dolph Ziggler at TLC. He told Rock he would gain redemption by beating him at WrestleMania.\nAt Elimination Chamber, World Heavyweight Champion Alberto Del Rio successfully retained his championship against Big Show. Jack Swagger, Chris Jericho, and Mark Henry, who all made their return, earned spots in the six-man Elimination Chamber match, along with Daniel Bryan, Kane, and Randy Orton to become the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship. Swagger won the match and challenged Del Rio for the title at WrestleMania. Throughout the weeks, Swagger and his new manager, Zeb Colter, repeatedly stressed about the ignorance of America and allowing illegal immigrants in, and promised that they would bring a new era of \"Jack Swagger's America\". They also repeatedly attacked Del Rio, and Swagger injured Del Rio's ring announcer, Ricardo Rodriguez's ankle.\nOn the February 25, 2013 episode of Raw, Triple H returned, brawling with a returning Brock Lesnar (who was last seen at SummerSlam in 2012), who was about to attack Vince McMahon for the second time, thus reigniting their feud from last year. During the brawl, Lesnar's head was busted open and required 18 stitches. The following week, Triple H set out a challenge to Lesnar at WrestleMania. On the March 11 episode of Raw, after Lesnar attacked Triple H's former D-Generation X members, The New Age Outlaws, Lesnar's manager, Paul Heyman, stated that Lesnar accepted Triple H's challenge, but only if Heyman could add the stipulations, to be revealed after Triple H signed the contract. Triple H signed the contract, therefore, he accepted the conditions, then Heyman revealed that the bout would be No Holds Barred and that if Triple H lost the match, he must retire from WWE. On the final Raw before WrestleMania, Shawn Michaels announced that he would be in Triple H's corner for the match to support him.\n\nOn the March 4 episode of Raw, which celebrated \"Old School Raw\", The Undertaker made his return (his first appearance since WWE Raw 1000) by opening up the show, signaling any challenger to face him and try to end his undefeated WrestleMania streak at the event. CM Punk, Randy Orton, Big Show, and Sheamus all declared they wanted to face The Undertaker, prompting Raw's Managing Supervisor Vickie Guerrero to set a Fatal Four-Way match among the four later that night. CM Punk won the match by pinning Orton, earning him the match against The Undertaker. The following night, Undertaker and Kane's former manager Paul Bearer died of respiratory problems. The next week on Raw, Punk interrupted Paul Bearer's tribute segment to boast that he would break Undertaker's streak, which prompted Kane to attack Punk, although Punk escaped. Later that night, Kane defeated Punk in a No Disqualification Match, before Undertaker came to the stage to perform his signature taunt with Kane to honor Bearer. Punk interrupted once again by hitting Kane with The Undertaker's urn, which prompted Undertaker to chase him away, and Punk escaped with the urn. On the March 18 episode of Raw, The Undertaker came to the ring to tell Punk he had one chance to return Undertaker's property but was interrupted by Punk on the TitanTron, who further boasted about being the one to \"snap the streak\" while nonchalantly tossing the urn in the air. Disguised as a druid, Punk further assaulted Undertaker on Raw and constantly beat him with the urn. Punk then boldly opened the urn and emptied its ashes over a fallen Undertaker, thus igniting their feud.\n\nOn the March 15 episode of SmackDown, The Shield (Roman Reigns, Seth Rollins and Dean Ambrose) challenged Randy Orton and Sheamus to a six-man tag team match at WrestleMania 29. Orton and Sheamus accepted, then recruited Ryback as their partner. Later that night, The Shield interfered in Ryback's match with Mark Henry and delivered a triple powerbomb to Ryback before he was given three World's Strongest Slams by Henry. The following Monday on Raw, Vickie Guerrero pulled Ryback from the six-man tag team match and put him in a singles match with Henry. After winning a match on the March 18 episode of Raw, Sheamus and Orton were about to be assaulted by The Shield, but then Big Show – who had also been brutalized by The Shield – came out to aid Orton and Sheamus, causing The Shield to retreat, and on SmackDown that week, Sheamus, Orton, and Big Show were teamed together by Booker T to test their teamwork in a six-man tag match against 3MB (Heath Slater, Drew McIntyre and Jinder Mahal), in which they were victorious. Following the match, The Shield came to the ring to confront the victors before retreating once again.\nOn the March 18 episode of Raw, Dolph Ziggler defeated Kofi Kingston, with outside help from his bodyguard Big E Langston. This caused WWE Tag Team Champions Team Hell No (Daniel Bryan and Kane), who both had been attacked by Langston during past matches with Ziggler, to challenge them at WrestleMania. Ziggler's girlfriend, AJ Lee, said they would accept the match only if Team Hell No put their Tag Team Championship on the line, to which they agreed.\nA minor rivalry between Chris Jericho and Fandango (the former Johnny Curtis from NXT) developed prior to Wrestlemania. Fandango made numerous appearances, but he never competed in matches due to announcers and wrestlers repeatedly mispronouncing his name or did not say it with the right kind of \"feel\" he liked. The feud with Jericho began on the March 22 episode of SmackDown when Jericho made fun of Fandango's name. This caused Fandango to interfere with Jericho's match and attack him following the match. Fandango attacked Jericho once more on the March 25 episode of Raw after Jericho's match. This caused Jericho to ask Vickie Guerrero to set up a match between himself and Fandango at WrestleMania. According to Jericho, the original plan was Jericho vs. Ryback, but Vince McMahon changed his rival.\nThe other rivalry that had escalated was between The Miz and Intercontinental Champion Wade Barrett. Miz and Barrett had been trading jabs back and forth about which of them was the better actor, as Miz had starred in The Marine 3: Homefront, and Barrett had a minor role in the film Dead Man Down. After defending his title in a triple threat match against Miz and Chris Jericho on the March 18 episode of Raw, Barrett continued the feud with Miz after he shoved him on Main Event on March 20, which caused Miz to retaliate. On the March 25 episode of Raw, Miz defeated Barrett in a non-title match via submission, thus earning him a championship match against Barrett. The match took place on the WrestleMania 29 Pre-Show.\n\nCanceled match\nThe Bella Twins and Team Rhodes Scholars (Cody Rhodes and Damien Sandow) were scheduled to participate in an eight-person tag team match against Tons of Funk (Brodus Clay and Tensai) and The Funkadactyls (Naomi and Cameron) at WrestleMania, but the match was canceled due to time restraints and instead took place the following night on Raw, where Tons of Funk and The Funkadactyls emerged victorious.\n\nEvent\nPre-show\nDuring the WrestleMania XXIX Pre-Show, a panel consisting of Jim Ross, Kofi Kingston, Dusty Rhodes and Scott Stanford discussed the event's matches. Later in the pre-show, Snooki spoke backstage to The Miz and Wade Barrett. Their Intercontinental Championship match, commentated by Matt Striker and Josh Mathews, went back and forth between both wrestlers. Miz went for the Skull Crushing Finale, but Barrett moved and went for the Bull Hammer. Miz moved and knocked Barrett to the ground and locked in the Figure-Four Leglock, shades of Ric Flair, and Barrett submitted, giving Miz his second Intercontinental championship in his career.\n\nPreliminary matches\nThe actual pay-per-view opened with The Shield (Roman Reigns, Seth Rollins and Dean Ambrose) facing Sheamus, Big Show, and Randy Orton in a 6-Man Tag Team Match. Sheamus and Roman Reigns started the match. Big Show ripped off Ambrose's vest and chopped his chest. Sheamus also removed Seth Rollins's vest. When The Shield went for their trademark Triple Powerbomb on Sheamus, Big Show speared all of them at the same time. When Sheamus tried to tag Big Show, Orton tagged himself in, frustrating Big Show. Rollins came off the top rope but Orton performed an RKO on Rollins. Reigns performed a spear on Orton and Ambrose pinned him. After the match, Big Show knocked out both Sheamus and Orton.\nNext, Mark Henry faced Ryback. Henry knocked Ryback out of the ring a few times. Ryback knocked Henry down with a Meat Hook Clothesline, then tried to perform a Shell Shock on Henry, who grabbed the ropes. Henry crashed down on Ryback, driving his face into the mat and knocking him out, then pinned him. Afterward, Ryback gave Henry a spinebuster and a Shell Shock.\nAfter that, Team Hell No (Daniel Bryan and Kane) defended the WWE Tag Team Championship against Dolph Ziggler and Big E Langston. Ziggler mocked Daniel Bryan by kissing his on-screen girlfriend, AJ Lee, as Bryan did before his loss at WrestleMania XXVIII. Bryan flew out of the ring onto Ziggler, while Kane and Big E fought inside. Later, as Big E distracted Kane, Ziggler executed the Zig-Zag on Kane for a nearfall. While AJ distracted the referee, Big E threw Ziggler his Money In The Bank briefcase. Ziggler tried to strike Kane with it, but he ducked and Kane performed a choke slam. In the end, Kane tagged in Bryan and Bryan executed a top-rope headbutt for the pin on Ziggler to retain the titles.\nIn the fourth match, Fandango, in his in-ring debut, faced Chris Jericho, who began by punishing Fandango. Jericho delivered a Codebreaker early in the match. Fandango executed a roundhouse kick, then a diving leg drop on Jericho for a near-fall. When he went for another, Jericho moved, then went for a Lionsault, but Fandango got his knees up. As Jericho attempted for the Walls of Jericho, Fandango quickly rolled him up for the pin.\nNext, Alberto Del Rio defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Jack Swagger (accompanied by Zeb Colter). Del Rio Irish whipped Swagger into the barricade. Swagger later executed the Swagger Bomb, but Del Rio kicked out. Swagger then executed his gut-wrench powerbomb but Del Rio kicked out again. Swagger worked Del Rio's leg, then tried the Patriot Lock a few times, but Del Rio didn't submit. In the end, Del Rio locked in the Cross Armbreaker and Swagger submitted, and Del Rio retained the title.\n\nMain event matches\nIn the first match of the triple main event, The Undertaker defended his 20–0 WrestleMania winning streak against CM Punk (accompanied by Paul Heyman). Punk first tried to intimidate The Undertaker, finally slapping him. The Undertaker retaliated with a chokeslam attempt, but Punk countered it with a roundhouse kick to the back of the head. The Undertaker delivered a big boot to Punk and threw him outside, where they brawled. The Undertaker cleared the Spanish broadcasting table and executed a guillotine leg drop on the ring apron on Punk. Back in the ring, The Undertaker attempted his signature move, Old School, but was pulled off the rope. Punk then stole the move and used it against The Undertaker. The Undertaker attempted a big boot to the corner but was caught on the top rope when Punk moved. Punk executed a flying double axe handle and then attempted to steal Old School again, but was thrown from the ring. The Undertaker then ran the ropes in an attempt to perform his signature over-the-top-rope suicide dive but Heyman stepped onto the apron in his way. The Undertaker then attempted to chokeslam Heyman but Punk saved Heyman by connecting with a springboard clothesline on The Undertaker for a near-fall. Punk then performed a running high knee in the corner and short-arm clothesline followed by a diving elbow drop on The Undertaker for another count of two. He then attempted a Go To Sleep, but The Undertaker countered with a chokeslam, for a two-count, then Snake Eyes. Punk retaliated with a heel kick and threw The Undertaker to the outside. The Undertaker tried to Last Ride Punk through the table he'd cleared, but Punk countered and kicked him the back of the head. He laid The Undertaker on the table, climbed the turnbuckle, and executed another diving elbow drop onto the broadcasting table. The referee began counting The Undertaker out as Punk made it back into the ring, but The Undertaker made it back into the ring with one second to spare. As Punk attempted to pick him up from the mat, The Undertaker suddenly attempted the Hell's Gate. Punk countered into a bridging pin for another near-fall. He then secured the Anaconda Vice, but The Undertaker powered through to his feet and tried another chokeslam, which Punk reversed into the Go To Sleep but The Undertaker immediately rebounded off the ropes and nailed Punk with the Tombstone for a dramatic near-fall. Back on their feet, the two traded blows, and the referee was knocked down in the chaos. Punk hit the high knee again, but The Undertaker took advantage of the position by attempting Last Ride. While Punk was on The Undertaker's shoulders, Heyman handed him the urn, which he struck on the back of The Undertaker's head. Punk then mocked The Undertaker's traditional pinning style for another two-count. Punk and The Undertaker proceeded to trade near-finishers, with The Undertaker's Tombstone finally winning out, securing his victory and improving his streak to 21 wins. He reclaimed the urn and walked backstage, pausing on the ramp to raise his fist.\nIn the second main event match, Triple H faced Brock Lesnar (accompanied by Paul Heyman) in a No Holds Barred match with Triple H's career at stake. Prior to the match, Triple H suffered second-degree freeze burns due to a pyrotechnic malfunction, causing dry ice to be sprayed on to his chest and torso during his entrance. Triple H and Lesnar quickly spilled to the floor of MetLife Stadium, pummeling each other with anything and everything within arm's reach. Triple H sent Lesnar crashing into the ringside barricade and then Lesnar drove Triple H's sternum into the broadcasting table in return. After a big brawl, both in and outside of the ring, which included Shawn Michaels getting an F5 from Lesnar and Heyman receiving Sweet Chin Music, Triple H stole Brock Lesnar's submission move, the Kimura lock, and locked it on Lesnar for an extended amount of time. In the end, Triple H performed a Pedigree on Lesnar onto the steel steps and got him down for the three-count securing his career and keeping his in-ring skills intact.\n\nIn the main event, The Rock defended the WWE Championship against John Cena. After the bell rang, Cena struck first before The Rock seized control of the match and halted Cena's momentum by sending him scrambling outside the ring to regroup within the bout's opening moments. The match went on while The Rock had control by striking Cena with blows and punches. Cena then locked The Rock into a Crossface, but The Rock countered into a pin for a 2-count. Cena then locked The Rock in an STF, but The Rock powered out. The Rock then executed a Rock Bottom on Cena but only for a 2-count. Cena then performed an AA on The Rock, but only got a 2-count. The Rock soon delivered a People's Elbow on Cena for another 2-count. Cena soon went for a second AA, but The Rock countered into a second Rock Bottom for a 2-count yet again. A frustrated Rock nearly fell into the same trap Cena did the year before when he taunted Cena with Cena's own \"You Can't See Me\" taunt before going for a second People's Elbow, however, Cena caught The Rock and delivered a second AA for another near-fall. The Rock soon went for a third Rock Bottom, but Cena countered and executed a Rock Bottom instead for a near fall. Cena then tried to sucker The Rock into a third AA by faking a People's Elbow attempt, the same mistake that cost Cena the match the last year. However, when Cena went for the third AA, The Rock countered into a third Rock Bottom for another 2-count. Afterward, both John Cena and The Rock went for an AA and a Rock Bottom respectively. This continued until The Rock delivered a DDT on Cena. But instead of pinning Cena, The Rock instead went for a fourth Rock Bottom and Cena countered with a third AA to win the match and the title. After the match, The Rock and Cena shook hands and hugged each other and The Rock praised Cena as the new WWE Champion, and raised his hand on the top of the stage.\n\nReception\nWrestleMania 29 received generally positive reactions. Matt Kodner of The A.V. Club gave the show a letter grade of B. He generally criticized the event as \"too much of the same, with nary a sense of fun to the matches.\" He claimed the main event between John Cena and The Rock was \"all too similar, and the match never popped.\" He named The Undertaker vs. CM Punk \"match of the night\". \"Though it came nearly an hour before the night was over, their match was the clear climax, and the only true triumph of WrestleMania XXIX [sic]\" he said. Kodner claimed P. Diddy gave a \"spectacularly phoned-in performance,\" claiming, \"I'll take last year's funky army of dancing mommas as led by Brodus Clay over Diddy any day of the week.\" He praised the announcers for doing a \"fine job\" but said John \"Bradshaw\" Layfield stole the show during the advertisement for Power Slammers action figures. He also praised Fandango's understated entrance but criticized the technical problems on the live stream that caused many watching through WWE.com to miss the opening match.\nCanadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section gave the entire event a rating of 8 out of 10. The six-man tag team match received a 7 out of 10, the World Heavyweight Championship match received a 5 out of 10 and the CM Punk-Undertaker match received a perfect score of 10 out of 10. The Triple H-Brock Lesnar match received a 7 out of 10, the same rating as the main event.\nWrestleMania XXIX garnered 1,048,000 PPV buys, 205,000 fewer than the previous year's event. The event set a new record for the highest grossing live event in WWE history, grossing $72 million.\nWrestleMania 29 set a new claimed world record of 80,676 fans at MetLife Stadium and was the then second-highest attended wrestling event in history after WrestleMania III.\n\nAftermath\nThe Rock suffered legitimate torn muscles and tendons around his pelvis from the match. He later returned at WrestleMania XXX, albeit in a non-wrestling appearance.\nOn the Raw after WrestleMania, Cena put his championship on the line against anyone. Mark Henry answered the challenge, which turned into a number-one-contender match. Cena won by count-out, and was then assaulted by Henry. Ryback then came to seemingly save Cena – making Henry retreat and helping Cena to his feet – but then attacked Cena. Prior to the April 22 episode of Raw, Cena was scheduled to defend the WWE Championship against Ryback. On the May 6 episode of Raw, the match was made a Last Man Standing match. The match ended in a no-contest after Ryback rammed Cena through the entrance stage. The night after, Ryback came out with an ambulance and challenged Cena at Payback in an ambulance match. Cena accepted and made the match a three stages of hell match, in which Cena won.\nWade Barrett invoked his rematch clause on Raw and defeated The Miz, reclaiming the Intercontinental Championship for his third reign. In reality, this was done so The Miz could take time off to film the movie Christmas Bounty. Barrett was set to put the title on the line at Payback in a triple threat match against The Miz and Fandango. Fandango was injured and replaced by Paul Heyman's newest client, Curtis Axel. Axel won the championship.\nAlberto Del Rio and Jack Swagger had one more match to end their feud, but it turned into a 2-on-1 handicap match with Del Rio facing Swagger and Zeb Colter. Del Rio won but had his leg injured by Swagger. Dolph Ziggler took this opportunity to cash in his Money in the Bank contract, and – despite Del Rio putting up a fight – pinned Del Rio to become the new World Heavyweight Champion. Ziggler was soon concussed and put out of action. He still held the title, and Del Rio and Swagger feuded over the number one contendership. At Extreme Rules, Del Rio won an \"I Quit\" match for the number one contendership. Del Rio defeated Ziggler at Payback to win the World Heavyweight Championship for a second time, ending Ziggler's reign at 69 days. During the match a double turn occurred, Del Rio turned heel attacking Ziggler's head taking advantage of his concussion, and Ziggler turned face showing a \"never-say-die\" attitude.\nBrock Lesnar returned to Raw on April 15, to challenge Triple H (who had suffered second degree burns to his torso and arms during his WrestleMania ring entrance when the stage sprayed dry ice on him) to a steel cage match at Extreme Rules. A week later, Triple H came out to the surprise of Paul Heyman to accept the challenge and gave Heyman a Pedigree. Lesnar won the rematch at Extreme Rules. Paul Heyman came out the next night to reveal his newest client Curtis Axel. Triple H interrupted and issued a challenge to Axel before slapping him. Later that night, Triple H suffered a concussion during the match. The match ended as a no contest, but the victory went to Axel. Triple H returned on the June 3 edition of Raw, attempting to fight Axel, but was forbidden by his wife Stephanie McMahon, and his father-in-law Vince McMahon. He returned to the ring on June 10 edition of Raw to fight Axel. During the match, Vince took the ring bell and stopped the match after Triple H tried to restart it.\nOn the April 15 episode of Raw, CM Punk came out to talk about his match with The Undertaker and his historic WWE championship reign. Punk gave Heyman the microphone, hugged him and walked out of the arena. He returned by defeating Chris Jericho at Payback. Punk then dropped Heyman as his manager, causing Heyman to turn on Punk and Punk becoming a face again.\nThe Undertaker came out the next night on Raw to pay tribute to Paul Bearer, but was interrupted by The Shield, who tried to attack him, until Team Hell No made the save. The next week, Undertaker wrestled his last match on Raw teaming up with Team Hell No in a losing effort against The Shield by pinfall from Dean Ambrose on Daniel Bryan. The same week, Undertaker wrestled his last match on SmackDown in a winning effort against Ambrose of The Shield by submission with Hell's Gate. Afterwards, Undertaker made some defense against The Shield, but Roman Reigns speared him through the barricade in the timekeeper's area and with his teammates triple-powerbombed him through the broadcasting table. After SmackDown went off the air, Undertaker was saved by D-Generation X (Triple H, Billy Gunn and Road Dogg). CM Punk would become the final victim of Undertaker's undefeated WrestleMania streak as at WrestleMania XXX would lose at the hands of Brock Lesnar, ending the streak at 21-1.\nChris Jericho continued his feud with Fandango, with each man attacking the other after matches. Jericho defeated Fandango in a rematch at Extreme Rules.\nWrestleMania 29 was the last WrestleMania to feature the World Heavyweight Championship, as the title was unified with the WWE Championship at December's TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs event, with the latter being renamed to WWE World Heavyweight Championship. It would in turn be the final WrestleMania to feature two world championships until WrestleMania 33 in 2017.\n\nResults\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "WrestleMania_29"
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] | How many of Mark Calaway's consecutive Wrestlemania wins occurred in matches that were longer than the final match result in the same year's competition, not including years where Calaway was part of the final result? | [] | Five | [] | true |
721 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Day of the Jackal is a 1973 political thriller film directed by Fred Zinnemann and starring Edward Fox and Michael Lonsdale. Based on the 1971 novel of the same name by Frederick Forsyth, the film is about a professional assassin known only as the \"Jackal\" who is hired to assassinate French president Charles de Gaulle in the summer of 1963.\nA co-production of the United Kingdom and France, the film stars Edward Fox as the Jackal, with Michael Lonsdale, Derek Jacobi, Terence Alexander, Michel Auclair, Alan Badel, Tony Britton, Cyril Cusack, Maurice Denham and Delphine Seyrig. The musical score was composed by Georges Delerue.\nThe Day of the Jackal received positive reviews and went on to win the BAFTA Award for Best Editing (Ralph Kemplen), five additional BAFTA Award nominations (including Best Film and Best Direction), two Golden Globe Award nominations, and one Oscar nomination. The film grossed $16,056,255 at the North American box office, returning $8,525,000 in rentals to the studio. The British Film Institute ranked it the 74th greatest British film of the 20th century.\n\nPlot\nOn 22 August 1962, the militant underground organisation OAS, infuriated by the French government granting independence to Algeria, attempts to assassinate President Charles de Gaulle. The assassination attempt fails, leaving de Gaulle and his entire entourage unharmed. Within six months, OAS leader Jean Bastien-Thiry and several other members are captured and Bastien-Thiry is executed.\nThe remaining OAS leaders, now hiding in Austria, plan another attempt, and hire a British assassin, who goes by the code name \"Jackal\", for $500,000. The Jackal travels to Genoa and commissions a custom rifle from a gunsmith, and fake identity papers from a forger, whom the Jackal kills in self-defense when the criminal unwisely tries blackmailing him. In Paris, the Jackal duplicates a key to a sixth-floor flat overlooking the Place du 18 juin 1940.\nThe OAS relocate to Rome. The French Action Service kidnap the OAS's chief clerk, Viktor Wolenski. Wolenski dies under interrogation, but not before the agents extract vital information about the plot, including the word \"Jackal\". The Interior Minister convenes a secret cabinet meeting of the heads of the French security forces. Police Commissioner Berthier recommends his deputy, Claude Lebel, to lead the investigation. Lebel is given special emergency powers, though de Gaulle's refusal to change his planned public appearances complicates matters.\nColonel St. Clair, a personal military aide to de Gaulle and a cabinet member, carelessly discloses classified government information to his mistress, Denise, unaware she is an OAS agent. She passes this on to her contact, which, in turn, aids the Jackal. Meanwhile, Lebel determines that British suspect Charles Harold Calthrop (whose name Cha… Cal… suggests chacal, French for jackal) may be travelling under the name Paul Oliver Duggan, who died as a child, and has entered France.\nAlthough the Jackal learns the authorities have uncovered the assassination plot, he decides to proceed. While at a hotel, the Jackal meets and seduces the aristocratic Colette de Montpellier. Warned by his contact, the Jackal leaves just before Lebel and his men arrive. After a nearly fatal vehicular accident, the Jackal steals a car and drives to Madame de Montpellier's country estate to hide out. He kills her after discovering the police have already spoken to her. Using an already stolen passport, the Jackal then assumes the identity of a bespectacled Danish schoolteacher named Per Lundquist. After disposing of Duggan's belongings in a river, he catches a train for Paris.\nMadame de Montpellier's body is discovered and her car is recovered at the railway station. Lebel, no longer hindered by secrecy restrictions, launches a public manhunt. The Jackal picks up a gay man at a Turkish bathhouse and stays at the man's flat. The Jackal kills him after the man sees a TV news broadcast that \"Lundquist\" is wanted for the murder of Madame de Montpellier.\nAt a meeting with the Interior Minister's cabinet, Lebel says he believes the Jackal will attempt to shoot de Gaulle during the commemoration of the liberation of Paris during World War II, scheduled three days hence. Lebel plays a recording of a phone call in which Denise provides information to an OAS contact. St. Clair apologises for his indiscretion and immediately leaves. When asked how he knew St. Clair was the source of the leak, Lebel says he wiretapped every cabinet member's phone. The French Interior Minister, feeling that the case is now solved, dismisses Lebel from the case. Denise returns to St. Clair's apartment and discovers that he has committed suicide and finds the police awaiting her. Subsequently losing track of the Jackal, the French Interior Minister re-instates Lebel.\nOn Liberation Day, the Jackal, disguised as an elderly veteran amputee on crutches, enters a building using the key he had earlier procured. In an upper apartment overlooking the ceremonial area, he assembles the rifle hidden within his crutch and waits by the window. When Lebel discovers that a policeman allowed a disabled man to pass through the security cordon, the two race to the building. As de Gaulle presents the first medal, the Jackal takes aim, but as he shoots he narrowly misses when the president suddenly leans forward. As he reloads the rifle for another shot, Lebel and the policeman burst in. The Jackal shoots the policeman, but Lebel kills him using the officer's submachine gun.\nIn England, while police are searching Charles Harold Calthrop's flat, the real Calthrop suddenly arrives. He accompanies them to Scotland Yard and is later cleared, leaving the police to wonder about the true identity of the assassin. The Jackal is buried in an unmarked grave, with Lebel as the only witness.\n\nCast\nProduction\nThe Day of the Jackal was originally part of a two-picture deal between John Woolf and Fred Zinnemann, the other being an adaptation of the play Abelard and Heloise by Ronald Millar.\nUniversal Studios initially wanted to cast a major American actor as the Jackal, with Robert Redford and Jack Nicholson flown to Europe to audition. Although Universal favoured Nicholson, Zinnemann ultimately secured a production agreement stipulating that only European actors would be cast. Afterwards, British actors David McCallum, Ian Richardson and Michael York were considered, before Zinnemann cast Edward Fox. Jacqueline Bisset was offered the role of Denise, but had to decline due to scheduling conflicts.\nZinnemann wrote that Adrien Cayla-Legrand, the actor who played de Gaulle, was mistaken by several Parisians for the real de Gaulle during filming—though de Gaulle had been dead for two years prior to the film's release. The sequence was filmed during a real parade, leading to confusion; the crowd (many of whom were unaware that a film was being shot) mistook the actors portraying police officers for real officers, and many tried to help them arrest the \"suspects\" they were apprehending in the crowd.\n\nThe Day of the Jackal was filmed in studios and on location in France, Britain, Italy and Austria. Zinnemann was able to film in locations usually denied to filmmakers—such as inside the Ministry of the Interior—due in large part to French producer Julien Derode's skill in dealing with authorities. Nevertheless, the opening sequence was not shot in the Élysée courtyard but at the hôtel de Soubise, main office of the French National Archives. The two palaces were both built at the beginning of the 18th century, but the Hôtel de Soubise is more accessible and has less security than the Élysée.\nDuring the massive annual 14 July parade down the Champs-Élysées, the company was allowed to film inside the police lines, capturing extraordinary closeup footage of the massing of troops, tanks, and artillery during the final Liberation Day sequence. During the weekend of 15 August, the Paris police cleared a very busy square of all traffic to film additional scenes.\nFrederick Forsyth later wrote that for the film contract to buy rights for his novel, he was offered two options: £17,500 plus a small percentage of subsequent film profits, or £20,000 and no royalties. He took £20,000, noting that such a payment was already a massive sum to him, but due to his naïveté about finances, he waived rights to a small fortune in royalties given the film's enduring success.\n\nList of locations\nReception\nCritical response\nThe film received positive reviews, with a 91% rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 32 reviews. The consensus summarizes: \"The Day of the Jackal is a meticulously constructed thriller with surprising irreverence and taut direction.\" Among those who praised the film was Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times, who gave it his highest rating of four stars:\"Fred Zinnemann’s The Day of the Jackal is one hell of an exciting movie. I wasn’t prepared for how good it really is: it’s not just a suspense classic, but a beautifully executed example of filmmaking. It’s put together like a fine watch. The screenplay meticulously assembles an incredible array of material, and then Zinnemann choreographs it so that the story—complicated as it is—unfolds in almost documentary starkness. The Day of the Jackal is two and a half hours long and seems over in about fifteen minutes.\"Ebert concluded: \"Zinnemann has mastered every detail ... There are some words you hesitate to use in a review, because they sound so much like advertising copy, but in this case I can truthfully say that the movie is spellbinding.\" Ebert included the film at No. 7 on his list of the Top 10 films of the year for 1973.\nThe Day of the Jackal and the resultant Academy Award nomination were career milestones for Kenneth Ross, the Scottish-American screenwriter. Critics were generally favorably impressed with the film. The paternity of the film is somewhat disputed. The screenplay faithfully adheres to the novel, even as the latter is uncredited in the film. “This is not a bad movie, it races by and entertains, after a fashion. It simply is not as good as it should have been.”\nThe Time film critic appreciated the transition from novel to film:\n\"The Day of the Jackal makes one appreciate anew the wonderful narrative efficiency of the movies. Frederick Forsyth's bestselling novel—essentially what mystery buffs call a police procedural, but blown up to international proportions—kept losing its basically simple story line in the forest of words. The writer required paragraphs to detail the procedures of an international man hunt, not to mention the procedures of the Jackal himself, a hired gun employed by disaffected French army officers to assassinate Charles de Gaulle. This is the kind of material that a good director can give us in the wink of a panning camera's eye.” Due to the masterful cinema and cutting skills of director Fred Zinnemann \"what might have been just another expensive entertainment becomes, on a technical level, a textbook on reels in the near-forgotten subject of concise moviemaking. In short, as so often happens, a second-rate fiction has been transformed into a first-rate screen entertainment.\"\nOther critics were less effusive. For example:\n\n“Day Of The Jackal is not a great film, but it’s a damn good one, one of the very few films released this year that is worth all the trouble and expense of going out to the movies. ... give [director Zinnemann] a good yarn and he tells it without any personal intrusions and attention-getting tics. Jackal is an authentically detailed suspense story with ingenious twists. And you may be surprised, for director Fred (High Noon) Zinnemann and adapter Kenneth Ross have made a curiously depersonalized kind of suspense flick of Frederick Forsyth’s best seller. ...\" The script highlights in a suspenseful way the conflict between a relentless “killer’s brain” and the stolid and relentless work of detectives on the hunt for an unknown and elusive quarry.\nMacLeans Magazine’s critic called it: “.. an authentically detailed suspense story with ingenious twists. “\nThe movie is an intricate and detailed maze, but is entertaining and never tedious.\nThe interplay between director and author was favorably noted:\n\n\"Author Frederick Forsyth struck gold right out of the gate with his first fictional work, the 1971 international bestseller The Day of the Jackal, and then had the good fortune to watch it transformed into a motion picture that (unlike too many page-to-screen efforts) steadfastly avoided botching the source material. A largely faithful adaptation of Forsyth’s novel, .... Fred Zinnemann, scripter Kenneth Ross, and editor Ralph Kemplen (earning this film’s sole Oscar nomination) all deserve high marks for ratcheting up the tension in a movie whose outcome is never in doubt (after all, de Gaulle died years later at home, at the age of 79).\"\nLikewise, the film critic for The Spectator opined:\"All of this the cinema is properly and effectively equipped to handle. Zinnemann, with the help of an excellent script from Kenneth Ross, has transferred the novel lock, stock, barrel and silencer to the screen. Nothing important has been left out. ..... [The script and the film conveys, the action, conflict, place and denouement. Making it a] “documentary thriller is that it leaves nothing to the imagination.' In other words, for those of you who have read the novel, going to The Day of the Jackal will be curiously like the experience of seeing the same film a second time round or seeing the filmed version of a stage play. For anyone who hasn't read Forsyth's book, the film can be recommended wholeheartedly.\"\nThe scrupulously researched “pulp thriller” provided “ the perfect template for this exhaustive procedural. In many ways, this outstanding piece of filmmaking marks the apotheosis of a certain style of thriller that has since fallen out of fashion—the mind game. [It is] “Built with the minutiae of a Swiss watch”, without blandishments. The linear plot “is made infinitely complex by the portrayal of this empty vessel of a killer by Fox. ...” An irresistible force is pitted against an immovable object—a conflict facilitated by the script. There is an intricate story “with a parallel structure that details the Jackal's preparations for the assassination” and the prophylactic efforts of the detectives.\nThe Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited this movie as one of his 100 favorite films.\n\nBox office\nThe film grossed $16,056,255 at the box office earning North American rentals of $8,525,000. Zinnemann was pleased with the film's reception at the box office, telling an interviewer in 1993: \"The idea that excited me was to make a suspense film where everybody knew the end - that de Gaulle was not killed. In spite of knowing the end, would the audience sit still? And it turned out that they did, just as the readers of the book did.\"\n\nAwards and nominations\nRemakes\nAugust 1 (1988) - An Indian Malayalam-language film directed by Sibi Malayil, written by S. N. Swamy, and starring Mammootty, Sukumaran, Captain Raju and Urvashi. This adaptation relocates the story to the Indian state of Kerala.\nThe Jackal (1997) - An American film directed by Michael Caton-Jones, written by Chuck Pfarrer, and starring Bruce Willis, Richard Gere, Sidney Poitier and Diane Venora. Forsyth, Woolf, Zinnemann and Fox opposed the production and filed an injunction to prevent Universal Pictures from using the name of the original novel and film, and it would be marketed as being \"inspired by\" rather than directly based on Forsyth's novel. The film does not credit Forsyth's novel as source material, and only credits Kenneth Ross with \"earlier screenplay.\"\nThe Day of the Jackal (2024) - A British television drama serial adaptation of the Frederick Forsyth novel of the same name. It is set to star Eddie Redmayne, and be produced by Ronan Bennett and directed by Brian Kirk.\n\nSee also\nBFI Top 100 British films\n\nReferences\nNotes\nCitations\nExternal links\nThe Day of the Jackal at IMDb\nThe Day of the Jackal at the TCM Movie Database\nThe Day of the Jackal at AllMovie\nThe Day of the Jackal at Rotten Tomatoes",
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"paragraph_text": "Edward Charles Morice Fox (born 13 April 1937) is an English actor and a member of the Fox family.\nFox starred in the film The Day of the Jackal (1973), playing the part of a professional assassin, known only as the \"Jackal\", who is hired to assassinate the French president Charles de Gaulle in the summer of 1963. Fox is also known for his roles in Battle of Britain (1969), The Go-Between (1971), for which he won a BAFTA award, and The Bounty (1984). He also collaborated with director Richard Attenborough, appearing in his films Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), A Bridge Too Far (1977) and Gandhi (1982).\nFox portrayed Edward VIII in the British television drama series Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978) and appeared in the historical series Taboo (2017). In addition to film and television work, Fox has received acclaim as a stage actor.\n\nEarly life and education\nFox was born the first of three sons on 13 April 1937 in Chelsea, London, the son of Robin Fox, a theatrical agent, and Angela Muriel Darita Worthington, an actress and writer. He is the father of actors Emilia Fox and Freddie Fox, the elder brother of actor James Fox and film producer Robert Fox, and an uncle of actor Laurence Fox. His paternal great-grandfather was industrialist and inventor Samson Fox, and his paternal grandmother was Hilda Hanbury, sister of stage performer Lily Hanbury. His maternal grandfather was dramatist Frederick Lonsdale, and his maternal grandmother was the daughter of football player and stockbroker Charles Morice. Fox was educated at Harrow School and completed his National Service in the Loyals, having failed to gain a commission in the Coldstream Guards.\n\nCareer\nFox made his theatrical debut in 1958, and his first film appearance was as an extra in The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962). He also had a non-speaking part as a waiter in This Sporting Life (1963). Throughout the 1960s he worked mostly on stage, including a turn as Hamlet. In the late 1960s and early 1970s he established himself with roles in major British films, including Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), Battle of Britain (1969) and The Go-Between (1971). In The Go-Between, he played the part of Lord Hugh Trimingham, for which he won a BAFTA award for Best Supporting Actor. His acting ability also brought him to the attention of director Fred Zinnemann, who was looking for an actor who was not well-known and could be believable as the assassin in the film The Day of the Jackal (1973). Fox won the role, beating other contenders such as Roger Moore and Michael Caine.\nFrom then on he was much sought after, appearing in such films as A Bridge Too Far (1977) as Lieutenant General Horrocks, a role he has cited as a personal favourite, and for which he won the Best Supporting Actor award at the British Academy Film Awards. He also starred in Force 10 from Navarone (1978), with Robert Shaw and Harrison Ford.\nIn 1990, he appeared as a contestant on Cluedo, facing off against fellow actor Joanna David.\nHe portrayed King Edward VIII in the television drama Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978). In the film Gandhi (1982), Fox portrayed Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, who was responsible for the Amritsar massacre in India. He then appeared as M in the unofficial Bond film Never Say Never Again (1983), a remake of Thunderball (1965). He also appeared in The Bounty (1984) and Wild Geese II (1985), both opposite Laurence Olivier, and in The Importance of Being Earnest (2002), Nicholas Nickleby (2002), and Stage Beauty (2004).\n\nLater stage work\nFox consolidated his reputation with regular appearances on stage in London's West End. He was seen in Four Quartets, a set of four poems by T. S. Eliot, accompanied by the keyboard music of Johann Sebastian Bach, performed by Christine Croshaw. In 2010, Fox performed a one-man show, An Evening with Anthony Trollope, directed by Richard Digby Day. In 2013, he replaced Robert Hardy in the role of Winston Churchill in the premiere of The Audience, after Hardy had to withdraw for health reasons. In 2018, he appeared with his son Freddie Fox in an adaption of Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband.\n\nAwards\nFor his role as Viscount Trimingham in The Go-Between (1971), he won the Best Supporting Actor Award at the following year's British Academy Film Awards.\nHe won the Best Supporting Actor Award at the British Academy Film Awards a second time for his role as Lieutenant General Horrocks in A Bridge Too Far (1977).\n\nHonours\nFox was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services to Drama in the 2003 New Year Honours.\n\nPersonal life\nFrom 1958 until their 1961 divorce, Fox was married to actress Tracy Reed with whom he has a daughter, Lucy Arabella (born 1960), who became the Viscountess Gormanston upon her marriage to Nicholas Preston, Viscount Gormanston. In 1971, he began a relationship with actress Joanna David; they married in July 2004. They have two children together, actors Emilia (born 1974) and Frederick \"Freddie\" (born 1989).\nHe has two grandchildren through his daughters: Harry Grenfell from Lucy's marriage to David Grenfell, and Rose Gilley from Emilia's relationship with actor Jeremy Gilley.\nFox has residences in London and Wareham, Dorset.\n\nViews and advocacy\nFox spoke at the conference for the Referendum Party ahead of the 1997 general election and was a friend of its leader James Goldsmith. He has also been a patron of the UK Independence Party.\nIn 2002, Fox joined the Countryside March to support hunting rights in the UK. He supported the restoration of the Royal Hall, Harrogate, funded by his great-grandfather Samson Fox.\nIn 2010, Fox gave his support to a local campaign to prevent a supermarket being built close to his home in Dorset, citing the impact it would have upon small and independent businesses in the area. He chronicled the events in an article for The Daily Telegraph.\nFox also endorsed the successful \"Leave\" vote campaign ahead of the referendum to leave the European Union.\n\nFilmography\nSelected theatre performances\nHarry, Lord Monchensey in The Family Reunion by T S Eliot. Directed by Michael Elliott at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. 1979)\nCaptain in The Dance of Death by August Strindberg. Directed by Kenneth MacMillan at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. (1983)\nCrichton in The Admirable Crichton by J.M.Barrie at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, London. (1989)\n\nOther projects and contributions\nWhen Love Speaks (2002, EMI Classics) – William Shakespeare's \"Sonnet 140\" (\"Be wise as thou art cruel; do not press\"), a compilation album that features interpretations of Shakespeare's sonnets and excerpts from his plays by famous actors and musicians.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nEdward Fox at IMDb",
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"paragraph_text": "Sir Roger George Moore (14 October 1927 – 23 May 2017) was an English actor. He was the third actor to portray fictional secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions/MGM Studios film series, playing the character in seven feature films: Live and Let Die (1973), The Man with the Golden Gun (1974), The Spy Who Loved Me (1977), Moonraker (1979), For Your Eyes Only (1981), Octopussy (1983), and A View to a Kill (1985). Moore's seven appearances as Bond are the most of any actor in the Eon-produced entries. \nOn television, Moore played the lead role of Simon Templar, the title character in the British mystery thriller series The Saint (1962–1969). He also had roles in American series, including Beau Maverick on the Western Maverick (1960–1961), in which he replaced James Garner as the lead, and a co-lead, with Tony Curtis, in the action-comedy The Persuaders! (1971–1972). Continuing to act on screen in the decades after his retirement from the Bond franchise, Moore's final appearance was in a pilot for a new Saint series that became a 2017 television film.\nMoore was appointed a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in 1991 and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 2003 for services to charity. In 2007, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the film industry. He was made a Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters by the French government in 2008.\n\nEarly life\nRoger George Moore was born on 14 October 1927 in Stockwell, London. He was the only child of George Alfred Moore (1904–1997), a policeman based in Bow Street, London, and Lillian \"Lily\" Pope (1904–1986). His mother was born in Calcutta, India, to an English family. He attended Battersea Grammar School, but was evacuated to Holsworthy in Devon during the Second World War, and attended Launceston College in Cornwall. He was further educated at Dr Challoner's Grammar School in Amersham, Buckinghamshire.\nMoore was apprenticed to an animation studio, but he was fired after he made a mistake with some animation cels. When his father investigated a robbery at the home of film director Brian Desmond Hurst, Moore was introduced to the director and hired as an extra for the 1945 film Caesar and Cleopatra. While there, Moore attracted an off-camera female fan following, and Hurst decided to pay Moore's fees at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Moore spent three terms at RADA, where he was a classmate of his future Bond co-star Lois Maxwell, the original Miss Moneypenny. During his time there, he developed the Mid-Atlantic accent and relaxed demeanour that became his screen persona.\nAt 18, shortly after the end of the Second World War, Moore was conscripted for national service. On 21 September 1946, he was commissioned into the Royal Army Service Corps as a second lieutenant. He was an officer in the Combined Services Entertainment section, eventually becoming a captain commanding a small depot in West Germany, where he looked after entertainers for the armed forces passing through Hamburg.\n\nCareer\nEarly work (1945–1953)\nMoore made his professional debut in Alexander Korda's Perfect Strangers (1945) alongside actors Robert Donat, Deborah Kerr, and Glynis Johns. Other early uncredited appearances include Caesar and Cleopatra (1945), Gaiety George, Piccadilly Incident (both 1946), and Trottie True (1949), in which he appeared alongside an uncredited Christopher Lee (both actors being cast by Brian Desmond Hurst as stage-door Johnnies).\nIn his book Last Man Standing: Tales from Tinseltown, Moore states that his first television appearance was on 27 March 1949 in The Governess by Patrick Hamilton, a live broadcast (as usual in that era), in which he played the minor part of Bob Drew. Other actors in the show included Clive Morton and Betty Ann Davies. He had uncredited parts in films including Paper Orchid and The Interrupted Journey (both 1949). He was in Drawing-Room Detective on TV and appeared in the films One Wild Oat and Honeymoon Deferred (both 1951).\nIn the early 1950s Moore worked as a model, appearing in print advertisements in the UK for knitwear (earning him the nickname \"The Big Knit\") and a wide range of other products such as toothpaste.\nMoore travelled to the United States and began to work in television. He appeared in adaptations of Julius Caesar and Black Chiffon, and in two episodes of Robert Montgomery Presents, as well as the TV movie The Clay of Kings (all 1953).\n\nMGM (1954–1956)\nIn March 1954, MGM signed Moore to a seven-year contract. He started his MGM contract with a small role in The Last Time I Saw Paris (1954), flirting with Elizabeth Taylor. He appeared in Interrupted Melody, a biographical movie about opera singer Marjorie Lawrence's recovery from polio, in which he was billed third under Glenn Ford and Eleanor Parker as Lawrence's brother Cyril. That same year, he played a supporting role in the swashbuckler The King's Thief starring Ann Blyth, Edmund Purdom, David Niven and George Sanders.\nIn the 1956 film Diane, Moore was billed third again, this time under Lana Turner and Pedro Armendariz, in a 16th-century period piece set in France with Moore playing Prince Henri, the future king. Moore was released from his MGM contract after two years following the film's critical and commercial failure. In his own words, \"At MGM, RGM [Roger George Moore] was NBG [no bloody good].\"\nMoore then freelanced for a time, appearing in episodes of Ford Star Jubilee (1956), Lux Video Theatre (1957) and Matinee Theatre (1957).\n\nIvanhoe (1958–1959)\nMoore's first success was playing the eponymous hero, Sir Wilfred of Ivanhoe, in the 1958–59 series Ivanhoe, a loose adaptation of the 1819 romantic novel by Sir Walter Scott set in the 12th century during the era of Richard the Lionheart, delving into Ivanhoe's conflict with Prince John. Shot mainly in England at Elstree Studios and Buckinghamshire, some of the show was also filmed in California owing to a partnership with Columbia Studios' Screen Gems. Aimed at younger audiences, the pilot was filmed in colour, a reflection of its comparatively high budget for a British children's adventure series of the period, but subsequent episodes were shot in black and white. Christopher Lee and John Schlesinger were among the show's guest stars, and series regulars included Robert Brown (who in the 1980s played M in several James Bond films) as the squire Gurth, Peter Gilmore as Waldo Ivanhoe, Andrew Keir as villainous Prince John, and Bruce Seton as noble King Richard. Moore suffered broken ribs and a battle-axe blow to his helmet while performing some of his own stunts filming a season of 39 half-hour episodes, and later reminisced, \"I felt a complete Charlie riding around in all that armour and damned stupid plumed helmet. I felt like a medieval fireman.\"\n\nWarner Bros. (1959–1961)\nAfter that, Moore spent a few years mainly doing one-shot parts in television series, including an episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents in 1959 titled \"The Avon Emeralds\". He signed another long-term contract to a studio, this time to Warner Bros.\nIn 1959, he took the lead role in The Miracle, a version of the play Das Mirakel for Warner Bros. showcasing Carroll Baker as a nun. The part had been turned down by Dirk Bogarde. That same year, Moore was directed by Arthur Hiller in \"The Angry Young Man\", an episode of the television series The Third Man starring Michael Rennie as criminal mastermind Harry Lime, the role portrayed by Orson Welles in the film version.\n\nThe Alaskans (1959–1960)\nMoore's next television series involved playing the lead as \"Silky\" Harris for the ABC/Warner Bros. 1959–60 Western The Alaskans, with co-stars Dorothy Provine as Rocky, Jeff York as Reno, and Ray Danton as Nifty. The show ran for a single season of 37 hour-long episodes on Sunday nights. Though set in Skagway, Alaska, with a focus on the Klondike Gold Rush around 1896, the series was filmed in the hot studio lot at Warner Bros. in Hollywood with the cast costumed in fur coats and hats. Moore found the work highly taxing, and his off-camera affair with Provine complicated matters even more. Moore later referred to the experience as his \"most appalling television series.\"\nHe subsequently appeared as the questionable character \"14 Karat John\" in the two-part episode \"Right Off the Boat\" of the ABC/WB crime drama The Roaring 20s—alongside Rex Reason, John Dehner, Gary Vinson, and Dorothy Provine—appearing in a similar role but with a different character name.\n\nMaverick (1960–1961)\nIn the wake of The Alaskans, Moore was cast as Beau Maverick, an English-accented cousin of frontier gamblers Bret Maverick (James Garner), Bart Maverick (Jack Kelly), and Brent Maverick (Robert Colbert) in the much more successful ABC/WB Western series Maverick.\nMoore appeared as the character in 14 episodes after Garner had left the series at the end of the previous season, wearing some of Garner's costumes; while filming The Alaskans, he had already recited much of Garner's dialogue, for the Alaskan series frequently recycled Maverick scripts, changing only the names and locales. He had also filmed a Maverick episode with Garner two seasons earlier, in which Moore played a different character, in a retooling of Richard Brinsley Sheridan's 1775 comedy of manners play The Rivals. In the course of the story, Moore and Garner's characters switched names on a bet, with Moore consequently identifying himself as \"Bret Maverick\" through most of the episode.\nMoore's debut as Beau Maverick occurred in the first episode of the 1960–61 fourth season, \"The Bundle from Britain\", one of four episodes in which he shared screen time with cousin Bart (Jack Kelly). Robert Altman wrote and directed \"Bolt from the Blue\", an episode featuring Will Hutchins as a frontier lawyer similar to his character in the series Sugarfoot, and \"Red Dog\" found Beau mixed up with vicious bank robbers Lee Van Cleef and John Carradine. Kathleen Crowley was Moore's leading lady in two episodes (\"Bullet for the Teacher\" and \"Kiz\"), and others included Mala Powers, Roxane Berard, Fay Spain, Merry Anders, Andra Martin, and Jeanne Cooper. Upon leaving the series, Moore cited a decline in script quality since the Garner era as the key factor in his decision to depart; ratings for the show were also down. Moore was originally slated to appear with both Jack Kelly and Robert Colbert in the series but by the time Colbert starred in his first episode, Moore had already left the series. Numerous early publicity stills of Kelly, Moore and Colbert posing together exist, however.\nMoore was still under contract with Warners, who cast him in The Sins of Rachel Cade (1961), making love to a nun played by Angie Dickinson, and Gold of the Seven Saints (1961), supporting Clint Walker. He also went to Italy to make the adventure comedy Romulus and the Sabines (1961).\n\nThe Saint (1962–1969)\nLew Grade cast Moore as Simon Templar in a new adaptation of The Saint, based on the novels by Leslie Charteris. Moore said in an interview in 1963 that he wanted to buy the rights to Leslie Charteris's character and the trademarks. The television series was broadcast by ITV in the UK between 1962 and 1969, and its overseas success made Moore a household name. After the strong performance in the US of the first two series in first-run syndication, NBC picked up the show in 1966. By early 1967, Moore had achieved international stardom. The series established his suave, quipping style which he carried forward to James Bond, and it also saw him exhibit his trademark raised eyebrow. Francis Blagburn in The Telegraph writes,\n\nThe raised eyebrow is perhaps the hardest facial gesture to perfect in the gentleman's arsenal. Get it right and you give the impression of someone who is in total control; get it wrong and you look like, well, Dwayne 'The Rock' Johnson (and no one wants that). Sir Roger wrote the book in how to raise an eyebrow... as Simon Templar, he coolly infers [sic] that he knows, and he knows that you know that he knows.\nThe Saint ran from 1962 for six seasons and 118 episodes. Moore went on to direct nine episodes of the later series, which moved into colour in 1967. Several episodes were edited together to form two films, The Saint and the Fiction Makers (1968) and Vendetta for the Saint (1969).\n\nPost-Saint films and The Persuaders! (1969–1972)\nHe made two films immediately after the series ended: Crossplot (1969), a lightweight 'spy caper' movie, and the more challenging The Man Who Haunted Himself (1970). Directed by Basil Dearden, it gave Moore the opportunity to demonstrate greater versatility than the role of Simon Templar had allowed. In 2004, Moore said of The Man Who Haunted Himself: \"It was one of the few times I was allowed to act... Many say my best role was in The Man Who Haunted Himself. Being a modest actor, I won't disagree.\"\n\nLew Grade lured Moore to star alongside Tony Curtis in The Persuaders!. The show featured the adventures of two millionaire playboys across Europe. Moore was paid the then-unheard-of sum of £1 million for a single series, making him the highest-paid television actor in the world. Lew Grade claimed in his autobiography, Still Dancing, that Moore and Curtis \"didn't hit it off all that well\". Curtis refused to spend more time on set than was strictly necessary, while Moore was always willing to work overtime. According to the DVD commentary, neither Roger Moore, an uncredited co-producer, nor Robert S. Baker, the credited producer, ever had a contract other than a handshake with Lew Grade.\nDespite its focus on the UK and US markets, The Persuaders! became more successful in other international markets. On its premiere on the ITV network, it was beaten in the ratings by repeats of Monty Python's Flying Circus on BBC One. It did however place in the Top 20 most-viewed television series in the UK throughout 1971. The lack of success in the US, where it had been sold to ABC, Curtis put down to its showing at the Saturday 10pm slot, but it was successful in continental Europe and Australia. In Germany, where the series was aired under the name Die Zwei (\"The Two\"), it became a hit through especially amusing dubbing which only barely used translations of the original dialogue.\n\nJames Bond era (1973–1985)\nMoore as Bond\nMoore's Bond was very different from the version created by Ian Fleming and the one portrayed by Connery. Screenwriters such as George MacDonald Fraser provided scenarios in which Moore was cast as a seasoned, debonair playboy who would always have a trick or gadget in stock when he needed it. This was designed to serve the contemporary taste of the 1970s. Moore's version of Bond was also known for his sense of humour and witty one liners as Moore himself said, \"My personality is different from previous Bonds. I'm not that cold-blooded-killer type. Which is why I play it mostly for laughs.\"\n\nLive and Let Die (1973)\nDue to his commitment to several television shows, in particular The Saint, Roger Moore was unavailable for the James Bond films for a considerable time. His participation in The Saint was as actor, producer, and director, and he also became involved in developing the series The Persuaders!. In 1964, he made a guest appearance as James Bond in the comedy series Mainly Millicent. Moore stated in his autobiography My Word Is My Bond (2008) that he had neither been approached to play the character in Dr. No, nor did he feel that he had ever been considered. Only after Sean Connery had declared in 1966 that he would not play Bond any longer did Moore become aware that he might be a contender for the role. After George Lazenby was cast in 1969's On Her Majesty's Secret Service and Connery was enticed back to the role of Bond again for Diamonds Are Forever (1971), Moore did not consider the possibility until it seemed clear that Connery had stepped down as Bond for good. At that point, Moore was approached, and he accepted producer Albert Broccoli's offer in August 1972. In his autobiography, Moore writes that he had to cut his hair and lose weight for the role. Although he resented having to make those changes, he was finally cast as James Bond in Live and Let Die (1973).\nMoore then made Gold (1974), based on a novel by Wilbur Smith for producer Michael Klinger and director Peter R. Hunt. He was paid US$200,000 plus a percentage of the profits.\n\nThe Man with the Golden Gun (1974)\nMoore made his second Bond film, The Man with the Golden Gun (1974), which was a hit, though less successful than Live and Let Die. It featured Christopher Lee as the main antagonist. Also appearing are Britt Ekland, Herve Villechaize, and Maud Adams. He then made a comedy That Lucky Touch (1975) which was a box office disaster. Moore made an Italian-shot action film Street People (1976), then went back to South Africa for another Klinger-Hunt movie from a Wilbur Smith novel, Shout at the Devil (1976), which was successful in Britain, though less so in the US. Lee Marvin was a main cast member. Ian Holm was also featured, as well as Barbara Parkins.\n\nThe Spy Who Loved Me (1977)\nMoore returned for a third outing as Bond in The Spy Who Loved Me (1977), which was a massive box-office success. It also starred Barbara Bach and Richard Kiel in his first appearance as the villain Jaws. He returned to South Africa for a third action movie shot there, The Wild Geese (1978), produced by Euan Lloyd and directed by Andrew V. McLaglen. It was a sizeable hit in Britain and Europe but, like Shout at the Devil, less so in the US. The cast featured Richard Burton, who had top billing, and Richard Harris.\nMoore played the lead in Escape to Athena (1979) partly financed by Lew Grade. It was a heist adventure set in war-time Greece, and stars Telly Savalas and David Niven, and features mostly American character actors, including Elliott Gould, Stefanie Powers, Richard Roundtree, Sonny Bono, and Italian actress Claudia Cardinale. Roger Moore (with top billing) plays a charming former Austrian antiquities dealer turned crooked camp commandant, asked to guard Greek antiquities desired by the Third Reich, and also guard the collection of archaeologists who are being forced to work to find and recover these objects, but he has other plans for the treasure he guards and for the people under his watch.\n\nMoonraker (1979)\nMoore followed the success of his fourth outing as Bond, Moonraker (1979), with an action film, North Sea Hijack (1980), also known as ffolkes. Moore played a very un-Bond-like hero, opposite Anthony Perkins. The film was a box-office disappointment.\nBetter received was The Sea Wolves (1980), another World War Two adventure which reunited many of the crew from The Wild Geese including Euan Lloyd and McLaglen. It was based on the true story of a March 1943 event in British India and Portuguese Goa, in which a group of retired members of the Calcutta Light Horse, colonelled by David Niven's character, assist regular British Army operatives, played by Moore and Gregory Peck, in destroying German ships in neutral Mormugao harbour, all the time surrounded by German spies and Indian nationalist intrigue. Trevor Howard, Patrick Macnee, and Barbara Kellerman also co-star, with a who's-who lineup of British character actors.\nMoore was in two all-star comedies: Sunday Lovers (1980), which flopped at the box office, and The Cannonball Run (1981), which was a hit. The latter featured an ensemble cast, including Jackie Chan, Burt Reynolds, Dean Martin, Dom DeLuise, Sammy Davis Jr, and Farrah Fawcett.\n\nFor Your Eyes Only (1981)\nMoore returned for his fifth outing as Bond in For Your Eyes Only (1981).\n\nOctopussy (1983)\nFollowing the film For Your Eyes Only, Moore expressed a desire to leave the role, and other actors were screen tested including James Brolin, but Moore was eventually enticed back for Octopussy (1983).\nThe circumstances around Octopussy's release were highly unusual in that another James Bond film was being released in the same year. Spearheaded by Thunderball producer Kevin McClory (who retained film rights to the property because the antecedent 1961 Ian Fleming novel was based on an unfilmed 1959 screenplay produced under the aegis of McClory, Jack Whittingham and Fleming), the non-Eon production Never Say Never Again featured his predecessor Sean Connery returning to the role of Bond. Although tantamount to a loose remake of Thunderball, it was not set in the continuity of the previous Eon Bond films. This led to the media dubbing the one-time situation the \"Battle of the Bonds\".\nHe made a cameo as Chief Inspector Clouseau, posing as a famous movie star, in Curse of the Pink Panther (1983) (for which he was credited as \"Turk Thrust II\"). Then he tried a thriller The Naked Face (1984), written and directed by Bryan Forbes.\n\nA View to a Kill (1985)\nMoore starred in his final Bond film, A View to a Kill (1985). He was the oldest actor to have played Bond – he was 45 in Live and Let Die, and 58 when he announced his retirement on 3 December 1985, having played the part for over 12 years. With 7 films Moore holds the record for playing Bond the most times in the Eon series but is tied with Sean Connery in number of times playing Bond when counting Connery's non-Eon appearance in Never Say Never Again (1983).\nIn 1987, he hosted Happy Anniversary 007: 25 Years of James Bond.\n\nPost-James Bond career (1986–2017)\nMoore did not act on screen for five years after he stopped playing Bond; in 1990, he appeared in several films and in the writer-director Michael Feeney Callan's television series My Riviera and starred in the film Bed & Breakfast which was shot in 1989; and also had a large role in the 1996 film The Quest; in 1997, he starred as the Chief in Spice World. At the age of 73, he played a flamboyant homosexual man in Boat Trip (2002) with Cuba Gooding Jr.\nThe British satirical puppet show Spitting Image had a sketch in which their latex likeness of Moore, when asked to display emotions by an offscreen director, did nothing but raise an eyebrow; Moore himself stated that he thought the sketch was funny and took it in good humour. Indeed, he had always embraced the \"eyebrows\" gag wholeheartedly, and quipped that he \"only had three expressions as Bond: right eyebrow raised, left eyebrow raised, and eyebrows crossed when grabbed by Jaws\". Spitting Image continued the joke, featuring a Bond film spoof, The Man with the Wooden Delivery, with Moore's puppet receiving orders from Margaret Thatcher to kill Mikhail Gorbachev. Other comedy shows at that time ridiculed Moore's acting, with Rory Bremner once claiming to have had a death threat from one of his irate fans following one such routine.\nIn a nod to his 1960s TV show, Moore had a vocal cameo in The Saint (1997) as a radio newsreader as Simon Templar drives away at the end of the film. In the year 2000, he played the role of a secret agent in the Christmas special Victoria Wood with All the Trimmings, shown on BBC One on Christmas Day. Filming all his scenes in the London Eye, his mission was to eliminate another agent whose file photo looks like Pierce Brosnan. In 2002 he had a small cameo role in the German police procedural series Tatort (episode 506: \"Schatten\" – \"Shadow\", 28 July 2002) as himself signing an autograph on a Unicef card.\nIn the 1981 film The Cannonball Run, Moore played Seymour Goldfarb, a parody of both himself and James Bond, driving an Aston Martin DB5.\nIn support of his charitable work for UNICEF, Moore lent his voice to the character of the magic snowman, Lumi Ukko, for a 1990 feature film produced by Pavlina Ltd/FIT. The film is UNICEF-endorsed and is dedicated to the \"world’s children\". A recently published audio book entitled, The Magic Snowman and The Rusty Ice Skates features his voice. His daughter, actress Deborah More, narrated the book in honor of her father’s legacy and his work for UNICEF. 20 percent of the book’s proceeds are pledged to the organization.\nIn 2009, Moore appeared in an advertisement for the Post Office. In 2010, he provided the voice of a talking cat called Lazenby in the film Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore which contained several references to, and parodies of, Bond films. In 2011, he co-starred in the film A Princess for Christmas with Katie McGrath and Sam Heughan, and in 2012, he took to the stage for a series of seven 'Evenings with' in UK theatres and, in November, guest-hosted Have I Got News for You. A slightly thinner-faced Moore contributed to a charity song in 2017. His last on-screen performance was in 2017, a brief appearance near the end of the remake of The Saint.\nIn 2015, Moore was named one of GQ's 50 best-dressed British men. In 2015, he read Hans Christian Andersen's \"The Princess and the Pea\" for the children's fairy tales app GivingTales in aid of UNICEF with other British celebrities, including Michael Caine, Ewan McGregor, Joan Collins, Stephen Fry, Joanna Lumley, David Walliams, Charlotte Rampling, Paul McKenna, and Michael Ball.\n\nHumanitarian work\nMoore's friend Audrey Hepburn had impressed him with her work for UNICEF, and consequently he became a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in August 1991. His character, Simon Templar, made a pitch for UNICEF near the end of \"The Revolution Racket\", airing 5 November 1964. He was the voice of Father Christmas or 'Santa' in the 2004 UNICEF cartoon The Fly Who Loved Me.\n\nPersonal life\nDoorn Van Steyn\nIn 1946, aged 18, Moore married a fellow RADA student, the actress and ice skater Doorn Van Steyn (born Lucy Woodard), who was six years his senior; Moore and Van Steyn lived in Streatham with her family, but tension over money matters and her lack of confidence in his acting ability took their toll on the relationship, during which he allegedly suffered domestic abuse.\n\nDorothy Squires\nIn 1952, Moore met the Welsh singer Dorothy Squires, who was 12 years his senior, and Van Steyn and Moore divorced the following year. Squires and Moore were married in New York. They lived in Bexley, Kent, after their wedding.\nThey moved to the United States in 1954 to develop their careers, but tension developed in their marriage due to their age difference and Moore's infatuation with starlet Dorothy Provine, and they moved back to the United Kingdom in 1961, where they resided in Sutton Coldfield, near Birmingham. Squires suffered a series of miscarriages during their marriage, and Moore later said the outcome of their marriage might have been different if they had been able to have children.\nDuring their tempestuous relationship Squires smashed a guitar over his head, and after learning of his affair with the Italian actress Luisa Mattioli, who became Moore's third wife, Moore said, \"She threw a brick through my window. She reached through the glass and grabbed my shirt and she cut her arms doing it...The police came and they said, 'Madam, you're bleeding' and she said, 'It's my heart that's bleeding'.\" Squires intercepted letters from Mattioli to Moore and planned to include them in her autobiography, but the couple won injunctions against the publication in 1977, which led Squires to unsuccessfully sue them for loss of earnings. The numerous legal cases launched by Squires led her to be declared a vexatious litigant in 1987. Moore paid Squires's hospital bills after her cancer treatment in 1996; she died in 1998.\n\nLuisa Mattioli\nIn 1961, while filming The Rape of the Sabine Women in Italy, Moore left Squires for the Italian actress Luisa Mattioli. Squires refused to accept their separation, and sued Moore for loss of conjugal rights, but Moore refused the court's order to return to Squires in 28 days. Squires also smashed windows at a house in France where Moore and Mattioli were living, and unsuccessfully sued actor Kenneth More for libel, as Kenneth More had introduced Moore and Mattioli at a charity event as \"Mr Roger Moore and his wife\". Moore and Mattioli lived together until 1969, when Squires finally granted him a divorce, after they had been separated for seven years. At Moore's and Mattioli's marriage in April 1969 at the Caxton Hall in Westminster, London, a crowd of 600 people was outside, with women screaming his name.\nMoore had three children with Mattioli: actress-daughter Deborah (b. 27 October 1963) and two sons, Geoffrey (b. 28 July 1966) and Christian (b. 23 August 1973). Geoffrey is also an actor, and appeared alongside his father in the films Sherlock Holmes in New York (1976) and Fire, Ice and Dynamite (1990). In later life, he co-founded Hush Restaurant in Mayfair, London, with Jamie Barber, and would release a single in 2023 under the name Jaffa Moore called \"You and I\" which featured vocals from the late Glee actor Naya Rivera and included host of stars in the music video miming along to the song. Geoffrey and his wife Loulou have two daughters. Moore's younger son, Christian, is a film producer and has four children: a daughter from his first marriage to Heidi Moore, and two sons and a daughter from his second marriage to Lara Sidawi.\n\nKristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup\nMoore and Mattioli separated in 1993 after Moore developed feelings for a Swedish-born Danish socialite, Kristina \"Kiki\" Tholstrup. Moore later described his prostate cancer diagnosis in 1993 as \"life-changing\", which led him to reassess his life and marriage. Mattioli and Tholstrup had long been friends, but Mattioli was scathing of her in the book she subsequently wrote about her relationship with Moore, Nothing Lasts Forever, describing how she felt betrayed by Tholstrup and discarded by Moore.\nMoore remained silent on his divorce from Mattioli, later saying that he did not wish to hurt his children by \"engaging in a war of words\". Moore's children refused to speak to him for a period after the divorce, but they were later reconciled with their father. Mattioli refused to grant Moore a divorce until 2000, when a £10 million settlement was agreed. Moore subsequently married Tholstrup in 2002. Moore said that he loved Tholstrup as she was \"organised\", \"serene\", \"loving\", and \"calm\", saying, \"I have a difficult life. I rely on Kristina totally. When we are travelling for my job, she is the one who packs. Kristina takes care of all that\". Moore also said that his marriage to Tholstrup was \"a tranquil relationship, there are no arguments\". Tholstrup had two children, Hans-Christian Knudsen Jr. and Christina Knudsen, from a previous marriage; Christina described her stepfather as a positive influence, saying, \"I was in difficult relationships but that all changed\" when her mother met Moore. Christina Knudsen died from cancer on 25 July 2016, at the age of 47; Moore posted on Twitter, \"We are heartbroken\" and \"We were all with her, surrounding her with love, at the end\".\n\nPolitical views\nOn politics, Moore stated he was a conservative and thought that conservatism is the way to run a country. He was described as a \"lifelong\" supporter of the Conservative Party and endorsed the party during the 2001 UK general election. However, Moore also expressed a reluctance to be seen as an overtly political figure and felt his work with UNICEF meant that he could not involve himself directly in politics.\nIn 2011, Moore expressed his support to Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron regarding his policy on the European Union, stating: \"I think he's doing absolutely wonderfully well, despite the opposition from many members of his own party. Traitors, I call them. I mean any hardliner within the Conservative Party who speaks out against their leader. You should support your leader.\"\nMoore also expressed support for Britain keeping the pound sterling as its national currency and was glad the British government had not joined the single EU currency, stating: \"I would have been very upset if we'd had to take the Queen off our currency. They'd probably have to take her off the stamps and everything. I am British and I'm fiercely independent. And I think we should be independent, as Sean Connery is about Scotland.\"\nIn 2015, Moore criticised what he regarded as excessive political correctness within the film industry and felt that rewriting James Bond's sexuality, gender or ethnicity would be a mistake, arguing \"it is not about being homophobic or, for that matter, racist – it is simply about being true to the character.\" Despite his conservative politics, Moore retained membership of the entertainment and media trade union BECTU (now part of Prospect) until his death, having joined as an apprentice animation technician before his acting career took off. At his death, he was the union's longest-tenured member. In 2007, Moore also voiced his support to workers from the Cadbury chocolate factory at Keynsham who were protesting against the plant's closure.\n\nTax exile\nMoore became a tax exile from the United Kingdom in 1978, originally to Switzerland, and divided his year between his four homes: an apartment in Monte Carlo, a holiday house in the coastal Tuscan town of Castiglione della Pescaia, a chalet in Crans-Montana, Switzerland, and a home in Saint-Paul-de-Vence, France. Moore became a resident of Monaco, having been appointed a Goodwill Ambassador of Monaco by Prince Albert II for his efforts in internationally promoting and publicising the principality. Moore was scathing of the Russian population in Monaco, saying, \"I'm afraid we're overstuffed with Russians. All the restaurant menus are in Russian now.\"\nMoore was vocal in his defence of his tax exile status, saying that in the 1970s, with taxes levied on top earners under the Labour government of James Callaghan, he had been urged by his \"accountants, agents, and lawyers\" to move abroad because, \"At that point we were taxed up to 98% on unearned income, so you would never be able to save enough to ensure that you had any sort of livelihood if you didn't work.\" Moore said in 2011 that his decision to live abroad was \"not about tax. That's a serious part of it. I come back to England often enough not to miss it, to see the changes, to find some of the changes good...I paid my taxes at the time that I was earning a decent income, so I've paid my due\".\n\nIllness and death\nMoore had a series of diseases during his childhood, including chickenpox, measles, mumps, double pneumonia and jaundice, and had his appendix, tonsils, and adenoids removed.\nMoore was a long-term sufferer of kidney stones and as a result was briefly hospitalised during the making of Live and Let Die in 1973 and again whilst filming the 1979 film Moonraker.\nIn 1993, Moore was diagnosed with prostate cancer and underwent successful treatment for the disease.\nIn 2003, Moore collapsed on stage while appearing on Broadway, and was fitted with a pacemaker to treat a potentially deadly slow heartbeat. He was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes in 2013. Some years before his final cancer illness, a tumour spot was found in his liver. Then, in 2017, during the period that he was treated for cancer, he fell, badly injuring his collarbone.\n\nMoore died in the presence of his family at his home in Crans-Montana, Switzerland, on 23 May 2017, from cancers of the lung and liver. Former 007 actors Sean Connery, George Lazenby, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig paid tribute to Moore. Moore is buried in Monaco Cemetery.\n\nRoyal circles\nMoore had friendships with some of Denmark's royal family; Prince Joachim and his then-wife Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg, invited Moore and his wife Kiki to attend the christening of their youngest son, Prince Felix. In 2004 he attended the Wedding of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, and Mary Donaldson. On 24 May 2008, Moore and his wife attended the wedding of Prince Joachim to his French fiancée Marie Cavallier.\nMoore also had a long-standing friendship with Princess Lilian of Sweden, whom he first met on a visit to Stockholm for UNICEF. Moore's wife Kristina, who was born in Sweden, was already a friend of Princess Lilian's through mutual friends. In his autobiography, Moore recalled meeting the princess for tea and dinners whenever his wife and he visited Stockholm. He spoke of his recollections at the princess's memorial service at St Peter and St Sigfrid's Church in Stockholm, on 8 September 2013.\nOn 1 and 2 July 2011, Moore and his wife attended the wedding of Albert II, Prince of Monaco and Charlene Wittstock.\n\nAwards and legacy\nMoore was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1999 New Year Honours and was promoted to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in the 2003 Birthday Honours for charitable services, especially UNICEF and latterly Kiwanis International, which had dominated his public life for more than a decade. On being knighted, Moore said that the citation \"meant far more to me than if I had got it for acting... I was proud because I received it on behalf of UNICEF as a whole and for all it has achieved over the years\".\nOn 11 October 2007, three days before he turned 80, Moore was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work on television and in film. Attending the ceremony were family, friends, and Richard Kiel, with whom he had acted in The Spy Who Loved Me and Moonraker. Moore's star was the 2,350th star installed, and is appropriately located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard.\nOn 28 October 2008, the French government appointed Moore a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. On 21 November 2012, Moore was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Hertfordshire for his outstanding contributions to the UK film and television industry for over 50 years, in particular film and television productions in Hertfordshire.\nAfter his death, the Roger Moore Stage was opened at Pinewood Studios at a ceremony held in October 2017 to celebrate his life and work. His wife and family were in attendance along with Bond producers Michael G Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, and guests at the event included Joan Collins, Michael Caine, Stephen Fry, Tim Rice and Stefanie Powers.\nIn the 2018 film My Dinner with Hervé, Moore was portrayed by actor Mark Umbers.\nFor his charity work\n\n2012: UNICEF's UK Lifetime Achievement Award\n2007: Dag Hammarskjöld Inspiration Award (UNICEF)\n2004: UNICEF's Audrey Hepburn Humanitarian Award\n2003: German Federal Cross of Merit (Bundesverdienstkreuz) for his UNICEF work: 275 \n2003: Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE)\n1999: Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)\nLifetime achievements awards\n\n2008: Commander of the French National Order of Arts and Letters (Ordre national des Arts et des Lettres)\n2007: Hollywood Walk of Fame\n2004: TELEKAMERA (\"Tele Tydzień\" Lifetime Achievement Award, Poland)\n2002: Monte Carlo TV Festival (Lifetime Achievement Award)\n2001: Lifetime achievement award (Filmfestival, Jamaica)\n1997: Palm Springs film festival, USA, Lifetime Achievement Award\n1995: TELE GATTO (Italian TV; Lifetime Achievement Award)\n1991: GOLDEN CAMERA (German TV; lifetime achievement award)\n1990: BAMBI (Lifetime Achievement Award from the German magazine BUNTE)\nFor his acting\n\n1981: OTTO (Most popular Film Star; from German Magazine BRAVO)\n1980: Golden Globe Henrietta Award for World Film Favorite – Male.\n1980: Saturn Award (Most Popular International Performer)\n1973: BAMBI (shared with Tony Curtis for \"The Persuaders\", from the German magazine BUNTE)\n1973: BEST ACTOR IN TV, award from the French magazine TELE-7-JOURS, shared with Tony Curtis for \"The Persuaders\"\n1967: ONDAS-AWARD (Spanish TV for \"The Saint\")\n1967: OTTO (Most popular TV-star for \"The Saint\"; from German magazine BRAVO)\n\nIn popular culture\nRoger Moore is contentiously credited with inspiring the Walls Magnum ice cream. In the 1960s, he reportedly said that his one wish would be for a choc ice on a stick. Walls created this product and sent one to Moore. They later launched the Magnum in 1989, which is now the world's top-selling ice cream brand.\n\nFilmography\nFilm roles\nTelevision roles\nPublications\nMoore's book about the filming of Live and Let Die, based on his diaries, titled Roger Moore as James Bond: Roger Moore's Own Account of Filming Live and Let Die, was published in London in 1973, by Pan Books. The book includes an acknowledgment to Sean Connery, with whom Moore was friends for many years: \"I would also like to thank Sean Connery – with whom it would not have been possible.\"\nMoore's autobiography My Word is My Bond (ISBN 0061673889) was published by Collins in the US, in November 2008 and by Michael O'Mara Books Ltd in the UK, on 2 October 2008 (ISBN 9781843173182).\nOn 16 October 2012, Bond on Bond was published to tie in with the 50th anniversary of the James Bond films. The book, with many pictures, is based on Moore's own memories, thoughts, and anecdotes about all things 007, with some of the profits of the book going to UNICEF.\n\nBooks\nRoger Moore as James Bond: Roger Moore's Own Account of Filming Live and Let Die. Pan Books. 1973. ISBN 9780330236539.\nMy Word Is My Bond: The Autobiography. Michael O'Mara. 2008. ISBN 9781843173878.\nBond on Bond: The Ultimate Book on 50 Years of Bond Movies. Michael O'Mara. 2012. ISBN 9781843178613.\nLast Man Standing: Tales from Tinseltown. Michael O'Mara. 2014. ISBN 9781782432074. (published as One Lucky Bastard in the United States)\nÀ bientôt …. Michael O'Mara. 2017. ISBN 9781782438618.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \n\"Roger Moore interview\". ITV Cymru/Wales Archive. 1963.\n\"People: Roger Moore\". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2014.\nRoger Moore at IMDb\nRoger Moore at the Internet Broadway Database\nRoger Moore at the BFI's Screenonline",
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"paragraph_text": "Never Say Never Again is a 1983 spy film directed by Irvin Kershner. The film is based on the 1961 James Bond novel Thunderball by Ian Fleming, which in turn was based on an original story by Kevin McClory, Jack Whittingham, and Fleming. The novel had been previously adapted as the 1965 film Thunderball. Never Say Never Again is the second and most recent James Bond film not to be produced by Eon Productions (the usual producer of the Bond series) but instead by Jack Schwartzman's Taliafilm, and was distributed by Warner Bros. The film was executive produced by Kevin McClory, one of the original writers of the Thunderball storyline. McClory had retained the filming rights of the novel following a long legal battle dating from the 1960s.\nSean Connery played the role of Bond for the seventh and final time, marking his return to the character twelve years after Diamonds Are Forever (1971). The film's title is a reference to Connery's reported declaration in 1971 that he would \"never again\" play that role. As Connery was 52 at the time of filming, the script makes frequent reference to Bond as aging and past his prime – although ironically, Connery was three years younger than his replacement, Roger Moore. The storyline features Bond being reluctantly brought back into action to investigate the theft of two nuclear weapons by SPECTRE. Filming locations included France, Spain, the Bahamas and Elstree Studios in the United Kingdom.\nNever Say Never Again was released by Warner Bros. on 7 October 1983, and opened to positive reviews, with the performances of Connery and Klaus Maria Brandauer singled out for praise as more emotionally resonant than the typical Bond films of the day. The film grossed $160 million at the box office, making it a commercial success, although it earned less overall than the Eon-produced Octopussy, released earlier the same year.\n\nPlot\nAfter MI6 agent James Bond fails a routine training exercise, his superior M orders him to a health clinic outside London to get back into shape. While there, Bond witnesses nurse Fatima Blush giving a sadomasochistic beating to a patient in a nearby room. The man's face is bandaged and after Blush finishes her beating, he uses a machine which scans his eye. Bond is spotted by Blush, who sends assassin Lippe to kill him in the clinic gym. Bond kills Lippe in a fight which destroys a lot of the clinic's furniture and equipment; M is forced to pay for the resulting damages and consequently suspends Bond from active duty.\nBlush works for SPECTRE, a criminal organisation run by Ernst Stavro Blofeld; her charge is heroin-addicted United States Air Force pilot Jack Petachi. Petachi has undergone an operation on his right eye to make it match the retinal pattern of the US President, which he uses to circumvent security at RAF Station Swadley, an American military base in England. While doing so, he replaces the dummy warheads of two AGM-86B cruise missiles with live W80 nuclear warheads; SPECTRE then steals the warheads, intending to extort billions of dollars from NATO governments. Blush murders Petachi by causing his car to crash and explode, covering SPECTRE's tracks.\nForeign Secretary Lord Ambrose orders a reluctant M to reactivate the double-0 section, and Bond is tasked with tracking down the missing weapons. Bond follows a lead to the Bahamas and finds Domino Petachi, Jack's sister, and her wealthy lover Maximillian Largo, who is SPECTRE's top agent.\nWhen Largo's yacht heads for Nice, France, Bond goes there and joins forces with his French contact Nicole, and his CIA counterpart, Felix Leiter. Bond goes to a health and beauty centre, posing as an employee. He gives a massage to Domino, who reveals that Largo is hosting an event at a casino that evening. At the charity event, Largo and Bond play a video game called Domination; the losing player of each turn receives electric shocks of increasing intensity in proportion to the amount wagered. After losing a few games, Bond wins, and while dancing with Domino, he informs her that Jack had been killed on Largo's orders. Returning to his villa, Bond finds Nicole killed by Blush. After a chase on his Q-branch motorbike, Bond finds himself in an ambush and is captured by Blush. She admits to being impressed with him, and forces Bond to declare in writing that she is his \"Number One\" sexual partner. Bond distracts her with promises, then uses his Q-branch fountain pen gun to kill Blush with an explosive dart.\nBond and Leiter attempt to board Largo's yacht, the Flying Saucer, in search of the missing nuclear warheads. Bond finds Domino and attempts to make Largo jealous by kissing her in front of a one-way mirror. Enraged, Largo traps Bond and takes him and Domino to Palmyra, Largo's base of operations in North Africa. Largo punishes Domino for her betrayal by selling her to passing Arabs. Bond escapes from his prison and rescues her.\nDomino and Bond reunite with Leiter on a U.S. Navy submarine. After the first warhead is found and defused in Washington, D.C., they track Largo to the Tears of Allah, a location below a desert oasis on the Ethiopian coast. Bond and Leiter infiltrate the underground facility and a gun battle erupts between Leiter's team and Largo's men in the temple. In the confusion, Largo makes a getaway with the second warhead. Bond catches and fights him underwater. Just as Largo tries to use a spear gun to shoot Bond, he is shot with a spear gun by Domino, taking revenge for Jack's death. Bond then defuses the nuclear bomb underwater, saving the world. Bond retires from duty and returns to the Bahamas with Domino, vowing never again to be a secret agent although Domino doubts his sincerity.\n\nCast\nSean Connery as James Bond, MI6 agent 007.\nKlaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo, a billionaire businessman and SPECTRE Number 1, SPECTRE's senior-most agent. He is based on the character Emilio Largo in Thunderball\nMax von Sydow as Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the head of SPECTRE.\nBarbara Carrera as Fatima Blush; SPECTRE Number 12, assigned to hunt down and kill Bond. She is based on Fiona Volpe in Thunderball.\nKim Basinger as Domino Petachi, sister of Jack Petachi and girlfriend/mistress of Maximillian Largo. The surname was changed to Petrescu for the Italian release of the film.\nBernie Casey as Felix Leiter, Bond's CIA contact and friend.\nAlec McCowen as \"Q\" (aka Algy or Algernon), Double-0 section Quartermaster who issues specialised equipment to Bond.\nEdward Fox as \"M\", Bond's superior at MI6.\nPamela Salem as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary.\nRowan Atkinson as Nigel Small-Fawcett, Foreign Office representative in the Bahamas.\nSaskia Cohen-Tanugi as Nicole, Bond's French contact\nValerie Leon as Lady in Bahamas, whom Bond seduces.\nMilow Kirek as Dr. Kovacs, a nuclear physicist working for SPECTRE.\nPat Roach as Lippe, a SPECTRE assassin who tries to kill Bond at the clinic.\nAnthony Sharp as Lord Ambrose, Foreign Secretary who orders M to reactivate the Double-0 section.\nPrunella Gee as Nurse Patricia Fearing, a physiotherapist at the clinic.\nGavan O'Herlihy as Captain Jack Petachi, a USAF pilot used by SPECTRE to steal the nuclear missiles, and Domino Petachi's brother.\n\nProduction\nNever Say Never Again had its origins in the early 1960s, following the controversy over the 1961 Thunderball novel. Fleming had worked with independent producer Kevin McClory and scriptwriter Jack Whittingham on a script for a potential Bond film, to be called Longitude 78 West, which was subsequently abandoned because of the costs involved. Fleming, \"always reluctant to let a good idea lie idle\", turned this into the novel Thunderball, for which he did not credit either McClory or Whittingham; McClory then took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright, and the matter was settled in 1963. After Eon Productions started producing the Bond films, it subsequently made a deal with McClory, who would produce Thunderball, and then not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years, following the release of the Eon-produced version in 1965.\nIn the mid-1970s, McClory again started working on a second adaptation of Thunderball and, with the working title Warhead, he brought writer Len Deighton together with Sean Connery to work on a script. A lawsuit with Eon Productions ended in a ruling that McClory owned the sole rights to SPECTRE and Blofeld, forcing Eon to remove them from The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). The script initially focused on SPECTRE shooting down aircraft over the Bermuda Triangle, before taking over Liberty Island and Ellis Island as staging areas for an invasion of New York City through the sewers under Wall Street. The script was purchased by Paramount Pictures in 1978. The script ran into difficulties, after accusations from Danjaq and United Artists that the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions, which confined McClory to a film based only on the novel Thunderball; once again, the project was delayed.\nTowards the end of the 1970s, developments were reported on the project under the name James Bond of the Secret Service, but when producer Jack Schwartzman became involved in 1980, and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project, he decided against using Deighton's script. The project returned to the original nuclear terrorism plot of the original Thunderball, in order to avoid another lawsuit from Danjaq, and after McClory saw Jimmy Carter mention the issue in a 1980 presidential debate with Ronald Reagan. Schwartzman brought on board scriptwriter Lorenzo Semple, Jr. to work on the screenplay. Schwartzman wanted him to make the screenplay \"somewhere in the middle\" between his campier projects such as Batman, and his more serious projects such as Three Days of the Condor. Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the script, and asked Tom Mankiewicz, who had rewritten Diamonds Are Forever, to work on it; however, Mankiewicz declined, as he felt he was under a moral obligation to Albert R. Broccoli. Semple Jr. ultimately left the project, after Irvin Kershner was hired as director, and Schwartzman began cutting out the \"big numbers\" from his script to save on the budget. Connery then hired British television writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais to undertake re-writes, although they went uncredited for their efforts, despite much of the final shooting script being theirs. This was because of a restriction by the Writers Guild of America. Clement and La Frenais continued rewriting during the production, often altering it from day to day.\nThe film underwent one final change in title: after Connery had finished filming Diamonds Are Forever, he had pledged that he would \"never again\" play Bond. Connery's wife, Micheline, suggested the title Never Say Never Again, referring to her husband's vow, and the producers acknowledged her contribution by listing on the end credits \"Title Never Say Never Again by Micheline Connery\". A final attempt by Fleming's trustees to block the film was made in the High Court in London in the spring of 1983, but this was thrown out by the court and Never Say Never Again was permitted to proceed.\n\nCast and crew\nWhen producer Kevin McClory had first planned the film in 1964, he held initial talks with Richard Burton for the part of Bond, although the project came to nothing because of the legal issues involved. When the Warhead project was launched in the late 1970s, a number of actors were mentioned in the trade press, including Orson Welles for the part of Blofeld, Trevor Howard to play M and Richard Attenborough as director.\nIn 1978, the working title James Bond of the Secret Service was being used and Connery was in the frame once again, potentially going head-to-head with the next Eon Bond film, Moonraker. By 1980, with legal issues again causing the project to founder, Connery thought himself unlikely to play the role, as he stated in an interview in the Sunday Express: \"When I first worked on the script with Len I had no thought of actually being in the film.\" When producer Jack Schwartzman became involved, he asked Connery to play Bond; Connery agreed, negotiating a fee of $3 million ($9 million in 2023 dollars), casting and script approval, and a percentage of the profits. Subsequent to Connery reprising the role, Semple altered the script to include several references to Bond's advancing years – playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming – and academic Jeremy Black has pointed out that there are other aspects of age and disillusionment in the film, such as the Shrubland's porter referring to Bond's car (\"They don't make them like that anymore\"), the new M having no use for the 00 section and Q with his reduced budgets. Originally, Semple wanted to emphasize Bond's age even further, writing the script to include him in semi-retirement working aboard a Scottish fishing trawler hunting Soviet Navy submarines in the North Sea. Connery's casting was formally announced in March 1983.. He trained with Steven Seagal to help get in shape for the production.\nFor the main villain in the film, Maximillian Largo, Connery suggested Klaus Maria Brandauer, the lead of the 1981 Academy Award-winning Hungarian film Mephisto. Through the same route came Max von Sydow as Ernst Stavro Blofeld, although he still retained his Eon-originated white cat in the film. For the femme fatale, director Irvin Kershner selected former model and Playboy cover girl Barbara Carrera to play Fatima Blush – the name coming from one of the early scripts of Thunderball. Carrera said she modeled her performance on the Hindu goddess Kali, and to \"mix that in with a little bit of black widow and a little bit of praying mantis.\" Carrera's performance as Fatima Blush earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress, which she lost to Cher for her role in Silkwood.\nMicheline Connery, Sean's wife, had met up-and-coming actress Kim Basinger at the Grosvenor House Hotel in London and suggested her to Connery; he agreed after Dalila Di Lazzaro refused the Domino role. For the role of Felix Leiter, Connery spoke with Bernie Casey, saying that, as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences, using a black Leiter might make him more memorable. Others cast included comedian Rowan Atkinson, who would later parody Bond in his role of Johnny English in 2003. Atkinson's character was added by Clement and La Frenais after the production had already started, in order to provide the film with a comic relief. Edward Fox was cast as M in order to portray the character as a young technocrat in contrast to the older portrayal by Bernard Lee, and to parody the Thatcher ministry's budget cuts to government services.\nConnery wanted to persuade Richard Donner to direct the film, but after their meeting, Donner decided he disliked the script. Former Eon Productions' editor and director of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Peter R. Hunt, was approached to direct the film, but declined due to his previous work with Eon. Irvin Kershner, who had previously worked with Connery on A Fine Madness (1966), and had achieved success in 1980 with The Empire Strikes Back, was then hired. A number of the crew from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark were also appointed, including first assistant director David Tomblin, director of photography Douglas Slocombe, second unit director Mickey Moore and production designers Philip Harrison and Stephen Grimes.\n\nFilming\nFilming for Never Say Never Again began on 27 September 1982 on the French Riviera for two months, before moving to Nassau, the Bahamas in mid-November, where filming took place at Clifton Pier, which was also one of the locations used in Thunderball. Largo's Palmyran fortress was actually historic Fort Carré in Antibes. Largo's ship, the Flying Saucer, was portrayed by the yacht Kingdom 5KR, then owned by Saudi billionaire Adnan Khashoggi and called Nabila. The underwater scenes were filmed by Ricou Browning, who had coordinated the underwater scenes in the original Thunderball. Principal photography finished at Elstree Studios, where interior shots were filmed. Elstree also housed the Tears of Allah underwater cavern, which took three months to construct, while the Shrublands health spa was filmed at Luton Hoo. Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983, although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983.\nProduction on the film was troubled, with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin. Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman, saying that, while he was a good businessman, \"he didn't have the experience of a film producer\". After the production ran out of money, Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket, and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make. There was tension on set between Schwartzman and Connery, who at times barely spoke to each other. Connery was unimpressed with the perceived lack of professionalism behind the scenes, and was on record as saying that the whole production was a \"bloody Mickey Mouse operation!\"\nSteven Seagal, who was a martial arts instructor for this film, broke Connery's wrist while training. On an episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Connery revealed he did not know his wrist was broken until over a decade later.\n\nMusic\nJames Horner was both Kershner's and Schwartzman's first choice to compose the score, after they were impressed with his work on Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Horner, who worked in London for most of the time, was unavailable, according to Kershner, though Schwartzman later claimed Sean Connery vetoed him. Frequent Bond composer John Barry was invited, but declined out of loyalty to Eon. The music for Never Say Never Again was ultimately written by Michel Legrand, who composed a score similar to his work as a jazz pianist. The score has been criticised as \"anachronistic and misjudged\", \"bizarrely intermittent\" and \"the most disappointing feature of the film\". Legrand also wrote the main theme \"Never Say Never Again\", which featured lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman — who had also worked with Legrand on the Academy Award-winning song \"The Windmills of Your Mind\" — and was performed by Lani Hall after Bonnie Tyler, who disliked the song, had reluctantly declined.\nPhyllis Hyman also recorded a potential theme song, with music written by Stephen Forsyth and lyrics by Jim Ryan, but the song — an unsolicited submission — was passed over, given Legrand's contractual obligations with the music.\n\nLegal substitutions\nMany of the elements of the Eon-produced Bond films were not present in Never Say Never Again for legal reasons. These included the gun barrel sequence, where a screen full of 007 symbols appeared instead, and similarly there was no \"James Bond Theme\" to use, although no effort was made to supply another tune. A pre-credits sequence was filmed but not used; instead, the film opens with the credits running over the top of the sequence of Bond on a training mission.\n\nRelease and reception\nNever Say Never Again opened on 7 October 1983 in 1,550 theatres, grossing an October record $10,958,157 over the four-day Columbus Day weekend, which was reported to be \"the best opening record of any James Bond film\" up to that point, surpassing Octopussy's $8.9 million from June that year. The film had its UK premiere at the Warner West End cinema in Leicester Square on 14 December 1983. Worldwide, Never Say Never Again grossed $160 million, which was a solid return on the budget of $36 million. The film ultimately earned less than Octopussy, which grossed $187.5 million. It was the first James Bond film to be officially released in the Soviet Union, premiering in the summer of 1990 with a gala in Moscow.\nWarner Bros. released Never Say Never Again on VHS and Betamax in 1984, and on laserdisc in 1995. After Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer purchased the distribution rights in 1997 (see Legacy, below), the company has released the film on both VHS and DVD in 2001, and on Blu-ray in 2009.\n\nContemporary reviews\nNever Say Never Again was broadly welcomed and praised by the critics: Ian Christie, writing in the Daily Express, said that Never Say Never Again was \"one of the better Bonds\", finding the film \"superbly witty and entertaining, ... the dialogue is crisp and the fight scenes imaginative\". Christie also thought that \"Connery has lost none of his charm and, if anything, is more appealing than ever as the stylish resolute hero\". David Robinson, writing in The Times also concentrated on Connery, saying that: \"Connery ... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way\". For Robinson, the presence of Connery and Klaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo \"very nearly make it all worthwhile.\" The reviewer for Time Out summed up Never Say Never Again by saying: \"The action's good, the photography excellent, the sets decent; but the real clincher is the fact that Bond is once more played by a man with the right stuff.\"\nDerek Malcolm in The Guardian showed himself to be a fan of Connery's Bond, saying the film contains \"the best Bond in the business\", but nevertheless did not find Never Say Never Again any more enjoyable than the recently released Octopussy (starring Roger Moore), or \"that either of them came very near to matching Dr. No or From Russia with Love\". Malcolm's main issue with the film was that he had a \"feeling that a constant struggle was going on between a desire to make a huge box-office success and the effort to make character as important as stunts\". Malcolm summed up that \"the mix remains obstinately the same – up to scratch but not surpassing it\". Writing in The Observer, Philip French noted that \"this curiously muted film ends up making no contribution of its own and inviting damaging comparisons with the original, hyper-confident Thunderball\". French concluded that \"like an hour-glass full of damp sand, the picture moves with increasing slowness as it approaches a confused climax in the Persian Gulf\".\nWriting for Newsweek, critic Jack Kroll thought the early part of the film was handled \"with wit and style\", although he went on to say that the director was \"hamstrung by Lorenzo Semple's script\". Richard Schickel, writing in Time, praised the film and its cast. He wrote that Klaus Maria Brandauer's character was \"played with silky, neurotic charm\", while Barbara Carrera, playing Fatima Blush, \"deftly parodies all the fatal femmes who have slithered through Bond's career\". Schickel's highest praise was saved for the return of Connery, observing \"it is good to see Connery's grave stylishness in this role again. It makes Bond's cynicism and opportunism seem the product of genuine worldliness (and world weariness) as opposed to Roger Moore's mere twirpishness.\"\nJanet Maslin, writing in The New York Times, was broadly praising of the film, saying she thought that Never Say Never Again \"has noticeably more humor and character than the Bond films usually provide. It has a marvelous villain in Largo.\" Maslin also thought highly of Connery in the role, observing that \"in Never Say Never Again, the formula is broadened to accommodate an older, seasoned man of much greater stature, and Mr. Connery expertly fills the bill.\" Writing in The Washington Post, Gary Arnold was fulsome in his praise, saying that Never Say Never Again is \"one of the best James Bond adventure thrillers ever made\", going on to say that \"this picture is likely to remain a cherished, savory example of commercial filmmaking at its most astute and accomplished.\" Arnold went further, saying that \"Never Say Never Again is the best acted Bond picture ever made, because it clearly surpasses any predecessors in the area of inventive and clever character delineation\".\nThe critic for The Globe and Mail, Jay Scott, also praised the film, saying that Never Say Never Again \"may be the only installment of the long-running series that has been helmed by a first-rate director.\" According to Scott, the director, with high-quality support cast, resulted in the \"classiest of all the Bonds\". Roger Ebert gave the film 3+1⁄2 out of four stars, and wrote that Never Say Never Again, while consisting of a basic \"Bond plot\", was different from other Bond films: \"For one thing, there's more of a human element in the movie, and it comes from Klaus Maria Brandauer, as Largo.\" Ebert went on to add, \"there was never a Beatles reunion ... but here, by God, is Sean Connery as Sir James Bond. Good work, 007.\" Gene Siskel of The Chicago Tribune also gave the film 3½ out of four stars, writing that the film was \"one of the best 007 adventures ever made\".\nColin Greenland reviewed Never Say Never Again for Imagine, and stated that \"Never Say Never Again is a complacent male sexist fantasy, where women can be only femmes fatales or passive victims.\"\n\nRetrospective reviews\nBecause Never Say Never Again is not an Eon-produced film, it has not been included in a number of subsequent reviews. Norman Wilner of MSN said that 1967's Casino Royale and Never Say Never Again \"exist outside the 'official' continuity, [and] are excluded from this list, just as they're absent from MGM's megabox. But take my word for it; they're both pretty awful\". Nevertheless, retrospective reviews of the film remain positive. Rotten Tomatoes sampled 55 critics and judged 71% of the reviews as positive, with a top critics' rating of 70%. The site's critical consensus reads: \"While the rehashed story feels rather uninspired and unnecessary, the return of both Sean Connery and a more understated Bond make Never Say Never Again a watchable retread.\" The score is still more positive than some of the Eon films, with Rotten Tomatoes ranking Never Say Never Again 16th among all Bond films in 2008. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 68 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating generally favourable reviews. Empire gave the film three of a possible five stars, observing that \"Connery was perhaps wise to call it quits the first time round\". IGN gave Never Say Never Again a score of five out of ten, claiming that the film \"is more miss than hit\". The reviewer also thought that the film was \"marred with too many clunky exposition scenes and not enough moments of Bond being Bond\".\nIn 1995, Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly rated Never Say Never Again as the ninth best Bond film to that point, after 17 films had been released. Sauter thought the film \"is successful only as a portrait of an over-the-hill superhero.\" He admitted that \"even past his prime, Connery proves that nobody does it better\". James Berardinelli, in his review of Never Say Never Again, thinks the re-writing of the Thunderball story has led to a film which has \"a hokey, jokey feel, [it] is possibly the worst-written Bond script of all\". Berardinelli concludes that \"it's a major disappointment that, having lured back the original 007, the film makers couldn't offer him something better than this drawn-out, hackneyed story.\" Critic Danny Peary wrote that \"it was great to see Sean Connery return as James Bond after a dozen years\". He also thought the supporting cast was good, saying that Klaus Maria Brandauer's Largo was \"neurotic, vulnerable ... one of the most complex of Bond's foes\" and that Barbara Carrera and Kim Basinger \"make lasting impressions.\" Peary also wrote that the \"film is exotic, well acted, and stylishly directed ... It would be one of the best Bond films if the finale weren't disappointing. When will filmmakers realize that underwater fight scenes don't work because viewers usually can't tell the hero and villain apart and they know doubles are being used?\"\nJim Smith and Stephen Lavington, in their 2002 retrospective Bond Films, lament: \"The production chaos is visible on screen, with frequently mediocre editing, direction, stunt work and photography all emerging from the restricted budget. [...] At the time, Never Say Never Again got away with it, thanks to public and critical pleasure at seeing Connery again. Now it is dated, slow and (worst of all) looks cheap, faring badly when compared to even the poorest of the Eon films.\"\n\nLegacy\nOriginally, Never Say Never Again was intended to start a series of Bond films produced by Schwartzman and starring Connery as James Bond, with McClory announcing the next planned film, S.P.E.C.T.R.E, in a February 1984 issue of Screen International. When Connery announced that he would not reprise his role as Bond in another film produced by Schwartzman three weeks before the deadline to purchase the rights to another film for $5 million, Schwartzman said that he was unlikely to make another film without a deal from MGM/UA and Danjaq.\nIn the 1990s, McClory announced plans to make another adaptation of the Thunderball story starring Timothy Dalton entitled Warhead 2000 AD, but the film was eventually scrapped. In 1997, Sony Pictures acquired McClory's rights for an undisclosed amount, and subsequently announced that it intended to make a series of Bond films, as the company also held the rights to Casino Royale. This move prompted a round of litigation from MGM, which was settled out of court, forcing Sony to give up all claims on Bond; McClory still claimed he would proceed with another Bond film, and continued his case against MGM and Danjaq; on 27 August 2001, the court rejected McClory's suit. McClory died in 2006; MGM's acquisition of the rights to Casino Royale finally allowed Eon Productions to make a serious, non-satirical film adaptation of that novel the same year, with Daniel Craig as James Bond. Ultimately, in 2013, McClory's heirs sold the Thunderball rights to Eon, allowing the company to reintroduce Blofeld to the Eon series in the film Spectre.\nOn 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Schwartzman's company Taliafilm. The company has since handled the release of both the DVD and Blu-ray editions of the film.\n\nSee also\nOutline of James Bond\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nNever Say Never Again at IMDb\nNever Say Never Again at AllMovie\nNever Say Never Again at Rotten Tomatoes\nNever Say Never Again at Box Office Mojo\nNever Say Never Again at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer",
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] | In 1973, Edward Fox starred in The Day of the Jackal. He beat out a James Bond actor to the part, but what was the name of another James Bond actor he appeared with in an 'unofficial' 80s Bond film? | [] | Sean Connery | [] | true |
118 | [
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"paragraph_text": "This is a list of the longest-reigning monarchs in history, detailing the monarchs and lifelong leaders who have reigned the longest, ranked by length of reign.\n\nMonarchs of sovereign states with verifiable reigns by exact date\nThe following are the 25 longest-reigning monarchs of states who were internationally recognised as sovereign for most or all of their reign. Byzantine emperors Constantine VIII and Basil II, reigning for 66 years in total (962–1028) and for 65 years in total (960–1025) respectively, are not included, because for part of those periods they reigned only nominally as junior co-emperors alongside senior emperors.\nRegencies are not counted against monarchs, hence King Louis XIV of France is listed first among the monarchs of sovereign states despite his mother Anne of Austria being his regent for eight years. A distinction is not made between absolute and constitutional monarchs, hence Elizabeth II is listed second despite being a figurehead her entire reign.\nThe longest-reigning existing monarch, Hassanal Bolkiah of Brunei, is not included on the list because Brunei was not a sovereign state until 1984. Bolkiah will be eligible for inclusion if he is still reigning in 2040 and surpasses Conrad I's independent rule of 56 years, 99 days.\n\nMonarchs of dependent or constituent states with verifiable reigns by exact date\nThe table below contains 100 monarchs of states that were not independent sovereigns for at least a portion of their reigns.\n\nMonarchs whose exact dates of rule are unknown\nThese monarchs are grouped according to length of reign by year in whole numbers. Within each year-grouping, they appear in historical order. In a given year, there may have been a wide array of actual reign lengths based on days. Thus, this table does not present a precise ranking by length of reign. The list is limited to those that might reasonably be expected to lie within the range of those in the tables above, at minimum 56 years. Emphasised states were sovereign. Japanese legendary emperors, according to the ancient Japanese calendar, reigned for very long terms of 60–70 years each. The longest ruler of the legendary emperors, Emperor Kōan, was claimed to have reigned for about 101 years. These figures are not included in the table because they are regarded as inaccurate by modern scholars. For those, see Longevity myths. Rulers with both independent and dependent rules are combined.\n\nSee also\nList of centenarians (politicians and civil servants)\nList of oldest living state leaders\nList of shortest-reigning monarchs\nLists of state leaders\nLists of state leaders by age\nRecords of heads of state\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nJürgen von Beckerath (1997). Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 9783805323109.",
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"paragraph_text": "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She had been queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime and was the monarch of 15 realms at her death. Her reign of 70 years and 214 days is the longest of any British monarch and the second-longest of any sovereign state.\nElizabeth was born in Mayfair, London, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. She was the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). Her father acceded to the throne in 1936 upon the abdication of his brother Edward VIII, making the ten-year-old Princess Elizabeth the heir presumptive. She was educated privately at home and began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In November 1947, she married Philip Mountbatten, a former prince of Greece and Denmark. Their marriage lasted 73 years until his death in 2021. They had four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward.\nWhen her father died in February 1952, Elizabeth, then 25 years old, became queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (known today as Sri Lanka), as well as head of the Commonwealth. Elizabeth reigned as a constitutional monarch through major political changes such as the Troubles in Northern Ireland, devolution in the United Kingdom, the decolonisation of Africa, and the United Kingdom's accession to the European Communities as well as its subsequent withdrawal. The number of her realms varied over time as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. As queen, Elizabeth was served by more than 170 prime ministers across her realms. Her many historic visits and meetings included state visits to China in 1986, to Russia in 1994, and to the Republic of Ireland in 2011, and meetings with five popes and fourteen US presidents.\nSignificant events included her coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of her Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum jubilees. Although there was occasional republican sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the breakdowns of her children's marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992, and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana—support for the monarchy and her personal popularity in the United Kingdom remained consistently high. Elizabeth died aged 96 at Balmoral Castle, and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III.\n\nEarly life\nElizabeth was born on 21 April 1926, the first child of Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), and his wife, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). Her father was the second son of King George V and Queen Mary, and her mother was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered at 02:40 (GMT) by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather's London home, 17 Bruton Street in Mayfair. The Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, baptised her in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May, and she was named Elizabeth after her mother; Alexandra after her paternal great-grandmother, who had died six months earlier; and Mary after her paternal grandmother. She was called \"Lilibet\" by her close family, based on what she called herself at first. She was cherished by her grandfather George V, whom she affectionately called \"Grandpa England\", and her regular visits during his serious illness in 1929 were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.\n\nElizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature, and music. Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility. Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as \"a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant.\" Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as \"a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved\". Elizabeth's early life was spent primarily at the Yorks' residences at 145 Piccadilly (their town house in London) and Royal Lodge in Windsor.\n\nHeir presumptive\nDuring her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as Edward was still young and likely to marry and have children of his own, who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second in line to the throne, after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, taking the regnal name George VI. Since Elizabeth had no brothers, she became heir presumptive. If her parents had subsequently had a son, he would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession, which was determined by the male-preference primogeniture in effect at the time.\nElizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College, and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses. A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her age. Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.\nIn 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when they had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain since her father thought she was too young to undertake public tours. She \"looked tearful\" as her parents departed. They corresponded regularly, and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.\n\nSecond World War\nIn September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Lord Hailsham suggested that Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret should be evacuated to Canada to avoid the frequent aerial bombings of London by the Luftwaffe. This was rejected by their mother, who declared, \"The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave.\" The princesses stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk. From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years. At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments. In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities. She stated: \"We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers, and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our own share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.\"\nIn 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year. As she approached her 18th birthday, Parliament changed the law so that she could act as one of five counsellors of state in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944. In February 1945, she was appointed an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the service number 230873. She trained as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander (female equivalent of captain at the time) five months later.\n\nAt the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and Margaret mingled incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of London. In 1985, Elizabeth recalled in a rare interview, \"... we asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief.\"\nDuring the war, plans were drawn to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for several reasons, including fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd at a time when Britain was at war. Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent. In 1946, she was inducted into the Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.\nElizabeth went on her first overseas tour in 1947, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge:\n\nI declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong. But I shall not have strength to carry out this resolution alone unless you join in it with me, as I now invite you to do: I know that your support will be unfailingly given. God help me to make good my vow, and God bless all of you who are willing to share in it.\n\nMarriage\nElizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and again in 1937. They were second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After meeting for the third time at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip, who was 18, and they began to exchange letters. She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.\nThe engagement attracted some controversy. Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links. Marion Crawford wrote, \"Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin.\" Later biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother had reservations about the union initially and teased Philip as \"the Hun\". In later life, however, she told the biographer Tim Heald that Philip was \"an English gentleman\".\n\nBefore the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family. Shortly before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness. Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world. Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown (which was designed by Norman Hartnell) because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war. In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for Philip's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding. Neither was an invitation extended to the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII.\nElizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, in November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince. A second child, Princess Anne, was born in August 1950.\nFollowing their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949, when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, Philip was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle Lord Mountbatten. Their two children remained in Britain.\n\nReign\nAccession and coronation\nAs George VI's health declined during 1951, Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she visited Canada and Harry S. Truman in Washington, DC, in October 1951, her private secretary Martin Charteris carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour. In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of the British colony of Kenya. On 6 February, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of Elizabeth's father. Philip broke the news to the new queen. She chose to retain Elizabeth as her regnal name, and was therefore called Elizabeth II. The numeral offended some Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in Scotland. She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms, and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom. Elizabeth and Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.\nWith Elizabeth's accession, it seemed possible that the royal house would take her husband's name, in line with the custom for married women of the time. Lord Mountbatten advocated for House of Mountbatten, and Philip suggested House of Edinburgh, after his ducal title. The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of the House of Windsor. Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that the royal house would continue to be Windsor. Philip complained, \"I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children.\" In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.\nAmid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior with two sons from his previous marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait for a year; in the words of her private secretary, \"the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out.\" Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession. Margaret decided to abandon her plans with Townsend. In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; Margaret did not remarry.\nDespite Queen Mary's death on 24 March 1953, the coronation went ahead as planned on 2 June, as Mary had requested. The coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey was televised for the first time, with the exception of the anointing and communion. On Elizabeth's instruction, her coronation gown was embroidered with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries.\n\nEarly reign\nFrom Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established. In 1953, Elizabeth and Philip embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km) by land, sea and air. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations. During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her. Throughout her reign, she made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelled head of state.\nIn 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted, and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union. In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said that Elizabeth was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.\n\nThe governing Conservative Party had no formal mechanism for choosing a leader, meaning that it fell to Elizabeth to decide whom to commission to form a government following Eden's resignation. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the lord president of the council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the lord chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Churchill, and the chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in Elizabeth appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.\nThe Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the first major personal criticism of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he owned and edited, Lord Altrincham accused her of being \"out of touch\". Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments. Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised Elizabeth to appoint Alec Douglas-Home as the prime minister, advice she followed. Elizabeth again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister. In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving the Queen of her involvement.\n\nIn 1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session. Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada. In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran. On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins. Harold Macmillan wrote, \"The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen.\" Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination. No assassination attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; her \"calmness and courage in the face of the violence\" was noted.\nElizabeth gave birth to her third child, Prince Andrew, in February 1960; this was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857. Her fourth child, Prince Edward, was born in March 1964.\n\nPolitical reforms and crises\nThe 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing \"loyalty and devotion\" to Elizabeth. Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade. As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.\nIn 1966, the Queen was criticised for waiting eight days before visiting the village of Aberfan, where a mining disaster killed 116 children and 28 adults. Martin Charteris said that the delay, made on his advice, was a mistake that she later regretted.\nElizabeth toured Yugoslavia in October 1972, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist country. She was received at the airport by President Josip Broz Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in Belgrade.\nIn February 1974, British prime minister Edward Heath advised Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain. The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered, Heath resigned, and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.\nA year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals. As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general. The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.\n\nIn 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed Elizabeth's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband, Lord Snowdon. In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena, though privately she thought they had \"blood on their hands\". The following year brought two blows: the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy and the assassination of Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.\nAccording to Paul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s, Elizabeth was worried the Crown \"had little meaning for\" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime minister. Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau \"rather disappointing\". Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office. In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth \"better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats\". She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.\n\nPerils and dissent\nDuring the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth from close range as she rode down The Mall, London, on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three. Elizabeth's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised. That October, Elizabeth was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade but missed. Lewis was arrested, but instead of being charged with attempted murder or treason was sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital with the intention of assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana and their son Prince William.\n\nFrom April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son Andrew served with British forces in the Falklands War, for which she reportedly felt anxiety and pride. On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard. After hosting US president Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.\nIntense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, pioneered by The Sun tabloid. As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: \"Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards.\" Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: \"The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not.\" It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth secretary-general Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation. Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents. Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed \"the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making\". Reports of acrimony between them were exaggerated, and Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major. Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984 and 1993, said Elizabeth was a \"behind the scenes force\" in ending apartheid.\nIn 1986, Elizabeth paid a six-day state visit to the People's Republic of China, becoming the first British monarch to visit the country. The tour included the Forbidden City, the Great Wall of China, and the Terracotta Warriors. At a state banquet, Elizabeth joked about the first British emissary to China being lost at sea with Queen Elizabeth I's letter to the Wanli Emperor, and remarked, \"fortunately postal services have improved since 1602\". Elizabeth's visit also signified the acceptance of both countries that sovereignty over Hong Kong would be transferred from the United Kingdom to China in 1997.\nBy the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had become the target of satire. The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed. In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau. The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of Governor-General Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.\n\nTurbulent years\nIn the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, Elizabeth became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress in May 1991.\n\nIn November 1992, in a speech to mark the Ruby Jubilee of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis (a Latin phrase, meaning \"horrible year\"). Republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of Elizabeth's private wealth—contradicted by the Palace—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family. In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, separated from his wife, Sarah; her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips in April; angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at Elizabeth during a state visit to Germany in October; and a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences, in November. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny. In an unusually personal speech, Elizabeth said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it might be done with \"a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding\". Two days later, John Major announced plans to reform the royal finances, drawn up the previous year, including Elizabeth paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list. In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated. At the end of the year, Elizabeth sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity. Elizabeth's solicitors had taken successful action against The Sun five years earlier for breach of copyright after it published a photograph of her daughter-in-law the Duchess of York and her granddaughter Princess Beatrice.\nIn January 1994, Elizabeth broke the scaphoid bone in her left wrist as the horse she was riding at Sandringham tripped and fell. In October 1994, she became the first reigning British monarch to set foot on Russian soil. In October 1995, she was tricked into a hoax call by Montreal radio host Pierre Brassard impersonating Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien. Elizabeth, who believed that she was speaking to Chrétien, said she supported Canadian unity and would try to influence Quebec's referendum on proposals to break away from Canada.\nIn the year that followed, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued. In consultation with her husband and John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury (George Carey) and her private secretary (Robert Fellowes), Elizabeth wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, suggesting that a divorce would be advisable.\nIn August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. Elizabeth was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons, Princes William and Harry, wanted to attend church, so Elizabeth and Philip took them that morning. Afterwards, for five days, the royal couple shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private, but the royal family's silence and seclusion, and the failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace, caused public dismay. Pressured by the hostile reaction, Elizabeth agreed to return to London and address the nation in a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral. In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings \"as a grandmother\" for the two princes. As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.\nIn October 1997, Elizabeth and Philip made a state visit to India, which included a controversial visit to the site of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre to pay her respects. Protesters chanted \"Killer Queen, go back\", and there were demands for her to apologise for the action of British troops 78 years earlier. At the memorial in the park, she and Philip laid a wreath and stood for a 30‑second moment of silence. As a result, much of the fury among the public softened, and the protests were called off. That November, the royal couple held a reception at Banqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary. Elizabeth made a speech and praised Philip for his role as consort, referring to him as \"my strength and stay\".\nIn 1999, as part of the process of devolution in the United Kingdom, Elizabeth formally opened newly established legislatures for Wales and Scotland: the National Assembly for Wales at Cardiff in May, and the Scottish Parliament at Edinburgh in July.\n\nDawn of the new millennium\nOn the eve of the new millennium, Elizabeth and Philip boarded a vessel from Southwark, bound for the Millennium Dome. Before passing under Tower Bridge, she lit the National Millennium Beacon in the Pool of London using a laser torch. Shortly before midnight, she officially opened the Dome. During the singing of Auld Lang Syne, Elizabeth held hands with Philip and British prime minister Tony Blair. Following the 9/11 attacks in the United States, Elizabeth, breaking with tradition, ordered the American national anthem to be played during the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace to express her solidarity with the country.\nIn 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee, the 50th anniversary of her accession. Her sister and mother died in February and March, respectively, and the media speculated on whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure. Princess Margaret's death shook Elizabeth; her funeral was one of the rare occasions where Elizabeth openly cried. Elizabeth again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, beginning in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet \"memorable\" after a power cut plunged King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness. As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. One million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London, and the enthusiasm shown for Elizabeth by the public was greater than many journalists had anticipated.\n\nIn 2003, Elizabeth sued the Daily Mirror for breach of confidence and obtained an injunction which prevented the outlet from publishing information gathered by a reporter who posed as a footman at Buckingham Palace. The newspaper also paid £25,000 towards her legal costs. Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.\nIn May 2007, citing unnamed sources, The Daily Telegraph reported that Elizabeth was \"exasperated and frustrated\" by the policies of Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair. She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland. She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007. On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, Elizabeth attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.\nElizabeth addressed the UN General Assembly for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth. The UN secretary-general, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her as \"an anchor for our age\". During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for British victims of the 9/11 attacks. Elizabeth's 11-day visit to Australia in October 2011 was her 16th visit to the country since 1954. By invitation of the Irish president, Mary McAleese, she made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011.\n\nDiamond Jubilee and milestones\nThe 2012 Diamond Jubilee marked 60 years since Elizabeth's accession, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. She and Philip undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while their children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf. On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world. On 18 December, the Queen became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.\nElizabeth, who opened the Montreal Summer Olympics in 1976, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two countries. For the London Olympics, she portrayed herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond. On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA award for her patronage of the film industry and was called \"the most memorable Bond girl yet\" at a special presentation at Windsor Castle.\n\nIn March 2013, the Queen stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. A week later, she signed the new Charter of the Commonwealth. That year, because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, she chose not to attend the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by Prince Charles. On 20 April 2018, the Commonwealth heads of government announced that Charles would succeed her as Head of the Commonwealth, which the Queen stated as her \"sincere wish\". She underwent cataract surgery in May 2018. In March 2019, she gave up driving on public roads, largely as a consequence of a car accident involving her husband two months earlier.\nOn 21 December 2007, Elizabeth surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-lived British monarch, and she became the longest-reigning British monarch and longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015. She became the oldest living monarch after the death of King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia on 23 January 2015. She later became the longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state following the death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016, and the oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe on 21 November 2017. On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to commemorate a sapphire jubilee, and on 20 November that year, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum wedding anniversary. Philip had retired from his official duties as the Queen's consort in August 2017.\n\nPandemic and widowhood\nOn 19 March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic hit the United Kingdom, Elizabeth moved to Windsor Castle and sequestered there as a precaution. Public engagements were cancelled and Windsor Castle followed a strict sanitary protocol nicknamed \"HMS Bubble\".\n\nOn 5 April, in a televised broadcast watched by an estimated 24 million viewers in the United Kingdom, Elizabeth asked people to \"take comfort that while we may have more still to endure, better days will return: we will be with our friends again; we will be with our families again; we will meet again.\" On 8 May, the 75th anniversary of VE Day, in a television broadcast at 9 pm—the exact time at which her father had broadcast to the nation on the same day in 1945—she asked people to \"never give up, never despair\". In 2021, she received her first and second COVID-19 vaccinations in January and April respectively.\nPrince Philip died on 9 April 2021, after 73 years of marriage, making Elizabeth the first British monarch to reign as a widow or widower since Queen Victoria. She was reportedly at her husband's bedside when he died, and remarked in private that his death had \"left a huge void\". Due to the COVID-19 restrictions in place in England at the time, Elizabeth sat alone at Philip's funeral service, which evoked sympathy from people around the world. In her Christmas broadcast that year, which was ultimately her last, she paid a personal tribute to her \"beloved Philip\", saying, \"That mischievous, inquiring twinkle was as bright at the end as when I first set eyes on him.\"\nDespite the pandemic, Elizabeth attended the 2021 State Opening of Parliament in May, the 47th G7 summit in June, and hosted US president Joe Biden at Windsor Castle. Biden was the 14th US president that the Queen had met. In October 2021, Elizabeth cancelled a planned trip to Northern Ireland and stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital for \"preliminary investigations\". On Christmas Day 2021, while she was staying at Windsor Castle, 19-year-old Jaswant Singh Chail broke into the gardens using a rope ladder and carrying a crossbow with the aim of assassinating Elizabeth in revenge for the Amritsar massacre. Before he could enter any buildings, he was arrested and detained under the Mental Health Act. In 2023, he pleaded guilty to attempting to injure or alarm the sovereign.\n\nPlatinum Jubilee and beyond\nElizabeth's Platinum Jubilee celebrations began on 6 February 2022, marking 70 years since her accession. In her accession day message, she renewed her commitment to a lifetime of public service, which she had originally made in 1947.\nLater that month, Elizabeth fell ill with COVID-19 along with several family members, but she only exhibited \"mild cold-like symptoms\" and recovered by the end of the month. She was present at the service of thanksgiving for her husband at Westminster Abbey on 29 March, but was unable to attend both the annual Commonwealth Day service that month and the Royal Maundy service in April, because of \"episodic mobility problems\". In May, she missed the State Opening of Parliament for the first time in 59 years. (She did not attend the state openings in 1959 and 1963 as she was pregnant with Prince Andrew and Prince Edward, respectively.)\nThe Queen was largely confined to balcony appearances during the public jubilee celebrations, and she missed the National Service of Thanksgiving on 3 June. On 13 June, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in history (among those whose exact dates of reign are known), with 70 years and 127 days on the throne—surpassing King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. On 6 September, she appointed her 15th British prime minister, Liz Truss, at Balmoral Castle in Scotland. This was the only occasion on which Elizabeth received a new prime minister at a location other than Buckingham Palace. No other British monarch appointed as many prime ministers. The Queen's last public message was issued on 7 September, in which she expressed her sympathy for those affected by the Saskatchewan stabbings.\nElizabeth did not plan to abdicate, though she took on fewer public engagements in her later years and Prince Charles performed more of her duties. She told Canadian governor-general Adrienne Clarkson in a meeting in 2002 that she would never abdicate, saying, \"It is not our tradition. Although, I suppose if I became completely gaga, one would have to do something.\" In June 2022, Elizabeth met the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, who \"came away thinking there is someone who has no fear of death, has hope in the future, knows the rock on which she stands and that gives her strength.\"\n\nDeath\nOn 8 September 2022, Buckingham Palace stated, \"Following further evaluation this morning, the Queen's doctors are concerned for Her Majesty's health and have recommended she remain under medical supervision. The Queen remains comfortable and at Balmoral.\" Her immediate family rushed to Balmoral. She died peacefully at 15:10 BST at the age of 96. Her death was announced to the public at 18:30, setting in motion Operation London Bridge and, because she died in Scotland, Operation Unicorn. Elizabeth was the first monarch to die in Scotland since James V in 1542. Her death certificate recorded her cause of death as \"old age\". According to her former prime minister Boris Johnson and the biographer Gyles Brandreth, she was suffering from a form of bone marrow cancer, which Brandreth wrote was multiple myeloma.\nOn 12 September, Elizabeth's coffin was carried up the Royal Mile in a procession to St Giles' Cathedral, where the Crown of Scotland was placed on it. Her coffin lay at rest at the cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by the Royal Company of Archers, during which around 33,000 people filed past it. On 13 September, the coffin was flown to RAF Northolt in west London to be met by Liz Truss, before continuing its journey by road to Buckingham Palace. On 14 September, her coffin was taken in a military procession to Westminster Hall, where Elizabeth's body lay in state for four days. The coffin was guarded by members of both the Sovereign's Bodyguard and the Household Division. An estimated 250,000 members of the public filed past the coffin, as did politicians and other public figures. On 16 September, Elizabeth's children held a vigil around her coffin, and the next day her eight grandchildren did the same.\n\nElizabeth's state funeral was held at Westminster Abbey on 19 September, which marked the first time a monarch's funeral service was held at the Abbey since George II in 1760. More than a million people lined the streets of central London, and the day was declared a holiday in several Commonwealth countries. In Windsor, a final procession involving 1,000 military personnel took place, which 97,000 people witnessed. Elizabeth's fell pony and two royal corgis stood at the side of the procession. After a committal service at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, Elizabeth's body was interred with her husband Philip's in the King George VI Memorial Chapel later the same day, in a private ceremony attended by her closest family members.\n\nLegacy\nBeliefs, activities, and interests\nElizabeth rarely gave interviews, and little was known of her political opinions, which she did not express explicitly in public. It is against convention to ask or reveal the monarch's views. When Times journalist Paul Routledge asked her about the miners' strike of 1984–85 during a royal tour of the newspaper's offices, she replied that it was \"all about one man\" (a reference to Arthur Scargill), with which Routledge disagreed. Routledge was widely criticised in the media for asking the question and claimed that he was unaware of the protocols. After the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Prime Minister David Cameron was overheard saying that Elizabeth was pleased with the outcome. She had arguably issued a public coded statement about the referendum by telling one woman outside Balmoral Kirk that she hoped people would think \"very carefully\" about the outcome. It emerged later that Cameron had specifically requested that she register her concern.\nElizabeth had a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and took her Coronation Oath seriously. Aside from her official religious role as supreme governor of the established Church of England, she worshipped with that church and with the national Church of Scotland. She demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and met with leaders of other churches and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. A personal note about her faith often featured in her annual Christmas Message broadcast to the Commonwealth. In 2000, she said:\n\nTo many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.\nElizabeth was patron of more than 600 organisations and charities. The Charities Aid Foundation estimated that Elizabeth helped raise over £1.4 billion for her patronages during her reign. Her main leisure interests included equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis. Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first of many royal corgis. Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life were occasionally witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepared a meal together and washed the dishes afterwards.\n\nMedia depiction and public opinion\nIn the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous \"fairytale Queen\". After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a \"new Elizabethan age\". Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a \"priggish schoolgirl\" was an extremely rare criticism. In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales. Elizabeth also instituted other new practices; her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970. Her wardrobe developed a recognisable, signature style driven more by function than fashion. In public, she took to wearing mostly solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, allowing her to be seen easily in a crowd. By the end of her reign, nearly one third of Britons had seen or met Elizabeth in person.\nAt Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic; but, in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny. Her popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public. Although support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republican ideology was still a minority viewpoint, and Elizabeth herself had high approval ratings. Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself, and the conduct of Elizabeth's wider family, rather than her own behaviour and actions. Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, although Elizabeth's personal popularity—as well as general support for the monarchy—rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.\n\nIn November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state. Many republicans credited Elizabeth's personal popularity with the survival of the monarchy in Australia. In 2010, Prime Minister Julia Gillard noted that there was a \"deep affection\" for Elizabeth in Australia and that another referendum on the monarchy should wait until after her reign. Gillard's successor, Malcolm Turnbull, who led the republican campaign in 1999, similarly believed that Australians would not vote to become a republic in her lifetime. \"She's been an extraordinary head of state\", Turnbull said in 2021, \"and I think frankly, in Australia, there are more Elizabethans than there are monarchists.\" Similarly, referendums in both Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 saw voters reject proposals to become republics.\nPolls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for the monarchy, and in 2012, Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee year, her approval ratings hit 90 per cent. Her family came under scrutiny again in the last few years of her life due to her son Andrew's association with convicted sex offenders Jeffrey Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell, his lawsuit with Virginia Giuffre amidst accusations of sexual impropriety, and her grandson Harry and his wife Meghan's exit from the working royal family and subsequent move to the United States. Polling in Great Britain during the Platinum Jubilee, however, showed support for maintaining the monarchy and Elizabeth's personal popularity remained strong. As of 2021 she remained the third most admired woman in the world according to the annual Gallup poll, her 52 appearances on the list meaning she had been in the top ten more than any other woman in the poll's history.\nElizabeth was portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including painters Pietro Annigoni, Peter Blake, Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy, Terence Cuneo, Lucian Freud, Rolf Harris, Damien Hirst, Juliet Pannett and Tai-Shan Schierenberg. Notable photographers of Elizabeth included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Anwar Hussein, Annie Leibovitz, Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, John Swannell and Dorothy Wilding. The first official portrait photograph of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams in 1926.\n\nTitles, styles, honours, and arms\nTitles and styles\nElizabeth held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, was sovereign of many orders in her own countries and received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms, she had a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen of Saint Lucia and of Her other Realms and Territories in Saint Lucia, Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories in Australia, etc. She was also styled Defender of the Faith.\n\nArms\nFrom 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of Saint George. Upon her accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign, with a subsequently modified representation of the crown. Elizabeth also possessed royal standards and personal flags for use in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, and elsewhere.\n\nIssue\nAncestry\nSee also\nFinances of the British royal family\nHousehold of Elizabeth II\nList of things named after Elizabeth II\nList of jubilees of Elizabeth II\nList of special addresses made by Elizabeth II\nRoyal eponyms in Canada\nList of covers of Time magazine (1920s, 1940s, 1950s, 2010s)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nQueen Elizabeth II at the Royal Family website\nQueen Elizabeth II at the website of the Government of Canada\nQueen Elizabeth II at the website of the Royal Collection Trust\nObituary at BBC News Online\nPortraits of Queen Elizabeth II at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nQueen Elizabeth II at IMDb \nAppearances on C-SPAN",
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"paragraph_text": "Anne, Princess Royal (Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise; born 15 August 1950) is a member of the British royal family. She is the second child and only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and the only sister of King Charles III. Anne was born third in the line of succession to the British throne and is now 17th, and has been, since 1987, Princess Royal, a title held for life.\nBorn at Clarence House, Anne was educated at Benenden School and began undertaking royal duties upon reaching adulthood. She became a respected equestrian, winning one gold medal in 1971 and two silver medals in 1975 at the European Eventing Championships. In 1976, she became the first member of the British royal family to compete in the Olympic Games. In 1988, the Princess Royal became a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).\nAnne performs official duties and engagements on behalf of the monarch. She is patron or president of over 300 organisations, including WISE, Riders for Health, and Carers Trust. Her work in charities centres on sports, sciences, people with disabilities, and health in developing countries. She has been associated with Save the Children for over fifty years and has visited a number of its projects.\nAnne married Captain Mark Phillips in 1973; they separated in 1989 and divorced in 1992. They have two children, Peter Phillips and Zara Tindall, and five grandchildren. Within months of her divorce in 1992, Anne married Commander (later Vice Admiral) Sir Timothy Laurence, whom she had met while he served as her mother's equerry between 1986 and 1989.\n\nEarly life and education\nAnne was born at 11:50 a.m. BST on 15 August 1950 at Clarence House during the reign of her maternal grandfather, King George VI. She is the second child and only daughter of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (later Queen Elizabeth II), and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. A 21-gun salute in Hyde Park signaled the birth. Anne was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 21 October 1950, by the Archbishop of York, Cyril Garbett. At the time of her birth, she was third in the line of succession to the British throne, behind her mother and older brother, Charles (later King Charles III). She rose to second in 1952 after her grandfather's death and her mother's accession; she is currently 17th in line.\nA governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed to look after Anne and her brothers, Charles, Andrew, and Edward. Peebles was responsible for Anne's early education at Buckingham Palace. Given her young age at the time, Anne did not attend her mother's coronation in June 1953.\nA Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company to include the Holy Trinity Brompton Brownie pack, was re-formed in May 1959, specifically so that, as her mother and aunt had done as children, Anne could socialise with girls her own age. The company was active until 1963, when Anne went to boarding school. Anne enrolled at Benenden School in 1963. In 1968, she left school with six GCE O-Levels and two A-Levels. She began to undertake royal engagements in 1969, at the age of 18.\nIn 1970, Anne briefly had a relationship with Andrew Parker Bowles, who later married Camilla Shand. Camilla later became the second wife and queen consort of Anne's elder brother, Charles III. Anne was also briefly linked to Olympic equestrian Richard Meade.\n\nEquestrianism\nIn spring 1971, Princess Anne finished fourth at the Rushall Horse Trials. At age 21, she won the individual title at the European Eventing Championship with her home-bred horse Doublet and was voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 1971. She also rode winners in horse racing, competing in the Grand Military Steeplechase at Sandown Park Racecourse and the Diamond Stakes at Royal Ascot.\n\nFor more than five years, Anne also competed with the British eventing team, winning a silver medal in both individual and team disciplines in the 1975 European Eventing Championship. The following year, she participated in the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal as a member of the British team, riding the Queen's horse, Goodwill, in Eventing. Anne suffered a concussion halfway through the course but remounted and finished the event; she has stated she cannot remember making the rest of the jumps. The British team had to pull out of the competition after two horses were injured. She finished fourth at the Badminton Horse Trials in 1974 and sixth in 1979, having participated five times in the competition between 1971 and 1979. In 1985, she rode in a charity horse race at the Epsom Derby, finishing fourth.\nAnne assumed the presidency of the Fédération Équestre Internationale from 1986 until 1994. On 5 February 1987, she became the first member of the royal family to appear as a contestant on a television quiz show when she competed on the BBC panel game A Question of Sport. The princess has been a patron of the Riding for the Disabled Association since 1971 and became its president in 1985, a position she still holds.\nIn June 2024, Anne was taken to Southmead Hospital with minor injuries and concussion believed to be caused by impact with a horse's legs or head.\n\nMarriages and children\nMarriage to Mark Phillips\nAnne met Mark Phillips, a lieutenant in the 1st Queen's Dragoon Guards, in 1968 at a party for horse lovers. Their engagement was announced on 29 May 1973. On 14 November 1973, the couple married at Westminster Abbey in a televised ceremony, with an estimated audience of 100 million. They subsequently took up residence at Gatcombe Park. As was customary for untitled men marrying into the royal family, Phillips was offered an earldom, which he declined; consequently their children were born without titles. Anne and her husband had two children: Peter (born 1977) and Zara Phillips (born 1981). Anne and Phillips have five grandchildren. On 31 August 1989, Anne and Phillips announced their intention to separate; the couple had been rarely seen in public together and both were romantically linked with other people. They shared custody of their children, and initially announced that \"there were no plans for divorce.\" On 13 April 1992, the Palace announced that Anne had filed for divorce, which was finalised ten days later.\n\nMarriage to Sir Timothy Laurence\nAnne met Timothy Laurence, a commander in the Royal Navy, while he was serving on the Royal Yacht Britannia. Their relationship developed in early 1989, three years after Laurence was appointed as an equerry to the Queen. In 1989, the existence of private letters from Laurence to Anne was revealed by The Sun newspaper. The couple married at Crathie Kirk near Balmoral Castle in Scotland, on 12 December 1992. Approximately 30 guests were invited for the private marriage service. Unlike the Church of England at the time, the Church of Scotland considered marriage to be an ordinance of religion rather than a sacrament and permitted the remarriage of divorced persons under certain circumstances. Anne became the first royal divorcée to remarry since Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, granddaughter of Queen Victoria.\nFor the wedding ceremony, Anne wore a white jacket over a \"demure, cropped-to-the-knee dress\" and a spray of white flowers in her hair. Her engagement ring was made of \"a cabochon sapphire flanked by three small diamonds on each side\". Following the marriage service, the couple and guests headed to Craigowan Lodge for a private reception. Laurence received no peerage.\n\nKidnapping attempt\nOn 20 March 1974, Princess Anne and Mark Phillips were returning to Buckingham Palace from a charity event when a Ford Escort forced their Princess IV car to stop on The Mall. The driver of the Escort, Ian Ball, jumped out and began firing a pistol. Inspector James Beaton, Anne's personal protection officer, exited the car to shield her and to try to disarm Ball. Beaton's firearm, a Walther PPK, jammed, and he was shot by Ball, as was Anne's chauffeur, Alex Callender, when he tried to disarm Ball. Brian McConnell, a nearby tabloid journalist, also intervened, and was shot in the chest. Ball approached Anne's car and told her that he intended to kidnap her and hold her for ransom, the sum given by varying sources as £2 million or £3 million, which he claimed he intended to give to the National Health Service. Ball told Anne to get out of the car, to which she replied, \"Not bloody likely!\" She reportedly briefly considered hitting Ball. In 1983, she spoke about the event on Parkinson, saying she was 'scrupulously polite' to Ball as she thought it would be 'silly to be too rude at that stage'.\nEventually, Anne exited the other side of the limousine, as had her lady-in-waiting, Rowena Brassey. A passing pedestrian, a former boxer named Ron Russell, punched Ball and led Anne away from the scene. At that point, Police Constable Michael Hills happened upon the scene; he too was shot by Ball, but he had already called for police backup. Detective Constable Peter Edmonds answered, gave chase, and finally arrested Ball. Beaton, who had been Anne's sole bodyguard, later said about royal security \"I had nothing… There was no back-up vehicle. The training was non-existent; but then again, [we thought] nothing was going to happen. They are highly specialised now, highly trained.\" Immediately after the attack the use of only a single protection officer was stopped, and the Walther PPK pistol was replaced.\nBeaton, Hills, Callender, and McConnell were hospitalised, and recovered from their wounds. For his defence of Princess Anne, Beaton was awarded the George Cross by the Queen, who was visiting Indonesia when the incident occurred; Hills and Russell were awarded the George Medal, and Callender, McConnell, and Edmonds were awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal. Anne visited Beaton in hospital and thanked him for his assistance. It was widely reported that the Queen paid off Russell's mortgage, but this is not true: Russell said in 2020 that a police officer suggested it might happen, so he stopped paying his mortgage in anticipation and nearly had his house repossessed after four months.\nBall pleaded guilty to attempted murder and kidnapping. As of March 2024, he was still detained under the Mental Health Act at Broadmoor Hospital, having been diagnosed with schizophrenia.\nThe attempted kidnapping of Princess Anne is the focus of the Granada Television-produced docudrama To Kidnap a Princess (2006) and inspired story lines in Tom Clancy's novel Patriot Games.\n\nActivities\nPublic appearances\nAnne undertakes a number of duties and engagements on behalf of the sovereign. Kevin S. MacLeod, the then Canadian Secretary to the Queen, said of Anne in 2014: \"Her credo is, 'Keep me busy. I'm here to work. I'm here to do good things. I'm here to meet as many people as possible'.\" It was reported in December 2017 that the Princess Royal had undertaken the most official engagements that year out of all the royal family, her mother the Queen included. Among her royal visits, the Princess has toured Norway, Jamaica, Germany, Austria, New Zealand, and Australia.\n\nAnne's first public engagement was at the opening of an educational and training centre in Shropshire in 1969. Anne travels abroad on behalf of the United Kingdom up to three times a year. She began to undertake overseas visits upon leaving secondary school, and accompanied her parents on a state visit to Austria in the same year. Her first tour of Australia was with her parents in 1970, since which she returned many times to undertake official engagements as a colonel-in-chief of an Australian regiment, or to attend memorials and services such as the National Memorial Service for victims of the Black Saturday bushfires in Melbourne on 22 February 2009. In 1990 she became the first member of the royal family to make an official visit to the Soviet Union when she went there as a guest of President Mikhail Gorbachev and his government.\n\nIn August 2016, she returned to Russia to visit the city of Arkhangelsk for the 75th anniversary of Operation Dervish, which was one of the first Arctic convoys of World War II. In September 2016, the Princess had a chest infection and was required to cancel official engagements. In late October 2016, she visited the Malaysian state of Sarawak for a two-day study tour. In April 2022, Anne and her husband toured Australia and Papua New Guinea to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee. On 12 September 2022, in St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh, Anne became the first woman to participate in a Vigil of the Princes, guarding her mother's coffin. This was repeated at Westminster Hall on 16 September. It was later revealed that she had been the informant at her mother's death at Balmoral, a witness who signs, along with the doctor, the death certificate.\n\nPatronages\nAnne is involved with over 200 charities and organisations in an official capacity. She works extensively for Save the Children, serving as president from 1970 to 2017, and has been patron since 2017. Anne has visited the organisation's projects in Bangladesh, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Mozambique, Ethiopia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. As a result of her work, she was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990 by Kenneth Kaunda, President of Zambia. She initiated The Princess Royal Trust for Carers in 1991. Her extensive work for St. John Ambulance as Commandant-in-Chief of St. John Ambulance Cadets has helped to develop many young people, as she annually attends the Grand Prior Award Reception. She is patron of St. Andrew's First Aid. In 2021, she became patron of Mercy Ships, an international charity that operates the largest non-governmental hospital ships in the world.\nAnne is a British representative in the International Olympic Committee as an administrator, and was a member of the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games. She also serves as president of the British Olympic Association. Anne represented Great Britain in the International Olympic Committee at the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics in Russia. In 1985 she became president of the Riding for the Disabled Association after serving as their patron for fourteen years. She maintains a relationship with student sport and is the patron of British Universities and Colleges Sport.\nFollowing the retirement of the Queen Mother in 1981, Anne was elected by graduates of the University of London as the Chancellor, and has been in the position since that year. She was president of BAFTA from 1973 to 2001. Throughout May 1996, Anne served as Her Majesty's High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and held the post again in 2017. In 2007, she was appointed by the Queen as Grand Master of the Royal Victorian Order, a position her grandmother had also held. She is a Royal Fellow of the Royal Society and the Academy of Medical Sciences. Royal Fellows are members of the royal family who are recommended and elected by the Society's Council. The Royal Society as of 2022 has four Royal Fellows: Anne; William, Prince of Wales; Edward, Duke of Kent; and King Charles. She is the Academy of Medical Sciences' first Royal Fellow. Anne was elected Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh effective 31 March 2011, succeeding her father, who stepped down from the role in 2010. Likewise, she accepted in 2011 the roles of president of City and Guilds of London Institute, Master of the Corporation of Trinity House and president of the Royal Society of Arts, also in succession to her father. Anne has been the president of the Commonwealth Study Conference, an initiative founded by her father. In 2023, she succeeded the Duke of Kent as president of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.\n\nAnne is the patron of Transaid, a charity founded by Save the Children and the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport which aims to provide safe and sustainable transport in developing countries. She is also the royal patron of WISE, an organisation that encourages young women to pursue careers in science, engineering and construction. She has been patron of the Royal National Children's Foundation since 2002 and the industrial heritage museum, Aerospace Bristol, since 2016. In 2022, Anne was named honorary chair of National Lighthouse Museum's Illuminating Future Generations campaign, a project aimed at raising funds for the museum's gallery space. She is also patron of the Royal College of Occupational Therapists, Royal College of Midwives, Royal College of Emergency Medicine, Magpas Air Ambulance, Edinburgh University's Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Royal Holloway, University of London, International Students House, London, Acid Survivors Trust International, Townswomen's Guilds, Citizens Advice, the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo, and the Scottish Rugby Union.\nIn 1986 she was appointed Master of the Worshipful Company of Carmen. In 2001, she became Master of the Worshipful Company of Farmers. In 2017, Anne became Prime Warden of the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers and a Governor of Gresham's School.\n\nPublic image and style\nAnne has been called the royal family's \"trustiest anchor\" and a \"beacon of good, old-fashioned public service\", having carried out over 20,000 engagements since her 18th birthday. In her early adulthood, she was cited as a \"royal renegade\" for choosing to forgo titles for her children despite being the \"spare to the heir\". The media often called the young Anne \"aloof\" and \"haughty\", giving her the nickname \"her royal rudeness\". She spurred controversy for telling photographers to \"naff off\" at the Badminton Horse Trials in 1982. Vanity Fair wrote that Anne \"has a reputation for having inherited her father's famously sharp tongue and waspish wit\". Of her early public role, she has said: \"It's not just about 'can I get a tick in the box for doing this?' No, it's about serving…It took me probably 10 years before I really felt confident enough to contribute to Save the Children's public debates because you needed to understand how it works on the ground and that needed a very wide coverage. So my early trips were really important.\" Anne has been frequently named the \"hardest working royal\", and she carried out 11,088 engagements between 2002 and 2022, more than any other member of the royal family.\nAnne remains one of Britain's most popular royals. Telegraph editor Camilla Tominey called her a \"national treasure\", writing that she is \"hailed as one of the great English eccentrics\", whose work ethic contributes to her regard. Tominey wrote that Anne's public role is a \"contradiction of both protocol taskmaster and occasional rule-breaker\". Reportedly, Anne \"insists on doing her own make-up and hair\" and drives herself to engagements, having pleaded guilty to two separate speeding fines on account of being late. She does not shake hands with the public during walkabouts, saying, \"the theory was that you couldn't shake hands with everybody, so don't start.\" Members of the public have seen her \"mending fences at Gatcombe\" and \"queuing up for the Portaloos\" at her daughter's horse competitions. Her reputation is also coupled with her advocacy for causes out of the mainstream, such as Wetwheels Foundation's commitment to accessible sailing and the National Lighthouse Museum. On her 60th and 70th birthdays, the BBC and Vanity Fair both asked whether she would retire, and she denied it both times, citing her parents' example as well as her commitment to her royal duties. Anne's public personality has been described as \"not suffering fools lightly\" while maintaining a \"still-impressive level of grace and courtesy\".\nBritish Vogue editor Edward Enninful has said that \"Princess Anne is a true style icon and was all about sustainable fashion before the rest of us really knew what that meant\". Her style has been noted for its timelessness; she relies almost solely on British fashion brands, with tweed and tailored suits as her hallmarks. She is known for recycling outfits, such as her floral-print dress worn both to the wedding of the Prince of Wales in 1981 and the wedding of Lady Rose Windsor in 2008. Anne is the patron of U.K. Fashion and Textile Association. She has been noted for wearing \"bold patterns and vibrant pops of colour\". Her style choices often reflect her equestrian interests as well as the practicality of her fast-paced schedule. In the 1970s and 1980s, she was often photographed wearing trends such as puff sleeves, cardigans, bright floral patterns, and multicoloured stripes. Anne is also one of the few women in the royal family to wear a military uniform. According to The Guardian, she is \"rarely seen without a brooch\" during royal events. Her millinery styles have included jockey caps and hats of multiple colours and bold patterns. She presented the Queen Elizabeth II award for British design at London Fashion Week in 2020. Anne has appeared on three British Vogue covers; after first appearing on the 1971 September issue at age 21, she also featured in the May and November 1973 issues, commemorating her engagement to Mark Phillips. She was featured in the cover story for the May 2020 issue of Vanity Fair. In 2024, Tatler included her on its list of the most glamorous European royals.\nAnne is the first member of the royal family to have been convicted of a criminal offence. In November 2002, she pleaded guilty to one charge of having a dog dangerously out of control, an offence under the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991, and was fined £500.\n\nTitles, styles, honours and arms\nTitles and styles\nAnne is the seventh Princess Royal, an appellation given only to the eldest daughter of the Sovereign. The previous holder was King George V's daughter, Princess Mary, Countess of Harewood, Anne's great-aunt.\n\nHonours\nAnne is a Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, an Extra Knight of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, Grand Master of the Royal Victorian Order, a Dame Grand Cross of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem, a Recipient of the Royal Family Order of Queen Elizabeth II, and a Personal Aide-de-Camp to the Sovereign.\n\nArms\nIssue\nAncestry\nThe Princess Royal's ancestry can be traced as far back as Cerdic, King of Wessex (519–534).\n\nBibliography\nAuthor\nRiding Through My Life, Pelham Books, 1991, ISBN 978-0720719611\n\nForewords\nJohn Anthony Davies, The Reins of Life: Instructional and Informative Manual on Riding for the Disabled, J.A.Allen & Co Ltd, 1987, ISBN 978-0851314495\nMargaret J. Heraty, Developing World Transport, Grosvenor Press International, 1989, ISBN 978-0946027897\nGeorgina Colthurst, Fighting Back, Methuen Publishing Ltd, 1990, ISBN 978-0413614605\nPeter O'Sullevan, Sean Magee, That's Racing, Stanley Paul, 1992, ISBN 978-0091771836\nUrsula Stuart Mason, Britannia's Daughters, Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 1992, ISBN 978-0850522716\nPeter Fry, VetAid Book of Veterinary Anecdotes, Vetaid, 1996, ISBN 978-0952229964\nMichael Morpurgo, More Muck and Magic, Egmont Group, 2001, ISBN 978-0749740948\nJim Telfer, Looking Back . . . For Once, Mainstream Publishing, 2005, ISBN 978-1845961176\nBishop Bill Down, The Bishop's Bill of Fare: A Gracious Companion, Baron, 2005, ISBN 978-0860236801\nChristopher McCreery, On Her Majesty's Service, Dundurn Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1550027426\nGeoff Holt, Walking on Water, Personal Everest Ltd, 2008, ISBN 978-1574092769\nRobert Burton, Southern Horizons: The History of the British Antarctic Territory, UK Antarctic Heritage Trust, 2008, ISBN 978-0954138912\nMoira C. Harris, Wild Horses of the World, Hamlyn, 2009, ISBN 978-0600618133\nJudy Steel, Horse Tales and Saddle Songs, Bordersprint Ltd., 2011, ISBN 978-0956107558\nStephen Haddelsey, Operation Tabarin, The History Press, 2014 [2016], ISBN 978-0750967464\nIan Cowe, Scottish and Manx Lighthouses: A Photographic Journey in the Footsteps of the Stevensons, Northern Lighthouse Heritage Trust, 2015, ISBN 978-0956720917\nRobyn Walker, The Women Who Spied for Britain: Female Secret Agents of the Second World War, Amberley Publishing, 2015, ISBN 978-1445645841\nTrevor Boult, In Fingal's Wake: A Tender Tribute, Amberley Publishing, 2016, ISBN 978-1445648064\nPolly Williamson, Where did I go?, Cheltenham Printing, 2017, ISBN 978-0993179976\nAnne Glyn-Jones, Morse Code Wrens of Station X: Bletchley's Outer Circle, Amphora Press, 2017, ISBN 978-1845409081\nTrevor Boult, To Sea for Science, distributed by Lily Publications, 2021, ISBN 978-1838084530\nIan Robertson, Wooden Spoon Rugby World 2021: 25 Years of Rugby Memories, G2 Entertainment Ltd, 2021, ISBN 978-1782816065\nRobin Fletcher, Pass the Pig's Bladder, 2022, ISBN 978-1739122416\nChristopher Nicholson, Rock Lighthouses of Britain & Ireland, Whittles Publishing, 2022, ISBN 978-1849955447\n\nLectures\nWhat is Punishment for and How Does it Relate to the Concept of Community?, 1990\n\nGuest-editor\n\"HRH The Princess Royal: Guest Editor\". Country Life. 29 July 2020.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Princess Royal at the royal family website\nThe Princess Royal at the website of the Government of Canada\nPortraits of Princess Anne at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nAnne, Princess Royal at Olympics.com\nPrincess Anne at IMDb\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
"title": "Anne,_Princess_Royal"
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"idx": 3,
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"paragraph_text": "Zara Anne Elizabeth Tindall (née Phillips; born 15 May 1981) is a British equestrian, Olympian and socialite. She is the daughter of Anne, Princess Royal, and Captain Mark Phillips. She is a granddaughter of Queen Elizabeth II and a niece of King Charles III. She was born 6th in the line of succession to the British throne and is 21st in line as of 2024.\nTindall won the Eventing World Championship in Aachen in 2006. That same year, she was voted 2006 BBC Sports Personality of the Year by the public. In 2012, she carried the Olympic flame at Cheltenham Racecourse on her horse Toytown. As a member of the Great Britain Eventing Team, she won a silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics, presented to her by her mother. She married rugby union player Mike Tindall in 2011.\n\nEarly life and education\nZara Anne Elizabeth Phillips was born on 15 May 1981 at 8:15 pm in the Lindo Wing of St Mary's Hospital, London. She was baptised on 27 July 1981, at Windsor Castle. Her first name was suggested by her uncle, Charles, the then Prince of Wales. Her godparents are her maternal uncle, the Duke of York; the Countess of Lichfield; Helen, Lady Stewart, the wife of Sir Jackie Stewart; Andrew Parker Bowles; and Hugh Thomas. She has an elder brother, Peter, and two younger half-sisters, Felicity Wade (née Tonkin; from her father's affair with Heather Tonkin) and Stephanie Phillips, from her father's second marriage to Sandy Pflueger.\nPhillips attended Beaudesert Park School in Stroud, Gloucestershire, and Port Regis School in Shaftesbury, Dorset, before following other members of the royal family in attending Gordonstoun School in Moray, Scotland. During her schooldays, Phillips excelled at many sporting activities, representing her schools in hockey, athletics, and gymnastics. She later studied at the University of Exeter and qualified as a physiotherapist.\n\nEquestrianism\nAfter university, Phillips began to pursue an equestrian career, in the footsteps of her parents. In June 2003, she announced that she had secured a sponsorship deal with Cantor Index, a leading company in spread betting, to help cover the costs of her equestrian career. She finished as runner-up at Burghley Horse Trials in 2003 in her first four-star event. Tindall missed the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens after her horse suffered an injury during training.\nRiding her horse Toytown, Tindall collected individual and team gold medals at the 2005 European Eventing Championship in Blenheim, and individual gold and team silver medals at the 2006 FEI World Equestrian Games in Aachen, Germany, making her the reigning Eventing World Champion until 2010. The same year after her win in Germany, she was voted BBC Sports Personality of the Year by the British viewing public (an award her mother won in 1971). She was also appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2007 New Year Honours for her services to equestrianism. Despite winning team gold at the 2007 European Eventing Championships in Italy, she failed to defend her individual title in the show-jumping phase of the competition.\nThe British Olympic Association announced that Tindall would ride Toytown for the British equestrian team at the Beijing Olympic Games 2008 in Hong Kong. However, Toytown was injured during training and she was forced to withdraw from the team.\nOn 25 October 2008, Tindall fell from her horse, Tsunami II, at the 15th fence of a cross-country event at Pau, France, and broke her right collarbone. The horse broke her neck after she tipped over the hedge and was put down. In 2009, Tindall announced she was designing her own range of equestrian clothing for Musto Outdoor Clothing. The range is named ZP176 after the team number she was given when she first represented her country. The range was officially launched in July 2010.\n\nOn 11 June 2012, Tindall was announced as a member of the British Equestrian team for the 2012 London Olympic Games. She competed in the Olympics on High Kingdom and won a silver medal in the team event. Her mother, Princess Anne, presented her medal. Tindall finished second at Luhmühlen Horse Trials 2013, on her top horse High Kingdom. At the World Equestrian Games in 2014, Tindall and High Kingdom were part of the British team that won team silver.\nTindall stopped using her maiden name, Phillips, in March 2016. She competed for the first time as Zara Tindall during her unsuccessful attempt to qualify for the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. In 2017, she won the third place at the Kentucky Three-Day Event on High Kingdom, before High Kingdom retired from the sport in 2018. In November 2019, she was appointed to the non-executive role of director of the Cheltenham Racecourse and began her role in January 2020. In August 2020, Tindall was selected for her first appearance on the British Team competing at the prestigious FEI Nations Cup in Le Pin au Haras, France. In October 2021, Tindall competed in Maryland 5 Star at Fair Hill and finished at 11th place with score 30.4, riding Gleadhill House Stud Ltd's 12-year-old horse named Class Affair. In May 2022, Tindall won the advanced class at the Chatsworth Horse Trials, riding Class Affair.\n\nCharity work\nTindall frequently supports and attends events for various charitable causes, mainly revolving around spinal injuries, equestrianism, and children's causes. In 2005, she auctioned one of her evening gowns, worn at the London premiere of the film Seabiscuit, to raise money for tsunami relief. She also undertook a visit to New Zealand in her role as patron of The Catwalk Trust. From 1998 to 2005, she served as the president of Club 16–24, a group which encourages young people to take an interest in racing. She is associated with Inspire, a Salisbury-based medical research charity which helps to improve the quality of life of people with spinal cord injuries. She is patron of Lucy Air Ambulance for Children, which is the UK's first dedicated air transfer service to fly critically ill infants and children to hospitals for urgent care.\nTindall has appeared at events for The Caudwell Charitable Trust, which targets children with special needs, disabilities and serious illnesses. In 2006, she took part in a special charity day for Cantor Index, whose staff were killed in the 11 September 2001 attacks. In 2007, she became patron of the Mark Davies Injured Riders Fund. To help with Sport Relief 2008, she posed for a portrait by artist Jack Vettriano. In 2009, she attended a celebrity poker tournament in Monaco in aid of Darfur, Sudan. In October 2010, she attended a celebrity poker tournament in London, in aid of Cancer Research UK, of which she is patron. In 2011, she auctioned another evening gown in aide of the Christchurch earthquake appeal, raising £22,000. In 2013, she visited the Stroud Maternity Ward to celebrate their 60th anniversary. In 2014, Tindall lent her support to the #bringbackourgirls campaign. In April 2020, Tindall participated in an Equestrian Relief initiative that would provide increased personal protective equipment for National Health Service workers.\n\nOther activities\nIn June 2015, Tindall launched a line of jewellery collection, named \"Zara Phillips Collection\", in collaboration with Australian designer John Calleija. The equestrian themed collection featured the Saddle Suite and the Coronet Suite, with the prices ranging from $6,250 to $44,000.\nOn 17 September 2022, during the period of official mourning for Queen Elizabeth II, Tindall joined her brother and six cousins, to mount a 15-minute vigil, around the coffin of the Queen, as it lay in state at Westminster Hall. On 19 September, with her husband Mike and daughter Mia, she joined other family members at the state funeral.\n\nPersonal life\nZara Phillips met rugby union player Mike Tindall, who was playing for the England national team, during their Rugby World Cup-winning campaign in Australia in 2003. On 21 December 2010, Buckingham Palace announced their engagement. As was at that time required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772, the Queen gave her consent to the marriage in a meeting of the Privy Council on 10 May 2011. Mike Tindall proposed to her with \"a custom-designed diamond and platinum ring with a divided diamond band\". The couple held a celebration on the royal yacht Britannia prior to the wedding.\nThe wedding was held on 30 July 2011 at the Canongate Kirk in Edinburgh, Scotland, with 400 guests in attendance. The marriage was officiated by the Reverend Neil Gardner. Her off-the-rack ivory silk dress designed by Stewart Parvin featured \"a chevron-pleated bodice, a dropped waist, and a 'cathedral-length' train\". The Meander Tiara was lent to her and secured the veil. Dolly Maude was her maid of honour, dressed in a dove grey knee length duchess satin dress, with her paternal half-sister, Stephanie, among the bridesmaids. A reception was held at Holyrood Palace following the service.\nThe Tindalls lived in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, before moving to the Princess Royal’s Gatcombe Park estate. The couple's home, Aston Farm, is a seven-bedroom farmhouse next to the Gatcombe Park estate. Tindall gave birth to a daughter, Mia Grace on 17 January 2014 at Gloucestershire Royal Hospital, who was born 16th, later 22nd in the line of succession. Mia was christened on 30 November 2014 at St Nicholas Church in the village of Cherington. Her next two pregnancies ended in miscarriage. Their second daughter, Lena Elizabeth was born on 18 June 2018 at the Stroud Maternity Hospital, and was born 19th, later 23rd in the line of succession. Her christening was held at St Nicholas Church in March 2019. Their third child, son Lucas Philip, was born on 21 March 2021 at the family home in Gatcombe Park, and was born 22nd, later 24th in the line of succession. Lucas was christened at Royal Chapel of All Saints, Windsor Park, on 21 November 2021, alongside his second cousin, August Brooksbank. Tindall is godmother to Prince George of Wales, the son of her cousin William, Prince of Wales.\nIn December 2000, Tindall was involved in a severe car crash near Bourton-on-the-Water, escaping serious injury after overturning her Land Rover. In January 2020, she was banned from driving for six months after accumulating 12 points on her licence. It was also announced that the court was fining her \"£666 plus costs and a victim surcharge of £151\".\n\nArms\nHonours\n30 December 2006: Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE)\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nZara Tindall at FEI\nZara Tindall at FEI (alternative link)\nZara Tindall at Olympics.com\nZara Tindall at Olympedia\nZara Tindall at Team GB\nPortraits of Zara Phillips at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nZara Tindall at IMDb",
"title": "Zara_Tindall"
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"paragraph_text": "Charles III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms.\nCharles was born in Buckingham Palace during the reign of his maternal grandfather, King George VI, and became heir apparent when his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, acceded to the throne in 1952. He was created Prince of Wales in 1958 and his investiture was held in 1969. He was educated at Cheam School and Gordonstoun, and later spent six months at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia. After completing a history degree from the University of Cambridge, Charles served in the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy from 1971 to 1976. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer. They had two sons, William and Harry. Charles and Diana divorced in 1996, after they had each engaged in well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died as a result of injuries sustained in a car crash the following year. In 2005, Charles married his long-term partner, Camilla Parker Bowles.\nAs heir apparent, Charles undertook official duties and engagements on behalf of his mother. He founded the Prince's Trust in 1976, sponsored the Prince's Charities, and became patron or president of more than 800 other charities and organisations. He advocated for the conservation of historic buildings and the importance of architecture in society. In that vein, he generated the experimental new town of Poundbury. An environmentalist, Charles supported organic farming and action to prevent climate change during his time as the manager of the Duchy of Cornwall estates, earning him awards and recognition as well as criticism; he is also a prominent critic of the adoption of genetically modified food, while his support for alternative medicine has been criticised. He has authored or co-authored 17 books.\n\nCharles became king upon his mother's death in 2022. At the age of 73, he was the oldest person to accede to the British throne, after having been the longest-serving heir apparent and Prince of Wales in British history. Significant events in his reign have included his coronation in 2023 and his cancer diagnosis the following year, the latter of which temporarily suspended planned public engagements.\n\nEarly life, family, and education\nCharles was born at 21:14 (GMT) on 14 November 1948, during the reign of his maternal grandfather, King George VI, as the first child of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (later Queen Elizabeth II), and Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He was delivered by Caesarean section at Buckingham Palace. His parents had three more children, Anne (born 1950), Andrew (born 1960) and Edward (born 1964). He was christened Charles Philip Arthur George on 15 December 1948 in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher.\nGeorge VI died on 6 February 1952 and Charles's mother acceded to the throne as Elizabeth II; Charles immediately became the heir apparent. Under a charter of Edward III in 1337, and as the monarch's eldest son, he automatically assumed the traditional titles of Duke of Cornwall and, in the Scottish peerage, the titles Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. The following year, Charles attended his mother's coronation at Westminster Abbey.\nWhen Charles turned five, Catherine Peebles was appointed as governess to oversee his education at Buckingham Palace. He then commenced classes at Hill House School in west London in November 1956. Charles was the first heir apparent to attend school, rather than be educated by a private tutor. He did not receive preferential treatment from the school's founder and headmaster, Stuart Townend, who advised the Queen to have Charles train in football, because the boys were never deferential to anyone on the football field. Charles subsequently attended two of his father's former schools: Cheam School in Hampshire, from 1958, followed by Gordonstoun, in the north-east of Scotland, beginning classes there in April 1962. He later became patron of Gordonstoun in May 2024.\n\nIn his 1994 authorised biography by Jonathan Dimbleby, Charles's parents were described as physically and emotionally distant and Philip was blamed for his disregard of Charles's sensitive nature, including forcing him to attend Gordonstoun, where he was bullied. Though Charles reportedly described Gordonstoun, noted for its especially rigorous curriculum, as \"Colditz in kilts\", he later praised the school, stating it had taught him \"a great deal about myself and my own abilities and disabilities\". He said in a 1975 interview he was \"glad\" he had attended Gordonstoun and that the \"toughness of the place\" was \"much exaggerated\". In 1966 Charles spent two terms at the Timbertop campus of Geelong Grammar School in Victoria, Australia, during which time he visited Papua New Guinea on a school trip with his history tutor, Michael Collins Persse. In 1973 Charles described his time at Timbertop as the most enjoyable part of his whole education. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, he emulated his father in becoming head boy, and left in 1967 with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C respectively. On his education, Charles later remarked, \"I didn't enjoy school as much as I might have; but, that was only because I'm happier at home than anywhere else\".\nCharles broke royal tradition when he proceeded straight to university after his A-levels, rather than joining the British Armed Forces. In October 1967, he was admitted to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied archaeology and anthropology for the first part of the Tripos and then switched to history for the second part. During his second year, he attended the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth, studying Welsh history and the Welsh language for one term. Charles became the first British heir apparent to earn a university degree, graduating in June 1970 from the University of Cambridge with a 2:2 Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree. Following standard practice, in August 1975, his Bachelor of Arts was promoted to a Master of Arts (MA Cantab) degree.\n\nPrince of Wales\nCharles was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 26 July 1958, though his investiture was not held until 1 July 1969, when he was crowned by his mother in a televised ceremony held at Caernarfon Castle; the investiture was controversial in Wales owing to growing Welsh nationalist sentiment. He took his seat in the House of Lords the following year and he delivered his maiden speech on 13 June 1974, the first royal to speak from the floor since the future Edward VII in 1884. He spoke again in 1975.\nCharles began to take on more public duties, founding the Prince's Trust in 1976 and travelling to the United States in 1981. In the mid-1970s, he expressed an interest in serving as governor-general of Australia, at the suggestion of Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser; however, because of a lack of public enthusiasm, nothing came of the proposal. In reaction, Charles commented, \"so, what are you supposed to think when you are prepared to do something to help and you are just told you're not wanted?\"\n\nMilitary training and career\nCharles served in the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Navy. During his second year at Cambridge, he received Royal Air Force training, learning to fly the Chipmunk aircraft with the Cambridge University Air Squadron, and was presented with his RAF wings in August 1971.\n\nAfter the passing-out parade that September, Charles embarked on a naval career and enrolled in a six-week course at the Royal Naval College Dartmouth. He then served from 1971 to 1972 on the guided-missile destroyer HMS Norfolk and the frigates HMS Minerva, from 1972 to 1973, and HMS Jupiter in 1974. That same year, he also qualified as a helicopter pilot at RNAS Yeovilton and subsequently joined 845 Naval Air Squadron, operating from HMS Hermes. Charles spent his last 10 months of active service in the Navy commanding the coastal minehunter HMS Bronington, beginning on 9 February 1976. He took part in a parachute training course at RAF Brize Norton two years later, after being appointed colonel-in-chief of the Parachute Regiment in 1977. Charles gave up flying after crash-landing a BAe 146 in Islay in 1994, as a passenger who was invited to fly the aircraft; the crew was found negligent by a board of inquiry.\n\nRelationships and marriages\nBachelorhood\nIn his youth, Charles was amorously linked to a number of women. His girlfriends included Georgiana Russell, the daughter of Sir John Russell, who was the British ambassador to Spain; Lady Jane Wellesley, the daughter of the 8th Duke of Wellington; Davina Sheffield; Lady Sarah Spencer; and Camilla Shand, who later became his second wife.\n\nCharles's great-uncle Lord Mountbatten advised him to \"sow his wild oats and have as many affairs as he can before settling down\", but, for a wife, he \"should choose a suitable, attractive, and sweet-charactered girl before she has met anyone else she might fall for ... It is disturbing for women to have experiences if they have to remain on a pedestal after marriage\". Early in 1974, Mountbatten began corresponding with 25-year-old Charles about a potential marriage to Amanda Knatchbull, Mountbatten's granddaughter. Charles wrote to Amanda's mother, Lady Brabourne, who was also his godmother, expressing interest in her daughter. Lady Brabourne replied approvingly, but suggested that a courtship with a 16-year-old was premature. Four years later, Mountbatten arranged for Amanda and himself to accompany Charles on his 1980 visit to India. Both fathers, however, objected; Prince Philip feared that his famous uncle would eclipse Charles, while Lord Brabourne warned that a joint visit would concentrate media attention on the cousins before they could decide on becoming a couple.\nIn August 1979, before Charles would depart alone for India, Mountbatten was assassinated by the Irish Republican Army. When Charles returned, he proposed to Amanda. But in addition to her grandfather, she had lost her paternal grandmother and younger brother in the bomb attack and was now reluctant to join the royal family.\n\nLady Diana Spencer\nCharles first met Lady Diana Spencer in 1977, while he was visiting her home, Althorp. He was then the companion of her elder sister Sarah and did not consider Diana romantically until mid-1980. While Charles and Diana were sitting together on a bale of hay at a friend's barbecue in July, she mentioned that he had looked forlorn and in need of care at the funeral of his great-uncle Lord Mountbatten. Soon, according to Dimbleby, \"without any apparent surge in feeling, he began to think seriously of her as a potential bride\" and she accompanied Charles on visits to Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House.\n\nCharles's cousin Norton Knatchbull and his wife told Charles that Diana appeared awestruck by his position and that he did not seem to be in love with her. Meanwhile, the couple's continuing courtship attracted intense attention from the press and paparazzi. When Charles's father told him that the media speculation would injure Diana's reputation if Charles did not come to a decision about marrying her soon, and realising that she was a suitable royal bride (according to Mountbatten's criteria), Charles construed his father's advice as a warning to proceed without further delay. He proposed to Diana in February 1981, with their engagement becoming official on 24 February; the wedding took place in St Paul's Cathedral on 29 July. Upon his marriage, Charles reduced his voluntary tax contribution from the profits of the Duchy of Cornwall from 50 per cent to 25 per cent. The couple lived at Kensington Palace and Highgrove House, near Tetbury, and had two children: William, in 1982, and Harry, in 1984.\nWithin five years, the marriage was in trouble due to the couple's incompatibility and near 13-year age difference. In 1986, Charles had fully resumed his affair with Camilla Parker Bowles. In a videotape recorded by Peter Settelen in 1992, Diana admitted that, from 1985 to 1986, she had been \"deeply in love with someone who worked in this environment.\" It was assumed that she was referring to Barry Mannakee, who had been transferred to the Diplomatic Protection Squad in 1986, after his managers determined his relationship with Diana had been inappropriate. Diana later commenced a relationship with Major James Hewitt, the family's former riding instructor.\nCharles and Diana's evident discomfort in each other's company led to them being dubbed \"The Glums\" by the press. Diana exposed Charles's affair with Parker Bowles in a book by Andrew Morton, Diana: Her True Story. Audio tapes of her own extramarital flirtations also surfaced, as did persistent suggestions that Hewitt is Prince Harry's father, based on a physical similarity between Hewitt and Harry. However, Harry had already been born by the time Diana's affair with Hewitt began.\nIn December 1992, John Major announced the couple's legal separation in the House of Commons. Early the following year, the British press published transcripts of a passionate, bugged telephone conversation between Charles and Parker Bowles that had taken place in 1989, which was dubbed \"Camillagate\" and \"Tampongate\". Charles subsequently sought public understanding in a television film with Dimbleby, Charles: The Private Man, the Public Role, broadcast in June 1994. In an interview in the film, Charles confirmed his own extramarital affair with Parker Bowles, saying that he had rekindled their association in 1986, only after his marriage to Diana had \"irretrievably broken down\". This was followed by Diana's own admission of marital troubles in an interview on the BBC current affairs show Panorama, broadcast in November 1995. Referring to Charles's relationship with Parker Bowles, she said, \"well, there were three of us in this marriage. So, it was a bit crowded.\" She also expressed doubt about her husband's suitability for kingship. Charles and Diana divorced on 28 August 1996, after being advised by the Queen in December 1995 to end the marriage. The couple shared custody of their children.\nDiana was killed in a car crash in Paris on 31 August 1997. Charles flew to Paris with Diana's sisters to accompany her body back to Britain. In 2003 Diana's butler Paul Burrell published a note that he claimed had been written by Diana in 1995, in which there were allegations that Charles was \"planning 'an accident' in [Diana's] car, brake failure and serious head injury\", so that he could remarry. When questioned by the Metropolitan Police inquiry team as a part of Operation Paget, Charles told the authorities that he did not know about his former wife's note from 1995 and could not understand why she had those feelings.\n\nCamilla Parker Bowles\nIn 1999 Charles and Parker Bowles made their first public appearance as a couple at the Ritz London Hotel, and she moved into Charles's official residence, Clarence House, in 2003. Their engagement was announced on 10 February 2005. The Queen's consent to the marriage – as required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772 – was recorded in a Privy Council meeting on 2 March. In Canada, the Department of Justice determined the consent of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada was not required, as the union would not produce any heirs to the Canadian throne.\nCharles was the only member of the royal family to have a civil, rather than a church, wedding in England. British government documents from the 1950s and 1960s, published by the BBC, stated that such a marriage was illegal; these claims were dismissed by Charles's spokesman and explained by the sitting government to have been repealed by the Registration Service Act 1953.\nThe union was scheduled to take place in a civil ceremony at Windsor Castle, with a subsequent religious blessing at the castle's St George's Chapel. The wedding venue was changed to Windsor Guildhall after it was realised a civil marriage at Windsor Castle would oblige the venue to be available to anyone who wished to be married there. Four days before the event, it was postponed from the originally scheduled date of 8 April until the following day in order to allow Charles and some of the invited dignitaries to attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II.\nCharles's parents did not attend the marriage ceremony; the Queen's reluctance to attend possibly arose from her position as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. However, his parents did attend the service of blessing and held a reception for the newlyweds at Windsor Castle. The blessing by Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams was televised.\n\nOfficial duties\nIn 1965 Charles undertook his first public engagement by attending a student garden party at the Palace of Holyroodhouse. During his time as Prince of Wales, he undertook official duties on behalf of the Queen, completing 10,934 engagements between 2002 and 2022. He officiated at investitures and attended the funerals of foreign dignitaries. Charles made regular tours of Wales, fulfilling a week of engagements each summer, and attending important national occasions, such as opening the Senedd. The six trustees of the Royal Collection Trust met three times a year under his chairmanship. Charles also represented his mother at the independence celebrations in Fiji in 1970, The Bahamas in 1973, Papua New Guinea in 1975, Zimbabwe in 1980, and Brunei in 1984.\nIn 1983 Christopher John Lewis, who had fired a shot with a .22 rifle at the Queen in 1981, attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital in order to assassinate Charles, who was visiting New Zealand with Diana and William. While Charles was visiting Australia on Australia Day in January 1994, David Kang fired two shots at him from a starting pistol in protest of the treatment of several hundred Cambodian asylum seekers held in detention camps. In 1995, Charles became the first member of the royal family to visit the Republic of Ireland in an official capacity. In 1997, he represented the Queen at the Hong Kong handover ceremony.\n\nAt the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005, Charles caused controversy when he shook hands with the president of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, who had been seated next to him. Charles's office subsequently released a statement saying that he could not avoid shaking Mugabe's hand and that he \"finds the current Zimbabwean regime abhorrent\".\nCharles represented the Queen at the opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India. In November 2010, he and Camilla were indirectly involved in student protests when their car was attacked by protesters. In November 2013, he represented the Queen for the first time at a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, in Colombo, Sri Lanka.\nCharles and Camilla made their first joint trip to the Republic of Ireland in May 2015. The British Embassy called the trip an important step in \"promoting peace and reconciliation\". During the trip, he shook hands in Galway with Gerry Adams, leader of Sinn Féin and widely believed to be the leader of the IRA, the militant group that had assassinated Lord Mountbatten in 1979. The event was described by the media as a \"historic handshake\" and a \"significant moment for Anglo-Irish relations\".\n\nCommonwealth heads of government decided at their 2018 meeting that Charles would be the next Head of the Commonwealth after the Queen. The head is chosen and therefore not hereditary. In March 2019, at the request of the British government, Charles and Camilla went on an official tour of Cuba, making them the first British royals to visit the country. The tour was seen as an effort to form a closer relationship between Cuba and the United Kingdom.\nCharles contracted COVID-19 during the pandemic in March 2020. Several newspapers were critical that Charles and Camilla were tested promptly at a time when many NHS doctors, nurses and patients had been unable to be tested expeditiously. He tested positive for COVID-19 for a second time in February 2022. He and Camilla, who also tested positive, had received doses of a COVID-19 vaccine in February 2021.\n\nCharles attended the November 2021 ceremonies to mark Barbados's transition into a parliamentary republic, abolishing the position of monarch of Barbados. He was invited by Prime Minister Mia Mottley as the future Head of the Commonwealth; it was the first time that a member of the royal family attended the transition of a realm to a republic. In May of the following year, Charles attended the State Opening of the British Parliament, delivering the Queen's Speech on behalf of his mother, as a counsellor of state.\n\nReign\nCharles acceded to the British throne on his mother's death on 8 September 2022. He was the longest-serving British heir apparent, having surpassed Edward VII's record of 59 years on 20 April 2011. Charles was the oldest person to succeed to the British throne, at the age of 73. The previous record holder, William IV, was 64 when he became king in 1830.\nCharles gave his first speech to the nation at 6 pm on 9 September, in which he paid tribute to his mother and announced the appointment of his elder son, William, as Prince of Wales. The following day, the Accession Council publicly proclaimed Charles as king, the ceremony being televised for the first time. Attendees included Queen Camilla, Prince William, and the British prime minister, Liz Truss, along with her six living predecessors. The proclamation was also read out by local authorities around the United Kingdom. Other realms signed and read their own proclamations, as did Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the British Overseas Territories, the Crown Dependencies, Canadian provinces, and Australian states.\n\nCharles and Camilla's coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on 6 May 2023. Plans had been made for many years, under the code name Operation Golden Orb. Reports before his accession suggested that Charles's coronation would be simpler than his mother's in 1953, with the ceremony expected to be \"shorter, smaller, less expensive, and more representative of different faiths and community groups – falling in line with the King's wish to reflect the ethnic diversity of modern Britain\". Nonetheless, the coronation was a Church of England rite, including the coronation oath, the anointment, delivery of the orb, and enthronement. In July that year, they attended a national service of thanksgiving where Charles was presented with the Honours of Scotland in St Giles' Cathedral.\nIn July 2023, the King asked for the profits from Britain's growing fleet of offshore windfarms to be used for the \"wider public good\" rather than as extra funding for the monarchy. It was announced that the funding of the monarchy would be reduced to 12 per cent of the Crown Estate's net profits.\nCharles and Camilla have engaged in three state visits and received three. In November 2022 they hosted the South African president, Cyril Ramaphosa, during the first official state visit to Britain of Charles's reign. In March the following year, the King and Queen embarked on a state visit to Germany; Charles became the first British monarch to address the Bundestag. Similarly, in September, he became the first British monarch to give a speech from France's Senate chamber during his state visit to the country. The following month, the King visited Kenya where he faced pressure to apologise for British colonial actions. In a speech at the state banquet, he acknowledged \"abhorrent and unjustifiable acts of violence\", but did not formally apologise.\n\nIn May 2024, the British prime minister Rishi Sunak asked the King to call a general election; subsequently royal engagements which could divert attention from the election campaign were postponed. In June 2024, Charles and Camilla travelled to Normandy to attend the 80th anniversary commemorations of D-Day. The same month, he received Emperor Naruhito of Japan during the latter's state visit to the United Kingdom. In July the annual Holyrood Week, which is usually spent in Scotland, was shortened so that Charles could return to London and appoint a new prime minister following the general election. After Sunak's Conservatives lost the election to the Labour Party led by Sir Keir Starmer, Charles appointed Starmer as prime minister.\n\nHealth\nIn March 1998, Charles had laser keyhole surgery on his right knee. In March 2003 he underwent surgery at King Edward VII's Hospital to treat a hernia injury. In 2008 a non-cancerous growth was removed from his nasal bridge.\nIn January 2024, Charles underwent a \"corrective procedure\" at the London Clinic to treat benign prostate enlargement, which resulted in the postponement of some of his public engagements. In February, Buckingham Palace announced that cancer had been discovered during the treatment, but that it was not prostate cancer. Although his public duties were postponed, it was reported Charles would continue to fulfil his constitutional functions during his outpatient treatment. He released a statement espousing his support for cancer charities and that he \"remain[ed] positive\" on making a full recovery. In March, Camilla deputised for him in his absence at the Commonwealth Day service at Westminster Abbey and at the Royal Maundy at Worcester Cathedral. He made his first major public appearance since his cancer diagnosis at the Easter service held at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 31 March. In April 2024, it was announced that he would resume public-facing duties after making progress in his cancer treatment.\n\nDiet\nAs early as 1985, Charles was questioning meat consumption. In the 1985 Royal Special television programme, he told host Alastair Burnet that \"I actually now don't eat as much meat as I used to. I eat more fish.\" He also pointed out the societal double standard whereby eating meat is not questioned but eating less meat means \"all hell seems to break loose.\" In 2021, Charles spoke to the BBC about the environment and revealed that, two days per week, he eats no meat nor fish and, one day per week, he eats no dairy products. In 2022, it was reported that he eats a breakfast of fruit salad, seeds, and tea. He does not eat lunch, but takes a break for tea at 5:00 p.m. and eats dinner at 8:30 p.m., returning to work until midnight or after. Ahead of Christmas dinner in 2022, Charles confirmed to animal rights group PETA that foie gras would not be served at any royal residences; he had stopped the use of foie gras at his own properties for more than a decade before becoming king. During a September 2023 state banquet at the Palace of Versailles, it was reported that Charles did not want foie gras or out-of-season asparagus on the menu. Instead he was served lobster.\n\nCharity work\nSince founding the Prince's Trust in 1976, using his £7,500 of severance pay from the Navy, Charles has established 16 more charitable organisations and now serves as president of each. Together, they form a loose alliance, the Prince's Charities, which describes itself as \"the largest multi-cause charitable enterprise in the United Kingdom, raising over £100 million annually ... [and is] active across a broad range of areas including education and young people, environmental sustainability, the built environment, responsible business and enterprise, and international\". As Prince of Wales, Charles became patron or president of over 800 other charities and organisations.\nThe Prince's Charities Canada was established in 2010, in a similar fashion to its namesake in Britain. Charles uses his tours of Canada as a way to help draw attention to youth, the disabled, the environment, the arts, medicine, the elderly, heritage conservation, and education. He has also set up the Prince's Charities Australia, based in Melbourne, to provide a coordinating presence for his Australian and international charitable endeavours.\n\nCharles has supported humanitarian projects; for example, he and his sons took part in ceremonies that marked the 1998 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Charles was one of the first public figures to express strong concerns about the human rights record of the Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, initiating objections in the international arena, and subsequently supported the FARA Foundation, a charity for Romanian orphans and abandoned children.\n\nInvestigations of donations\nTwo of Charles's charities, the Prince's Foundation and the Prince of Wales's Charitable Fund (later renamed the King's Foundation and King Charles III Charitable Fund, respectively), came under scrutiny in 2021 and 2022 for accepting donations the media deemed inappropriate. In August 2021, it was announced that the Prince's Foundation was launching an investigation into the reports, with Charles's support. The Charity Commission also launched an investigation into allegations that the donations meant for the Prince's Foundation had been instead sent to the Mahfouz Foundation. In February 2022, the Metropolitan Police launched an investigation into the cash-for-honours allegations linked to the foundation, passing their evidence to the Crown Prosecution Service for deliberation in October. In August 2023, the Metropolitan Police announced that they had concluded their investigations and no further actions would be taken.\nThe Times reported in June 2022 that, between 2011 and 2015, Charles accepted €3 million in cash from Qatari prime minister Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani. There was no evidence that the payments were illegal or that it was not intended for the money to go to the charity, although, the Charity Commission stated it would review the information and announced in July 2022 that there would be no further investigation. In the same month, The Times reported that the Prince of Wales's Charitable Fund received a donation of £1 million from Bakr bin Laden and Shafiq bin Laden – both half-brothers of Osama bin Laden – during a private meeting in 2013. The Charity Commission described the decision to accept donations as a \"matter for trustees\" and added that no investigation was required.\n\nPersonal interests\nFrom young adulthood, Charles encouraged understanding of Indigenous voices, claiming they held crucial messages about preservation of the land, respecting community and shared values, resolving conflict, and recognising and making good on past iniquities. He dovetailed this view with his efforts against climate change, as well as reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples and his charitable work in Canada. At CHOGM 2022, Charles, who was representing his mother, raised that reconciliation process as an example for dealing with the history of slavery in the British Empire, for which he expressed his sorrow.\nLetters sent by Charles to government ministers in 2004 and 2005 expressing his concerns over various policy issues – the so-called black spider memos – presented potential embarrassment following a challenge by The Guardian newspaper to release the letters under the Freedom of Information Act 2000. In March 2015, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom decided that Charles's letters must be released. The Cabinet Office published the letters in May 2015. The reaction was largely supportive of Charles, with little criticism of him; the press variously described the memos as \"underwhelming\" and \"harmless\", and concluded that their release had \"backfired on those who seek to belittle him\". It was revealed in the same year that Charles had access to confidential Cabinet papers.\n\nIn October 2020, a letter sent by Charles to the governor-general of Australia, Sir John Kerr, after Kerr's dismissal of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in 1975, was released as part of the collection of palace letters regarding the Australian constitutional crisis. In the letter, Charles was supportive of Kerr's decision, writing that what Kerr \"did last year was right and the courageous thing to do\".\nThe Times reported in June 2022 that Charles had privately described the British government's Rwanda asylum plan as \"appalling\" and he feared that it would overshadow the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Rwanda that same month. It was later claimed that Cabinet ministers had warned Charles to avoid making political comments, as they feared a constitutional crisis could arise if he continued to make such statements once he became king.\n\nBuilt environment\nCharles has openly expressed his views on architecture and urban planning; he fostered the advancement of New Classical architecture and asserted that he \"care[s] deeply about issues such as the environment, architecture, inner-city renewal, and the quality of life.\" In a speech given for the 150th anniversary of the Royal Institute of British Architects in May 1984, he described a proposed extension to the National Gallery in London as a \"monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much-loved friend\" and deplored the \"glass stumps and concrete towers\" of modern architecture. Charles called for local community involvement in architectural choices and asked, \"why has everything got to be vertical, straight, unbending, only at right angles – and functional?\" Charles has \"a deep understanding of Islamic art and architecture\" and has been involved in the construction of a building and garden at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, which combine Islamic and Oxford architectural styles.\n\nIn Charles's 1989 book A Vision of Britain, and in speeches and essays, he has been critical of modern architecture, arguing that traditional designs and methods should guide contemporary ones. He has continued to campaign for traditional urbanism, human scale, restoration of historic buildings, and sustainable design despite criticism in the press. Two of his charities – the Prince's Regeneration Trust and the Prince's Foundation for Building Community, which were later merged into one charity – promote his views. The village of Poundbury was built on land owned by the Duchy of Cornwall to a master plan by Léon Krier, under the guidance of Charles and in line with his philosophy. In 2013 developments for the suburb of Nansledan began on the estate of the Duchy of Cornwall with Charles's endorsement. Charles helped purchase Dumfries House and its complete collection of 18th century furnishings in 2007, taking a £20m loan from his charitable trust to contribute toward the £45m cost. The house and gardens remain property of the Prince's Foundation and serve as a museum and community and skills training centre. This led to the development of Knockroon, called the \"Scottish Poundbury\".\nAfter lamenting in 1996 the unbridled destruction of many of Canada's historic urban cores, Charles offered his assistance to the Department of Canadian Heritage in creating a trust modelled on Britain's National Trust, a plan that was implemented with the passage of the federal budget in 2007. In 1999, Charles agreed to the use of his title for the Prince of Wales Prize for Municipal Heritage Leadership, awarded by the National Trust for Canada to municipal governments that have committed to the conservation of historic places.\nWhilst visiting the US and surveying the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina, Charles received the National Building Museum's Vincent Scully Prize in 2005 for his efforts in regard to architecture; he donated $25,000 of the prize money towards restoring storm-damaged communities. For his work as patron of New Classical architecture, Charles was awarded the 2012 Driehaus Architecture Prize from the University of Notre Dame. The Worshipful Company of Carpenters installed Charles as an Honorary Liveryman \"in recognition of his interest in London's architecture.\"\nCharles has occasionally intervened in projects that employ architectural styles such as modernism and functionalism. In 2009, Charles wrote to the Qatari royal family – the financier of the redevelopment of the Chelsea Barracks site – labelling Lord Rogers's design for the site \"unsuitable\". Rogers claimed that Charles had also intervened to block his designs for the Royal Opera House and Paternoster Square. CPC Group, the project developer, took a case against Qatari Diar to the High Court. After the suit was settled, the CPC Group apologised to Charles \"for any offence caused ... during the course of the proceedings\".\n\nNatural environment\nSince the 1970s, Charles has promoted environmental awareness. At the age of 21, he delivered his first speech on environmental issues in his capacity as the chairman of the Welsh Countryside Committee. An avid gardener, Charles has also emphasised the importance of talking to plants, stating that \"I happily talk to the plants and trees, and listen to them. I think it's absolutely crucial\". His interest in gardening began in 1980 when he took over the Highgrove estate. His \"healing garden\", based on sacred geometry and ancient religious symbolism, went on display at the Chelsea Flower Show in 2002.\nUpon moving into Highgrove House, Charles developed an interest in organic farming, which culminated in the 1990 launch of his own organic brand, Duchy Originals, which sells more than 200 different sustainably produced products; the profits (over £6 million by 2010) are donated to the Prince's Charities. Charles became involved with farming and various industries within it, regularly meeting with farmers to discuss their trade. A prominent critic of the practice, Charles has also spoken against the use of GM crops, and in a letter to Tony Blair in 1998, Charles criticised the development of genetically modified foods.\nThe Sustainable Markets Initiative – a project that encourages putting sustainability at the centre of all activities – was launched by Charles at the World Economic Forum's annual meeting in Davos in January 2020. In May of the same year, the initiative and the World Economic Forum initiated the Great Reset project, a five-point plan concerned with enhancing sustainable economic growth following the global recession caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nThe holy chrism oil used at Charles's coronation was vegan, made from oils of olive, sesame, rose, jasmine, cinnamon, neroli, and benzoin, along with amber and orange blossom. His mother's chrism oil contained animal-based oils.\nCharles delivered a speech at the 2021 G20 Rome summit, describing COP26 as \"the last chance saloon\" for preventing climate change and asking for actions that would lead to a green-led, sustainable economy. In his speech at the opening ceremony for COP26, he repeated his sentiments from the previous year, stating that \"a vast military-style campaign\" was needed \"to marshal the strength of the global private sector\" for tackling climate change. In 2022, the media alleged that Liz Truss had advised Charles against attending COP27, to which advice he agreed. Charles delivered the opening speech at COP28, saying among others he prayed \"with all my heart that COP28 will be a critical turning point towards genuine transformational action.\"\nCharles, who is patron of the Cambridge Institute for Sustainability Leadership, introduced the Climate Action Scholarships for students from small island nations in partnership with University of Cambridge, University of Toronto, University of Melbourne, McMaster University, and University of Montreal in March 2022. In 2010 he funded The Prince's Countryside Fund (renamed The Royal Countryside Fund in 2023), a charity which aims for a \"confident, robust and sustainable agricultural and rural community\".\n\nAlternative medicine\nCharles has controversially championed alternative medicine, including homeopathy. He first publicly expressed his interest in the topic in December 1982, in an address to the British Medical Association. This speech was seen as \"combative\" and \"critical\" of modern medicine and was met with anger by some medical professionals. Similarly, the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health (FIH) attracted opposition from the scientific and medical community over its campaign encouraging general practitioners to offer herbal and other alternative treatments to NHS patients.\nIn April 2008, The Times published a letter from Edzard Ernst, Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, which asked the FIH to recall two guides promoting alternative medicine. That year, Ernst published a book with Simon Singh called Trick or Treatment: Alternative Medicine on Trial and mockingly dedicated to \"HRH the Prince of Wales\". The last chapter is highly critical of Charles's advocacy of complementary and alternative treatments.\nCharles's Duchy Originals produced a variety of complementary medicinal products, including a \"Detox Tincture\" that Ernst denounced as \"financially exploiting the vulnerable\" and \"outright quackery\". Charles personally wrote at least seven letters to the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency shortly before it relaxed the rules governing labelling of such herbal products, a move that was widely condemned by scientists and medical bodies. It was reported in October 2009 that Charles had lobbied the health secretary, Andy Burnham, regarding greater provision of alternative treatments in the NHS.\nFollowing accounting irregularities, the FIH announced its closure in April 2010. The FIH was re-branded and re-launched later in 2010 as the College of Medicine, of which Charles became a patron in 2019.\n\nSports\nFrom his youth until 2005, Charles was an avid player of competitive polo. Charles also frequently took part in fox hunting until the sport was banned in the United Kingdom, also in 2005. By the late 1990s, opposition to the activity was growing when Charles's participation was viewed as a \"political statement\" by those who were opposed to it. Charles suffered several polo and hunting-related injuries throughout the years, including a two-inch scar on his left cheek in 1980, a broken arm in 1990, a torn cartilage in his left knee in 1992, a broken rib in 1998, and a fractured shoulder in 2001.\nCharles has been a keen salmon angler since youth and supported Orri Vigfússon's efforts to protect the North Atlantic salmon. He frequently fishes the River Dee in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, and claims his most special angling memories are from his time spent in Vopnafjörður, Iceland. Charles is a supporter of Burnley F.C.\nApart from hunting, Charles has also participated in target rifle competitions, representing the House of Lords in the Vizianagram Match (Lords vs. Commons) at Bisley. He became President of the British National Rifle Association in 1977.\n\nVisual, performing, and literary arts\nCharles has been involved in performance since his youth, and appeared in sketches and revues while studying at Cambridge.\n\nCharles is president or patron of more than 20 performing arts organisations, including the Royal College of Music, Royal Opera, English Chamber Orchestra, Philharmonia Orchestra, Welsh National Opera, Royal Shakespeare Company (attending performances in Stratford-Upon-Avon, supporting fundraising events, and attending the company's annual general meeting), British Film Institute, and Purcell School. In 2000, he revived the tradition of appointing an official harpist to the Prince of Wales, in order to foster Welsh talent at playing the national instrument of Wales.\nCharles is a keen watercolourist, having published books on the subject and exhibited and sold a number of his works to raise money for charity; in 2016, it was estimated that he had sold lithographs of his watercolours for a total of £2 million from a shop at his Highgrove House residence. For his 50th birthday, 50 of his watercolours were exhibited at Hampton Court Palace and, for his 70th birthday, his works were exhibited at the National Gallery of Australia. In 2001, 20 lithographs of his watercolour paintings illustrating his country estates were exhibited at the Florence International Biennale of Contemporary Art and 79 of his paintings were put on display in London in 2022. To mark the 25th anniversary of his investiture as Prince of Wales in 1994, the Royal Mail issued a series of postage stamps that featured his paintings. Charles is Honorary President of the Royal Academy of Arts Development Trust and, in 2015, 2022, and 2023, commissioned paintings of 12 D-Day veterans, seven Holocaust survivors, and ten members of the Windrush generation, respectively, which went on display at the Queen's Gallery in Buckingham Palace.\nCharles is the author of several books and has contributed a foreword or preface to numerous books by others. He has also been featured in a variety of documentary films.\n\nReligion and philosophy\nShortly after his accession to the throne, Charles publicly described himself as \"a committed Anglican Christian\"; at age 16, during Easter 1965, he had been confirmed into the Anglican communion by Archbishop of Canterbury Michael Ramsey in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The King is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England and a member of the Church of Scotland; he swore an oath to uphold that church immediately after he was proclaimed king. He attends services at various Anglican churches close to Highgrove and attends the Church of Scotland's Crathie Kirk with the rest of the royal family when staying at Balmoral Castle.\n\nLaurens van der Post became a friend of Charles in 1977; he was dubbed Charles's \"spiritual guru\" and was godfather to Prince William. From van der Post, Charles developed a focus on philosophy and an interest in other religions. Charles expressed his philosophical views in his 2010 book, Harmony: A New Way of Looking at Our World, which won a Nautilus Book Award. He has also visited Eastern Orthodox monasteries on Mount Athos, in Romania, and in Serbia, and met with Eastern Church leaders in Jerusalem in 2020, during a visit that culminated in an ecumenical service in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and a walk through the city accompanied by Christian and Muslim dignitaries. Charles also attended the consecration of Britain's first Syriac Orthodox cathedral, St Thomas Cathedral, Acton. Charles is patron of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies at the University of Oxford and attended the inauguration of the Markfield Institute of Higher Education, which is dedicated to Islamic studies in a multicultural context.\nIn his 1994 documentary with Dimbleby, Charles said that, when king, he wished to be seen as a \"defender of faith\", rather than the British monarch's traditional title of Defender of the Faith, \"preferr[ing] to embrace all religious traditions and 'the pattern of the divine, which I think is in all of us.'\" This attracted controversy at the time, as well as speculation that the coronation oath might be altered. He stated in 2015 that he would retain the title of Defender of the Faith, whilst \"ensuring that other people's faiths can also be practised\", which he sees as a duty of the Church of England. Charles reaffirmed this theme shortly after his accession and declared that his duties as sovereign included \"the duty to protect the diversity of our country, including by protecting the space for faith itself and its practice through the religions, cultures, traditions, and beliefs to which our hearts and minds direct us as individuals.\" His inclusive, multi-faith approach and his own Christian beliefs were expressed in his first Christmas message as king.\n\nMedia image and public opinion\nSince his birth, Charles has received close media attention, which increased as he matured. It has been an ambivalent relationship, largely impacted by his marriages to Diana and Camilla and their aftermath, but also centred on his future conduct as king.\n\nDescribed as the \"world's most eligible bachelor\" in the late 1970s, Charles was subsequently overshadowed by Diana. After her death, the media regularly breached Charles's privacy and printed exposés. Known for expressing his opinions, when asked during an interview to mark his 70th birthday whether this would continue in the same way once he is king, he responded \"No. It won't. I'm not that stupid. I do realise that it is a separate exercise being sovereign. So, of course, you know, I understand entirely how that should operate.\" In 2009 Charles was named the world's best-dressed man by Esquire magazine. In 2023 the New Statesman named Charles as the fourth most powerful right-wing figure of the year, describing him as a \"romantic traditionalist\" and \"the very last reactionary in public life\" for his support of various traditionalist think-tanks and previous writings.\nA 2018 BMG Research poll found that 46 per cent of Britons wanted Charles to abdicate immediately on his mother's death, in favour of William. However, a 2021 opinion poll reported that 60 per cent of the British public had a favourable opinion of him. On his accession to the throne, The Statesman reported an opinion poll that put Charles's popularity with the British people at 42 per cent. More recent polling suggested that his popularity increased sharply after he became king. As of September 2024, Charles had an approval rating of 56 per cent, according to statistics and polling company YouGov.\n\nReaction to press treatment\nIn 1994 German tabloid Bild published nude photos of Charles that were taken while he was vacationing in Le Barroux; they had reportedly been put up for sale for £30,000. Buckingham Palace reacted by stating that it was \"unjustifiable for anybody to suffer this sort of intrusion\".\nCharles, \"so often a target of the press, got his chance to return fire\" in 2002, when addressing \"scores of editors, publishers, and other media executives\" gathered at St Bride's Fleet Street to celebrate 300 years of journalism. Defending public servants from \"the corrosive drip of constant criticism\", he noted that the press had been \"awkward, cantankerous, cynical, bloody-minded, at times intrusive, at times inaccurate, and at times deeply unfair and harmful to individuals and to institutions.\" But, he concluded, regarding his own relations with the press, \"from time to time we are probably both a bit hard on each other, exaggerating the downsides and ignoring the good points in each.\"\n\nIn 2006 Charles filed a court case against The Mail on Sunday, after excerpts of his personal journals were published, revealing his opinions on matters such as the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong to China in 1997, in which Charles described the Chinese government officials as \"appalling old waxworks\". Charles and Camilla were named in 2011 as individuals whose confidential information was reportedly targeted or actually acquired in conjunction with the news media phone hacking scandal.\nThe Independent noted in 2015 that Charles would only speak to broadcasters \"on the condition they have signed a 15-page contract, demanding that Clarence House attends both the 'rough cut' and 'fine cut' edits of films and, if it is unhappy with the final product, can 'remove the contribution in its entirety from the programme'.\" This contract stipulated that all questions directed at Charles must be pre-approved and vetted by his representatives.\n\nResidences and finance\nIn 2023, The Guardian estimated Charles's personal wealth at £1.8 billion. This estimate includes the assets of the Duchy of Lancaster worth £653 million (and paying Charles an annual income of £20 million), jewels worth £533 million, real estate worth £330 million, shares and investments worth £142 million, a stamp collection worth at least £100 million, racehorses worth £27 million, artworks worth £24 million, and cars worth £6.3 million. Most of this wealth which he inherited from his mother was exempt from inheritance tax.\nClarence House, previously the residence of the Queen Mother, was Charles's official London residence from 2003, after being renovated at a cost of £6.1 million. He previously shared apartments eight and nine at Kensington Palace with Diana before moving to York House at St James's Palace, which remained his principal residence until 2003. Highgrove House in Gloucestershire is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, having been purchased for Charles's use in 1980, and which he rented for £336,000 per annum. Since William became Duke of Cornwall, Charles is expected to pay £700,000 per annum for use of the property. Charles also owns a property near the village of Viscri in Romania.\nAs Prince of Wales, Charles's primary source of income was generated from the Duchy of Cornwall, which owns 133,658 acres of land (around 54,090 hectares), including farming, residential, and commercial properties, as well as an investment portfolio. Since 1993, he has paid tax voluntarily under the Memorandum of Understanding on Royal Taxation, updated in 2013. Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs were asked in December 2012 to investigate alleged tax avoidance by the Duchy of Cornwall. The Duchy is named in the Paradise Papers, a set of confidential electronic documents relating to offshore investment that were leaked to the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung.\n\nTitles, styles, honours, and arms\nTitles and styles\nCharles has held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, is sovereign of many orders in his own countries and has received honours and awards from around the world. In each of his realms, he has a distinct title that follows a similar formula: King of Saint Lucia and of His other Realms and Territories in Saint Lucia, King of Australia and His other Realms and Territories in Australia, etc. In the Isle of Man, which is a Crown Dependency rather than a separate realm, he is known as Lord of Mann. Charles is also styled Defender of the Faith.\nThere had been speculation throughout Elizabeth II's reign as to what regnal name Charles would choose upon his accession; instead of Charles III, he could have chosen to reign as George VII or used one of his other given names. It was reported that he might use George in honour of his grandfather George VI and to avoid associations with previous controversial kings named Charles. Charles's office asserted in 2005 that no decision had yet been made. Speculation continued for a few hours following his mother's death, until Liz Truss announced and Clarence House confirmed that Charles had chosen the regnal name Charles III.\nCharles, who left active military service in 1976, was awarded the highest rank in all three armed services in 2012 by his mother: Admiral of the Fleet, Field Marshal, and Marshal of the Royal Air Force.\n\nArms\nAs Prince of Wales, Charles's coat of arms was based on the arms of the United Kingdom, differenced with a white label and an inescutcheon of the Principality of Wales, surmounted by the heir apparent's crown, and with the motto Ich dien (German: [ɪç ˈdiːn], \"I serve\") instead of Dieu et mon droit.\nWhen Charles became king, he inherited the royal coats of arms of the United Kingdom and of Canada. The design of his royal cypher, featuring a depiction of the Tudor crown instead of St Edward's Crown, was revealed on 27 September 2022. The College of Arms envisages that the Tudor crown will be used in new arms, uniforms and crown badges as they are replaced.\n\nBanners, flags, and standards\nAs heir apparent\nThe banners used by Charles as Prince of Wales varied depending upon location. His personal standard for the United Kingdom was the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom differenced as in his arms, with a label of three points argent and the escutcheon of the arms of the Principality of Wales in the centre. It was used outside Wales, Scotland, Cornwall, and Canada, and throughout the entire United Kingdom when Charles was acting in an official capacity associated with the British Armed Forces.\nThe personal flag for use in Wales was based upon the Royal Badge of Wales. In Scotland, the personal banner used between 1974 and 2022 was based upon three ancient Scottish titles: Duke of Rothesay (heir apparent to the King of Scots), High Steward of Scotland, and Lord of the Isles. In Cornwall, the banner was the arms of the Duke of Cornwall.\nIn 2011, the Canadian Heraldic Authority introduced a personal heraldic banner for the Prince of Wales for Canada, consisting of the shield of the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada defaced with both a blue roundel of the Prince of Wales's feathers surrounded by a wreath of gold maple leaves and a white label of three points.\n\nAs sovereign\nThe royal standard of the United Kingdom is used to represent the King in the United Kingdom and on official visits overseas, except in Canada. It is the royal arms in banner form undifferentiated, having been used by successive British monarchs since 1702. The royal standard of Canada is used by the King in Canada and while acting on behalf of Canada overseas. It is the escutcheon of the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada in banner form undifferentiated.\n\nIssue\nAncestry\nSee also\nList of current monarchs of sovereign states\nList of covers of Time magazine (1960s), (1970s), (1980s), (2010s), (2020s)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nThe King at the Royal Family website\nKing Charles III at the website of the Government of Canada\nCharles III at the website of the Royal Collection Trust\nPortraits of King Charles III at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nKing Charles III at IMDb\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
"title": "Charles_III"
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"paragraph_text": "Prince Andrew, Duke of York (Andrew Albert Christian Edward; born 19 February 1960) is a member of the British royal family. He is the third child and second son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and a younger brother of King Charles III. Andrew was born second in the line of succession to the British throne and is now eighth, and the first person in the line who is not a descendant of the reigning monarch.\nAndrew served in the Royal Navy as a helicopter pilot and instructor and as the captain of a warship. During the Falklands War, he flew on multiple missions including anti-surface warfare, casualty evacuation, and Exocet missile decoy. In 1986, he married Sarah Ferguson and was made Duke of York. They have two daughters: Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie. Their marriage, separation in 1992, and divorce in 1996 attracted extensive media coverage. As Duke of York, Andrew undertook official duties and engagements on behalf of his mother. He served as the UK's Special Representative for International Trade and Investment for 10 years until July 2011.\nIn 2014, Virginia Giuffre alleged that, as a 17-year-old, she was sex trafficked to Andrew by convicted sex offenders Jeffrey Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell. Andrew denied any wrongdoing. Following criticism for his association with Epstein and Maxwell, Andrew resigned from public roles in May 2020, and his honorary military affiliations and royal charitable patronages were removed by the Queen in January 2022. He was the defendant in a civil lawsuit over sexual assault filed by Giuffre in New York State. The lawsuit was settled out of court in February 2022; in the settlement, Andrew paid an undisclosed sum to Giuffre.\n\nEarly life\nAndrew was born in the Belgian Suite of Buckingham Palace on 19 February 1960 at 3:30 p.m., the third child and second son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He was baptised in the palace's Music Room on 8 April 1960.\nAndrew was the first child born to a reigning British monarch since Princess Beatrice in 1857. As with his siblings, Charles, Anne, and Edward, Andrew was looked after by a governess, who was responsible for his early education at Buckingham Palace. He was sent to Heatherdown School near Ascot in Berkshire. In September 1973, he entered Gordonstoun, in northern Scotland, which his father and elder brother had also attended. He was nicknamed \"the Sniggerer\" by his schoolmates at Gordonstoun, because of \"his penchant for off-colour jokes, at which he laughed inordinately\". While there, he spent six months—from January to June 1977—participating in an exchange programme to Lakefield College School in Canada. He left Gordonstoun in July two years later with A-levels in English, history, and economics.\n\nMilitary service\nRoyal Navy\nThe Royal Household announced in November 1978 that Andrew would join the Royal Navy the following year. In December, he underwent various sporting tests and examinations at the Aircrew Selection Centre, at RAF Biggin Hill, along with further tests and interviews at HMS Daedalus, and interviews at the Admiralty Interview Board, HMS Sultan. During March and April 1979, he was enrolled at the Royal Naval College Flight, undergoing pilot training, until he was accepted as a trainee helicopter pilot and signed on for 12 years from 11 May 1979. On 1 September of the same year, Andrew was appointed as a midshipman, and entered Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. During 1979 he also completed the Royal Marines All Arms Commando Course for which he received his Green Beret. He was commissioned as a sub-lieutenant on 1 September 1981 and appointed to the Trained Strength on 22 October.\nAfter passing out from Dartmouth, Andrew went on to elementary flying training with the Royal Air Force at RAF Leeming, and later, basic flying training with the navy at HMS Seahawk, where he learned to fly the Gazelle helicopter. After being awarded his wings, he moved onto more advanced training on the Sea King helicopter, and conducted operational flying training until 1982. He joined carrier-based squadron, 820 Naval Air Squadron, serving aboard the aircraft carrier, HMS Invincible.\n\nFalklands War\nOn 2 April 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, a British overseas territory claimed by it, leading to the Falklands War. Invincible was one of the two operational aircraft carriers available at the time, and, as such, was to play a major role in the Royal Navy task force assembled to sail south to retake the islands.\nAndrew's place on board and the possibility of the Queen's son being killed in action made the British government apprehensive, and the cabinet desired that Prince Andrew be moved to a desk job for the duration of the conflict. The Queen, though, insisted that her son be allowed to remain with his ship. Prince Andrew remained on board Invincible to serve as a Sea King helicopter co-pilot, flying on missions that included anti-submarine warfare and anti-surface warfare, Exocet missile decoy, casualty evacuation, transport, and search and air rescue. He witnessed the Argentinian attack on the SS Atlantic Conveyor.\nAt the end of the war, Invincible returned to Portsmouth, where Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip joined other families of the crew in welcoming the vessel home. The Argentine military government reportedly planned, but did not attempt, to assassinate Andrew on Mustique in July 1982. Though he had brief assignments to HMS Illustrious, RNAS Culdrose, and the Joint Services School of Intelligence, Prince Andrew remained with Invincible until 1983. Commander Nigel Ward's memoir, Sea Harrier Over the Falklands, described Prince Andrew as \"an excellent pilot and a very promising officer.\"\n\nCareer naval officer\nIn late 1983, Andrew transferred to RNAS Portland, and was trained to fly the Lynx helicopter. On 1 February 1984 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant, whereupon Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as her personal aide-de-camp. Prince Andrew served aboard HMS Brazen as a flight pilot until 1986, including deployment to the Mediterranean Sea as part of Standing NRF Maritime Group 2. He undertook the Lieutenants' Greenwich Staff course. On 23 October 1986, the Duke of York (as he was by then) transferred to the General List, enrolled in a four-month helicopter warfare instructor's course at RNAS Yeovilton, and, upon graduation, served from February 1987 to April 1988 as a helicopter warfare officer in 702 Naval Air Squadron, RNAS Portland. He also served on HMS Edinburgh as an officer of the watch and Assistant Navigating Officer until 1989, including a six-month deployment to the Far East as part of exercise Outback 88.\nThe Duke of York served as flight commander and pilot of the Lynx HAS3 on HMS Campbeltown from 1989 to 1991. He also acted as force aviation officer to Standing NRF Maritime Group 1 while Campbeltown was flagship of the NATO force in the North Atlantic from 1990 to 1991. He passed the squadron command examination on 16 July 1991, attended the Staff College, Camberley the following year, and completed the Army Staff course. He was promoted to lieutenant-commander on 1 February and passed the ship command examination on 12 March 1992. From 1993 to 1994, Prince Andrew commanded the Hunt-class minehunter HMS Cottesmore.\nFrom 1995 to 1996, Andrew was posted as senior pilot of 815 Naval Air Squadron, then the largest flying unit in the Fleet Air Arm. His main responsibility was to supervise flying standards and to guarantee an effective operational capability. He was promoted to commander on 27 April 1999, finishing his active naval career at the Ministry of Defence in 2001, as an officer of the Diplomatic Directorate of the Naval Staff. In July of that year, Andrew was retired from the Active List of the Navy. Three years later, he was made an honorary captain. On 19 February 2010, his 50th birthday, he was promoted to rear admiral. Five years later, he was promoted to vice admiral.\nHe ceased using his honorary military titles in January 2022. The action came after more than 150 Royal Navy, RAF and Army veterans signed a letter, requesting that Queen Elizabeth II remove his honorary military appointments in light of his involvement in a sexual assault civil case. It was reported that he would still retain his service rank of vice admiral.\n\nPersonal life\nPersonal interests\nAndrew is a keen golfer and has had a low single-figure handicap. He was captain of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews between 2003 and 2004—during the club's 250th anniversary season—was patron of a number of royal golf clubs, and had been elected as an honorary member of many others. In 2004, he was criticised by Labour Co-op MP Ian Davidson, who in a letter to the NAO questioned Andrew's decision to fly to St Andrews on RAF planes for two golfing trips. Andrew resigned his honorary membership of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews when the Queen removed royal patronages at several golf clubs. His honorary membership of the Royal Dornoch Golf Club was revoked in the following month.\nAndrew is a Liveryman of the Worshipful Company of Shipwrights, the senior maritime City livery company.\n\nRelationship with Koo Stark\nAndrew met the American photographer and actress Koo Stark in February 1981, before his active service in the Falklands War. In October 1982, they took a holiday together on the island of Mustique. Tina Brown said that Stark was Andrew's only serious love interest. In 1983, they split up under pressure from press, paparazzi, and palace. In 1997, Andrew became godfather to Stark's daughter. When Andrew was facing accusations in 2015 over his connection to Jeffrey Epstein, Stark came to his defence.\n\nMarriage to Sarah Ferguson\nAndrew married Sarah Ferguson at Westminster Abbey on 23 July 1986. On the same day, Queen Elizabeth II created him Duke of York, Earl of Inverness, and Baron Killyleagh; the first two of these titles were previously held by both his maternal grandfather and great-grandfather. Prince Andrew had known Ferguson since childhood; they had met occasionally at polo matches, and became reacquainted with each other at Royal Ascot in 1985.\nThe couple appeared to have a happy marriage and had two daughters together, Beatrice and Eugenie, presenting a united outward appearance during the late 1980s. Sarah's personal qualities were seen as refreshing in the context of the formal protocol surrounding the royal family. However, Andrew's frequent travel due to his military career, as well as relentless, often critical, media attention focused on the Duchess of York, led to fractures in the marriage. On 19 March 1992, the couple announced plans to separate and did so in an amicable way. In August of that same year, tabloid media outlets published pictures of John Bryan sucking on Sarah's toes, which effectively ended any hopes of a reconciliation between Andrew and Ferguson. The Duchess had claimed, throughout the separation, that Bryan was her financial adviser, a claim that Prince Andrew believed.\nThe marriage ended in divorce on 30 May 1996. The Duke of York spoke fondly of his former wife in 2008: \"We have managed to work together to bring our children up in a way that few others have been able to and I am extremely grateful to be able to do that.\"\n\nIn May 2010, Sarah was filmed by a News of the World reporter saying Andrew had agreed that if she were to receive £500,000, he would meet the donor and pass on useful top-level business contacts. She was filmed receiving, in cash, $40,000 as a down payment. The paper said that Andrew did not know of the arrangement. In July 2011, Sarah stated that her multi-million pound debts had been cleared due to the intervention of her former husband, whom she compared to a \"knight on a white charger\".\nIn 2012, Sarah admitted that she had made a \"gigantic error of judgement\" in allowing Jeffrey Epstein to pay off a debt for her, and apologised for accepting money from him. She did, however, continue to defend Andrew's controversial former friendship with Epstein.\n\nResidences\nAs Andrew and Sarah shared custody of their two daughters, the family continued to live at Sunninghill Park (built near Windsor Great Park for the couple in 1990) until Andrew moved to the Royal Lodge in 2004. In 2007, Sarah moved into Dolphin House in Englefield Green, less than a mile from the Royal Lodge. In 2008, a fire at Dolphin House resulted in Sarah moving into Royal Lodge, again sharing a house with Andrew. As of April 2024 they are still cohabiting there. Andrew's lease of Royal Lodge is for 75 years, with the Crown Estate as landlord, at a cost of a single £1 million premium and a commitment to spend £7.5 million on refurbishment. In March 2023, it was reported that Andrew had been offered Frogmore Cottage after his nephew Prince Harry was requested to vacate the residence. The offer came amid reports that Andrew could no longer afford the Royal Lodge's running costs as he was about to lose his annual grant.\n\nHealth\nOn 2 June 2022, Andrew tested positive for COVID-19, and it was announced that he would not be present at the Platinum Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral on 3 June.\nAndrew is a teetotaller.\n\nAllegations of sexual abuse\nJeffrey Epstein and related associations\nAndrew was friends with Jeffrey Epstein, an American financier who was convicted of sex trafficking in 2008. BBC News reported in March 2011 that the friendship was producing \"a steady stream of criticism\", and there were calls for him to step down from his role as trade envoy. Andrew was also criticised in the media after his former wife, Sarah, disclosed that he helped arrange for Epstein to pay off £15,000 of her debts. Andrew had been photographed in December 2010 strolling with Epstein in Central Park during a visit to New York City. In July 2011, Andrew's role as trade envoy was terminated and he reportedly cut all ties with Epstein.\nOn 30 December 2014, a Florida court filing by lawyers Bradley J. Edwards and Paul G. Cassell alleged that Andrew was one of several prominent figures, including lawyer Alan Dershowitz and \"a former prime minister\", to have participated in sexual activities with a minor later identified as Virginia Giuffre (then known by her maiden name Virginia Roberts), who was allegedly trafficked by Epstein. An affidavit from Giuffre was included in an earlier lawsuit from 2008 accusing the US Justice Department of violating the Crime Victims' Rights Act during Epstein's first criminal case by not allowing several of his victims to challenge his plea deal; Andrew was otherwise not a party to the lawsuit.\nIn January 2015, there was renewed media and public pressure for Buckingham Palace to explain Andrew's connection with Epstein. Buckingham Palace stated that \"any suggestion of impropriety with underage minors is categorically untrue\", and later repeated the denial. Requests from Giuffre's lawyers for a statement from Andrew about the allegations, under oath, were returned unanswered.\nGiuffre asserted that she had sex with Andrew on three occasions, including a trip to London in 2001 when she was 17, and later in New York and on Little Saint James in the U.S. Virgin Islands. She alleged Epstein paid her $15,000 after she had sex with Andrew in London. Flight logs show Andrew and Giuffre were in the places she alleged their meetings took place. Andrew and Giuffre were also photographed together with his arm round her waist, with an Epstein associate, Ghislaine Maxwell, in the background, though Andrew's supporters have repeatedly said the photo is fake and edited. Giuffre stated that she was pressured to have sex with Andrew and \"wouldn't have dared object\" as Epstein, through contacts, could have her \"killed or abducted\".\nOn 7 April 2015, Judge Kenneth Marra ruled that the \"sex allegations made against Andrew in court papers filed in Florida must be struck from the public record\". Marra made no ruling as to whether claims by Giuffre are true or false, specifically stating that she may later give evidence when the case comes to court.\nJuan \"John\" Alessi, who was Epstein's butler, stated in a deposition he filed for Giuffre's 2016 defamation case against Maxwell that Andrew's hitherto unremarked visits to the Epstein house in Palm Beach were more frequent than previously thought. He maintained that Andrew \"spent weeks with us\" and received \"daily massages\".\nIn August 2019, court documents associated with a defamation case between Giuffre and Maxwell revealed that a second girl, Johanna Sjoberg, gave evidence alleging that Andrew had placed his hand on her breast while in Epstein's mansion posing for a photo with his Spitting Image puppet. Later that month, Andrew released a statement that said, \"At no stage during the limited time I spent with [Epstein] did I see, witness or suspect any behaviour of the sort that subsequently led to his arrest and conviction,\" though he expressed regret for meeting him in 2010 after Epstein had already pleaded guilty to sex crimes for the first time. At the end of August 2019, The New Republic published a September 2013 email exchange between John Brockman and Evgeny Morozov, in which Brockman mentioned seeing a British man nicknamed \"Andy\" receive a foot massage from two Russian women at Epstein's New York residence during his last visit to the mansion in 2010, and had realised \"that the recipient of Irina's foot massage was His Royal Highness, Prince Andrew, the Duke of York\".\nIn July 2020, Caroline Kaufman, an alleged victim of Epstein, said in a federal lawsuit that she had seen Andrew at Epstein's New York mansion in December 2010. In November 2021 Lawrence Visoski, Epstein's pilot, testified in court during Ghislaine Maxwell's trial that Prince Andrew flew in Epstein's private plane along with other prominent individuals, including Bill Clinton, Donald Trump and John Glenn. Visoski stated he did not notice any sexual activity or wrongdoing on the plane. Similarly, Andrew's name was recorded on 12 May 2001 by Epstein's pilot David Rodgers in his logbook, and he testified that Andrew flew three times with Epstein and Giuffre in 2001. The following month a picture of Epstein and Maxwell, sitting at a cabin on the Queen's Balmoral estate, around 1999, at the invitation of Andrew, was shown to the jury to establish their status as partners.\nOn 5 January 2022, Virginia Giuffre's former boyfriend, Anthony Figueroa, said on Good Morning Britain that Giuffre told him Epstein would take her to meet Prince Andrew. He alleged the meeting had taken place in London. In a court filing, Andrew's lawyers had previously referred to a statement by Figueroa's sister, Crystal Figueroa, who alleged that in her bid to find victims for Epstein, Giuffre had asked her, \"Do you know any girls who are kind of slutty?\" The same month, Carolyn Andriano, who as a 14-year-old was introduced by Giuffre to Ghislaine Maxwell and Jeffrey Epstein and was a prosecution witness in Maxwell's trial, said in an interview with the Daily Mail that then 17-year-old Giuffre told her in 2001 that she had slept with Prince Andrew. She stated, \"And [Giuffre] said, 'I got to sleep with him'. She didn't seem upset about it. She thought it was pretty cool.\"\nIn an ITV documentary, former royal protection officer Paul Page, who was convicted and given a six year sentence following a £3 million property investment scam in 2009, recounted Maxwell's frequent visits to Buckingham Palace, and suggested the two might have had an intimate relationship, while Lady Victoria Hervey added that Andrew was present at social occasions held by Maxwell. The Duke of York's name and contact numbers for Buckingham Palace, Sunninghill Park, Wood Farm and Balmoral also appeared in Maxwell and Epstein's 'Little Black Book', a list of contacts of the duo's powerful and famous friends. In February 2022, The Daily Telegraph published a photograph of Andrew along with Maxwell giving a tour of Buckingham Palace to Andrew's guests Bill Clinton and Kevin Spacey, with a member of the tour party describing Maxwell as \"the one who led us into Buckingham Palace\".\nIn October 2022, Ghislaine Maxwell was interviewed by a documentary filmmaker while serving her sentence in prison, and when asked about her relationship with Andrew, Maxwell stated that she felt \"bad\" for him but accepted their \"friendship could not survive my conviction. He is paying such a price for the association. I consider him a dear friend. I care about him.\" She also stated that she now believed the photograph showing her together with Andrew and Virginia Giuffre was not \"a true image\", and added that in an email to her lawyer in 2015 she was trying to confirm that she recognised her own house, but the whole image cannot be authentic as \"the original has never been produced\". In another interview from prison, she said the photo was \"a fake … there's never been an original and further there is no photograph. I've only ever seen a photocopy of it.\" Following the allegations, The Mail on Sunday, which first published the photograph in 2011, was contacted by photographer Michael Thomas who took 39 copies of the image, both front and back. The back of the photo has a time stamp showing it was developed on 13 March 2001 – three days after Andrew allegedly engaged in sexual activity with Giuffre – and it was printed at a one-hour photo lab at Walgreens in Florida, near Giuffre's former home.\nGiuffre has claimed that on the first night she allegedly had sex with Andrew they got into the bath where \"he started licking my toes, between my toes, the arches of my feet\" before they went into the bedroom and had sex. She repeated these claims in a 2019 BBC interview. She described the bathroom in her unpublished memoir, stating \"It was a beige marble tiled floor with a porcelain Victorian-style bathtub in the middle of the room.\" In January 2023, Ghislaine Maxwell's brother Ian Maxwell disputed the claims by releasing photos showing his acquaintances sitting in the bathtub where the incident allegedly took place. The photos were originally reserved as a defense for Ghislaine Maxwell's legal team if Giuffre was asked to testify. Ian Maxwell believed the photos \"show conclusively that the bath is too small for any sort of sex frolicking. There is no 'Victorian bath', as Giuffre has claimed, which is proved both by the attached plan of the bathroom and the photos themselves.\"\nIn January 2024, a series of documents related to Epstein were released by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, including a motion from 2015 by two women which described Andrew having sexual relations with one of them – speculated to be Giuffre – at Maxwell's flat in London, in New York, and on Epstein's private island in the U.S. Virgin Islands \"in an orgy with numerous other underaged girls\". In a separate document, Maxwell recalled Andrew visiting Epstein's private island only once, adding there were no girls or women there other than the staff. She also stated that she had \"no recollection\" as to whether she introduced Andrew to Giuffre. In another unsealed document, Juan Alessi, who worked at Epstein's Palm Beach residence, stated under oath that Andrew \"spent weeks with us\" and had \"daily massages\". Another deposition contained references to Johanna Sjoberg's claim that Andrew had groped her breast while she was sitting on his lap. The Metropolitan Police announced that they would not be launching an investigation into the allegations but would assess \"new and relevant\" information should they come to light.\n\nNewsnight interview\nIn November 2019, the BBC's Newsnight arranged an interview between Andrew and presenter Emily Maitlis in which he recounted his friendship with Epstein for the first time. In the interview, Prince Andrew says he met Epstein in 1999 through Maxwell; this contradicts comments made by Andrew's private secretary in 2011, who said the two met in \"the early 1990s\". The Duke also said he did not regret his friendship with Epstein, saying \"the people that I met and the opportunities that I was given to learn either by him or because of him were actually very useful\".\nIn the interview, Andrew denied having sex with Giuffre on 10 March 2001, as she had accused, because he had been at home with his daughters after attending a party at PizzaExpress in Woking with his elder daughter Beatrice. Prince Andrew also added that Giuffre's claims about dancing with him at Tramp while he was sweaty were false due to him temporarily losing the ability to sweat after an \"adrenaline overdose\" during the Falklands War. According to physicians consulted by The Times, an adrenaline overdose typically causes excessive sweating in humans. He also said that he does not drink, despite Giuffre's account of him providing alcohol for them both. Accounts from other people have supported his statement that he does not drink.\nAndrew said that he had stayed in Epstein's mansion for three days in 2010, after Epstein's conviction for sex offences against a minor, describing the location as \"a convenient place to stay\". The Duke said that he met Epstein for the sole purpose of breaking off any future relationship with him. He also said that he would be willing to testify under oath regarding his associations with Epstein. A series of emails published as part of a civil case in 2023 included snippets showing Andrew, Epstein and Jes Staley exchanging emails, which suggested that the Duke was in contact with Epstein on several occasions in 2010.\nThe interview was believed by Maitlis and Newsnight to have been approved by the Queen, although \"palace insiders\" speaking to The Sunday Telegraph disputed this. One of Prince Andrew's official advisors resigned just prior to the interview being aired. Although Andrew was pleased with the outcome of the interview – reportedly giving Maitlis and the Newsnight team a tour of Buckingham Palace – it received negative reactions from both the media and the public, both in and outside of the UK. The interview was described as a \"car crash\", \"nuclear explosion level bad\" and the worst public relations crisis for the royal family since the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. Experts and those with ties to Buckingham Palace said that the interview, its fallout and the abrupt suspension of Andrew's royal duties were unprecedented.\n\nCivil lawsuit\nIn August 2021, Virginia Giuffre sued Prince Andrew in the federal District Court for the Southern District of New York, accusing him of \"sexual assault and intentional infliction of emotional distress.\" The lawsuit was filed under New York's Child Victims Act, legislation extending the statute of limitations where the plaintiff had been under 18 at the time, 17 in Giuffre's case. On 29 October 2021, Andrew's lawyers filed a response, stating that their client \"unequivocally denies Giuffre's false allegations\". On 12 January 2022 Judge Kaplan rejected Andrew's attempts to dismiss the case, allowing the sexual abuse lawsuit to proceed. In February, the case was settled out of court, with Andrew making a donation to Giuffre's charity for victims of abuse. Criminal proceedings in the United States over Virginia Giuffre's claims remained possible.\n\nRepercussions\nOn 20 November 2019, a statement from Buckingham Palace announced that Andrew was suspending his public duties \"for the foreseeable future\". The decision, made with the consent of the Queen, was accompanied by the insistence that Andrew sympathised with Epstein's victims. Other working royals took over his commitments in the short term. On 24 November, the palace confirmed that Andrew was to step down from all 230 of his patronages, although he expressed a wish to have some sort of public role at some future time.\nOn 16 January 2020, it was reported that the Home Office was recommending \"a major downgrade of security\" for Andrew, which would put an end to \"his round-the-clock armed police protection\". On 28 January 2020, US Attorney Geoffrey Berman stated that Prince Andrew had provided \"zero co-operation\" with federal prosecutors and the FBI regarding the ongoing investigations, despite his initial promise in the Newsnight interview when he said he was willing to help the authorities. Sources close to Andrew said that he \"hasn't been approached\" by US authorities and investigators, and his legal team announced that he had offered to be a witness \"on at least three occasions\" but had been refused by the Department of Justice. The US authorities responded to the claim and denied being approached by Andrew for an interview and labeled his statements as a way \"to falsely portray himself to the public as eager and willing to cooperate\". Spencer Kuvin, who represented nine of Epstein's victims, said Andrew could be arrested if he ever returns to the United States.\nIn March 2020, Andrew hired crisis-management expert Mark Gallagher, who had helped high-profile clients falsely accused by Operation Midland. In April 2020, it was reported that the Duke of York Young Champions Trophy would not be played anymore, after all activities carried out by the Prince Andrew Charitable Trust were stopped. In May 2020 it was announced that Andrew would permanently resign from all public roles over his Epstein ties.\nIn June 2020, it became known that Andrew is a person of interest in a criminal investigation in the United States, and that the United States had filed a mutual legal assistance request to British authorities in order to question Andrew. Following the arrest of Ghislaine Maxwell in July 2020, Andrew cancelled a planned trip to Spain, reportedly due to fears that he might be arrested and extradited to the United States. In the 2019 BBC interview, Andrew told Newsnight his association with Epstein was derived from his long-standing friendship with Ghislaine Maxwell, who was later convicted of colluding in Epstein's sexual abuse.\nIn August 2020, anti-child trafficking protesters chanting \"Paedophile! Paedophile!\" referencing Andrew gathered outside Buckingham Palace, and videos of the protest went viral. In 2020, prosecutors seeking access to Andrew made a formal mutual legal assistance request to the British government. In early 2021 there were at least two trespassing incidents reported at his Windsor property, and in December he was verbally abused by a woman as he was driving.\nIn January 2022, Andrew's social media accounts were deleted, his page on the royal family's website was rewritten in the past tense and his military affiliations and patronages were removed to put an emphasis on his departure from public life. He also stopped using the style His Royal Highness (HRH), though it was not formally removed. In the same month, York Racecourse announced that it would rename the Duke of York Stakes, and Prince Andrew High School in Nova Scotia, which had announced two years earlier that it was considering a name change, stated that it would have a new name at the next academic year. In February 2022, Belfast City Council and the Northern Ireland Assembly decided not to fly a union flag for Andrew's birthday. In the same month, the Mid and East Antrim Borough Council announced that they would hold a debate in June 2022 regarding a motion to rename Prince Andrew Way in Carrickfergus. On 27 April 2022 York City Council unanimously voted to remove Andrew's Freedom of the City. Rachael Maskell York Central MP said Andrew was the \"first to ever have their freedom removed\". In June 2022, Maskell introduced a 'Removal of Titles' private members bill in the House of Commons. The bill would have enabled people considered unworthy to be stripped of aristocratic titles, which is not presently possible without a parliamentary act. The monarch or a committee of Parliament would have been able to remove a title instead.\nIn March 2022, Andrew made his first official appearance in months, helping the Queen to walk into Westminster Abbey for a memorial service for his father, the Duke of Edinburgh. There was a mixed reaction by commentators to his presence, with some saying that it would send the wrong message to victims of sexual abuse \"about how powerful men are able to absolve themselves from their conduct\" and others arguing that his appearance was required as \"a son, in memory of his father\".\nIn June 2022, Andrew took part in private aspects of the Garter Day ceremony, including lunch and investiture of new members, but was excluded from the public procession following an intervention by his brother Charles and his nephew William that banned him from appearing anywhere the public could see him.\nFollowing the death of Queen Elizabeth II on 8 September 2022, Andrew appeared in civilian clothing at various ceremonial events. As he walked behind his mother's coffin in a funeral procession in Edinburgh on 12 September, a 22-year-old man shouted \"Andrew, you're a sick old man\"; the heckler was arrested and charged with committing a breach of the peace. Andrew wore military uniform for a 15-minute vigil by the Queen's coffin at Westminster Hall on 16 September.\nIn October 2022, it was reported that Andrew no longer received any government funding. In November 2022, it was reported that he was set to lose his police protection as he was no longer expected to carry out public duties in accordance with the King's wishes. In December 2022, The Telegraph reported that Andrew had written to the Home Office and the Metropolitan Police to complain about the situation. His armed personal protection officers were expected to be replaced by private security guards, who are likely to be paid for by the King, at an estimated cost of up to £3 million a year. In January 2023, it was reported that he could no longer use his suite of rooms at Buckingham Palace. In August 2024, The Telegraph reported that the King would be withdrawing funds for Andrew's security by the end of October, which would require him to pay for future security operations at his Royal Lodge home.\n\nActivities and charitable work\nPatronages\nThe Duke was patron of the Middle East Association (MEA), the UK's premier organisation for promoting trade and good relations with the Middle East, North Africa, Turkey and Iran. Since his role as Special Representative for International Trade and Investment ended Andrew continued to support UK enterprise without a special role. Robert Jobson said he did this work well and wrote, \"He is particularly passionate when dealing with young start-up entrepreneurs and bringing them together with successful businesses at networking and showcasing events. Andrew is direct and to the point, and his methods seem to work\".\nThe Duke was also patron of Fight for Sight, a charity dedicated to research into the prevention and treatment of blindness and eye disease, and was a member of the Scout Association. He toured Canada frequently to undertake duties related to his Canadian military role. Rick Peters, the former commanding officer of the Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada stated that Prince Andrew was \"very well informed on Canadian military methods\". He became the patron of the charity Attend in 2003, and was a member of the International Advisory Board of the Royal United Services Institute.\nOn 3 September 2012, Andrew was among a team of 40 people who abseiled down The Shard (tallest building in Europe) to raise money for educational charities the Outward Bound Trust and the Royal Marines Charitable Trust Fund. The Duke of York lent his support to organisations that focus on science and technology by becoming the patron of Catalyst Inc and TeenTech. In 2014, Andrew visited Geneva, Switzerland, to promote British science at CERN's 60th anniversary celebrations.\n\nIn 2013, it was announced that Andrew was becoming the patron of London Metropolitan University and the University of Huddersfield. In July 2015, he was installed as Chancellor of the University of Huddersfield. In recognition of Andrew's promotion of entrepreneurship he was elected to an Honorary Fellowship at Hughes Hall in the University of Cambridge on 1 May 2018. On 19 November 2019, the Students' Union of the University of Huddersfield passed a motion to lobby Andrew to resign as its chancellor, as London Metropolitan University was considering Andrew's role as its patron. On 21 November, Andrew relinquished his role as chancellor of the University of Huddersfield.\nIn March 2019, Andrew took over the patronage of the Outward Bound Trust from his father, the Duke of Edinburgh, serving up until his own resignation in November 2019. Prince Andrew had held the position of chairman of the board of trustees of the organisation since 1999. In May 2019, it was announced that Andrew had succeeded Lord Carrington as patron of the Royal Fine Art Commission Trust.\nOn 13 January 2022, it was announced that his royal patronages had been handed back to the Queen to be distributed among other members of the royal family. In January 2023, it was reported that King Charles III had agreed to let Andrew pursue some business interests.\n\nInitiatives\nWhile touring India as a part of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee in 2012, Andrew became interested in the work of Women's Interlink Foundation (WIF), a charity which helps women acquire skills to earn income. He and his family later initiated Key to Freedom, a project which tries to \"find a route to market for products made by WIF\".\nIn 2014, Andrew founded the Pitch@Palace initiative to support entrepreneurs with the amplification and acceleration of their business ideas. Entrepreneurs selected for Pitch@Palace Bootcamp are officially invited by Andrew to attend St James Palace in order to pitch their ideas and to be connected with potential investors, mentors and business contacts. In May 2018, he visited China and opened the Pitch@Palace China Bootcamp 2.0 at Peking University. On 18 November 2019, accountancy firm KPMG announced it would not be renewing its sponsorship of Prince Andrew's entrepreneurial scheme Pitch@Palace, and on 19 November Standard Chartered also withdrew its support.\nIn addition, the Duke founded The Prince Andrew Charitable Trust which aimed to support young people in different areas such as education and training. In May 2020, it was reported that the Prince Andrew Charitable Trust was under investigation by the Charity Commission regarding some regulatory issues about £350,000 of payments to his former private secretary Amanda Thirsk. He also founded a number of awards including Inspiring Digital Enterprise Award (iDEA), a programme to develop the digital and enterprise skills, the Duke of York Award for Technical Education, given to talented young people in technical education, and the Duke of York Young Entrepreneur Award, which recognised talents of young people in entrepreneurship.\n\nControversies and other incidents\nSpecial Representative for International Trade and Investment\nFrom 2001 until July 2011, Andrew worked with UK Trade & Investment, part of the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, as the United Kingdom's Special Representative for International Trade and Investment. The post, previously held by Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, involved representing and promoting the UK at various trade fairs and conferences around the world. His suitability for the role was challenged in the House of Commons by Shadow Justice Minister Chris Bryant in February 2011, at the time of the 2011 Libyan civil war, on the grounds that he was \"not only a very close friend of Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, but also ... a close friend of the convicted Libyan gun smuggler Tarek Kaituni\". Further problems arose as he hosted a lunch for Sakher El Materi, a member of the corrupt Tunisian regime, at the Palace around the time of the Tunisian Revolution. Andrew also formed a friendship with Ilham Aliyev, the president of Azerbaijan who has been criticised for corruption and for abuses of human rights by Amnesty International, and visited him both during and after his tenure as the UK trade envoy. As of November 2014, Andrew had met Aliyev, on 12 occasions. The controversies, together with his ties to Jeffrey Epstein, made him step down from the role in 2011.\nAndrew did not receive a salary from the UK Trade & Investment for his role as Special Representative, but he went on expenses-paid delegations and was alleged to have occasionally used trips paid for by the government for his personal leisure, which earned him the nickname \"Airmiles Andy\" by the press. On 8 March 2011, The Daily Telegraph reported: \"In 2010, the Prince spent £620,000 as a trade envoy, including £154,000 on hotels, food and hospitality and £465,000 on travel.\"\nIn November 2020, and following reviews of emails, internal documents, and unreported regulatory filings as well as interviews with 10 former bank insiders, Bloomberg Businessweek reported on Andrew using his royal cachet and role as Special Representative for International Trade and Investment for helping David Rowland and his private bank, Banque Havilland, with securing deals with clients around the world. The Rowland family are among the investment advisers to Andrew, and he was present for the official opening ceremony of their bank in July 2009.\nOfficial documents covering Andrew's business trips between 2001 and 2011 will not be released by the Foreign Office until 2065.\n\nAlleged comments on corruption and Kazakhstan\nAs the United Kingdom's Special Trade Representative, Andrew travelled the world to promote British businesses. It was revealed in the United States diplomatic cables leak that Andrew had been reported on by Tatiana Gfoeller, the United States Ambassador to Kyrgyzstan, discussing bribery in Kyrgyzstan and the investigation into the Al-Yamamah arms deal. The Duke, she explained, \"was referencing an investigation, subsequently closed, into alleged kickbacks a senior Saudi royal had received in exchange for the multi-year, lucrative BAE Systems contract to provide equipment and training to Saudi security forces.\" The dispatch continued: \"His mother's subjects seated around the table roared their approval. He then went on to 'these (expletive) journalists, especially from the National Guardian [sic], who poke their noses everywhere' and (presumably) make it harder for British businessmen to do business. The crowd practically clapped!\"\nIn May 2008, he attended a goose-hunt in Kazakhstan with President Nursultan Nazarbayev. In 2010, it was revealed that the President's billionaire son-in-law Timur Kulibayev paid Andrew's representatives £15 million – £3 million over the asking price – via offshore companies, for Andrew's Surrey mansion, Sunninghill Park. Kulibayev frequently appears in US dispatches as one of the men who have accumulated millions in gas-rich Kazakhstan. It was later revealed that Andrew's office tried to get a crown estate property close to Kensington Palace for Kulibayev at that time.\nIn May 2012, it was reported that Swiss and Italian police investigating \"a network of personal and business relationships\" allegedly used for \"international corruption\" were looking at the activities of Enviro Pacific Investments which charges \"multi-million pound fees\" to energy companies wishing to deal with Kazakhstan. The trust is believed to have paid £6 million towards the purchase of Sunninghill which now appears derelict. In response, a Palace spokesman said \"This was a private sale between two trusts. There was never any impropriety on the part of The Duke of York\".\nLibby Purves wrote in The Times in January 2015: \"Prince Andrew dazzles easily when confronted with immense wealth and apparent power. He has fallen for 'friendships' with bad, corrupt and clever men, not only in the US but in Libya, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tunisia, wherever.\"\nIn May 2016, a fresh controversy broke out when the Daily Mail alleged that Andrew had brokered a deal to assist a Greek and Swiss consortium in securing a £385 million contract to build water and sewerage networks in two of Kazakhstan's largest cities, while working as British trade envoy, and had stood to gain a £4 million payment in commission. The newspaper published an email from Andrew to Kazakh oligarch Kenges Rakishev, (who had allegedly brokered sale of the Prince's Berkshire mansion Sunninghill Park), and said that Rakishev had arranged meetings for the consortium. After initially saying the email was a forgery, Buckingham Palace sought to block its publication as a privacy breach. The Palace denied the allegation that Andrew had acted as a \"fixer\" calling the article \"untrue, defamatory and a breach of the editor's code of conduct\".\nA former Foreign Office minister, MP Chris Bryant stated: \"When I was at the Foreign Office it was very difficult to see in whose interests he [Andrew] was acting. He doesn't exactly add lustre to the Royal diadem\".\n\nArms sales\nIn March 2011, Kaye Stearman of the Campaign Against the Arms Trade told Channel 4 News CAAT sees Prince Andrew as part of a bigger problem, \"He is the front man for UKTI. Our concerns are not just Prince Andrew, it's the whole UKTI set up. They see arms as just another commodity but it has completely disproportionate resources. At the London office of UKTI the arms sector has more staff than all the others put together. We are concerned that Prince Andrew is used to sell arms, and where you sell arms it is likely to be to despotic regimes. He is the cheerleader in chief for the arms industry, shaking hands and paving the way for the salesmen.\"\nIn January 2014, Prince Andrew took part in a delegation to Bahrain, a close ally of the United Kingdom. Spokesman for CAAT, Andrew Smith said, \"We are calling on Prince Andrew and the UK government to stop selling arms to Bahrain. By endorsing the Bahraini dictatorship Prince Andrew is giving his implicit support to their oppressive practices. When our government sells arms it is giving moral and practical support to an illegitimate and authoritarian regime and directly supporting their systematic crackdown on opposition groups. (...) We shouldn't allow our international image to be used as a PR tool for the violent and oppressive dictatorship in Bahrain.\"\nAndrew Smith has also said, \"The prince has consistently used his position to promote arms sales and boost some of the most unpleasant governments in the world, his arms sales haven't just given military support to corrupt and repressive regimes. They've lent those regimes political and international legitimacy.\"\n\nReaction to election to the Royal Society\nAndrew's election to the Royal Society prompted \"Britain's leading scientists\" to \"revolt\" due to Andrew's lack of scientific background, with some noting he had only a secondary school level of education. In an op-ed in The Sunday Times, pharmacologist, Humboldt Prize recipient, and Fellow of the Royal Society, David Colquhoun opined, in references to Andrew's qualifications, that \"if I wanted a tip for the winner of the 14.30 at Newmarket, I'd ask a royal. For most other questions, I wouldn't.\"\n\nAllegations of racist language\nRohan Silva, a former Downing Street aide, claimed that, when they met in 2012, Andrew had commented, \"Well, if you'll pardon the expression, that really is the nigger in the woodpile.\" Former home secretary Jacqui Smith also claims that Andrew made a racist comment about Arabs during a state dinner for the Saudi royal family in 2007. Buckingham Palace denied that Andrew had used racist language on either occasion.\n\nAllegations of ramming gates in Windsor Great Park\nIn March 2016, Republic CEO Graham Smith filed a formal report to the police, requesting an investigation into allegations that Andrew had damaged sensor-operated gates in Windsor Great Park by forcing them open in his Range Rover to avoid going an extra mile on his way home. The Thames Valley Police dismissed the reports due to lack of details.\n\nTreatment of reporters, servants and others\nDuring his four-day Southern California tour in 1984, Andrew squirted paint onto American and British journalists and photographers who were reporting on the tour, after which he told Los Angeles county supervisor Kenneth Hahn, \"I enjoyed that\". The incident damaged the clothes and equipment of reporters and the Los Angeles Herald Examiner submitted a $1,200 bill to the British consulate asking for financial compensation.\nThe Guardian wrote in 2022, \"his brusque manner with servants is well-documented. A senior footman once told a reporter who worked undercover at Buckingham Palace that on waking the prince 'the response can easily be \"fuck off\" as good morning'.\" Former royal protection officer Paul Page said, in an ITV documentary, that Andrew maintained a collection of \"50 or 60 stuffed toys\" and if they \"weren't put back in the right order by the maids, he would shout and scream and become verbally abusive.\" Page later stated in the documentary Prince Andrew: Banished that different women would visit Andrew every day, and when one was denied entry into his residence by the security Andrew allegedly called one of the officers a \"fat, lardy-ass cunt\" over the phone. The Duke's former maid, Charlotte Briggs, also recalled setting up the teddy bears on his bed and told The Sun that when she was bitten by his Norfolk Terrier in 1996 he only laughed and \"wasn't bothered\". She said that she was reduced to tears by Andrew for not properly closing the heavy curtains in his office and added that his behaviour was in contrast to that of his brothers Charles and Edward who \"weren't anything like him\" and his father Philip whom she described as \"so nice and gentlemanly\".\nMassage therapist Emma Gruenbaum said Andrew regularly overstepped the mark, making creepy sexual comments when she came to give him a massage. Gruenbaum maintained Andrew talked continually about sex during the first massage and wanted to know when she last had sex. Gruenbaum said Andrew arranged regular massages for roughly two months, and she believed requests for massages stopped when he realised he would not get more.\n\nFinances and debt problems\nThe Duke of York received a £249,000 annuity from the Queen, which was cut from April 2023. In the twelve-month period up to April 2004, he spent £325,000 on flights, and his trade missions as special representative for UKTI cost £75,000 in 2003. The Sunday Times reported in July 2008 that for \"the Duke of York's public role ... he last year received £436,000 to cover his expenses\". He has a Royal Navy pension of £20,000.\nThe Duke is also a keen skier and in 2014 bought a skiing chalet in Verbier, Switzerland, for £13 million jointly with his ex-wife, Sarah Ferguson. In May 2020, it was reported that they were in a legal dispute over the mortgage. To purchase the chalet, they secured a loan of £13.25 million and were expected to pay £5 million in cash instalments which, after applying interests, amounted to £6.8 million. Despite claims that the Queen would help pay the debt, a spokesperson for Andrew confirmed that she \"will not be stepping in to settle the debt\". \nThe Times reported in September 2021 that Andrew and Sarah had reached a legal agreement with the property's previous owner and would sell the house. The owner agreed to receive £3.4 million, half of the amount that she was owed, as she had been under the impression that Andrew and Sarah were dealing with financial troubles. The money from selling the property is reportedly to be used to pay Andrew's legal expenses over the civil lawsuit as well. In June 2022 it was reported in Le Temps, a Swiss newspaper, that the chalet has been frozen because of a £1.6 million debt Andrew owes unnamed people. Law professor Nicolas Jeandin told Le Temps \"A sale is in principle impossible, except with the agreement of the creditor.\"\nIn 2021, Bloomberg News reported that a firm connected to David Rowland had been paying off Andrew's debts. In November 2017, Andrew borrowed £250,000 from Banque Havilland, adding to an existing £1.25 million loan that had been \"extended or increased 10 times\" since 2015. Documents showed that while \"credibility of the applicant\" had been questioned, he was given the loan in an attempt to \"further business potential with the Royal Family\". 11 days later and in December 2017, £1.5 million was transferred from an account at Albany Reserves, which was controlled by the Rowland family, to Andrew's account at Banque Havilland, paying off the loan that was due in March 2018.\nSeveral months after Andrew's controversial 2019 Newsnight interview, his private office established the Urramoor Trust, which owned both Lincelles Unlimited (established 2020) and Urramoor Ltd (established 2013), and according to The Times was set up to support his family. Lincelles was voluntarily wound up in 2022. Andrew was described as a \"settlor but not a beneficiary\", and did not own either of the companies, though Companies House listed him and his private banker of 20 years Harry Keogh as people with \"significant control\".\nIn March 2022 it was reported that on 15 November 2019 the wife of the jailed former Turkish politician İlhan İşbilen transferred £750,000 to Andrew in the belief that it would help her secure a passport. The Duke repaid the money 16 months later after being contacted by İşbilen's lawyers. The Telegraph reported that the money sent to Andrew's account had been described to the bankers \"as a wedding gift\" for his elder daughter, Princess Beatrice, though the court documents did not include any suggestions that Beatrice was aware of the transactions. İşbilen alleges that a further £350,000 payment was made to Andrew through businessman Selman Turk, who İşbilen is suing for fraud. Turk had been awarded the People's Choice Award for his business Heyman AI at a Pitch@Palace event held at St James's Palace days before the £750,000 payment was made by İşbilen. \nLibyan-born convicted gun smuggler, Tarek Kaituni introduced Andrew to Selman Turk in May or June 2019 and held later meetings on at least two occasions. Kaituni, for whom Andrew allegedly lobbied a British company, had reportedly given Princess Beatrice a £18,000 gold and diamond necklace for her 21st birthday in 2009, and was invited to Princess Eugenie's wedding in 2018. Andrew also got \"half\" of £100,000 that Turk claimed was a payment to businessman Adrian Gleave to fund a search for \"finding yoghurt production facilities in America\".\n\nTitles, styles, honours and arms\nTitles and styles\nAndrew was originally styled \"His Royal Highness The Prince Andrew\". On 23 July 1986, he was granted the Dukedom of York, the Earldom of Inverness, and the Barony of Killyleagh, and assumed the style \"His Royal Highness The Duke of York\".\nAs of September 2022, Andrew is eighth in the line of succession to the British throne. On rare occasions, he is known by his secondary titles of Earl of Inverness in Scotland, and Baron Killyleagh in Northern Ireland.\nIn January 2022, it was reported that, while Andrew retains the style of His Royal Highness, he would no longer use it in a public capacity. He has since used it in a private capacity.\nIn 2019, Inverness residents started a campaign to strip him of the Earldom of Inverness, saying that \"it is inappropriate that Prince Andrew is associated with our beautiful city\", in light of his friendship with the convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein. There was a renewed petition in Inverness in 2022. Similar pleas have been made by people affiliated with the village of Killyleagh regarding his title of Baron Killyleagh, and the city of York, with Labour Co-op MP for York Central, Rachael Maskell, stating that she would look for ways to make Andrew give up his ducal title if he did not voluntarily relinquish it. In April 2022, several York councillors called for Andrew to lose the title of Duke of York.\n\nNaval ranks\n1979–1981: Midshipman, Britannia Royal Naval College, HMS Seahawk\n 1981–1984: Sub Lieutenant, Pilot, 820 NAS on HMS Invincible;\n 1984–1992: Lieutenant, Pilot, 815 NAS on HMS Brazen; Helicopter Warfare Instructor, 702 NAS at RNAS Culdrose; Flight Commander, 829 NAS on HMS Campbeltown\n 1992–1999: Lieutenant Commander, Captain, HMS Cottesmore; Senior Pilot, 815 NAS at RNAS Portland; Directorate of Naval Operations, Ministry of Defence\n 1999–2005: Commander, Diplomacy Section of the Naval Staff. Released from the active list in 2001.\n 2005–2010: Honorary Captain\n 2010–2015: Rear Admiral\n 2015–present: Vice Admiral\n\nHonours\nCommonwealth\n21 February 2011: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)\n2 June 2003 – 21 February 2011: Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO)\n19 December 1979 – 2 June 2003: Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO)\n 23 April 2006: Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG)\n 1977: Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal\n 1982: South Atlantic Medal, with Rosette\n 2002: Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal\n 2012: Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal\n 2022: Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee Medal\n 2023: King Charles III Coronation Medal\n 2016: Naval Long Service and Good Conduct Medal with two bars\n 1990: New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal\n 2001: Canadian Forces' Decoration (CD) (with the first clasp)\n 2005: Commemorative Medal for the Centennial of Saskatchewan\n\nForeign\n1988: Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav\n 2010: Collar of the Order of the Federation\n 2015: Sash of the Mexican Order of the Aztec Eagle\n 2017: Order of Isabella the Catholic\n\nAppointments\n1 February 1984 – 13 January 2022: Personal aide-de-camp to the Queen\n23 February 1987 – 27 April 2022: Freeman of the City of York\n2007: Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland\n5 May 2013: Royal Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)\n20 February 2015 – 13 January 2022: Grand President of the Royal Commonwealth Ex-Services League\n13 July 2015 – 21 November 2019: Chancellor of the University of Huddersfield\n20 April 2016: Honorary Fellow of the Society of Light and Lighting (Hon. FSLL)\n1 May 2018 – November 2019: Honorary Fellow of Hughes Hall, Cambridge\n\nFormer honorary military appointments\nIn 2019, Andrew's military affiliations were suspended and on 13 January 2022 they were formally returned to Queen Elizabeth II.\n Canada\n\n Colonel-in-Chief of The Queen's York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC)\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Highland Fusiliers of Canada\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Princess Louise Fusiliers\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Canadian Airborne Regiment (disbanded)\n New Zealand\n\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal New Zealand Army Logistic Regiment\n United Kingdom\n\n Colonel of the Grenadier Guards\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th and Ulster Defence Regiment)\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Small Arms School Corps\n Colonel-in-Chief of the Yorkshire Regiment (14th/15th, 19th and 33rd/76th Foot)\n Colonel-in-Chief of the 9th/12th Royal Lancers (Prince of Wales's) (disbanded)\n Deputy Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Lancers (Queen Elizabeth's Own)\n Royal Colonel of the Royal Highland Fusiliers, 2nd Battalion Royal Regiment of Scotland\n Honorary Air Commodore, Royal Air Force Lossiemouth\n Commodore-in-Chief of the Fleet Air Arm\n Admiral of the Sea Cadet Corps\n\nArms\nIssue\nAncestry\nReferences\nFootnotes\nCitations\nBibliography\nPhotographs (1985) by HRH Prince Andrew. London: Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-11644-9. OCLC 13947617. A book of photographs taken by Andrew.\n\nExternal links\n Media related to Prince Andrew, Duke of York at Wikimedia Commons\nThe Duke of York at the Royal Family website\nThe Duke of York at the website of the Government of Canada\nPortraits of Prince Andrew, Duke of York at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nPrince Andrew at IMDb\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
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"paragraph_text": "Prince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh (Edward Antony Richard Louis; born 10 March 1964) is a member of the British royal family. He is the youngest child of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, and the youngest sibling of King Charles III. He was born 3rd in the line of succession to the British throne and is now 14th.\nBorn at Buckingham Palace during the reign of his mother, Edward studied at Heatherdown School and completed his A-Levels at Gordonstoun before spending part of his gap year teaching at Wanganui Collegiate School in New Zealand. He then went up to read history at Jesus College, Cambridge, graduating in 1986 with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Cambridge University. After a brief stint in the Royal Marines, he worked as a theatre production assistant at the Really Useful Theatre Company before assisting in television production. He later formed his own company, Ardent Productions.\nEdward stepped down from the company in 2002 to begin full-time duties as a working member of the royal family, and undertook engagements on behalf of his mother. He holds patronage with over 70 charities and organisations, including the National Youth Theatre, the Sport and Recreation Alliance and the British Paralympic Association. His charity work focuses on the arts, athletics, and the development of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award, which centres around fitness, wellbeing and community service.\nEdward was given the title of Earl of Wessex prior to marrying Sophie Rhys-Jones in 1999. They have two children: Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor and James Mountbatten-Windsor, Earl of Wessex. Edward's mother conferred him the additional title of Earl of Forfar in 2019. On Edward's 59th birthday in 2023, his brother Charles III granted him the title Duke of Edinburgh as a life peerage, a dukedom previously held by their father, who died in 2021, then briefly by Charles himself.\n\nEarly life and education\nPrince Edward was born at 8:20 p.m. on 10 March 1964 at Buckingham Palace, London, as the third son and the fourth and youngest child of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. He is the most recent child to be born to a reigning British monarch. His birth was the only one witnessed by his father. He was baptised on 2 May 1964 in the private chapel at Windsor Castle.\nAs with his three older siblings, Charles, Anne, and Andrew, a governess was appointed to look after Edward and was responsible for his early education at Buckingham Palace before he attended Collingham College, Kensington (then known as Gibbs School). In September 1972, he joined Heatherdown School, near Ascot in Berkshire. Later, as his father and elder brothers had done before him, he moved to Gordonstoun in northern Scotland, where he was appointed head boy in his last term. Edward obtained a C-grade in English and two D-grades in history and politics at A-level, and after leaving school spent a gap year abroad, working as a house tutor and junior master for two terms at the Wanganui Collegiate School in New Zealand.\nUpon his return to the United Kingdom, Edward studied at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he read history. His admission to the university despite poor A-Level results caused some comment. Edward graduated in 1986 with a Bachelor of Arts degree (Lower Second Hons).\n\nPost-university\nRoyal Marines\nAfter graduating in 1986, Edward joined the Royal Marines, who had reportedly sponsored his tuition at Cambridge on condition of future service. He had signed up to join the Royal Marines in September 1983. In January 1987, he dropped out of the commando course having completed one-third of the 12-month training. Media reported that Prince Philip, who was the Captain General Royal Marines, was displeased, but Prince Edward later said that his father had not put undue pressure on him to change his mind. Others stated that Philip was the most sympathetic family member toward his son's decision. Buckingham Palace said that Edward's decision came after \"much consideration\" and that he was leaving with great regret \"but has concluded that he does not wish to make the service his long-term career\".\n\nTheatre and television\nAfter leaving military service, Edward opted to pursue a career in entertainment. He commissioned the 1986 musical Cricket from Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice, for his mother's 60th birthday celebration, which led to a job offer at Lloyd Webber's Really Useful Theatre Company, where he worked as a production assistant on musicals such as The Phantom of the Opera, Starlight Express, and Cats. While there he met actress Ruthie Henshall, whom he dated for three years.\nEdward's first foray into television production was the programme The Grand Knockout Tournament, informally known as It's a Royal Knockout, on 15 June 1987, in which four teams sponsored by him, his siblings Anne and Andrew, and Andrew's wife Sarah competed for charity. The programme was criticised by the media and the public, and it was later reported that the Queen was not in favour of the event, with her courtiers having advised against it. The programme raised over £1,500,000 for its selected charities.\n\nArdent Productions\nIn 1993, Edward founded the television production company Ardent Productions. Ardent was involved in the production of a number of documentaries and dramas, but Edward was accused in the media of using his royal connections for financial gain, and the company was referred to by some industry insiders as \"a sad joke\" due to a perceived lack of professionalism in its operations. Andy Beckett, writing in The Guardian, opined that \"to watch Ardent's few dozen hours of broadcast output is to enter a strange kingdom where every man in Britain still wears a tie, where pieces to camera are done in cricket jumpers, where people clasp their hands behind their backs like guardsmen. Commercial breaks are filled with army recruiting advertisements\".\nArdent's productions were better received in the United States and a documentary Edward made about his great-uncle Edward VIII (the late Duke of Windsor) in 1996 sold well worldwide. Nonetheless, the company reported losses every year it operated, with the exception of one when Edward did not draw a salary. An Ardent two-man film crew later allegedly invaded the privacy of Edward's nephew, Prince William, in September 2001, when he was studying at the University of St Andrews, which went against industry guidelines regarding the privacy of members of the royal family; William's father (Edward's elder brother Charles) was reportedly angered by the incident. In March 2002, Edward announced that he would step down as production director and joint managing director of Ardent to concentrate on his public duties and to support the Queen during her Golden Jubilee year. Ardent Productions was voluntarily dissolved in June 2009, with assets reduced to just £40.\n\nMarriage and children\nEdward met Sophie Rhys-Jones for the first time in 1987 when he was dating her friend. They met again at a promotion shoot for the Prince Edward Summer Challenge to raise money for charity in 1993, and the two began their relationship soon afterwards. In December 1993 and amid growing speculation about whether they were planning to marry, Edward wrote a letter to newspaper editors, in which he denied any wedding plans and asked the media to respect their privacy. Edward proposed to Sophie on holiday in the Bahamas in December 1998 and their engagement was announced on 6 January 1999. Edward proposed to Sophie with an Asprey and Garrard engagement ring worth an estimated £105,000: a two-carat oval diamond flanked by two heart-shaped gemstones set in 18-carat white gold.\nTheir wedding took place on 19 June 1999 in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle. This was a departure from the weddings of his elder brothers, which were large, formal events at Westminster Abbey or St Paul's Cathedral, and had ended in divorce. On his wedding day, Prince Edward was created Earl of Wessex, with the subsidiary title of Viscount Severn (alluding to the Welsh roots of the Countess's family), breaking from a tradition whereby sons of the sovereign were created royal dukes.\nSophie had an ectopic pregnancy in 2001. Edward and Sophie have two children: Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor, born prematurely on 8 November 2003 due to a sudden placental abruption; and James Mountbatten-Windsor (then Viscount Severn, now Earl of Wessex), born on 17 December 2007. Edward's children since 2023 are styled as the children of a duke, rather than as Prince/ss and Royal Highness. The family's country seat is Bagshot Park; their office and official London residence is at Buckingham Palace.\n\nActivities\nThe Earl and Countess of Wessex established their foundation, the Wessex Youth Trust, in 1999, with a focus on helping, supporting and advancing registered charities which provide opportunities specifically for children and young people. His patronages include: the British Paralympic Association, the International Real Tennis Professionals Association, the Commonwealth Games Federation, BadmintonScotland, the Tennis and Rackets Association, City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and Chorus, London Mozart Players, Haddo House Choral and Operatic Society, Northern Ballet, the Edinburgh International Festival, the Royal Birmingham Conservatoire, the Production Guild, and the National Youth Theatre.\nThe Earl of Wessex assumed many duties from his father, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, as Prince Philip reduced his commitments before retiring from royal duties. Prince Edward opened the 1990 Commonwealth Games in New Zealand and the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Malaysia and became vice-patron of Commonwealth Games Federation in 2006, picking up his father's ceremonial duties who had served as president. He has also taken over his father's role in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award (DofE) scheme, attending Gold Award ceremonies around the world.\nIn September 2007, the Earl visited Israel in his capacity as Chairman of the International Council of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award to attend a number of events organised by the Israel Youth Award program, an affiliate of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award. Edward was himself a recipient of the Award's gold medal in 1986 for \"a 60-mile, four-day trek from Blair Atholl to Tomintoul\" that he had planned. He has been a trustee of the DofE since 1988 and of the International Award since 2006. Edward later went on to become Chair of trustees of the Duke of Edinburgh's International Award in 2015, and was named patron of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award in 2023. He has promoted the charity's work on different occasions. Edward is also a trustee of the International Award Association, which \"encompasses the DofE UK and all its other 61 National Award Authorities across the globe\". He was also Chairman of the DofE's international council and in 1999 founded the International Special Projects Group \"to provide a capital fund to broaden the reach of the Award\". In 2018, Edward, as patron of the Tennis and Rackets Association, played on all 50 real tennis courts around the world and raised over £2 million for the Duke of Edinburgh's Award scheme.\n\nIn June 2011, Edward visited Baltimore to meet the students and staff of the Living Classrooms Foundation and encourage them to participate in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award's programme. In December 2011, the Earl and Countess of Wessex visited troops in Afghanistan. On the same trip, the royal couple visited Bahrain, and received two gifts of jewels from the Bahraini royal family and Prime Minister. Given concern about human rights abuses in Bahrain, this gift attracted controversy, with calls for the jewels to be sold, and the proceeds used for the benefit of the Bahraini people. In February and March 2012, the couple visited the Caribbean for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. The itinerary consisted of Saint Lucia; Barbados, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Grenada; Trinidad and Tobago; Montserrat; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda. Highlights included Independence Day celebrations in Saint Lucia, addressing Senate and Assembly of Barbados jointly, and a visit to sites affected by the volcanic eruptions in Montserrat.\nIn 2013, the couple visited South Africa. The Queen appointed the Earl of Wessex as Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland for 2014. In 2015, for his contributions to projects associated with badminton, Edward was awarded the President's Medal by the Badminton World Federation President Poul-Erik Høyer. In May 2016, the Earl visited Ghana. Alongside President Mahama, he presented young people with the Head of State Awards for their participation in the Duke of Edinburgh's International Award Scheme. In September 2016, Edward travelled to Chile as a part of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award's diamond anniversary, and visited projects by British and Commonwealth Fire and Rescue Company and Chilean-British Culture University, of which he is an honorary member and patron respectively. The Earl and Countess of Wessex represented the Queen at the 50th Anniversary Celebrations of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah's Accession to the Throne of Brunei in October 2017. In February 2018, the Earl and Countess toured Sri Lanka, participating in the 70th Independence Day celebrations in Colombo. In April 2018, the Earl visited Australia to attend the XXI Commonwealth Games and attend fundraising events for those participating in the Duke of Edinburgh Award challenges.\n\nTwenty years after its inception, the Wessex Youth Trust changed its name to the Earl and Countess of Wessex Charitable Trust, managed by the private office of the Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar. The trust will continue to develop sustainable relationships with a range of selected partner charities, and will expand its remit beyond supporting children and young people.\nIn July 2019, the Earl and Countess visited Forfar on their first official visit to the royal burgh since the Queen granted Prince Edward the additional title Earl of Forfar in March 2019. The Earl was presented with 'Earl of Forfar' tartan, which was designed by Forfar's Strathmore Woollen Company to celebrate their new titles. In 2020, he took over the patronage of London Youth from his father who had held the position for 73 years.\nIn February 2022, Edward was appointed president of the Royal Windsor Horse Show, a position previously held by his father Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. In the following month, he visited Kenya to oversee the progress of the Duke of Edinburgh's International Award in the country. In April 2022, the Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar toured Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Antigua and Barbuda to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee. Their planned visit to Grenada was postponed after talks with the island's government and governor-general, and the couple expressed their hopes to visit the country on a later date. In 2022 and in recognition of his role as patron of the Production Guild, the Earl of Wessex Award was created as part of the Guild's inaugural Talent Showcase to recognise UK film and TV organisations who have created \"a successful way of inspiring local talent or skills, widening access or being more inclusive.\" After he was created Duke of Edinburgh on his 59th birthday, Edward and Sophie visited Edinburgh to meet with members of the Ukrainian and Eastern European communities in the city, some of whom were displaced following the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Edward became patron of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award upon being raised to the dukedom.\n\nIn the media\nIn 1999, Edward was criticised by Labour MPs John Cryer and Lindsay Hoyle for comments he made during an interview with The New York Times, in which he stated that in Britain \"They hate anyone who succeeds\" and \"America is where the money is\". The criticism prompted him to issue a statement, clarifying \"that offending the British public was the very last thing I would have wanted to do\".\nIn 2011, close associates of Jonathan Rees, a private investigator connected to the News International phone hacking scandal, stated that he had penetrated Edward and Sophie's bank accounts and sold details about them to the Sunday Mirror.\n\nTitles, styles, honours and arms\nTitles and styles\nUntil his marriage, Edward was known as \"His Royal Highness The Prince Edward\". On 19 June 1999, he became \"His Royal Highness The Earl of Wessex\". Buckingham Palace announced the intention that Edward would eventually be created Duke of Edinburgh, a title then held by his father, Prince Philip, once it had merged in the Crown upon the death of both his parents. On 10 March 2019, his 55th birthday, Edward was granted the additional title of Earl of Forfar for use in Scotland. On his 59th birthday, 10 March 2023, Edward was created Duke of Edinburgh, thus becoming \"His Royal Highness The Duke of Edinburgh\". His ducal title is not hereditary, so it will revert to the crown on his death.\nIn 1994, the Independent Royalist Party of Estonia, aspiring to make Estonia a monarchy, sent a letter to Queen Elizabeth II requesting permission to crown Prince Edward as King of Estonia. The letter had called Edward a \"young British prince much admired by Estonians\", adding the party \"would be most honoured if you would accept this rare request\". Buckingham Palace declined the offer, saying that it was \"a charming idea but a rather unlikely one\".\n\nHonours\nEdward is a Royal Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, an Extra Knight of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, and a Personal Aide-de-Camp to the Sovereign. In 2013 Edward received a Honorary Doctorate from the University of Bath.\n\nArms\nAncestry\nFilmography\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Duke of Edinburgh Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine at the official website of the British royal family\nThe Duke of Edinburgh at the website of the Government of Canada\nPortraits of Prince Edward at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nPrince Edward at IMDb",
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] | As of 1st January 2023, If I am 7 years younger than the eldest granddaughter of the female monarch with the longest reign in confirmed history was at the time of the monarch's death, how old am I? | [] | 34 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. Between 1965 and 1968, the treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in Geneva, Switzerland.\nOpened for signature in 1968, the treaty entered into force in 1970. As required by the text, after twenty-five years, NPT parties met in May 1995 and agreed to extend the treaty indefinitely. More countries are parties to the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament agreement, a testament to the treaty's significance. As of August 2016, 191 states have become parties to the treaty, though North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation of core obligations. Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT, three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear weapons: India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.\nThe treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before 1 January 1967; these are the United States (1945), Russia (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), and China (1964). Four other states are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, and North Korea have openly tested and declared that they possess nuclear weapons, while Israel is deliberately ambiguous regarding its nuclear weapons status.\nThe NPT is often seen to be based on a central bargain:\n\nthe NPT non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to acquire nuclear weapons and the NPT nuclear-weapon states in exchange agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to pursue nuclear disarmament aimed at the ultimate elimination of their nuclear arsenals. \nThe treaty is reviewed every five years in meetings called Review Conferences. Even though the treaty was originally conceived with a limited duration of 25 years, the signing parties decided, by consensus, to unconditionally extend the treaty indefinitely during the Review Conference in New York City on 11 May 1995, in the culmination of U.S. government efforts led by Ambassador Thomas Graham Jr.\nAt the time the NPT was proposed, there were predictions of 25–30 nuclear weapon states within 20 years. Instead, over forty years later, five states are not parties to the NPT, and they include the only four additional states believed to possess nuclear weapons. Several additional measures have been adopted to strengthen the NPT and the broader nuclear nonproliferation regime and make it difficult for states to acquire the capability to produce nuclear weapons, including the export controls of the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the enhanced verification measures of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Additional Protocol.\nCritics argue that the NPT cannot stop the proliferation of nuclear weapons or the motivation to acquire them. They express disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads in their combined stockpile. Several high-ranking officials within the United Nations have said that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons.\n\nTreaty structure\nThe NPT consists of a preamble and eleven articles. Although the concept of \"pillars\" is not expressed anywhere in the NPT, the treaty is nevertheless sometimes interpreted as a three-pillar system, with an implicit balance among them:\n\nnon-proliferation,\ndisarmament, and\nthe right to peacefully use nuclear technology.\nThese pillars are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. An effective nonproliferation regime whose members comply with their obligations provides an essential foundation for progress on disarmament and makes possible greater cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. With the right to access the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology comes the responsibility of nonproliferation. Progress on disarmament reinforces efforts to strengthen the nonproliferation regime and to enforce compliance with obligations, thereby also facilitating peaceful nuclear cooperation.\nThe \"pillars\" concept has been questioned by some who believe that the NPT is, as its name suggests, principally about nonproliferation, and who worry that \"three pillars\" language misleadingly implies that the three elements have equivalent importance.\n\nFirst pillar: Non-proliferation\nUnder Article I of the NPT, nuclear-weapon states pledge not to transfer nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices to any recipient or in any way assist, encourage or induce any non-nuclear-weapon state in the manufacture or acquisition of a nuclear weapon.\nUnder Article II of the NPT, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge not to acquire or exercise control over nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices and not to seek or receive assistance in the manufacture of such devices.\nUnder Article III of the Treaty, non-nuclear-weapon states pledge to accept IAEA safeguards to verify that their nuclear activities serve only peaceful purposes.\nFive states are recognized by the NPT as nuclear weapon states (NWS): China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union (1968; obligations and rights now assumed by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom (1968), and the United States (1968), which also happen to be the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.\nThese five NWS agree not to transfer \"nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices\" and \"not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce\" a non-nuclear weapon state (NNWS) to acquire nuclear weapons (Article I). NNWS parties to the NPT agree not to \"receive\", \"manufacture\", or \"acquire\" nuclear weapons or to \"seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons\" (Article II). NNWS parties also agree to accept safeguards by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to verify that they are not diverting nuclear energy from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices (Article III).\nThe five NWS parties have made undertakings not to use their nuclear weapons against a non-NWS party except in response to a nuclear attack, or a conventional attack in alliance with a Nuclear Weapons State. However, these undertakings have not been incorporated formally into the treaty, and the exact details have varied over time. The U.S. also had nuclear warheads targeted at North Korea, a non-NWS, from 1959 until 1991. The previous United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence, Geoff Hoon, has also explicitly invoked the possibility of the use of the country's nuclear weapons in response to a non-conventional attack by \"rogue states\". In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac of France indicated that an incident of state-sponsored terrorism on France could trigger a small-scale nuclear retaliation aimed at destroying the \"rogue state's\" power centers.\nSecurity provided by extended nuclear deterrence has been a factor limiting incentives for some NNWS to acquire nuclear weapons.\n\nSecond pillar: Disarmament\nUnder Article VI of the NPT, all Parties undertake to pursue good-faith negotiations on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race, to nuclear disarmament, and to general and complete disarmament.\nArticle VI of the NPT represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon states. The NPT's preamble contains language affirming the desire of treaty signatories to ease international tension and strengthen international trust so as to create someday the conditions for a halt to the production of nuclear weapons, and treaty on general and complete disarmament that liquidates, in particular, nuclear weapons and their delivery vehicles from national arsenals.\nThe wording of the NPT's Article VI arguably imposes only a vague obligation on all NPT signatories to move in the general direction of nuclear and total disarmament, saying, \"Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament.\" Under this interpretation, Article VI does not strictly require all signatories to actually conclude a disarmament treaty. Rather, it only requires them \"to negotiate in good faith\".\nOn the other hand, some governments, especially non-nuclear-weapon states belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, have interpreted Article VI's language as constituting a formal and specific obligation on the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, and argue that these states have failed to meet their obligation. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, issued 8 July 1996, unanimously interprets the text of Article VI as implying that\n\nThere exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control.\nThe ICJ opinion notes that this obligation involves all NPT parties (not just the nuclear weapon states) and does not suggest a specific time frame for nuclear disarmament.\nCritics of the NPT-recognized nuclear-weapon states (the United States, Russia, China, France, and the United Kingdom) sometimes argue that what they view as the failure of the NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states to disarm themselves of nuclear weapons, especially in the post–Cold War era, has angered some non-nuclear-weapon NPT signatories of the NPT. Such failure, these critics add, provides justification for the non-nuclear-weapon signatories to quit the NPT and develop their own nuclear arsenals.\nOther observers have suggested that the linkage between proliferation and disarmament may also work the other way, i.e., that the failure to resolve proliferation threats in Iran and North Korea, for instance, will cripple the prospects for disarmament. No current nuclear weapons state, the argument goes, would seriously consider eliminating its last nuclear weapons without high confidence that other countries would not acquire them. Some observers have even suggested that the very progress of disarmament by the superpowers—which has led to the elimination of thousands of weapons and delivery systems—could eventually make the possession of nuclear weapons more attractive by increasing the perceived strategic value of a small arsenal. As one U.S. official and NPT expert warned in 2007, \"logic suggests that as the number of nuclear weapons decreases, the 'marginal utility' of a nuclear weapon as an instrument of military power increases. At the extreme, which it is precisely disarmament's hope to create, the strategic utility of even one or two nuclear weapons would be huge.\"\n\nThird pillar: Peaceful use of nuclear energy\nNPT Article IV acknowledges the right of all Parties to develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and to benefit from international cooperation in this area, in conformity with their nonproliferation obligations. Article IV also encourages such cooperation. This so-called third pillar provides for the transfer of nuclear technology and materials to NPT Parties for peaceful purposes in the development of civilian nuclear energy programs in those countries, subject to IAEA safeguards to demonstrate that their nuclear programs are not being used for the development of nuclear weapons.\nAs the commercially popular light water reactor nuclear power station uses enriched uranium fuel, it follows that states must be able either to enrich uranium or purchase it on an international market. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, has called the spread of enrichment and reprocessing capabilities the \"Achilles' heel\" of the nuclear nonproliferation regime. As of 2007, 13 states have an enrichment capability.\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s many states, almost 60, were supplied with research reactors fuelled by weapon grade highly enriched uranium (HEU) through the United States Atoms for Peace program and a similar Soviet Union program. In the 1980s a program to convert HEU research reactors to use low enriched fuel was started in the United States due to proliferation concerns. However 26 states possessed more than 1 kg of civilian HEU in 2015, and as of 2016 the stocks of HEU for civilian research were 60 tonnes, with 74 research reactors still using HEU.\nBecause the availability of fissile material has long been considered the principal obstacle to, and \"pacing element\" for, a country's nuclear weapons development effort, it was declared a major emphasis of U.S. policy in 2004 to prevent the further spread of uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing (a.k.a. \"ENR\") technology. Countries possessing ENR capabilities, it is feared, have what is in effect the option of using this capability to produce fissile material for weapons use on demand, thus giving them what has been termed a \"virtual\" nuclear weapons program. The degree to which NPT members have a \"right\" to ENR technology notwithstanding its potentially grave proliferation implications, therefore, is at the cutting edge of policy and legal debates surrounding the meaning of Article IV and its relation to Articles I, II, and III of the treaty.\nCountries that have become Parties to the NPT as non-nuclear-weapon States have a strong record of not building nuclear weapons, although some tried and one eventually left the NPT and acquired nuclear weapons. Iraq was found by the IAEA to have violated its safeguards obligations and subject to punitive sanctions by the UN Security Council. North Korea never came into compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement and was cited repeatedly for these violations, and later withdrew from the NPT and tested multiple nuclear devices. Iran was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards obligations in an unusual non-consensus decision because it \"failed in a number of instances over an extended period of time\" to report aspects of its enrichment program. In 1991, Romania reported previously undeclared nuclear activities by the former regime and the IAEA reported this non-compliance to the Security Council for information only. Libya pursued a clandestine nuclear weapons program before abandoning it in December 2003. The IAEA reported Syria's safeguards non-compliance to the UN Security Council, which did not take action.\nIn some regions, the fact that all neighbors are verifiably free of nuclear weapons reduces any pressure individual states might feel to build those weapons themselves, even if neighbors are known to have peaceful nuclear energy programs that might otherwise be suspicious. In this, the treaty works as designed.\nIn 2004, Mohamed ElBaradei said that by some estimates thirty-five to forty states could have the knowledge to develop nuclear weapons.\n\nKey articles\nArticle I: Each nuclear-weapons state (NWS) undertakes not to transfer, to any recipient, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices, and not to assist any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices.\nArticle II: Each non-NWS party undertakes not to receive, from any source, nuclear weapons, or other nuclear explosive devices; not to manufacture or acquire such weapons or devices; and not to receive any assistance in their manufacture.\nArticle III: Each non-NWS party undertakes to conclude an agreement with the IAEA for the application of its safeguards to all nuclear material in all of the state's peaceful nuclear activities and to prevent diversion of such material to nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices.\nArticle IV: 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty.\n2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world.\nArticle VI: Each party \"undertakes to pursue negotiations in good faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a Treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control\".\nArticle IX: \"For the purposes of this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon State is one which has manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1 January 1967.\"\nArticle X: Establishes the right to withdraw from the Treaty giving 3 months' notice. It also establishes the duration of the Treaty (25 years before 1995 Extension Initiative).\n\nHistory\nThe impetus behind the NPT was concern for the safety of a world with many nuclear weapon states. It was recognized that the Cold War deterrent relationship between just the United States and the Soviet Union was fragile. Having more nuclear-weapon states would reduce security for all, multiplying the risks of miscalculation, accidents, unauthorized use of weapons, escalation in tensions, and nuclear conflict. Moreover, since the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, it has been apparent that the development of nuclear capabilities by States could enable them to divert technology and materials for weapons purposes. Thus, the problem of preventing such diversions became a central issue in discussions on peaceful uses of nuclear energy.\nInitial efforts, which began in 1946, to create an international system enabling all States to have access to nuclear technology under appropriate safeguards, were terminated in 1949 without the achievement of this objective, due to serious political differences between the major Powers. By then, both the United States and the former Soviet Union had tested nuclear weapons, and were beginning to build their stockpiles.\nIn December 1953, US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in his \"Atoms for Peace\" proposal, presented to the eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly, urged that an international organization be established to disseminate peaceful nuclear technology, while guarding against development of weapons capabilities in additional countries. His proposal resulted in 1957 in the establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which was charged with the dual responsibility for promotion and control of nuclear technology. IAEA technical activities began in 1958. An interim safeguards system for small nuclear reactors, put in place in 1961, was replaced in 1964 by a system covering larger installations and, over the following years, was expanded to include additional nuclear facilities. In recent years, efforts to strengthen the effectiveness and improve the efficiency of the IAEA safeguards system culminated in the approval of the Model Additional Protocol by the IAEA Board of Governors in May 1997.\nWithin the framework of the United Nations, the principle of nuclear non-proliferation was addressed in negotiations as early as 1957. The NPT process was launched by Frank Aiken, Irish Minister for External Affairs, in 1958. The NPT gained significant momentum in the early 1960s. The structure of a treaty to uphold nuclear non-proliferation as a norm of international behaviour had become clear by the mid-1960s, and by 1968 final agreement had been reached on a Treaty that would prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons, enable cooperation for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament. It was opened for signature in 1968, with Finland the first State to sign. Accession became nearly universal after the end of the Cold War and of South African apartheid. In 1992, The People's Republic of China and France acceded to the NPT, the last of the five nuclear powers recognized by the treaty to do so.\nThe treaty provided, in article X, for a conference to be convened 25 years after its entry into force to decide whether the treaty should continue in force indefinitely, or be extended for an additional fixed period or periods. Accordingly, at the NPT Review and Extension Conference in May 1995, state parties to the treaty agreed—without a vote—on the treaty's indefinite extension, and decided that review conferences should continue to be held every five years. After Brazil acceded to the NPT in 1998, the only remaining non-nuclear-weapon state which had not signed was Cuba, which joined the NPT (and the Treaty of Tlatelolco NWFZ) in 2002.\nSeveral NPT states parties have given up nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons programs. South Africa undertook a nuclear weapons program, but has since renounced it and acceded to the treaty in 1991 after destroying its small nuclear arsenal; after this, the remaining African countries signed the treaty.\nThe former Soviet Republics where nuclear weapons had been based, namely Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, transferred those weapons to Russia and joined the NPT by 1994 following the signature of the Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances.\nSuccessor states from the Breakup of Yugoslavia and Dissolution of Czechoslovakia also joined the treaty soon after their independence. Montenegro and East Timor were the last countries to accede to the treaty on their independence in 2006 and 2003; the only other country to accede in the 21st century was Cuba in 2002. The three Micronesian countries in Compact of Free Association with the USA joined the NPT in 1995, along with Vanuatu.\nMajor South American countries Argentina, Chile, and Brazil joined in 1995 and 1998. Arabian Peninsula countries included Saudi Arabia and Bahrain in 1988, Qatar and Kuwait in 1989, UAE in 1995, and Oman in 1997. The European states of Monaco and Andorra joined in 1995–6. Also acceding in the 1990s were Myanmar in 1992 and Guyana in 1993.\n\nUnited States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing\nAt the time the treaty was being negotiated, NATO had in place secret nuclear weapons sharing agreements whereby the United States provided nuclear weapons to be deployed by, and stored in, other NATO states. Some argue this is an act of proliferation violating Articles I and II of the treaty. A counter-argument is that the U.S. controlled the weapons in storage within the NATO states, and that no transfer of the weapons or control over them was intended \"unless and until a decision were made to go to war, at which the treaty would no longer be controlling\", so there is no breach of the NPT. These agreements were disclosed to a few of the states, including the Soviet Union, negotiating the treaty, but most of the states that signed the NPT in 1968 would not have known about these agreements and interpretations at that time.\nAs of 2005, it is estimated that the United States still provides about 180 tactical B61 nuclear bombs for use by Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Turkey under these NATO agreements. Many states, and the Non-Aligned Movement, now argue this violates Articles I and II of the treaty, and are applying diplomatic pressure to terminate these agreements. They point out that the pilots and other staff of the \"non-nuclear\" NATO states practice handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and non-U.S. warplanes have been adapted to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs which must have involved the transfer of some technical nuclear weapons information. NATO believes its \"nuclear forces continue to play an essential role in war prevention, but their role is now more fundamentally political\".\nU.S. nuclear sharing policies were originally designed to help prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons—not least by persuading West Germany not to develop an independent nuclear capability by assuring it that West Germany would be able, in the event of war with the Warsaw Pact, to wield (U.S.) nuclear weapons in self-defense. (Until that point of all-out war, however, the weapons themselves would remain in U.S. hands.) The point was to limit the spread of countries having their own nuclear weapons programs, helping ensure that NATO allies would not choose to go down the proliferation route. (West Germany was discussed in U.S. intelligence estimates for a number of years as being a country with the potential to develop nuclear weapons capabilities of its own if officials in Bonn were not convinced that their defense against the Soviet Union and its allies could otherwise be met.)\n\nPreparations for Russia's weapon deployment in Belarus\nOn 27 February 2022, shortly after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, a referendum was staged in Belarus to remove a constitutional prohibition on basing nuclear weapons on its territory. On 25 June 2022, President of Belarus Lukashenko met Russian President Putin to discuss the deployment of Russian short-range nuclear-capable missiles on the territory of Belarus. The transfer of nuclear warheads would require a further decision, possibly after a number of years, and could be tied to future NATO decisions.\nIn Belarus, Russia plans to deploy nuclear-capable Iskander-M missile systems. Both conventional and nuclear versions of the missile would be provided under the plans. Additionally, Putin said that he would facilitate the modifications necessary for Belarusian Su-25 bombers to carry nuclear missiles.\nOn 14 June 2023, president Lukashenko said that Russia had started moving tactical nuclear weapons into Belarus's territory. The Russian president had said the weapons were moved \"as a deterrence measure\" against threats to Russian statehood, and would not be controlled by Belarus. NATO saw no evidence in a change in Russia's nuclear position, while Ukrainian intelligence said that not a single warhead had yet been transferred.\n\nNon-parties\nFour states—India, Israel, Pakistan, and South Sudan—have never signed the treaty. India and Pakistan have publicly disclosed their nuclear weapon programs, and Israel has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of states with nuclear weapons).\n\nIndia\nIndia has detonated nuclear devices, first in 1974 and again in 1998. It is estimated to have enough fissile material for more than 150 warheads and was among the few countries to have a no first use policy, a pledge not to use nuclear weapons unless first attacked by an adversary using nuclear weapons, however India's former NSA Shivshankar Menon signaled a significant shift from \"no first use\" to \"no first use against non-nuclear weapon states\" in a speech on the occasion of Golden Jubilee celebrations of the National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's \"strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence\".\nIndia argues that the NPT creates a club of \"nuclear haves\" and a larger group of \"nuclear have-nots\" by restricting the legal possession of nuclear weapons to those states that tested them before 1967, but the treaty never explains on what ethical grounds such a distinction is valid. India's then External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said during a visit to Tokyo in 2007: \"If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment.\" Although there have been unofficial discussions on creating a South Asian nuclear weapons free zone, including India and Pakistan, this is considered to be highly unlikely for the foreseeable future.\nIn early March 2006, India and the United States finalized an agreement, in the face of criticism in both countries, to restart cooperation on civilian nuclear technology. Under the deal India has committed to classify 14 of its 22 nuclear power plants as being for civilian use and to place them under IAEA safeguards. Mohamed ElBaradei, then Director General of the IAEA, welcomed the deal by calling India \"an important partner in the non-proliferation regime.\"\nIn December 2006, United States Congress approved the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act, endorsing a deal that was forged during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to the United States in July 2005 and cemented during President Bush's visit to India earlier in 2006. The legislation allows for the transfer of civilian nuclear material to India. Despite its status outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, nuclear cooperation with India was permitted on the basis of its clean non-proliferation record, and India's need for energy fueled by its rapid industrialization and a billion-plus population.\nOn 1 August 2008, the IAEA approved the India Safeguards Agreement and on 6 September 2008, India was granted the waiver at the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) meeting held in Vienna, Austria. The consensus was arrived after overcoming misgivings expressed by Austria, Ireland and New Zealand and is an unprecedented step in giving exemption to a country, which has not signed the NPT and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). While India could commence nuclear trade with other willing countries. The U.S. Congress approved this agreement and President Bush signed it on 8 October 2008.\nWhen China announced expanded nuclear cooperation with Pakistan in 2010, proponents of arms control denounced both the deals, claiming that they weakened the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT.\nAs of January 2011, Australia, a top three uranium producer and home to world's largest known reserves, had continued its refusal to export uranium to India despite diplomatic pressure from India.\nIn November 2011, Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced a desire to allow exports to India, a policy change which was authorized by her party's national conference in December. The following month, Gillard overturned Australia's long-standing ban on exporting uranium to India. She further said, \"We should take a decision in the national interest, a decision about strengthening our strategic partnership with India in this the Asian century,\" and said that any agreement to sell uranium to India would include strict safeguards to ensure it would only be used for civilian purposes, and not end up in nuclear weapons.\nOn 5 September 2014 Tony Abbott, Gillard's successor as Australian Prime Minister, sealed a civil nuclear deal to sell uranium to India. \"We signed a nuclear cooperation agreement because Australia trusts India to do the right thing in this area, as it has been doing in other areas,\" Abbott told reporters after he and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi signed a pact to sell uranium for peaceful power generation.\n\nPakistan\nIn May 1998, following India's nuclear tests earlier that month, Pakistan conducted two sets of nuclear tests, the Chagai-I and Chagai-II. Although there is little confirmed information in public, as of 2015, Pakistan was estimated to have as many as 120 warheads. According to analyses of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the Stimson Center, Pakistan has enough fissile material for 350 warheads.\nPakistani officials argue that the NPT is discriminatory. When asked at a briefing in 2015 whether Islamabad would sign the NPT if Washington requested it, Foreign Secretary Aizaz Ahmad Chaudhry was quoted as responding \"It is a discriminatory treaty. Pakistan has the right to defend itself, so Pakistan will not sign the NPT. Why should we?\" Until 2010, Pakistan had always maintained the position that it would sign the NPT if India did so. In 2010, Pakistan abandoned this historic position and stated that it would join the NPT only as a recognized nuclear-weapon state.\nThe NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Pakistan, with very narrow exceptions, since it does not have full-scope IAEA safeguards (i.e. safeguards on all its nuclear activities). Pakistan has sought to reach an agreement similar to that with India, but these efforts have been rebuffed by the United States and other NSG members, on the grounds that Pakistan's track record as a nuclear proliferator makes it impossible for it to have any sort of nuclear deal in the near future.\nBy 2010, China reportedly signed a civil nuclear agreement with Pakistan, using the justification that the deal was \"peaceful\". The British government criticized this, on the grounds that 'the time is not yet right for a civil nuclear deal with Pakistan'. China did not seek formal approval from the nuclear suppliers group, and claimed instead that its cooperation with Pakistan was \"grandfathered\" when China joined the NSG, a claim that was disputed by other NSG members. Pakistan applied for membership on 19 May 2016, supported by Turkey and China However, many NSG members opposed Pakistan's membership bid due to its track record, including the illicit procurement network of Pakistani scientist A.Q. Khan, which aided the nuclear programs of Iran, Libya and North Korea. Pakistani officials reiterated the request in August 2016.\n\nIsrael\nIsrael has a long-standing policy of deliberate ambiguity with regards to its nuclear program (see List of countries with nuclear weapons). Israel has been developing nuclear technology at its Dimona site in the Negev since 1958, and some nonproliferation analysts estimate that Israel may have stockpiled between 100 and 200 warheads using reprocessed plutonium. The position on the NPT is explained in terms of \"Israeli exceptionality\", a term coined by Professor Gerald M. Steinberg, in reference to the perception that the country's small size, overall vulnerability, as well as the history of deep hostility and large-scale attacks by neighboring states, require a deterrent capability.\nThe Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons, although this is now regarded as an open secret after Israeli junior nuclear technician Mordechai Vanunu—subsequently arrested and sentenced for treason by Israel—published evidence about the program to the British Sunday Times in 1986.\nOn 18 September 2009, the General Conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency called on Israel to open its nuclear facilities to IAEA inspection and adhere to the non-proliferation treaty as part of a resolution on \"Israeli nuclear capabilities\", which passed by a narrow margin of 49–45 with 16 abstentions. The chief Israeli delegate stated that \"Israel will not co-operate in any matter with this resolution.\" However, similar resolutions were defeated in 2010, 2013, 2014, and 2015. As with Pakistan, the NSG Guidelines currently rule out nuclear exports by all major suppliers to Israel.\n\nOther states\nNorth Korea\nNorth Korea acceded to the treaty on 12 December 1985 in order to obtain assistance from the Soviet Union in the construction of four light-water reactors, but was ruled be in noncompliance with its IAEA safeguards agreement after a series of inspections in 1992-93 which determined that North Korea had not fully declared its history of reprocessing spent fuel at the Yongbyon nuclear facility. North Korea responded by announcing its intent to withdraw from the treaty on 12 March 1993, and President Bill Clinton responded by announcing sanctions and considering military action. The crisis ended with the Agreed Framework negotiated by former US President Jimmy Carter in which North Korea agreed to an IAEA-monitored freeze of plutonium production facilities and construction of new reactors in exchange for two light-water reactors and heavy fuel oil shipments through the US-led Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization consortium. North Korea also abandoned its withdrawal from the NPT.\nDuring the late 1990s and the early 2000s critics of the agreement, as well as Clinton's successor George W. Bush, expressed skepticism on North Korean compliance to the Agreed Framework. During 2002 negotiations US Assistant Secretary of State James A. Kelly accused North Korea of a secret highly enriched uranium program; North Korean First Vice Foreign Minister Kang Sok-ju and Vice Foreign Minister Kim Kye-gwan responded by denying the allegations but asserting that North Korea had a right to nuclear weapons. The U.S. subsequently halted fuel oil shipments to North Korea in December 2002 and the DPRK government again gave notice of withdrawal from NPT on 10 January 2003. The withdrawal became effective 10 April 2003 making North Korea the first state ever to withdraw from the treaty.\nIn April 2003, North Korea agreed to the multilateral six-party talks to find a diplomatic solution to the issue hosted by China and including the United States, South Korea, Russia, and Japan. North Korea initially demanded resumption of fuel shipments, while the United States demanded the \"complete, verifiable, and irreversible dismantlement\" of the North Korean nuclear program. On 10 February 2005, North Korea publicly declared that it possessed nuclear weapons and pulled out of the six-party talks. \"We had already taken the resolute action of pulling out of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and have manufactured nuclear arms for self-defence to cope with the Bush administration's evermore undisguised policy to isolate and stifle the DPRK [Democratic People's Republic of Korea],\" a North Korean Foreign Ministry statement said regarding the issue. Six-party talks resumed in July 2005.\nOn 19 September 2005, North Korea announced that it would agree to a preliminary accord. Under the accord, North Korea would scrap all of its existing nuclear weapons and nuclear production facilities, rejoin the NPT, and readmit IAEA inspectors. The difficult issue of the supply of light water reactors to replace North Korea's indigenous nuclear power plant program, as per the 1994 Agreed Framework, was left to be resolved in future discussions. On the next day North Korea reiterated its known view that until it is supplied with a light water reactor it will not dismantle its nuclear arsenal or rejoin the NPT. The six-party talks eventually collapsed before a final agreement could be negotiated after the U.S. State Department sanctioned Banco Delta Asia under Section 311 of the Patriot Act for money-laundering involving North Korean accounts.\nOn 2 October 2006, the North Korean foreign minister announced that his country was planning to conduct a nuclear test \"in the future\", although it did not state when. On Monday, 9 October 2006 at 01:35:28 (UTC) the United States Geological Survey detected a magnitude 4.3 seismic event 70 km (43 mi) north of Kimchaek, North Korea indicating a nuclear test. The North Korean government announced shortly afterward that they had completed a successful underground test of a nuclear fission device. After United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718 imposed sanctions on North Korea, the six-party talks resumed. In February 2007 the parties agreed to the Initial Actions for the Implementation for the Joint Statement in which North Korea would dismantle its nuclear weapons programs, including the Yongbyon reactor, in exchange for the return of frozen funds at Banco Delta Asia and foreign energy assistance. However, the agreement failed due to verification problems and North Korea fully withdrew from the six-party talks in 2009 after the other members condemned the 2009 North Korean missile tests, expelling all US and IAEA inspectors from the country. The UN responded by adopting United Nations Security Council Resolution 1874 expanding the sanctions regime.\nIn 2007, reports from Washington suggested that the 2002 CIA reports stating that North Korea was developing an enriched uranium weapons program, which led to North Korea leaving the NPT, had overstated or misread the intelligence. On the other hand, even apart from these press allegations, there remains some information in the public record indicating the existence of a uranium effort. Quite apart from the fact that North Korean First Vice Minister Kang Sok-ju at one point admitted the existence of a uranium enrichment program, Pakistan's then-President Musharraf revealed that the A.Q. Khan proliferation network had provided North Korea with a number of gas centrifuges designed for uranium enrichment. Additionally, press reports have cited U.S. officials to the effect that evidence obtained in dismantling Libya's WMD programs points toward North Korea as the source for Libya's uranium hexafluoride (UF6)—which, if true, would mean that North Korea has a uranium conversion facility for producing feedstock for centrifuge enrichment. North Korea formally announced the existence of a uranium enrichment program in September 2009.\nIn 2011, after rising tensions over the North Korean nuclear program, the ROKS Cheonan sinking, and the bombardment of Yeonpyeong, North Korea began to express interest in returning to the six-party talks. Bilateral negotiations between North Korea and the United States after the death of Kim Jong-il led to the 29 February 2012 \"Leap Day Agreement\" in which North Korea would agree to allow IAEA inspections and resume the six-party talks. However, these diplomatic gains were quickly undercut by launching the Unha-3 rocket, leading the United States to suspend food aid. North Korea conducted further nuclear tests in 2013, January 2016, September 2016, and 2017, and announced that it was developing miniaturized warheads and intercontinental ballistic missiles. It also claimed that it had successfully detonated thermonuclear weapons in the January 2016 and 2017 tests. The North Korean nuclear weapons development led to the 2017–2018 North Korea crisis which nearly led to war, with both North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un and US President Donald Trump threatening military action. The crisis was averted after a series of meetings between Kim Jong-un, US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, and South Korean President Moon Jae-in finally culminating with the 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit between Trump and Kim, the first face-to-face meeting between the US and North Korean heads of state. The IAEA has called for North Korea to rejoin it and the NPT since 2013.\n\nIran\nIran is a party to the NPT since 1970 but was found in non-compliance with its NPT safeguards agreement, and the status of its nuclear program remains in dispute. In November 2003 IAEA Director General Mohamed ElBaradei reported that Iran had repeatedly and over an extended period failed to meet its safeguards obligations under the NPT with respect to:\n\nreporting of nuclear material imported to Iran;\nreporting of the subsequent processing and use of imported nuclear material;\ndeclaring of facilities and other locations where nuclear material had been stored and processed.\nAfter about two years of EU3-led diplomatic efforts and Iran temporarily suspending its enrichment program, the IAEA Board of Governors, acting under Article XII.C of the IAEA Statute, found in a rare non-consensus decision with 12 abstentions that these failures constituted non-compliance with the IAEA safeguards agreement. This was reported to the UN Security Council in 2006, after which the Security Council passed a resolution demanding that Iran suspend its enrichment.\nInstead, Iran resumed its enrichment program.\nThe IAEA has been able to verify the non-diversion of declared nuclear material in Iran, and is continuing its work on verifying the absence of undeclared activities. In February 2008, the IAEA also reported that it was working to address \"alleged studies\" of weaponization, based on documents provided by certain Member States, which those states claimed originated from Iran. Iran rejected the allegations as \"baseless\" and the documents as \"fabrications\". In June 2009, the IAEA reported that Iran had not \"cooperated with the Agency in connection with the remaining issues ... which need to be clarified to exclude the possibility of military dimensions to Iran's nuclear program.\"\nThe United States concluded that Iran violated its Article III NPT safeguards obligations, and further argued based on circumstantial evidence that Iran's enrichment program was for weapons purposes and therefore violated Iran's Article II nonproliferation obligations. The November 2007 US National Intelligence Estimate (NIE) later concluded that Iran had halted an active nuclear weapons program in the fall of 2003 and that it had remained halted as of mid-2007. The NIE's \"Key Judgments\", however, also made clear that what Iran had actually stopped in 2003 was only \"nuclear weapon design and weaponization work and covert uranium conversion-related and uranium enrichment-related work\"-namely, those aspects of Iran's nuclear weapons effort that had not by that point already been leaked to the press and become the subject of IAEA investigations.\nSince Iran's uranium enrichment program at Natanz—and its continuing work on a heavy water reactor at Arak that would be ideal for plutonium production—began secretly years before in conjunction with the very weaponization work the NIE discussed and for the purpose of developing nuclear weapons, many observers find Iran's continued development of fissile material production capabilities distinctly worrying. Particularly because fissile material availability has long been understood to be the principal obstacle to nuclear weapons development and the primary \"pacing element\" for a weapons program, the fact that Iran has reportedly suspended weaponization work may not mean very much. As The Bush Administration's Director of National Intelligence (DNI) Mike McConnell put it in 2008, the aspects of its work that Iran allegedly suspended were thus \"probably the least significant part of the program.\"\nIran stated it has a legal right to enrich uranium for peaceful purposes under the NPT, and further says that it had \"constantly complied with its obligations under the NPT and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency\". Iran also stated that its enrichment program has been part of its civilian nuclear energy program, which is allowed under Article IV of the NPT. The Non-Aligned Movement has welcomed the continuing cooperation of Iran with the IAEA and reaffirmed Iran's right to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology.\nEarly during his tenure as United Nations Secretary General, between 2007 and 2016, Ban Ki-moon welcomed the continued dialogue between Iran and the IAEA. He urged a peaceful resolution of the issue.\nIn April 2010, during the signing of the U.S.-Russia New START Treaty, President Obama said that the United States, Russia, and other nations were demanding that Iran face consequences for failing to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, saying \"We will not tolerate actions that flout the NPT, risk an arms race in a vital region, and threaten the credibility of the international community and our collective security.\"\nIn 2015, Iran negotiated a nuclear deal with the P5+1, a group of countries that consisted of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) plus Germany. On 14 July 2015, the P5+1 and Iran concluded the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, lifting sanctions on Iran in exchange for constraints and on Iran's nuclear activities and increased verification by the IAEA. On 8 May 2018, President Donald Trump withdrew the United States from the JCPOA and reimposed sanctions on Iran.\n\nSouth Africa\nSouth Africa is the only country that developed nuclear weapons by itself and later dismantled them—unlike the former Soviet states Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which inherited nuclear weapons from the former USSR and also acceded to the NPT as non-nuclear weapon states.\nDuring the days of apartheid, the South African government developed a deep fear of both a black uprising and the threat of communism. This led to the development of a secret nuclear weapons program as an ultimate deterrent. South Africa has a large supply of uranium, which is mined in the country's gold mines. The government built a nuclear research facility at Pelindaba near Pretoria where uranium was enriched to fuel grade for the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station as well as weapon grade for bomb production.\nIn 1991, after international pressure and when a change of government was imminent, South African Ambassador to the United States Harry Schwarz signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In 1993, the then president Frederik Willem de Klerk openly admitted that the country had developed a limited nuclear weapon capability. These weapons were subsequently dismantled before South Africa acceded to the NPT and opened itself up to IAEA inspection. In 1994, the IAEA completed its work and declared that the country had fully dismantled its nuclear weapons program.\n\nLibya\nLibya had signed (in 1968) and ratified (in 1975) the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and was subject to IAEA nuclear safeguards inspections, but undertook a secret nuclear weapons development program in violation of its NPT obligations, using material and technology provided by the A.Q. Khan proliferation network—including actual nuclear weapons designs allegedly originating in China. Libya began secret negotiations with the United States and the United Kingdom in March 2003 over potentially eliminating its WMD programs. In October 2003, Libya was embarrassed by the interdiction of a shipment of Pakistani-designed centrifuge parts sent from Malaysia, also as part of A. Q. Khan's proliferation ring.\nIn December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to eliminate all its WMD programs, and permitted U.S. and British teams (as well as IAEA inspectors) into the country to assist this process and verify its completion. The nuclear weapons designs, gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment, and other equipment—including prototypes for improved SCUD ballistic missiles—were removed from Libya by the United States. (Libyan chemical weapons stocks and chemical bombs were also destroyed on site with international verification, with Libya joining the Chemical Weapons Convention.) Libya's non-compliance with its IAEA safeguards was reported to the U.N. Security Council, but with no action taken, as Libya's return to compliance with safeguards and Article II of the NPT was welcomed.\nIn 2011, the Libyan government of Muammar al-Gaddafi was overthrown in the Libyan Civil War with the assistance of a military intervention by NATO forces acting under the auspices of UN Security Council Resolution 1973. Gaddafi's downfall 8 years after the disarmament of Libya, in which Gaddafi agreed to eliminate Libya's nuclear weapons program, has been repeatedly cited by North Korea, which views Gaddafi's fate as a \"cautionary tale\" that influences North Korea's decision to maintain and intensify its nuclear weapons program and arsenal despite pressure to denuclearize.\n\nSyria\nSyria is a state party to the NPT since 1969 and has a limited civil nuclear program. Before the advent of the Syrian Civil War it was known to operate only one small Chinese-built research reactor, SRR-1. Despite being a proponent of a Weapons of Mass Destruction Free Zone in the Middle East the country was accused of pursuing a military nuclear program with a reported nuclear facility in a desert Deir ez-Zor Governorate. The reactor's components had likely been designed and manufactured in North Korea, with the reactor's striking similarity in shape and size to the North Korean Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center. That information alarmed Israeli military and intelligence to such a degree that the idea of a targeted airstrike was conceived. It resulted in Operation Orchard, that took place on 6 September 2007 and saw as many as eight Israeli Air Force aircraft taking part. The Israeli government is said to have bounced the idea of the operation off of the US Bush administration, although the latter declined to participate. The nuclear reactor was destroyed in the attack, which also killed about ten North Korean workers. The attack did not cause an international outcry or any serious Syrian retaliatory moves as both parties tried to keep it secret: Despite a half-century state of war declared by surrounding states, Israel did not want publicity as regards its breach of the ceasefire, while Syria was not willing to acknowledge its clandestine nuclear program.\n\nUkraine\nUkraine acceded to the NPT in 1994 as a non-nuclear-weapon state, and committed to remove all nuclear weapons from its territory. In recognition of Ukraine's decision, the UK, the United States and Russia provided security assurances to Ukraine under the Budapest Memorandum of 1994.\nIn 1993, political scientist John Mearsheimer argued that the United States should encourage Ukraine to retain a nuclear deterrent against potential Russian expansion, and to reduce the danger of war. After the Russian invasion of 2014 Andreas Umland, an analyst from the Swedish Institute of International Affairs, argued that Ukraine had been unwise to give up its arsenal, as Russia breaking the treaty only had limited consequences, and demonstrated that only a nuclear arsenal guarantees a country's sovereignty in the face of aggression from a nuclear power. However, Mariana Budjeryn of Harvard Kennedy School's Belfer Center, argued that it was unclear whether Ukraine's nuclear arsenal would have kept it safe from Russian aggression. Establishing operative control and maintaining the missiles would have been challenging for Ukraine, which might have faced sanctions had it refused to give up its arsenal.\n\nLeaving the treaty\nArticle X allows a state to leave the treaty if \"extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country\", giving three months' (ninety days') notice. The state is required to give reasons for leaving the NPT in this notice.\nNATO states argue that when there is a state of \"general war\" the treaty no longer applies, effectively allowing the states involved to leave the treaty with no notice. This is a necessary argument to support the NATO nuclear weapons sharing policy. NATO's argument is based on the phrase \"the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war\" in the treaty preamble, inserted at the behest of U.S. diplomats, arguing that the treaty would at that point have failed to fulfill its function of prohibiting a general war and thus no longer be binding. See United States–NATO nuclear weapons sharing above.\nNorth Korea has also caused an uproar by its use of this provision of the treaty. Article X.1 only requires a state to give three months' notice in total, and does not provide for other states to question a state's interpretation of \"supreme interests of its country\". In 1993, North Korea gave notice to withdraw from the NPT. However, after 89 days, North Korea reached agreement with the United States to freeze its nuclear program under the Agreed Framework and \"suspended\" its withdrawal notice. In October 2002, the United States accused North Korea of violating the Agreed Framework by pursuing a secret uranium enrichment program, and suspended shipments of heavy fuel oil under that agreement. In response, North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors, disabled IAEA equipment, and, on 10 January 2003, announced that it was ending the suspension of its previous NPT withdrawal notification. North Korea said that only one more day's notice was sufficient for withdrawal from the NPT, as it had given 89 days before.\nThe IAEA Board of Governors rejected this interpretation. Most countries held that a new three-months withdrawal notice was required, and some questioned whether North Korea's notification met the \"extraordinary events\" and \"supreme interests\" requirements of the treaty. The Joint Statement of 19 September 2005 at the end of the Fourth Round of the Six-Party Talks called for North Korea to \"return\" to the NPT, implicitly acknowledging that it had withdrawn.\n\nRecent and coming events\nThe main outcome of the 2000 Conference was the adoption by consensus of a comprehensive Final Document, which included among other things \"practical steps for the systematic and progressive efforts\" to implement the disarmament provisions of the NPT, commonly referred to as the Thirteen Steps.\nOn 18 July 2005, US President George W. Bush met Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and declared that he would work to change US law and international rules to permit trade in US civilian nuclear technology with India. At the time, British columnist George Monbiot argued that the U.S.-India nuclear deal, in combination with US attempts to deny Iran (an NPT signatory) civilian nuclear fuel-making technology, might destroy the NPT regime.\n\nIn the first half of 2010, it was strongly believed that China had signed a civilian nuclear deal with Pakistan claiming that the deal was \"peaceful\".\nArms control advocates criticised the reported China-Pakistan deal as they did in case of U.S.-India deal claiming that both the deals violate the NPT by facilitating nuclear programmes in states which are not parties to the NPT. Some reports asserted that the deal was a strategic move by China to balance US influence in South-Asia.\nAccording to a report published by U.S. Department of Defense in 2001, China had provided Pakistan with nuclear materials and has given critical technological assistance in the construction of Pakistan's nuclear weapons development facilities, in violation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, of which China even then was a signatory.\nAt the Seventh Review Conference in May 2005, there were stark differences between the United States, which wanted the conference to focus on non-proliferation, especially on its allegations against Iran, and most other countries, who emphasized the lack of serious nuclear disarmament by the nuclear powers. The non-aligned countries reiterated their position emphasizing the need for nuclear disarmament.\nThe 2010 Review Conference was held in May 2010 in New York City, and adopted a final document that included a summary by the Review Conference President, Ambassador Libran Capactulan of the Philippines, and an Action Plan that was adopted by consensus. The 2010 conference was generally considered a success because it reached consensus where the previous Review Conference in 2005 ended in disarray. Many attributed the success of the 2010 conference to U.S. President Barack Obama's commitment to nuclear nonproliferation and disarmament. Some have warned that this success raised unrealistically high expectations that could lead to failure at the next Review Conference in 2015.\nThe \"Global Summit on Nuclear Security\" took place 12–13 April 2010. The summit was proposed by President Obama in Prague and was intended to strengthen the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in conjunction with the Proliferation Security Initiative and the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism. Forty seven states and three international organizations took part in the summit, which issued a communiqué and a work plan. For further information see 2010 Nuclear Security Summit.\n\nIn a major policy speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin on 19 June 2013, Obama outlined plans to further reduce the number of warheads in the U.S. nuclear arsenal. According to Foreign Policy, Obama proposed a \"one-third reduction in strategic nuclear warheads—on top of the cuts already required by the New START treaty—bringing the number of deployed warheads to about 1,000\". Obama is seeking to \"negotiate these reductions with Russia to continue to move beyond Cold War nuclear postures,\" according to briefing documents provided to Foreign Policy. In the same speech, Obama emphasized his administration's efforts to isolate any nuclear weapons capabilities emanating from Iran and North Korea. He also called for a renewed bipartisan effort in the United States Congress to ratify the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty and called on countries to negotiate a new treaty to end the production of fissile material for nuclear weapons.\nOn 24 April 2014, it was announced that the nation of the Marshall Islands has brought suit in The Hague against the United States, the former Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel seeking to have the disarmament provisions of the NPT enforced.\nThe 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) was held at the United Nations in New York from 27 April to 22 May 2015 and presided over by Ambassador Taous Feroukhi of Algeria. The Treaty, particularly article VIII, paragraph 3, envisages a review of the operation of the Treaty every five years, a provision which was reaffirmed by the States parties at the 1995 NPT Review and Extension Conference and the 2000 NPT Review Conference. At the 2015 NPT Review Conference, States parties examined the implementation of the Treaty's provisions since 2010. Despite intensive consultations, the Conference was not able to reach agreement on the substantive part of the draft Final Document.\nThe Tenth Review Conference convened 1–26 August 2022, after a two-year postponement due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and concluded without adopting a final document. Contentious negotiations came close to consensus on a text, but ultimately Russia blocked consensus over issues related to its invasion of Ukraine, including references to the safety of the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant in the draft text.\nOn June 23, 2023, The US Department of State issued a statement that the United States hosted the meeting on June 13–14 in Cairo among the five nuclear weapons states, describing it as \"an ongoing exchange in the context of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).\"\n\nCriticism and responses\nOver the years the NPT has come to be seen by many Third World states as \"a conspiracy of the nuclear 'haves' to keep the nuclear 'have-nots' in their place\". This argument has roots in Article VI of the treaty which \"obligates the nuclear weapons states to liquidate their nuclear stockpiles and pursue complete disarmament. The non-nuclear states see no signs of this happening\". Some argue that the NWS have not fully complied with their disarmament obligations under Article VI of the NPT. Some countries such as India have criticized the NPT, because it \"discriminated against states not possessing nuclear weapons on 1 January 1967,\" while Iran and numerous Arab states have criticized Israel for not signing the NPT. There has been disappointment with the limited progress on nuclear disarmament, where the five authorized nuclear weapons states still have 13,400 warheads (as of February 2021) among them.\nAs noted above, the International Court of Justice, in its advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, stated that \"there exists an obligation to pursue in good faith and bring to a conclusion negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under strict and effective international control\". Some critics of the nuclear-weapons states contend that they have failed to comply with Article VI by failing to make disarmament the driving force in national planning and policy with respect to nuclear weapons, even while they ask other states to plan for their security without nuclear weapons.\nThe United States responds to criticism of its disarmament record by pointing out that, since the end of the Cold War, it has eliminated over 13,000 nuclear weapons, and eliminated over 80% of its deployed strategic warheads and 90% of non-strategic warheads deployed to NATO, in the process eliminating whole categories of warheads and delivery systems and reducing its reliance on nuclear weapons. U.S. officials have also pointed out the ongoing U.S. work to dismantle nuclear warheads. By the time accelerated dismantlement efforts ordered by President George W. Bush were completed, the U.S. arsenal was less than a quarter of its size at the end of the Cold War, and smaller than it had been at any point since the Eisenhower administration, well before the drafting of the NPT.\nThe United States has also purchased many thousands of weapons' worth of uranium formerly in Soviet nuclear weapons for conversion into reactor fuel. As a consequence of this latter effort, it has been estimated that the equivalent of one lightbulb in every ten in the United States is powered by nuclear fuel removed from warheads previously targeted at the United States and its allies during the Cold War.\nThe U.S. Special Representative for Nuclear Nonproliferation agreed that nonproliferation and disarmament are linked, noting that they can be mutually reinforcing but also that growing proliferation risks create an environment that makes disarmament more difficult. The United Kingdom, France and Russia likewise defend their nuclear disarmament records, and the five NPT NWS issued a joint statement in 2008 reaffirming their Article VI disarmament commitments.\nAccording to Thomas Reed and Danny Stillman, the \"NPT has one giant loophole\": Article IV gives each non-nuclear weapon state the \"inalienable right\" to pursue nuclear energy for the generation of power. A \"number of high-ranking officials, even within the United Nations, have argued that they can do little to stop states using nuclear reactors to produce nuclear weapons\". A 2009 United Nations report said that:\n\nThe revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.\n\nAccording to critics, those states which possess nuclear weapons, but are not authorized to do so under the NPT, have not paid a significant price for their pursuit of weapons capabilities. Also, the NPT has been explicitly weakened by a number of bilateral deals made by NPT signatories, notably the United States.\nBased on concerns over the slow pace of nuclear disarmament and the continued reliance on nuclear weapons in military and security concepts, doctrines and policies, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons was adopted in July 2017 and was subsequently opened for signature on 20 September 2017. Entering into force on 22 January 2021, it prohibits each state party from the development, testing, production, stockpiling, stationing, transfer, use and threat of use of nuclear weapons, as well as assistance to those activities. It reaffirms in its preamble the vital role of the full and effective implementation of the NPT.\nIneffective enforcement of territorial integrity and rule of law in the 21st century could undermine the credibility of the security assurances that are part of the current global nuclear order.\n\nSee also\n13 steps (an important section in the Final Document of the 2000 Review Conference of the Treaty)\nChemical Weapons Convention\nComprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)\nNuclear deterrence\nHumanitarian Initiative\nGlobal Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT)\nMissile Technology Control Regime (MNuclear blackmailTCR)\nNew Agenda Coalition (NAC)\nNon-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative (NPDI)\nNuclear armament\nNuclear blackmail\nNuclear warfare\nNuclear-weapon-free zone\nMulti-country zones\nAfrican Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Pelindaba)\nCentral Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (Treaty of Semei)\nSouth Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Rarotonga)\nSoutheast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty (Treaty of Bangkok)\nTreaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco)\nOther UN-recognized zones\nMongolian Nuclear-Weapons-Free Zone\nOuter Space Treaty\nSeabed Arms Control Treaty\nNuclear Terrorism\nProliferation Security Initiative (PSI)\nStrategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)\nStrategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT)\nTragedy of the commons\nTreaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (also known as the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty)\nWeapon of Mass Destruction (WMD)\nZangger Committee\nList of states with nuclear weapons\nList of weapons of mass destruction treaties\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (PDF) – IAEA\nUN Office of Disarmament Affairs NPT section\nProcedural history, related documents and photos on the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law\nMembership/Signatories\nAnnotated Bibliography on the NPT from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues\nCompilation of speeches and papers relevant to NPT Review Cycle, U.S. Department of State\nAnnotated bibliography for the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues",
"title": "Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons"
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"paragraph_text": "The Band was a Canadian-American rock band formed in Toronto, Ontario, in 1967. It consisted of Canadians Rick Danko (bass, guitar, vocals, fiddle), Garth Hudson (organ, keyboards, accordion, saxophone), Richard Manuel (piano, drums, vocals), Robbie Robertson (guitar, vocals, piano, percussion), and American Levon Helm (drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, bass). The Band's music combined elements of Americana, folk, rock, jazz and country, which influenced artists such as George Harrison, Elton John, the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton and Wilco. \nBetween 1958 and 1963, the group was known as the Hawks, a backing band for rockabilly singer Ronnie Hawkins. In the mid-1960s, they gained recognition for being the backing group for Bob Dylan, with his 1966 concert tour being notable as Dylan's first with an electric band. After leaving Dylan and changing their name to The Band, they released several records to critical and popular acclaim, most notably their 1968 debut, Music from Big Pink and its succeeding album, 1969's The Band. According to AllMusic, Music from Big Pink's influence on several generations of musicians has been substantial: Pink Floyd member Roger Waters called it the second-most influential record in the history of rock and roll, and music journalist Al Aronowitz called it \"country soul ... a sound never heard before\". Their most popular songs included \"The Weight\" (1968), \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" (1969), and \"Up on Cripple Creek\" (1969).\nThe Band performed their farewell concert on November 25, 1976. Footage from the event was released in 1978 as the concert film The Last Waltz, directed by Martin Scorsese. It would be the last performance of the original five members. After five years apart, Danko, Hudson, Helm, and Manuel reunited in 1983, without Robertson, for a reunion tour. Robertson had taken up a new career as a producer and composer for film soundtracks. Manuel died in 1986, but the remaining three members would continue to tour and occasionally release new albums of studio material until 1999, when, upon the death of Danko, the remaining members decided to break up for good. Helm would go on to have a successful solo career, winning multiple Grammy Awards in the folk and Americana categories until his 2012 death, while Hudson worked as a featured session musician. Robertson died in 2023, leaving Hudson as the only living member of the original lineup.\nMusic critic Bruce Eder described The Band as \"one of the most popular and influential rock groups in the world, their music embraced by critics ... as seriously as the music of the Beatles and the Rolling Stones.\" The Band was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1989 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked them 50th on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\", and ranked \"The Weight\" 41st on its list of the \"500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". In 2008, the group received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2014, they were inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.\n\nHistory\n1957–1964: The Hawks\nThe future members of The Band first played together as the Hawks, the backing group for Toronto-based rockabilly singer Ronnie Hawkins. Levon Helm began playing with the group in 1957, then became their fulltime drummer after graduating from high school in 1958. Helm journeyed with Hawkins from Arkansas to Ontario, where they were joined by Robbie Robertson, Rick Danko, Richard Manuel, and finally Garth Hudson. Latter-day Band member Stan Szelest was also in the group at that time. Hawkins's act was popular in and around Toronto and nearby Hamilton, and he had an effective way of eliminating his musical competition: when a promising band appeared, Hawkins would hire their best musicians for his own group; Robertson, Danko, and Manuel came under Hawkins's tutelage this way.\nWhile most of the Hawks were eager to join Hawkins's group, getting Hudson to join was more difficult. Having earned a college degree, Hudson planned on a career as a music teacher, and was only interested in playing rock music only as a hobby. The Hawks admired his wild, full-bore organ style and asked him repeatedly to join. Hudson finally agreed, under the condition that the Hawks each pay him $10 per week to be their instructor and purchase a new state-of-the-art Lowrey organ; all music theory questions were directed to Hudson.\n\nWith Hawkins, they recorded a few singles in this period and became well known as the best rock group in the thriving Toronto music scene. Hawkins regularly convened all-night rehearsals following long club shows, with the result that the young musicians quickly developed great technical prowess on their instruments.\nIn late 1963, the group split from Hawkins over personal differences. They had grown tired of playing the same songs so often and wanted to perform original material, and they were also wary of Hawkins's heavy-handed leadership. He would fine the Hawks if they brought their girlfriends to the clubs (fearing it might reduce the numbers of \"available\" girls who came to performances) or if they smoked marijuana.\nRobertson later said, \"Eventually, [Hawkins] built us up to the point where we outgrew his music and had to leave. He shot himself in the foot, really, by sharpening us into such a crackerjack band that we had to go on out into the world, because we knew what his vision was for himself, and we were all younger and more ambitious musically.\"\nUpon leaving Hawkins, the group was briefly known as the Levon Helm Sextet, with a sixth member, saxophonist Jerry Penfound, and then as Levon and the Hawks after Penfound's departure. In 1965, they released a single on Ware Records under the name the Canadian Squires, but they returned as Levon and the Hawks for a recording session for Atco later that year. Also in 1965, Helm and the band met blues singer and harmonica player Sonny Boy Williamson. They wanted to record with him, offering to become his backing band, but Williamson died not long after their meeting.\nLater in 1965, American musician Bob Dylan hired the group as his backing band for his U.S. tour in 1965 and world tour in 1966. Following the 1966 tour, the group moved with help from Dylan and his manager, Albert Grossman, to Saugerties, New York, where they made the informal 1967 recordings that became The Basement Tapes, the basis for their 1968 debut album, Music from Big Pink. Because they were always referred to simply as \"the band\" to various frontmen and the locals in Woodstock, Helm said the name \"The Band\" worked well when the group came into its own. The group decided on it as their official name began performing as under it in from 1968 onward. Dylan continued to collaborate with The Band over the course of their career, most notably in a joint 1974 tour.\n\n1965–1967: With Bob Dylan\nIn late summer 1965, Bob Dylan was looking for a backup band for his first U.S. \"electric\" tour. Levon and the Hawks were recommended by blues singer John P. Hammond, who earlier that year had recorded with Helm, Hudson and Robertson on his Vanguard album So Many Roads. Around the same time, one of their friends from Toronto, Mary Martin, was working as secretary to Dylan's manager, Albert Grossman. She told Dylan to visit the group at Le Coq d'Or Tavern, a club on Yonge Street, in Toronto—though Robertson recollects it was the Friar's Tavern, just down the street. Her advice to Dylan: \"You gotta see these guys.\"\nAfter hearing The Band play and meeting with Robertson, Dylan invited Helm and Robertson to join his backing band. After two concerts backing Dylan, Helm and Robertson told Dylan of their loyalty to their bandmates and told him that they would continue with him only if he hired all of the Hawks. Dylan accepted and invited Levon and the Hawks to tour with him. The group was receptive to the offer, knowing it could give them the wider exposure they craved. They thought of themselves as a tightly rehearsed rock and rhythm and blues group and knew Dylan mostly from his early acoustic folk and protest music. Furthermore, they had little inkling of how internationally popular Dylan had become.\nWith Dylan, the Hawks played a series of concerts from September 1965 through May 1966, billed as \"Bob Dylan and the Band\". The tours were marked by Dylan's reportedly copious use of amphetamines. Some, though not all, of the Hawks joined in the excesses. Most of the concerts were met with heckling and disapproval from folk music purists. Helm was so affected by the negative reception that he left the tour after a little more than one month and sat out the rest of that year's concerts, as well as the world tour in 1966. Helm spent much of this period working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico.\nDuring and between tours, Dylan and the Hawks attempted several recording sessions, but with less than satisfying results. Sessions in October and November yielded just one usable single (\"Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?\"), and two days of recording in January 1966 for what was intended to be Dylan's next album, Blonde on Blonde, resulted in \"One of Us Must Know (Sooner or Later)\", which was released as a single a few weeks later and was subsequently selected for the album. On \"One of Us Must Know\", Dylan was backed by drummer Bobby Gregg, bassist Danko (or Bill Lee), guitarist Robbie Robertson, pianist Paul Griffin, and Al Kooper (who was more a guitarist than an organist) playing organ. Frustrated by the slow progress in the New York studio, Dylan accepted the suggestion of producer Bob Johnston and moved the recording sessions to Nashville. In Nashville, Robertson's guitar was prominent on the Blonde on Blonde recordings, especially in the song \"Leopard-Skin Pill-Box Hat\", but the other members of the Hawks did not attend the sessions.\nDuring the European leg of their 1966 world tour, Mickey Jones replaced Sandy Konikoff on drums. Dylan and the Hawks played at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester on May 17, 1966. The gig became legendary when, near the end of Dylan's electric set, an audience member shouted \"Judas!\" After a pause, Dylan replied, \"I don't believe you. You're a liar!\" He then turned to the Hawks and said, \"Play it fucking loud!\" With that, they launched into an acidic version of \"Like a Rolling Stone\".\nThe Manchester performance was widely bootlegged (and mistakenly placed at the Royal Albert Hall). In a 1971 review for Creem, critic Dave Marsh wrote, \"My response is that crystallization of everything that is rock'n'roll music, at its finest, was to allow my jaw to drop, my body to move, to leap out of the chair ... It is an experience that one desires simply to share, to play over and over again for those he knows thirst for such pleasure. If I speak in an almost worshipful sense about this music, it is not because I have lost perspective, it is precisely because I have found it, within music, yes, that was made five years ago. But it is there and unignorable.\" When the concert finally saw an official release as The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The \"Royal Albert Hall\" Concert in 1998, critic Richie Unterberger declared the record \"an important document of rock history.\"\nOn July 29, 1966, while on a break from touring, Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident that precipitated his retreat into semi-seclusion in Woodstock, New York. For a while, the Hawks returned to the bar and roadhouse touring circuit, sometimes backing other singers, including a brief stint with Tiny Tim. Dylan invited the Hawks to join him in Woodstock in February 1967, and Danko, Hudson, and Manuel rented a large pink house, which they named \"Big Pink\", in nearby West Saugerties, New York. The next month (initially without Helm) they commenced recording a much-bootlegged and influential series of demos, initially at Dylan's house in Woodstock and later at Big Pink, which were released partially on LP as The Basement Tapes in 1975 and in full in 2014. A track-by-track review of the bootleg was detailed by Jann Wenner in Rolling Stone, in which the band members were explicitly named and given the collective name \"the Crackers\". While Helm was not involved in the initial recording, he did perform in later sessions and in overdubs recorded in 1975 before the album's release.\n\n1968–1972: Initial success with Music from Big Pink self-titled album\nThe sessions with Dylan ended in October 1967, with Helm having rejoined the group by that time, and the Hawks began writing their own songs at Big Pink. When they went into the recording studio, they still did not have a name for themselves. Stories vary as to the manner in which they ultimately adopted the name \"The Band\". In The Last Waltz, Manuel claimed that they wanted to call themselves either \"the Honkies\" or \"the Crackers\" (which they used when backing Dylan for a January 1968 concert tribute to Woody Guthrie), but these names were vetoed by their record label; Robertson suggests that during their time with Dylan everyone just referred to them as \"the band\" and the name stuck. Initially they disliked the moniker, but eventually they grew to like it, thinking it both humble and presumptuous. In 1969, Rolling Stone referred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\".\nTheir debut album, Music from Big Pink was released in July 1968 and was widely acclaimed. It included three songs written or co-written by Dylan (\"This Wheel's on Fire\", \"Tears of Rage\" and \"I Shall Be Released\") as well as \"The Weight\", which became one of their best-known songs after it was used in the 1969 film Easy Rider. While a thematic continuity ran through the music, the musical style varied from song to song.\n\nIn early 1969, after the success of Music from Big Pink, The Band went on tour, starting with an appearance at Winterland Ballroom. They performed at the Woodstock Festival (their performance was not included in the famed Woodstock film because of legal complications), and later that year they performed with Dylan at the UK Isle of Wight Festival (several songs from which were subsequently included on Dylan's Self Portrait album). That same year, they left for Los Angeles to record their follow-up, The Band (1969). From their rustic appearance on the cover to the songs and arrangements within, the album stood in contrast to other popular music of the day. Several other artists made similar stylistic moves about the same time, notably Dylan, on John Wesley Harding, which was written during the Basement Tapes sessions, and the Byrds, on Sweetheart of the Rodeo, which featured two Basement Tapes covers. The Band featured songs that evoked old-time rural America, from the Civil War in \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" to the unionization of farm workers in \"King Harvest (Has Surely Come)\".\nThese first two records were produced by John Simon, who was practically a group member: he aided in arrangements in addition to playing occasional piano and tuba. Simon reported that he was often asked about the distinctive horn sections featured so effectively on the first two albums: people wanted to know how they had achieved such memorable sounds. Simon stated that, besides Hudson (an accomplished saxophonist), the others had only rudimentary horn skills, and achieved their sound simply by creatively using their limited technique.\nRolling Stone lavished praise on The Band in this era, giving them more attention than perhaps any other group in the magazine's history; Greil Marcus's articles contributed to The Band's mystique. The Band was also featured on the cover of Time (January 12, 1970), the first rock group after the Beatles, over two years earlier, to achieve this rare distinction. David Attie's unused photographs for this cover—among the very few studio portraits taken during the Band's prime—have only recently been discovered, and were featured in Daniel Roher's Robbie Robertson documentary Once Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, as well as having their own four-page spread in Harvey Kubernik and Ken Kubernik's “The Story of the Band: From Big Pink to The Last Waltz” (Sterling Publishing, 2018).\nA critical and commercial triumph, The Band, along with works by the Byrds and the Flying Burrito Brothers, established a musical template (dubbed country rock) that paved the way to the Eagles. Both Big Pink and The Band also influenced their musical contemporaries. Eric Clapton and George Harrison cited The Band as a major influence on their musical direction in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Clapton later revealed that he wanted to join the group. While he never did join, he recruited all of the members of The Band as well as other roots rock performers for his 1976 album No Reason to Cry.\nFollowing their second album, The Band embarked on their first tour as a lead act. The anxiety of fame was clear, as the group's songs turned to darker themes of fear and alienation: the influence on their next work is self-explanatory. Stage Fright (1970) was engineered by musician-engineer-producer Todd Rundgren and recorded on a theatre stage in Woodstock. As with their previous, self-titled record, Robertson was credited with most of the songwriting. Initial critical reaction was positive, but it was seen as a disappointment from the previous two albums for various reasons. After recording Stage Fright, The Band was among the acts participating in the Festival Express, an all-star rock concert tour of Canada by train that also included Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead and future Band member Richard Bell (at the time he was a member of Joplin's band). In the concert documentary film, released in 2003, Danko can be seen participating in a drunken jam session with Jerry Garcia, Bob Weir, John Dawson, and Joplin while singing \"Ain't No More Cane\".\nAt about this time, Robertson began exerting greater control over The Band, a point of contention between him and Helm. Helm charges Robertson with authoritarianism and greed, while Robertson suggests his increased efforts in guiding the group were largely because Danko, Helm, and Manuel were becoming more unreliable due to their heroin usage. Robertson insists he did his best to coax Manuel into writing more songs, only to see him descend into addiction.\nDespite mounting problems among the group members, The Band forged ahead with their next album, Cahoots (1971). Cahoots featured Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\", \"4% Pantomime\" (with Van Morrison), and \"Life Is a Carnival\", the last featuring a horn arrangement by Allen Toussaint. Toussaint's contribution was a critical addition to The Band's next project, and the group would later record two songs written by Toussaint: \"Holy Cow\" on Moondog Matinee and \"You See Me\" on Jubilation. In late December 1971, The Band recorded the live album Rock of Ages, which was released in the summer of 1972. On Rock of Ages, they were bolstered by the addition of a horn section, with arrangements written by Toussaint. Dylan appeared on stage on New Year's Eve and performed four songs with the group, including a version of \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\".\n\n1973–1975: Move to Shangri-La\nIn 1973, The Band released the covers album Moondog Matinee. There was no tour in support of the album, which garnered mixed reviews. However, on July 28, 1973, they played at the legendary Summer Jam at Watkins Glen, a massive concert that took place at the Grand Prix Raceway outside Watkins Glen, New York. The event, which was attended by over 600,000 fans, also featured the Grateful Dead and the Allman Brothers Band. It was during this event that discussions began about a possible tour with Bob Dylan, who had moved to Malibu, California, along with Robertson. By late 1973, Danko, Helm, Hudson and Manuel had joined them, and the first order of business was backing Dylan on his album Planet Waves. The album was released concurrently with their joint 1974 tour, in which they played 40 shows in North America during January and February 1974. Later that year, the tour was documented on the live album Before the Flood,.\nDuring this time, The Band brought in Planet Waves producer Rob Fraboni to help design a music studio for the group. By 1975, the studio, Shangri-La, was completed. That year, The Band recorded and released Northern Lights – Southern Cross, their first album of all-new material since 1971. All eight songs were written solely by Robertson. Despite comparatively poor record sales, the album is favored by critics and fans. Levon Helm regards this album highly in his book, This Wheel's on Fire: \"It was the best album we had done since The Band.\" The album also produced more experimentation from Hudson, switching to synthesizers, showcased on \"Jupiter Hollow\".\n\n1976–1978: The Last Waltz\nBy the mid-1970s, Robbie Robertson was weary of touring. After Northern Lights – Southern Cross failed to meet commercial expectations, much of the group's 1976 tour was confined to theaters and smaller arenas in secondary markets (including the Santa Cruz Civic Auditorium, the Long Island Arena and the Champlain Valley Expo in Essex Junction, Vermont), culminating in an opening slot for the ascendant ZZ Top at the Nashville Fairgrounds in September. In early September, Richard Manuel suffered a severe neck injury in a boating accident in Texas, prompting Robertson to urge The Band to retire from live performances after staging a massive \"farewell concert\" known as The Last Waltz. Following an October 30 appearance on Saturday Night Live, the event, including turkey dinner for the audience of 5,000, was held on November 25 (Thanksgiving Day) of 1976 at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, California, and featured a horn section with arrangements by Allen Toussaint and an allstar lineup of guests, including Canadian artists Joni Mitchell and Neil Young. Two of the guests were fundamental to The Band's existence and growth: Ronnie Hawkins and Bob Dylan. Other guests they admired (and in most cases had worked with before) included Muddy Waters, Dr. John, Van Morrison, Ringo Starr, Eric Clapton, Ron Wood, Bobby Charles, Neil Diamond, and Paul Butterfield. The concert was filmed by Robertson's friend, filmmaker Martin Scorsese.\nIn 1977, The Band released their seventh studio album Islands, which fulfilled their record contract with Capitol so that a planned Last Waltz film and album could be released on the Warner Bros. label. Islands contained a mix of originals and covers, and was the last with The Band's original lineup. That same year, the group recorded soundstage performances with country singer Emmylou Harris (\"Evangeline\") and gospel-soul group the Staple Singers (\"The Weight\"); Scorsese combined these new performances—as well as interviews he had conducted with the group—with the 1976 concert footage. The resulting concert film–documentary was released in 1978, along with a three-LP soundtrack.\nHelm later wrote about The Last Waltz in his autobiography, This Wheel's on Fire, in which he made the case that it had been primarily Robbie Robertson's project and that Robertson had forced The Band's breakup on the rest of the group. Robertson offered a different take in a 1986 interview: \"I made my big statement. I did the movie, I made a three-record album about it—and if this is only my statement, not theirs, I'll accept that. They're saying, 'Well, that was really his trip, not our trip.' Well, fine. I'll take the best music film that's ever been made, and make it my statement. I don't have any problems with that. None at all.\"\nThe original quintet would perform together one last time: on March 1, 1978 after the late set of a Rick Danko solo show at The Roxy, the group performed \"Stage Fright\", \"The Shape I'm In\", and \"The Weight\" for an encore. Although the members of the group intended to continue working on studio projects, they drifted apart after the release of Islands in March 1977.\n\n1983–1989: Reformation and the death of Richard Manuel\nThe Band resumed touring in 1983 without Robertson. Accomplished musician from Woodstock, NY, Jim Weider became lead guitarist. Robertson had found success with a solo career and as a Hollywood music producer. As a result of their diminished popularity, they performed in theaters and clubs as headliners and took support slots in larger venues for onetime peers such as the Grateful Dead and Crosby, Stills and Nash.\nAfter a performance in Winter Park, Florida, on March 4, 1986, Manuel hanged himself, aged 42, in his motel room. He had suffered for many years from alcoholism and drug addiction and had been clean and sober for several years beginning in 1978 but had begun drinking and using drugs again by 1984. Manuel's position as pianist was filled by old friend Stan Szelest (who died not long after) and then by Richard Bell. Bell had played with Ronnie Hawkins after the departure of the original Hawks, and was best known from his days as a member of Janis Joplin's Full Tilt Boogie Band.\nThe Band was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame at the 1989 Juno Awards, where Robertson was reunited with original members Danko and Hudson. With Canadian country rock superstars Blue Rodeo as a back-up band, Music Express called the 1989 Juno appearance a symbolic \"passing of the torch\" from The Band to Blue Rodeo.\n\n1990–1999: Return to final recording and the death of Rick Danko\nIn 1990, Capitol Records began to re-release the records from the 1970s. The remaining three members continued to tour and record albums with a succession of musicians filling Manuel's and Robertson's roles. The Band appeared at Bob Dylan's 30th anniversary concert in New York City in October 1992, where they performed their version of Dylan's \"When I Paint My Masterpiece\". In 1993, the group released their eighth studio album, Jericho. Without Robbie Robertson as primary lyricist, much of the songwriting for the album came from outside of the group. Also that year, The Band, along with Ronnie Hawkins, Bob Dylan, and other performers, appeared at U.S. President Bill Clinton's 1993 \"Blue Jean Bash\" inauguration party.\nIn 1994, The Band performed at Woodstock '94. Later that year Robertson appeared with Danko and Hudson as the Band for the second time since the original group broke up. The occasion was the induction of The Band into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Helm, who had been at odds with Robertson for years over accusations of stolen songwriting credits, did not attend. In February 1996, The Band with the Crickets recorded \"Not Fade Away\", released on the tribute album Not Fade Away (Remembering Buddy Holly). The Band released two more albums after Jericho: High on the Hog (1996) and Jubilation (1998), the latter of which included guest appearances by Eric Clapton and John Hiatt. Helm was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1998 and was unable to sing for several years but he eventually regained the use of his voice.\nIn 1998, the group revealed they were working on a follow-up album to Jubilation that has not been released.\nThe final song the group recorded together was their 1999 version of Bob Dylan's \"One Too Many Mornings\", which they contributed to the Dylan tribute album Tangled Up in Blues. On December 10, 1999, Rick Danko died in his sleep at the age of 55. Following his death, The Band broke up for good. The final configuration of the group included Richard Bell (piano), Randy Ciarlante (drums), and Jim Weider (guitar).\n\n2000–present\nIn 2002, Robertson bought all other former members' financial interests in the group (with the exception of Helm's), giving him major control of the presentation of the group's material, including latter-day compilations. Richard Bell died of multiple myeloma in June 2007.\nThe Band received a Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award on February 9, 2008, but there was no reunion of former members. In honor of the event, Helm held a Midnight Ramble in Woodstock. He continued to perform and released several albums. On April 17, 2012, it was announced via Helm's official website that he was in the \"final stages of cancer\"; he died two days later.\nIn December 2020, it was announced that the third album of The Band, Stage Fright, would get an expanded reissue. The album has alternate versions of some songs.\nRobbie Robertson died at the age of 80 on August 9, 2023, after battling prostate cancer. With Robertson's death, Garth Hudson is the last living original member of the group.\n\nMembers' other endeavours\nIn 1977, Rick Danko released his eponymous debut solo album, which featured the other four members of The Band on various tracks. In 1984, Danko joined members of the Byrds, the Flying Burrito Brothers, and others in the huge touring company that made up \"The Byrds Twenty-Year Celebration\". Several members of the tour performed solo songs to start the show, including Danko, who performed \"Mystery Train\". Danko also released two collaboraive albums with Eric Andersen and Jonas Fjeld, along with some live and compilation albums in the 1990s and 2000s; many of the latter records were produced by Aaron L. Hurwitz and are on the Breeze Hill/Woodstock Records Label.\nIn the late 1970s and 1980s, Helm released several solo albums and toured with a band called Levon Helm and the RCO Allstars. He also began an acting career with his role as Loretta Lynn's father in Coal Miner's Daughter. Helm received praise for his narration and supporting role opposite Sam Shepard in 1983's The Right Stuff. In 1997, a CD by Levon Helm and the Crowmatix, Souvenir, was released. Beginning sometime in the 1990s, Helm regularly performed Midnight Ramble concerts at his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, and toured. In 2007 Helm released a new album, an homage to his southern roots called Dirt Farmer, which was awarded a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Album on February 9, 2008. Electric Dirt followed in 2009 and won the inaugural Grammy Award for Best Americana Album. His 2011 live album Ramble at the Ryman won in the same category.\nAfter he left The Band, Robbie Robertson became a music producer and wrote film soundtracks (including acting as music supervisor for several of Scorsese's films) before beginning a solo career with his Daniel Lanois-produced eponymous album in 1987. Robertson continued mostly scoring films until his death in 2023.\nHudson has released two solo CDs, The Sea to the North in 2001, produced by Aaron (Professor Louie) Hurwitz, and Live at the Wolf in 2005, both featuring his wife, Maud, on vocals. He has also kept busy as an in-demand studio musician. He is featured extensively on recordings of the Call and country-indie star Neko Case. Hudson contributed an original electronic score to an off-Broadway production of Dragon Slayers, written by Stanley Keyes and directed by Brad Mays in 1986 at the Union Square Theatre in New York, which was restaged with a new cast in Los Angeles in 1990. In 2010, Hudson released Garth Hudson Presents: A Canadian Celebration of The Band, featuring Canadian artists covering songs that were recorded by The Band.\nIn 2012, Jim Weider launched The Weight Band, performing covers of The Band's music, alongside former members of the Levon Helm Band and Rick Danko Group. The Weight Band performed in a nationally broadcast PBS special, Infinity Hall Live, featuring new music. Following the show, the band announced a self-titled album of new music. The Weight Band also hosts Camp Cripple Creek, which celebrates the legacy of the Woodstock Sound. Past guests have included Jackie Greene, Music from Big Pink producer John Simon and John Sebastian.\nManuel had few projects outside The Band; he and the rest of The Band contributed to Eric Clapton's 1976 album No Reason to Cry. It included an original composition by Manuel and featured his vocals and drumming on several tracks. Manuel later worked on several film scores with Hudson and Robertson, including Raging Bull and The Color of Money. Whispering Pines: Live at the Getaway was released in 2002.\n\nMusical style\nThe Band's music fused many elements: although primarily incorporating old country music and early rock and roll, the rhythm section often was reminiscent of Stax- or Motown-style rhythm and blues, and Robertson cites Curtis Mayfield and the Staple Singers as major influences, resulting in a synthesis of many musical genres. Singers Manuel, Danko, and Helm each brought a distinctive voice to The Band: Helm's Southern accent was prevalent in his raw and powerful vocals, Danko sang tenor with a distinctively choppy enunciation, and Manuel alternated between falsetto and a soulful baritone. The singers regularly blended in harmonies. Though the singing was more or less evenly shared among the three, both Danko and Helm have stated that they saw Manuel as The Band's \"lead\" singer.\nEvery member was a multi-instrumentalist. There was little instrument-switching when they played live, but when recording, the musicians could make up different configurations in service of the songs. Hudson in particular was able to coax a wide range of timbres from his Lowrey organ. Helm's drumming was often praised: critic Jon Carroll declared that Helm was \"the only drummer who can make you cry,\" while prolific session drummer Jim Keltner admits to appropriating several of Helm's techniques. Producer John Simon is often cited as a \"sixth member\" of The Band for producing and playing on Music from Big Pink, co-producing and playing on The Band, and playing on other songs up through The Band's 1993 reunion album Jericho.\n\nCopyright controversy\nRobertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. This would become a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography, This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that the Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: \"I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band ... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble.\" Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson. The studio albums recorded by Levon Helm as a solo artist—Levon Helm (1978), American Son, Levon Helm (1982), Dirt Farmer, and Electric Dirt—contain only one song crediting him as songwriter (\"Growin' Trade\", co-written with Larry Campbell).\n\nLegacy\nThe Band has influenced numerous bands, songwriters and performers, including the Grateful Dead, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Led Zeppelin, Elvis Costello, Elton John, Phish, and Pink Floyd. The album Music from Big Pink, in particular, is credited with contributing to Clapton's decision to leave the supergroup Cream. In his introduction of The Band during the Bob Dylan 30th Anniversary Concert, Clapton announced that in 1968 he had heard the album, \"and it changed my life.\" The band Nazareth took their name from a line in \"The Weight\". Guitarist Richard Thompson has acknowledged the album's influence on Fairport Convention's Liege and Lief, and journalist John Harris has suggested that The Band's debut also influenced the spirit of the Beatles' back-to-basics album Let It Be as well as the Rolling Stones' string of roots-infused albums that began with Beggars Banquet. George Harrison said that his song \"All Things Must Pass\" was heavily influenced by The Band and that, while writing the song, he imagined Levon Helm singing it. Meanwhile, the \"The Weight\" has been covered numerous times, and in various musical styles. In a 1969 interview, Robbie Robertson remarked on the group's influence, \"We certainly didn't want everybody to go out and get a banjo and a fiddle player. We were trying to calm things down a bit though. What we're going to do now is go to Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and record four sides, four psychedelic songs. Total freak-me songs. Just to show that we have no hard feelings. Just pretty good rock and roll.\"\nIn the 1990s, a new generation of bands influenced by The Band began to gain popularity, including Counting Crows, the Wallflowers, and the Black Crowes. Counting Crows indicated this influence with their tribute to the late Richard Manuel, \"If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead)\", from their album Hard Candy. The Black Crowes frequently cover songs by The Band during live performances, such as \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\", which appears on their DVD/CD Freak 'n' Roll into the Fog. They have also recorded at Helm's studio in Woodstock.\nThe inspiration for the classic rock-influenced band The Hold Steady came while members Craig Finn and Tad Kubler were watching The Last Waltz. Rick Danko and Robbie Robertson are name-checked in the lyrics of \"The Swish\" from the Hold Steady's 2004 debut album Almost Killed Me. Also that year, southern rock-revivalists Drive-By Truckers released the Jason Isbell penned track \"Danko/Manuel\" on the album The Dirty South.\nThe Band also inspired Grace Potter, of Grace Potter and the Nocturnals, to form the band in 2002. In an interview with the Montreal Gazette, Potter said, \"The Band blew my mind. I thought if this is what Matt [Burr] meant when he said 'Let's start a rock 'n' roll band,' ... that was the kind of rock 'n' roll band I could believe in.\"\nA tribute album, entitled Endless Highway: The Music of the Band, released in January 2007, included contributions from My Morning Jacket, Death Cab for Cutie, Gomez, Guster, Bruce Hornsby, Jack Johnson and ALO, Lee Ann Womack, the Allman Brothers Band, Blues Traveler, Jakob Dylan, Rosanne Cash, and others.\nMembers of Wilco, Clap Your Hands Say Yeah, the Shins, Dr Dog, Yellowbirds, Ween, Furthur, and other bands staged The Complete Last Waltz in 2012 and 2013. Their performances included all 41 songs from the original 1976 concert in sequence, even those edited out of the film. Musical director Sam Cohen of Yellowbirds claims \"the movie is pretty ingrained in me. I've watched it probably 100 times.\"\nAn incarnation of the Band's legacy, The Weight Band, originated inside the barn of Levon Helm in 2012 when Jim Weider and Randy Ciarlante, both former members of The Band, were performing \"Songs of the Band\" with Garth Hudson, Jimmy Vivino and Byron Isaacs. In July 2017, PBS's Infinity Hall Live program began airing a televised performance by The Weight Band, featuring Band covers and new music by the band.\nEvery year on the Wednesday before and the Friday after Thanksgiving, Dayton, Ohio NPR affiliate WYSO and The Dayton Art Institute host a tribute to The Last Waltz. Frequently selling out, the show features more than 30 local musicians. A similar event takes place annually in Madison, Wisconsin, on the Saturday night after Thanksgiving.\nThe Band are the subjects of the 2019 documentary film Once Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and the Band, which premiered at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival.\nThe Band is the subject of an extensive historical podcast, The Band: A History, currently covering the entire history of the group.\n\nMembers\nRick Danko – bass guitar, vocals, guitar, double bass, fiddle (1965–1977, 1983–1999; his death)\nLevon Helm – drums, vocals, mandolin, guitar, percussion, bass (1967–1977, 1983–1999; died 2012)\nGarth Hudson – keyboards, organ, saxophone, accordion, woodwinds, brass (1965–1977, 1983–1999)\nRichard Manuel – piano, drums, organ, vocals (1965–1977, 1983–1986; his death)\nRobbie Robertson – guitars, vocals, percussion, piano (1965–1977; died 2023)\nJim Weider – guitar, backing vocals, bass, mandolin (1985–1999)\nStan Szelest – keyboards (1990–1991; his death)\nRandy Ciarlante – drums, percussion, vocals (1990–1999)\nRichard Bell – keyboards (1992–1999; died 2007)\n\nAdditional musicians\nJohn Simon – baritone horn, electric piano, piano, tenor saxophone, tuba (1968–1977)\nTerry Cagle – drums, backing vocals (1983–1985, 1986–1989; died 2023)\nEarl Cate – guitars (1983–1985)\nErnie Cate – keyboards (1983–1985)\nRon Eoff – bass (1983–1985)\nBuddy Cage – pedal steel guitar (1986–1989; died 2020)\nFred Carter, Jr. – guitars (1986–1989; died 2010)\nJack Casady – bass (1986–1989)\nBlondie Chaplin – guitars, drums, backing vocals (1986–1989)\nJorma Kaukonen – guitars (1986–1989)\nSredni Vollmer – harmonica (1986–1989, 1990–1991; died 2013)\nBilly Preston - keyboards, backing vocals (1991; died 2006)\nAaron L. Hurwitz – accordion, organ, piano (1992–1999)\n\nLine-ups\nTimeline\nDiscography\nSee also\nAmerican rock\nCanadian rock\nMusic of Canada\nMusic of the United States\nRingo Starr & His All-Starr Band\nCate Brothers\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nGray, Michael (2006). The Bob Dylan Encyclopedia. New York: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-6933-7.\nHelm, Levon; Davis, Stephen (2000). This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of the Band. 2nd ed, Chicago: A Cappella. ISBN 1-55652-405-6.\nHoskyns, Barney (1993). Across the Great Divide: The Band and America. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 1-56282-836-3.\nMarcus, Greil (1998). Invisible Republic: Bob Dylan's Basement Tapes. New York: H. Holt & Company. ISBN 0-8050-5842-7.\n\nFurther reading\nBochynski, Kevin J. (1999). \"The Band\". In Hochman, Steve. Popular Musicians. Pasadena, California: Salem Press. pp. 61–64. ISBN 0893569879.\n\nExternal links\n\nThe Band at Curlie\nThe Band – A Musical History, official site from Capitol Records\nThe Band web site, extensive fan-operated site\nThe Band discography at Discogs\nThe Band at AllMusic \nThe Band at IMDb \nFirst article at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca\nSecond article at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca\nArticle at canadianbands.com\n\"The Band\". Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. \n\nFan Art at Kerry Smith Art: Off The Record collection",
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"paragraph_text": "Music from Big Pink is the debut studio album by Canadian-American rock band the Band. Released on July 1, 1968, by Capitol Records, it employs a distinctive blend of country, rock, folk, classical, R&B, blues, and soul. The album's title refers to a house in West Saugerties, New York called \"Big Pink\", which was shared by bassist/singer Rick Danko, pianist/singer Richard Manuel and organist Garth Hudson and in which the album's music was partly composed. The album itself was recorded in studios in New York and Los Angeles in 1968, and followed the band's stint backing of Bob Dylan on his 1966 tour (as the Hawks) and time spent together in upstate New York recording material that was officially released in 1975 as The Basement Tapes, also with Dylan. The cover artwork is a painting by Dylan.\nIn 2000, the album was rereleased with additional outtakes from the recording sessions, and in 2018, a \"50th Anniversary Super Deluxe\" edition was released with a new stereo mix by Bob Clearmountain.\n\nBackground and Big Pink house\nThe Band's members included Danko, Manuel, Hudson, guitarist Robbie Robertson and drummer/singer Levon Helm. They began to create their distinctive sound during 1967 when they improvised and recorded with Bob Dylan a huge number of cover songs and original Dylan material in the basement of a pink house in West Saugerties, New York, located at 56 Parnassus Lane (formerly 2188 Stoll Road). The house was built by Ottmar Gramms, who bought the land in 1952. The house was newly built when Rick Danko found it as a rental. Danko moved in along with Garth Hudson and Richard Manuel in February 1967. The house became known locally as \"Big Pink\" for its pink siding. The house was subsequently sold by Gramms in 1977, and since 1998, it has been a private residence.\nWidely bootlegged at the time, initially as Great White Wonder in July 1969, some of the recordings Dylan and the Band made were officially released in 1975 on The Basement Tapes, and then in their totality in 2014 on The Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete. By the end of 1967, the Band felt it was time to step out of Dylan's shadow and make their own statement.\n\nRecording\nThe Band's manager Albert Grossman (who was also Dylan's manager) approached Capitol Records to secure a record deal for a group still informally described as \"Dylan's backing band\". Alan Livingston at Capitol signed the Band, initially under the name the Crackers. Armed with news of a recording deal for the group, they lured Levon Helm back from the oil rigs where he had been working to Woodstock where he took up his crucial position in the Band, singing and playing drums. Helm's return coincided with a ferment of activity in Big Pink as the embryonic Band not only recorded with Dylan but also began to write their own songs.\nAfter meeting with producer John Simon, the Band started to record their debut album in Manhattan at A&R Studios, at 799 7th Avenue in the early months of 1968. The Band recorded \"Tears of Rage\", \"Chest Fever\", \"We Can Talk\", \"This Wheel's On Fire\" and \"The Weight\" in two sessions. Robertson has said that when Simon asked them how they wanted it to sound, they replied, \"Just like it did in the basement.\"\nCapitol, pleased with the initial recording session, suggested that the group move to Los Angeles to finish recording their first album at Capitol Studios. They also cut some material at Gold Star Studios on Santa Monica Boulevard. The songs on Big Pink recorded in L.A. were \"In A Station\", \"To Kingdom Come\", \"Lonesome Suzie\", \"Long Black Veil\" and \"I Shall Be Released\".\n\nArtwork\nDylan offered to sing on the album, but ultimately realized it was important for the Band to make their own statement. Instead, Dylan signified his presence by contributing a cover painting. Barney Hoskyns has written that it is significant the painting depicts six musicians. The cover of Music from Big Pink was intended to establish the group as having a different outlook from the psychedelic culture of 1968. Photographer Elliott Landy flew to Toronto to photograph the assembled Danko, Manuel, Robertson, and Hudson families on the Danko chicken farm. A photo was inserted of Diamond and Nell Helm, who lived in Arkansas. The photo appeared on the cover with the caption \"Next of Kin\". The overall design of the sleeve is by Milton Glaser (who also did the poster that was packed with the 1967 Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits).\n\nReception\nThe initial reception to the album was positive. It received praise for the organic quality of the instrumentation, which had been recorded live without overdubbing. In Rolling Stone, Al Kooper's rave review of Big Pink ended with the words, \"This album was recorded in approximately two weeks. There are people who will work their lives away in vain and not touch it.\" This helped to draw public attention to it (Rolling Stone even referred to them as \"the band from Big Pink\" instead of just \"the Band\"). The fact that Bob Dylan wrote one and co-wrote two of the songs on the album also attracted attention. Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic in The Village Voice, crediting the music's original evocation of \"country-soul feeling without imitating it\" and the \"human roughness around the edges\", yet stating that he \"always admired that album\" but \"from a distance\".\nIn 1968, \"The Weight\" peaked at No. 63 on Billboard's Hot 100 singles chart in the US. The song was a bigger hit elsewhere, peaking at No. 35 in Canada, and No. 21 in the UK. The album peaked at No. 18 in Canada and reached No. 30 on Billboard's Pop Albums chart in 1968, and then recharted as a No. 8 hit on the Top Internet Albums chart in 2000. \"The Weight\" gained widespread popularity from the Band's performance of it at Woodstock on August 17, 1969, and due partially to its inclusion in the film Easy Rider, though it was omitted from the soundtrack because of licensing issues. A cover version by the band Smith was included on the soundtrack album instead.\nThe laid-back feel of the album attracted the attention of other major artists. For example, Eric Clapton cites the album's roots rock style as what convinced him to quit Cream, and engage Delaney and Bonnie and friends as \"Derek and the Dominos\" on his debut solo album. George Harrison was also impressed by the album's musicianship and sense of camaraderie, and Roger Waters of Pink Floyd called it the second \"most influential record in the history of rock and roll\", after the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and said that it \"affected Pink Floyd deeply, deeply, deeply\". According to Terry Burrows, the album spawned the Americana genre, while music academic Chris Smith said its songs laid the groundwork for roots rock music.\nMusic from Big Pink was voted No. 452 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000). In 2003, it was ranked 34th on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, a ranking it maintained on the magazine's 2012 revised list, before dropping to number 100 in a 2020 revised list. On Metacritic, the expanded 50th anniversary edition of the album has an aggregate score of 99 out of 100, based on seven reviews, a rating that the website defines as indicating \"universal acclaim\".\n\nRe-releases\nThe original LP record issue included a gatefold cover in 1968, duplicated 40 years later in 2008 as a remastered 180 gm LP. On compact disc, it was remastered as a gold CD in 1989, as a DVD-audio in 2001 and as a remastered numbered edition SACD in 2009. On August 29, 2000, it was reissued by EMI Records as a standard compact disc with nine bonus tracks. In 2012, Mobile Fidelity released a remastered, numbered, limited edition, Half-speed Mastering from the original master tapes, 180g LP pressed at RTI.\nIn 2018, a 50th Anniversary Edition was released with an entirely new stereo mix and 5.1 mix by Bob Clearmountain, mastered by Bob Ludwig. It also included some of the additional tracks from the 2000 re-release, and a new vocal-only mix of \"I Shall Be Released\".\n\nTrack listing\nSides one and two were combined as tracks 1–11 on CD reissues.\n\nPersonnel\nThe Band\n\nRick Danko – bass guitar, fiddle, vocals\nLevon Helm – drums, tambourine, vocals\nGarth Hudson – organ, piano, clavinet, soprano and tenor saxophones\nRichard Manuel – piano, organ, vocals\nRobbie Robertson – electric and acoustic guitars, vocals\nAdditional personnel\n\nJohn Simon – producer, baritone horn, tenor saxophone, piano, tambourine\nDon Hahn – engineer\nTony May – engineer\nShelly Yakus – engineer\nBob Dylan – cover painting\nElliott Landy – photography\n2018 remix\n\nBob Clearmountain – 2018 Stereo and 5.1 Surround mix\nBob Ludwig – remastering\n\nReferences\nSources\nHoskyns, Barney (1993). Across The Great Divide: The Band and America. Viking. ISBN 0-670-841447.\nLandy, Elliott (2015). The Band Photographs 1968-1969. Backbeat Books. ISBN 978-1-4950-2251-7.\n\nExternal links\nSheet music\nMusic From Big Pink on Discogs",
"title": "Music_from_Big_Pink"
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] | What album by the band named 'The Band' was released on the same day as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was opened for signature? | [] | Music from Big Pink | [] | true |
442 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Nobel Prizes ( noh-BEL; Swedish: Nobelpriset [nʊˈbɛ̂lːˌpriːsɛt]; Norwegian: Nobelprisen Norwegian: [nʊˈbɛ̀lːˌpriːsn̩] ) are five separate prizes awarded to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind, as established by the 1895 will of Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist Alfred Nobel, in the year before he died. Prizes were first awarded in 1901 by the Nobel Foundation. Nobel's will indicated that the awards should be granted in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace. A sixth prize for Economic Sciences, endowed by Sweden's central bank, Sveriges Riksbank, and first presented in 1969, is also frequently included, as it is also administered by the Nobel Foundation. The Nobel Prizes are widely regarded as the most prestigious awards available in their respective fields.\nThe prize ceremonies take place annually. Each recipient, known as a laureate, receives a green gold medal plated with 24 karat gold, a diploma, and a monetary award. As of 2023, the Nobel Prize monetary award is 11,000,000 SEK, amounting to ~$1,035,000. A prize may not be shared among more than three individuals, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organisations of more than three people. Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously, but if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize is presented.\nThe Nobel Prizes, beginning in 1901, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, beginning in 1969, have been awarded 609 times to 975 people and 25 organisations. Five individuals and two organisations have received more than one Nobel Prize.\n\nHistory\nAlfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth coming from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.\nThere is a popular story about how, in 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled \"The Merchant of Death Is Dead\", in a French newspaper. It was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died; the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. Historians have been unable to verify this story and some dismiss the story as a myth. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.\nNobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the \"greatest benefit on mankind\" in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Owing to skepticism surrounding the will, it was not approved by the Storting in Norway until 26 April 1897. The executors of the will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of the fortune and to organise the awarding of prizes.\nNobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of which were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated. These were Karolinska Institute on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II.\n\nNobel Foundation\nFormation of Foundation\nAccording to his will and testament read in Stockholm on 30 December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity. The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed most of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize.\nThe Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archive, it was this \"decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established\". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$560 million).\nAccording to the statutes, the foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The chairman of the board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions. An Executive director is chosen from among the board members, a deputy director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the executive director and the deputy director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.\n\nFoundation capital and cost\nThe capital of the Nobel Foundation today is invested 50% in shares, 20% bonds and 30% other investments (e.g. hedge funds or real estate). The distribution can vary by 10 percent. At the beginning of 2008, 64% of the funds were invested mainly in American and European stocks, 20% in bonds, plus 12% in real estate and hedge funds.\nIn 2011, the total annual cost was approximately 120 million kronor, with 50 million kronor as the prize money. Further costs to pay institutions and persons engaged in giving the prizes were 27.4 million kronor. The events during the Nobel week in Stockholm and Oslo cost 20.2 million kronor. The administration, Nobel symposium, and similar items had costs of 22.4 million kronor. The cost of the Economic Sciences prize of 16.5 Million kronor is paid by the Sveriges Riksbank.\n\nInaugural Nobel prizes\nOnce the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions.\nThe Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the academy \"was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize\". The academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van 't Hoff. Van 't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.\nThe Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then had been causing thousands of deaths each year.\nThe first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.\n\nSecond World War\nIn 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. They were all later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940 to 1942, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.\nDuring the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.\n\nPrize in Economic Sciences\nIn 1968, Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honour of Alfred Nobel. The following year, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch \"for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes\". The board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.\n\nAward process\nThe award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes, the main difference being who can make nominations for each of them.\n\nNominations\nNomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.\n\nSelection\nThe Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions. There are four awarding institutions for the six prizes awarded:\n\nRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences – Chemistry; Physics; Economics\nNobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute – Physiology / Medicine\nSwedish Academy – Literature\nNorwegian Nobel Committee – Peace\nThe institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals. The winners are announced by the awarding institutions during the first two weeks of October.\n\nPosthumous nominations\nAlthough posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize \"was made in good faith\", it would remain unchanged, and the prize would be awarded.\n\nRecognition time lag\nNobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made \"during the preceding year\". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of those early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, \"the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident.\"\n\nThe interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords. A controversy was caused by awarding the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize to Barack Obama during his first year as US president.\nAwards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.\n\nAward ceremonies\nExcept for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present).\nThe highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway and the Norwegian royal family. At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners.\n\nNobel Banquet\nAfter the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests. The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the president of the Storting, on occasion the Swedish prime minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.\n\nNobel lecture\nAccording to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize, but some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organised by the same association which selected the laureates.\n\nMilitary cemeteries in every corner of the world are silent testimony to the failure of national leaders to sanctify human life.\n— Yitzhak Rabin, 1994 Nobel Peace Prize lecture\n\nPrizes\nMedals\nThe Nobel Foundation announced on 30 May 2012 that it had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Between 1902 and 2010, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint), Sweden's oldest company, which ceased operations in 2011 after 107 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation.\nEach medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.\nAll medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in). Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.\n\nDiplomas\nNobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.\n\nAward money\nThe laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880,000 SEK per prize (c. 2.6 million SEK altogether, US$350,000 today). In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$1.4 million). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If two laureates share the prize in a category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.\n\nStatistics\nYoungest person to receive a Nobel Prize:\nMalala Yousafzai; at the age of 17, received Nobel Peace Prize (2014).\nOldest person to receive a Nobel Prize:\nJohn B. Goodenough; at the age of 97, received Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2019).\nOnly person to receive more than one unshared Nobel Prize:\nLinus Pauling; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1954) and Nobel Peace Prize (1962).\nCountry with most Nobel laureates:\n\nUnited States; 403 Nobel laureates, as of 2022.\nLaureates who have received multiple Nobel Prizes: (by date of second Prize)\nMarie Curie; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Physics (1903) and Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911).\nInternational Committee of the Red Cross; received the prize thrice. Nobel Peace Prize (1917, 1944, 1963).\nLinus Pauling; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1954) and Nobel Peace Prize (1962).\nJohn Bardeen; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Physics (1956, 1972).\nFrederick Sanger; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1958, 1980).\nUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees; received the prize twice. Nobel Peace Prize (1954, 1981).\nKarl Barry Sharpless; received the prize twice. Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2001, 2022).\nPosthumous Nobel Prizes laureates:\nErik Axel Karlfeldt; received Nobel Prize in Literature (1931).\nDag Hammarskjöld; received Nobel Peace Prize (1961).\nRalph M. Steinman; received Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2011).\nMarried couples to receive Nobel Prizes:\n\nMarie Curie, Pierre Curie (along with Henri Becquerel). Received Nobel Prize in Physics (1903).\nIrène Joliot-Curie, Frédéric Joliot. Received Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1935).\nGerty Cori, Carl Cori. Received Nobel Prize in Medicine (1947).\nGunnar Myrdal received Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics Sciences (1974), Alva Myrdal received Nobel Peace Prize (1982).\nMay-Britt Moser, Edvard I. Moser. Received Nobel Prize in Medicine (2014).\nEsther Duflo, Abhijit Banerjee (along with Michael Kremer). Received Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics Sciences (2019).\nYears without prizes:\nPhysics: 1916, 1931, 1934, 1940, 1941, 1942\nChemistry: 1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940, 1941, 1942\nPhysiology or Medicine: 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1921, 1925, 1940, 1941, 1942\nLiterature: 1914, 1918, 1935, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943\nPeace: 1914, 1915, 1916, 1918, 1923, 1924, 1928, 1932, 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1948, 1955, 1956, 1966, 1967, 1972\n\nSpecially distinguished laureates\nMultiple laureates\nFive people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA. Karl Barry Sharpless was awarded the 2001 Chemistry Prize for his research into chirally catalysed oxidation reactions, and the 2022 Chemistry Prize for click chemistry.\nTwo organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.\n\nFamily laureates\nThe Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when he accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 on that organisation's behalf.\nAlthough no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori in 1947, and to the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). The Physics Prize in 1906 was won by J. J. Thomson for showing that electrons are particles, and in 1937 by his son, George Paget Thomson, for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing X-ray crystallography. Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics Prize in 1922, as was his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. The Physics Prize was awarded to Manne Siegbahn in 1924, followed by his son, Kai Siegbahn, in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C. V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg's son Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Arthur Schawlow received the 1981 Physics prize, and was married to the sister of 1964 Physics laureate Charles Townes. Two members of the Hodgkin family received Nobels in consecutive years: Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin shared in the Nobel for Physiology or Medicine in 1963, followed by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, the wife of his first cousin, who won solo for Chemistry in 1964. Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Gunnar Myrdal, who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974, was the husband of Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson (1970) and Kenneth Arrow (1972; shared) were brothers-in-law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, was the great-uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard 't Hooft. In 2019, married couple Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo were awarded the Economics Prize. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard was awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995, and her nephew Benjamin List received the Chemistry Prize in 2021. Sune Bergström was awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982, and his son Svante Pääbo was awarded the same prize in 2022. Edwin McMillan, who shared the Prize in Chemistry in 1951, was the uncle of John Clauser, who was awarded the Prize in Physics in 2022.\n\nReception and controversies\nControversial recipients\nAmong other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.\n\nPeace Prize\nAmong the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973 during the Vietnam War. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award. The satirist and musician Tom Lehrer has remarked that \"political satire became obsolete when Henry Kissinger was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.\"\nYasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.\nAnother controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company in which it would place him. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a liberal bias.\nAung San Suu Kyi was awarded Peace Prize in 1993 however in 2015 when she came into power in Myanmar, she was criticized for being silent on human rights violation under her rule and especially over the Rohingya genocide and calls were made to strip of her from Nobel Peace Prize.\n\nLiterature Prize\nThe award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused \"irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art\". He alleged that Jelinek's works were \"a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure\". The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric. The 2019 Literature Prize to Peter Handke received heavy criticisms from various authors, such as Salman Rushdie and Hari Kunzru, and was condemned by the governments of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Turkey, due to his history of Bosnian genocide denialism and his support for Slobodan Milošević.\n\nScience prizes\nIn 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or \"lobotomy\" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize.\n\nOverlooked achievements\nAlthough Mohandas Gandhi, an icon of nonviolence in the 20th century, was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times, in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated on 30 January 1948, he was never awarded the prize.\nIn 1948, the year of Gandhi's death, the Norwegian Nobel Committee decided to make no award that year on the grounds that \"there was no suitable living candidate\".\nIn 1989, this omission was publicly regretted, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize, the chairman of the committee said that it was \"in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi\".\n\nGeir Lundestad, 2006 Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee, said, The greatest omission in our 106-year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace Prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace Prize. Whether the Nobel committee can do without Gandhi, is the question.\nOther high-profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been overlooked. In 2009, an article in Foreign Policy magazine identified seven people who \"never won the prize, but should have\". The list consisted of Gandhi, Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro-Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, Corazon Aquino, and Liu Xiaobo. Liu Xiaobo would go on to win the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize while imprisoned.\nIn 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.\nThe Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves many European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J. R. R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa's Chinua Achebe.\nCandidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155 nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115 nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84 in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016. Otto Stern received 79 nominations in physics 1925–1943 before being awarded in 1943.\nThe strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt.\nAccording to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.\nSimilarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black's key role.\nPolitical subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.\n\nEmphasis on discoveries over inventions\nAlfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded \"to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind\". He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given \"to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics\". Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77% of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.\n\nGender\nIn terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Out of 210 laureates in Physics, 181 in Chemistry and 216 in Medicine between 1901 and 2018, there were only three female laureates in physics, five in chemistry and 12 in medicine. Factors proposed to contribute to the discrepancy between this and the roughly equal human sex ratio include biased nominations, fewer women than men being active in the relevant fields, Nobel Prizes typically being awarded decades after the research was done (reflecting a time when gender bias in the relevant fields was greater), a greater delay in awarding Nobel Prizes for women's achievements making longevity a more important factor for women (one cannot be nominated for the Nobel Prize posthumously), and a tendency to omit women from jointly awarded Nobel Prizes. Despite these factors, Marie Curie is to date the only person awarded Nobel Prizes in two different sciences (Physics in 1903, Chemistry in 1911); she is one of only three people who have received two Nobel Prizes in sciences (see Multiple laureates below). Malala Yousafzai is the youngest person ever to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. When she received it in 2014, she was only 17 years old.\n\nStatus of the Economic Sciences Prize\nPeter Nobel describes the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel as a \"false Nobel prize\" that dishonours his relative Alfred Nobel, after whom the prize is named, and considers economics to be a pseudoscience.\n\nRefusals and constraints\nTwo laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean-Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize, but refused, stating, \"A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form.\" Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam. George Bernard Shaw attempted to decline the prize money while accepting the 1925 Literature Prize; eventually it was agreed to use it to found the Anglo-Swedish Literary Foundation.\nDuring the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II.\nIn 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying \"this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award.\" The academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it back until 1989 when Pasternak's son accepted the prize on his behalf.\nAung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime.\n\nImpact\nCultural\nBeing a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that is recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films such as The Prize (1963), Nobel Son (2007), and The Wife (2017) about fictional Nobel laureates, as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a 2012 film based on the theft of Rabindranath Tagore's prize. It has also been depicted in television shows such as The Big Bang Theory.\nThe statue and memorial symbol Planet of Alfred Nobel was opened in Alfred Nobel University of Economics and Law in Dnipro, Ukraine in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.\nDespite the symbolism of intellectual achievement, some recipients have embraced unsupported and pseudoscientific concepts, including various health benefits of vitamin C and other dietary supplements, homeopathy, HIV/AIDS denialism, and various claims about race and intelligence. This is sometimes referred to as Nobel disease.\n\nSee also\nReferences\nSources\nThis article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from A Complex Formula: Girls and Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics in Asia, 23, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO.\n\nBooks\nFurther reading\nPais, Abraham (1983). Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-520438-4. OCLC 8195995.\n\nExternal links\n\n Media related to Nobel Prize at Wikimedia Commons\nOfficial website\nNobel Prizes by universities and institutes",
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"paragraph_text": "Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie (Polish: [ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska kʲiˈri] ; née Skłodowska; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as Marie Curie ( KURE-ee; French: [maʁi kyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win a Nobel Prize twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner of her first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple to win the Nobel Prize and launching the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in 1906, the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.\nShe was born in Warsaw, in what was then the Kingdom of Poland, part of the Russian Empire. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine Flying University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. In 1895, she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with the physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the theory of \"radioactivity\"—a term she coined. In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Paris street accident. Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms by the use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute in Paris in 1920, and the Curie Institute in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres. During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units to provide X-ray services to field hospitals.\nWhile a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames, never lost her sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland. She named the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her native country. Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic anaemia likely from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during World War I. In addition to her Nobel Prizes, she received numerous other honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Paris Panthéon, and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie during the International Year of Chemistry. She is the subject of numerous biographical works.\n\nLife and career\nEarly years\nMaria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Congress Poland in the Russian Empire, on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski. The elder siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).\nOn both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863–65). This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life. Maria's paternal grandfather, Józef Skłodowski, had been principal of the Lublin primary school attended by Bolesław Prus, who became a leading figure in Polish literature.\nWładysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home and instructed his children in its use. He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house. Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born. She died of tuberculosis in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old. Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus contracted from a boarder. Maria's father was an atheist, her mother a devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic.\n\nWhen she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next, she attended a gymnasium for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal. After a collapse, possibly due to depression, she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. Unable to enrol in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as Floating University), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.\n\nMaria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. In connection with this, Maria took a position first as a home tutor in Warsaw, then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician. His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute, which she had founded in 1932.\nAt the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds. She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again. All that time she continued to educate herself, reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself. In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw. She continued working as a governess and remained there until late 1891. She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemistry laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town. The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.\n\nLife in Paris\nIn late 1891, she left Poland for France. In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret closer to the university, in the Latin Quarter, and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the University of Paris, where she enrolled in late 1891. She subsisted on her meagre resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the clothes she had. She focused so hard on her studies that she sometimes forgot to eat. Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.\nSkłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry. That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together. Pierre Curie was an instructor at The City of Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris). They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access. Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.\n\nTheir mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another. Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French. Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family. She was still labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism in academia. A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a PhD. At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School. A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska \"Pierre's biggest discovery\".\nOn 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux; neither wanted a religious service. Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit. They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.\n\nNew elements\nIn 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the existence of X-rays, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.\nShe used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer, a sensitive device for measuring electric charge. Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present. She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself. This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.\nIn 1897, her daughter Irène was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure. The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI. The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof. They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organisations and governments.\nCurie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite). Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium. She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive. Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.\n\nThe [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. It [is] likely that already at this early stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved.\n\nShe was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin.\nAt that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: \"The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium.\" She later would recall how she felt \"a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible.\" On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realise at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tonnes of the ore.\nIn July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element they named \"polonium\", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires (Russian, Austrian, and Prussian). On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named \"radium\", from the Latin word for \"ray\". In the course of their research, they also coined the word \"radioactivity\".\n\nTo prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form. Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore. Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallisation. From a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal. She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.\nBetween 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.\nIn 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris. In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death.\nIn June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris. That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to. Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium. The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.\n\nNobel Prizes\nIn December 1903 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, \"in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel.\" At first the committee had intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination. Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.\nCurie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill. As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905. The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant. Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanised by an offer from the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory. Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.\n\nIn December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, Ève. She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.\nOn 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull and killing him instantly. Curie was devastated by her husband's death. On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre. She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.\nCurie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris. The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute. Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.\n\nIn 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the curie. Nevertheless, in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences failed, by one or two votes, to elect her to membership in the academy. Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected to membership in the academy.\nDespite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish. During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist. Her daughter later remarked on the French press's hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes.\nIn 1911 it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's, a married man who was estranged from his wife. This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker. When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, Camille Marbo.\n\nInternational recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. This award was \"in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element.\" Because of the negative publicity due to her affair with Langevin, the chair of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance at the official ceremony for her Nobel Prize in Chemistry, citing her questionable moral standing. Curie replied that she would be present at the ceremony, because \"the prize has been given to her for her discovery of polonium and radium\" and that \"there is no relation between her scientific work and the facts of her private life\".\nShe was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government to support the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine. A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912, she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.\nIn 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie). She was appointed director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914. She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the French Army, and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.\n\nWorld War I\nDuring World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible. She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons, including to obviate amputations when in fact limbs could be saved. After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, and auxiliary generators, and she developed mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies (\"Little Curies\"). She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914. Assisted at first by a military doctor and her 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war. Later, she began training other women as aides.\nIn 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing \"radium emanation\", a colourless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon, to be used for sterilising infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply. It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units. Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period. In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.\nAlso, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them. She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize money. She said:\n\nI am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost. \nShe was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause. After the war, she summarised her wartime experiences in a book, Radiology in War (1919).\n\nPostwar years\nIn 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur, who had died in 1895. In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. Mrs. William Brown Meloney, after interviewing Curie, created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip.\nIn 1921, U.S. President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife. Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award, but she refused. In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine. She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.\n\nLed by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the Cavendish Laboratory, with Ernest Rutherford; the Institute for Radium Research, Vienna, with Stefan Meyer; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner.\nIn August 1922 Marie Curie became a member of the League of Nations' newly created International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation. She sat on the committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, and Henri Bergson. In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled Pierre Curie. In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's Radium Institute. Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director. These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work. In 1930 she was elected to the International Atomic Weights Committee, on which she served until her death. In 1931, Curie was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.\n\nDeath\nCurie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934. A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died aged 66 at the Sancellemoz sanatorium in Passy, Haute-Savoie, from aplastic anaemia believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation, causing damage to her bone marrow.\nThe damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket, and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark. Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the First World War. When Curie's body was exhumed in 1995, the French Office de Protection contre les Rayonnements Ionisants (OPRI) \"concluded that she could not have been exposed to lethal levels of radium while she was alive\". They pointed out that radium poses a risk only if it is ingested, and speculated that her illness was more likely to have been due to her use of radiography during the First World War.\nShe was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris Panthéon. Their remains were sealed in a lead lining because of the radioactivity. She became the second woman to be interred at the Panthéon (after Sophie Berthelot) and the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits.\nBecause of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle. Even her cookbooks are highly radioactive. Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. In her last year, she worked on a book, Radioactivity, which was published posthumously in 1935.\n\nLegacy\nThe physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Cornell University professor L. Pearce Williams observes:\n\nThe result of the Curies' work was epoch-making. Radium's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored. It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics. On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom. As a result of Rutherford's experiments with alpha radiation, the nuclear atom was first postulated. In medicine, the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked.\nIn addition to helping to overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, Curie's work has had a profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman.\nShe was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle. Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep. She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates. In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her. She and her husband often refused awards and medals. Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.\n\nCommemoration and cultural depictions\nAs one of the most famous scientists in history, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of pop culture. She also received many honorary degrees from universities across the world.\nMarie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in multiple sciences. Awards and honours that she received include:\n\nNobel Prize in Physics (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel)\nDavy Medal (1903, with Pierre)\nMatteucci Medal (1904, with Pierre)\nActonian Prize (1907)\nElliott Cresson Medal (1909)\nLegion of Honour (1909, rejected)\nNobel Prize in Chemistry (1911)\nCivil Order of Alfonso XII (1919)\nFranklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society (1921)\nOrder of the White Eagle (2018, posthumously)\nEntities that have been named after Marie Curie include:\n\nThe curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie, or both).\nThe element with atomic number 96 was named curium (symbol Cm).\nThree radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite.\nThe Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country\nIn 2007, a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies.\nThe sole Polish nuclear reactor in operation, the research reactor Maria\nThe 7000 Curie asteroid\nMarie Curie, a registered charitable organisation in the United Kingdom\nThe IEEE Marie Sklodowska-Curie Award, an international award presented for outstanding contributions to the field of nuclear and plasma sciences and engineering, was established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers in 2008.\nThe Marie Curie Medal, an annual science award established in 1996 and conferred by the Polish Chemical Society\nThe Marie Curie–Sklodowska Medal and Prize, an annual award conferred by the London-based Institute of Physics for distinguished contributions to physics education\nMaria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland\nPierre and Marie Curie University in Paris\nMaria Skłodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology in Poland\nÉcole élémentaire Marie-Curie in London, Ontario, Canada; Curie Metropolitan High School in Chicago, United States; Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Lycée français Marie Curie de Zurich, Switzerland; see Lycée Marie Curie for a list of other schools named after her\nRue Madame Curie in Beirut, Lebanon.\nNumerous biographies are devoted to her, including:\n\nÈve Curie (Marie Curie's daughter), Madame Curie, 1938.\nFrançoise Giroud, Marie Curie: A Life, 1987.\nSusan Quinn, Marie Curie: A Life, 1996.\nBarbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie, 2005.\nLauren Redniss, Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout, 2011, adapted into the 2019 British film.\nMarie Curie has been the subject of a number of films:\n\n1943: Madame Curie, a U.S. Oscar-nominated film by Mervyn LeRoy starring Greer Garson.\n1997: Les Palmes de M. Schutz, a French film adapted from a play of the same title, and directed by Claude Pinoteau. Marie Curie is played by Isabelle Huppert.\n2014: Marie Curie, une femme sur le front, a French-Belgian film, directed by Alain Brunard and starring Dominique Reymond.\n2016: Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge, a European co-production by Marie Noëlle starring Karolina Gruszka.\n2016: Super Science Friends, an American Internet animated series created by Brett Jubinville featuring Hedy Gregor as Marie Curie.\n2019: Radioactive, a British film by Marjane Satrapi starring Rosamund Pike.\nCurie is the subject of the 2013 play False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch, in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life. Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play, Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie, a one-woman show which by 2014 had been performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries. Lauren Gunderson's 2019 play The Half-Life of Marie Curie portrays Curie during the summer after her 1911 Nobel Prize victory, when she was grappling with depression and facing public scorn over the revelation of her affair with Paul Langevin.\nThe life of the scientist was also the subject of a 2018 Korean musical, titled Marie Curie. The show was since translated in English (as Marie Curie a New Musical) and has been performed several times across Asia and Europe, receiving its official Off West End premiere in London's Charing Cross Theatre in summer 2024.\nCurie has appeared on more than 600 postage stamps in many countries across the world.\nBetween 1989 and 1996, she was featured on a 20,000-zloty banknote designed by Andrzej Heidrich. In 2011, a commemorative 20-zloty banknote depicting Curie was issued by the National Bank of Poland on the 100th anniversary of the scientist receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.\nIn 1994, the Bank of France issued a 500-franc banknote featuring Marie and Pierre Curie. As of the middle of 2024, Curie is depicted on French 50 euro cent coins to commemorate her importance in French history.\n\nSee also\nCharlotte Hoffman Kellogg, who sponsored Marie Curie's visit to the US\nEusapia Palladino: Spiritualist medium whose Paris séances were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a sceptical Marie Curie\nList of female Nobel laureates\nList of female nominees for the Nobel Prize\nList of Poles in Chemistry\nList of Poles in Physics\nList of Polish Nobel laureates\nTimeline of women in science\nTreatise on Radioactivity, by Marie Curie\nWomen in chemistry\n\nExplanatory notes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nNonfiction\nCurie, Eve (2001). Madame Curie: A Biography. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81038-1.\nCurie, Marie (1921). The Discovery of Radium . Poughkeepsie: Vassar College.\nDzienkiewicz, Marta (2017). Polish Pioneers: Book of Prominent Poles. Translated by Monod-Gayraud, Agnes. Illustrations: Rzezak, Joanna; Karski, Piotr. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Dwie Siostry. ISBN 9788365341686. OCLC 1060750234.\nGiroud, Françoise (1986). Marie Curie: A Life. Translated by Lydia Davis. New York: Holmes & Meier. ISBN 978-0-8419-0977-9. OCLC 12946269.\nKaczorowska, Teresa (2011). Córka mazowieckich równin, czyli, Maria Skłodowska-Curie z Mazowsza [Daughter of the Mazovian Plains: Maria Skłodowska–Curie of Mazowsze] (in Polish). Związek Literatów Polskich, Oddział w Ciechanowie. ISBN 978-83-89408-36-5. Retrieved 15 March 2016.\nOpfell, Olga S. (1978). The Lady Laureates : Women Who Have Won the Nobel Prize. Metuchen, N.J.& London: Scarecrow Press. pp. 147–164. ISBN 978-0-8108-1161-4.\nPasachoff, Naomi (1996). Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509214-1.\nQuinn, Susan (1996). Marie Curie: A Life. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-201-88794-5.\nRedniss, Lauren (2010). Radioactive: Marie & Pierre Curie: A Tale of Love and Fallout. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-135132-7.\nWirten, Eva Hemmungs (2015). Making Marie Curie: Intellectual Property and Celebrity Culture in an Age of Information. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-23584-4. Retrieved 15 March 2016.\n\nFiction\nOlov Enquist, Per (2006). The Book about Blanche and Marie. New York: Overlook. ISBN 978-1-58567-668-2. A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his Salpêtrière patient \"Blanche\" (Marie Wittman). The English translation was published in 2006.\n\nExternal links\n\nWorks by Marie Curie at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nWorks by Marie Curie at Open Library \nWorks by Marie Curie at Project Gutenberg\nWorks by or about Marie Curie at the Internet Archive\nNewspaper clippings about Marie Curie in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW\nMarie Curie on Nobelprize.org",
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"paragraph_text": "Linus Carl Pauling ( PAW-ling; February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, chemical engineer, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics. New Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time. For his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954. For his peace activism, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962. He is one of five people to have won more than one Nobel Prize (the others being Marie Curie, John Bardeen, Frederick Sanger, and Karl Barry Sharpless). Of these, he is the only person to have been awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes, and one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being Marie Curie.\nPauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology. His contributions to the theory of the chemical bond include the concept of orbital hybridisation and the first accurate scale of electronegativities of the elements. Pauling also worked on the structures of biological molecules, and showed the importance of the alpha helix and beta sheet in protein secondary structure. Pauling's approach combined methods and results from X-ray crystallography, molecular model building, and quantum chemistry. His discoveries inspired the work of Rosalind Franklin, James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins on the structure of DNA, which in turn made it possible for geneticists to crack the DNA code of all organisms.\nIn his later years, he promoted nuclear disarmament, as well as orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy, and dietary supplements, especially ascorbic acid (commonly known as Vitamin C). None of his ideas concerning the medical usefulness of large doses of vitamins have gained much acceptance in the mainstream scientific community. He was married to the American human rights activist Ava Helen Pauling.\n\nEarly life and education\nLinus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901, in Portland, Oregon, the firstborn child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle \"Belle\" Darling (1881–1926).: 22 He was named \"Linus Carl\", in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl.: 8 His ancestry included German and English.\nIn 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Pauling's parents decided to move out of Portland to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment.: 4 Lucy stayed with her husband's parents in Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem, where he worked briefly as a traveling salesman for the Skidmore Drug Company. Within a year of Lucile's birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, Oregon where he opened his own drugstore.: 4 He moved his family to Condon, Oregon, in 1905.: 5 By 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain. He died of a perforated ulcer on June 11, 1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile and Pauline.: 9 \nPauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, who had a small chemistry lab kit.: 17 He later wrote: \"I was simply entranced by chemical phenomena, by the reactions in which substances, often with strikingly different properties, appear; and I hoped to learn more and more about this aspect of the world.\"\nIn high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simon's basement. They approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure.: 21 \nAt age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University (OSU), known then as Oregon Agricultural College.: 22 Lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left Washington High School in June without a diploma.: 48 The school awarded him an honorary diploma 45 years later, after he was awarded two Nobel Prizes.\nPauling held a number of jobs to earn money for his future college expenses, including working part-time at a grocery store for US$8 per week (equivalent to US$220 in 2023). His mother arranged an interview with the owner of a number of manufacturing plants in Portland, Mr. Schwietzerhoff, who hired him as an apprentice machinist at a salary of US$40 per month (equivalent to US$1,120 in 2023). This was soon raised to US$50 per month.: 23 Pauling also set up a photography laboratory with two friends.: 24 In September 1917, Pauling was finally admitted by Oregon State University. He immediately resigned from the machinist's job and informed his mother, who saw no point in a university education, of his plans.: 25\n\nHigher education\nIn his first semester, Pauling registered for two courses in chemistry, two in mathematics, mechanical drawing, introduction to mining and use of explosives, modern English prose, gymnastics and military drill.: 26 His roommate was childhood pal and lifelong best friend Lloyd Jeffress. He was active in campus life and founded the school's chapter of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. After his second year, he planned to take a job in Portland to help support his mother. The college offered him a position teaching quantitative analysis, a course he had just finished taking himself. He worked forty hours a week in the laboratory and classroom and earned US$100 a month (equivalent to US$1,500 in 2023), enabling him to continue his studies.: 29 \nIn his last two years at school, Pauling became aware of the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir on the electronic structure of atoms and their bonding to form molecules.: 29 He decided to focus his research on how the physical and chemical properties of substances are related to the structure of the atoms of which they are composed, becoming one of the founders of the new science of quantum chemistry.\nEngineering professor Samuel Graf selected Pauling to be his teaching assistant in a mechanics and materials course.: 29 During the winter of his senior year, Pauling taught a chemistry course for home economics majors. It was in one of these classes that Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller.: 31 : 41 \nIn 1922, Pauling graduated with a degree in chemical engineering. He went on to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, California, under the guidance of Roscoe Dickinson and Richard Tolman. His graduate research involved the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of crystals. He published seven papers on the crystal structure of minerals while he was at Caltech. He received his PhD in physical chemistry and mathematical physics, summa cum laude, in 1925.\n\nCareer\nIn 1926, Pauling was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship to travel to Europe, to study under German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in Munich, Danish physicist Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in Zürich. All three were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics and other branches of physics. Pauling became interested in how quantum mechanics might be applied in his chosen field of interest, the electronic structure of atoms and molecules. In Zürich, Pauling was also exposed to one of the first quantum mechanical analyses of bonding in the hydrogen molecule, done by Walter Heitler and Fritz London. Pauling devoted the two years of his European trip to this work and decided to make it the focus of his future research. He became one of the first scientists in the field of quantum chemistry and a pioneer in the application of quantum theory to the structure of molecules.\nIn 1927, Pauling took a new position as an assistant professor at Caltech in theoretical chemistry. He launched his faculty career with a very productive five years, continuing with his X-ray crystal studies and also performing quantum mechanical calculations on atoms and molecules. He published approximately fifty papers in those five years, and created the five rules now known as Pauling's rules. By 1929, he was promoted to associate professor, and by 1930, to full professor. In 1931, the American Chemical Society awarded Pauling the Langmuir Prize for the most significant work in pure science by a person 30 years of age or younger. The following year, Pauling published what he regarded as his most important paper, in which he first laid out the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals and analyzed the tetravalency of the carbon atom.\nAt Caltech, Pauling struck up a close friendship with theoretical physicist Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley, who spent part of his research and teaching schedule as a visitor at Caltech each year. Pauling was also affiliated with Berkeley, serving as a visiting lecturer in physics and chemistry from 1929 to 1934. Oppenheimer even gave Pauling a stunning personal collection of minerals. The two men planned to mount a joint attack on the nature of the chemical bond: apparently Oppenheimer would supply the mathematics and Pauling would interpret the results. Their relationship soured when Oppenheimer tried to pursue Pauling's wife, Ava Helen. When Pauling was at work, Oppenheimer came to their home and blurted out an invitation to Ava Helen to join him on a tryst in Mexico. She flatly refused, and reported the incident to Pauling. He immediately cut off his relationship with Oppenheimer.: 152 \nIn the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron diffraction from Herman Francis Mark. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Lawrence Olin Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances.\nPauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932. Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elements — the Pauling Electronegativity Scale — which is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.\nIn 1936, Pauling was promoted to chairman of the division of chemistry and chemical engineering at Caltech, and to the position of director of the Gates and Crellin Laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958. Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the University of Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.\n\nNature of the chemical bond\nIn the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures and completed the bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond.: Preface It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 \"for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances\". Pauling's book has been considered \"chemistry's most influential book of this century and its effective bible\". In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.\nPart of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization. While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp3 hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp2 hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene.: 111–120 Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.\nAnother area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, and that for most actual cases of bonding, the quantum-mechanical wave function for a polar molecule AB is a combination of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules.: 66 Here Pauling's electronegativity concept is particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.\nThe third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of \"the nature of the chemical bond\" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene. The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name \"resonance\" was later applied to this phenomenon. In a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding, both described above, because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.\n\nIonic crystal structures\nIn 1929, Pauling published five rules which help to predict and explain crystal structures of ionic compounds. \nThese rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.\n\nBiological molecules\nIn the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided to strike out into new areas of interest. Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant. His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin with his student Charles D. Coryell. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen molecule. As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.\nIt took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.\nIn 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planar nature of the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure. This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integer number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.\nPauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix; his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. Pauling described this situation as \"the biggest disappointment in his life\".\nDuring the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States). Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.: 414–415 Despite these times, Pauling chose to move on from them and be thankful for the discoveries that he had already found.\nPauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action. He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures. Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.\n\nMolecular genetics\nIn November 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published \"Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease\" in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis, which had been shown several years earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators). Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease have a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.\nHis success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases, including mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, might result from flawed genetics. As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical-biomedical approach to mental illness, a direction not always popular with established Caltech chemists.: 2 \nIn 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled \"Molecular Medicine\". In the late 1950s, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction. In the 1960s, as part of his interest in the effects of nuclear weapons, he investigated the role of mutations in evolution, proposing with his student Emile Zuckerkandl, the molecular evolutionary clock, the idea that mutations in proteins and DNA accumulate at a constant rate over time .\n\nStructure of the atomic nucleus\nOn September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words \"I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei.\" On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.\nThe basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of \"clusters of nucleons\". The basic nucleon clusters include the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], and triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei. Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:\n\nNow recently, I have been trying to determine detailed structures of atomic nuclei by analyzing the ground state and excited state vibrational bends, as observed experimentally. From reading the physics literature, Physical Review Letters and other journals, I know that many physicists are interested in atomic nuclei, but none of them, so far as I have been able to discover, has been attacking the problem in the same way that I attack it. So I just move along at my own speed, making calculations ...\n\nActivism\nWartime work\nPauling had been practically apolitical until World War II. At the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. He declined, not wanting to uproot his family.\n\nPauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts. The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.: 180–186 \nIn 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on \"The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions\". His project group, which included Joseph B. Koepfli and Dan H. Campbell, developed a possible replacement for human blood plasma in transfusions: polyoxy gelatin (Oxypolygelatin).\nOther wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Pauling, along with Lee A. DuBridge, William A. Fowler, Max Mason, and Bruce H. Sage, was awarded a Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman. The citation credits him for his \"imaginative mind\", \"brilliant success\", and \"exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services\". In 1949, he served as president of the American Chemical Society.\n\nNuclear activism\nThe aftermath of the Manhattan Project and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.\nIn June 1945, a \"May-Johnson Bill\" began that would become the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership. On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss academic freedom, during which Pauling said, \"There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous.\"\nIn 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein. Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons.\n\nHis political activism prompted the US State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London. In a speech before the US Senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Wayne Morse publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a \"limited passport\" to attend the conference. His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize.\nJoining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955. He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.\nIn May 1957, working with Washington University in St. Louis professor Barry Commoner, Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing. On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld calling for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons. It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.\nIn February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations. Later in 1958, Pauling published No more war!, in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to \"attack the problem of preserving the peace\".\nPauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI). This group, headed by Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America. The \"Baby Tooth Survey\", published by Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass. The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban, as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the \"Baby Tooth Survey\".\nPublic pressure and the frightening results of the CNI research led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the Partial Test Ban Treaty, signed in 1963 by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On the day that the treaty went into force, October 10, 1963, the Nobel Prize Committee awarded Pauling the Nobel Peace Prize for 1962. (No prize had previously been awarded for that year.) They described him as \"Linus Carl Pauling, who ever since 1946 has campaigned ceaselessly, not only against nuclear weapons tests, not only against the spread of these armaments, not only against their very use, but against all warfare as a means of solving international conflicts.\" Pauling himself acknowledged his wife Ava's deep involvement in peace work, and regretted that she was not awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with him.\n\nPolitical criticism\nMany of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which termed him \"the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country\". A headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as \"A Weird Insult from Norway\".\nPauling was a frequent target of the National Review magazine. In an article entitled \"The Collaborators\" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a \"fellow traveler\" of proponents of Soviet-style communism. In 1963, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher William Rusher, and its editor William F. Buckley, Jr for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal (unlike his earlier 1963 libel case against the Hearst Corporation), because in the meantime the landmark case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan had established the actual malice standard for libel lawsuits by public figures, requiring that not only falsehood but deliberate lying should be proved by the plaintiff in such cases.\nHis peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division.: 2 Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions (1963–1967). In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents.: 3 From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as professor of chemistry at Stanford University.\n\nVietnam war activism\nDuring the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an anti-war movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.\nPauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970. He continued his peace activism in the following years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the International League of Humanists in 1974. He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik–Philadelphia statement of 1974/1976. Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich, until the end of his life.\nPauling was also a supporter of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee.\n\nGlobal activism\nHe was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth.\n\nEugenics\nPauling supported a limited form of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as sickle cell anemia.\n\nMedical research and vitamin C advocacy\nIn 1941, at age 40, Pauling was diagnosed with Bright's disease, a renal disease. Following the recommendations of Thomas Addis, who actively recruited Ava Helen Pauling as \"nutritionist, cook, and eventually as deputy 'doctor'\", Pauling believed he was able to control the disease with Addis's then-unusual low-protein salt-free diet and vitamin supplements. Thus Pauling's initial – and intensely personal – exposure to the idea of treating disease with vitamin supplements was positive.\nIn 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in Science entitled \"Orthomolecular psychiatry\", giving a name to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s, and advocating that \"orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients.\" Pauling coined the term \"orthomolecular\" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.\nIn 1973, with Arthur B. Robinson and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.\nPauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds. Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients. Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, Cancer and Vitamin C, that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.\nA re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be \"terminal\" much earlier than the comparison group. Later clinical trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic led by oncologist Dr. Edward T. Creagan also concluded that high-dose (10,000 mg) vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C. The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were quackery. Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as \"fraud and deliberate misrepresentation\", and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than intravenous vitamin C (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study). Pauling also criticised the Mayo Clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo Clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.\nUltimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer. Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children. He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy. A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo Clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously. Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.\n\nPersonal life\nPauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until her death in 1981. They had four children. Linus Carl Jr. (1925–2023) became a psychiatrist; Peter (1931–2003) a crystallographer at University College London; Edward Crellin (1937–1997) a biologist; and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb.\nPauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church, but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church. Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher Daisaku Ikeda, Pauling publicly declared his atheism.\nOn January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about 80 miles (130 km) south of Monterey, California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about 300 feet (90 m) above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.\n\nDeath and legacy\nPauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old. A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005.\nPauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine.\nHis work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry. The Nature of the Chemical Bond was the standard work for many years, and concepts like hybridization and electronegativity remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his Valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be eclipsed by the molecular orbital theory of Robert Mulliken, Valence Bond Theory still competes, in its modern form, with Molecular Orbital Theory and density functional theory (DFT) as a way of describing chemical phenomena. Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds.: 80–81 His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.\nFrancis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the \"father of molecular biology\". His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a \"molecular disease\" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.\nPauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, \"The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain,\" was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the department of chemistry, Caltech, in 2017.\n\nCommemorations\nOregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, 100,000-square-foot (9,300 m2) Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing the bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments.\nOn March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin. His description reads: \"A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease.\" The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist.\nCalifornia Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008, that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in his place.\nBy proclamation of Gov. John Kitzhaber in the state of Oregon, February 28 has been named \"Linus Pauling Day\". The Linus Pauling Institute still exists, but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at Oregon State University. The Valley Library Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, including digitized versions of Pauling's forty-six research notebooks.\nIn 1986, Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a symposium and lectureship. The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself. The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Pauling spent so much time there.\nOther places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California; Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California; Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo, California; Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon; and Pauling Field, a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth. There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named The Linus Pauling Quartet.\nThe asteroid 4674 Pauling in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by Eleanor F. Helin, was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday.\nLinus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling.\nNobel laureate Peter Agre has said that Linus Pauling inspired him.\nIn 2010, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.\n\nHonors and awards\nPauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:\n\nPublications\nBooks\n——; Wilson, E. B. (1985) [Originally published in 1935]. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry. Reprinted by Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-64871-2.\n—— (1939). The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals. Cornell University Press.\n—— (1947). General Chemistry: An Introduction to Descriptive Chemistry and Modern Chemical Theory. Freeman.\nGreatly revised and expanded in 1947, 1953, and 1970. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1988.\n——; Hayward, Roger (1964). \"The Architecture of Molecules\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 51 (5). San Francisco: Freeman: 977–84. Bibcode:1964PNAS...51..977P. doi:10.1073/pnas.51.5.977. ISBN 978-0-7167-0158-3. PMC 300194. PMID 16591181.\nManuscript notes and typescripts (clear images)\n—— (1958). No more war!. Dodd, Mead & Co. ISBN 978-1-124-11966-3.\n—— (1977). Vitamin C, the Common Cold and the Flu. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0360-0.\n—— (1987). How to Live Longer and Feel Better. Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-70289-3.\nCameron, E.; —— (1993). Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer With Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C. Camino. ISBN 978-0-940159-21-1.\n—— (1998). Linus Pauling On Peace: A Scientist Speaks Out on Humanism and World Survival. Rising Star Press. ISBN 978-0-933670-03-7.\nHoffer, Abram; —— (2004). Healing Cancer: Complementary Vitamin & Drug Treatments. Toronto: CCNM Press. ISBN 978-1-897025-11-6.\nIkeda, Daisaku; —— (2008). A Lifelong Quest for Peace: A Dialogue. Richard L. Gage (ed., trans.). London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-889-1.\n\nJournal articles\n—— (1927). \"The Theoretical Prediction of the Physical Properties of Many-Electron Atoms and Ions. Mole Refraction, Diamagnetic Susceptibility, and Extension in Space\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 114 (767): 181–211. Bibcode:1927RSPSA.114..181P. doi:10.1098/rspa.1927.0035.\n—— (1929). \"The Principles Determining the Structure of Complex Ionic Crystals\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 51 (4): 1010–1026. doi:10.1021/ja01379a006.\n—— (1931). \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond. I. Application of Results Obtained from the Quantum Mechanics and from a Theory of Paramagnetic Susceptibility to the Structure of Molecules\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (4): 1367–1400. doi:10.1021/ja01355a027.\n—— (1931). \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond. II. The One-Electron Bond and the Three-Electron Bond\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 53 (9): 3225–3237. doi:10.1021/ja01360a004.\n—— (1932). \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond. III. The Transition from One Extreme Bond Type to Another\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (3): 988–1003. doi:10.1021/ja01342a022.\n—— (1932). \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond. IV. The Energy of Single Bonds and the Relative Electronegativity of Atoms\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 54 (9): 3570–3582. doi:10.1021/ja01348a011.\n——; Wheland, G. W. (1933). \"The Nature of the Chemical Bond. V. The Quantum-Mechanical Calculation of the Resonance Energy of Benzene and Naphthalene and the Hydrocarbon Free Radicals\" (PDF). The Journal of Chemical Physics. 1 (6): 362. Bibcode:1933JChPh...1..362P. doi:10.1063/1.1749304. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.\n—— (1935). \"The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 57 (12): 2680–2684. doi:10.1021/ja01315a102.\n—— (1940). \"A Theory of the Structure and Process of Formation of Antibodies*\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 62 (10): 2643–2657. doi:10.1021/ja01867a018.\n—— (1947). \"Atomic Radii and Interatomic Distances in Metals\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 69 (3): 542–553. doi:10.1021/ja01195a024.\n——; Itano, H. A.; Singer, S. J.; Wells, I. C. (1949). \"Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease\". Science. 110 (2865): 543–548. Bibcode:1949Sci...110..543P. doi:10.1126/science.110.2865.543. PMID 15395398. S2CID 31674765.\n——; Corey, R. B.; Branson, H. R. (1951). \"The structure of proteins: Two hydrogen-bonded helical configurations of the polypeptide chain\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 37 (4): 205–11. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..205P. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.4.205. PMC 1063337. PMID 14816373.\n\nSee also\nList of peace activists\nNiacin\nNobel disease\n\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nGeneral and cited references\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nLinus Pauling Online a Pauling portal created by Oregon State University Libraries\nCrick, Francis, \"The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology\" (transcribed from video at the 1995 Oregon State University symposium)\nThe Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers at the Oregon State University Libraries\nThe Pauling Catalogue\nCenter for Oral History. \"Linus C. Pauling\". Science History Institute.\nSturchio, Jeffrey L. (1987-04-06). Linus C. Pauling, Transcript of an Interview Conducted by Jeffrey L. Sturchio in Denver, Colorado on 6 April 1987 (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation.\nThe Pauling Blog\nLinus Pauling (1901–1994)\nBerkeley Conversations With History interview\nLinus Pauling Centenary Exhibit\nLinus Pauling from The Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography Archived 2018-10-16 at the Wayback Machine\n\"It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin and Sickle Cell Anemia – Special Collections & Archives Research Center – Oregon State University\". Oregon State University Library. Retrieved 2015-02-25.\nThe Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University\nPublications of Pauling\nThe Linus Pauling Papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine\nLinus Pauling Archived July 19, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting\nOral history interview with Linus C. Pauling from Science History Institute Digital Collections",
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"paragraph_text": "John Bardeen (; May 23, 1908 – January 30, 1991) was an American physicist and electrical engineer. He is the only person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics twice: first in 1956 with William Shockley and Walter Brattain for the invention of the transistor; and again in 1972 with Leon N. Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer for a fundamental theory of conventional superconductivity known as the BCS theory.\nThe transistor revolutionized the electronics industry, making possible the development of almost every modern electronic device, from telephones to computers, and ushering in the Information Age. Bardeen's developments in superconductivity—for which he was awarded his second Nobel Prize—are used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), medical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and superconducting quantum circuits.\nBorn and raised in Wisconsin, Bardeen received a Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University. After serving in World War II, he was a researcher at Bell Labs and a professor at the University of Illinois. In 1990, Bardeen appeared on Life magazine's list of \"100 Most Influential Americans of the Century.\"\nBardeen is the first of only three people to have won multiple Nobel Prizes in the same category (the others being Frederick Sanger and Karl Barry Sharpless in chemistry), and one of five persons with two Nobel Prizes.\n\nEducation and early life\nBardeen was born in Madison, Wisconsin, on May 23, 1908. He was the son of Charles Bardeen, the first dean of the University of Wisconsin Medical School.\nBardeen attended University of Wisconsin High School in Madison. He graduated from the school in 1923 at age 15. He could have graduated several years earlier, but this was postponed because he took courses at another high school and because of his mother's death. Bardeen entered the University of Wisconsin in 1923. While in college, he joined the Zeta Psi fraternity. He raised a part of the needed membership fees by playing billiards. Bardeen was initiated as a member of Tau Beta Pi engineering honor society. Not wanting to be an academic like his father, Bardeen chose engineering. He also felt that engineering had good job prospects.\nBardeen received his Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1928 from the University of Wisconsin. Despite taking a year off to work in Chicago, he graduated in 1928. Taking all the graduate courses in physics and mathematics that had interested him, Bardeen graduated in five years instead of the usual four. This allowed him time to complete his master's thesis, supervised by Leo J. Peters. He received his Master of Science degree in electrical engineering in 1929 from Wisconsin.\nBardeen furthered his studies by staying on at Wisconsin, but he eventually went to work for Gulf Research Laboratories, the research arm of the Gulf Oil Corporation that was based in Pittsburgh. From 1930 to 1933, Bardeen worked there on the development of methods for the interpretation of magnetic and gravitational surveys. He worked as a geophysicist. After the work failed to keep his interest, he applied and was accepted to the graduate program in mathematics at Princeton University.\nAs a graduate student, Bardeen studied mathematics and physics. Under physicist Eugene Wigner, he wrote his thesis on a problem in solid-state physics. Before completing his thesis, he was offered a position as junior fellow of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University in 1935. He spent the next three years there, from 1935 to 1938, working with to-be Nobel laureates in physics John Hasbrouck van Vleck and Percy Williams Bridgman on problems in cohesion and electrical conduction in metals,and also did some work on level density of nuclei. He received his Ph.D. in mathematical physics from Princeton in 1936.\n\nCareer and research\nWorld War II service\nFrom 1941 to 1944, Bardeen headed the group working on magnetic mines and torpedoes and mine and torpedo countermeasures at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory. During this period, his wife Jane gave birth to a son (Bill, born in 1941) and a daughter (Betsy, born in 1944).\n\nBell Labs\nIn October 1945, Bardeen began work at Bell Labs as a member of a solid-state physics group led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan. Other personnel working in the group were Walter Brattain, physicist Gerald Pearson, chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. He moved his family to Summit, New Jersey.\nThe assignment of the group was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments mysteriously failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states, meeting almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent and ideas were freely exchanged. By the winter of 1946, they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to Physical Review. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with electrolytes. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily and suggested that they use glycol borate (gu), a viscous chemical that did not evaporate. Finally, they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, put a voltage on a droplet of gu placed across a p–n junction.\n\nInvention of the transistor\nOn December 23, 1947, Bardeen and Brattain were working without Shockley when they succeeded in creating a point-contact transistor that achieved amplification. By the next month, Bell Labs' patent attorneys started to work on the patent applications.\nBell Labs' attorneys soon discovered that Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and patented in 1930 by Julius Lilienfeld, who filed his MESFET-like patent in Canada on October 22, 1925.\nShockley publicly took the lion's share of the credit for the invention of the transistor; this led to a deterioration of Bardeen's relationship with him. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Shockley eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, essentially blocking the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.\nThe \"transistor\" (a portmanteau of \"transconductance\" and \"resistor\") was 1/50 the size of the vacuum tubes it replaced in televisions and radios, used far less power, was far more reliable, and it allowed electrical devices to become more compact.\n\nUniversity of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign\nBy 1951, Bardeen was looking for a new job. Fred Seitz, a friend of Bardeen, convinced the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign to make Bardeen an offer of $10,000 a year. Bardeen accepted the offer and left Bell Labs, joining the engineering and physics faculties at Illinois in 1951, where he was professor of electrical engineering and of physics.\nAt Illinois, he established two major research programs, one in the electrical engineering department and one in the physics department. The research program in the electrical engineering department dealt with both experimental and theoretical aspects of semiconductors, and the research program in the physics department dealt with theoretical aspects of macroscopic quantum systems, particularly superconductivity and quantum liquids.\nHe was an active professor at Illinois from 1951 to 1975 and then became professor emeritus. In his later life, Bardeen remained active in academic research, during which time he focused on understanding the flow of electrons in charge density waves (CDWs) through metallic linear chain compounds. His proposals that CDW electron transport is a collective quantum phenomenon (see Macroscopic quantum phenomena) were initially greeted with skepticism. However, experiments reported in 2012 show oscillations in CDW current versus magnetic flux through tantalum trisulfide rings, similar to the behavior of superconducting quantum interference devices (see SQUID and Aharonov–Bohm effect), lending credence to the idea that collective CDW electron transport is fundamentally quantum in nature. (See quantum mechanics.) Bardeen continued his research throughout the 1980s, and published articles in Physical Review Letters and Physics Today less than a year before he died.\nA collection of Bardeen's personal papers are held by the University of Illinois Archives.\n\nNobel Prize in Physics in 1956\nIn 1956, John Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with William Shockley of Semiconductor Laboratory of Beckman Instruments and Walter Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories \"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect\".\nAt the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm, Brattain and Shockley received their awards that night from King Gustaf VI Adolf. Bardeen brought only one of his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony. King Gustav chided Bardeen because of this, and Bardeen assured the King that the next time he would bring all his children to the ceremony. He kept his promise.\n\nBCS theory\nIn 1957, Bardeen, in collaboration with Leon Cooper and his doctoral student John Robert Schrieffer, proposed the standard theory of superconductivity known as the BCS theory (named for their initials).\n\nJosephson effect controversy\nBardeen became interested in superconducting tunnelling in the summer of 1960 after consulting for the General Electric Research Laboratory in Schenectady, New York where he learned about experiments done by Ivar Giaever at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute which suggested that electrons from a normal material could tunnel into a superconducting one.: 222–223 \nIn June 8, 1962, Brian Josephson, then 23, submitted to Physics Letters his prediction of a super-current flow across a barrier, effect which later became known as the Josephson effect. Bardeen challenged Josephson's theory on a note in his own paper received ten days later by Physical Review Letters: 222–225 :\n\nIn a recent note, Josephson uses a somewhat similar formulation to discuss the possibility of superfluid flow across the tunneling region, in which no quasi-particles are created. However, as pointed out by the author (reference 3), pairing does not extend into the barrier, so that there can be no such superfluid flow.\n\nThe matter was further discussed on the 8th International Conference on Low Temperature Physics held September 16 to 22, 1962 at Queen Mary University of London. While Josephson was presenting his theory, Bardeen rose to describe his objections. After an intense debate both men were unable to reach a common understanding, and at points Josephson repeatedly asked Bardeen, \"Did you calculate it? No? I did.\": 225–226 \nIn 1963, experimental evidence and further theoretical clarifications were discovered supporting the Josephson effect, notably in a paper by Philip W. Anderson and John Rowell from Bell Labs. After this, Bardeen came to accept Josephson's theory and publicly withdrew his previous opposition to it at a conference held in August 1963. Bardeen also invited Josephson as a postdoc in Illinois for the academic year of 1965–1966, and later nominated Josephson and Giaever for the Nobel Prize in Physics, which they received in 1973.: 226\n\nNobel Prize in Physics in 1972\nIn 1972, Bardeen shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Leon N Cooper of Brown University and John Robert Schrieffer of the University of Pennsylvania \"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory\". This was Bardeen's second Nobel Prize in Physics. He became the first person to win two Nobel Prizes in the same field. \nBardeen brought his three children to the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm. Bardeen gave much of his Nobel Prize money to fund the Fritz London Memorial Lectures at Duke University.\nIn the late 1960s, Bardeen felt that Cooper and Schrieffer deserved the Nobel prize for BCS. He was concerned that they might not be awarded because of the Nobel Committee's reticence to award the same person twice, which would be his case as a co-author of the theory. Bardeen nominated scientists who worked on superconducting tunneling effects such as the Josephson effect for the prize in 1967: Leo Esaki, Ivar Giaever and Brian Josephson. He recognized that because the tunneling developments depended on superconductivity, it would increase the chances that BCS itself would be awarded first. He also reasoned that the Nobel Committee had a predilection for multinational teams, which was the case for his tunneling nominees, each being from a different country. Bardeen renewed the nominations in 1971, 1972, when BCS received the prize, and finally 1973, when tunneling was awarded.: 230-231 \nHe is the only double laureate in physics, and one of three double laureates of the same prize; the others are Frederick Sanger who won the 1958 and 1980 Prizes in Chemistry and Karl Barry Sharpless who won the 2001 and 2022 Prizes in chemistry.\n\nOther awards\nIn addition to being awarded the Nobel prize twice, Bardeen has numerous other awards including:\n\n1952 Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal.\n1954 elected a member of the United States National Academy of Sciences\n1958 elected to the American Philosophical Society\n1959 elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\n1965 National Medal of Science.\n1971 IEEE Medal of Honor for \"his profound contributions to the understanding of the conductivity of solids, to the invention of the transistor, and to the microscopic theory of superconductivity.\"\nElected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1973.\n1975 Franklin Medal.\nOn January 10, 1977, John Bardeen was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Gerald Ford. He was represented at the ceremony by his son, William Bardeen.\nBardeen was one of 11 recipients given the Third Century Award from President George H. W. Bush in 1990 for \"exceptional contributions to American society\" and was granted a gold medal from the Soviet Academy of Sciences in 1988.\n1987 Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement\n\nXerox\nBardeen was also an important adviser to Xerox Corporation. Though quiet by nature, he took the uncharacteristic step of urging Xerox executives to keep their California research center, Xerox PARC, afloat when the parent company was suspicious that its research center would amount to little.\n\nPersonal life\nBardeen married Jane Maxwell on July 18, 1938. While at Princeton, he met Jane during a visit to his old friends in Pittsburgh.\nBardeen was a scientist with a very unassuming personality. While he served as a professor for almost 40 years at the University of Illinois, he was best remembered by neighbors for hosting cookouts where he would prepare food for his friends, many of whom were unaware of his accomplishments at the university. He would always ask his guests if they liked the hamburger bun toasted (since he liked his that way). He enjoyed playing golf and going on picnics with his family. Lillian Hoddeson said that because he \"differed radically from the popular stereotype of 'genius' and was uninterested in appearing other than ordinary, the public and the media often overlooked him.\"\nWhen Bardeen was asked about his beliefs during a 1988 interview, he responded: \"I am not a religious person, and so do not think about it very much\". However, he has also said: \"I feel that science cannot provide an answer to the ultimate questions about the meaning and purpose of life.\" Bardeen did believe in a code of moral values and behavior. John Bardeen's children were taken to church by his wife, who taught Sunday school and was a church elder.: 168–169 Despite this, he and his wife made it clear that they did not have faith in an afterlife and other religious ideas. He was the father of James M. Bardeen, William A. Bardeen, and daughter Elizabeth.\n\nDeath\nBardeen died of heart disease at age 82 at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 30, 1991. Although he lived in Champaign-Urbana, he had come to Boston for medical consultation. Bardeen and his wife Jane (1907–1997) are buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, Madison, Wisconsin. They were survived by three children, James, William and Elizabeth Bardeen Greytak, and six grandchildren.\n\nLegacy\nIn honor of Bardeen, the engineering quadrangle at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign is named the Bardeen Quad.\nAlso in honor of Bardeen, Sony Corporation endowed a $3 million John Bardeen professorial chair at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, beginning in 1990. Sony Corporation owed much of its success to commercializing Bardeen's transistors in portable TVs and radios, and had worked with Illinois researchers. As of 2022, the John Bardeen Professor is Yurii Vlasov.\nAt the time of Bardeen's death, then-University of Illinois chancellor Morton Weir said, \"It is a rare person whose work changes the life of every American; John's did.\"\nBardeen was honored on a March 6, 2008, United States postage stamp as part of the \"American Scientists\" series designed by artist Victor Stabin. The $0.41 stamp was unveiled in a ceremony at the University of Illinois. His citation reads: \"Theoretical physicist John Bardeen (1908–1991) shared the Nobel Prize in Physics twice—in 1956, as co-inventor of the transistor and in 1972, for the explanation of superconductivity. The transistor paved the way for all modern electronics, from computers to microchips. Diverse applications of superconductivity include infrared sensors and medical imaging systems.\" The other scientists on the \"American Scientists\" sheet include biochemist Gerty Cori, chemist Linus Pauling and astronomer Edwin Hubble.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n Media related to John Bardeen at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to John Bardeen at Wikiquote\nThe Bardeen Archives at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign\nJohn Bardeen on Nobelprize.org including his 2 Nobel lectures\nDecember 11, 1956 Semiconductor Research Leading to the Point Contact Transistor\nDecember 11, 1972 Electron-Phonon Interactions and Superconductivity\nAssociated Press Obituary of John Bardeen as printed in The Boston Globe\nOral History interview transcript with John Bardeen on 12 May 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - Session I, interviewed by Lillian Hoddeson\nOral History interview transcript with John Bardeen on 16 May 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives – Session II, interviewed by Lillian Hoddeson\nOral History interview transcript with John Bardeen on 1 December 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives – Session III, interviewed by Lillian Hoddeson\nOral History interview transcript with John Bardeen on 22 December 1977, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives - Session IV, interviewed by Lillian Hoddeson\nOral History interview transcript with John Bardeen on 4 April 1978, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives – Session V, interviewed by Lillian Hoddeson and Gordon Baym\nOral History interview transcript with John Bardeen on 13 February 1980, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives, interviewed by Lillian Hoddeson\nInterview with Bardeen about his experience at Princeton\nThe American Presidency Project\nIEEE History Center biography\nIEEE second Int. Conference on Computers, Communications and Control (ICCCC 2008), an event dedicated to the Centenary of John Bardeen (1908–1991)\nU.S. patent 2,524,035 – \"Three-Electrode Circuit Element Utilizing Semiconductive Materials\"",
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"paragraph_text": "Frederick Sanger (; 13 August 1918 – 19 November 2013) was a British biochemist who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice.\nHe won the 1958 Chemistry Prize for determining the amino acid sequence of insulin and numerous other proteins, demonstrating in the process that each had a unique, definite structure; this was a foundational discovery for the central dogma of molecular biology.\nAt the newly constructed Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, he developed and subsequently refined the first-ever DNA sequencing technique, which vastly expanded the number of feasible experiments in molecular biology and remains in widespread use today. The breakthrough earned him the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which he shared with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg.\nHe is one of only three people to have won multiple Nobel Prizes in the same category (the others being John Bardeen in physics and Karl Barry Sharpless in chemistry), and one of five persons with two Nobel Prizes.\n\nEarly life and education\nFrederick Sanger was born on 13 August 1918 in Rendcomb, a small village in Gloucestershire, England, the second son of Frederick Sanger, a general practitioner, and his wife, Cicely Sanger (née Crewdson). He was one of three children. His brother, Theodore, was only a year older, while his sister May (Mary) was five years younger. His father had worked as an Anglican medical missionary in China but returned to England because of ill health. He was 40 in 1916 when he married Cicely, who was four years younger. Sanger's father converted to Quakerism soon after his two sons were born and brought up the children as Quakers. Sanger's mother was the daughter of an affluent cotton manufacturer and had a Quaker background, but was not a Quaker.\nWhen Sanger was around five years old the family moved to the small village of Tanworth-in-Arden in Warwickshire. The family was reasonably wealthy and employed a governess to teach the children. In 1927, at the age of nine, he was sent to the Downs School, a residential preparatory school run by Quakers near Malvern. His brother Theo was a year ahead of him at the same school. In 1932, at the age of 14, he was sent to the recently established Bryanston School in Dorset. This used the Dalton system and had a more liberal regime which Sanger much preferred. At the school he liked his teachers and particularly enjoyed scientific subjects. Able to complete his School Certificate a year early, for which he was awarded seven credits, Sanger was able to spend most of his last year of school experimenting in the laboratory alongside his chemistry master, Geoffrey Ordish, who had originally studied at Cambridge University and been a researcher in the Cavendish Laboratory. Working with Ordish made a refreshing change from sitting and studying books and awakened Sanger's desire to pursue a scientific career. In 1935, prior to heading off to college, Sanger was sent to Schule Schloss Salem in southern Germany on an exchange program. The school placed a heavy emphasis on athletics, which caused Sanger to be much further ahead in the course material compared to the other students. He was shocked to learn that each day was started with readings from Hitler's Mein Kampf, followed by a Sieg Heil salute.\nIn 1936 Sanger went to St John's College, Cambridge, to study natural sciences. His father had attended the same college. For Part I of his Tripos he took courses in physics, chemistry, biochemistry and mathematics but struggled with physics and mathematics. Many of the other students had studied more mathematics at school. In his second year he replaced physics with physiology. He took three years to obtain his Part I. For his Part II he studied biochemistry and obtained a 1st Class Honours. Biochemistry was a relatively new department founded by Gowland Hopkins with enthusiastic lecturers who included Malcolm Dixon, Joseph Needham and Ernest Baldwin.\nBoth his parents died from cancer during his first two years at Cambridge. His father was 60 and his mother was 58. As an undergraduate Sanger's beliefs were strongly influenced by his Quaker upbringing. He was a pacifist and a member of the Peace Pledge Union. It was through his involvement with the Cambridge Scientists' Anti-War Group that he met his future wife, Joan Howe, who was studying economics at Newnham College. They courted while he was studying for his Part II exams and married after he had graduated in December 1940. Sanger, although brought up and influenced by his religious upbringing, later began to lose sight of his Quaker related ways. He began to see the world through a more scientific lens, and with the growth of his research and scientific development he slowly drifted farther from the faith he grew up with. He has nothing but respect for the religious and states he took two things from it, truth and respect for all life. Under the Military Training Act 1939 he was provisionally registered as a conscientious objector, and again under the National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939, before being granted unconditional exemption from military service by a tribunal. In the meantime he undertook training in social relief work at the Quaker centre, Spicelands, Devon and served briefly as a hospital orderly.\nSanger began studying for a PhD in October 1940 under N.W. \"Bill\" Pirie. His project was to investigate whether edible protein could be obtained from grass. After little more than a month Pirie left the department and Albert Neuberger became his adviser. Sanger changed his research project to study the metabolism of lysine and a more practical problem concerning the nitrogen of potatoes. His thesis had the title, \"The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body\". He was examined by Charles Harington and Albert Charles Chibnall and awarded his doctorate in 1943.\n\nResearch and career\nSequencing insulin\nNeuberger moved to the National Institute for Medical Research in London, but Sanger stayed in Cambridge and in 1943 joined the group of Charles Chibnall, a protein chemist who had recently taken up the chair in the Department of Biochemistry. Chibnall had already done some work on the amino acid composition of bovine insulin and suggested that Sanger look at the amino groups in the protein. Insulin could be purchased from the pharmacy chain Boots and was one of the very few proteins that were available in a pure form. Up to this time Sanger had been funding himself. In Chibnall's group he was initially supported by the Medical Research Council and then from 1944 until 1951 by a Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research.\nSanger's first triumph was to determine the complete amino acid sequence of the two polypeptide chains of bovine insulin, A and B, in 1952 and 1951, respectively. Prior to this it was widely assumed that proteins were somewhat amorphous. In determining these sequences, Sanger proved that proteins have a defined chemical composition.\nTo get to this point, Sanger refined a partition chromatography method first developed by Richard Laurence Millington Synge and Archer John Porter Martin to determine the composition of amino acids in wool. Sanger used a chemical reagent 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (now, also known as Sanger's reagent, fluorodinitrobenzene, FDNB or DNFB), sourced from poisonous gas research by Bernard Charles Saunders at the Chemistry Department at Cambridge University. Sanger's reagent proved effective at labelling the N-terminal amino group at one end of the polypeptide chain. He then partially hydrolysed the insulin into short peptides, either with hydrochloric acid or using an enzyme such as trypsin. The mixture of peptides was fractionated in two dimensions on a sheet of filter paper, first by electrophoresis in one dimension and then, perpendicular to that, by chromatography in the other. The different peptide fragments of insulin, detected with ninhydrin, moved to different positions on the paper, creating a distinct pattern that Sanger called \"fingerprints\". The peptide from the N-terminus could be recognised by the yellow colour imparted by the FDNB label and the identity of the labelled amino acid at the end of the peptide determined by complete acid hydrolysis and discovering which dinitrophenyl-amino acid was there.\nBy repeating this type of procedure Sanger was able to determine the sequences of the many peptides generated using different methods for the initial partial hydrolysis. These could then be assembled into the longer sequences to deduce the complete structure of insulin. Finally, because the A and B chains are physiologically inactive without the three linking disulfide bonds (two interchain, one intrachain on A), Sanger and coworkers determined their assignments in 1955. Sanger's principal conclusion was that the two polypeptide chains of the protein insulin had precise amino acid sequences and, by extension, that every protein had a unique sequence. It was this achievement that earned him his first Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1958. This discovery was crucial to the later sequence hypothesis of Francis Crick for developing ideas of how DNA codes for proteins.\n\nSequencing RNA\nFrom 1951 Sanger was a member of the external staff of the Medical Research Council and when they opened the Laboratory of Molecular Biology in 1962, he moved from his laboratories in the Biochemistry Department of the university to the top floor of the new building. He became head of the Protein Chemistry division.\nPrior to his move, Sanger began exploring the possibility of sequencing RNA molecules and began developing methods for separating ribonucleotide fragments generated with specific nucleases. This work he did while trying to refine the sequencing techniques he had developed during his work on insulin.\nThe key challenge in the work was finding a pure piece of RNA to sequence. In the course of the work he discovered in 1964, with Kjeld Marcker, the formylmethionine tRNA which initiates protein synthesis in bacteria. He was beaten in the race to be the first to sequence a tRNA molecule by a group led by Robert Holley from Cornell University, who published the sequence of the 77 ribonucleotides of alanine tRNA from Saccharomyces cerevisiae in 1965. By 1967 Sanger's group had determined the nucleotide sequence of the 5S ribosomal RNA from Escherichia coli, a small RNA of 120 nucleotides.\n\nSequencing DNA\nSanger then turned to sequencing DNA, which would require an entirely different approach. He looked at different ways of using DNA polymerase I from E. coli to copy single stranded DNA. In 1975, together with Alan Coulson, he published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the \"Plus and Minus\" technique. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement on what had gone before, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, his group were able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded bacteriophage φX174. This was the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. To their surprise they discovered that the coding regions of some of the genes overlapped with one another.\nIn 1977 Sanger and colleagues introduced the \"dideoxy\" chain-termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, also known as the \"Sanger method\". This was a major breakthrough and allowed long stretches of DNA to be rapidly and accurately sequenced. It earned him his second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1980, which he shared with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg. The new method was used by Sanger and colleagues to sequence human mitochondrial DNA (16,569 base pairs) and bacteriophage λ (48,502 base pairs). The dideoxy method was eventually used to sequence the entire human genome.\n\nPostgraduate students\nDuring the course of his career Sanger supervised more than ten PhD students, two of whom went on to also win Nobel Prizes. His first graduate student was Rodney Porter who joined the research group in 1947. Porter later shared the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Gerald Edelman for his work on the chemical structure of antibodies. Elizabeth Blackburn studied for a PhD in Sanger's laboratory between 1971 and 1974. She shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak for her work on telomeres and the action of telomerase.\n\nSanger's rule\n... anytime you get technical development that’s two to threefold or more efficient, accurate, cheaper, a whole range of experiments opens up.\nThis rule should not be confused with Terence Sanger's rule, which is related to Oja's rule.\n\nAwards and honours\nAs of 2015, Sanger is one of the only two people to have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice (the other being Karl Barry Sharpless in 2001 and 2022), and one of only five two-time Nobel laureates: The other four were Marie Curie (Physics, 1903 and Chemistry, 1911), Linus Pauling (Chemistry, 1954 and Peace, 1962), John Bardeen (twice Physics, 1956 and 1972), and Karl Barry Sharpless (twice Chemistry, 2001 and 2022).\n\nElected Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1954\nCommander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) – 1963\nMember of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) – 1981\nMember of the Order of Merit (OM) – 1986\nCorresponding Member of the Australian Academy of Science – 1982\nWilliam Bate Hardy Prize – 1976\nNobel Prize in Chemistry – 1958, 1980\nCorday–Morgan Medal – 1951\nRoyal Medal – 1969\nGairdner Foundation International Award – 1971\nCopley Medal – 1977\nG.W. Wheland Award – 1978\nLouisa Gross Horwitz Prize of Columbia University – 1979\nAlbert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research – 1979\nAssociation of Biomolecular Resource Facilities Award – 1994\nGolden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement – 2000\nCitation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society – 2016\nThe Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute (formerly the Sanger Centre) is named in his honour.\n\nPersonal life\nMarriage and family\nSanger married Margaret Joan Howe (not to be confused with Margaret Sanger, the American pioneer of birth control) in 1940. She died in 2012. They had three children — Robin, born in 1943, Peter born in 1946 and Sally Joan born in 1960. He said that his wife had \"contributed more to his work than anyone else by providing a peaceful and happy home.\"\n\nLater life\nSanger retired in 1983, aged 65, to his home, \"Far Leys\", in Swaffham Bulbeck outside Cambridge.\nIn 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre (now the Sanger Institute), named after him. The institute is on the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus near Hinxton, only a few miles from Sanger's home. He agreed to having the Centre named after him when asked by John Sulston, the founding director, but warned, \"It had better be good.\" It was opened by Sanger in person on 4 October 1993, with a staff of fewer than 50 people, and went on to take a leading role in the sequencing of the human genome. The Institute had about 900 people in 2020 and is one of the world's largest genomic research centres.\nSanger said he found no evidence for a God so he became an agnostic. In an interview published in the Times newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying: \"My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs – one is obviously looking for truth, but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof.\"\nHe declined the offer of a knighthood, as he did not wish to be addressed as \"Sir\". He is quoted as saying, \"A knighthood makes you different, doesn't it, and I don't want to be different.\" In 1986 he accepted admission to the Order of Merit, which can have only 24 living members.\nIn 2007 the British Biochemical Society was given a grant by the Wellcome Trust to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter, Science noted that Sanger, \"the most self-effacing person you could hope to meet\", was spending his time gardening at his Cambridgeshire home.\nSanger died in his sleep at Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge on 19 November 2013. As noted in his obituary, he had described himself as \"just a chap who messed about in a lab\", and \"academically not brilliant\".\n\nGlobal policy\nHe was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution. As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt a Constitution for the Federation of Earth.\n\nSelected publications\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nThe Sanger Institute\nAbout the 1958 Nobel Prize\nAbout the 1980 Nobel Prize\nFred Sanger 2001 Video Documentary by The Vega Science Trust\nPortraits of Frederick Sanger at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nFrederick Sanger interviewed by Alan Macfarlane, 24 August 2007 (video), also available on Video on YouTube. Duration 57 minutes.\nFrederick Sanger archive collection – Wellcome Library finding aid for the digitised collection.\nFrederick Sanger on Nobelprize.org",
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"paragraph_text": "The 2014 Stanley Cup Finals was the championship series of the National Hockey League's (NHL) 2013–14 season, and the culmination of the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. The League realigned its divisions prior to the season, and changed the structure of the playoffs, but the championship series remained the same. The Western Conference champion Los Angeles Kings defeated the Eastern Conference champion New York Rangers four games to one to win their second championship in franchise history, marking the first time since 2007 that the championship series was determined in fewer than six games. Their Stanley Cup–winning run of 26 playoff games was later tied by the 2019 St. Louis Blues for the longest of any Stanley Cup–winning team in history.\nLos Angeles had home ice advantage in the series, as the Kings finished with a better regular season record than the Rangers. The series started on June 4 and ended on June 13 with the Kings winning their second Stanley Cup in three seasons. It was the first meeting between teams from New York City and Los Angeles for a major professional sports championship since the Yankees and the Dodgers played in the 1981 World Series. Coincidentally, 1981 was also the last time the Rangers and the Kings had met in the postseason; that was the last season where the league did not use a geographical based playoff format and as a result any two teams could meet in any round of the postseason regardless of geography. In 1981 the Rangers eliminated the Kings during the first round of the playoffs.\n\nPaths to the Finals\nNew York Rangers\nThis was New York's 11th appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals, and they were seeking their fifth Cup championship overall and their first one since 1994, 20 years earlier. Since their win in 1994, their only other post-season highlights were reaching the Conference Finals in 1997 and 2012.\nThe Rangers entered the season after essentially swapping head coaches with the Vancouver Canucks: the Rangers and the Canucks fired John Tortorella and Alain Vigneault, respectively, and then coincidentally hired the other's former coach. While Vancouver, under Tortorella's first year, failed to make the playoffs, Vigneault guided New York to 96 regular season points and second place in the new Metropolitan Division. En route, the Rangers made a major trade with the Tampa Bay Lightning on March 5, acquiring Tampa Bay's captain Martin St. Louis in exchange for their own captain Ryan Callahan. The transaction happened as Callahan and the Rangers were not close to terms on a new contract, while St. Louis was unhappy at his initial omission from the Olympics by Steve Yzerman (general manager of both the Lightning and Team Canada).\nIn the first round of the playoffs, the Rangers eliminated the Philadelphia Flyers in seven games. Then, in the second round against the Pittsburgh Penguins, New York overcame a 3–1 game deficit to win the series. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Rangers defeated the Montreal Canadiens in six games to capture their first Eastern Conference championship in 20 years. In the process, the Rangers became the first team ever to play two full seven-game series in the first two rounds of the playoffs and reach the Stanley Cup Finals, a feat later matched and exceeded in the same postseason by the Kings.\nDue to trading away captain Ryan Callahan and not naming a successor for the remainder of the season, Rangers were the first team since the 1972–73 Chicago Black Hawks to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals without a captain.\nBy reaching the Finals with the Rangers, Mats Zuccarello made history when he became the first Norwegian to play in the Stanley Cup Finals.\n\nLos Angeles Kings\nLos Angeles made their third appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals and sought to capture their second Cup championship after winning it in 2012.\nMuch of the core from the Kings' 2012 championship remained on the team. Los Angeles made a late regular season trade on March 5, acquiring former Ranger Marian Gaborik from the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for Matt Frattin and two draft picks. The Kings then finished the regular season in third place in the Pacific Division with 100 points.\nThe Finals were the only series in the 2014 playoffs in which the Kings had home ice advantage. Los Angeles needed three consecutive game sevens to advance to the Cup Finals (breaking the aforementioned Rangers' game sevens record just a couple of days later), winning all of them on the road. The team became the fourth team in NHL playoff history to win a seven-game series after losing the first three games, defeating the San Jose Sharks in the first round. The Kings eliminated their local rival Anaheim Ducks next, despite squandering a 2–0 series lead and then facing a 3–2 series deficit. In a rematch of the 2013 Western Conference Final, the Kings defeated the defending Stanley Cup champion Chicago Blackhawks in the Western Conference Final who had forced a seventh game after trailing the series 3–1.\nLike their 2012 championship series, the Kings' 2014 Cup Finals was marked by a 3–0 series start of winning the first two games in overtime and the third as a shutout. With their 2014 Stanley Cup win, the Kings have the distinction of winning the first championship after the League's realignment as well as becoming the first team in the salary-cap era to win two championships in the span of three years or less. Their 2012 championship made them also the final team to win the Cup in the League's last full season before the realignment, as the 2012–13 season was shortened by a lockout. The Kings played a record 26 playoff games to win the Stanley Cup, the most ever for a champion (the St. Louis Blues matched this feat in 2019).\n\nGame summaries\nNumber in parentheses represents the player's total in goals or assists to that point of the entire four rounds of the playoffs\n\nGame one\nThe Kings overcame a two-goal deficit to defeat the Rangers 3–2 in the first game. New York built their 2–0 lead in the first period by scoring 1:42 apart. Benoit Pouliot scored first on a breakaway after stealing the puck from Drew Doughty, then shooting past Jonathan Quick. Carl Hagelin then recorded a short-handed goal, as his shot was initially blocked by Quick but then rebounded off of Slava Voynov's skate into the net. The Kings' comeback began with Kyle Clifford's goal late in the first period. Clifford shot it in from near the left post after receiving a pass from Jeff Carter. Doughty tied the game in the second period, beating Henrik Lundqvist from the left circle. In the third period, the Kings outshot the Rangers, 20–3, but neither Lundqvist nor Quick allowed any goals. In the final minute of regulation, Quick stopped Hagelin's shot on a breakaway, and seconds later Lundqvist barely kept Carter's wrap-around shot from crossing the goal line. In overtime, Daniel Girardi turned over the puck in the New York zone, leading Mike Richards to pass the puck to Justin Williams, who then put the puck over Lundqvist to win the game.\n\nGame two\nThe Kings overcame three two-goal deficits to defeat the Rangers 5–4 in double overtime. Including their game seven victory in the Western Conference Final against the Chicago Blackhawks, Los Angeles became the first team in Stanley Cup playoffs history to overcome three consecutive two-goal deficits. With the first game also going to overtime, it marked the third consecutive year that the first two games of the Stanley Cup Finals went to overtime. Ryan McDonagh and Mats Zuccarello scored in the first period to give the Rangers a 2–0 lead. Jarret Stoll then cut New York's lead in half at 1:46 of the second period. The teams then traded power play goals with Martin St. Louis scoring for the Rangers and Willie Mitchell for the Kings. Eleven seconds after Mitchell's goal, Derick Brassard gave New York a 4–2 lead after miscommunication between Mitchell and Jonathan Quick behind the Kings net lead to a turnover. Dwight King's goal to cut the Rangers' lead to 4–3 early in the third period was controversial. King and McDonagh were fighting for position in front of Henrik Lundqvist when Matt Greene shot the puck from the right point. King made contact with Lundqvist in the crease as he touched the puck before it went into the net but no goaltender interference was called: the referee ruled that the contact occurred after the puck already sailed past Lundqvist. Marian Gaborik then tied the game with an unassisted goal at 7:36 of the third during a scramble in front of the New York net. At 10:26 of double overtime, Dustin Brown deflected Mitchell's shot from the left point into the net to give the Kings the 5–4 win. This gave the Kings a 2–0 series lead as the series shifted to New York City, despite never leading in either game during regulation time in Los Angeles.\n\nGame three\nThis was the first Stanley Cup Finals game played in the state of New York since Game 6 of the 1999 Finals in Buffalo. The Kings won 3–0, led by the goaltending of Jonathan Quick, who shut out the Rangers on 32 shots. The first period was marked by tight checking, and only nine shots were recorded by the two teams. Mats Zuccarello nearly scored for the Rangers at 12:37 of the first, but his shot went off the post and Quick's stick to stay out. With one second to play, Jeff Carter's shot from the slot deflected off a Rangers defenceman past Henrik Lundqvist to put the Kings ahead by one. In the second period, Jake Muzzin scored from the point on another deflection off a Rangers player. Mike Richards scored later in the period, on a two-on-one, his attempted pass deflecting off a Rangers player back to him, leaving Lundqvist out of position to make the stop. Meanwhile, Quick stopped all 17 shots the Rangers put on the net in the second, including a stick save on Derick Brassard when he appeared to be well out of position to make the save. There was no scoring in the third and the Kings took a three games to none series lead, putting the Rangers on the brink of elimination.\n\nGame four\nThe Rangers avoided becoming the first team since 1998 to get swept in the Finals by defeating the Kings 2–1. In a turn-around from game three, the Kings outshot the Rangers and lost as Rangers netminder Henrik Lundqvist saved 40 out of 41 shots. Like games one and two, the Rangers scored the first two goals, on goals by Benoit Pouliot and Martin St. Louis. Dustin Brown scored for the Kings in the second period to cut the margin to 2–1. In the third period, the Kings put pressure on the Rangers and nearly tied the score when the puck slid past Lundqvist to rest on the goal line before being cleared away. Earlier, in the first period, another shot by the Kings also rested on the goal line and did not go in. In all, the Kings outshot the Rangers 15–1 in the third, but did not score.\n\nGame five\nThe Kings clinched their second Stanley Cup in franchise history, their first since 2012, by defeating the Rangers 3–2 on home ice. This was the first Stanley Cup–clinching game since 2010 to be determined in overtime, and the first time that the home team had the overtime Stanley Cup winner since 1980. The Kings played 26 playoff games on their road to the trophy, more than any previous Stanley Cup–winning team.\nThe Kings grabbed the lead in the first period with an even-strength goal by Justin Williams. In the second, Chris Kreider converted on a Rangers power play before Brian Boyle scored a short-handed goal to put the road team up by one with 30 seconds left. In the third, Marian Gaborik tied the game at two on a Kings power play. No more goals were scored in regulation and the game went to overtime. The first overtime period featured one penalty for the Kings, but the Rangers were unable to score on the ensuing power play. With five minutes to go in the second overtime period and the Kings on a 3-on-2 breakaway, Tyler Toffoli fired a shot that Henrik Lundqvist kicked out directly to Alec Martinez, who fired it into the open net to win both the game and the series for the Kings. At that time, the Kings had outshot the Rangers 51–30. It was the longest game in Kings history until 2018.\n\nTeam rosters\nYears indicated in boldface under the \"Finals appearance\" column signify that the player won the Stanley Cup in the given year.\n\nLos Angeles Kings\nNew York Rangers\nNote: Brad Richards served as the Rangers unofficial team captain during the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. Richards was the alternate captain with the longest tenure in the league on the roster at the time of the playoffs.\n\nStanley Cup engraving\nThe 2014 Stanley Cup was presented to Kings captain Dustin Brown by NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman following the Kings 3–2 overtime win over the Rangers in game five.\nThe following Kings players and staff had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup\n2013–14 Los Angeles Kings\n\nPlayers\n1 Played both center and wing.\n\nStanley Cup engraving\n(D) – **Jeff Schultz played 67 regular season and two playoff games for the Manchester Monarchs(AHL). He was recalled during the playoffs and played seven playoff games for Los Angeles, including one in the Conference Finals. He spent the whole regular season in the minors and did not play in the Stanley Cup Finals. Los Angeles requested that his name be included. It was included for playing in the Conference Finals and playing in his eighth NHL season\n(C) – Colin Fraser played 33 regular-season games for Los Angeles, but no playoff games. Fraser was sent to the minors in February. He played ten games for Manchester Monarchs (AHL) before getting injured. He later rejoined the Kings for the playoffs in April. Fraser did not play half of the Kings' regular-season games, or a single game in Finals (the criteria for being automatically included in the engravings), and Los Angeles did not request that his name be included. (Colin Fraser's name is on the Stanley Cup with Blackhawks in 2010 and Kings in 2012.)\n(C) – Linden Vey played in 18 regular-season games and spent most of the regular season in the minors before being recalled during the playoffs, where he did not play. Los Angeles did not request his name be included.\n(D) – Andrew Campbell played in three regular-season games and spent most of the regular season in the minors before being recalled during the playoffs, where he did not play. Los Angeles did not request his name be included.\nEdward P. Roski, Jr. (owner) asked that his name not be included, so that another member could get his name on the Stanley Cup (on cup in 2012).\nRob Laird, (Sr. Pro Scout), and Ted Fikre (Chief Legal & Development Officer), who were listed on the cup with Los Angeles in 2012, agreed not to have their names engraved in 2014 so that two other scouts could be listed on the Stanley Cup for the first time. Six out of 12 scouts had their name on the Stanley Cup in 2014 (Missing six were Bob Crocker, Bob Friedlander, Bill Gurney, Denis Fugere, Mike Donelly, Christian Ruuttu).\nCanadian Robyn Regehr was the first player born in Brazil to win the Stanley Cup. He lived in Indonesia, before settling in Rosthern, Saskatchewan as a child.\nIncluded on team picture, but left off the Stanley Cup\nColin Fraser (C), Ryan Van Asten (Strength and Conditioning Coach), Chris Pikosky (Massage Therapist), Denver Wilson (Asst. Equipment Manager), Bobby Halfacre (Equipment Asst.)\n\nTelevision\nThis was the last year under the League's current Canadian TV contracts with CBC (English broadcasts of the Finals) and the cable network TSN (English broadcasts), and RDS (French broadcasts). The NHL's twelve-year contract with Rogers Communications would then take effect beginning next season, with English-language national coverage of the Finals being sub-licensed to CBC, and French-language telecasts being sub-licensed to TVA Sports. TSN will only be showing regional games for Toronto, Ottawa and Winnipeg starting the fall of 2014.\nIn the United States, NBCSN broadcast games three and four, while NBC televised the remaining games. NBC Sports originally planned to repeat its coverage pattern from the last few seasons: NBCSN would televise game two and three, while NBC would broadcast game one, and then games four to seven. After the League scheduled game two on the day of the 2014 Belmont Stakes, coverage of games two and four were switched so NBC's telecast of the horse race would serve as lead-in programming to game two. Due to the death of a family member, NBC lead play-by-play announcer Mike Emrick missed game one. Kenny Albert, who was also the Rangers radio announcer for WEPN and announced several national games (including the Western Conference Finals) for NBC/NBCSN, filled in for Emrick in the first game.\n\nQuotes\nStarting back up with it now it’s Martinez in a three on two, Clifford gave it across. It’s held in a shot, save, rebound, SCORE! THE STANLEY CUP! MARTINEZ!\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial Site",
"title": "2014_Stanley_Cup_Finals"
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"paragraph_text": "Dustin James Brown (born November 4, 1984) is an American former professional ice hockey right winger. Brown spent his entire NHL career with the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League (NHL), who drafted him 13th overall in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft. He is the Kings all-time games leader and served as team captain from 2008 to 2016; during this time he led the Kings to the 2012 and 2014 Stanley Cup championships, becoming the first Kings captain and second American captain (behind Derian Hatcher) to win the Stanley Cup. During the 2012–13 NHL lockout, he played for ZSC Lions in the Swiss National League A.\nBrown was noted for his physical playing style, consistently ranking among NHL leaders in hits and penalties drawn, and his reserved, lead-by-example approach to his captaincy of the Kings.\nInternationally, Brown has represented the United States at three World Championships, winning a bronze medal in 2004, and two World Junior Championships. He won a silver medal as an alternate captain of the United States national team at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Brown received the 2011 NHL Foundation Player Award for his extensive charity work in the Los Angeles community, and the Mark Messier Leadership Award in 2014.\n\nPlaying career\nJunior career\nAfter playing hockey at Ithaca High School for two years, Brown left his hometown to play junior hockey at age 16. He was drafted in the second round, 26th overall, by the Guelph Storm in the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Priority Selection Draft. Brown played three seasons for Guelph, scoring 194 points in 174 games. He was drafted by the Los Angeles Kings in the first round, 13 overall, in 2003.\n\nLos Angeles Kings (2003–2022)\n2003–2008: Early seasons\nBrown signed a three-year entry-level contract with the Kings and made the Kings' 2003–04 team out of training camp. His first NHL game was October 9, 2003, against the Detroit Red Wings. Brown saw fourth-line ice time in his rookie year, and he scored his first NHL goal on November 22, 2003, in a 2–0 win over the Colorado Avalanche. He managed just 1 goal and 5 points in 31 games before his season was cut short by a high ankle sprain. Nonetheless, Brown's physicality made a favorable impression with the Kings' coaching staff.\nThe following season was cancelled due to the NHL lockout. Brown was assigned to the Manchester Monarchs, the Kings' American Hockey League (AHL) affiliate, in order to develop his offensive game. He performed well in Manchester, averaging nearly a point per game and readying himself for an expanded NHL role.\nWith the lockout over, and NHL play resuming in 2005–06, Brown cemented his place on the team. As a 21-year-old checking forward, he managed 28 points in 79 games. More impressively, he led the team (and ranked 13th in the NHL) with 175 hits, and he drew the second most penalties in the NHL despite his limited ice time. A restricted free agent at the end of the year, Brown signed a two-year contract before the start of the 2006–07 season.\nBrown's third season saw an expansion in his role, as he was placed on the top line with star rookie center Anže Kopitar. The two young forwards became frequent linemates, as Brown's hitting abilities and willingness to shoot complemented Kopitar's dynamic passing and puck possession skills. Receiving the third-most ice time among Kings forwards, Brown responded with career-highs of 17 goals and 46 points in 81 games. Brown also received the most short-handed ice time among Kings forwards, a sign of his growing defensive reliability. He finished second in the NHL in hits, the first of six consecutive years that he ranked top three in the NHL in that category.\n\nOn October 26, 2007, shortly after the start of the 2007–08 season, the Kings and Brown agreed to a six-year, $19.05 million contract extension that ran through the 2013–14 season. The contract was signed a full year before Brown hit restricted free agency, partially because young forwards Dustin Penner of the Anaheim Ducks and Thomas Vanek of the Buffalo Sabres had just received lucrative offer sheets in restricted free agency, and the Kings did not want Brown to receive one. Brown produced his best offensive season that year. Continuing to play top-line minutes with Kopitar, he recorded 33 goals and 60 points. To date, that season remains the only year Brown has managed to reach the 30-goal plateau. Despite his personal success, the rebuilding Kings missed the Stanley Cup playoffs for the fifth-straight year.\n\n2008–2016: Stanley Cup championships and captaincy\nThe Kings named Brown the 13th captain in team history on October 8, 2008, just after the start of the 2008–09 season. Brown's appointment filled the vacancy created when prior captain Rob Blake left the Kings in free agency to sign with the San Jose Sharks on July 3, 2008. Just 23 years old when he assumed the captaincy, Brown became the youngest captain and the only American captain in Kings history. Head coach Terry Murray pointed to Brown's work ethic and commitment to the Kings to explain the decision, saying Brown \"shows that he cares tremendously about this team, about winning every night. I just want him to follow through with that, and he will because that's his personality. Just keep blazing that trail, and players on the team will follow\". Kings management was impressed by Brown's emergence as a vocal leader in the locker room, especially after the departure of veteran presences Mattias Norström and Rob Blake. On the ice, Brown's numbers dipped slightly from 2007–08, in part because of an 8.2% shooting percentage, his lowest since his rookie season. However, his 292 shots led the team, and his 24 goals were third. Brown was chosen to represent the Western Conference at the 2009 All-Star Game. The Kings missed the playoffs for a franchise-worst sixth straight year.\n\nBrown again posted solid numbers in 2009–10, playing all 82 games for the first time and registering 24 goals and a career-high 32 assists. He scored his 100th NHL goal on January 14, 2010, against the Anaheim Ducks. With Brown leading a rapidly improving young core that included center Anze Kopitar, defenseman Drew Doughty and goaltender Jonathan Quick, the Kings finally snapped the eight-year playoff drought after clinching the sixth seed in the West to qualify for a playoff spot. Brown had one goal and four assists in six games as the Kings lost in the first round of the 2010 playoffs to the third seeded Vancouver Canucks.\nBrown and the Kings entered the 2010–11 season with higher expectations. Brown again played all 82 games and scored 28 goals and 29 assists for 57 points. Anže Kopitar's late season ankle injury forced the Kings to settle for a seventh-seeded finish in the Western Conference and a matchup with the second-seeded San Jose Sharks in the first round of the 2011 playoffs. The Kings lost in six games for the second straight year, with Brown recording two points (a goal and an assist) in the series.\nBrown began the 2011–12 season on a line with newly acquired center Mike Richards, but was shuffled throughout the lineup for most of the season. He maintained his consistent production, topping 20 goals and 50 points for the fifth-straight year. However, along with the rest of the Kings, he struggled to score in the first half of the season. Head coach Terry Murray was fired midway through the season, and as the Kings fell further out of the playoff picture, they were rumored to be listening to trade offers for Brown. New head coach Darryl Sutter called the Brown-Kopitar tandem \"stale\" and said Brown was not playing the \"straight-line, up-and-down, go-to-the-net, shoot-the-puck, run-over-people\" style Brown needed to be effective. Brown's scoring pace picked up amidst the trade rumors, and he scored three goals on Corey Crawford and an assist on a Willie Mitchell goal in the last game before the NHL trade deadline, a 4–0 win over the Chicago Blackhawks on February 25, 2012. The Kings retained Brown, who responded with 11 points in the nine games following the trade deadline. Brown later said he was playing with \"a chip on his shoulder\" and \"whether those rumors are true or not, they're still out there, it gives you maybe a bit more motivation\". With Brown producing and the trade-deadline acquisition of Jeff Carter, the Kings were one of the highest-scoring NHL teams down the stretch and made the playoffs as an eighth seed. After moving up-and-down the lineup for most of the season, Brown found stability playing on the first line with Anže Kopitar and Justin Williams. That line would remain intact throughout the entire 2012 playoffs. Brown recorded four goals and one assist for five points in the first round against the back-to-back Presidents' Trophy-winning Vancouver Canucks, including two shorthanded goals on Canucks' goaltender Roberto Luongo in a 4–2 Game 2 win. Brown is the first and only player as of 2022 with two shorthanded goals in a playoff game. In Game 3, he delivered a devastating open-ice check to Canucks center and captain Henrik Sedin directly in front of the Vancouver' bench. The hit left Sedin uninjured but dazed on the ice for several seconds until fellow Canuck' center Manny Malhotra, who was on the bench with his linemates at the time of the play, had to guide Henrik off the ice and on to the bench. Brown later scored the game-winning goal in the third period. Many observers, including TSN's Bob McKenzie and Sports Illustrated' Michael Farber, called the hit the decisive moment in the series. The Kings upset the heavily favored top-seeded Canucks in five games, and then recorded the first sweep in franchise history over the second seeded St. Louis Blues in the second round. Brown registered two goals and four assists in the series. Both of his goals came in the decisive Game 4, a 3–1 Kings victory. The Kings then beat the third seeded Arizona Coyotes in five games in the Western Conference Finals. Brown scored the game-winning goal in Game 1 of that series and did not score again until Game 6 of the 2012 Stanley Cup Finals against the sixth seeded New Jersey Devils, although he did manage five assists in that span. After being benched for the final minutes of a Game 5 loss, Brown produced three points in Game 6 to secure the Kings' first-ever Stanley Cup. He scored the first of three goals on a five-minute power play, and shortly afterwards, fired a shot that Jeff Carter deflected into the net for the eventual Cup-winning goal. Later, he assisted on another Carter goal. The Kings defeated the Devils 6–1, making Brown the second American-born captain to lead a team to a Stanley Cup championship and the Kings the second California-based team to win the Stanley Cup. With eight goals and 12 assists for 20 points in 20 games, Brown tied teammate Anže Kopitar for the lead in overall playoff point total.\n\nOn July 28, 2012, Brown had his \"Day with the Cup\". Each year after a team has won the Stanley Cup, players, front office and hockey operation staff each get a day with the Stanley Cup. Brown hinted on the Tonight Show with Jay Leno he would bring the Cup back home. He did just that, bringing it to Ithaca High School in late July. During the lockout-shortened season, Brown finished shortened regular season with 18 goals and 11 assists for 29 points in 46 games. The Kings reached the Western Conference Finals for a second-straight year, but fell in five games to the Presidents’ Trophy-winning and eventual Stanley Cup champion Chicago Blackhawks.\nOn July 18, 2013, the Kings signed Brown to an eight-year, $47 million contract extension. In the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals, Brown led the Kings to another Stanley Cup title, despite facing some criticism for more muted contributions on the team's run to the title. In the Finals against the New York Rangers, Brown scored the overtime winner in Game 2 to give the Kings a 5–4 victory and a 2–0 series lead, and he scored again during the Kings' 2–1 loss in Game 4. At the conclusion of the 2013–14 season, Brown was awarded the Mark Messier Leadership Award \"in recognition of his commitment and service to charities in his community\".\nOn November 26, 2014, Brown recorded his 200th NHL goal in a 4–0 Kings win over the Minnesota Wild.\nAfter the Kings missed the playoffs entirely for the first time since 2009 in 2015, Brown and the Kings returned to the playoffs in 2016 only to fall in the first round in five games to the San Jose Sharks.\n\n2016–2022: Later years\nFollowing back-to-back seasons of scoring less than 30 points, Brown was replaced as the Kings captain by Anže Kopitar on June 16, 2016. Speaking on the decision to have his captaincy stripped, Brown stated, \"I understand the decision and I respect the decision. Part of my problem was how it was handled. It just put me in an awkward spot.\"\nThe 2017–18 season marked a resurgence for Brown. After earning 36 points the season prior, Brown managed 28 goals and 33 assists for a career-high 61 points in 81 contests played. On December 21, 2017, Brown played in his 1,000th career NHL game. The Kings defeated the Colorado Avalanche 2–1 in overtime, where Brown scored the game-winning goal. On April 5, 2018, Brown scored four goals, including the overtime winner, against the Minnesota Wild.\nIn the pandemic-shortened 2020–21 season opener in a 4–3 OT loss against the Minnesota Wild on January 13, 2021, Brown recorded his 300th NHL goal.\nBrown was eventually re-promoted to alternate captain since his demotion, and announced on April 28, 2022 before the 2021–22 season finale against the Vancouver Canucks that he would retire after the completion of the 2022 Stanley Cup playoffs, for which his Kings team qualified for the first time since 2018. At the time of the announcement, Brown had 28 points (9 goals, 19 assists) in 64 games in the 2021–22 regular season. In the season finale against the Canucks, he was named team captain for the Kings. In the 2022 playoffs, Brown's Kings would be eliminated in seven games in the first round by the Edmonton Oilers, with Brown skating in all seven appearances and recording two points, his final game was on May 14.\nBrown was honored with a statue on February 11, 2023, joining Wayne Gretzky and Luc Robitaille as the only Kings players with statues. The Kings also retired his #23 jersey that night, making him the sixth King so honored.\n\nInternational play\nBrown has played for the United States in multiple international tournaments. During the World Championship tournament of 2008, Brown received negative attention for a controversial hit that made contact with the head of Finnish player Jussi Jokinen as the final horn sounded.\nBrown was named an alternate captain of the United States at the 2010 Winter Olympics and again in 2014.\n\nStyle of play\nBrown was known for his physical, north–south style of game. Brown considered himself a clean hitter: after a controversial hit on Phoenix Coyotes defenseman Michal Rozsíval in the 2012 Western Conference Finals, Brown defended himself by saying, \"I take pride in playing the game clean and hard. There are going to be hits that are unfortunate but still clean.\" Brown had never been issued a fine or suspension from the NHL Department of Player Safety until April 24, 2013, when he received two-game suspension for an illegal elbow to the head of Minnesota Wild forward Jason Pominville on April 23, 2013. Brown's former teammate Rob Blake said Brown \"comes at guys straight on, face-to-face. He goes right through guys.\" Despite his aggressive style, Brown did not miss a game due to injury over a span of four seasons. Brown was one of the most effective NHL players at drawing penalties, having led the NHL in that category in five of seven post-lockout seasons. Brown's unparalleled success in that area led several commentators, including ex-NHL referee Kerry Fraser, to say that Brown acquired a reputation for embellishing infractions in order to draw penalties. Beyond his physicality and agitation, Brown provided a consistent offensive threat for the Kings, scoring at least 22 goals for five consecutive years. Brown played an effective two-way game and matured into an elite defensive and penalty-killing forward.\n\nPersonal life\nBrown has 3 sons Jake, Mason, Cooper and one daughter MacKenzie, with his wife Nicole and lives in Buffalo, New York. Brown had a speech impediment early in his career, which he received therapy for before his professional career. He was heavily involved in charity work in the Greater Los Angeles Area during his playing years and was awarded the 2011 NHL Foundation Player Award for his community efforts and involvement.\n\nCareer statistics\nRegular season and playoffs\nBold indicates led league\n\nInternational\nAwards and honours\nReferences\nExternal links\nBiographical information and career statistics from NHL.com, or Eliteprospects.com, or Hockey-Reference.com, or The Internet Hockey Database, or TSN.ca\nDustin Brown on Twitter",
"title": "Dustin_Brown_(ice_hockey)"
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] | As of August 3, 2024, what is the hometown of the captain of the team that won the Stanley Cup three years before 2017? | [] | Manhattan Beach, CA | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Victory Salute, commonly referred to as the Olympic Black Power Statue, is a monument depicting the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute performed by African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos. The monument consists of two fiberglass statues covered in ceramic tiles, atop a concrete base designed to emulate the Olympic podium. It was created in 2005 by Portuguese artist Rigo 23 and is installed next to Tower Hall on the San José State University campus, in San Jose, California, United States.\n\nHistory\nIn 1968, as members of San Jose State's Speed City era of athletics, Tommie Smith and John Carlos competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. After earning gold and bronze medals respectively, the duo raised a Black Power salute while \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" played, which became one of the most defining acts of protest of the civil rights movement. Despite disapproval of the protest among the general public, San Jose State University President Robert D. Clark expressed his support of the act.\nIn Winter 2002, San Jose State student Erik Grotz initiated a project to honor Smith and Carlos at their alma mater; \"One of my professors [Cobie Harris] was talking about unsung heroes and he mentioned Tommie Smith and John Carlos. He said these men had done a courageous thing to advance civil rights, and, yet, they had never been honored by their own school\". Grotz worked with Department of Art Chair, Dr. Robert Milnes to create a mock-up to pitch to the University's Associated Students board, who approved the project on December 11, 2002, and began fundraising. \nThe Associated Students raised over $300,000 for the project and initially intended the statue to be placed next to the now former location of the Scheller House on the Paseo de San Carlos. However, the project was moved to be on the lawn adjacent to the Tower Hall and the Robert D. Clark Hall in order to be in a more central location on campus and to honor President Clark's support of the protest. On October 16, 2003, the 35th anniversary of the protest, Portuguese artist Rigo 23 was announced as the sculptor for the project.\nVictory Salute was assembled in early October 2005, and was unveiled to the public on October 17, 2005, drawing hundreds in attendance. A panel discussion was held featuring Smith and Carlos, as well as silver-medalist Peter Norman, fellow Speed City era sprinter Lee Evans, and head coach Payton Jordan. Additional speeches were given by vice-mayor of San Jose Cindy Chavez, San Jose State President Don W. Kassing, and actor Delroy Lindo, followed by honorary doctorate degrees awarded to Smith and Carlos. The statue was unveiled during a performance of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", mirroring the original protest.\nIn January 2007, History San Jose opened a new exhibit called Speed City: From Civil Rights to Black Power, covering the San Jose State athletic program. The exhibit focused on the San Jose State athletic program, highlighting how many student athletes from the Speed city program gained global recognition during Civil Rights and Black Power movements.\nIn 2008, after critics argued that Victory Salute did not give unfamiliar onlookers the appropriate historical context, a plaque was added in front of the statue. The plaque reads:\n\nIn 2022, San Jose State students and faculty embedded Victory Salute into their Public Art as Resistance project.\n\nDesign\nVictory Salute was Rigo 23's first-ever sculpture, but he wanted the statue to be a \"labor of love\". In order to correctly sculpt the musculature, he took 3D full-body scans of Smith and Carlos. Rigo 23's signature is on the back of Smith's shoe, and the year 2005 is on Carlos's shoe.\nThe statues' faces were rendered realistically and with emphasis placed on the emotion of the athletes. They were constructed from fiberglass over steel supports and covered with ceramic tiles, their track pants and jackets form a mosaic of dark blue ceramic tiles, with red and white detailing on the stripes of the track suits.\nPeter Norman asked to be excluded from the monument, so that visitors could participate by standing in his place, and feeling what he felt. Norman said, \"Anybody can get up there and stand up for something they believe in. I guess that just about says it all\". There is a plaque in the empty spot which reads \"Fellow Athlete Australian Peter Norman Stood Here in Solidarity; Take a Stand\".\n\nUse as protest space\nDue to Victory Salute depicting an act of protest during the civil rights movement, as well as its proximity to San Jose City Hall (less than 0.3 miles away), the statue and its surrounding lawn have been focal points for protests in San Jose.\n\n2020 Black Lives Matter protests\nOn June 5, 2020, after the murder of George Floyd and the ensuing Black Lives Matter protests, a protest was held at Victory Salute with protestors raising their fists, mirroring the 1968 protest. On September 1 of that year, San Jose State student athletes organized a protest which started with the athletes giving speeches given at Victory Salute, followed by a march to the City Hall.\n\n2024 pro-Palestine protests and encampment\nOn October 12, 2023, after the Hamas-led attack on Israel and subsequent Israel–Hamas war, the San Jose State chapter of Students for Justice in Palestine organized a protest consisting of speeches given at Victory Salute, followed by a march around the campus.\nIn April 2024, following the campus occupation at Columbia University, student protestors began demanding that San Jose State divest from Israel over its alleged genocide of Palestinians. The university's Associated Students board unanimously adopted a measure to boycott Silicon Valley companies involved in pro-Israeli activity on April 24. \nProtests continued on campus, when on May 13, an encampment was established on the lawn around Victory Salute. One of the encampment's demands was the firing of history professor Johnathan Roth after a physical altercation between himself and a pro-Palestine protestor in February 2024. On May 14, the University communicated with the protestors about their demands but asserted that the encampment had to be disbanded before finals began on May 15. Additionally, the University released a statement cosigned by Tommie Smith, John Carlos, activist Harry Edwards, and activist Ken Noel which expressed disapproval of the encampment around Victory Salute. Rigo 23 released a statement supporting the encampment and gave a speech at the encampment.\nOn May 21, the protestors met with University President Cynthia Teniente-Matson and Interim Vice President for Student Affairs Mari Fuentes-Martin to discuss the protestors' demands. Teniente-Matson suggested the creation of a student advisory council composed of students from Middle Eastern student organizations that would work with faculty to address concerns about university partnerships with Israel. Following these talks, the encampment was dismantled on May 23.\n\nSee also\n1968 Olympics Black Power salute\nArch of Dignity, Equality, and Justice\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Victory_Salute_(statue)"
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"paragraph_text": "Peter George Norman (15 June 1942 – 3 October 2006) was an Australian track athlete. He won the silver medal in the 200 metres at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, with a time of 20.06 seconds, which remains the Oceania 200 m record. He was a five-time national 200-metre champion.\nNorman is probably best known as the third athlete in the famous 1968 Olympics protest salute photograph taken during the medal ceremony for the 200-metre event. He knew the salute was to occur and wore a badge of the Olympic Project for Human Rights in support of fellow athletes John Carlos and Tommie Smith.\n\nEarly life\nNorman grew up in a devout Salvation Army family, living in Coburg, a suburb of Melbourne in Victoria. Initially an apprentice butcher, Norman later became a teacher, and worked for the Victorian Department of Sport and Recreation towards the end of his life.\nDuring his athletics career, Norman was coached by Neville Sillitoe.\n\nCareer\n1968 Summer Olympics\nThe 200 metres event at the 1968 Olympics started on 15 October and finished on 16 October; Norman won his heat in a time of 20.17 seconds, which was briefly an Olympic record. He won his quarter-final and was second in the semi-final.\nOn the morning of 16 October, US athlete Tommie Smith won the 200-metre final with a world-record time of 19.83 seconds. Norman finished second in a time of 20.06 s after passing U.S. athlete John Carlos at the finish line. Carlos ran 20.10 s.\n\nLater career\nNorman represented Australia at the 1969 Pacific Conference Games in Tokyo, and the 1970 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh.\nThe Australian Olympic Committee maintains that Norman was not selected for the 1972 Munich Olympics because he did not meet the selection standard of equalling or bettering the IOC qualifying standard (20.9) and performing credibly at the 1972 Australian Athletics Championships at which he finished third behind Greg Lewis and Gary Eddy in a time of 21.6.\nHe played 67 games for West Brunswick Australian rules football club from 1972 to 1977 before coaching an under-19 team in 1978 (Before the 1968 Olympics, he is said to have been a trainer for West Brunswick as a way of keeping fit over winter during the athletics off-season).\nIn 1985, Norman contracted gangrene after tearing his Achilles tendon during a charity race, which nearly led to his leg being amputated. Depression, heavy drinking and painkiller addiction followed.\nAfter battling depression, Norman worked at Athletics Australia as a sports administrator until 2006.\n\nDeath\nNorman died of a heart attack on 3 October 2006 in Melbourne at the age of 64. The US Track and Field Federation proclaimed 9 October 2006, the date of his funeral, as Peter Norman Day. Thirty-eight years after the three first made history, both Smith and Carlos gave eulogies and were pallbearers at Norman's funeral. At the time of his death, Norman was survived by his second wife, Jan, and their daughters Belinda and Emma. Additionally, he was survived by his first wife, Ruth; their children Gary, Sandra, and Janita; and four grandchildren.\n\nBlack power salute\nMedal ceremony\nOn the medal podium after the medal presentation by David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter and during the playing of the US anthem, \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", Tommie Smith and John Carlos famously performed a Black Power salute (which Tommie Smith later described in his 2007 autobiography as a human rights salute, rather than an outright Black Power salute).\nNorman wore a badge on the podium in support of the Olympic Project for Human Rights (OPHR). After the final, Carlos and Smith had told Norman what they were planning to do during the ceremony. Journalist Martin Flanagan wrote: \"They asked Norman if he believed in human rights. He said he did. They asked him if he believed in God. Norman, who came from a Salvation Army background, said he believed strongly in God. We knew that what we were going to do was far greater than any athletic feat. He said, 'I'll stand with you'. Carlos said he expected to see fear in Norman's eyes. He didn't; 'I saw love'.\" On the way to the medal ceremony, Norman saw the OPHR badge being worn by Paul Hoffman, a white member of the US rowing team, and asked him if he could wear it. It was Norman who suggested that Smith and Carlos share the black gloves used in their salute, after Carlos left his pair at the Olympic Village. This is the reason Smith raised a gloved right fist and Carlos raised his gloved left.\n\nTreatment between 1968–1972\nVarious commentary has claimed that, after the 1968 Olympics, Norman's career suffered greatly, e.g., a 2012 CNN profile said that \"he returned home to Australia a pariah, suffering unofficial sanction and ridicule as the Black Power salute's forgotten man. He never ran in the Olympics again.\" Norman represented Australia at the smaller-scale 1969 Pacific Conference Games in Tokyo, and the 1970 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh before finishing his career.\nVarious commentators say he was not selected for the Olympic Games in Munich in 1972 despite recording qualifying times, but the Australian Olympic Committee maintains that Norman was not selected for the 1972 Olympics because he did not meet the selection standard of equalling or bettering the Olympic qualifying standard (20.9) and performing creditably at the Australian Athletics Championships. Norman ran several qualifying times from 1969–1971 but he finished third in the 1972 Australian Athletics Championships behind Greg Lewis and Gary Eddy in a time of 21.6.\nContemporaneous reports show mixed opinion on whether Norman should have been sent to the Munich Olympics. After coming third in the trials, Norman commented: \"All I had to do was to win, even in a slow time, and I think I would have been off to Munich\". The Age correspondent wrote Norman \"probably ran himself out of the team at the National titles\"—yet also noted he was injured—and continued, \"If the selectors do the right thing, Norman should still be on the plane to Munich.\" On the other hand, Australasian Amateur Athletics' magazine stated \"The dilemma for selectors here was how could they select Norman and not Lewis. Pity that Peter did not win because that would have been the only requirement for a Munich ticket\".\n\nAfter 1972\nHe is said to have played 67 games for West Brunswick Australian rules football club from 1972 to 1977 before coaching an under 19 team in 1978.\nIt has been noted that Norman was not welcomed or even included at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney unless he renounced his actions, which he never did despite being offered a lucrative job through the Australian Olympic Committee and be involved in the running of the 2000 Games. John Carlos stated that \"If we [Carlos and Smith] were getting beat up, Peter was facing an entire country and suffering alone.\"\n\nRecognition\nFor his involvement as an ally in the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute protest, Norman has appeared in many works of public art, as well as movies on the subject.\n\nAn airbrush mural of the trio on podium was painted in 2000 in the inner-city suburb of Newtown in Sydney. Silvio Offria, who allowed an artist known only as \"Donald\" to paint the mural on his house in Leamington Lane, said that Norman came to see the mural: \"He came and had his photo taken, he was very happy.\" The monochrome tribute, captioned \"THREE PROUD PEOPLE MEXICO 68\", was under threat of demolition in 2010 to make way for a rail tunnel but is now listed as an item of heritage significance.\nOn 17 October 2005, San Jose State University unveiled a statue, titled Victory Salute, commemorating the 1968 Olympic protest. Norman was not included as part of the statue itself, as he insisted that his place be left unoccupied so that others viewing the statue could \"take a stand\" against racism; however, he was invited to deliver a speech at the ceremony.\nNorman's nephew Matt Norman directed, produced, and wrote the documentary film Salute (2008), about him and his role in the 1968 Olympics Black Power salute. Paul Byrnes, in his Sydney Morning Herald review of Salute, said that the documentary makes it clear why Norman stood with the other two athletes. Byrnes writes, \"He was a devout Christian, raised in the Salvation Army [and] believed passionately in equality for all, regardless of colour, creed or religion—the Olympic code\". In October 2018, Matt Norman with the help of journalist Andrew Webster released his uncle's official biography The Peter Norman Story.\nIn September 2016, a statue of Norman on the 1968 medal podium with Smith and Carlos was unveiled at the National Museum of African American History and Culture in Washington, D.C.\nDuring the building of Lakeside Stadium in Melbourne, Athletics Australia in partnership with the Victorian Government announced the erecting of a bronze statue of Norman to honour Norman's legacy as an athlete and advocate for human rights. They will also enshrine 9 October as Peter Norman Day within their organisation. It was unveiled on 9 October 2019 at the Albert Park athletics track, Melbourne.\n\nPosthumous apology\nIn August 2012, the Australian House of Representatives debated a motion to provide a posthumous apology to Norman. The chamber passed an official apology motion on 11 October 2012, which read:\n\n15 PETER NORMAN \nThe order of the day having been read for the resumption of the debate on the motion of Dr Leigh—\nThat this House: \n\n(1) recognises the extraordinary athletic achievements of the late Peter Norman, who won the silver medal in the 200 metres sprint running event at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, in a time of 20.06 seconds, which still stands as the Australian record;(2) acknowledges the bravery of Peter Norman in donning an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge on the podium, in solidarity with African-American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who gave the 'black power' salute;(3) apologises to Peter Norman for the treatment he received upon his return to Australia, and the failure to fully recognise his inspirational role before his untimely death in 2006; and (4) belatedly recognises the powerful role that Peter Norman played in furthering racial equality.\nThe original plan for the apology had point (3) state that the House: 'apologises to Peter Norman for the wrong done by Australia in failing to send him to the 1972 Munich Olympics, despite repeatedly qualifying'. This acknowledgement of a punitive reaction by Australia to his support of Smith and Carlos was omitted from the final apology.\nIn a 2012 interview advocating for the apology, Carlos said:\n\nThere's no-one in the nation of Australia that should be honoured, recognised, appreciated more than Peter Norman for his humanitarian concerns, his character, his strength and his willingness to be a sacrificial lamb for justice.\nAfter the parliamentary apology, the Australian Olympic Committee (AOC) and others disputed the claims made about Norman being ostracised for supporting Carlos and Smith. The AOC did not believe that Norman was owed an apology, citing the following:\n\nNorman was cautioned by the AOC but not punished. Chef de Mission Judy Patching cautioned him on the evening of the medal ceremony and then gave Norman as many tickets as he wanted to go and watch a field hockey match.\nNorman was not selected for the 1972 Munich Olympics, as he did not meet the selection standard which entailed an athlete equalling or bettering the Olympic qualifying standard (20.9) and performing creditably at the Australian Athletics Championships. Norman ran several qualifying times from 1969–1971, but he finished third in the 1972 Australian Athletics Championships behind Greg Lewis and Gary Eddy in a time of 21.6.\nIn the lead-up to the 2000 Sydney Olympics, the AOC stated \"Norman was involved in numerous Olympic events in his home city of Melbourne. He announced several teams for the AOC in Melbourne and was on the stage in his Mexico 1968 blazer congratulating athletes. He was acknowledged as an Olympian and the AOC valued his contribution.\" Due to cost considerations, the AOC did not have the resources to bring all Australian Olympians to Sydney, and Norman was offered the same chance to buy tickets as other Australian Olympians. However, the United States invited him to participate and take part in the 2000 Sydney Olympics when they heard that his own country had failed to do so.\nIn 2018, the AOC awarded Norman posthumously the Order of Merit for his involvement of the 1968 protest, with AOC President John Coates stating: \"I'm absolutely certain from all the history I've read that we didn't do the wrong thing by him. But I absolutely think we've been negligent in not recognising the role he played back then.\"\n\nCompetitive record\nInternational competitions\nNational championships\nHonours\nLater in life and posthumously, Norman received a number of honours from Australian sport bodies, including:\n\n1999 – Sport Australia Hall of Fame inductee\n2000 – Australian Sports Medal\n2010 – Athletics Australia Hall of Fame inductee\n2018 – Order of Merit from Australian Olympic Committee\n2022 – The Dawn Award\n\nReferences\nAnnotations\nFootnotes\nCitations\nAustralian Associated Press (20 August 2012). \"Sprinter Norman may get apology\". The Age. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nAssociated Press (4 October 2006). \"Peter Norman; Australian Medalist in '68 Games\". The Washington Post. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nCarlos, John; Eastley, Tony (21 August 2012). \"John Carlos: No Australian finer than Peter Norman\". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nCarlson, Michael (5 October 2006). \"Unlikely Australian participant in black athletes' Olympic civil rights protest\". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 October 2013.\nCity of Sydney (October 2010). \"Heritage Assessment of the Three Proud People mural\" (PDF). City of Sydney. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nFlanagan, Martin (10 October 2006). \"Tell Your Kids About Peter Norman\". The Age. Retrieved 28 July 2014.\nFrost, Caroline (17 October 2008). \"The other man on the podium\". BBC News. Retrieved 23 October 2013.\nHawker, Phillippa (15 July 2008). \"Salute to a champion\". The Age. Retrieved 23 October 2013.\nHurst, Mike (8 October 2006). \"Peter Norman's Olympic statement\". The Courier-Mail. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nIrwin, James D. (27 September 2012). \"The Humans Raced\". The Weeklings. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nJohnstone, Damian; Norman, Matt T. (2008). A Race to Remember: The Peter Norman Story (2008 ed.). JoJo Publishing. ISBN 9780980495027. - Total pages: 320 \nLucas, Dean (22 May 2013). \"Black Power\". Famous Pictures Collection. Retrieved 23 October 2013.\nNew Scientist (1981). New Scientist Vol. 90, No. 1251 (30 April 1981 ed.). ISSN 0262-4079. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) - Total pages: 64 \nSchembri, Jim (17 July 2008). \"It's a film worthy not only of our praise, but of our thanks\". The Age. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nParliament of Australia (11 October 2012). \"THE PARLIAMENT OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES VOTES AND PROCEEDINGS No. 138\". Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nThe Daily Telegraph (20 August 2012). \"Olympian apology on agenda\". Herald Sun. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nTovey, Josephine (27 July 2010). \"Last stand for Newtown's 'three proud people'\". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\nWebster, Andrew; Norman, Matt T. (2018). The Peter Norman Story (2018 ed.). Pan MacMillan Australia. ISBN 9781925481365. - Total pages: 304 \nWhiteman, Hilary (21 August 2012). \"Apology urged for Australian Olympian in 1968 black power protest\". CNN. Retrieved 22 October 2013.\n\nExternal links\n\n1968 Olympic 200 Meters on YouTube\nPeter Norman – Athletics Australia Hall of Fame Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine\nPeter Norman at the Sport Australia Hall of Fame\nPeter Norman at IMDb\nPeter Norman at Olympics.com\nPeter Norman at the Australian Olympic Committee",
"title": "Peter_Norman"
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] | What is the birth town of the absent athlete from the Victory Salute statue in San Jose, California? | [] | Peter Norman was born in Coburg, Victoria, Australia. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The following is a list of African-American United States presidential and vice presidential nominees and candidates for nomination. Nominees are candidates nominated or otherwise selected by political parties for particular offices. Listed are the African-American and Jamaican/Indian-American who achieved ballot access for the national election in at least one state. They may have won the nomination of one of the US political parties (either one of the major parties, or one of the third parties), or made the ballot as an independent, and in either case must have votes in the election to qualify for this list. Exception is made for candidates whose parties lost ballot status for additional runs. \nNot included in the first and second sections are African-Americans who ran unsuccessful campaigns in nominating conventions or primary elections for their party's nomination (or who have not yet completed that process), write-in candidates, potential candidates (suggested by media, objects of draft movements, etc.), or fictional candidates. The third section includes African-Americans who ran for their party's presidential nomination but who were not nominated, as well as those who are currently pursuing their party's presidential nomination (when applicable).\nThere has been one African American and one Jamaican/Indian American on major party tickets in U.S. history: Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012 and Democratic vice presidential nominee Kamala Harris in 2020.\nBarack Obama was the first African American and first biracial president of the United States, being elected in the 2008 election and re-elected in the 2012 election.\nKamala Harris became the first Jamaican/Indian-American vice president of the United States of America, being elected in the 2020 election alongside President Joe Biden. She is also the first female vice president. She is the second biracial vice president, the first being Republican Charles Curtis.\n\nU.S. presidential candidates: party nominees\n† Denotes winning candidate.\n\nCandidates receiving electoral votes\nCandidates receiving popular votes\nU.S. vice presidential candidates: party nominees\n† Denotes winning candidate.\n\nCandidates receiving electoral votes\nUntil the 2020 presidential election, no African-American candidates had received electoral votes for vice president.\n\nCandidates receiving popular votes\nU.S. president: other candidates for party nomination\nCandidates who failed to receive their party's nomination (or who are currently campaigning for their party's nomination). Candidates who won the nomination belong in the above tables only.\n\nU.S. vice president: other candidates for party nomination\nSee also\nAfrican-American candidates for President of the United States\nList of female United States presidential and vice presidential candidates\nJesse Jackson 1984 presidential campaign\nJesse Jackson 1988 presidential campaign\nAfrican-American presidents of the United States in popular culture\nList of African-American United States Senate candidates\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSears, Thomas James (2001). Rebels, Rubyfruit, and Rhinestones: Queering Space in the Stonewall South. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2964-6.",
"title": "List_of_African-American_United_States_presidential_and_vice_presidential_candidates"
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"paragraph_text": "The prime minister of the United Kingdom is the principal minister of the crown of His Majesty's Government, and the head of the British Cabinet. \nThere is no specific date for when the office of prime minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over time through a merger of duties. The term was regularly, if informally, used by Robert Walpole by the 1730s. It was used in the House of Commons as early as 1805, and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s, although did not become the official title until 1905, when Arthur Balfour was prime minister. \nHistorians generally consider Robert Walpole, who led the government of the Kingdom of Great Britain for over twenty years from 1721, to be the first prime minister. Walpole is also the longest-serving British prime minister by this definition. The first prime minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was William Pitt the Younger at its creation on 1 January 1801. The first to use the title in an official act was Benjamin Disraeli who signed the 1878 Treaty of Berlin as \"Prime Minister of Her Britannic Majesty\".\nIn 1905, the post of prime minister was officially given recognition in the order of precedence, with the incumbent Henry Campbell-Bannerman the first officially referred to as \"prime minister\". The first prime minister of the current United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland upon its effective creation in 1922 (when 26 Irish counties seceded and created the Irish Free State) was Bonar Law, although the country was not renamed officially until 1927, when Stanley Baldwin was the serving prime minister.\n\nThe incumbent prime minister is Keir Starmer, who assumed the office on 5 July 2024.\n\nBefore the Kingdom of Great Britain\nBefore the Union of England and Scotland in 1707, the Treasury of England was led by the Lord High Treasurer. By the late Tudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of the Great Officers of State, and was often (though not always) the dominant figure in government: Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (lord high treasurer, 1547–1549), served as lord protector to his young nephew King Edward VI; William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley (lord high treasurer, 1572–1598), was the dominant minister to Queen Elizabeth I; Burghley's son Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, succeeded his father as Chief Minister to Elizabeth (1598–1603) and was eventually appointed by King James I as lord high treasurer (1608–1612).\nBy the late Stuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual (i.e., the lord high treasurer) but by a commission of lords of the Treasury, led by the first lord of the Treasury. The last lords high treasurer, Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin (1702–1710) and Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford (1711–1714), ran the government of Queen Anne.\n\nFrom 1707 to 1721\nFollowing the succession of George I in 1714, the arrangement of a commission of lords of the Treasury (as opposed to a single lord high treasurer) became permanent. For the next three years, the government was headed by Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend, who was appointed Secretary of State for the Northern Department. Subsequently, Lords Stanhope and Sunderland ran the government jointly, with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland domestic. Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later; Townshend and Robert Walpole were then invited to form the next government. From that point, the holder of the office of first lord also usually (albeit unofficially) held the status of prime minister. It was not until the Edwardian era that the title prime minister was constitutionally recognised. The prime minister still holds the office of first lord by constitutional convention, the only exceptions being the Earl of Chatham and the Marquess of Salisbury.\n\nSince 1721\nPrime ministers\nDisputed prime ministers\nDue to the gradual evolution of the post of prime minister, the title is applied to early prime ministers only retrospectively; this has sometimes given rise to academic dispute. William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath and James Waldegrave, 2nd Earl Waldegrave are sometimes listed as prime ministers. Bath was invited to form a ministry by George II when Henry Pelham resigned in 1746, as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal of William Pitt the Elder, who dominated the affairs of government during the Seven Years' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two days and Waldegrave after four. Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as prime minister; they are therefore listed separately.\n\nList notes\nTimeline\nSee also\nReferences\nCitations\nWorks cited\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\"Past Prime Ministers\". Gov.uk. UK Government. Archived from the original on 25 August 2008.\n\"Prime Ministers and Politics Timeline\". History. BBC. Archived from the original on 27 May 2011.",
"title": "List_of_prime_ministers_of_the_United_Kingdom"
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"paragraph_text": "John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, (18 August 1792 – 28 May 1878), known by his courtesy title Lord John Russell before 1861, was a British Whig and Liberal statesman who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1846 to 1852 and again from 1865 to 1866.\nThe third son of the 6th Duke of Bedford, Russell was educated at Westminster School and Edinburgh University before entering Parliament in 1813. In 1828 he took a leading role in the repeal of the Test Acts which discriminated against Catholics and Protestant dissenters. He was one of the principal architects of the Reform Act 1832, which was the first major reform of Parliament since the Restoration, and a significant early step on the road to democracy and away from rule by the aristocracy and landed gentry. He favoured expanding the right to vote to the middle classes and enfranchising Britain's growing industrial towns and cities, but he never advocated universal suffrage and he opposed the secret ballot. Russell was outspoken on many issues over the course of his career, advocating Catholic emancipation in the 1820s, calling for the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845, denouncing Pope Pius IX's revival of Catholic bishoprics in 1850, and supporting Italian unification during the 1860s.\nRussell's ministerial career spanned four decades. In addition to his two terms as prime minister, between 1831 and 1865 he served in the cabinets of Earl Grey, Viscount Melbourne, the Earl of Aberdeen, and Viscount Palmerston. Russell's relationship with Palmerston was often stormy and contributed to bringing down Russell's first government in 1852 and Palmerston's first government in 1858. However, their renewed alliance from 1859 was one of the foundations of the united Liberal Party, which would go on to dominate British politics in the following decades. While Russell was an energetic and effective minister during the 1830s and helped to commit the Whigs to a reform agenda, he proved less successful as prime minister. During his two periods as prime minister he often suffered from a disunited cabinet and weak support in the House of Commons, meaning he was unable to carry out much of his agenda. During his first premiership, his government failed to deal effectively with the Irish Famine, a disaster that saw the loss of a quarter of Ireland's population through death and emigration. During his second premiership, he split his party by pressing for further parliamentary reform and was forced from office only to watch Derby and Disraeli carry a more ambitious Reform Bill. It has been said that Russell's ministry of 1846–1852 was the ruin of the old Whig party and that his ministry of 1865–1866 was very nearly the ruin of the Liberal Party that took its place.\n\nBackground and early life\nRussell was born on 18 August 1792 into the highest echelons of the British aristocracy, being the third son of John Russell, later 6th Duke of Bedford, and Georgiana Byng, daughter of George Byng, 4th Viscount Torrington. The Russell family had been one of the principal Whig dynasties in England since the 17th century, and were among the richest handful of aristocratic landowning families in the country, but as a younger son of the 6th Duke of Bedford, he was not expected to inherit the family estates. As a younger son of a duke, he bore the courtesy title \"Lord John Russell\", but he was not a peer in his own right. He was, therefore, able to sit in the House of Commons until he was made an earl in 1861 and was elevated to the House of Lords.\nRussell was born two months premature and was small and sickly as a child (even in adulthood he remained under 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m) in height, and his small stature was frequently the butt of jokes by political opponents and caricaturists). In 1801 at the age of nine he was sent away to school. Shortly thereafter his mother died. After being withdrawn from Westminster School in 1804 due to ill health, Russell was educated by tutors, including Edmund Cartwright. In 1806 Russell's father was made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in the short-lived Ministry of All the Talents and it was during this time that the young Russell met Charles James Fox. Fox was Russell's formative political hero and would remain an inspiration throughout his life. Russell attended the University of Edinburgh from 1809 to 1812, lodging with Professor John Playfair, who oversaw his studies. He did not take a degree. Although often in poor health, he travelled widely in Britain and in Continental Europe, and held commission as Captain in the Bedfordshire Militia in 1810. During his continental travels, Russell visited Spain where his brother was serving as aide-de-camp to Lord Wellington in the Peninsular War. The following year, Russell had a 90-minute meeting with Napoleon in December 1814, during the former emperor's exile at Elba.\n\nEarly political career\nBackbench MP: 1813–1830\nRussell entered the House of Commons as a Whig in 1813 at the age of 20. The future reformer gained his seat by virtue of his father, the Duke of Bedford, instructing the 30 or so electors of Tavistock to return him as an MP even though at the time Russell was abroad and under age.\nRussell entered Parliament more out of a sense of duty and family tradition than out of serious political ambition. With the exception the 1806-1807 coalition government in which Russell's father had served, the Whigs had been out of power since 1783, and Russell could have had had no certain expectation of a ministerial career. In June 1815, Russell denounced the Bourbon Restoration and Britain's declaration of war against the recently-returned Napoleon by arguing in the House of Commons that foreign powers had no right to dictate France's form of government.\nIn 1817, tired of the prospect of perpetual opposition, Russell resigned from Parliament. After spending a year out of politics and travelling on the continent, he changed his mind and re-entered Parliament for Tavistock at the 1818 general election. In 1819, Russell embraced the cause of parliamentary reform and he led the more reformist wing of the Whigs throughout the 1820s. In 1828, while still an opposition backbencher, Russell introduced a Sacramental Test bill with the aim of abolishing the prohibitions on Catholics and Protestant dissenters being elected to local government and from holding civil and military offices. The bill gained the backing of the Tory Home Secretary Sir Robert Peel and was passed into law.\n\nMinister under Grey and Melbourne: 1830–1841\nWhen the Whigs came to power in 1830, Russell entered Earl Grey's government as Paymaster of the Forces. Despite being a relatively junior minister, as a vocal advocate for Parliamentary reform for over a decade, Russell became a principal leader in the fight for the Reform Act 1832. He was one of the committee of four tasked by Grey with drafting the reform bill, alongside cabinet ministers Lord Durham, Lord Duncannon and Sir James Graham. Despite not yet being in the Cabinet, Russell was chosen to introduce the bill in March 1831 and over the following year he successfully steered the Reform Act's difficult progress through the Commons.\nRussell earned the nickname \"Finality Jack\" from his pronouncing the Act a final measure but in later years he would go on to push for further reform of Parliament. In May 1834, Russell made a speech on the Irish Tithes bill, in which he argued that the revenue generated by tithes was more than was justified by the size of the established Protestant church in Ireland. Russell argued that a proportion the tithe revenue should instead be appropriated for the education of the Irish poor, regardless of denomination.\nThe speech was seen by its opponents as an attack on the established church in Ireland and it cemented a split within Grey's government over the issue of Irish tithes. The following month four members of the Cabinet resigned over the issue, weakening the government's hold on Parliament. Sensing that his position was now hopeless, Grey offered his resignation to the King in July, and was replaced by Viscount Melbourne at the head of the government.\n\nIn November 1834, when the leader of the Commons, Lord Althorp, succeeded to the peerage as Earl Spencer, Russell became the leader of the Whigs in the Commons. Russell's appointment prompted King William IV to terminate Melbourne's government, in part because the King objected to Russell's views on the Irish Church. This remains the last time in British history that a monarch has dismissed a government. The subsequent minority Conservative government lasted less than five months before resigning in April 1835. Russell then returned to office as Home Secretary in Melbourne's second government, before serving as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies from 1839 to 1841. Through this period, he continued to lead the more reformist wing of the Whig party.\nAs Home Secretary, Russell recommended and secured royal pardons for the Tolpuddle Martyrs and partial commutation of their sentences. In 1836, he introduced the Marriages Act, which introduced civil marriages in England and Wales and allowed Catholics and Protestant Dissenters to marry in their own churches.\nIn 1837, he steered a series of seven Acts through Parliament, which together reduced the number of offences carrying a sentence of death from thirty-seven to sixteen. This number was reduced further by the Substitution of Punishments of Death Act 1841. After these reforms the death penalty was rarely used in the United Kingdom for crimes other than murder. As Home Secretary Russell also introduced the public registration for births, marriages and deaths and played a large role in democratising the government of cities outside of London.\n\nOpposition: 1841–1846\nIn 1841 the Whigs lost the general election to the Conservatives and Russell and his colleagues returned to opposition. In November 1845, following the failure of that year's potato harvest across Britain and Ireland, Russell came out in favour of the repeal of the Corn Laws and called upon the Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel to take urgent action to alleviate the emerging food crisis.\nPeel had by this time already become convinced of the need for repeal, but he was opposed in this by the majority of his own cabinet and party. On 11 December 1845, frustrated by his party's unwillingness to support him on repeal, Peel resigned as prime minister and Queen Victoria invited Russell to form a new government. With the Whigs a minority in the Commons however, Russell struggled to assemble the necessary support. When Lord Grey declared that he would not serve in cabinet if Lord Palmerston was made Foreign Secretary, it became clear to Russell that he could not form a viable government.\nRussell declined the Queen's invitation on 21 December and Peel agreed to stay on as prime minister. In June 1846, Peel repealed the Corn Laws with Whig support, bitterly dividing the Conservative Party in the process. Later that same night Peel's Irish Coercion Bill was defeated after vengeful anti-repeal Tories voted with the opposition; and Peel, taking this as a vote of no confidence, resigned as prime minister. Russell accepted the Queen's offer to form a government; this time Grey did not object to Palmerston's appointment.\n\nPrime minister: 1846–1852\nAppointment\nRussell took office as prime minister with the Whigs only a minority in the House of Commons. It was the bitter split in the Conservative Party over the Corn Laws that allowed Russell's government to remain in power in spite of this, with Sir Robert Peel and his supporters offering tentative support to the new ministry in order to keep the protectionist Conservatives under Lord Stanley in opposition. At the general election of August 1847 the Whigs made gains at the expense of the Conservatives, but remained a minority, with Russell's government still dependent on the votes of Peelite and Irish Repealer MPs to win divisions in the Commons.\n\nDomestic agenda\nRussell's political agenda was frequently frustrated by his lack of a reliable Commons majority. However, his government was able to secure a number of notable social reforms. Russell introduced teachers' pensions and used Orders in Council to make grants for teacher training. The Public Baths and Wash-houses Acts of 1847 and 1848 enabled local authorities to build municipal baths and washing facilities for the growing urban working classes. Russell lent his support to the passage of the Factories Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and young persons (aged 13–18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day.\n1848 saw the introduction of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers and the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 63), by which the state assumed responsibility for sewerage, clean water supply, refuse collection and other aspects of public health across much of England and Wales.\nFollowing the election of Lionel de Rothschild in the 1847 general election, Russell introduced a Jewish Relief bill, which would have allowed Rothschild and other Jews to sit in the House of Commons without their having to take the explicitly Christian oath of allegiance. In 1848, the bill was passed by the House of Commons, receiving support from the Whigs and a minority of Conservatives (including future prime minister Benjamin Disraeli). However, it was twice rejected by the Tory dominated House of Lords, as was a new bill in 1851. Rothschild was re-elected in the 1852 general election following the fall of the Russell government but was unable to take his seat until the Jews Relief Act was finally passed in 1858.\n\nIreland\nRussell's government led the calamitous response to the Irish Famine. During the course of the famine, an estimated one million people died from a combination of malnutrition, disease and starvation and well over one million more emigrated from Ireland. After taking office in 1846, Russell's ministry introduced a programme of public works that by the end of that year employed some half-a-million but proved impossible to administer. In January 1847, the government abandoned this policy, realising that it had failed, and turned to a mixture of \"indoor\" and \"outdoor\" direct relief; the former administered in workhouses through the Irish Poor Laws, the latter through soup kitchens. The costs of the Poor Law fell primarily on the local landlords, some of whom in turn attempted to reduce their liability by evicting their tenants. In June 1847, the Poor Law Extension Act was passed, which embodied the principle, popular in Britain, that Irish property should support Irish poverty. Irish landlords were believed in Britain to have created the conditions that led to the famine, a view which Russell shared.\n\nRelations with the Roman Catholic Church\nIn the first half of his premiership Russell aimed to improve the British government's relations with the papacy and the Catholic clergy in Ireland, which he saw as one of the keys to making Ireland a more willing part of the United Kingdom. Russell proposed to make an annual grant of £340,000 to the Catholic Church in Ireland, with the aim of ameliorating Irish Catholic opinion towards the Union. In 1847, Russell's father-in-law the Earl of Minto was dispatched on a confidential mission to Rome to seek the Pope's support for the grants plan. In the end, the idea had to be abandoned due to Catholic objections to what they saw as an attempt to control their clergy.\nHowever, Russell pressed ahead with plans to re-establish formal diplomatic relations between the Court of St James's and the Holy See, which had been severed when James II was deposed in 1688. Russell managed to pass an Act to authorise an exchange of ambassadors with Rome, but not before the bill was amended by Parliament to stipulate that the Pope's ambassador must be a layman. The Pope refused to accept such a restriction on his choice of representative and so the exchange of ambassadors did not take place. It would not be until 1914 that formal UK-Vatican diplomatic relations were finally established.\nRelations with the papacy soured badly in late 1850 after Pope Pius IX issued the bull Universalis Ecclesiae. By this bull Pius unilaterally reintroduced Catholic bishops to England and Wales for the first time since the Reformation. Anti-Catholic feelings ran high with many Protestants incensed at what they saw as impertinent foreign interference in the prerogative of the established Church of England to appoint bishops. Russell, not withstanding his long record of advocating civil liberties for Catholics, shared the traditional Whig suspicion of the Catholic hierarchy, and was angered at what he saw as a papal imposition. On 4 November 1850, in a letter to the Bishop of Durham published in The Times the same day, Russell wrote that the Pope's actions suggested a \"pretension to supremacy\" and declared that \"No foreign prince or potentate will be permitted to fasten his fetters upon a nation which has so long and so nobly vindicated its right to freedom of opinion, civil, political, and religious\". Russell's \"Durham letter\" won him popular support in England but in Ireland it was viewed as an unwarranted insult to the Pope. It lost Russell the confidence of Irish Repealer MPs and the cabinet were angered that he had made such an incendiary statement without having consulting them.\nThe following year Russell passed the Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851 with Tory support, which made it a criminal offence carrying a fine of £100 for anyone outside of the Church of England to assume an episcopal title \"of any city, town or place, or of any territory or district...in the United Kingdom.\" The Act was widely ignored without consequences and only served to further alienate Irish MPs, thereby weakening the government's position in the Commons.\n\nDisagreements with Palmerston and fall of ministry\nRussell frequently clashed with his headstrong Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, whose belligerence and support for continental revolution he found embarrassing. In 1847 Palmerston provoked a confrontation with the French government by undermining the plans of the Spanish court to marry the young Spanish Queen and her sister into the French royal family.\nHe subsequently clashed with Russell over plans to increase the size of the army and the navy to defend against the perceived threat of French invasion, which subsided after the overthrow of the French king in 1848.\nIn 1850, further tension arose between the two over Palmerston's gunboat diplomacy in the Don Pacifico affair, in which Palmerston sought compensation from the Greek government for the ransacking and the burning of the house of David Pacifico, a Gibraltarian holder of a British passport. Russell considered the matter \"hardly worth the interposition of the British lion,\" and when Palmerston ignored some of his instructions, the Prime Minister wrote to Palmerston telling him he had informed the Queen that he \"thought the interests of the country required that a change should take place at the Foreign Department.\" However, less than a month later Lord Stanley successfully led the House of Lords into passing a motion of censure of the Government over its handling of the affair and Russell realised that he needed to align with Palmerston in order to prevent a similar motion being passed by the House of Commons, which would have obliged the Government to resign. The Government prevailed, but Palmerston came out of the affair with his popularity at new heights since he was seen as the champion of defending British subjects anywhere in the world.\nRussell forced Palmerston to resign as Foreign Secretary after Palmerston recognised Napoleon III's coup of 2 December 1851 without first consulting the Queen or Cabinet. Russell tried to strengthen his government by recruiting leading Peelites such as Sir James Graham and the Duke of Newcastle to his administration, but they declined. Out of office, Palmerston sought revenge by turning a vote on a militia bill into a vote of confidence in the Government. A majority vote in favour of an amendment proposed by Palmerston caused the downfall of Russell's ministry on 21 February 1852. This was Palmerston's famous \"tit for tat with Johnny Russell.\"\n\nBetween premierships\nIn opposition: February–December 1852\nFollowing Russell's resignation, on the 23 February 1852 the Earl of Derby accepted the Queen's invitation to form a government. The new Conservative ministry were a minority in the Commons due to the continuing rift with the Peelites. Derby called a general election for July but failed to secure a majority. After the election Derby's Conservatives held 292 out of the 662 seats in the Commons but were able to carry on in office due to divisions among the opposition. Negotiations over a Whig-Peelite coalition stalled over the question of who would lead it. Russell's authority and popularity within the Whigs had been dented by his falling out with Palmerston, who flatly refused to serve under him again. Moreover he had alienated many in the Peelites and the Irish Brigade, who held the balance of power in the Commons, leaving them unwilling to support another Russell-led government. Palmerston proposed Lord Lansdowne as a compromise candidate. This was acceptable to Russell but Lansdowne was reluctant to take on the burdens of leading a government. The defeat of Disraeli's Budget in December 1852 forced the issue. Derby's government resigned and the Queen sent for Lansdowne and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen. Lansdowne declined the Queen's invitation, pleading ill-health and so Aberdeen was tasked with forming a government.\n\nThe Aberdeen coalition: 1852–1855\nRussell, as the leader of the Whigs, agreed to bring his party into a coalition with the Peelites, headed by Aberdeen. As the leader of the largest party in the coalition, Russell was reluctant to serve under Aberdeen in a subordinate position, but agreed to take on the role of Foreign Secretary on a temporary basis, to lend stability to the fledgling government. He resigned the role in February 1853 in favour of Clarendon, but continued to lead for the government in the Commons and attended cabinet without ministerial responsibilities. Russell was unhappy that half of Aberdeen's cabinet was made up of Peelites, despite the fact that the Whigs contributed hundreds of MPs to the Government's support in the Commons, and the Peelites only around 40. However, he came to admire some of his Peelite colleagues, particularly the Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, who would go on to become an important political ally in later years.\nWith Aberdeen's agreement, Russell used his position as Leader of the House of Commons to push for a new Reform Act. Although Russell had promoted the Reform Act 1832 as a one-off measure to re-balance the constitution, after twenty years he had become convinced of the need for further electoral reform. In February 1854 Russell introduced his bill to the House. The property qualification was to be reduced from £10 to £6 in boroughs, and from £50 to £10 in the counties. Additionally 66 seats would be removed from undersized constituencies and redistributed. The second reading of the bill was set for March 1854, but the prospect of imminent war with Russia led to it being postponed until April. After the outbreak of war on 28 March Russell came under pressure from the cabinet to withdraw the bill entirely. Russell threatened to resign if the cabinet abandoned the reform bill, but he was convinced to stay on by Aberdeen, who promised that he would support the reform bill if Russell reintroduced it in a future session. However, with the fall of the Aberdeen government the following year, it would be 12 years before Russell had another chance to introduce a reform bill.\nTogether with Palmerston, Russell supported the government taking a hard line against Russian territorial ambitions in the Ottoman Empire, a policy that ultimately resulted in Britain's entry into the Crimean War in March 1854, an outcome that the more cautious Aberdeen had hoped to avoid. In the following months Russell grew frustrated by what he saw as a lack of effective war leadership by Aberdeen and the Secretary of State for War, the Duke of Newcastle. Dispatches from the front reported that the army was suffering from supply shortages and a lack of adequate accommodation and medical facilities. In November 1854 Russell urged Aberdeen to replace Newcastle with Palmerston, who he believed would get a firmer grip on the organisation of the war, but these suggestions came to nothing. In January 1855, after a series of military setbacks, a Commons motion was brought by the radical MP John Roebuck to appoint a select committee to investigate the management of the war. Russell, not wishing to vote against an inquiry he believed was badly needed, resigned from the cabinet in order to abstain. Aberdeen viewed the Roebuck motion as a vote of no confidence in his leadership and, accordingly, when it passed by 305-148, he resigned.\nIn the eyes of many, including the Queen and Aberdeen, Russell's temperamental behaviour and personal ambition had undermined the stability of the coalition. On visiting Windsor Castle to resign, Aberdeen told the Queen \"Had it not been for the incessant attempts of Lord John Russell to keep up party differences, it must be acknowledged that the experiment of a coalition had succeeded admirably,\" an assessment with which the Queen agreed. Russell accepted an invitation from the Queen to form a new government but found that he could not assemble the necessary support, with many of his colleagues having been angered by his abandonment of Aberdeen over the Roebuck motion. Palmerston became prime minister, and Russell reluctantly accepted the role of Colonial Secretary in his cabinet. Russell was sent to Vienna to negotiate peace terms with Russia, but his proposals were rejected and he resigned from the cabinet and returned to the backbenches in July 1855.\n\nReturn to the backbenches: 1855–1859\nFollowing his resignation Russell wrote to his father-in-law that he would not serve again under Palmerston or any other prime minister. For a time it appeared as if his career in frontbench politics might be over. Russell continued to speak out from the backbenches on the issues he most cared about - lobbying for increased government grants for education and for reduction in the property qualification for Parliamentary elections. In early 1857 Russell became a vocal critic of Palmerston's government over the Anglo-Persian War and the Second Opium War. Russell spoke in support of a motion tabled by Richard Cobden, which criticised British military action in China and calling for a select committee inquiry. When the motion passed on 3 March, Palmerston dissolved Parliament and went to the country. In the subsequent general election Palmerston was swept back into power on a tide of patriotic feeling with an increased majority. Many of Palmerston's critics lost their seats but Russell hung on in the City of London, after fighting off an attempt to deselect him and replace him with a pro-Palmerston Whig candidate. Palmerston's triumph was short-lived. In February 1858 the Government rushed through a Conspiracy to Murder bill, following the attempted assassination of Napoleon III by Italian nationalist Felice Orsini - an attack planned in Britain using British-made explosives. Russell attacked the bill, which he saw as undermined traditional British political liberties to appease a foreign government. On 19 February Russell voted in favour of Thomas Milner Gibson's motion, which criticised the government for bowing to French demands. When the motion passed by 19 votes Palmerston's government resigned.\n\nForeign Secretary under Palmerston: 1859–1865\nIn 1859, following another short-lived Conservative government, Palmerston and Russell made up their differences, and Russell consented to serve as Foreign Secretary in a new Palmerston cabinet, usually considered the first true Liberal cabinet. This period was a particularly eventful one in the world outside Britain, seeing the Unification of Italy (the change of British government to one sympathetic to Italian nationalism had a marked part in this process), the American Civil War, and the 1864 war over Schleswig-Holstein between Denmark and the German states. Russell arranged the London Conference of 1864, but failed to establish peace in the war. His tenure of the Foreign Office was noteworthy for the famous dispatch in which he defended Italian unification: \"Her Majesty's Government will turn their eyes rather to the gratifying prospect of a people building up the edifice of their liberties, and consolidating the work of their independence, amid the sympathies and good wishes of Europe\" (27 October 1860).\n\nElevation to the peerage: 1861\nIn 1861 Russell was elevated to the peerage as Earl Russell, of Kingston Russell in the County of Dorset, and as Viscount Amberley, of Amberley in the County of Gloucester, and of Ardsalla in the County of Meath\nin the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Henceforth, as a suo jure peer, rather than merely being known as 'Lord' because he was the son of a Duke, he sat in the House of Lords for the remainder of his career.\n\nPrime Minister again: 1865–1866\nWhen Palmerston suddenly died in late 1865, Russell again became prime minister. His second premiership was short and frustrating, and Russell failed in his great ambition of expanding the franchise, a task that would be left to his Conservative successors, Derby and Benjamin Disraeli. In 1866, party disunity again brought down his government. Russell never again held any office. His last contribution to the House of Lords was on 3 August 1875.\n\nPersonal life\nMarriages and children\nRussell married Adelaide Lister (widow of Thomas Lister, 2nd Baron Ribblesdale, who had died in 1832) on 11 April 1835. Together they had two daughters:\n\nLady Georgiana Adelaide Russell (1836 – 25 September 1922). She married Archibald Peel (son of General Jonathan Peel) on 15 August 1867. They had seven children.\nLady Victoria Russell (20 October 1838 – 9 May 1880). She married Henry Villiers (the son of The Honorable Henry Montagu Villiers) on 16 April 1861. They had ten children and left many descendants.\nAdelaide came down with a fever following the birth of their second child and died a few days later on 1 November 1838. Following her death, Russell continued to raise his late wife's four children from her first marriage, as well their two daughters.\n\nOn 20 July 1841 Russell remarried, to Lady Frances (\"Fanny\") Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, daughter of Russell's cabinet colleague Gilbert Elliot, 2nd Earl of Minto. Together they had four children:\n\nJohn Russell, Viscount Amberley (10 December 1842 – 9 January 1876). He married The Hon. Katherine Stanley on 8 November 1864. They had four children, including a stillborn daughter. Their eldest son, Frank, would succeed Lord John to the title to become the 2nd Earl Russell. Another son, the 3rd Earl, was the philosopher Bertrand Russell.\nHon. George Gilbert William Russell (14 April 1848 – 27 January 1933).\nHon. Francis Albert Rollo Russell (11 July 1849 – 30 March 1914). He married Alice Godfrey (d. 12 May 1886) on 21 April 1885. They had one son. He remarried Gertrude Joachim on 28 April 1891. They had two children.\nLady Mary Agatha Russell (1853 – 23 April 1933).\nIn 1847 Queen Victoria granted Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park to Lord and Lady John. It remained their family home for the rest of their lives.\n\nReligious views\nRussell was religious in a simple non-dogmatic way and supported \"broad church\" stances in the Church of England. He opposed the \"Oxford Movement\" because its \"Tractarian\" members were too dogmatic and too close to Roman Catholicism. He supported Broad Churchmen or Latitudinarians by several appointments of liberal churchmen as bishops. In 1859 he reversed himself and decided to free non-Anglicans of the duty of paying rates (taxes) to the local Anglican parish. His political clumsiness and opposition to Church finance made him a target of attack and ridicule in many Church circles.\n\nFinal years and death\nFollowing the death of their daughter-in-law Viscountess Amberley in 1874 and their son Viscount Amberley in 1876, Earl Russell and Countess Russell brought up their orphaned grandchildren, John (\"Frank\") Russell, who became 2nd Earl Russell on his grandfather's death, and Bertrand Russell who would go on to become a noted philosopher and who in later life recalled his elderly grandfather as \"a kindly old man in a wheelchair.\"\nEarl Russell died at home at Pembroke Lodge on 28 May 1878. The Prime Minister, the Earl of Beaconsfield, offered a public funeral and burial at Westminster Abbey for Russell but this was declined by Countess Russell in accordance with her late husband's wish to be buried among his family and ancestors. He is buried at the 'Bedford Chapel' at St. Michael's Church, Chenies, Buckinghamshire.\n\nLegacy and reputation\nScion of one of the most powerful aristocratic families, Russell was a leading reformer who weakened the power of the aristocracy. His great achievements, wrote A. J. P. Taylor, were based on his persistent battles in Parliament over the years on behalf of the expansion of liberty; after each loss he tried again and again, until finally, his efforts were largely successful. E. L. Woodward, however, argued that he was too much the abstract theorist:\n\nHe was more concerned with the removal of obstacles to civil liberty than with the creation of a more reasonable and civilized society. His political theory centred in the revolution of 1688, and in the clique of aristocratic families to whom the country owed loyalty in return for something like the charte octroyée of the reform bill. Nevertheless, Russell led his Whig party into support for reform; he was the principal architect of the Reform Act 1832 (2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45).\nHe was succeeded as Liberal leader by former Peelite William Gladstone, and was thus the last true Whig to serve as prime minister. Generally taken as the model for Anthony Trollope's Mr. Mildmay, aspects of his character may also have suggested those of Plantagenet Palliser. An ideal statesman, said Trollope, should have \"unblemished, unextinguishable, inexhaustible love of country.... But he should also be scrupulous, and, as being scrupulous, weak.\"\nThe Reform Act 1832 and extension of the franchise to British cities are partly attributed to his efforts. He also worked for emancipation, leading the attack on the Test and Corporation acts, which were repealed in 1828, as well as towards legislation limiting working hours in factories in the Factories Act 1847, and the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 63).\nHis government's approach to dealing with the Great Irish Famine is now widely condemned as counterproductive, ill-informed and disastrous. Russell himself was sympathetic to the plight of the Irish poor, and many of his relief proposals were blocked by his cabinet or by the British Parliament.\nQueen Victoria's attitude toward Russell was coloured by his role in the Aberdeen administration. On his death in 1878 her journal records that he was \"a man of much talent, who leaves a name behind him, kind, & good, with a great knowledge of the constitution, who behaved very well, on many trying occasions; but he was impulsive, very selfish (as shown on many occasions, especially during Ld Aberdeen's administration) vain, & often reckless & imprudent.\"\nA public house in Bloomsbury, large parts of which are still owned by the Bedford Estate, is named after Russell, located on Marchmont Street.\nEarl Russell Street is named after him in Aylestone, a suburb of Leicester.\nRussell Road in Merton Park, a suburb of London, is named after him, adjacent to Derby, Gladstone, Palmerston and Pelham Roads, all named after former Prime Ministers.\nThe town of Russell in the Northland Region of New Zealand, was named in honour of him as the then Secretary of State for the Colonies.\n\nLiterature\nOriginal works\nRussell published numerous books and essays over the course of his life, especially during periods out of office. He principally wrote on politics and history, but also turned his hand to a variety of other topics and genres. His published works include:\n\nThe Life of William Lord Russell (1819) - a biography of his famous ancestor.\nEssays and Sketches of Life and Character by a Gentleman who has left his lodgings (1820) - a series of social and cultural commentaries ostensibly found in a missing lodger's rooms, published anonymously.\nAn Essay on the History of the English Government and Constitution, from the reign of Henry VII. to the present time (1821)\nThe Nun of Arrouca: a Tale (1822) - a romantic novel set in Portugal during the Peninsular War.\nDon Carlos: or, Persecution. A tragedy, in five acts (1822) - a blank verse play on the same subject as the play of the same title by Friedrich Schiller.\nMemoirs of the Affairs of Europe from the Peace of Utrecht (1824) - a second volume appeared in 1829.\nThe Establishment of the Turks in Europe, An Historical Discourse (1828)\nThe Causes of the French Revolution (1832) \nAdventures in the Moon, and Other Worlds (1836) - a collection of fantasy short stories, published anonymously.\nThe Life and Times of Charles James Fox (1859-1866) - a three volume biography of Russell's political hero.\nEssays on the Rise and Progress of the Christian Religion in the West of Europe, from the reign of Tiberius to the Council of Trent (1871)\nThe Foreign Policy of England 1570-1870, An Historical Essay (1871)\nRecollections and Suggestions 1813-1873 (1875) - Russell's political memoir.\n\nAs editor\nCorrespondence of John, Fourth Duke of Bedford - in three volumes, published between 1842 and 1846.\nMemoirs, Journal, and Correspondence of Thomas Moore - in eight volumes, published between 1853 and 1856. Russell was Moore's literary executor and published his papers in accordance with his late friend's wishes.\nMemorials and correspondence of Charles James Fox - in four volumes, published between 1853 and 1857.\n\nDedications\nA Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens was dedicated to Lord John Russell, \"In remembrance of many public services and private kindnesses.\" In speech given in 1869, Dickens remarked of Russell that \"there is no man in England whom I respect more in his public capacity, whom I love more in his private capacity.\"\n\nAncestry\nSee also\nBritish Blue Book\nInternationalization of the Danube River\nConfederate States of America § International diplomacy\n\nReferences\nNotes\nCitations\nSources\nHistoriography\nExternal links\n\nWorks by John Russell, 1st Earl Russell at Project Gutenberg\nLord John Russell 1st Earl Russell, short biography from the 10 Downing Street website\nHansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Lord John Russell\nLord John Russell 1792–1878 biography from the Liberal Democrat History Group\nWorks by or about John Russell, 1st Earl Russell at the Internet Archive\nWorks by John Russell, 1st Earl Russell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nMore about Earl Russell on the Downing Street website\nPembroke Lodge (principal residence and museum)\nPortraits of John Russell, 1st Earl Russell at the National Portrait Gallery, London",
"title": "John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell"
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] | What year was the person born who was Prime Minister of The United Kingdom during the year that the first African American ran for president of the United States? | [] | 1792 | [] | true |
745 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Academy Award for Best Director (officially known as the Academy Award of Merit for Directing) is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given in honor of a film director who has exhibited outstanding directing while working in the film industry.\nThe 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with the award being split into \"Dramatic\" and \"Comedy\" categories; Frank Borzage and Lewis Milestone won for 7th Heaven and Two Arabian Knights, respectively. However, these categories were merged for all subsequent ceremonies. Nominees are determined by single transferable vote within the directors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the academy.\nFor the first eleven years of the Academy Awards, directors were allowed to be nominated for multiple films in the same year. However, after the nomination of Michael Curtiz for two films, Angels with Dirty Faces and Four Daughters, at the 11th Academy Awards, the rules were revised so that an individual could only be nominated for one film at each ceremony. That rule has since been amended, although the only director who has received multiple nominations in the same year was Steven Soderbergh for Erin Brockovich and Traffic in 2000, winning the award for the latter. The Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture have been very closely linked throughout their history. Of the 89 films that won Best Picture and were also nominated for Best Director, 68 won the award.\nSince its inception, the award has been given to 75 directors or directing teams. As of the 96th Academy Awards ceremony, British-American filmmaker Christopher Nolan is the most recent winner in this category for his work on Oppenheimer.\n\nWinners and nominees\nIn the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County, California; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.\n\n1920s\n1930s\n1940s\n1950s\n1960s\n1970s\n1980s\n1990s\n2000s\n2010s\n2020s\nMultiple wins and nominations\nAge superlatives\nRecords\nJohn Ford has received the most awards in this category, with four. Frank Capra and William Wyler won three each.\nDavid Lean was the first non-American to win the award when he won in 1958 for The Bridge on the River Kwai. He would repeat this in 1963 with Lawrence of Arabia. This made him the first non-American to win the award twice, it would not be until Ang Lee 49 years later for another non-American to win the award twice. Since then Alfonso Cuaron and Alejandro G. Inarritu have added their names to this list.\nWilliam Wyler has the most nominations, with 12, including a record four years in a row. Martin Scorsese is currently second, with 10.\nClarence Brown received the most nominations without a win (6). Alfred Hitchcock and King Vidor each received five nominations without a win.\nDamien Chazelle is the youngest winner, at the age of 32 for La La Land.\nJohn Singleton is the youngest (and first Black) nominee, at age 24 for Boyz n the Hood.\nFour directing teams have been nominated together (a total of five times): Robert Wise and Jerome Robbins for West Side Story (1961), Warren Beatty and Buck Henry for Heaven Can Wait (1978), Joel and Ethan Coen for No Country for Old Men (2007) and True Grit (2010), and Daniel Kwan and Daniel Scheinert for Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022). Of these, Wise and Robbins, the Coens (2007), and Kwan and Scheinert won the award.\nSix directors won the award for their feature film debut: Delbert Mann for Marty (1955), Jerome Robbins for West Side Story (1961), Robert Redford for Ordinary People (1980), James L. Brooks for Terms of Endearment (1983), Kevin Costner for Dances with Wolves (1990), and Sam Mendes for American Beauty (1999).\nOnly one director won for his only career directing credit: Jerome Robbins for West Side Story.\nFour directors have twice won for films that did not win Best Picture: Frank Borzage, George Stevens, Ang Lee, and Alfonso Cuarón; John Ford did so three times.\nThe Coen Brothers are the only siblings to have won the award.\nLina Wertmüller was the first woman nominated in the category, for Seven Beauties (1976). Kathryn Bigelow became the first woman to win the award, for The Hurt Locker (2009).\nFrancis Ford Coppola is the only director to be nominated for each film of a trilogy, The Godfather trilogy, winning for the second film.\nJohn Ford (1940–1941), Joseph L. Mankiewicz (1949–1950), and Alejandro González Iñárritu (2014–2015) are the only directors to have won the award in two consecutive years.\nAng Lee was the first Asian director to win the award, for Brokeback Mountain. He won again for Life of Pi (2012).\nAlfonso Cuarón was the first Mexican (and Latin American) director to win the award, for Gravity. He won again for Roma (2018).\nChloé Zhao was the first woman of color to win the award, for Nomadland (2020/21).\n\nNotes\nSee also\nBAFTA Award for Best Direction\nCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Director\nDirectors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film\nGolden Globe Award for Best Director\nIndependent Spirit Award for Best Director\nList of Academy Award–nominated films\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\nOscars.org (official Academy site)\nThe Academy Awards Database (official site)\nOscar.com Archived March 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (official ceremony promotional site)",
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"paragraph_text": "Sir Samuel Alexander Mendes (born 1 August 1965) is a British film and stage director, producer, and screenwriter. In 2000, Mendes was appointed a CBE for his services to drama, and he was knighted in the 2020 New Years Honours List. In 2000, Mendes was awarded the Shakespeare Prize by the Alfred Toepfer Foundation in Hamburg, Germany. In 2005, he received a lifetime achievement award from the Directors Guild of Great Britain. In 2008, The Daily Telegraph ranked him number 15 in their list of the \"100 most powerful people in British culture\".\nBorn in Berkshire to a Trinidadian Catholic father and an English Jewish mother, Mendes grew up in North London. He read English at Peterhouse at Cambridge University, and began directing plays there before joining Donmar Warehouse, which became a centre of 1990s London theatre culture. In theatre, he is known for his dark re-inventions of the stage musicals Cabaret (1993), Oliver! (1994), Company (1995), and Gypsy (2003).\nHe directed an original West End stage musical for the first time with Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2013). For his work on the London stage, Mendes has received three Laurence Olivier Awards for Company, Twelfth Night and The Ferryman and for his work on Broadway he has earned two Tony Awards for Best Direction of a Play for his work on The Ferryman in 2019, and The Lehman Trilogy in 2022.\nIn film, he made his directorial debut with the drama American Beauty (1999), which earned him the Academy Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Director. He has since directed the films Road to Perdition (2002), Jarhead (2005), Revolutionary Road (2008), and the James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre (2015). For the war film 1917 (2019), he received the BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Director, as well as his second Academy Award nominations for Best Director, Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay.\n\nEarly life\nMendes was born on 1 August 1965 in Reading, Berkshire. He is the son of Valerie Mendes (born Barnett), a publisher and author, and Jameson Peter Mendes, a university professor. His father is a Roman Catholic of Portuguese descent from Trinidad and Tobago, and his mother is an English Jew. His grandfather was the Trinidadian writer Alfred Hubert Mendes.\nMendes's parents divorced when he was three years old, after which Mendes and his mother settled in Primrose Hill in North London. He attended Primrose Hill Primary School and was in the same class as future Foreign Secretary David Miliband and author Zoë Heller. In 1976, the family relocated to Woodstock near Oxford, where Mendes's mother found work as a senior editor at Oxford University Press. Mendes was educated at Magdalen College School where he met future theatre designer Tom Piper, who went on to work with Mendes on a National Theatre revival of Harold Pinter's The Birthday Party.\nMendes had an early interest in cinema and applied to the University of Warwick (then the only university in the UK that offered an undergraduate film course), but was turned down. He was then accepted by Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he graduated with first-class honours in English. Having developed a passion for theatre only in his late teens, Mendes became a member of the Marlowe Society at Cambridge and directed several plays. His first play was David Halliwell's Little Malcolm and His Struggle Against the Eunuchs, and one of his later productions was Cyrano de Bergerac with Tom Hollander and Jonathan Cake among the cast members. During his time at Cambridge, Mendes also became enthusiastic about cinema in earnest. He cited Paris, Texas, Repo Man and True Stories as three \"seminal film moments\" that influenced his stage and film career.\nMendes was noted as a \"brilliant schoolboy cricketer\" by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, scoring 1,153 runs at 46 and taking 83 wickets at under 16 for Magdalen College School in 1983 and 1984. He also played cricket for Cambridge University Cricket Club, and in 1997 played for Shipton-under-Wychwood in the final of the Village Cricket Cup, the only winner of the Academy Award for Best Director to have played at Lord's.\n\nStage career\nEarly work\nAfter graduating from Cambridge in 1987, Mendes was hired as assistant director at the Chichester Festival Theatre. In September 1987, Mendes made his professional directing debut with a double bill of two Anton Chekhov plays, The Bear and The Proposal. In 1989, he was appointed the inaugural director of the Minerva Theatre.\nIn 1989, following the abrupt departure of director Robin Phillips, Mendes took over a production of Dion Boucicault's London Assurance at Chichester. Later that year, Mendes made his West End debut at the Aldwych with a production of Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard, starring Judi Dench. London Assurance then transferred to the West End following a six-month run at Chichester, opening at the Theatre Royal Haymarket. The successes of the plays established Mendes as a theatre director of national renown.\n\nDonmar Warehouse (1990–2002)\nIn 1990, Mendes was appointed artistic director of the Donmar Warehouse, a Covent Garden studio space previously used by the Royal Shakespeare Company. He spent two years overseeing the redesign of the theatre, which formally opened in 1992 with the British premiere of Stephen Sondheim's Assassins. Mendes's tenure at the Donmar saw its transformation into one of the most successful and fashionable playhouses in London.\nIn 1993, Mendes staged an acclaimed revival of John Kander and Fred Ebb's Cabaret starring Jane Horrocks as Sally Bowles and Alan Cumming as Emcee. The production was approached with a fresh concept, differing greatly from both the original 1966 production directed by Harold Prince and the famed film version, directed by Bob Fosse. This production opened at the Donmar and received four Olivier Award nominations including Best Musical Revival, before transferring promptly to Broadway where it played for several years at the Kit Kat Club (i.e. the Stephen Sondheim Theater). The Broadway cast included Cumming once again as Emcee, with Natasha Richardson as Sally, Mary Louise Wilson as Fraulein Schneider, John Benjamin Hickey as Cliff, and Ron Rifkin as Herr Schultz. Cumming, Richardson, and Rifkin all won Tony Awards for their performances.\n1994 saw Mendes stage a new production of Lionel Bart's Oliver!, produced by Cameron Mackintosh. Mendes, a longtime fan of the work, worked in close collaboration with Bart and other production team members, William David Brohn, Martin Koch and Anthony Ward, to create a fresh staging of the well-known classic. Bart added new musical material and Mendes updated the book slightly, while the orchestrations were radically rewritten to suit the show's cinematic feel. The cast included Jonathan Pryce (after much persuasion) as Fagin, Sally Dexter as Nancy, and Miles Anderson as Bill Sikes. Mendes, Pryce and Dexter received Olivier Award nominations for their work on Oliver!.\nMendes also directed productions of David Hare's The Blue Room in 1998, starring Nicole Kidman; Richard Greenberg's Three Days of Rain in 1999, with Colin Firth, David Morrissey and Elizabeth McGovern; as well as his farewell duo in 2002, Chekhov's Uncle Vanya and Twelfth Night, both headed by Simon Russell Beale, Helen McCrory, Emily Watson and Mark Strong. He stepped down as artistic director of the Donmar in December 2002 and was succeeded by Michael Grandage.\n\nAfter the Donmar (2002–present)\nIn 2003, Mendes directed a revival of the musical Gypsy. Originally, he planned to stage this production in London's West End with an eventual Broadway transfer, but when negotiations fell through, he brought it to New York. The cast included Bernadette Peters as Rose, Tammy Blanchard as Louise and John Dossett as Herbie.\nMendes also directed the 2013 Olivier Award-nominated stage adaptation of Roald Dahl's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory which ran in London's West End until January 2017. It starred Douglas Hodge as Willy Wonka, followed by Alex Jennings and Jonathan Slinger who later took over the role.\nIn 2014, Mendes directed Simon Russell Beale in King Lear by William Shakespeare at the National Theatre, London. Mendes directed Jez Butterworth's The Ferryman for the Royal Court Theatre in London in 2017, before transferring to the West End later that year and Broadway in 2018, for which he won an Olivier Award and Tony Award for Best Director.\nIn 2018, Mendes directed The Lehman Trilogy by Stefano Massini in an English adaptation by Ben Power for the National Theatre, London starring Simon Russell Beale, Adam Godley and Ben Miles. In 2019 the play played a season at the Park Avenue Armory in New York before returning for another London season in the West End. The play made its Broadway transfer in 2020 briefly but was stalled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The play resumed performances in 2021 and went on to receive eight Tony Award nominations winning five awards including Best Play and Best Director of a Play.\n\nFilm career\nAmerican Beauty to Away We Go (1999–2009)\nIn 1999, Mendes made his film directorial debut with American Beauty, starring Kevin Spacey. He had been approached by Steven Spielberg, who was impressed by his productions of Oliver! and Cabaret. The film grossed $356.3 million worldwide. The film won the Golden Globe Award, the BAFTA Award and the Academy Award for Best Picture. Mendes won the Golden Globe Award, Directors Guild of America Award, and the Academy Award for Best Director, becoming the sixth director to earn the Academy Award for his feature film debut.\nMendes's second film, in 2002, was Road to Perdition, which grossed US$181 million. As of October 2023, the aggregate review score on Rotten Tomatoes is currently 81%; critics praised Paul Newman for his performance. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actor for Newman; it won for Best Cinematography.\nIn 2003, Mendes established Neal Street Productions, a film, television and theatre production company he would use to finance much of his later work. In 2005, Mendes directed the war film Jarhead, in association with his production company Neal Street Productions. The film received mixed reviews, with a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 61%, and a gross revenue of US$96.9 million worldwide. The film focused on the boredom and other psychological challenges of wartime.\nIn 2008, Mendes directed Revolutionary Road, starring his then-wife, Kate Winslet, along with Leonardo DiCaprio and Kathy Bates. In a January 2009 interview, Mendes commented, about directing his wife for the first time, \"I would open my eyes in the morning and there Kate would be, going, 'Great! You're awake! Now let's talk about the second scene.'\" Mendes's comedy-drama Away We Go opened the 2009 Edinburgh International Film Festival. The film follows a couple (John Krasinski, Maya Rudolph) searching North America for the perfect community in which to settle down and start a family. The film was well received by critics but performed poorly at the box office.\n\nIn 2010, Mendes co-produced a critically acclaimed documentary film Out of the Ashes that deals with cricket in Afghanistan. On 5 January 2010, news broke that Mendes was employed to direct the 23rd Eon Productions instalment of the James Bond franchise. The film, Skyfall, was subsequently released on 26 October 2012, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the Bond films. Mendes had been employed as a consultant on the film when it was in pre-production, and had remained attached to the project during the financial troubles of MGM. The film was a major critical and commercial success, becoming the 14th film to gross over $1 billion worldwide.\nIn 2012, Mendes's Neal Street Productions produced the first series of the BBC One drama series, Call the Midwife, following it with a second season which began transmission in early 2013.\n\nSkyfall to Empire of Light (2013–present)\nAfter the success of Skyfall, Mendes was asked if he was returning to direct the next Bond film. He responded, \"I felt I put everything I possibly could into this film and it was the Bond film I wanted to make. And if I felt I could do the same again, then absolutely I would consider doing another one. But it is a big task and I wouldn't do it unless I knew I could.\" It was reported that one reason Mendes was reluctant to commit was that one proposal involved making two films back-to-back, based on an idea by Skyfall writer John Logan, which would have resulted in Mendes and other creative personnel being tied up with filming for around four years. It was reported in February 2013 that this idea had since been shelved and that the next two films would be stand-alone. Mendes said in an interview with film magazine Empire in March 2013 that \"it has been a very difficult decision not to accept Michael and Barbara's very generous offer to direct the next Bond movie.\" He cited, amongst other reasons, his commitments to the stage version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and King Lear.\nHowever, on 29 May 2013, it was reported that Mendes was back in negotiations with producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli to direct the next Bond film, going back on his previous comments. Wilson and Broccoli were willing to postpone production of the film to ensure Mendes's participation. On 11 July 2013, it was announced that Mendes would direct the 24th James Bond film, Spectre; it was released in October 2015. This made him the first filmmaker since John Glen to direct two Bond films consecutively. In April 2016, Mendes was named as the president of the jury for the 73rd Venice International Film Festival.\nMendes's next film, war epic 1917, was released by Universal Pictures on 25 December 2019 in the US and on 10 January 2020 in the UK. Based in part on an account told to Mendes by his paternal grandfather, Alfred Mendes, it chronicles the story of two young British soldiers in the spring of 1917 at a critical point during World War I. Mendes went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Director for his achievement in directing; in his acceptance speech, he saluted his grandfather, as well as acknowledging the contribution to cinema of fellow nominee Martin Scorsese, who was nominated for The Irishman. On 25 January 2020, he won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film, following which he was installed by the press as the favourite to win the Academy Award for Best Director at the then approaching 92nd Academy Awards. However that plaudit went instead to Bong Joon-ho for the South Korean film Parasite. The two directors had shared the honours for directing at the 25th Critics' Choice Awards several weeks prior.\nIn 2022, his next feature was the romantic drama Empire of Light, starring Olivia Colman and Micheal Ward.\nIn February 2024, it was reported that Mendes would produce and direct four separate feature films about each of the members of the Beatles, to be released in 2027. The films will be the first Beatles biopics to have full cooperation from Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, and the families of John Lennon and George Harrison. It is reported in June 2024 that the foursome will be portrayed respectively by Paul Mescal, Barry Keoghan, Harris Dickinson and Charlie Rowe.\n\nFilmmaking style and techniques\nInfluences\nMendes has listed Stanley Kubrick, the Coen brothers, Alfred Hitchcock, Martin Scorsese, Wim Wenders, Howard Davies, David Lynch, Peter Brook, Ingmar Bergman, Orson Welles, and Francis Ford Coppola as amongst his cinematic and theatrical influences. He cited Paris, Texas, Repo Man and True Stories as three \"seminal film moments\" that influenced his stage and film career, and is also heavily influenced by British comedy acts such as Monty Python, The Goons, Tommy Cooper, and Morecambe and Wise.\n\nStyle and themes\nMuch of his film directing techniques were informed by his background in theatre, which consisted of meticulous attention to detail, slow pacing, pictorialist composition, close collaborations with actors, use of tranquil atmosphere, periods of wordless visual storytelling, and long takes. Even though he was widely known for his use of long takes in Spectre and 1917, he has used them since American Beauty. His first two films established a reputation for him of utilising a visual style that was considered formalist and classical, preferring to shoot and stage scenes with theatrical-style mise-en-scene and use of chiaroscuro. His third film, Jarhead, which would mark the first of a long-time collaboration between him and cinematographer Roger Deakins, served as a stylistic departure from the former two films as it relied heavily on a gritter feel with improvised dialogue and looser handheld close-ups. Despite this, it shared a similar attention to detail and flawed characters.\nAlthough he has tackled a variety of genres over the course of his career, Mendes has frequently explored themes of family and isolation in his work. The protagonists in his films are realistically flawed and struggle to fit in a world that is hostile towards them, a theme that was initially established in American Beauty and would be further explored in his subsequent films, including Skyfall and Spectre, and 1917. The exploration of such themes are owed to his early childhood experiences, particularly with his parents, with the most direct being his grandfather and his mother serving as inspirations for the characters of Schofield and Hilary Small in 1917 and Empire of Light, respectively.\nIn an interview in 2014, Mendes explained his reasoning for exploring such themes: \"If you are doing a play or a film, you have to have a secret way in if you are directing it. Sometimes it’s big things. American Beauty, for me, was about my adolescence. Road to Perdition was about my childhood. Skyfall was about middle-age and mortality.\"\n\nPersonal life\nMendes and actress Kate Winslet met in 2001, when Mendes approached her about appearing in a play at the Donmar Warehouse, where he was then artistic director. They married in May 2003, on what they characterised as a whim, while on holiday in Anguilla when Winslet was two months pregnant with their child. Their son was born on 22 December 2003 in New York City. Mendes also had a stepdaughter from Winslet's first marriage to filmmaker Jim Threapleton.\nAmid intense media speculation of an affair between Mendes and actress Rebecca Hall, he and Winslet announced their separation in 2010 and divorced in 2011. Mendes and Hall were in a relationship from 2011 to 2013. Mendes married trumpeter Alison Balsom in January 2017. Their daughter was born in September 2017.\nMendes was appointed a Knight Bachelor in the 2020 New Years Honours List for services to drama.\nIn 2009, Mendes signed a petition in support of film director Roman Polanski, calling for his release after Polanski was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.\nMendes is an opponent of Brexit. In 2017, he stated: \"I'm afraid that the winds that were blowing before the First World War are blowing again. There was this generation of men fighting then for a free and unified Europe, which we would do well to remember.\"\n\nFavourite films\nIn 2012, Mendes participated in the Sight & Sound film polls of that year. Held every ten years to select the greatest films of all time, contemporary directors were asked to select ten films of their choice.\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nDirector\n\nProducer\n\nThings We Lost in the Fire (2007)\nExecutive producer\n\nStarter for 10 (2006)\nThe Kite Runner (2007)\nOut of the Ashes (2010) (Documentary)\nBlood (2012)\n\nTelevision\nExecutive producer\n\nUnreleased projects\nTheatre\nWest End\nBroadway\nAwards and honours\nReferences\nBibliography\nWolf, Matt (2003). Sam Mendes at the Donmar: Stepping into Freedom. Lanham: Hal Leonard LLC. ISBN 9780879109820.\nLowenstein, Stephen (2003). My First Movie, Take Two: Ten Celebrated Directors Talk About Their First Film. Lanham: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8108-8576-9.\n\nExternal links\n\nSam Mendes at IMDb\nCharlie Rose interview, 5 June 2009\nBrandon Kosters interview, 2 June 2009\nThe Observer interview, 14 December 2008\nSam Mendes at the Internet Broadway Database",
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"paragraph_text": "Steven Allan Spielberg (; born December 18, 1946) is an American filmmaker. A major figure of the New Hollywood era and pioneer of the modern blockbuster, Spielberg is widely regarded as one of the greatest film directors of all time and is the most commercially successful director in film history. He is the recipient of many accolades, including three Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, four Golden Globe Awards, and four Directors Guild of America Awards, as well as the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1995, the Kennedy Center Honor in 2006, the Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2009 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2015. Seven of his films have been inducted into the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\".\nSpielberg was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and grew up in Phoenix, Arizona. He moved to California and studied film in college. After directing several episodes for television, including Night Gallery and Columbo, he directed the television film Duel (1971), which later received an international theatrical release. He made his theatrical debut with The Sugarland Express (1974) and became a household name with the summer blockbuster Jaws (1975). He directed more box office successes with Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982) and the original Indiana Jones trilogy (1981–89). He explored drama in The Color Purple (1985) and Empire of the Sun (1987).\nIn 1993, Spielberg directed back-to-back blockbuster hits with the science fiction thriller Jurassic Park, the highest-grossing film ever at the time, and the Holocaust drama Schindler's List, which has often been listed as one of the greatest films ever made. He won the Academy Award for Best Director for the latter and the 1998 World War II epic Saving Private Ryan. Spielberg has since directed the science fiction films A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001), Minority Report (2002), and War of the Worlds (2005); the historical dramas Amistad (1997), Munich (2005), War Horse (2011), Lincoln (2012), Bridge of Spies (2015) and The Post (2017); the animated film The Adventures of Tintin (2011); the musical West Side Story (2021); and the semi-autobiographical drama The Fabelmans (2022).\nSpielberg co-founded Amblin Entertainment and DreamWorks, and he has served as a producer for many successful films and television series, among them Poltergeist (1982), Gremlins (1984), Back to the Future (1985), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) and Band of Brothers (2001). He has had a long collaboration with the composer John Williams, with whom he has worked for all but five of his feature films. Several of Spielberg's works are considered among the greatest films in history, and some are among the highest-grossing films ever. In 2013, Time listed him as one of the 100 most influential people, and in 2023, Spielberg was the recipient of the first ever Time 100 Impact Award in the US\n\nEarly life and background\nSpielberg was born on December 18, 1946, in Cincinnati, Ohio. His mother, Leah (née Posner, later Adler; 1920–2017), was a restaurateur and concert pianist, and his father, Arnold (1917–2020), was an electrical engineer involved in the development of computers. His immediate family were Reform Jewish/Orthodox Jewish. Spielberg's paternal grandparents were Jews from Ukraine; his grandmother Rebecca, maiden name Chechik, was from Sudylkiv, and his grandfather Shmuel Spielberg was from Kamianets-Podilskyi. Schmuel escaped to Cincinnati in 1906 to avoid being drafted into the Russian army, and he brought his fiancée Rebecca there in 1908. Spielberg has three younger sisters: Anne, Sue, and Nancy. In 1952, his family moved to Haddon Township, New Jersey after his father was hired by RCA. Spielberg attended Hebrew school from 1953 to 1957, in classes taught by Rabbi Albert L. Lewis. At their home in Cincinnati, his grandmother taught English to Holocaust survivors. They, in turn, taught him numbers: \"One man in particular, I kept looking at his numbers–his number tattooed on his forearm... he started – you know, when–during the dinner break, when everybody was eating and not learning, he would point to the numbers. And he would say, that is a two, and that is a four. And then he'd say, and this is a eight, and that's a one. And I'll never forget this. And he said, and that's a nine. And then he crooked his arm and inverted his arm and said, and see, it becomes a six. It's magic. And now it's a nine, and now it's a six, and now it's a nine and now it's a six. And that's really how I learned my numbers for the first time... the irony of all that, and the gift of that lesson, never really dawned on me until I was much older.\"\nIn early 1957, the family moved to Phoenix, Arizona. Spielberg had a bar mitzvah ceremony when he was thirteen. His family was involved in the synagogue and had many Jewish friends. Of the Holocaust, he said that his parents \"talked about it all the time, and so it was always on my mind.\" His father had lost between sixteen and twenty relatives in the Holocaust. Spielberg found it difficult accepting his heritage; he said: \"It isn't something I enjoy admitting... but when I was seven, eight, nine years old, God forgive me, I was embarrassed because we were Orthodox Jews. I was embarrassed by the outward perception of my parents' Jewish practices. I was never really ashamed to be Jewish, but I was uneasy at times.\" Spielberg was the target of anti-Semitism: \"In high school, I got smacked and kicked around. Two bloody noses. It was horrible.\" He gradually followed Judaism less during adolescence, after his family had moved to various neighborhoods and found themselves to be the only Jews.\nHe recalls his parents taking him to see Cecil B. DeMille's The Greatest Show on Earth (1952). He had never seen a movie before, and thought they were taking him to the circus. He was terrified by the movie's train crash, and at age 12, he recreated it with his Lionel trains and filmed it. He recalls: \"The trains went around and around, and after a while that got boring, and I had this eight-millimeter camera, and I staged a train wreck and filmed it. That was hard on the trains, but then I could cut the film lots of different ways and look at it over and over again.\" This was his first home movie. In 1958, he became a Boy Scout, eventually attaining the rank of Eagle Scout. He fulfilled a requirement for the photography merit badge by making a nine-minute 8 mm Western, The Last Gunfight. Spielberg used his father's movie camera to make amateur features, and began taking the camera along on every Scout trip. At age 13, Spielberg made a 40-minute war film, Escape to Nowhere, with a cast of classmates. The film won first prize in a statewide competition. Throughout his early teens, and after entering high school, Spielberg made about fifteen to twenty 8 mm adventure films. He recalls that \"my dad told me stories about World War II constantly... I knew, based on the stories my dad and his friends were telling about World War II, that there was no glory in war. And it was ugly, and it was cruel... it was, you know, visually devastating. And so I thought, someday, if I ever do make a war movie for real, it's got to be something that tells the truth about what those experiences had been for those young 17-, 18-, 19-year-old boys storming Omaha Beach, let's say.\"\nIn Phoenix, Spielberg went to the local theater every Saturday. Formative films included Victor Fleming's Captains Courageous (1937), Disney's Pinocchio and Fantasia (both 1940), Akira Kurosawa's Rashomon (1950) and The Seven Samurai (1954), Ishirō Honda's Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), David Lean's Bridge on the River Kwai (1957) and Lawrence of Arabia (1962) (\"the film that set me on my journey\"), Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds (1963) and Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove (1964) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) (“I’m still living off the adrenalin that… I experienced watching that film for the first time.”) He attended Arcadia High School in 1961 for three years. In 1963, he wrote and directed a 140-minute science fiction film, Firelight, the basis of Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Firelight, funded mainly by his father, was shown in a local theater for one evening and grossed $501 against its $500 budget. \nAfter taking a tour bus to Universal Studios, a chance conversation with an executive led to Spielberg getting a three-day pass to the premises. On the fourth day, he walked up to the studio gates without a pass, and the security guard waved him in: \"I basically spent the next two months at Universal Studios... that was how I became an unofficial apprentice that summer.\" His family later moved to Saratoga, California, where he attended Saratoga High School. A year later, his parents divorced. Spielberg moved to Los Angeles to stay with his father, while his three sisters and mother remained in Saratoga. He recalls: \"My parents split up when I was 15 or 16 years old, and I needed a special friend, and had to use my imagination to take me to places that felt good – that helped me move beyond the problems my parents were having, and that ended our family as a whole. And thinking about that time, I thought, an extraterrestrial character would be the perfect springboard to purge the pain of your parents’ splitting up.” He recalls his mother had \"a huge adventurous personality. We always saw her as Peter Pan, the kid who never wanted to grow up, and she sort of saw herself that way. I think my mom lived a lot of childhoods in her ninety-seven years.\" He was not interested in academics, aspiring only to be a filmmaker. He applied to the University of Southern California's film school but was turned down because of his mediocre grades. He then applied and enrolled at California State University, Long Beach, where he became a brother of Theta Chi Fraternity. In 1968, Universal gave Spielberg the opportunity to write and direct a short film for theatrical release, the 26-minute 35 mm Amblin'. Studio vice president Sidney Sheinberg was impressed and offered Spielberg a seven-year directing contract. A year later, he dropped out of college to begin directing television productions for Universal, making him the youngest director to be signed to a long-term plan with a major Hollywood studio. Spielberg returned to Long Beach in 2002, where he presented Schindler's List to complete his Bachelor of Arts in Film and Electronic Media.\nHe recalls a formative encounter with one of his favorite directors, John Ford, who said: \"So they tell me you want to be a picture maker. You see those paintings around the office?\" Spielberg said he did. Ford pointed to a painting and asked, \"Where's the horizon?\" Spielberg said it was at the top. Ford asked him where it was in another painting. Spielberg said it was at the bottom. Ford said, \"When you're able to distinguish the art of the horizon at the bottom of a frame or at the top of the frame, but not going right through the center of the frame, when you can appreciate why it's at the top and why it's at the bottom, you might make a pretty good picture maker.\"\n\nCareer\n1969–1974: On the horizon\nSpielberg made his professional debut with \"Eyes\", a segment of Night Gallery (1969) scripted by Rod Serling and starring Joan Crawford. Initially, there was skepticism from Crawford and studio executives regarding Spielberg's inexperience. Despite Spielberg's efforts to implement advanced camerawork techniques, studio executives demanded a more straightforward approach. His initial contributions received mixed responses, leading Spielberg to briefly step back from studio work. Crawford, reflecting on her collaboration with Spielberg, recognized his potential, noting his unique intuitive inspiration. She expressed her appreciation for Spielberg's talent in a note to him and also communicated her approval to Serling. Crawford's endorsement highlighted Spielberg's early recognition in Hollywood despite initial hesitations regarding his experience.\nIn the early 1970s, Spielberg unsuccessfully tried to raise financing for his own low-budget films. He co-wrote and directed teleplays for Marcus Welby, M.D., The Name of the Game, Columbo, Owen Marshall, Counselor at Law and The Psychiatrist. Although unsatisfied with his work, Spielberg used the opportunity to experiment with his techniques and learn about filmmaking. He earned good reviews and impressed producers; he was earning a steady income and relocated to Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles.\nImpressed, Universal signed Spielberg to do four television films. The first was Duel (1971), adapted from Richard Matheson's short story of the same name, about a salesman (Dennis Weaver) being chased down a highway by a psychotic tanker truck driver. Impressed, executives decided to promote the film on television. Reviews were positive, and Universal asked Spielberg to shoot more scenes so that Duel could be released to international markets. \"Deservedly so\" writes David Thomson, \"for it stands up as one of the medium's most compelling spirals of suspense. The ordinariness of the Dennis Weaver character and the monstrous malignance of the truck confront one another with a narrative assurance that never needs to remind us of the element of fable.\" More TV films followed: Something Evil (1972) and Savage (1973).\nSpielberg made his theatrical debut with The Sugarland Express (1974), based on a true story about a married couple on the run, desperate to regain custody of their baby from foster parents. The film starred Goldie Hawn and William Atherton and marked the first of many collaborations with the composer John Williams. Although the film was awarded Best Screenplay at the 1974 Cannes Film Festival, it was not a commercial success, which Spielberg blamed on Universal's inconsistent marketing. The film opened in four hundred theaters in the US to positive reviews; Pauline Kael wrote \"Spielberg uses his gifts in a very free-and-easy, American way—for humor, and for a physical response to action. He could be that rarity among directors, a born entertainer—perhaps a new generation's Howard Hawks.\" The Hollywood Reporter wrote that \"a major new director is on the horizon.\"\n\n1975–1980: Magician\nProducers Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown took a chance with Spielberg, giving him the opportunity to direct Jaws (1975), a thriller based on Peter Benchley's bestseller. In it, a great white shark attacks beachgoers at a summer resort town, prompting police chief Martin Brody (Roy Scheider) to hunt it down with the help of a marine biologist (Richard Dreyfuss) and a veteran shark hunter (Robert Shaw). Jaws was the first movie shot on open ocean, so shooting proved difficult, especially when the mechanical shark malfunctioned. The shooting schedule overran by a hundred days, and Universal threatened to cancel production. Against expectations, Jaws was a success, setting the domestic box office record and making Spielberg a household name. It won Academy Awards for Best Film Editing (Verna Fields), Best Original Dramatic Score (John Williams) and Best Sound (Robert Hoyt, Roger Heman, Earl Madery and John Carter). Spielberg said the malfunctioning of the mechanical shark resulted in a better movie, as he had to find other ways to suggest the shark's presence. After seeing the unconventional camera techniques of Jaws, Alfred Hitchcock praised \"young Spielberg\" for thinking outside the visual dynamics of the theater: \"He's the first one of us who doesn't see the proscenium arch\". Thomson writes \"like Coppola on The Godfather, Spielberg asserted his own role and deftly organized the elements into a roller coaster entertainment without sacrificing inner meanings. The suspense of the picture came from meticulous technique and good humor about its own surgical cutting. You have only to submit to the travesty of Jaws 2 to realize how much more engagingly Spielberg saw the ocean, the perils, the sinister beauty of the shark, and the vitality of its human opponents.\" \nAfter declining an offer to make Jaws 2 Spielberg and Dreyfuss reunited to work on a film about UFOs, Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977). Spielberg used 65 mm film for the best picture quality, and a new live-action recording system so that the recordings could be duplicated later. He cast one of his favorite directors, François Truffaut, as the scientist Claude Lacombe and worked with special effects expert Douglas Trumbull. One of the rare films both written and directed by Spielberg, Close Encounters was very popular with film-goers, and he received his first Best Director nomination from the Academy Awards. It earned six more nominations, winning Best Cinematography (Vilmos Zsigmond) and Best Sound Effects Editing (Frank Warner). Stanley Kauffmann wrote: \"I saw Close Encounters at its first public showing in New York, and most of the audience stayed on and on to watch the credits crawl lengthily at the end. For one thing, under the credits the giant spaceship was returning to the stars. For another, they just didn’t want to leave this picture. For still another, they seemed to understand the importance of those many names to what they had just seen.\" Kauffmann placed it first on his list of the best American films from 1968 to 1977. Reviewing Close Encounters, Kael called Spielberg \"a magician in the age of movies.\"\nHis next directorial work was 1941 (1979), an action-comedy written by Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale about Californians preparing for a Japanese invasion after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Spielberg was self-conscious about doing comedy as he had no prior experience in the genre. Universal and Columbia agreed to co-finance the film. 1941 grossed over $92.4 million worldwide upon release, but most critics, and the studio heads, disliked it. Charles Champlin described 1941 as \"the most conspicuous waste since the last major oil spill, which it somewhat resembles.\" Stanley Kubrick supposedly said that the film was \"great, but not funny.\"\n\n1981–1990: Impresario\nHe directed Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), with a screenplay by Lawrence Kasdan based on a story by George Lucas and Philip Kaufman. They considered it an homage to the serials of the 1930s and 1940s. It starred Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones and Karen Allen as Marion Ravenwood. Filmed in La Rochelle, Hawaii, Tunisia and Elstree Studios, England, the shoot was difficult but Spielberg said that it helped him hone his business acumen. The film was a box office success and won Academy Awards for Best Art Direction (Norman Reynolds, Leslie Dilley and Michael D. Ford); Best Film Editing (Michael Kahn); Best Sound (Bill Varney, Steve Maslow, Gregg Landaker and Roy Charman); Best Sound Editing (Ben Burtt and Richard L. Anderson); and Best Visual Effects (Richard Edlund, Kit West, Bruce Nicholson and Joe Johnston). Roger Ebert wrote that \"Raiders of the Lost Ark is an out-of-body experience, a movie of glorious imagination and breakneck speed that grabs you in the first shot, hurtles you through a series of incredible adventures, and deposits you back in reality two hours later–breathless, dizzy, wrung-out, and with a silly grin on your face... For locations, it ticks off the jungles of South America, the hinterlands of Tibet, the deserts of Egypt, a hidden submarine base, an isolated island, a forgotten tomb–no, make that two forgotten tombs–and an American archaeology classroom. For villains, it has sadistic Nazis, slimy gravediggers, drunken Sherpas, and scheming Frenchmen. For threats, it climaxes with the wrath of God, and leads up to that spectacular development by easy stages, with tarantulas, runaway boulders, hidden spears, falling rock slabs, burning airplanes, runaway trucks, sealed tombs, and snakes. Lots of snakes.\" Raiders was the first film in the Indiana Jones franchise.\nSpielberg returned to science fiction with E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982). It tells the story of Elliot (Henry Thomas), a young boy who befriends an alien who was accidentally left behind by his companions and is attempting to return home. Spielberg eschewed storyboards so that his direction would be more spontaneous, and shot roughly in sequence so that the actors' performances would be authentic as they bonded with and said goodbye to E.T. Richard Corliss recalled: \"This was the closing-night attraction at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival, a venue not known for blubbering sentiment. At the end, as the little critter bade his farewells and the Jules Verne-like space ship left the ground, the audience similarly levitated. One heard the audience’s childlike applause; one felt their spirits lift. This was rapture made audible, palpable ... Screenwriter Melissa Mathison lent a fairy-tale clarity to the director’s standard plot of a lost boy seeking his way back home. And Spielberg orchestrated the movements of the camera and the puppet spaceman with the feelings of—it has to be called love—expressed in young Henry Thomas’ yearning face. E.T. was the first film character to be a finalist in TIME’s Man of the Year sweepstakes. It would have been fine with me if the little creature, this lovely film, had won.\" A special screening was organized for Ronald and Nancy Reagan, who were emotional by the end. E.T. grossed $700 million worldwide. It won four Academy Awards: Best Original Score (John Williams), Best Sound (Robert Knudson, Robert Glass, Don Digirolamo and Gene Cantamessa), Best Sound Editing (Charles L. Campbell and Ben Burtt) and Best Visual Effects (Carlo Rambaldi, Dennis Muren and Kenneth F. Smith). Kael wrote of E.T.: \"His voice is ancient and otherworldly but friendly, humorous. And this scaly, wrinkled little man with huge, wide-apart, soulful eyes and a jack-in-the-box neck has been so fully created that he's a friend to us, too; when he speaks of his longing to go home the audience becomes as mournful as Elliot. Spielberg has earned the tears that some people in the audience—and not just children—shed. The tears are tokens of gratitude for the spell the picture has put on the audience. Genuinely entrancing movies are almost as rare as extraterrestrial visitors.\" Spielberg co-wrote and produced Poltergeist (Tobe Hooper, 1982), released the same summer as E.T. With John Landis, he co-produced the anthology film Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983), contributing the \"Kick the Can\" segment.\n\nHis next feature film was the Raiders of the Lost Ark prequel Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984). Working again with Lucas and Ford, the film was shot in the United States, Sri Lanka and China. The film was darker than its predecessor, and led to the creation of the PG-13 rating because some content was deemed unsuitable for children under 13. Spielberg later said that he was unhappy with Temple of Doom because it lacked his \"personal touches and love\". Nonetheless, the film was a blockbuster hit, won the Academy Award for Best Special Effects and received mostly good reviews. Kael preferred it to the original, writing: \"Spielberg is like a magician whose tricks are so daring they make you laugh. He creates an atmosphere of happy disbelief: the more breathtaking and exhilarating the stunts are the funnier they are. Nobody has ever fused thrills and laughter in quite the way that he does here. He starts off at full charge in the opening sequence and just keeps going.\" She conceded that it was less \"sincere\" than Raiders, adding \"that's what is so good about it.\" On this project Spielberg met his future wife, Kate Capshaw, who played Willie Scott. Spielberg recalled, \"The second film I could have done a lot better if there had been a different story. It was a good learning exercise for me to really throw myself into a black hole. I came out of the darkness of Temple Of Doom and I entered the light of the woman I was eventually going to marry and raise a family with.\"\nThomson writes that \"At first sight, the Spielberg of the eighties may seem more an impresario—or a studio, even—then a director.\" Between 1984 and 1990, Spielberg served as either producer or executive producer on nineteen feature films, among them Gremlins (Joe Dante, 1984), Back to the Future (Robert Zemeckis, 1985), The Goonies (Richard Donner, 1985), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (Zemeckis, 1988), Joe Versus the Volcano (John Patrick Shanley, 1990) and Arachnophobia (Frank Marshall, 1990). For some, including Young Sherlock Holmes (Barry Levinson, 1985) and Harry and the Hendersons (William Dear, 1987), the title \"Steven Spielberg Presents\" was in the opening credits. Much of Spielberg's producing work was aimed at children and teens, including cartoons such as Tiny Toon Adventures, Animaniacs, Pinky and the Brain, Freakazoid! and Family Dog. Spielberg also produced Don Bluth's animated features An American Tail and The Land Before Time. In 1985, NBC offered Spielberg a two-year contract on a television series, Amazing Stories; the show was marketed as a blend of The Twilight Zone and Alfred Hitchcock Presents. NBC gave Spielberg creative control and a budget of $1 million for each episode. After two seasons and disappointing ratings, the show was not renewed. Although Spielberg's involvement as a producer would vary widely from project to project, Zemeckis said that Spielberg would always \"respect the filmmaker's vision\". Over the next decade, Spielberg's record as a producer brought mixed critical and commercial results. In 1992, Spielberg began to scale back producing, saying \"Producing has been the least fulfilling aspect of what I've done in the last decade.\"\nIn the early 1980s, Spielberg befriended Warner Communications CEO Steve Ross eventually resulting in Spielberg making films for Warner Bros. It began with The Color Purple (1985), an adaptation of Alice Walker's Pulitzer Prize-winning novel of the same name, about a generation of empowered African-American women during depression-era America. It was Spielberg's first film on a dramatic subject matter, and he expressed reservations about tackling the project: \"It's the risk of being judged-and accused of not having the sensibility to do character studies.\" Starring Whoopi Goldberg and Oprah Winfrey, the film was a box office hit and critics started to take note of Spielberg's foray into drama. Ebert named it the best film of the year. The film also received eleven Academy Award nominations, and Spielberg won Best Director from the Directors Guild of America. The film was produced and scored by Quincy Jones.\nAs China underwent economic reform and opened up to the American film industry, Spielberg made Empire of the Sun (1987), the first American film shot in Shanghai since the 1930s. It is an adaptation of J. G. Ballard's autobiographical novel of the same name about Jamie Graham (Christian Bale), a young boy who goes from being the son of a wealthy British family in Shanghai to a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp during World War II. It was written by playwright Tom Stoppard and co-starred John Malkovich as an American expatriate. Critical reaction was mixed at the time of release; criticism ranged from the \"overwrought\" plot to Spielberg's downplaying of \"disease and starvation\". However, Andrew Sarris named it the best film of the year and later included it among the best of the decade. The film was nominated for six Academy Awards, but was a disappointment at the box office; Ian Alterman of The New York Times thought it was overlooked by audiences. Spielberg recalled that Empire of the Sun was one of his most enjoyable films to make. Thomson called it \"a great work through and through. It received few Oscar nominations, but for anyone with a sense of film I think it was the first clear sign that Spielberg the showman was an artist, too.\"\nAfter directing The Color Purple and Empire of the Sun, Spielberg intended to direct Rain Man, but instead directed Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) to meet his contractual obligations. Producer Lucas and star Ford returned for the film. A longtime James Bond fan, Spielberg cast Sean Connery as Jones's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Due to complaints about violence in Temple of Doom, Spielberg returned to more family-friendly fare for the third installment. Last Crusade received mostly positive reviews and was a box office success, earning $474 million; it was his biggest hit since E.T. Biographer Joseph McBride wrote that it was a comeback for Spielberg, and Spielberg acknowledged the amount he has learned from making the Indiana Jones series. Ebert wrote that \"If there is just a shade of disappointment after seeing this movie, it has to be because we will never again have the shock of this material seeming new. Raiders of the Lost Ark, now more than ever, seems a turning point in the cinema of escapist entertainment, and there was really no way Spielberg could make it new all over again. What he has done is to take many of the same elements, and apply all of his craft and sense of fun to make them work yet once again. And they do.\"\n\nAlso in 1989, he reunited with Richard Dreyfuss for the romantic drama Always, about an aerial firefighter. It is a modern remake of one of Spielberg's favorite childhood films, A Guy Named Joe (1943). The story was personal; he said \"As a child I was very frustrated, and maybe I saw my own parents [in A Guy Named Joe]. I was also short of girlfriends. And it stuck with me.\" Spielberg had discussed the film with Dreyfuss back in 1975, with up to twelve drafts being written before filming commenced. Always was commercially unsuccessful and received mixed reviews. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote, \"Always is filled with big, sentimental moments, it lacks the intimacy to make any of this very moving.\"\n\n1991–1998: Oscar winner\nAfter a brief setback in which Spielberg felt \"artistically stalled\", he returned in 1991 with Hook, about a middle-aged Peter Pan (Robin Williams), who returns to Neverland and encounters Tinker Bell (Julia Roberts) and the eponymous Captain Hook (Dustin Hoffman). During filming, the stars clashed on set; Spielberg told 60 Minutes that he would never work with Roberts again. Nominated for five Academy Awards, the studio enjoyed the film but most critics did not; Thomson called it \"maudlin.\" Writing for The Washington Post, Desson Howe described the film as \"too industrially organized\", and thought it mundane. At the box office, it earned over $300 million worldwide from a $70 million budget. In 1993, Spielberg served as an executive producer for the NBC science fiction series seaQuest DSV; the show was not a hit. In 1994, he found success producing the medical drama ER.\nIn 1993, Spielberg returned to the adventure genre with Jurassic Park, based on the 1990 bestseller by Michael Crichton (creator of ER), with a screenplay by Crichton and David Koepp. Jurassic Park is set on a fictional island near Costa Rica, where a businessman (Richard Attenborough) has hired a team of geneticists to create a wildlife park of de-extinct dinosaurs. In a departure from his usual order of planning, Spielberg and the designers storyboarded certain sequences from the novel early on. The film also used computer-generated imagery provided by Industrial Light & Magic; Jurassic Park was completed on time and became the highest-grossing film at the time, and won three Academy Awards. The film's dominance during its theatrical run, as well as Spielberg's $250 million salary, made him self-conscious of his own success.\n\nAlso in 1993, Spielberg directed Schindler's List, about Oskar Schindler, a businessman who helped save 1,100 Jews from the Holocaust. Based on Schindler's Ark by Australian novelist Thomas Keneally, Spielberg waited ten years to make the film as he did not feel \"mature\" enough. He wanted to embrace his heritage, and after the birth of his son, Max, he said that \"it greatly affected me [...] A spirit began to ignite in me, and I became a Jewish dad\". Filming commenced on March 1, 1993, in Poland, while Spielberg was still editing Jurassic Park in the evenings. To make filming \"bearable\", Spielberg brought his wife and children with him. Against expectations, the film was a commercial success, and Spielberg used his percentage of profits to start the Shoah Foundation, a non-profit organization that archives testimonies of Holocaust survivors. Schindler's List won seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and Spielberg's first as Best Director. It also won seven BAFTAs, and three Golden Globes. Schindler's List is one of the American Film Institute's 100 best American films ever made. While Schindler's List was praised by most critics, some reviewers, including filmmaker Claude Lanzmann, criticized the film for its weak representation of the Holocaust. Imre Kertész, a Hungarian author and concentration camp survivor, also disliked the film, saying, \"I regard as kitsch any representation of the Holocaust that is incapable of understanding or unwilling to understand the organic connection between our own deformed mode of life and the very possibility of the Holocaust.\" Thomson calls it \"the most moving film I have ever seen.\"\nIn 1994, Spielberg took a break from directing to spend more time with his family, and set up his new film studio, DreamWorks, with Jeffrey Katzenberg and David Geffen. After his hiatus, he returned to directing with a sequel to Jurassic Park, The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997). A loose adaptation of Michael Crichton's novel The Lost World, the plot follows mathematician Ian Malcolm (Jeff Goldblum) and his researchers who study dinosaurs at Jurassic Park which is on an island and are confronted by another team with a different agenda. Spielberg wanted the onscreen creatures to be more realistic than in the first film; he used 3D storyboards, computer imagery and robotic puppets. Budgeted at $73 million, The Lost World: Jurassic Park opened in May 1997 and was one of the highest grossing films of the year. The Village Voice critic opined that The Lost World was \"better crafted but less fun\" than the first film, while The Guardian wrote \"It looks like a director on autopilot [...] The special effects brook no argument.\"\nAmistad (1997), his first film released under DreamWorks, was based on the true story of the events in 1839 aboard the slave ship La Amistad. Producer Debbie Allen, who had read the book Amistad I in 1978, thought Spielberg would be perfect to direct. Spielberg was hesitant taking on the project, afraid that it would be compared to Schindler's List, but he said, \"I've never planned my career [...] In the end I do what I think I gotta do.\" Starring Morgan Freeman, Anthony Hopkins, Djimon Hounsou and Matthew McConaughey, Spielberg used Allen's ten years worth of research to reenact the difficult historical scenes. The film struggled to find an audience, and underperformed at the box office; Spielberg admitted that \"[Amistad] became too much of a history lesson.\"\n\nSpielberg's 1998 release was World War II epic Saving Private Ryan, about a group of US soldiers led by Captain Miller (Tom Hanks) sent to bring home a paratrooper whose three older brothers were killed in the same twenty-four hours of the Normandy landing. Filming took place in England, and US Marine Dale Dye was hired to train the actors and keep them in character during the combat scenes. Halfway through filming, Spielberg reminded the cast that they were making a tribute to thank \"your grandparents and my dad, who fought in [the war]\". Upon release, critics praised the direction and its realistic portrayal of war. The film grossed a successful $481 million worldwide and Spielberg won a second Academy Award for Best Director. In August 1999, Spielberg and Hanks were awarded the Distinguished Public Service Medal from Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen. Thomson writes \"Ryan changed war films: combat, shock, wounds, and fear had never been so graphically presented; and yet there was also a true sense of what duties and ideas had felt like in 1944. I disliked the framing device. I would have admired a director who trusted us to get there without that. Never mind—Ryan is a magnificent film.\" Ebert wrote \"Spielberg knows how to make audiences weep better than any director since Chaplin in City Lights. But weeping is an incomplete response, letting the audience off the hook. This film embodies ideas. After the immediate experience begins to fade, the implications remain and grow.\"\n\n1999–2012: Master of technology\nSpielberg returned to science fiction with A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001), a loose adaptation of Brian Aldiss's 1969 short story \"Supertoys Last All Summer Long\". Stanley Kubrick had first asked Spielberg to direct the feature in 1979. Spielberg tried to make it in the style that Kubrick would have, though with mixed results according to some critics. The plot revolves around an android, David (Haley Joel Osment) who, like Pinocchio, dreams of being a \"real boy\". Critics thought Spielberg directed with \"sentimentality\", and Ebert wrote, \"Here is one of the most ambitious films of recent years [...] but it miscalculates in asking us to invest our emotions in a character, a machine.\" The film won five Saturn Awards and grossed $236 million worldwide. Jonathan Rosenbaum highly praised the film: \"If the best movies are often those that change the rules, Steven Spielberg’s sincere, cockeyed, serious, and sometimes masterful realization of Stanley Kubrick’s ambitious late project deserves to be a contender... If A.I. Artificial Intelligence—a film whose split personality is apparent even in its two-part title—is as much a Kubrick movie as a Spielberg one, this is in large part because it defamiliarizes Spielberg, makes him strange. Yet it also defamiliarizes Kubrick, with equally ambiguous results—making his unfamiliarity familiar. Both filmmakers should be credited for the results—Kubrick for proposing that Spielberg direct the project and Spielberg for doing his utmost to respect Kubrick’s intentions while making it a profoundly personal work.\" A. O. Scott called it \"the best fairy tale–the most disturbing, complex and intellectually challenging boy's adventure story–Mr. Spielberg has made\" and chose it as the best film of the year.\nSpielberg followed A.I. with the sci-fi neo-noir Minority Report (2002), based on Philip K. Dick's short story of the same name about a group of investigators who try to prevent crimes before they are committed. The film received critical acclaim. Ebert named Minority Report the best film of 2002, praising its craftsmanship: \"here is Spielberg using every trick in the book and matching them without seams, so that no matter how he's achieving his effects, the focus is always on the story and the characters... Some directors place their trust in technology. Spielberg, who is a master of technology, trusts only story and character, and then uses everything else as a workman uses his tools.\" However, critic Todd McCarthy thought there was not enough action. The film earned over $358 million worldwide. Also in 2002, he released Catch Me If You Can, based on the autobiography of con-artist Frank Abagnale. Leonardo DiCaprio played Abangale; Christopher Walken and Hanks also starred. Spielberg said, \"I have always loved movies about sensational rogues—they break the law, but you just have to love them for the moxie.\" The film was a critical and commercial success.\nSpielberg worked with Hanks, Catherine Zeta-Jones and Stanley Tucci in The Terminal (2004), a lighthearted comedy about an Eastern European man stranded in an airport. The film was praised for its production design and was a commercial success, although reviews were mixed. In 2005, Spielberg directed War of the Worlds, a co-production of Paramount and DreamWorks, based on H. G. Wells's novel of the same name; Spielberg had been a fan of the book and of George Pal's 1953 film. Starring Tom Cruise and Dakota Fanning, the film is about an American dock worker who is forced to look after his children, from whom he lives separately, as he tries to protect and reunite them with their mother when extraterrestrials invade Earth. Spielberg used storyboards to help the actors react to computer imagery that they could not see and used natural lighting and camerawork to avoid an \"over stylized\" science fiction picture. The film was a box office hit grossing over $600 million worldwide.\nSpielberg's Munich (2005) is about the Israeli government's secret retaliation after eleven Israeli Olympic athletes were kidnapped and murdered in the 1972 Munich massacre. The film is based on Vengeance, a book by Canadian journalist George Jonas. It was previously adapted for the screen in the 1986 television film Sword of Gideon. Spielberg, who personally remembers the incident, sought advice from former president Bill Clinton, among others, before making the film because he did not want to cause further problems in the Middle East. Although the film garnered mostly positive reviews, some critics perceived it as anti-Semitic; it is one of Spielberg's most controversial films to date. Munich received five Academy Awards nominations: Best Picture, Best Film Editing, Best Score, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Director for Spielberg. It was his sixth Best Director nomination, and fifth Best Picture nomination.\n\nIn the mid-2000s, Spielberg scaled down his directing career and became more selective about film projects to undertake. In December 2005, he and his partners sold DreamWorks to media conglomerate Viacom (now known as Paramount Global). The sale was finalized in February 2006. In June 2006, Spielberg planned to make Interstellar, but abandoned the project, which was eventually directed by Christopher Nolan. During this period, Spielberg remained active as a producer.\nSpielberg returned to the Indiana Jones series in 2008 with the fourth installment, Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Released nineteen years after Last Crusade, the film is set in 1957, pitting Indiana Jones (Harrison Ford) against Soviet agents led by Irina Spalko (Cate Blanchett), searching for a telepathic crystal skull. Principal photography was complete in October 2007, and the film was released on May 22, 2008. This was his first film not released by DreamWorks since 1997. The film received generally favorable reviews from critics, but some fans were disappointed by the introduction of science fiction elements which were uncharacteristic of the previous films. Writing for The Age, Tom Ryan praised Spielberg and George Lucas for their realistic 1950s setting—\"The energy on display is impressive\". It was a box office success, grossing $790 million worldwide.\n\nStarting in 2009, Spielberg shot the first film in a planned trilogy of motion capture films based on Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin. Spielberg had long been a fan of the comics, and per Michael Farr, Hergé \"thought Spielberg was the only person who could ever do Tintin justice.\" The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn was co-produced by Peter Jackson and premiered in Brussels, Belgium. The film was released in North American theaters on December 21, 2011, in Digital 3D and IMAX. It received generally positive reviews from critics and grossed over $373 million worldwide. The Adventures of Tintin won Best Animated Feature at the 69th Golden Globe Awards. It was the first non-Pixar film to win the award since the category was introduced.\n\nSpielberg followed Tintin with War Horse, shot in England in the summer of 2010. It was released four days after Tintin, on December 25, 2011. The film is based on Michael Morpurgo's 1982 novel of the same name and follows the long friendship between a British boy and his horse Joey before and during World War I. Distributed by Walt Disney Studios with whom DreamWorks made a distribution deal in 2009, War Horse was the first of four consecutive Spielberg films released by Disney. It had an acclaimed response from critics and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture. In a review for Salon magazine, Andrew O'Hehir wrote, \"at this point in his career Spielberg is pursuing personal goals, and everything that's terrific and overly flat and tooth-rottingly sweet about War Horse reflects that.\"\nSpielberg directed the historical drama Lincoln (2012), starring Daniel Day-Lewis as President Abraham Lincoln and Sally Field as Mary Todd Lincoln. Based on Doris Kearns Goodwin's book Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln and written by Tony Kushner, the film depicts the final four months of Lincoln's life. The film was shot in Richmond, Virginia in late 2011. and was released in the US in November 2012. Lincoln was acclaimed and earned more than $250 million worldwide. It was nominated for twelve Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, winning Best Production Design and Best Actor for Day-Lewis's performance. Donald Clarke from The Irish Times praised the direction: \"Against the odds, Spielberg makes something genuinely exciting of the backstage wheedling.\"\n\n2013–present: Recent work\nIt was announced on May 2, 2013, that Spielberg would direct American Sniper, but he left the project before production began. Instead, he directed Bridge of Spies (2015), a Cold War thriller based on the 1960 U-2 incident, and focusing on James B. Donovan's negotiations with the Soviets for the release of pilot Gary Powers after his aircraft was shot down over Soviet territory. It was written by Matt Charman and the Coen brothers, and starred Tom Hanks as Donovan, as well as Mark Rylance, Amy Ryan and Alan Alda. It was filmed in the fall of 2014 in New York City, Berlin and Wroclaw, and was released on October 16. Bridge of Spies was popular with critics, and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture; Rylance won Best Supporting Actor, becoming the second actor to win for a performance directed by Spielberg.\nIn 2016, Spielberg made The BFG, an adaptation of Roald Dahl's children's book, starring newcomer Ruby Barnhill, and Mark Rylance as the titular Big Friendly Giant. DreamWorks bought the rights in 2010, and John Madden had intended to direct. The film was the last to be written by E.T. screenwriter Melissa Mathison before her death. It was co-produced and released by Walt Disney Pictures, marking the first Disney-branded film to be directed by Spielberg. The BFG premiered as an out-of-competition entry at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival, and received a wide release in the US on July 1, 2016. The BFG received fair reviews; Michael Phillips of The Chicago Tribune compared certain scenes to the works of Alfred Hitchcock and Stanley Kubrick, while Toronto Sun's Liz Braun thought that there were \"moments of wonder and delight\" but it was too long.\n\nA year later, Spielberg directed The Post, an account of The Washington Post's printing of the Pentagon Papers. Starring Tom Hanks and Meryl Streep, production began in New York on May 30, 2017. Spielberg stated his attraction to the project: \"When I read the first draft of the script, this wasn't something that could wait three years or two years—this was a story I felt we needed to tell today.\" The film received a wide release on January 12, 2018. The Post gained positive reception; the critic from the Associated Press thought \"Spielberg infuses every scene with tension and life and the grandeur of the ordinary that he's always been so good at conveying.\" In 2017, Spielberg and other filmmakers were featured in the Netflix documentary series Five Came Back, which discussed the contributions of directors Frank Capra, John Ford, John Huston, George Stevens and William Wyler about their war-related works. Spielberg was also an executive producer.\n\nSpielberg directed the science fiction Ready Player One (2018), adapted from the novel of the same name by Ernest Cline. It stars Tye Sheridan, Olivia Cooke, Ben Mendelsohn, Lena Waithe, T.J. Miller, Simon Pegg, and Mark Rylance. The plot takes place in 2045 when much of humanity uses virtual reality to escape the real world. Ready Player One began production in July 2016, and was intended to be released on December 15, 2017, but was moved to March 2018 to avoid competition with Star Wars: The Last Jedi. It premiered at the 2018 South by Southwest film festival. Spielberg's direction was praised along with the action scenes and visual effects, but many critics thought the film was too long and overused 1980s nostalgia.\nIn 2019, Spielberg filmed West Side Story, an adaptation of the musical of the same name. It stars Ansel Elgort and Rachel Zegler in her film debut with Ariana DeBose, David Alvarez, Mike Faist, and Rita Moreno in supporting roles. Written by Tony Kushner, the film stays true to the 1950s setting. West Side Story was released in December 2021 to positive reviews and received seven Academy Award nominations including Best Picture, and Best Director. Spielberg also received nominations from the Golden Globe Awards, Directors Guild of America, and Critics' Choice Movie Awards. The Economist praised the choreography, stating that it \"stunningly melds beauty and violence\". In March 2022, Spielberg said that West Side Story would be the last musical he will direct.\nSpielberg's 2022 film The Fabelmans is a fictionalized account of his own adolescence, which he wrote with Tony Kushner. Gabriel LaBelle plays Sammy Fabelman, a character inspired by Spielberg, while Michelle Williams plays Sammy's mother Mitzi Fabelman, Paul Dano plays Burt Fabelman, his father, Seth Rogen plays Bennie Loewy, Burt's best friend and co-worker who becomes Sammy's surrogate uncle, and Judd Hirsch as Mitzi's Uncle Boris. Filming began in Los Angeles in July 2021, and the film premiered at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, Spielberg's first appearance at that festival. It received widespread critical acclaim and won the festival's People's Choice Award. It received a limited theatrical release on November 11, 2022, by Universal Pictures, before expanding wide on November 23. Despite the favorable critical reception, West Side Story and The Fabelmans were box office failures, which Variety suggested could be attributed to a decline in the popularity of Spielberg in a film-going environment altered by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the public's loss of interest in prestige films. The Fabelmans received seven Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Original Screenplay. It was, however, a major box office success in France and became the highest-rated film of the 21st century in the country, with a 4.9 average from critics on AlloCiné from 43 reviews, with all but 6 giving the film 5 stars. Cahiers du Cinéma wrote that Spielberg, at age 76, had \"come to represent like no other, the idea of cinema as wonder, at a time when the relationship to the spectacular and the cinema seems more tormented than ever\" and declared that the film will \"undoubtedly remain the most important and singular film of his career.\"\nSpielberg had planned to direct Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny, but he stepped down and was replaced by James Mangold. Spielberg said that he would remain \"hands on\" as a producer, along with Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall. In 2016, it was announced that it would be written by David Koepp, with a release by Disney on July 19, 2019. After a change of filming and release dates, it was postponed again when Jonathan Kasdan was announced as the film's new writer. Soon after, a new release date of July 9, 2021, was announced. In May 2019, Dan Fogelman was hired to write a new script, and Kasdan's story, focused on the Nazi gold train, would not be used; the script was ultimately credited to Mangold, Koepp, Jez Butterworth, and John-Henry Butterworth. In April 2020, it was announced that the release of the film was delayed to July 29, 2022, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and in October 2021, the release date was again delayed to June 30, 2023. The film began production in the UK in June 2021 and finished in February 2022.\n\nOther ventures\nProduction\nSpielberg's first film as an executive producer was the directorial debut of Robert Zemeckis, I Wanna Hold Your Hand (1978). He produced Zemeckis's dark comedy Used Cars (1980), which was a critical but not a commercial success. In 1980, Spielberg, Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall founded Amblin Productions; the first film it produced was the romantic comedy Continental Divide (Michael Apted, 1981). It went on to produce Gremlins (Joe Dante, 1984), Back to the Future (Zemeckis, 1985), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (Zemeckis, 1988), Joe Versus the Volcano (John Patrick Shanley, 1990), Men in Black (Barry Sonnenfeld, 1997) and The Mask of Zorro (Martin Campbell, 1998). It produced Don Bluth's animated films An American Tail (1986) and The Land Before Time (1988), leading to the spin-off Amblimation.\nIn 1994, Spielberg founded DreamWorks with Jeffrey Katzenberg and David Geffen. Spielberg cited greater creative control and distribution improvements as the main reasons for founding his own studio; he and his partners compared themselves to the founders of United Artists in 1919. DreamWorks' investors included Microsoft founders Paul Allen and Bill Gates. After founding DreamWorks, Spielberg continued to operate Amblin Entertainment and direct films for other studios. He helped design Jurassic Park: The Ride at Universal Studios Florida. The workload of filmmaking and operating a studio raised questions about his commitments, but Spielberg maintained that \"this is all fitting nicely into my life and I'm still home by six and I'm still home on the weekends.\" In 1998, DreamWorks Animation produced its first full-length animated features, Antz and The Prince of Egypt. Shrek (2001) was the first winner of the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.\nSpielberg and Tom Hanks produced Band of Brothers (2001), a ten-part HBO miniseries based on Stephen E. Ambrose's book of the same name. It follows Easy Company of the 101st Airborne Division's 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment. It won a Golden Globe for Best Miniseries. He produced Memoirs of a Geisha (2005), an adaptation of Arthur Golden's novel of the same name. Spielberg and Zemeckis executive-produced the animated film Monster House (2006), marking their eighth collaboration. He also worked with Clint Eastwood for the first time, co-producing Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima with Robert Lorenz. Spielberg served as executive producer for Disturbia, (2007) and the Transformers film series. That same year, Spielberg and Mark Burnett co-produced On the Lot, a reality and competition show about filmmaking. Spielberg returned to the World War II theme, co-producing the 2010 miniseries The Pacific with Hanks and Gary Goetzman. It is centered on the battles in the Pacific Theater. The next year, Spielberg co-created Falling Skies, a science fiction series on TNT, with Robert Rodat and produced the 2011 Fox series Terra Nova and J. J. Abrams's Super 8. \nIn January 2013, HBO confirmed that it was developing a World War II miniseries based on the book Donald L. Miller's Masters of the Air with Spielberg and Hanks. NME reported in March 2017 that production was under the working title The Mighty Eighth. By 2019, it was confirmed development of the series, now titled Masters of the Air, had moved to Apple TV+. It premiered on January 26, 2024.\n\nProspective projects\nIn May 2009, Spielberg bought the rights to the life story of Martin Luther King Jr., with the intention of being involved as both the producer and director. The purchase was made from the King estate, led by son Dexter, while the two other surviving children, the Reverend Bernice and Martin III, immediately threatened to sue, not having given their approvals to the project. In March 2013, Spielberg announced that he was developing a miniseries based on the life of Napoleon. In May 2016, it was announced that Cary Joji Fukunaga was in talks to direct the miniseries for HBO, from a script by David Leland based on extensive research materials accumulated by Stanley Kubrick over the years.\nSpielberg was set to film an adaptation of David I. Kertzer's The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara in early 2017, for release at the end of that year, but production had been postponed. It was first announced in 2014, with Tony Kushner adapting the book for the screen. Mark Rylance, in his fourth collaboration with Spielberg, was announced to star in the role of Pope Pius IX. Spielberg saw more than 2,000 children to play the role of the young Edgardo Mortara. In 2015, it was announced that Spielberg was attached to direct an adaptation of American photojournalist Lynsey Addario's memoir It's What I Do, with Jennifer Lawrence in the lead role. In April 2018, it was announced that Spielberg would direct a film adaptation of the Blackhawk comic book series. Warner Bros. would distribute the film with David Koepp writing the script.\n\nUpcoming projects\nOn June 21, 2021, it was announced that Amblin Entertainment signed a deal with Netflix to release multiple new feature films for the streaming service. Under the deal, Amblin is expected to produce at least two films a year for Netflix for an unspecified number of years. In February 2022, Deadline Hollywood reported that Spielberg was developing an original film centered around the character Frank Bullitt, a fictional San Francisco police officer originally portrayed by Steve McQueen in the 1968 film Bullitt. The screenplay is set to be written by Josh Singer, who previously co-wrote The Post for Spielberg. McQueen's son Chad and granddaughter Molly will serve as executive producers. Bradley Cooper was cast as Bullitt in November 2022 and will also serve as producer alongside Spielberg and Kristie Macosko Krieger.\nOn January 18, 2023, Spielberg told press at a red carpet event for The Fabelmans that he was executive producing a documentary about John Williams, directed by Laurent Bouzereau with production companies Amblin Television, Imagine Documentaries, and Nedland Media. Other executive producers for the film include Brian Grazer, Ron Howard, Darryl Frank, Justin Falvey, Justin Wilkes, Sara Bernstein, and Meredith Kaulfers. The announcement came days after Williams suggested that he might not retire from film scoring as he had previously announced. In April 2024, it was announced that Spielberg was developing a film based on UFOs, with David Koepp attached to pen the script, which will be based on an original idea from Spielberg.\n\nVideo games\nSpielberg has been an avid gamer since 1974. Spielberg played many of LucasArts adventure games, including the first Monkey Island games.\nIn 1995, Spielberg helped create and design LucasArts' adventure game The Dig. He also collaborated with software publishers Knowledge Adventure on the game Steven Spielberg's Director's Chair, which was released in 1996; Spielberg appears in the game to direct the player.\nIn 2005, Spielberg collaborated with Electronic Arts (EA) on several games including one for the Wii called Boom Blox, and its sequel Boom Blox Bash Party. He is also the creator of EA's Medal of Honor series. \nIn 2008, he owned a Wii, a PlayStation 3, a PSP, and an Xbox 360, and enjoyed playing first-person shooters such as the Medal of Honor series and Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. He dislikes the use of cutscenes in games, and thinks that natural storytelling is a challenge for game developers.\n\nFilmmaking style and techniques\nInfluences\nSpielberg cites John Ford as a formative influence: “I try to rent a John Ford film… before I start every movie, simply because he inspires me…. He’s like a classic painter, he celebrates the frame, not just what’s inside it.” He names Frank Capra's It's A Wonderful Life (1946) as an influence on themes of \"family, community and suburbia\". He enjoyed the work of Alfred Hitchcock, David Lean, Stanley Kubrick and John Frankenheimer. In college, he was inspired by foreign films directed by Ingmar Bergman, Jacques Tati and François Truffaut. Spencer Tracy has also influenced the characters of Spielberg's films, as did The Twilight Zone. He says Lawrence of Arabia is the film he's seen more times than any other.\n\nMethod and themes\nSpielberg often uses storyboards to visualize sequences, eschewing them for E.T. the Extraterrestrial and The Color Purple.for a more spontaneous effect. After filming Jaws, Spielberg learned to save special effects scenes until last and to exclude the media from filming locations. Spielberg prefers to shoot quickly, with large amounts of coverage (from single-shot to multi-shot setups), so that he will have many options in the editing room. From the beginning of his career, Spielberg's shooting style consisted of extreme high and low camera angles, long takes, and handheld cameras. He favors wide-angle lens for creating depth, and by the time he was making Minority Report, he was more confident with elaborate camera movements.\n\nIn an interview with The Tech in 2015, Spielberg described how he chooses his film projects:[Sometimes], a story speaks to me, even if it doesn't speak to any of my collaborators or any of my partners, who look at me and scratch their heads and say, \"Gee, are you sure you wanna get into that trench for a year and a half?\" I love people challenging me that way because it's a real test about my own convictions and [whether] I can be the standing man of my own life and take a stand on a subject that may not be popular, but that I would be proud to add to the body of my work. That's pretty much the litmus test that gets me to say, \"Yeah, I'll direct that one.\"Spielberg's films contain many recurrent themes. One of the most pertinent revolves around \"ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances.\" The ordinary people often have limitations, but they succeed in becoming a \"hero\". A consistent theme in his family-friendly work is a childlike sense of wonder and faith, and \"the goodness in humanity will prevail.\" He has also explored the importance of childhood, loss of innocence, and the need for parental figures. In exploring the parent-child relationship, there is usually a flawed or irresponsible father figure. This theme personally resonates with Spielberg's childhood. Exploring extraterrestrial life is another aspect to his work. Spielberg described himself as like an \"alien\" during childhood, and this interest came from his father, a science fiction fan.\n\nCollaborators\nMichael Kahn has edited all of Spielberg's films since 1977, with the exception of E.T. (1982). Spielberg has also worked consistently with production designer Rick Carter and writer David Koepp. The producer Kathleen Kennedy is one of Spielberg's longest serving collaborators. Spielberg also displays loyalty to his actors, casting them repeatedly, including Tom Hanks, Harrison Ford, Mark Rylance, Richard Dreyfuss and Tom Cruise. In 2005, Cruise called him \"the greatest storyteller cinema's ever known\".\nHanks has collaborated with Spielberg on various projects in both film and television. He first worked with Spielberg in Saving Private Ryan (1998) for which he received a nomination for Academy Award for Best Actor. Hanks starred in four more films, Catch Me if You Can (2002), The Terminal (2004), Bridge of Spies (2015) and The Post (2017). The pair also executive produced the war miniseries Band of Brothers (2001) and The Pacific (2010), both of which gained them Primetime Emmy Awards.\nJanusz Kamiński has served as a cinematographer on dozens of Spielberg's films. Kamiński's first collaboration with Spielberg started with the holocaust drama film Schindler's List (1993) for which Kamiński received the Academy Award for Best Cinematography. The film used black-and-white cinematography. As Spielberg's career evolved from action to drama films, he and Kamiński adopted more handheld camerawork, as evidenced in Schindler's List and Amistad. Kamiński would later receive his second Academy Award for cinematography on Saving Private Ryan. The film's opening sequence to re-enact the invasion of Normandy was praised for realism. Kamiński garnered three more Academy Award nominations for his work on War Horse (2011), the historical epic Lincoln (2015), and West Side Story (2021).\nSpielberg's long-time partnership with composer John Williams began with The Sugarland Express (1974) Williams would return to compose all but five of Spielberg's feature films (the exceptions are Twilight Zone: The Movie, The Color Purple, Bridge of Spies, Ready Player One and West Side Story). Williams won three of his five Academy Awards for Best Original Score for his work on Spielberg's films, which were Jaws (1975), E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), and Schindler's List (1993). While making Schindler's List, Spielberg approached Williams about composing the score. After seeing a rough, unedited cut, Williams was impressed, and said that composing would be too challenging. He said to Spielberg, \"You need a better composer than I am for this film.\" Spielberg responded, \"I know. But they're all dead!\" In 2016, Spielberg presented Williams with the 44th AFI Life Achievement Award, the first to be awarded to a composer. The Fabelmans (2022) was Williams's 29th collaboration with Spielberg.\n\nPersonal life\nSpielberg met actress Amy Irving in 1976 when she auditioned for Close Encounters of the Third Kind. After meeting her, Spielberg told his co-producer Julia Phillips, \"I met a real heartbreaker last night.\" Although she was too young for the role, she and Spielberg began dating and she eventually moved into what she described as his \"bachelor funky\" house. They broke up in 1979. In 1984, they renewed their romance and married in November 1985. Their son, Max, had been born on June 13 of that year. In 1989, the couple divorced; they agreed to live near each other to share custody of their son. Their divorce settlement is one of the most expensive in history.\nSpielberg met actress Kate Capshaw when he cast her in Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. They married on October 12, 1991; Capshaw converted to Judaism before their marriage. Spielberg said he rediscovered \"the honor of being a Jew\" when they married. He said, \"Kate is Protestant and she insisted on converting to Judaism. She spent a year studying, did the \"mikveh\", the whole thing. She chose to do a full conversion before we were married in 1991, and she married me after becoming a Jew. I think that, more than anything else, brought me back to Judaism.\" He credits her for the family's level of observance; \"This shiksa goddess has made me a better Jew than my own parents\", he said. He and his family live in Pacific Palisades, California and East Hampton, New York.\nHe has five children with Capshaw: Sasha Rebecca Spielberg (born May 14, 1990), Sawyer Avery Spielberg (born March 10, 1992), and Destry Allyn Spielberg (born December 1, 1996), and two adopted children: Theo Spielberg (born August 21, 1988), and Mikaela George (born February 28, 1996). He also has a stepdaughter, Jessica Capshaw (born August 9, 1976). He is the godfather of Drew Barrymore and Gwyneth Paltrow.\nIn 1997, a man named Jonathan Norman stalked Spielberg and attempted to enter his home; Norman was jailed for 25 years. In 2001, Spielberg was stalked by conspiracy theorist and former social worker Diana Napolis. She accused him and actress Jennifer Love Hewitt, of installing a mind-control device in her brain, and being part of a satanic cult. Napolis was committed to a mental institution, and pled guilty to stalking. She was released on probation with a condition that she have no contact with either Spielberg or Hewitt.\nSpielberg was diagnosed with dyslexia at age 60.\nIn 2013, Spielberg purchased the 282-foot (86 m) mega-yacht The Seven Seas for US$182 million. He has put it up for sale and has made it available for charter. At US$1.2 million per month, it is one of the most expensive charters on the market. The Canadian steel mogul Barry Zekelman bought it for US$150 millions and rechristened the ship Man of Steel. Thereafter, Spielberg ordered a brand new 358-foot (109 m) Seven Seas.\nIn 2022, at age 75, Spielberg was diagnosed with COVID-19 but recovered.\nIn December 2022, Spielberg was a guest on Desert Island Discs for BBC Radio 4, choosing for his luxury item an H-8 Bolex Camera.\n\nPolitical views\nSpielberg has usually supported US Democratic Party candidates. He has donated over $800,000 to the Democratic party and its nominees. He has been a close friend of former president Bill Clinton and worked with the president for the USA Millennium celebrations. He directed an 18-minute film for the project, scored by John Williams and entitled The American Journey. It was shown at America's Millennium Gala on December 31, 1999, in the National Mall at the Reflecting Pool at the base of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Spielberg endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election; he donated $1 million to Priorities USA Action.\n\n Spielberg resigned as a member of the national advisory board of the Boy Scouts of America in 2001 because he disagreed with the organization's anti-homosexuality stance. In 2007, the Arab League voted to boycott Spielberg's movies after he donated $1 million for relief efforts in Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War. On February 20, 2007, Spielberg, Jeffrey Katzenberg, and David Geffen invited Democrats to a fundraiser for Barack Obama.\nIn February 2008, Spielberg resigned as advisor to the 2008 Summer Olympics in response to the Chinese government's inaction over the War in Darfur. Spielberg said in a statement, \"I find that my conscience will not allow me to continue business as usual [...] Sudan's government bears the bulk of the responsibility for these on-going crimes, but the international community, and particularly China, should be doing more.\" The International Olympic Committee (IOC) respected Spielberg's decision but IOC president Jacques Rogge expressed disappointment: \"[Spielberg] certainly would have brought a lot to the opening ceremony in terms of creativity.\" Chinese state media called Spielberg's comments \"unfair\".\nIn September 2008, Spielberg and his wife offered their support to same-sex marriage in California by issuing a statement following their donation of $100,000 to the \"No on Proposition 8\" campaign fund, a figure equal to the amount of money Brad Pitt donated to the same campaign less than a week prior. In 2018, Spielberg and his wife donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States.\nIn December 2023, after the Hamas-led attack on Israel, the Shoah Foundation which was founded by Spielberg, said that it had gathered over 100 video testimonies of those who experienced the attacks on that day to add them to the collection of \"Holocaust survivor and witness testimony.\" Speaking of the attacks he said, \"I never imagined I would see such unspeakable barbarity against Jews in my lifetime\" and that the Shoah Foundation project will ensure \"that their stories would be recorded and shared in the effort to preserve history and to work toward a world without antisemitism or hate of any kind.\"\n\nFilmography\nProlific in film since the 1960s, Spielberg has directed 36 feature films, and co-produced many works.\n\nAwards and honors\nSpielberg has won three Academy Awards. He received nine nominations for Best Director, and won twice (for Schindler's List and Saving Private Ryan). His third was in Best Picture, for Schindler's List. He is the only director to receive a Best Director nomination from the academy in 6 different decades. In 1987, he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for his work as a creative producer. Drawing from his own experiences in Scouting, Spielberg helped the Boy Scouts of America develop a merit badge in cinematography to promote filmmaking as a marketable skill; the badge was launched at the 1989 National Scout Jamboree. In 1989, Spielberg was presented with the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award. Spielberg received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1995.\nIn 1998, he was awarded the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. The award was presented to him by President Roman Herzog in recognition of Schindler's List and work with the Shoah Foundation. Spielberg was awarded the Medal for Distinguished Public Service in 1999, in recognition for Saving Private Ryan. For the same film, he also received an award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures by the Directors Guild of America. The next year, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Directors Guild of America.\n\nSpielberg was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2003, located on 6801 Hollywood Boulevard. Additionally, he was awarded the Blessed are the Peacemakers Award from the Catholic Theological Union in 2003. On July 15, 2006, Spielberg was awarded the Gold Hugo Lifetime Achievement Award at the Summer Gala of the Chicago International Film Festival, and was awarded a Kennedy Center honor on December 3. The tribute to Spielberg featured a biographical short film narrated by Liam Neeson, and a performance of the finale to Leonard Bernstein's Candide, conducted by John Williams.\nThe Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Spielberg in 2005, the first year it considered non-literary contributors. He was a recipient of the Visual Effects Society Lifetime Achievement Award in February 2008; it is awarded for \"significant and lasting contributions to the art and science of the visual effects industry.\" In 2009, Spielberg was awarded the Cecil B. DeMille Award by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for \"outstanding contributions to the world of entertainment\".\n\nIn 2001, he was awarded an honorary knighthood, KBE, by Queen Elizabeth II for services to the British film industry. Premiere ranked him first place in the list of 100 Most Powerful People in Movies in 2003. In 2004, he was awarded France's highest civil honor, the Legion of Honour by President Jacques Chirac. In June 2008, Spielberg received Arizona State University's Hugh Downs Award for Communication Excellence. In October 2009, Spielberg received the Philadelphia Liberty Medal; the prize was presented by former US President Bill Clinton. In October 2011, he was made a Commander of the Order of the Belgian Crown, one of Belgium's highest honors.\nOn November 19, 2013, Spielberg was honored by the National Archives and Records Administration with a Records of Achievement Award. Spielberg was given two facsimiles of the 13th Amendment; the first which passed in 1861 but was not ratified, and the second signed by Abraham Lincoln in 1865 to abolish slavery. The amendment and the process of passing it were the subject of his film Lincoln. On November 24, 2015, Spielberg was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama at the White House.\nIn July 2016, Spielberg was awarded a gold Blue Peter badge by the BBC children's television program Blue Peter. He has honorary degrees from the University of Southern California, 1994; Brown University, 1999; Yale University, 2002; Boston University, 2009; and Harvard University, 2016.\n\nLegacy\nA figure of the New Hollywood era, Spielberg is widely regarded as one of the most influential and commercially successful film directors of all time. Some of his films were in the top ten highest-grossing films of the 1970s and 1980s, with Jaws, E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and Jurassic Park all becoming the highest-grossing film ever at the time of their respective releases. In 1996, Life magazine named Spielberg the most influential person of his generation. In 2003, Premiere magazine ranked him first place in the list of 100 Most Powerful People in Movies. In 2005, Empire magazine ranked him number one on a list of the greatest film directors of all time. In 2013, Time magazine listed him as one of the 100 most influential people. According to Forbes' magazine of Most Influential Celebrities of 2014, Spielberg was ranked at first place. As of December 2022, Forbes estimates his net worth at $4 billion.\nHis work is admired by numerous acclaimed directors, including Robert Aldrich, Ingmar Bergman, Werner Herzog, Stanley Kubrick, David Lean, Sidney Lumet, Roman Polanski, Martin Scorsese, François Truffaut and Jean Renoir Spielberg's films have also influenced directors J. J. Abrams, Paul Thomas Anderson, Neill Blomkamp, Jon M. Chu, Arnaud Desplechin, Gareth Edwards, Roland Emmerich, Enrique Gato, Max Hechtman, Don Hertzfeldt, Peter Jackson, Kal Ng, Jordan Peele, Robert Rodriguez, John Sayles, Ridley Scott, John Singleton, Kevin Smith, and Michael Williams.\nIn 2004, film critic Tom Shone said of Spielberg, \"If you have to point to any one director of the last twenty-five years [1979–2004] in whose work the medium of film was most fully itself–where we found out what it does best when left to its own devices, it has to be that guy.\" Jess Cagle, former editor of Entertainment Weekly, called Spielberg \"arguably (well, who would argue?) the greatest filmmaker in history.\" Stephen Rowley, writing for Senses of Cinema, discussed Spielberg's strengths as a filmmaker, saying \"there is a welcome complexity of tone and approach in these later films that defies the lazy stereotypes often bandied about his films\", and that \"Spielberg continues to take risks, with his body of work continuing to grow more impressive and ambitious\", concluding that he has only received \"limited, begrudging recognition\" from critics. In a 1999 \"Millennium Movies\" survey of British film fans run by the Sky Premier channel, Spielberg had seven films in the top 100, which made him the most popular director.\nCritics of Spielberg have argued that his films are commonly sentimental and moralistic. In Easy Riders, Raging Bulls, Peter Biskind wrote that Spielberg is \"infantilizing the audience, reconstituting the spectator as child, then overwhelming him and her with sound and spectacle, obliterating irony, aesthetic self-consciousness, and critical reflection\". Critic Ray Carney and actor Crispin Glover opined that Spielberg's works lack depth and do not take risks. Filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard opined that Spielberg was partly responsible for the lack of artistic merit in mainstream cinema, and accused Spielberg of using Schindler's List to profit from a tragedy. In defense of Spielberg, critic Roger Ebert said \"Has Godard or any other director living or dead done more than Spielberg, with his Holocaust Project, to honor and preserve the memories of the survivors?\"\nSeven of his films have been inducted into the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\": Jaws, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Raiders of the Lost Ark, E.T., Jurassic Park, Schindler's List, and Saving Private Ryan.\n\nSee also\nDirectors with two films rated \"A+\" by CinemaScore\nSteven Spielberg's unrealized projects\n\nReferences\nSources\nBaxter, John (1996). Steven Spielberg: The Unauthorised Biography. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 9780002555876.\nBuckland, Warren (2006). Directed by Steven Spielberg: Poetics of the Contemporary Hollywood Blockbuster. New York: Continuum. ISBN 9780826416919.\nEdge, Laura Bufano (2008). Steven Spielberg: Director of Blockbuster Films. Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 9780766028883.\nFreer, Ian (2001). The Complete Spielberg. London: Virgin Publishing. ISBN 9780753505564.\nHook, Sue Vander (2010). Steven Spielberg: Groundbreaking Director. Edina, Minnesota: Abdo Publishing Company. ISBN 9781604537048.\nHorn, Geoffrey M. (2002). Steven Spielberg. Milwaukee: World Almanac Library. ISBN 9780836850802.\nJackson, Kathi (2007). Steven Spielberg: A Biography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313337963.\nMairata, James (2018). Steven Spielberg's Style by Stealth. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. ISBN 9783319690810.\nMara, Wil (2014). Great Filmmakers Steven Spielberg. New York: Cavendish Square Publishing. ISBN 9781627129367.\nMcBride, Joseph (1997). Steven Spielberg: A Biography. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9780684811673.\nParish, James Robert (2004). Steven Spielberg Filmmaker. New York: Ferguson. ISBN 9780816054817.\nPogrebin, Abigail (2005). Stars of David: Prominent Jews Talk About Being Jewish. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 9780307419323.\nShone, Tom (2004). Blockbuster: How Hollywood Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Summer. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780743235686.\n\nFurther reading\nHaskell, Molly (2017). Steven Spielberg: A Life in Films. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18693-2.\nJolls, Michael (2018). The Films of Steven Spielberg. Create Space. ISBN 978-1986039680.\nMorris, Nigel (2007). The Cinema of Steven Spielberg: Empire of Light. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-904764-88-5.\nSpielberg, Steven; Friedman, Lester D.; Notbohm, Brent (2000). Steven Spielberg: Interviews. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-57806-113-6.\n\nExternal links\n\nSteven Spielberg at IMDb \nSteven Spielberg at the TCM Movie Database \nSteven Spielberg at AllMovie \nAppearances on C-SPAN\nSteven Spielberg at Curlie\nSteven Spielberg collected news and commentary at The New York Times\n\"Steven Spielberg biography\". Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame.\nTalking About Steven Spielberg at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television\nJoseph McBride Papers, 1960–2008 – Wisconsin Historical Society",
"title": "Steven_Spielberg"
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"paragraph_text": "James Francis Cameron (born August 16, 1954) is a Canadian filmmaker. He is a major figure in the post-New Hollywood era and often uses novel technologies with a classical filmmaking style. He first gained recognition for writing and directing The Terminator (1984), and found further success with Aliens (1986), The Abyss (1989), Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), and True Lies (1994), as well as Avatar (2009) and its sequels. He directed, wrote, co-produced, and co-edited Titanic (1997), winning Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Film Editing. He is a recipient of various other industry accolades, and three of his films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress.\nCameron co-founded the production companies Lightstorm Entertainment, Digital Domain, and Earthship Productions. In addition to filmmaking, he is a National Geographic explorer-in-residence and has produced many documentaries on deep-ocean exploration, including Ghosts of the Abyss (2003) and Aliens of the Deep (2005). Cameron has also contributed to underwater filming and remote vehicle technologies and helped create the digital 3D Fusion Camera System. In 2012, Cameron became the first person to do a solo descent to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the Earth's ocean, in the Deepsea Challenger submersible.\nCameron's films have grossed over $8 billion worldwide, making him the second-highest-grossing film director of all time. Three of Cameron's films are amongst the top four highest-grossing films of all time; Avatar (2009), Avatar: The Way of Water (2022) and Titanic (1997) are the highest, third-highest and fourth-highest-grossing films of all time, respectively. Cameron directed the first film to gross over $1 billion, the first two films to gross over $2 billion, and is the only director to have had three films gross over $2 billion. In 2010, Time named Cameron one of the 100 most influential people in the world. Cameron is also an environmentalist and runs several sustainability businesses.\n\nEarly life\nJames Francis Cameron was born on August 16, 1954, in Kapuskasing, Ontario, to Philip Cameron, an electrical engineer, and Shirley (née Lowe), an artist and nurse. He is the first of five children, with two brothers and two sisters. His paternal great-great-great-grandfather emigrated from Balquhidder, Scotland, in 1825. Cameron spent summers on his grandfather's farm in southern Ontario. He attended Stamford Collegiate in Niagara Falls. At age 17, Cameron and his family moved from Chippawa to Brea, California. He attended Sonora High School and then moved to Brea Olinda High School. Classmates recalled that he was not a sportsman but instead enjoyed building things that \"either went up into the air or into the deep\".\nAfter high school, Cameron enrolled at Fullerton College, a community college in 1973 to study physics. He switched subjects to English, but left the college at the end of 1974. Cameron worked odd jobs, including as a truck driver and a high school janitor. He drank beer, frequently consumed cannabis and LSD, and wrote in his free time. During this period, he learned about special effects by reading other students' work on \"optical printing, or front screen projection, or dye transfers, anything that related to film technology\" at the USC library. After the excitement of seeing Star Wars in 1977, Cameron quit his job as a truck driver to enter the film industry.\n\nFilm career\nEarly work and 1980s\nCameron's directing career began in 1978. After borrowing money from a consortium of dentists, he learned to direct, write and produce his first short film, Xenogenesis (1978) with a friend. Learning as they went, Cameron said he felt like a doctor doing his first surgical procedure. He then served as a production assistant for Rock 'n' Roll High School (1979). While educating himself about filmmaking techniques, Cameron started a job as a miniature model maker at Roger Corman Studios. He was soon employed as an art director for the science-fiction film Battle Beyond the Stars (1980). He carried out the special effects for John Carpenter's Escape from New York (1981), served as production designer for Galaxy of Terror (1981), and consulted on the design for Android (1982).\nCameron was hired as the special effects director for the sequel to Piranha (1978), titled Piranha II: The Spawning in 1982. The original director, Miller Drake, left the project due to creative differences with producer Ovidio Assonitis. Shot in Rome, Italy, and on Grand Cayman Island, the film gave Cameron the opportunity to become director for a major film for the first time. Cameron later said that it did not feel like his first film due to power-struggles with Assonitis. Upon release of Piranha II: The Spawning, critics were not impressed; author Tim Healey called it \"a marvellously bad movie which splices clichés from every conceivable source\".\nIn 1982, inspired by John Carpenter's horror film Halloween (1978), as well as a nightmare about an invincible robot hit-man sent from the future to assassinate him, Cameron wrote the script for The Terminator (1984), a sci-fi action film about a cyborg sent from the future to carry out a lethal mission. Cameron wanted to sell the script so that he could direct the movie. Whilst some film studios expressed interest in the project, many executives were unwilling to let a new and unfamiliar director make the movie. Gale Anne Hurd, a colleague and founder of Pacific Western Productions, agreed to buy Cameron's script for one dollar, on the condition that Cameron direct the film. He convinced the president of Hemdale Pictures to make the film, with Cameron as director and Hurd as a producer. Lance Henriksen, who starred in Piranha II: The Spawning, was considered for the lead role, but Cameron decided that Arnold Schwarzenegger was more suitable as the cyborg villain due to his bodybuilder appearance. Henriksen was given a smaller role instead. Michael Biehn and Linda Hamilton also joined the cast. The Terminator was a box office success, exceeding expectations set by Orion Pictures. The film proved popular with audiences and earned over $78 million worldwide. George Perry of the BBC praised Cameron's direction, writing \"Cameron laces the action with ironic jokes, but never lets up on hinting that the terror may strike at any moment\". In 2008, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, being deemed \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\nIn 1984, Cameron was hired to write a sequel to First Blood; it was rewritten by Sylvester Stallone and released as Rambo: First Blood Part II. Cameron was then hired to write and direct a sequel to Alien (1979), a science fiction horror film directed by Ridley Scott. Like the original, the sequel Aliens (1986) featured Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley. Aliens follows Ripley as she helps a group of marines fight off extraterrestrials. Despite conflicts with cast and crew during production, and having to replace one of the lead actors — James Remar with Michael Biehn — Aliens was a box office success, generating over $130 million worldwide. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1987; Best Actress, Best Art Direction, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score and Best Sound. It won awards for Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. In addition, Weaver and the film made the cover of Time in July 1986.\n\nAfter Aliens, Cameron and Gale Anne Hurd decided to make The Abyss, a story about oil-rig workers who discover strange intelligent life in the ocean. Based on an idea which Cameron had conceived of during high school, the film was initially budgeted at $41 million, although it ran considerably over this amount. It starred Ed Harris, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio and Michael Biehn. The production process began in the Cayman Islands and in South Carolina, in two huge water tanks \"reclaimed from\" an unfinished nuclear power plant. The cast and crew recall Cameron's dictatorial behavior, and the filming of water scenes which were mentally and physically exhausting. Upon the film's release, The Abyss was praised for its special effects, and earned $90 million at the worldwide box office. The Abyss received four Academy Award nominations, and won Best Visual Effects.\n\n1990s\nIn 1990, Cameron co-founded the firm Lightstorm Entertainment with partner Lawrence Kasanoff. In 1991, Cameron served as executive producer for Point Break (1991), directed by Kathryn Bigelow. After the success of The Terminator, there were discussions for a sequel, and by the late 1980s, Mario Kassar of Carolco Pictures secured the rights to the sequel, allowing Cameron to begin production of the film, Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). Written by Cameron and William Wisher Jr., Schwarzenegger and Linda Hamilton reprise their roles. The story follows on from Terminator, depicting a new villain (T-1000), with shape-shifting abilities who hunts for Sarah Connor's son, John (Edward Furlong). Cameron cast Robert Patrick as T-1000 because of his lean and thin appearance — a sharp contrast to Schwarzenegger. Cameron explained: \"I wanted someone who was extremely fast and agile. If the T-800 is a human Panzer tank, then the T-1000 is a Porsche\". Terminator 2 was one of the most expensive films to be produced, costing at least $94 million ($210 million in 2023). Despite the challenging use of computer-generated imagery (CGI), the film was completed on time and released on July 3, 1991. Terminator 2 broke box office records (including the opening weekend record for an R-rated film), earning over $200 million in North America and being the first to earn over $300 million worldwide (respectively over $447 million and $671 million in 2023). It won four Academy Awards: Best Makeup, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. It also received nominations for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing, but lost both to political thriller JFK (1991).\nIn subsequent years, Cameron planned to do a third Terminator film, but plans never materialized. The rights to the Terminator franchise were eventually purchased by Kassar from a bankruptcy sale of Carolco's assets. Cameron moved on to other projects and, in 1993, co-founded Digital Domain, a visual effects production company. In 1994, Cameron and Schwarzenegger reunited for their third collaboration, True Lies, a remake of the 1991 French comedy La Totale! The story depicts an American secret agent who leads a double life as a married man, whose wife believes he is a computer salesman. The film co-stars Jamie Lee Curtis, Eliza Dushku and Tom Arnold. Cameron's Lightstorm Entertainment signed a deal with 20th Century Fox for the production of True Lies. Budgeted at a minimum of $100 million, the film earned $146 million in the United States and Canada. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and Curtis won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress. It was during the production of True Lies that he would first meet Jon Landau, who at the time oversaw the film's production for Fox. In July 2024, Cameron stated that he \"lured\" Landau away from Fox to Lightstorm.\nIn 1995, Cameron co-produced Strange Days, a science fiction thriller. Directed by Kathryn Bigelow and co-written by Jay Cocks, Strange Days was critically and financially unsuccessful. In 1996, Cameron reunited with the cast of Terminator 2 to film T2 3-D: Battle Across Time, an attraction at Universal Studios Florida, and in other parks around the world.\nHis next major project was Titanic (1997), an epic about RMS Titanic, which sank in 1912 after striking an iceberg. With a production budget of $200 million, at the time it was the most expensive film ever made. Starting in 1995, Cameron took several dives to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean to capture footage of the wreck, which would later be used in the film. A replica of the ship was built in Rosarito Beach and principal photography began in September 1996. Titanic made headlines before its release, for being over-budget and exceeding its schedule. Cameron's completed screenplay depicts two star-crossed lovers, portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, from different social classes who fall in love amid the backdrop of the tragedy; a radical departure from his previous work. The supporting cast includes Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Gloria Stuart, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Victor Garber, Danny Nucci, David Warner and Bill Paxton. The film was also Cameron's first large scale production with Landau as a co-producer.\n\nAfter months of delay, Titanic premiered on December 19, 1997. The film received strong critical acclaim and became the highest-grossing film of all time, holding this position for twelve years, until Cameron's Avatar beat the record in 2010. The costumes and sets were praised, and The Washington Post considered the CGI graphics to be spectacular. Titanic received a record-tying fourteen nominations (tied with All About Eve (1950) at the 1998 Academy Awards. It won eleven of the awards, tying the record for most wins with 1959's Ben-Hur, and 2003's The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, including: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing, Best Original Score and Best Original Song. Upon receiving Best Picture, Cameron and producer Jon Landau asked for a moment of silence to remember the 1,500 people who died when the ship sank. Film critic Roger Ebert praised Cameron's storytelling, writing: \"It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding\". Authors Kevin Sandler and Gaylyn Studlar wrote in 1999 that the romance, historical nostalgia and James Horner's music contributed to the film's cultural phenomenon. In 2017, on its 20th anniversary, Titanic became Cameron's second film to be selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.\nAfter the huge success of Titanic, Cameron kept a low profile. In 1998, he and his brother, John, formed Earthship Productions, to stream documentaries about the deep sea, one of Cameron's interests. Again during 1998, Cameron considered doing a large-scale technological/religious film by an unknown writer, but after three tries was forced to personally pass on the project \"due to his secular nature.\" Cameron had also planned to make a film about Spider-Man, a project developed by Menahem Golan of Cannon Films. Columbia hired David Koepp to adapt Cameron's ideas into a screenplay, but due to various disagreements, Cameron abandoned the project. In 2002, Spider-Man was released with the screenplay credited solely to Koepp.\n\n2000s\nIn 2000, Cameron made his debut in television and co-created Dark Angel with Charles H. Eglee, a television series influenced by cyberpunk, biopunk, contemporary superheroes and third-wave feminism. Dark Angel starred Jessica Alba as Max Guevara, a genetically enhanced super-soldier created by a secretive organization. While the first season was moderately successful, the second season did less well, which led to its cancellation.\nIn 2002, Cameron served as producer on the 2002 film Solaris, a science fiction drama directed by Steven Soderbergh. The film gained mixed reviews and failed at the box office. Keen to make documentaries, Cameron directed Expedition: Bismarck, about the German Battleship Bismarck. In 2003, he directed Ghosts of the Abyss, a documentary about RMS Titanic which was released by Walt Disney Pictures and Walden Media, and designed for 3D theaters. Cameron told The Guardian his intention for filming everything in 3D. In 2005, Cameron co-directed Aliens of the Deep, a documentary about the various forms of life in the ocean. He also starred in Titanic Adventure with Tony Robinson, another documentary about the Titanic shipwreck. In 2006, Cameron co-created and narrated The Exodus Decoded, a documentary exploring the Biblical account of the Exodus. In 2007, Cameron and fellow director Simcha Jacobovici, produced The Lost Tomb of Jesus. It was broadcast on Discovery Channel on March 4, 2007; the documentary was controversial for arguing that the Talpiot Tomb was the burial place of Jesus of Nazareth.\n\nBy the mid-2000s, Cameron returned to directing and producing another mainstream film since Titanic. Cameron had displayed interest in making Avatar (2009) and Alita: Battle Angel (2019) as early as June 2005, with both films to be shot using 3D technology. He wanted to make Alita: Battle Angel first, followed by Avatar, but switched the order in February 2006. Although Cameron had written an 80-page treatment for Avatar in 1995, Cameron stated that he wanted the necessary technology to improve before starting production. Avatar, with the story line set in the mid-22nd century, had an estimated budget in excess of $300 million. The cast includes Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldana, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez and Sigourney Weaver. It was composed with a mix of live-action footage and computer-generated animation, using an advanced version of the performance capture technique, previously used by director Robert Zemeckis in The Polar Express. Cameron intended Avatar to be 3D-only but decided to adapt it for conventional viewing as well.\nIntended for release in May 2009, Avatar premiered on December 18, 2009. This delay allowed more time for post-production and the opportunity for theaters to install 3D projectors. Avatar broke several box office records during its initial theatrical run. It grossed $749.7 million in the United States and Canada and more than $2.74 billion worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time in the United States and Canada, surpassing Titanic. It was the first film to earn more than $2 billion worldwide. Avatar was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and won three: Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects. In July 2010, an extended theatrical re-release generated an additional $33.2 million worldwide (equivalent to $45,300,000 in 2023) at the box office. In his mixed review, Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph complimented the 3D, but opined that Cameron \"should have been more brutal in his editing\". That year, Vanity Fair reported that Cameron's earnings were US$257 million, making him the highest earner in Hollywood. As of 2022, Avatar and Titanic hold the achievement for being the first two of the six films in history to gross over $2 billion worldwide. As with Titanic, Landau would greatly assist Cameron as the co-producer of the Avatar films as well.\n\n2010s and 2020s\nIn 2011, Cameron served as an executive producer for Sanctum, a disaster-survival film about a cave diving expedition which turns deadly. Although receiving mixed reviews, the film earned a fair $108 million at the worldwide box office. Cameron re-investigated the sinking of RMS Titanic with eight experts in a 2012 TV documentary special, Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron, which premiered on April 8 on the National Geographic channel. In the feature, the experts revised the CGI animation of the sinking conceived in 1995. In March 2010, Cameron announced that Titanic will be converted and re-released in 3D to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the tragedy. On March 27, 2012, Titanic 3D premiered at London's Royal Albert Hall. He also served as executive producer of Cirque du Soleil: Worlds Away and Deepsea Challenge 3D in 2012 and 2014, respectively.\nCameron starred in the 2017 documentary Atlantis Rising, with collaborator Simcha Jacobovici. The pair go on an adventure to explore the existence of the city of Atlantis. The programme aired on January 29 on National Geographic. Next, Cameron produced and appeared in a documentary about the history of science fiction. James Cameron's Story of Science Fiction, the six-episodic series was broadcast on AMC in 2018. The series featured interviews with guests including Ridley Scott, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and Christopher Nolan. He stated \"Without Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, there wouldn't have been Ray Bradbury or Robert A. Heinlein, and without them, there wouldn't be [George] Lucas, [Steven] Spielberg, Ridley Scott or me\".\nAlita: Battle Angel was finally released in 2019, after being in parallel development with Avatar. Written by Cameron and friend Jon Landau, the film was directed by Robert Rodriguez and produced by Cameron. The film is based on a 1990s Japanese manga series Battle Angel Alita, depicting a cyborg who cannot remember anything of her past life and tries to uncover the truth. Produced with similar techniques and technology as in Avatar, the film starred Rosa Salazar, Christoph Waltz, Jennifer Connelly, Mahershala Ali, Ed Skrein, Jackie Earle Haley and Keean Johnson. The film premiered on January 31, 2019, to generally positive reviews and $404 million (equivalent to $474,900,000 in 2023) at the worldwide box office. In her review, Monica Castillo of RogerEbert.com called it \"an awe-inspiring jump for [Rodriguez]\" and \"a visual bonanza\", despite the bulky script. Cameron then returned to the Terminator franchise as producer and writer for Tim Miller's Terminator: Dark Fate (2019).\nIn August 2013, Cameron announced plans to direct three sequels to Avatar simultaneously, for release in December 2016, 2017, and 2018. However, the release dates were adjusted due to Cameron's other priorities, with Avatar 3, 4 and 5 to be released, respectively, on December 20, 2024, December 18, 2026, and December 22, 2028. Deadline Hollywood estimated that the budget for these would be over $1 billion. Avatar 2 (later given the subtitle The Way of Water) and Avatar 3 (later given the subtitle Fire and Ash) began simultaneous production in Manhattan Beach, California on August 15, 2017. Principal photography began in New Zealand on September 25, 2017. Parts of Avatar 4 were also filmed during this time. Cameron stated in a 2017 interview: \"Let's face it, if Avatar 2 and 3 don't make enough money, there's not going to be a 4 and 5\". Avatar: The Way of Water had its world premiere in London on December 6, 2022. It became the highest-grossing film released in 2022, and as of 2023 stood as the 3rd highest-grossing film of all time, behind only Avatar and Avengers: Endgame, and just ahead of Titanic.\nLightstorm Entertainment bought the film rights to the Taylor Stevens novel The Informationist, a thriller set in Africa with Cameron planning to direct. In 2010, he indicated he would adapt the Charles R. Pellegrino book The Last Train from Hiroshima, which is about the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Cameron met with survivor Tsutomu Yamaguchi before his death in 2010. In 2024, Deadline Hollywood confirmed that Cameron had purchased the rights of not only The Last Train from Hiroshima, but also of Pellegrino's forthcoming Ghosts of Hiroshima, to make a \"uncompromising theatrical epic motion picture\" titled Last Train From Hiroshima about a Japanese man who survives Hiroshima's bombing at the height of World War II only to then take a train to Nagasaki's bombing, which he will shoot as soon as the Avatar sequels' production permits. Feeling that he and Pellegrino owe Yamaguchi for handing the baton of his personal story to them so they could pass his unique and harrowing experience to future generations, Cameron was assisted by the Avatar sequels co-writer Shane Salerno and Pellegrino, who previously served as Cameron's science consultant on Titanic and Avatar.\nIn June 2010, Cameron met with officials of the Environmental Protection Agency to discuss possible solutions to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. It was reported that he offered his assistance to help stop the oil well from leaking. He is a member of the NASA Advisory Council and he worked with the space agency to build cameras for the Curiosity rover sent for Mars. NASA launched the rover without Cameron's technology due to a lack of time during testing. He has expressed interest in a project about Mars, stating: \"I've been very interested in the Humans to Mars movement ... and I've done a tremendous amount of personal research for a novel, a miniseries, and a 3D film.\" Cameron is a member of the Mars Society, a non-profit organization lobbying for the colonization of Mars. Cameron endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton for the 2016 United States presidential election.\n\nDeep-sea exploration\nCameron has experience with deep-sea exploration, in part because of his work on The Abyss, Titanic, and Avatar: The Way of Water and his childhood fascination with shipwrecks. He has contributed to advancements in underwater filming and remotely operated vehicles, and helped develop the 3D Fusion Camera System. In 2011, Cameron became a National Geographic explorer-in-residence. In this role, on March 7, 2012, he dived five miles deep to the bottom of the New Britain Trench with the Deepsea Challenger. 19 days later, Cameron reached the Challenger Deep, the deepest part of the Mariana Trench. He spent more than three hours exploring the ocean floor, becoming the first to accomplish the trip alone. During his dive to the Challenger Deep, he discovered new species of sea cucumber, squid worm and a giant single-celled amoeba. He was preceded by unmanned dives in 1995 and 2009, as well as by Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, the first men to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste in 1960.\nIn the aftermath of the Titan submersible implosion, Cameron made appearances in multiple news outlets where he criticized OceanGate and its co-founder Stockton Rush for failing to certify the company's submersibles for safety. He was also critical of the use of carbon-fiber composite in the company's Titan submersible, stating that the material has \"no strength in external compression\" when withstanding the pressure in deep-sea environments. On July 15, Cameron stated that he had no plans for an OceanGate documentary.\n\nPersonal life\nCameron has been married five times. He was married to Sharon Williams from 1978 to 1984. A year after he and Williams divorced, Cameron married film producer Gale Anne Hurd, a close collaborator for his 1980s films. They divorced in 1989. Soon after separating from Hurd, Cameron met the director Kathryn Bigelow, whom he wed in 1989; they divorced in 1991. Cameron then began a relationship with Linda Hamilton, the lead actress in The Terminator series. Their daughter was born in 1993. Cameron married Hamilton in 1997. Amid speculation of an affair between Cameron and actress Suzy Amis, Cameron and Hamilton separated after two years of marriage, with Hamilton receiving a settlement of $50 million. He married Amis, his fifth wife, in 2000. They have one son and two daughters together.\nCameron applied for American citizenship in 2004, but withdrew his application after George W. Bush won the presidential election. Cameron resided in the United States, but after filming Avatar in New Zealand, Cameron bought a home and a farm there in 2012. He divided his time between Malibu, California and New Zealand until 2020, after which he sold his Malibu home and decided to live in New Zealand permanently. He said in August 2020: \"I plan to make all my future films in New Zealand, and I see the country having an opportunity to demonstrate to the international film industry how to safely return to work. Doing so with Avatar [sequels] will be a beacon that, when this is over [COVID-19 pandemic], will attract more production to New Zealand and continue to stimulate the screen industry and the economy for years.\"\nCameron is an atheist; he formerly associated himself with agnosticism, a stance he said he had come to see as \"cowardly atheism.\" Since 2011, he is vegan. Cameron met close friend Guillermo del Toro on the production of his 1993 film, Cronos. In 1998, del Toro's father Federico was kidnapped in Guadalajara and Cameron gave del Toro more than $1 million (equivalent to $1,744,000 in 2023) in cash to pay a ransom and have his father released. Cameron had been friends with Titanic expert Paul-Henri Nargeolet for over 25 years before the latter's death.\nCameron had a strong interest in visiting the space stations Mir and International Space Station (ISS). He spent the summer of 2000 in Moscow getting ready for a potential trip to space, and was offered an opportunity to go by NASA. However, the trip did not include a visit to the space station, so he declined the offer as it did not align with his terms. The shuttle flight he turned down was the tragic 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. Cameron attended the memorial service for the victims of the disaster.\nIn June 2013, British artist Roger Dean filed a copyright complaint against Cameron, seeking damages of $50 million (equivalent to $64,500,000 in 2023). Relating to Avatar, Cameron was accused of \"wilful and deliberate copying, dissemination and exploitation\" of Dean's original images; the case was dismissed by US district judge Jesse Furman in 2014. In 2016, Premier Exhibitions, owner of many RMS Titanic artifacts, filed for bankruptcy. Cameron supported the UK's National Maritime Museum and National Museums Northern Ireland decision to bid for the artifacts, but they were acquired by an investment group before a formal bid took place.\n\nFilmmaking style\nThemes\nCameron's films are often based on themes which explore the conflicts between intelligent machines and humanity or nature, dangers of corporate greed, strong female characters, and a romance subplot. Cameron has further stated in an interview with The Talks, \"All my movies are love stories\". Both Titanic and Avatar are noted for featuring star-crossed lovers. Characters suffering from emotionally intense and dramatic environments in the sea wilderness are explored in The Abyss and Titanic. The Terminator series amplifies technology as an enemy which could lead to devastation of mankind. Similarly, Avatar views tribal people as an honest group, whereas a \"technologically advanced imperial culture is fundamentally evil\". A danger for nuclear war, as featured in The Terminator, Terminator 2: Judgement Day and in his forthcoming Last Train From Hiroshima film, has been one of Cameron's fears since he watched the Cuban Missile Crisis unfold when he was eight years old.\n\nMethod\nCameron is regarded as an innovative filmmaker in the industry, with a classical filmmaking style, as well as not easy to work for. Radio Times critic John Ferguson described Cameron as \"the king of hi-tech thrillers\". Dalin Rowell of /Film stated: \"Known for his larger-than-life creations and unique filmmaking style, director James Cameron is in a league all of his own. With his genre-spanning work, lofty ambitions, and unrestrained energy, Cameron has carved out a name for himself in Hollywood as an artist willing to do anything to see his vision come true.\" Rebecca Keegan, author of The Futurist: The Life and Films of James Cameron, describes Cameron as \"comically hands-on\", and would try to do every job on the set. Andrew Gumbel of The Independent says Cameron \"is a nightmare to work with. Studios fear his habit of straying way over schedule and over budget. He is notorious on set for his uncompromising and dictatorial manner, as well as his flaming temper\". Author Alexandra Keller writes that Cameron is an egomaniac, obsessed with vision, but praises his \"technological ingenuity\" at creating a \"visceral viewing experience\".\nAccording to Ed Harris, who starred in Cameron's film The Abyss, Cameron behaved in an autocratic manner. Orson Scott Card, who novelized The Abyss, stated that Cameron \"made everyone around him miserable, and his unkindness did nothing to improve the film in any way. Nor did it motivate people to work faster or better\". Harris later said: \"I like Jim. He's an incredibly talented, intelligent guy\", adding that \"it was always good to see him\" in later years. Speaking of her experience on Titanic, Kate Winslet said that she admired Cameron, but \"there were times I was genuinely frightened of him\". Describing him as having \"a temper like you wouldn't believe\", she had said she would not work with him again unless it was \"for a lot of money\". Despite this, Winslet and Cameron still looked for future projects, and Winslet was eventually cast in Avatar 2. Her co-star Leonardo DiCaprio told Esquire: \"When somebody felt a different way on the set, there was a confrontation. He lets you know exactly how he feels\", but complimented Cameron, \"he's of the lineage of John Ford. He knows what he wants his film to be.\" Sam Worthington, who starred in Avatar, said that if a mobile phone rang during filming, Cameron would \"nail it to the wall with a nail gun\". Composer James Horner was also not immune to Cameron's demands; he recalls having to write music in a short time frame for Aliens. After the experience, Horner did not work with Cameron for a decade. In 1996, they reconciled their friendship and Horner produced the soundtracks for Titanic and Avatar.\nDespite this reputation, Sigourney Weaver has praised Cameron's perfectionism and attention to detail, saying: \"He really does want us to risk our lives and limbs for the shot, but he doesn't mind risking his own\". In 2015, Weaver and Jamie Lee Curtis both applauded Cameron in an interview. Curtis remarked: \"He can do every other job [than acting]. I'm talking about every single department, from art direction to props to wardrobe to cameras, he knows more than everyone doing the job\". Curtis also said Cameron \"loves actors\", while Weaver referred to Cameron as \"so generous to actors\" and a \"genius\". Michael Biehn, a frequent collaborator, also praised Cameron, saying he \"is a really passionate person. He cares more about his movies than other directors care about their movies\", adding, \"I've never seen him yell at anybody\". Biehn acknowledged that Cameron is \"not real sensitive when it comes to actors and their trailers, and waiting for actors to come to the set\". Worthington commented: \"He demands excellence. If you don't give it to him, you're going to get chewed out. And that's a good thing\". When asked in 2012 about his reputation, Cameron dryly responded: \"I don't have to shout any more, because the word is out there already\".\nIn 2021, while giving a MasterClass during a break from his work on the Avatar sequels, Cameron acknowledged his past demanding behaviour, opining that if he could go back in time, he would improve the working relationship with his cast and crew members by being less autocratic, thinking of himself as a \"tinpot dictator\"; Cameron stated that when he visited one of Ron Howard's sets, he was \"dumbfounded\" at how much time Howard took to compliment his crew, aspiring to become \"his inner Ron Howard\".\n\nInfluence\nCameron's work has had an impact in the Hollywood film industry. The Avengers (2012), directed by Joss Whedon, was inspired by Cameron's approach to action sequences. Whedon also admires Cameron's ability for writing heroic female characters such as Ellen Ripley of Aliens, adding that he is \"the leader and the teacher and the Yoda\". Director Michael Bay idolizes Cameron and was convinced by him to use 3D cameras for filming Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011). Cameron's approach to 3D inspired Baz Luhrmann during the production of The Great Gatsby (2013). Other directors that have been inspired by Cameron include Peter Jackson, Neill Blomkamp, and Xavier Dolan.\n\nFilmography\nAwards and recognition\nCameron received the inaugural Ray Bradbury Award from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1992 for Terminator 2: Judgment Day. In recognition of \"a distinguished career as a Canadian filmmaker\", Carleton University awarded Cameron the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts on June 13, 1998. Cameron received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1998, presented by Awards Council member George Lucas. He also received an honorary doctorate in 1998 from Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, for his accomplishments in the international film industry. In 1998, Cameron attended a convocation to receive an honorary degree from Ryerson University, Toronto. The university awards its highest honor to those who have made extraordinary contributions in Canada or internationally. A year later, Cameron received the honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from California State University, Fullerton. He accepted the degree at the university's summer annual commencement exercise.\nCameron's work has been recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences; as one of the few directors to have won three Academy Awards in a single year. For Titanic, he won Best Director, Best Picture (shared with Jon Landau) and Best Film Editing (shared with Conrad Buff and Richard A. Harris). In 2009, he was nominated for awards in Best Film Editing (shared with John Refoua and Stephen E. Rivkin, Best Director and Best Picture for Avatar. Cameron has won two Golden Globes: Best Director for Titanic and Avatar.\nIn recognition of his contributions to underwater filming and remote vehicle technology, University of Southampton awarded Cameron the honorary degree of doctor of the university in July 2004. Cameron accepted the award at the National Oceanography Centre. In 2008, Cameron received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame and a year later, received the 2,396th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. On February 28, 2010, Cameron was honored with a Visual Effects Society (VES) Lifetime Achievement Award. In June 2012, Cameron was inducted to The Science Fiction Hall of Fame at the Museum of Pop Culture for his contribution to the science fiction and fantasy field. Cameron collaborated with Walt Disney Imagineering and served as a creative consultant on Pandora – The World of Avatar, an Avatar-themed land at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida which opened to the public on May 27, 2017. A species of frog, Pristimantis jamescameroni, was named after Cameron for his work in promoting environmental awareness and advocacy of veganism.\nIn 2010, Time magazine named Cameron one of the 100 most influential people in the world. That same year, he was ranked at the top of the list in The Guardian Film Power 100 and in 30th place in New Statesman's list of \"The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010\". In 2013, Cameron received the Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public, which is annually awarded by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In 2019, Cameron was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada by Governor General Julie Payette, giving him the Post Nominal Letters \"CC\" for life.\nIn 2020, Cameron was the subject of the second season of the Epicleff Media dramatic podcast Blockbuster. The audio drama, created and narrated by Emmy Award-winning journalist and filmmaker Matt Schrader, chronicles Cameron's life and career (leading up to the creation and release of Titanic), and stars actor Ross Marquand in the lead voice role as Cameron.\n\nSee also\nHans Hass Award\nJames Cameron's unrealized projects\nList of people who descended to Challenger Deep\nList of vegans\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nMatthew Wilhelm Kapell and Stephen McVeigh, The Films of James Cameron: Critical Essays. McFarland & Company. 2011.\nKeegan, Rebecca Winters (2009), The Futurist: The Life and Films of James Cameron, Crown Publishers, ISBN 978-0-307-46031-8\nSiegel, Alan (December 13, 2022), \"\"It's Going to Be Epic\": The Oral History of James Cameron\", The Ringer, retrieved October 1, 2023\nParisi, Paula (1999), Titanic and the Making of James Cameron: The Inside Story of the Three-Year Adventure That Rewrote Motion Picture History, Newmarket Press, ISBN 1-55704-364-7\n\nExternal links\n\nJames Cameron at IMDb \nJames Cameron at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nJames Cameron collected news and commentary at The Guardian \nJames Cameron collected news and commentary at The New York Times\nJames Cameron at AllMovie \nJames Cameron at TED \nCameron at Library of Congress, with 22 library catalog records",
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"paragraph_text": "Anthony Minghella, (6 January 1954 – 18 March 2008) was a British film director, playwright, and screenwriter. He was chairman of the board of Governors at the British Film Institute between 2003 and 2007. He directed Truly, Madly, Deeply (1990), The English Patient (1996), The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999), and Cold Mountain (2003), and produced Iris (2001).\nHe received the Academy Award for Best Director for The English Patient. In addition, he received three more Academy Award nominations; he was nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay for both The English Patient and The Talented Mr. Ripley, and was posthumously nominated for Best Picture for The Reader (2008), as a producer.\n\nEarly life and education\nMinghella was born in Ryde on the Isle of Wight. His family are well known on the island, where they ran a café in Ryde until the 1980s and have run an eponymous business making and selling Italian-style ice cream since the 1950s. His parents were Edoardo Minghella (an Italian immigrant) and Leeds-born Gloria Alberta (née Arcari). His mother's ancestors originally came from Valvori, a small village in southern Lazio, Italy. He was one of five children, his sisters Gioia Minghella-Giddens, Edana Minghella and Loretta Minghella, and a brother Dominic Minghella who also became a screenwriter and producer.\nMinghella attended St. Mary's Catholic Primary School, Ryde, Sandown Grammar School, and St John's College, Portsmouth. Early interests suggested a possible career as a musician, with Minghella playing keyboards with local bands Earthlight and Dancer. The latter recorded an album titled Tales of the Riverbank in 1972, although it was not released until 2001.\nHe attended the University of Hull, studying drama. As an undergraduate he had arrived at university with an EMI contract for the band, in which he sang and played keyboards; while at university he wrote words and music for an adaptation of Gabriel Josipovici's Mobius the Stripper (1975) .\nMinghella graduated after three years and stayed on to pursue a PhD. He also taught at the university for several years, on Samuel Beckett and on the medieval theatre. Ultimately, he abandoned his pursuit of a PhD to work for the BBC.\n\nCareer\nMinghella's debut work was a stage adaptation of Gabriel Josipovici's Mobius the Stripper (1975) and it was his Whale Music (1985) that brought him notice. His double bill of Samuel Beckett's Play and Happy Days was his directorial debut and debut feature film as a director was A Little Like Drowning (1978). During the 1980s, he worked in television, starting as a runner on Magpie before moving into script editing the children's drama series Grange Hill for the BBC and later writing The StoryTeller series for Jim Henson. He wrote several episodes of the ITV detective drama Inspector Morse and an episode of long-running ITV drama Boon. Made in Bangkok (1986) found mainstream success in the West End.\nRadio success followed with a Giles Cooper Award for the radio drama Cigarettes and Chocolate first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 1988. It was revived on 3 May 2008 as a tribute to its author director following his death. His production starred Juliet Stevenson, Bill Nighy and Jenny Howe. His first radio play Hang Up, starring Anton Lesser and Juliet Stevenson, was revived on 10 May 2008 as part of the BBC Radio 4 Minghella season.\nTruly, Madly, Deeply (1990), a feature drama written and directed for the BBC's Screen Two anthology strand, bypassed TV broadcast and instead had a cinema release. He turned down an offer to direct another Inspector Morse to do the project, even though he believed that the Morse episode would have been a much higher-profile ll assignment. The English Patient (1996) brought him two Academy Awards nominations, Best Director (which he won) and Adapted Screenplay. He also received an Adapted Screenplay nomination for The Talented Mr. Ripley (1999).\nThe No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency, a pilot episode television adaptation which he co-wrote and directed, was broadcast posthumously on BBC One (23 March 2008); watched by 6.3 million viewers. He vocally supported I Know I'm Not Alone, a film of musician Michael Franti's peacemaking excursions into Iraq, Palestine and Israel. He directed a party election broadcast for the Labour Party in 2005. The short film depicted Tony Blair and Gordon Brown working together and was criticised for being insincere: \"The Anthony Minghella party political broadcast last year was full of body language fibs\", said Peter Collett, a psychologist at the University of Oxford. \"When you are talking to me, I'll give you my full attention only if I think you are very high status or if I love you. On that party political broadcast, they are staring at each other like lovers. It is completely false.\"\nWith Samuel Beckett's 100th birthday celebrations, he returned to radio on BBC Radio 3 with Eyes Down Looking (2006), with: Jude Law, Juliet Stevenson and David Threlfall. An operatic directorial debut came with Puccini's Madama Butterfly. Premiered at the English National Opera (London, 2005), then at the Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theatre (Vilnius, March 2006) and at the Metropolitan Opera (New York City, September 2006). The latter was transmitted live into cinemas worldwide (7 March 2009) as part of the Met's HD series and is now available on DVD. The ENO work was to have led to other operatic projects, directing again at English National Opera and collaborating with Osvaldo Golijov on a new opera for the Met and ENO, writing the libretto and directing the production.\nHe was honoured with the naming of The Anthony Minghella Theatre at the Quay Arts Centre (Isle of Wight). He made an appearance in the 2007 film Atonement as a television host interviewing the novelist central to the story.\nHis last work was the screenplay of the film adaptation of the Tony Award-winning musical Nine (1982); Arthur Kopit (book) and Maury Yeston (score). It is based on the film 8½. He shared credit with Michael Tolkin on the screenplay.\nThe department of Film, Theatre & Television at the University of Reading, opened in 2012, was named in his honour.\n\nPersonal life and death\nMinghella met his first wife, Yvonne Miller, when they were students. They had one daughter, Hannah. Minghella and Miller eventually divorced. In 1985 Minghella married Hong Kong–born choreographer and dancer Carolyn Jane Choa. They had one son, Max.\nMinghella's younger brother, Dominic Minghella, is the creator of the television series Robin Hood and Doc Martin. His sister, Loretta Minghella, is Master of Clare College, Cambridge.\nMinghella was a fan of Portsmouth F.C., and appeared in the Channel 4 documentary, Hallowed Be Thy Game. His home had two double bedrooms dedicated to the display of Portsmouth memorabilia dating back to the club's founding in 1898.\nMinghella died of a haemorrhage on 18 March 2008 in Charing Cross Hospital, Hammersmith, following an operation the previous week to remove cancer of the tonsils and neck.\n\nMemorial plaques\nA memorial plaque to Minghella was unveiled on 2 March 2016 by Jude Law, at Western Gardens, Ryde, Isle of Wight.\nHe is commemorated with a green plaque on The Avenues, Kingston upon Hull. The 2009 film Nine is dedicated in his memory.\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nExecutive producer\n\nIris (2001)\nThe Quiet American (2002)\nThe Interpreter (2005)\nMichael Clayton (2007)\nMargaret (2011)\nProducer\n\nCatch a Fire (2006)\nBreaking and Entering (2006)\nThe Reader (2008)\nLove You More (2008)\nActing roles\n\nShort film\nTelevision\nTheatre\nSelected plays\n\nWhale Music (New End Theatre, Hampstead, June 1981); revived for radio, BBC Radio 4, 10 May 2008\nTwo Planks and a Passion (Greenwich Theatre, November 1984)\nA Little Like Drowning (Hampstead Theatre, July 1984)\nMade in Bangkok (West End debut as a playwright, Aldwych Theatre. 18 March 1986, director Michael Blakemore)\nHang Up (radio play for BBC Radio 4,1987)\nCigarettes and Chocolate (60-minute radio play for BBC Radio 4, 1988)\nEyes Down Looking (Beckett 100th Birthday tribute, radio play for BBC Radio 3, 1 April 2006)\n\nAccolades\nSee also\nTheatre Record and its indexes for play production dates and awards.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nAnthony Minghella at IMDb\nMedia Masterclass with Anthony Minghella on Directing Film\nAnthony Minghella: A Life in Pictures, BAFTA webcast, 2 December 2006\n\"About Anthony\", Minghella Film Festival, Isle of Wight\nAn Appreciation of Anthony Minghella by Charlie Rose, 24 March 2008\nAnthony Minghella, my teacher, my friend, by Harvey Weinstein, The Times, 10 April 2008\nAnthony Minghella remembered by Jude Law, The Observer, Sunday 14 December 2008\nMinghella musical discovered, BBC Humberside.\nObituaries:\nBBC, 18 March 2008\nVariety, 18 March 2008\nThe Guardian, 19 March 2008\nThe Times, 19 March 2008\nThe Independent, 19 March 2008\nThe New York Times, 19 March 2008\nLos Angeles Times, 19 March 2008\nThe Washington Post, 19 March 2008\nTributes:\nMinghella Movie Marathon, BBC, updated 25 March 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.\nMinghella Movie Marathon, at British Film Institute. Retrieved 22 July 2009.\nMore stars join Minghella marathon, iwcp.co.uk, 4 March 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.\nAnthony Minghella's family celebrates his memory with film festival, Syma Tariq, The Guardian, 12 March 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2009.",
"title": "Anthony_Minghella"
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"paragraph_text": "Robert Lee Zemeckis (born May 14, 1952) is an American filmmaker. He first came to public attention as the director of the action-adventure romantic comedy Romancing the Stone (1984), the science-fiction comedy Back to the Future trilogy (1985–1990), and the live-action/animated comedy Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988). He subsequently directed the satirical black comedy Death Becomes Her (1992) and then diversified into more dramatic fare, including the Best Picture winning film, Forrest Gump (1994), for which he won the Academy Award for Best Director.\nZemeckis is regarded as an innovator in visual effects. His exploration of state-of-the-art special effects includes the early use of computer graphics inserted into live-action footage\nin Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Forrest Gump, the insertion of hand-drawn animation into live-action footage in Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and the performance capture techniques seen in The Polar Express (2004), Beowulf (2007), A Christmas Carol (2009), and Welcome to Marwen (2018). He is known for his collaboration with composer Alan Silvestri, with whom he has worked since Romancing the Stone. David Thomson, a prominent film critic, wrote that \"no other contemporary director has used special effects to more dramatic and narrative purpose.\"\n\nEarly life\nRobert Lee Zemeckis was born on May 14, 1952, in Chicago, the son of Rosa (née Nespeca) and Alphonse Zemeckis. His father was Lithuanian-American while his mother was Italian-American.\nZemeckis grew up on the South Side of the city. He attended a Catholic grade school and Fenger Academy High School. Zemeckis has said \"the truth was that in my family there was no art. I mean, there was no music, there were no books, there was no theater ... The only thing I had that was inspirational, was television—and it actually was.\"\nAs a child, he loved television and was fascinated by his parents' 8 mm film home movie camera. Starting off by filming family events like birthdays and holidays, he gradually began producing narrative films with his friends that incorporated stop-motion work and other special effects. Along with enjoying movies, Zemeckis remained an avid TV viewer. \"You hear so much about the problems with television,\" he said, \"but I think that it saved my life.\" Television gave Zemeckis his first glimpse of a world outside of his blue-collar upbringing; specifically, he learned of the existence of film schools on an episode of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.\nAfter seeing Bonnie and Clyde with his father, Zemeckis decided that he wanted to go to film school. His parents disapproved of the idea, Zemeckis later said, \"But only in the sense that they were concerned ... for my family and my friends and the world that I grew up in, this was the kind of dream that really was impossible. My parents would sit there and say, 'Don't you see where you come from? You can't be a movie director.' I guess maybe some of it I felt I had to do in spite of them, too.\"\n\nCareer\nEducation and early films (1969–1979)\nZemeckis first attended Northern Illinois University in DeKalb, Illinois, and gained early experience in film as a film cutter for NBC News in Chicago during a summer break. He also edited commercials in his home state. Zemeckis applied to transfer from NIU to the University of Southern California's School of Cinematic Arts in Los Angeles, California, and went into the Film School on the strength of an essay and a music video based on a Beatles song. Not having heard from the university itself, Zemeckis called and was told he had been rejected because of his average grades. He gave an \"impassioned plea\" to the official on the other line, promising to go to summer school and improve his studies, and eventually convinced the school to accept him.\nArriving at USC that fall, Zemeckis encountered a program that was, in his words, made up of \"a bunch of hippies [and] considered an embarrassment by the university\". The classes were difficult, with professors constantly stressing how hard the movie business was. Zemeckis remembered not being much fazed by this, citing the \"healthy cynicism\" that had been bred into him from his Chicago upbringing.\nAt USC Zemeckis met a fellow student, writer Bob Gale. Gale later recalled, \"The graduate students at USC had this veneer of intellectualism ... So Bob and I gravitated toward one another because we wanted to make Hollywood movies. We weren't interested in the French New Wave. We were interested in Clint Eastwood and James Bond and Walt Disney, because that's how we grew up.\" Zemeckis graduated from USC in 1973, and he and Gale cowrote the unproduced screenplays Tank and Bordello of Blood, which they pitched to John Milius, the latter of which was later developed into a film which was released in 1996.\nAs a result of winning a Student Academy Award at USC for his film A Field of Honor, Zemeckis came to the attention of Steven Spielberg. Spielberg said, \"He barged right past my secretary and sat me down and showed me this student film ... and I thought it was spectacular, with police cars and a riot, all dubbed to Elmer Bernstein's score for The Great Escape.\" Spielberg became Zemeckis's mentor and executive produced his first two films, both of which Gale and Zemeckis co-wrote.\nSpielberg produced I Wanna Hold Your Hand (1978, starring Nancy Allen) and Used Cars (1980, starring Kurt Russell); both were critical, but not commercial, successes. I Wanna Hold Your Hand was the first of several Zemeckis films to incorporate historic figures and celebrities into his movies; he used archival footage and doubles to simulate the presence of the Beatles. After the failure of his first two films, and the Spielberg-directed 1941 (1979) (written by Gale and Zemeckis), the pair gained a reputation for writing \"scripts that everyone thought were great [but] somehow didn't translate into movies people wanted to see.\"\n\nBreakthrough and Forrest Gump (1980–1997)\nAs a result of his reputation within the industry, Zemeckis had trouble finding work in the early 1980s, though he and Gale kept busy. They wrote scripts for other directors, including Car Pool for Brian De Palma and Growing Up for Spielberg; neither ended up getting made. Another Zemeckis-Gale project, Back to the Future, about a teenager who accidentally travels back in time to the 1950s, was turned down by every major studio. The director was jobless until Michael Douglas hired him in 1984 to direct Romancing the Stone. A romantic adventure starring Douglas and Kathleen Turner, Stone was expected to flop (to the point that, after viewing a rough cut of the film, the producers of the then-in-the-works Cocoon fired Zemeckis as director), but the film became a sleeper hit. While working on Romancing the Stone, Zemeckis met composer Alan Silvestri, who has scored all his subsequent pictures.\n\nAfter Romancing the Stone, Zemeckis had the clout to direct his time-traveling screenplay. Starring Michael J. Fox, Lea Thompson, Crispin Glover, and Christopher Lloyd, the 1985 film was wildly successful upon its release and was followed by two sequels, released as Back to the Future Part II in 1989 and Back to the Future Part III in 1990. Before the Back to the Future sequels were released, Zemeckis collaborated with Disney and directed another film, the madcap 1940s-set mystery Who Framed Roger Rabbit, which combined traditional animation and live-action; its $70 million budget made it one of the most expensive films made up to that point. The film was both a financial and critical success and won three Academy Awards. In 1990, Zemeckis commented, when asked if he would want to make non-comedies, \"I would like to be able to do everything. Just now, though, I'm too restless to do anything that's not really zany.\"\nIn 1992, Zemeckis directed the black comedy Death Becomes Her, starring Meryl Streep, Goldie Hawn, and Bruce Willis. Although his next film would have some comedic elements, it was Zemeckis's first with dramatic elements and was also his biggest commercial success to date, Forrest Gump. Starring Tom Hanks in the title role, Forrest Gump tells the story of a man with a low I.Q., who unwittingly participates in some of the major events of the twentieth century, falls in love, and interacts with several major historical figures in the process. The film grossed $677 million worldwide and became the top-grossing US film of 1994; it won six Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actor (for Hanks) and Best Director (for Zemeckis). From this point, Hanks and Zemeckis became frequent collaborators. In 1997, Zemeckis directed Contact, a long-gestating project based on Carl Sagan's 1985 novel of the same name. The film centers on Eleanor Arroway (Jodie Foster), who believes she has made contact with extraterrestrials. In the early 1990s, he founded South Side Amusement Company, which later became ImageMovers.\nDuring this same time period, Zemeckis was an executive producer of HBO's Tales from the Crypt (1989–1996) and directed three episodes.\n\nLater work (1999–present)\nIn 1999, Zemeckis donated $5 million towards the Robert Zemeckis Center for Digital Arts at USC, a 35,000-square-foot (3,300 m2) center. When the Center opened in March 2001, Zemeckis spoke in a panel about the future of film, alongside friends Steven Spielberg and George Lucas. Of those (including Spielberg) who clung to celluloid and disparaged the idea of shooting digitally, Zemeckis said, \"These guys are the same ones who have been saying that LPs sound better than CDs. You can argue that until you're blue in the face, but I don't know anyone who's still buying vinyl. The film, as we have traditionally thought of it, is going to be different. But the continuum is man's desire to tell stories around the campfire. The only thing that keeps changing is the campfire.\" The Robert Zemeckis Center currently hosts many film school classes, much of the Interactive Media Division, and Trojan Vision, USC's student television station, which has been voted the number one college television station in the country.\nIn 1996, Zemeckis had begun developing a project titled The Castaway with Tom Hanks and writer William Broyles Jr. The story, inspired by Robinson Crusoe, is about a man who becomes stranded on a tropical island and undergoes a profound physical and spiritual change. While working on The Castaway, Zemeckis also became attached to a Hitchcockian thriller titled What Lies Beneath, the story of a married couple experiencing an extreme case of empty nest syndrome that was based on an idea by Steven Spielberg. Because Hanks's character needed to undergo a dramatic weight loss over the course of The Castaway (retitled Cast Away for release), Zemeckis decided that the only way to retain the same crew while Hanks lost the weight was to shoot What Lies Beneath in between. He shot the first part of Cast Away in early 1999, and shot What Lies Beneath in fall 1999, completing work on the former in early 2000. Zemeckis later quipped, when asked about shooting two films back-to-back, \"I wouldn't recommend it to anyone.\" What Lies Beneath, starring Harrison Ford and Michelle Pfeiffer, was released in July 2000 to mixed reviews, but did well at the box office, grossing over $155 million domestically. Cast Away, starring Hanks and Twister actress Helen Hunt, was released that December and grossed $233 million domestically; Hanks received an Oscar nomination for Best Actor for his portrayal of Chuck Noland.\nIn 2004, Zemeckis reteamed with Hanks for The Polar Express, based on Chris Van Allsburg's children's book of the same name. The Polar Express utilized the computer animation technique known as performance capture, whereby the movements of the actors are captured digitally and used as the basis for the animated characters. As the first major film to use performance capture, The Polar Express caused The New York Times to write that, \"Whatever critics and audiences make of this movie, from a technical perspective it could mark a turning point in the gradual transition from an analog to a digital cinema.\" Zemeckis served as an executive producer for Monster House (2006), a family-friendly horror comedy that used performance capture.\nIn February 2007, Zemeckis and Walt Disney Studios chairman Dick Cook announced plans for a new performance capture film company devoted to CG-created, 3-D movies. The company, ImageMovers Digital, created films using the performance capture technology, with Zemeckis directing most of the projects which Disney distributed and marketed worldwide. Zemeckis used the performance capture technology again in his film, Beowulf, to retell the Anglo-Saxon epic poem of the same name. It featured Ray Winstone, Angelina Jolie, and Anthony Hopkins. Neil Gaiman, who co-wrote the adaptation with Roger Avary, described the film as a \"cheerfully violent and strange take on the Beowulf legend.\" The film was released on November 16, 2007, to mostly positive reviews and grossed $196 million worldwide.\nIn July 2007, Variety announced that Zemeckis had written a screenplay for A Christmas Carol, based on Charles Dickens's 1843 short story of the same name, with plans to use performance capture and release it under the aegis of ImageMovers Digital. Zemeckis wrote the script with Jim Carrey in mind, and Carrey agreed to play a multitude of roles in the film, including Ebenezer Scrooge as a young, middle-aged, and old man, and the three ghosts who haunt Scrooge. The film began production in February 2008 and was released on November 6, 2009, to mixed reviews and grossed $325 million at the box office. Actor Gary Oldman also appeared in the film. Zemeckis is an avid supporter of 3-D Digital Cinema and has stated that since the 3-D presentations of Beowulf, all of his future films would be done in 3-D using digital motion capture. He has reportedly backed away from that statement and said that the decision to use 3-D will be on a film-by-film basis.\n\nOn August 19, 2009, it was reported that Zemeckis and his company were in talks with Apple Corps Ltd to remake the animated film Yellow Submarine utilizing performance capture. However, on March 12, 2010, with Zemeckis's biggest Disney ally, former chairman Dick Cook, gone, and amid drastic cost-cutting by the new management team, Disney announced that it was ending its relationship with ImageMovers Digital. The studio's final film, 2011's Zemeckis-produced Mars Needs Moms, was the second-worst box office failure in history, with a net loss of roughly $130 million. Zemeckis made his return to live-action filmmaking with Flight, a 2012 drama for Paramount, starring Denzel Washington.\n\nOn January 31, 2014, it was announced that a stage musical adaptation of Zemeckis's first Back to the Future film was in production. The show would be co-written by original writers Robert Zemeckis and Bob Gale. According to Gale, the musical would be \"true to the spirit of the film without being a slavish remake\".\nIn August 2008, IGN revealed in an interview with Philippe Petit that Zemeckis was working with Petit to turn Petit's memoir To Reach the Clouds into a feature film. In 2015, he directed The Walk, about Philippe Petit (Joseph Gordon-Levitt) and his ambition to tightrope walk between the towers of the World Trade Center.\nParamount Pictures and New Regency announced in February 2015 that Zemeckis would direct Brad Pitt in Allied, a romantic thriller set during World War II. The film was released on November 23, 2016. Next, Zemeckis directed the fantasy drama Welcome to Marwen, starring Steve Carell, which was released in December 2018 to mixed reviews and flopped at the box office. Zemeckis's film The Witches, an adaptation of the Roald Dahl novel of the same name, premiered on October 22, 2020, on HBO Max, also to mixed reviews.\nOn October 18, 2019, it was announced that Zemeckis is in talks to direct Disney's live-action adaptation of Pinocchio. Zemeckis was officially announced as the film's director and co-writer of the script in January 2020. In addition, Tom Hanks was reportedly announced as playing Mister Geppetto in the film, marking the fourth collaboration with Hanks since Forrest Gump, Cast Away, and The Polar Express. The film was later released, as part of Disney+ Day on Disney+, on September 8, 2022, to highly negative reviews from critics, nominated for six Razzies, including Worst Picture and Worst Director for Zemeckis (\"winning\" Worst Remake), ultimately losing the former to Blonde. Despite this, it also received a Visual Effects Society Award nomination for Outstanding Animated Character in a Photoreal Feature.\nOn February 17, 2022, Zemeckis signed on to direct Here, an adaptation of the graphic novel by Richard McGuire, with Tom Hanks set to star and Forrest Gump screenwriter Eric Roth working on the screenplay with Zemeckis. On May 11, it was announced that Robin Wright had been cast and that Sony Pictures Classics had acquired distribution rights for the United States, with Miramax handling international sales and production expected to begin in September 2022 for a theatrical release in 2024.\n\nPersonal life\nZemeckis has said that, for a long time, he sacrificed his personal life in favor of a career. \"I won an Academy Award when I was 44 years old,\" he explained, \"but I paid for it with my 20s. That decade of my life from film school till 30 was nothing but work, nothing but absolute, driving work. I had no money. I had no life.\" In the early 1980s, Zemeckis married actress Mary Ellen Trainor, with whom he had a son, Alexander Francis. He described the marriage as difficult to balance with filmmaking, and his relationship with Trainor eventually ended in divorce. On December 4, 2001, he married Leslie Harter, an actress, with whom he has three children.\nZemeckis is a private pilot who has logged approximately 1,600 hours of flight time, as of October 2012, flying a Cirrus SR22.\nAccording to campaign donation records, Zemeckis has frequently contributed to political candidates affiliated with the Democratic Party, as well as PACs that support the interests of aircraft owners and pilots, family planning interests, and a group that advocates for Hollywood women.\n\nFilmography\nShort film\n\nFeature film\nTelevision\nAccolades\nMajor awards\n\nOther awards\n\nIn 1996, Zemeckis received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member George Lucas.\nOn November 5, 2004, Zemeckis received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in Motion Picture at 6925 Hollywood Blvd.\nAccolades received by individual films\n\nSee also\nDirectors with two films rated \"A+\" by CinemaScore\nRobert Zemeckis' unproduced projects\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nRobert Zemeckis at IMDb\nRobert Zemeckis at AllMovie\nRobert Zemeckis on Charlie Rose\nRobert Zemeckis collected news and commentary at The New York Times",
"title": "Robert_Zemeckis"
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"paragraph_text": "Robert Jonathan Demme ( DEM-ee; February 22, 1944 – April 26, 2017) was an American filmmaker, whose career directing, producing, and screenwriting spanned more than 30 years and 70 feature films, documentaries, and television productions. He was an Academy Award and a Directors Guild of America Award winner, and received nominations for a BAFTA Award, a Golden Globe Award, and three Independent Spirit Awards.\nBeginning his career under B-movie producer Roger Corman, Demme made his directorial debut with the 1974 women-in-prison film Caged Heat, before becoming known for his casually humanist films such as Melvin and Howard (1980), Swing Shift (1984), Something Wild (1986), and Married to the Mob (1988). His 1991 psychological horror film The Silence of the Lambs, based on the novel of the same title, won five Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Picture.\nHis subsequent films earned similar acclaim, notably the HIV/AIDS-themed drama Philadelphia (1993), the supernatural Southern Gothic Beloved (1998), the conspiracy thriller The Manchurian Candidate (2004), and the independent drama Rachel Getting Married (2008). Demme also directed numerous concert films such as Stop Making Sense (1984), Neil Young: Heart of Gold (2006), and Justin Timberlake + The Tennessee Kids (2016), and worked on several television series as both a producer and director.\n\nEarly life\nDemme was born on February 22, 1944, in Baldwin, New York, the son of Dorothy Louise (née Rogers) and Robert Eugene Demme, a public relations executive. He was raised in Rockville Centre, New York and Miami, where he graduated from Southwest Miami High School before attending the University of Florida.\n\nCareer\nEarly films\nDemme broke into feature film working for exploitation film producer Roger Corman early in his career, co-writing and producing Angels Hard as They Come (1971), a motorcycle movie very loosely based on Rashomon, and The Hot Box (1972). He then moved on to directing three films for Corman's studio New World Pictures: Caged Heat (1974), Crazy Mama (1975), and Fighting Mad (1976). After Fighting Mad, Demme directed the comedy film Handle with Care (originally titled Citizens Band, 1977) for Paramount Pictures. The film was well received by critics, but received little promotion, and performed poorly at the box office. He also directed a 1978 episode of Columbo.\nDemme's next film, Melvin and Howard (1980), did not get a wide release, but received a groundswell of critical acclaim and film award recognition, including Academy Award nominations, winning two of its three nominations (Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress – Mary Steenburgen, and Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay – Bo Goldman). This acclaim led to the signing of Demme to direct the Goldie Hawn and Kurt Russell star vehicle Swing Shift (1984). Intended as a prestige picture for Warner Bros. as well as a major commercial vehicle for Demme, it instead became a troubled production due to the conflicting visions of Demme and star Hawn. Demme ended up renouncing the finished product, and when the film was released in May 1984, it was generally panned by critics and neglected by moviegoers. After Swing Shift, Demme stepped back from Hollywood to make the Talking Heads concert film Stop Making Sense (also 1984) which won the National Society of Film Critics Award for best documentary; the eclectic screwball action-romantic comedy Something Wild (1986); a film-version of the stage production Swimming to Cambodia (1987), by monologist Spalding Gray; and the New York Mafia-by-way-of Downtown comedy Married to the Mob (1988).\nDemme formed his production company, Clinica Estetico, with producers Edward Saxon and Peter Saraf in 1987. They were based out of New York City for fifteen years.\n\nLater films\nDemme won the Academy Award for The Silence of the Lambs (1991)—one of only three films to win all the major categories (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Screenplay, Best Actor, and Best Actress). Inspired by his friend Juan Suárez Botas's illness with AIDS and fueled by his own moral convictions, Demme then used his influence to make Philadelphia (1993), one of the first major films to address the AIDS crisis and which garnered star Tom Hanks his first Best Actor Oscar. He also co-directed (with his nephew Ted) the music video for Bruce Springsteen's Best Song Oscar-winning \"Streets of Philadelphia\" from the film's soundtrack. Jonathan used several of the same actors for both movies.\nSubsequently, his films included an adaptation of Toni Morrison's Beloved (1998), and remakes of two films from the 1960s: The Truth About Charlie (2002), based on Charade, that starred Mark Wahlberg in the Cary Grant role; and The Manchurian Candidate (2004), with Denzel Washington and Meryl Streep. Demme's documentary film Man from Plains (2007), a documentary about former U.S. President Jimmy Carter's promotional tour publicizing his book Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid, had its premiere at the Venice Film Festival and Toronto International Film Festival.\nHis art-house hit Rachel Getting Married (2008) was compared by many critics to Demme's films of the late 1970s and 1980s. It was included in many 2008 \"best of\" lists, and received numerous awards and nominations, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress by lead Anne Hathaway. In 2010, Demme made his first foray into theater, directing Family Week, a play by Beth Henley. The play was produced by MCC Theater and co-starred Rosemarie DeWitt and Kathleen Chalfant.\nAt one time, Demme was signed on to direct, produce, and write an adaptation of Stephen King's sci-fi novel 11/22/63, but later left the project due to disagreements with King on what should be included in the script.\nHe returned to the concert documentary format with Justin Timberlake + the Tennessee Kids (2016), which he described as a \"performance film, but also a portrait of an artist at a certain moment in the arc of his career\", and his last project was a history of rock & roll for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame compiled from footage from Hall of Fame induction ceremonies set to debut in summer 2017.\nDemme directed music videos for artists such as Suburban Lawns, New Order, KRS-One's H.E.A.L. project and Bruce Springsteen. He also produced a compilation of Haitian music called Konbit: Burning Rhythms of Haiti that was released in 1989. (Lou Reed selected Konbit... as one of his 'picks of 1989').\nDemme was on the board of directors at Jacob Burns Film Center in Pleasantville, New York. In addition to his role on the board, he curated and hosted a monthly series called Rarely Seen Cinema.\n\nStyle\nThroughout 1986–2004, Demme was known for his dramatic close-ups in films. This style of close-ups involves the character looking directly into the camera during crucial moments. According to Demme, this was done to put the viewer into the character's shoes. Beginning with Rachel Getting Married (2008), Demme adopted a documentary style of filmmaking. \nHe was known for his use of recurring supporting players, including Charles Napier, Harry Northup, Tracey Walter, Ann Dowd, LisaGay Hamilton, Kimberly Elise, Paul Lazar, Ron Vawter, Dean Stockwell, Obba Babatundé, Ted Levine, Paul Le Mat, Mary Steenburgen, Jason Robards, Scott Glenn, and his former producer Roger Corman, as well as casting musicians and bands in roles. These included Sister Carol, Chris Isaak, Tunde Adebimpe, the Feelies, Charles Aznavour, Steve Scales, the Flirtations, Manno Charlemagne, Bernie Worrell, David Johansen, Beau Sia, Q Lazzarus, and Rick Springfield. In addition to Corman, Demme cast a number of other fellow directors in cameos, including John Sayles, Agnès Varda, George Romero, Sidney Lumet, and John Waters. Many of these performers received opening credits billing in films they appeared in, despite sometimes having only one or two lines.\nWriter/director Paul Thomas Anderson has paid homage to Demme in his films and has cited him as a major influence in his work. In an interview, Anderson jokingly stated that the three filmmakers who inspired him the most are \"Jonathan Demme, Jonathan Demme and Jonathan Demme.\" Other directors such as Alexander Payne and Wes Anderson have been known to be inspired by his close-ups in their own work.\n\nPolitical activism\nDemme was involved in various political projects. In 1981, he directed a series of commercials for the liberal advocacy group People for the American Way. The spots, titled \"Eggs\", \"Music\", and \"Sports\", were produced by Norman Lear and featured Muhammad Ali, Carol Burnett, and Goldie Hawn celebrating Freedom of Expression. In 1985, he directed a video for Artists United Against Apartheid. The short, featured various international musicians including Afrika Bambaataa, Rubén Blades, Jimmy Cliff, Herbie Hancock, Little Steven, Run–D.M.C., and Bruce Springsteen, calling for a boycott of the South African luxury resort Sun City during Apartheid. His documentary Haiti Dreams of Democracy (1988) captured Haiti's era of democratic rebuilding after dictatorship, while his documentary The Agronomist (2008) profiled Haitian journalist and human rights activist Jean Dominique. Demme spent six years on the documentary I'm Carolyn Parker (2011), which highlighted rebuilding efforts in New Orleans Lower Ninth Ward after Hurricane Katrina.\n\nPersonal life\nDemme was married twice. His first marriage to Evelyn Purcell ended in divorce. In 1987, he married artist Joanne Howard, with whom he had three children. He was the uncle of film director Ted Demme, who died in 2002. Demme's cousin was the Rev. Robert Wilkinson Castle Jr., an Episcopal priest who appeared in some of Demme's films.\nDemme was a member of the steering committee of the Friends of the Apollo Theater, Oberlin, Ohio, along with Danny DeVito and Rhea Perlman. In 2013, he returned to Oberlin as part of an alumni reunion during the class of 2013 graduation ceremony and received the award for Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts.\nIn 2009, Demme signed a petition in support of director Roman Polanski, who had been detained while traveling to a film festival in relation to his 1977 sexual abuse charges, which the petition argued would undermine the tradition of film festivals as a place for works to be shown \"freely and safely\", and that arresting filmmakers traveling to neutral countries could open the door \"for actions of which no-one can know the effects.\"\nDemme was an avid collector and devotee of Haitian art, in particular of Hector Hyppolite - so much so that he called it \"an addiction\". In 2014, he held an auction in Philadelphia selling thousands from his collection, much of which was donated to a cultural center in Port-au-Prince.\n\nDeath\nDemme died at his home in Manhattan on April 26, 2017, from complications from esophageal cancer and heart disease; he was 73.\n\n\"I am heart-broken to lose a friend, a mentor, a guy so singular and dynamic you'd have to design a hurricane to contain him. Jonathan was as quirky as his comedies and as deep as his dramas. He was pure energy, the unstoppable cheerleader for anyone creative. Just as passionate about music as he was about art, he was and will always be a champion of the soul. JD, most beloved, something wild, brother of love, director of the lambs. Love that guy. Love him so much.\" \nDirector Brady Corbet dedicated his 2018 film Vox Lux to Demme's memory, as did Luca Guadagnino with his 2018 film Suspiria and Paul Thomas Anderson with his 2017 film Phantom Thread starring Daniel Day Lewis. Demme is thanked in the credits of Spike Lee's 2020 concert film American Utopia starring David Byrne. The album A Beginner's Mind by musicians Sufjan Stevens and Angelo De Augustine is dedicated to Demme, with one of its songs, \"Cimmerian Shade\", mentioning him and referencing The Silence of the Lambs within its lyrics.\n\nFilmography\nAwards and nominations\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nStorefront Demme Archived February 11, 2010, at the Wayback Machine media-party.com\nJonathan Demme Archived March 2, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Special Collections Library, University of Michigan\nJonathan Demme at IMDb\nJonathan Demme at the TCM Movie Database\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
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"paragraph_text": "Kevin Michael Costner (born January 18, 1955) is an American actor, producer, and director. He has received various accolades, including two Academy Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Primetime Emmy Award.\nCostner rose to prominence starring in such films as The Untouchables (1987), Bull Durham (1988), Field of Dreams (1989), JFK (1991), Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), The Bodyguard (1992), and A Perfect World (1993). During this time, he directed and starred in the western epic Dances with Wolves (1990), for which he won two Academy Awards: Best Picture and Best Director. He then starred in and co-produced Wyatt Earp (1994) and Waterworld (1995), and directed The Postman (1997), Open Range (2003) and Horizon: An American Saga (2024).\nCostner's other notable films include Silverado (1985), No Way Out (1987), Tin Cup (1996), Message in a Bottle (1999), For Love of the Game (1999), Thirteen Days (2000), Mr. Brooks (2007), Swing Vote (2008), The Company Men (2010), 3 Days to Kill (2014), Draft Day (2014), Black or White (2014), McFarland, USA (2015), and The Highwaymen (2019). He has also played supporting parts in such films as The Upside of Anger (2005), Man of Steel (2013), Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit (2014), Hidden Figures (2016), Molly's Game (2017), and Let Him Go (2020).\nOn television, Costner portrayed Devil Anse Hatfield in the miniseries Hatfields & McCoys (2012), winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie. From 2018 to 2023, he portrayed rancher John Dutton on the Paramount Network drama series Yellowstone, for which he received a Golden Globe award.\n\nEarly life and education\nCostner was born on January 18, 1955, in Lynwood, California, and grew up in Compton, California. His parents were William and Sharon Costner. He is the youngest of three boys, the second of whom died at birth. Sharon Rae Costner (née Tedrick) was a welfare worker, and William Costner was an electrician and a utilities executive. Costner's father's heritage originates with German immigrants to North Carolina in the 1700s, and Costner also has English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh ancestry. Costner was raised Baptist. He was not academically inclined in school, but did play sports (especially football), take piano lessons, write poetry, and sing in the First Baptist Choir. He has said that watching the 1962 film How the West Was Won as a child inspired his love for Western films.\nCostner has stated that he spent his teenage years in different parts of California as his father's career progressed. He has described this time as a period when he \"lost a lot of confidence\", having to make new friends often. Costner lived in Ventura, then in Visalia. Costner attended Mt. Whitney High School where he was in the marching band. Costner graduated from Villa Park High School in 1973. He played baseball at Villa Park and was teammates with Dennis Burtt. He earned a BA from California State University, Fullerton (CSUF) in 1978. While at CSUF, he became a brother in the Delta Chi fraternity.\nCostner became interested in acting and dancing while in his last year of college. In 1978, while on an airplane returning from his honeymoon in Puerto Vallarta, Costner had a chance encounter with actor Richard Burton. At that time, Costner was uncertain about whether he should become an actor, and he approached Burton to ask his advice. Costner has said that Burton encouraged him to pursue acting. Costner has also stated that he asked Burton whether it was possible to be an actor without experiencing turmoil in one's private life; according to Costner, Burton replied that he thought it was possible. Costner credits Burton with inspiring him to become an actor.\nHaving agreed to undertake a job as a marketing executive, Costner began taking acting lessons five nights a week, with the support of his wife. His marketing job lasted 30 days. He took jobs that allowed him to develop his acting skills, by paying his tuition, including working on fishing boats, as a truck driver, and giving tours of movie stars' Hollywood homes. This work supported the couple while Costner attended auditions.\n\nCareer\n1981–1986: Rise to prominence\nCostner made his film debut in Sizzle Beach, U.S.A. (1981). Filmed in the winter of 1978–79, the film was not released until 1981 and re-released in 1986. The release complications and lack of documentation led many to believe that Costner's debut was in The Touch (also known as Stacy's Knights), in 1983 with Eve Lilith and Andra Millian. Costner played a minor role as \"Frat Boy #1\" in the Ron Howard film Night Shift (1982). He appears at the climax of a frat-style, blow-out party in the New York City morgue, when the music is suddenly stopped by a frantic Henry Winkler. Costner can be seen holding a beer and looking surprised at the sudden halt of celebration.\nCostner appeared in a commercial for the Apple Lisa and Table for Five in 1983, and, the same year, had a small role in the nuclear holocaust film Testament. Later, he was cast in The Big Chill and filmed several scenes that were planned as flashbacks, but they were removed from the final cut. His role was that of Alex, the friend who committed suicide, the event that brings the rest of the cast together. Costner was a friend of director Lawrence Kasdan, who promised the actor a role in a future project. That became Silverado (1985) and a breakout role for Costner. He also starred that year in the smaller films Fandango and American Flyers and appeared alongside Kiefer Sutherland in an hour-long special episode of Steven Spielberg's Amazing Stories.\n\n1987–1994: Stardom and acclaim\nCostner achieved movie star status in 1987, when he starred as federal agent Eliot Ness in The Untouchables and in the leading role of the thriller No Way Out. He solidified his A-list status in the baseball-themed films Bull Durham (1988) and Field of Dreams (1989). In 1990, he partnered with producer Jim Wilson to form the production company Tig Productions. Tig's first film was the epic Dances with Wolves which Costner directed and starred in. This film was nominated for 12 Academy Awards and won seven, including two for him personally (Best Picture and Best Director). The same year saw the release of Revenge, in which he starred along with Anthony Quinn and Madeleine Stowe, directed by Tony Scott; Costner had wanted to direct it himself.\nCostner portrayed Robin Hood in the action-adventure film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) where he also served as a producer. Costner starred alongside Alan Rickman, Morgan Freeman, and Christian Slater. The film received mixed reviews but was an immense box-office success. He then starred as District Attorney Jim Garrison in the Oliver Stone-directed political epic thriller JFK (1991). The film gained significant controversy for its historical inaccuracies but was also praised for its style, direction, and performances. Costner received a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama nomination for his role. Critic Roger Ebert praised his performance writing, \"As Garrison, Costner gives a measured yet passionate performance. Like a man who has hold of an idea he cannot let go, he forges ahead, insisting that there is more to the assassination than meets the eye.\"\nHe then starred opposite Whitney Houston in the romantic drama The Bodyguard (1992) where he also served as a producer. The film was a pop-culture sensation and financial success. The next year he starred as a criminal on the run in Clint Eastwood's drama A Perfect World (1993). Film critic Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote, \"Costner seems about as pathological as a koala bear, and his gentle charisma reinforces the film's touchy-feely theme\". He took the title role in the western biopic Wyatt Earp (1994), directed by Lawrence Kasdan, where he also served as a producer. That same year he starred in the drama film The War. The film also co-starred Elijah Wood. The film seemed to gain little attention.\n\n1995–2011: Career fluctuations\nThe science fiction-post-apocalyptic epics Waterworld (1995) and The Postman (1997), the latter of which Costner also directed, were both commercial disappointments and both largely regarded by critics as artistic failures. However, while Waterworld achieved respectable box office and some positive reviews, results for The Postman were far worse and it ended up winning five Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture, Worst Actor and Worst Director for Costner. Costner starred in the golf comedy Tin Cup (1996) for Ron Shelton, who had previously directed him in Bull Durham. He developed the film Air Force One and was set to play the lead role of the President, but ultimately decided to concentrate on finishing The Postman instead. He personally offered the project to Harrison Ford. In 1999, he starred in Message in a Bottle with Robin Wright, based on the novel of the same name by Nicholas Sparks. The film drew mixed reviews and just about broke even at the box office.\n\nHis career revived somewhat in 2000 with Thirteen Days, in which he portrayed Kenneth O'Donnell, a top adviser to John F. Kennedy. The western Open Range, which he directed and starred in, received critical acclaim in 2003, and was a surprise success commercially. He received some of his best reviews for his supporting role as retired professional baseball player Denny Davies in The Upside of Anger, for which he received a nomination from the Broadcast Film Critics Association and won the San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor. After that, Costner starred in The Guardian and in Mr. Brooks, in which he portrayed a serial killer. In 2008, his Tig Productions company closed and was changed to Tree House Films.\nIn 2008, Costner starred in Swing Vote. He starred opposite Jennifer Aniston in the 2005 movie Rumour Has It. Costner was honored on September 6, 2006, when his hand and foot prints were set in concrete in front of Grauman's Chinese Theatre alongside those of other celebrated actors and entertainers. In 2010, he appeared in The Company Men alongside Ben Affleck, Tommy Lee Jones and Chris Cooper. It debuted at the Sundance Film Festival, and received good reviews. It was released in cinemas worldwide in January 2011. The film was considered to be an Oscar contender, but did not get a nomination.\nCostner announced that he would be returning to the director's chair for the first time in seven years, in 2011, with A Little War of Our Own. He was also about to team up again with director Kevin Reynolds in Learning Italian. No updates have been released about either film since their original production announcement. He also appears, as a special cameo, in Funny or Die's \"Field of Dreams 2: NFL Lockout\". Costner portrayed Jonathan Kent in the rebooted Superman film Man of Steel, directed by Zack Snyder. Costner was going to have a role in Quentin Tarantino's Django Unchained, but had to drop out due to scheduling conflicts.\n\n2012–present: Resurgence and Yellowstone\nCostner portrayed Devil Anse Hatfield in the three-part miniseries Hatfields & McCoys, which premiered on May 28, 2012, on the History Channel. It broke a record by pulling 13.9 million viewers. The miniseries tells the true American story of a legendary family feud – one that spanned decades and nearly launched a war between Kentucky and West Virginia. The role earned Costner the 2012 Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie, the 2013 Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie, and the 2013 Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Limited Series or a Motion Picture Made for Television.\nIn 2014, Costner appeared in the spy movie Jack Ryan: Shadow Recruit, as Thomas Harper, a mentor for the series' title character. The same year, he starred in the thriller 3 Days to Kill and the drama Draft Day and produced and starred in Black or White. Black or White premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival and opened in the United States in 2015. In 2015, Costner played coach Jim White in the drama film McFarland, USA, about cross-country running. In 2016, he played the fictional character Al Harrison, a NASA Space Task Group supervisor, in Hidden Figures, and in 2017, he starred with Jessica Chastain in Aaron Sorkin's directorial debut film Molly's Game. Since 2018, he has starred in and produced the television series Yellowstone, marking the first regular TV series role of his career. In 2019, Costner starred in The Art of Racing in the Rain, where he voiced Enzo the dog. It was his first voice-over film in his career.\nIn August 2022, Costner began production on Horizon: An American Saga, a Western epic that will be split into at least four films, each just under three hours in length. Costner plans on the films being released over a series of months. Costner will act as director of the project and said the film was proposed as an event television series. Production on the first film was expected to last at least 220 days, but was completed by November 2022. Production of the next films was underway by May 2023.\n\nOther ventures\nCountry music\nCostner is the singer in Kevin Costner & Modern West, a country rock band which he founded with the encouragement of his wife Christine. In October 2007, they began a worldwide tour which included shows in Istanbul and Rome. The group also performed at NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races at Daytona International Speedway and Charlotte Motor Speedway in Concord, North Carolina.\nThe band released a country album, Untold Truths, on November 11, 2008, on Universal South Records. The album peaked at No. 61 on the Billboard Top Country Albums and No. 35 on the Top Heatseekers chart. Three singles (\"Superman 14\", \"Long Hot Night\" and \"Backyard\") have been released to radio, although none have charted. For the single \"Superman 14\" a live music video was made.\nIn 2009, they went on tour with opening act The Alternate Routes. In August, at the Big Valley Jamboree in Camrose, Alberta, Costner and the band were scheduled next on stage when a severe thunderstorm struck, causing the stage and stands on the main stage to collapse. One person was reported dead and forty injured. Later, an auction was held to raise money for the two young sons of the woman killed. A dinner with Costner was auctioned off for $41,000. Two guitars, one autographed by Costner, helped raise another $10,000 each.\nA second Kevin Costner and Modern West album, Turn It On, was released in February 2010 in Europe and was supported by a European tour. In July 2012, the band performed in Halifax, Nova Scotia, at the 20th annual Telus World Skins Game in support of the IWK Health Centre Foundation, donating a guitar autographed by Costner.\nKevin Costner has also appeared in the documentary film Country Roads by Marieke Schröder.\nThe most recent album released by Kevin Costner and Modern West, Tales from Yellowstone, was written by Costner and his co-writers from the perspective of John Dutton, Costner's character on the hit TV series Yellowstone. Songs from the album were featured on Season 3 of the show.\n\nBaseball\nSeveral of Costner's films have included a baseball theme: Chasing Dreams, Bull Durham, Field of Dreams, For Love of the Game, and The Upside of Anger, in three of which his character is a pro baseball player and one a former pro baseball player.\nCostner has a home in Austin, Texas, and sometimes appears at Texas Longhorns baseball practices and games. He was a close friend of former Longhorns baseball coach Augie Garrido from Garrido's days coaching at Cal State Fullerton, Costner's alma mater. He cast Garrido to play the role of the Yankee manager in For Love of the Game. He tries to attend every College World Series game that the CSUF Titans team plays in Omaha, Nebraska. Costner walked on for a tryout, but did not make the team early in his time at the university.\nCostner was a partial owner of the Zion, Illinois-based Lake County Fielders independent baseball team in the North American League. The Fielders name was an homage to Field of Dreams, with the logo showing a ballplayer standing amid a field of corn. On August 12, 2021, he led the New York Yankees and Chicago White Sox onto the field prior to the MLB at Field of Dreams game held in Dyersville, Iowa and gave a short speech.\n\nBusiness interests\nIn 1995, Costner bought a company that was developing oil separation machines based on a patent he purchased from the US government. The machines developed by the company were of little commercial interest until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, when BP took six of the machines from a company in which Costner owned an interest, Ocean Therapy Solutions, for testing in late May 2010. On June 16, 2010, BP entered into a lease with Ocean Therapy Solutions for 32 of the oil-water separation devices. Although Spyron Contoguris and Stephen Baldwin had previously sold their interests in Ocean Therapy Solutions in mid-June to another investor in the company, they filed a lawsuit in Louisiana District Court claiming $10.64 million for securities fraud and misrepresentation. The suit claimed that Costner kept a meeting with BP secret from them, and the secret meeting resulted in an $18-million down payment on a $52 million purchase, and that after the down payment, but before any announcement, another investor used part of the down payment to buy out their shares, thus excluding them from their share of the profits from the total sale. The suit claimed that, despite public statements by Costner, Ocean Therapy Solutions, BP and others to the contrary, Baldwin and Contogouris were told that BP was still testing the machines and had not yet committed to lease the machines from Ocean Therapy Solutions and that the other investor in Ocean Therapy Solutions purchased their shares for $1.4 million to Baldwin and $500,000, to Contogouris. In June 2012, a federal jury in Louisiana deliberated for less than two hours before rejecting Baldwin's and Contogouris' claims in the multimillion-dollar oil-clean-up case, and the court ordered Baldwin and Contogouris to reimburse Costner and the other defendants in the case for their costs.\nOn June 6, 2004, Costner opened Tatanka: The Story of the Bison one mile south of Deadwood, South Dakota, on U.S. Route 85, saying he hoped it would be an educational and emotional place for people to learn about America's westward expansion. Promoters stated in a news release that the $5-million attraction had a new, 3,800-square-foot interactive center featuring exhibits, retail, and food and beverage areas, as well as offices and a small theater. The visitor center features graphics and text about the bison and the relationship of the Plains Indians to the animals - historically hunting and now raising them for food and clothing, among other things. The centerpiece is a bronze sculpture depicting a buffalo jump by Hill City artist Peggy Detmers, depicting 14 bronze bison in the act of running from their pursuers and three bronze Lakota riders on horseback. Three of the massive bison are posed in midair, cascading over the face of a cliff. Costner commissioned the work in 1994 from Detmers. The five-fourths-scale bronzes, each weighing between 2,500 and 8,000 pounds, were cast at Eagle Bronze Foundry in Lander, Wyoming.\nCostner opened the Midnight Star Casino and Restaurant in Deadwood, S.D., in 1991. He hired Francis and Carla Caneva to manage the establishment and gave each of them a 3.25 percent ownership and paid them salaries and bonuses. He terminated their employment in July 2004 and asked to agree to an amicable disassociation. When they declined, Costner dissolved the partnership and hired an accountant who determined its fair market value to be $3.1 million. The Canevas sued Costner to buy their shares based on twice that amount or sell the company on the open market. They won in the lower court but, on Costner's appeal, lost in the South Dakota Supreme Court. Costner closed the establishment in 2017 and sold it in 2020.\nIn 2020, Costner joined Woody Sears's new audio entertainment travel app, HearHere, as a co-founder, podcast narrator, and investor. Costner narrates some of the audio stories provided by the iPhone subscription app for travelers on road trips across the United States who want to hear about the people, places, and histories they are encountering on their travels.\n\nPhilanthropy\nCostner serves on an honorary board for the National World War I Museum in Kansas City, Missouri. In spring 2011, he recorded two radio spots for the museum that were aired on Kansas City Royals Radio Network.\n\nNASCAR\nCostner was named ceremonial Grand Marshal of the NASCAR Cup Series' Auto Club 500 which took place on February 25, 2007, at the California Speedway. In 2008, he worked with the NASCAR Media Group and CMT Films to help produce the NASCAR Documentary The Ride of Their Lives which was released in December of that year. Costner would be the narrator for that documentary. Also in 2009, he was named the spokesman for NASCAR Day which took place on May 15. The next day, May 16, he and his country music band would perform in the infield of Charlotte Motor Speedway as well as participate as a judge in the 2nd annual Victory Challenge before the 25th Running of the NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race.\n\nWriting\nIn 2015, Costner co-authored The Explorer's Guild: A Passage to Shambhala, a hybrid adventure novel and graphic novel, with John Baird, researcher Stephen C. Meyer, and illustrator Rick Ross.\nCostner has a chapter giving advice in Tim Ferriss' book Tools of Titans.\n\nPersonal life\nRelationships\nIn 1975, while in college, Costner started dating fellow student Cindy Silva, and they married three years later. During their marriage, they had two daughters born in 1984 and 1986, and a son born in 1988. The couple divorced in 1994 after 16 years of marriage, due to Costner allegedly having an affair while on the set of Waterworld. Cindy Silva received a settlement of US$80 million (equivalent to $149 million in 2023). Following his divorce, he had a brief relationship with Bridget Rooney, future wife of billionaire Bill Koch; Costner and Rooney had a son together, born in 1996. He then dated political activist Birgit Cunningham. In 1996, he lived with supermodel Elle Macpherson. On September 25, 2004, Costner married his girlfriend of four years, model and handbag designer Christine Baumgartner, at his ranch in Aspen, Colorado. They have two sons, born in 2007 and 2009, and a daughter born in 2010. In May 2023, Baumgartner filed for divorce. They finalized their divorce on February 20, 2024.\n\nPolitical activism\nEarly in his life, Costner was a Republican. He was both a supporter and friend of Ronald Reagan, frequently playing golf with the former president. He eventually switched his affiliation in the early 1990s. Since 1992, Costner has financially supported a variety of Democratic politicians, including Al Gore and Tom Daschle, but also made contributions to Republican Phil Gramm as late as 1995.\nIn 2008, he said publicly that he had no ambition to run for political office, adding \"I've lived quite a colorful life\". In the final days before that year's United States presidential election, Costner campaigned for Barack Obama, visiting various places in Colorado, where he has a home. In his speech, Costner stated the need for young voters to get to the polls, early and with enthusiasm. \"We were going to change the world and we haven't\", Costner said at a Colorado State University rally. \"My generation didn't get it done, and we need you to help us\".\nIn October 2014, Costner sent a tribute to British troops serving around the world, thanking them for their work.\nOn December 22, 2019, Costner endorsed Democratic presidential candidate Pete Buttigieg at a rally in Indianola, Iowa. Later, Costner supported Democratic candidate Joe Biden. Costner narrated a commercial for J. D. Scholten, a Democrat running for the U.S. House of Representatives from Iowa's 4th congressional district. For the 2022 United States House of Representatives election in Wyoming, Costner endorsed Republican Liz Cheney for reelection.\n\nActing credits and accolades\nOver Costner's career he has received numerous accolades including two Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Director Dances with Wolves (1990). He received three Golden Globe Awards for Dances with Wolves, Hatfields & McCoys (2012) and Yellowstone (2023). He also received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.\n\nBibliography\nCostner, Kevin; Michael Blake; Jim Wilson (producer's notes); Diana Landau (1991). Dances with Wolves: The Illustrated Screenplay and Story Behind the Film. Newmarket Pictorial Moviebooks. Photographer: Ben Glass. New York: Newmarket Press. ISBN 9781557040886. OCLC 22450423.\nCostner, Kevin; Jonathan Baird; Stephen Meyer (2015). The Explorers Guild: Volume One: A Passage to Shambhala. Illustrator: Rick Ross. New York: Atria Books. ISBN 9781476727394. OCLC 926879500.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nKevin Costner at IMDb\nKevin Costner at AllMovie\nKevin Costner at the TCM Movie Database \nKevin Costner in the Hollywood Walk of Fame Directory\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nKevin Costner interview on KVUE in 1987 about The Untouchables from Texas Archive of the Moving Image",
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"paragraph_text": "Clinton Eastwood Jr. (born May 31, 1930) is an American actor and film director. After achieving success in the Western TV series Rawhide, Eastwood rose to international fame with his role as the \"Man with No Name\" in Sergio Leone's Dollars Trilogy of spaghetti Westerns during the mid-1960s and as antihero cop Harry Callahan in the five Dirty Harry films throughout the 1970s and 1980s. These roles, among others, have made Eastwood an enduring cultural icon of masculinity. Elected in 1986, Eastwood served for two years as the mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California.\nEastwood's greatest commercial successes are the adventure comedy Every Which Way but Loose (1978) and its action comedy sequel Any Which Way You Can (1980). Other popular Eastwood films include the Westerns Hang 'Em High (1968), The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976) and Pale Rider (1985), the action-war film Where Eagles Dare (1968), the prison film Escape from Alcatraz (1979), the war film Heartbreak Ridge (1986), the action film In the Line of Fire (1993), and the romantic drama The Bridges of Madison County (1995). More recent works include Gran Torino (2008), The Mule (2018), and Cry Macho (2021). Since 1967, Eastwood's company Malpaso Productions has produced all but four of his American films.\nAn Academy Award nominee for Best Actor, Eastwood won Best Director and Best Picture for his Western film Unforgiven (1992) and his sports drama Million Dollar Baby (2004). In addition to directing many of his own star vehicles, Eastwood has directed films in which he did not appear, such as the mystery drama Mystic River (2003) and the war film Letters from Iwo Jima (2006), for which he received Academy Award nominations. He also directed the biographical films Changeling (2008), Invictus (2009), American Sniper (2014), Sully (2016), and Richard Jewell (2019).\nEastwood's accolades include four Academy Awards, four Golden Globe Awards, three César Awards, and an AFI Life Achievement Award. In 2000, he received the Italian Venice Film Festival's Golden Lion award, honoring his lifetime achievements. Bestowed two of France's highest civilian honors, he received the Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 1994, and the Legion of Honour in 2007.\n\nEarly life\nEastwood was born on May 31, 1930, at Saint Francis Memorial Hospital in San Francisco, to Ruth (née Margret Runner; 1909–2006) and Clinton Eastwood (1906–1970). During her son's fame, Ruth was known by the surname of her second husband, John Belden Wood (1913–2004), whom she married after the death of Clinton Sr. Eastwood was nicknamed \"Samson\" by hospital nurses because he weighed 11 pounds 6 ounces (5.2 kg) at birth. He has a younger sister, Jeanne Bernhardt (b. 1934). He is of English, Irish, Scottish, and Dutch ancestry. Eastwood is descended from Mayflower passenger William Bradford, and through this line is the 12th generation born in North America. His family relocated three times during the 1930s as his father changed occupations. Contrary to what Eastwood has indicated in media interviews, they did not move between 1940 and 1949. Settling in Piedmont, California, the Eastwoods lived in an affluent area of the town, had a swimming pool, belonged to a country club, and each parent drove their own car. Eastwood's father was a manufacturing executive at Georgia-Pacific for most of his working life. As Clint and Jeanne grew older, Ruth took a clerical job at IBM.\nEastwood attended Piedmont Middle School, where he was held back due to poor academic scores, and records indicated he also had to attend summer school. From January 1945 until at least January 1946, he attended Piedmont High School, but was asked to leave for writing an obscene suggestion to a school official on the athletic field scoreboard and burning an effigy on the school lawn, on top of other school infractions. He transferred to Oakland Technical High School and was scheduled to graduate mid-year in January 1949, although it is not clear if he did. \"Clint graduated from the airplane shop. I think that was his major\", joked classmate Don Kincade. Another high school friend, Don Loomis, echoed \"I don't think he was spending that much time at school because he was having a pretty good time elsewhere.\" Fritz Manes, a boyhood friend two years younger than Eastwood, said \"I think what happened is he just went off and started having a good time. I just don't think he finished high school.\" Biographer Patrick McGilligan notes that high school graduation records are a matter of strict legal confidentiality. According to the author, Eastwood's school principal had to call his management first before deciding whether to be interviewed, and \"whoever answered the phone at Malpaso advised him against talking to me, and he didn't\".\nEastwood held a number of odd jobs, including lifeguard, paper carrier, grocery clerk, forest firefighter, and golf caddy. Eastwood said that he tried to enroll at Seattle University in 1951, but instead was drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War. \"He always dropped the Korean War reference, hoping everyone would conclude that he was in combat and might be some sort of hero. Actually, he'd been a lifeguard at Fort Ord in northern California for his entire stint in the military\", said Eastwood's former longtime companion Sondra Locke. Don Loomis recalled hearing that Eastwood was romancing one of the daughters of a Fort Ord officer, who might have been entreated to watch out for him when names came up for postings. While returning from a prearranged tryst in Seattle, he was a passenger on a Douglas AD bomber that ran out of fuel and crashed into the ocean near Point Reyes. Using a life raft, he and the pilot swam 2 miles (3.2 km) to safety. Eastwood was discharged in February 1953.\n\nCareer\n1954–1962: acting debut and Rawhide\nAccording to a CBS press release for Rawhide, Universal-International's camera crew was shooting in Fort Ord when an enterprising assistant spotted Eastwood and invited him to meet the director, although this is disputed by Eastwood's unauthorized biographer, Patrick McGilligan. According to Eastwood's official biography, the key figure was a man named Chuck Hill, who was stationed in Fort Ord and had contacts in Hollywood. While in Los Angeles, Hill became reacquainted with Eastwood and managed to sneak him into a Universal studio, where he introduced him to cameraman Irving Glassberg. Glassberg arranged for an audition under Arthur Lubin, who, although very impressed with Eastwood's appearance and stature (then 6 ft 4 in [193 cm]), disapproved of his acting, remarking, \"He was quite amateurish. He didn't know which way to turn or which way to go or do anything.\" Lubin suggested that he attend drama classes and arranged for Eastwood's initial contract in April 1954, at $100 per week. After signing, Eastwood was initially criticized for his stiff manner and delivering his lines through his teeth, a lifelong trademark.\nIn May 1954, Eastwood made his first real audition for Six Bridges to Cross, but was rejected by Joseph Pevney. After many unsuccessful auditions, he was eventually given a minor role by director Jack Arnold in Revenge of the Creature (1955), a sequel to the recently released Creature from the Black Lagoon. In September 1954, Eastwood worked for three weeks on Arthur Lubin's Lady Godiva of Coventry, won a role in February 1955, playing \"Jonesy\", a sailor in Francis in the Navy and appeared uncredited in another Jack Arnold film, Tarantula, where he played a squadron pilot. In May 1955, Eastwood put four hours' work into the film Never Say Goodbye and had a minor uncredited role as a ranch hand (his first western film) in August 1955 with Law Man, also known as Star in the Dust, starring John Agar and Mamie Van Doren. Universal presented him with his first television role on July 2, 1955, on NBC's Allen in Movieland, which starred comedian Steve Allen, actor Tony Curtis, and swing musician Benny Goodman. Although he continued to develop as an actor, Universal terminated his contract on October 23, 1955.\nEastwood joined the Marsh Agency, and although Lubin landed him his biggest role to date in The First Traveling Saleslady (1956) and later hired him for Escapade in Japan (1957), without a formal contract, Eastwood was struggling. On his financial advisor Irving Leonard's advice, he switched to the Kumin-Olenick Agency in 1956 and Mitchell Gertz in 1957. He landed several small roles in 1956 as a temperamental army officer for a segment of ABC's Reader's Digest series, and as a motorcycle gang member on a Highway Patrol episode. In 1957, Eastwood played a cadet in West Point series and a suicidal gold prospector on Death Valley Days.\nIn 1958, he played a Navy lieutenant in a segment of Navy Log and in early 1959 made a notable guest appearance as Red Hardigan on Maverick opposite James Garner as a cowardly villain intent on marrying a rich girl for money. Eastwood had a small part as an aviator in Lafayette Escadrille (1958) and played a major role as an ex-renegade of the Confederacy in Ambush at Cimarron Pass (also 1958): a film that Eastwood considers the low point of his career.\n\nIn 1958, Eastwood was cast as Rowdy Yates in the CBS hour-long western series Rawhide, the career breakthrough he had long sought. Eastwood was not especially happy with his character; Eastwood was almost 30, and Rowdy was too young and cloddish for his comfort. Filming began in Arizona in the summer of 1958. It took just three weeks for Rawhide to reach the top 20 in TV ratings and, although it never won an Emmy, it was a major success for several years, and peaked at number six in the ratings from October 1960 to April 1961. The Rawhide years (1959–65) were some of the most grueling of Eastwood's career, often filming six days a week for an average of 12 hours a day, but some directors still criticized him for not working hard enough. By late 1963, Rawhide was beginning to decline in the ratings and lacked freshness in the scripts; it was canceled in the middle of the 1965–66 season. Eastwood made his first attempt at directing when he filmed several trailers for the show, but was unable to convince producers to let him direct an episode. In the show's first season, Eastwood earned $750 an episode. At the time of Rawhide's cancellation, he received $119,000 an episode as severance pay.\n\n1963–1969: spaghetti Westerns and stardom\nIn late 1963, Eastwood's Rawhide co-star Eric Fleming rejected an offer to star in an Italian-made western called A Fistful of Dollars (1964), filmed in a remote region of Spain by a then relatively unknown director, Sergio Leone. Richard Harrison suggested Eastwood to Leone because Harrison knew that Eastwood could play a cowboy convincingly. Eastwood thought the film would be an opportunity to escape from his Rawhide image. He signed a contract for $15,000 in wages for eleven weeks' work, with a bonus of a Mercedes-Benz automobile upon completion. Eastwood later said of the transition from a TV western to A Fistful of Dollars: \"In Rawhide I did get awfully tired of playing the conventional white hat. The hero who kisses old ladies and dogs and was kind to everybody. I decided it was time to be an antihero.\" Eastwood was instrumental in creating the Man with No Name character's distinctive visual style and, although a non-smoker, Leone insisted Eastwood smoke cigars as an essential ingredient of the \"mask\" he was attempting to create for the character.\nA Fistful of Dollars proved a landmark in the development of spaghetti Westerns, with Leone depicting a more lawless and desolate world than traditional westerns, and challenging American stereotypes of a western hero with a morally ambiguous antihero. The film's success made Eastwood a major star in Italy and he was rehired to star in For a Few Dollars More (1965), the second of the trilogy. Through the efforts of screenwriter Luciano Vincenzoni, the rights to For a Few Dollars More and the trilogy's final film, The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966), were sold to United Artists for about $900,000.\nIn January 1966, Eastwood met producer Dino De Laurentiis in New York City and agreed to star in a non-Western five-part anthology production, The Witches (Le Streghe, 1967), opposite De Laurentiis's wife, Silvana Mangano. Eastwood's 19-minute installment took only a few days to shoot, but his performance did not please critics; one wrote, \"no other performance of his is quite so 'un-Clintlike'\".\nTwo months later Eastwood began work on The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, again playing the mysterious Man with No Name. Lee Van Cleef returned as a ruthless fortune seeker, with Eli Wallach portraying the Mexican bandit Tuco Ramirez. The storyline involved the search for a cache of Confederate gold buried in a cemetery. During the filming of a scene in which a bridge was blown up, Eastwood urged Wallach to retreat to a hilltop. \"I know about these things\", he said. \"Stay as far away from special effects and explosives as you can.\" Minutes later, confusion among the crew over the word \"Vaya!\" resulted in a premature explosion that could have killed Wallach.\n\nI wanted to play it with an economy of words and create this whole feeling through attitude and movement. It was just the kind of character I had envisioned for a long time, keep to the mystery and allude to what happened in the past. It came about after the frustration of doing Rawhide for so long. I felt the less he said, the stronger he became and the more he grew in the imagination of the audience.\n\nThe Dollars trilogy was not released in the United States until 1967, when A Fistful of Dollars opened on January 18, followed by For a Few Dollars More on May 10, and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly on December 29. All three were commercially successful, particularly The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, which eventually earned $8 million in rental earnings and turned Eastwood into a major film star being ranked for the first time on Quigley's Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll in 1968 in fifth place. All three received poor reviews, and marked the beginning of a battle for Eastwood to win American film critics' respect. Judith Crist described A Fistful of Dollars as \"cheapjack\", while Newsweek called For a Few Dollars More \"excruciatingly dopey\". Renata Adler of The New York Times said The Good, the Bad and the Ugly was \"the most expensive, pious and repellent movie in the history of its peculiar genre\". Time magazine drew attention to the film's wooden acting, especially Eastwood's, though a few critics such as Vincent Canby and Bosley Crowther of The New York Times praised his coolness. Leone's cinematography was widely acclaimed, even by critics who disparaged the acting.\nStardom brought Eastwood more roles. He signed to star in the American revisionist western Hang 'Em High (1968) alongside Inger Stevens, Pat Hingle, Ed Begley, playing a man who takes up a marshal's badge and seeks revenge as a lawman after being lynched by vigilantes and left for dead. The film earned Eastwood $400,000 and 25% of its net box office. Using money earned from the Dollars trilogy, Eastwood's advisor Irving Leonard helped establish Eastwood's own production company, Malpaso Productions, named after Malpaso Creek on Eastwood's property in Monterey County, California. The 38-year-old actor was still relatively unknown as late as a month prior to the film's release, as evidenced by a July 1968 news item by syndicated columnist Dorothy Manners: \"The proverbial man in the street is still asking, 'Who's Clint Eastwood?'\" Leonard arranged for Hang 'Em High to be a joint production with United Artists; when it opened in August, it had the largest opening weekend in United Artists' history. Hang 'Em High was widely praised by critics, including Archer Winsten of the New York Post, who called it \"a western of quality, courage, danger and excitement\".\nBefore Hang 'Em High's release, Eastwood had already begun working on Coogan's Bluff (1968), about an Arizona deputy sheriff tracking a wanted psychopathic criminal (Don Stroud) through New York City. He was reunited with Universal Studios for it after receiving an offer of $1 million – more than double his previous salary. Jennings Lang arranged for Eastwood to meet Don Siegel, a Universal contract director who later became Eastwood's close friend, forming a partnership that would last more than ten years and produce five films. Shooting began in November 1967, before the script had been finalized. The film was controversial for its portrayal of violence. Coogan's Bluff also became the first collaboration with Argentine composer Lalo Schifrin, who scored several Eastwood films in the 1970s and 1980s, including the Dirty Harry films.\nEastwood was paid $750,000 for the war epic Where Eagles Dare (1968), about a World War II squad parachuting into a Gestapo stronghold in the Alps. Richard Burton played the squad's commander, with Eastwood as his right-hand man. Eastwood was also cast as Two-Face in the Batman television show, but the series was canceled before filming began.\nEastwood then branched out to star in the only musical of his career, Paint Your Wagon (1969). Eastwood and Lee Marvin play gold miners who buy a Mormon settler's less favored wife (Jean Seberg) at an auction. Bad weather and delays plagued the production, and the film's budget eventually exceeded $20 million, which was high for the time. The film was not a critical or commercial success, but was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy.\n\n1970–1989: directorial debut and Dirty Harry\nEastwood starred with Shirley MacLaine in the western Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970), directed by Don Siegel. The film follows an American mercenary, who becomes mixed up with a prostitute disguised as a nun, and ends up helping a group of Juarista rebels during the reign of Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico. Eastwood again played a mysterious stranger – unshaven, wearing a serape-like vest, and smoking a cigar. Although it received moderate reviews, the film is listed in The New York Times Guide to the Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made. Around the same time, Eastwood starred as one of a group of Americans who steals a fortune in gold from the Nazis, in the World War II film Kelly's Heroes (also 1970), with Donald Sutherland and Telly Savalas. Kelly's Heroes was the last film Eastwood appeared in that was not produced by his own Malpaso Productions. Shot on location in Yugoslavia and London, the film received mostly a positive reception and its anti-war sentiments were recognized. Siegel directed Eastwood's next film, The Beguiled (1971), a tale of a wounded Union soldier, held captive by the sexually repressed matron (played by Geraldine Page) of a Southern girls' school. Upon release the film received major recognition in France and is considered one of Eastwood's finest works by French critics. However, it grossed less than $1 million and, according to Eastwood and Lang, flopped due to poor publicity and the \"emasculated\" role of Eastwood.\n\nEastwood's career reached a turning point in 1971. Before Irving Leonard died, he and Eastwood had discussed the idea of Malpaso producing Play Misty for Me, a film that was to give Eastwood the artistic control he desired, and his debut as a director. The script was about a jazz disc jockey named Dave (Eastwood), who has a casual affair with Evelyn (Jessica Walter), a listener who had been calling the radio station repeatedly at night, asking him to play her favorite song – Erroll Garner's \"Misty\". When Dave ends their relationship, the unhinged Evelyn becomes a murderous stalker. Filming commenced in Monterey in September 1970 and included footage of that year's Monterey Jazz Festival. The film was highly acclaimed with critics, such as Jay Cocks in Time magazine, Andrew Sarris in the Village Voice, and Archer Winsten in the New York Post all praising the film, as well as Eastwood's directorial skills and performance. Walter was nominated for a Golden Globe Best Actress Award (Drama), for her performance in the film.\n\nI know what you're thinking – \"Did he fire six shots or only five?\" Well, to tell you the truth, in all this excitement, I've kinda lost track myself. But, being as this is a .44 Magnum, the most powerful handgun in the world and would blow your head clean off, you've got to ask yourself one question: \"Do I feel lucky?\" Well, do you, punk?\nDirty Harry (1971), written by Harry and Rita Fink, centers on a hard-edged New York City (later changed to San Francisco) police inspector named Harry Callahan who is determined to stop a psychotic killer by any means. Dirty Harry has been described as being arguably Eastwood's most memorable character, and the film has been credited with inventing the \"loose-cannon cop\" genre. Author Eric Lichtenfeld argues that Eastwood's role as Dirty Harry established the \"first true archetype\" of the action film genre. His lines (quoted above) are regarded by firearms historians, such as Garry James and Richard Venola, as the force that catapulted the ownership of .44 Magnum revolvers to new heights in the United States; specifically the Smith & Wesson Model 29 carried by Harry Callahan. Dirty Harry, released in December 1971, earned $22 million in the United States and Canada. It was Siegel's highest-grossing film and the start of a series of films featuring the character Harry Callahan. Although a number of critics praised Eastwood's performance as Dirty Harry, such as Jay Cocks who described him as \"giving his best performance so far, tense, tough, full of implicit identification with his character\", the film was also widely criticized as being fascistic. After having been second for the past two years, Eastwood was voted first in Quigley's Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll in 1972 and again in 1973.\nFollowing Sean Connery's announcement that he would not play James Bond again, Eastwood was offered the role but turned it down, saying, \"that was someone else's gig. That's Sean's deal. It didn't feel right for me to be doing it.\" He next starred in the loner Western Joe Kidd (1972), based on a character inspired by Reies Lopez Tijerina, who stormed a courthouse in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico, in June 1967. During filming, Eastwood suffered symptoms of a bronchial infection and several panic attacks. Joe Kidd received a mixed reception, with Roger Greenspun of The New York Times writing that it was unremarkable, with foolish symbolism and sloppy editing, although he praised Eastwood's performance.\nEastwood's first western as director was High Plains Drifter (1973), in which he also starred. The film had a moral and supernatural theme, later emulated in Pale Rider. The plot follows a mysterious stranger (Eastwood) who arrives in a brooding Western town where the people hire him to protect them against three soon-to-be-released felons. There remains confusion during the film as to whether the stranger is the brother of the deputy, whom the felons lynched and murdered, or his ghost. Holes in the plot were filled with black humor and allegory, influenced by Leone. The revisionist film received a mixed reception, but was a major box-office success. A number of critics thought Eastwood's directing was \"as derivative as it was expressive\", with Arthur Knight of the Saturday Review remarking that Eastwood had \"absorbed the approaches of Siegel and Leone and fused them with his own paranoid vision of society\". John Wayne, who had declined a role in the film, sent a letter to Eastwood soon after the film's release in which he complained that, \"The townspeople did not represent the true spirit of the American pioneer, the spirit that made America great.\"\n\nEastwood next turned his attention towards Breezy (1973), a film about love blossoming between a middle-aged man and a teenage girl. During casting for the film Eastwood met Sondra Locke for the first time, an actress who would play major roles in six of his films over the next ten years and become an important figure in his life. Kay Lenz got the part of Breezy because Locke, at 29, was nearly twice the character's age. The film, shot very quickly and efficiently by Eastwood and Frank Stanley, came in $1 million under budget and was finished three days ahead of schedule. Breezy was not a major critical or commercial success.\nOnce filming of Breezy had finished, Warners announced that Eastwood had agreed to reprise his role as Callahan in Magnum Force (1973), a sequel to Dirty Harry, about a group of rogue young officers (among them David Soul, Robert Urich, and Tim Matheson) in the San Francisco Police Department who systematically exterminate the city's worst criminals. Although the film was a major success after release, grossing $58.1 million in the United States (a record for Eastwood), it was not a critical success. The New York Times critic Nora Sayre panned the often contradictory moral themes of the film, while the paper's Frank Rich called it \"the same old stuff\".\nEastwood teamed up with Jeff Bridges and George Kennedy in the buddy action caper Thunderbolt and Lightfoot (1974), a road movie about a veteran bank robber Thunderbolt (Eastwood) and a young con man drifter, Lightfoot (Bridges). On its release, in spring 1974, the film was praised for its offbeat comedy mixed with high suspense and tragedy but was only a modest success at the box office, earning $32.4 million. Eastwood's acting was noted by critics, but was overshadowed by Bridges who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Eastwood reportedly fumed at the lack of Academy Award recognition for him and swore that he would never work for United Artists again.\n\nEastwood's next film The Eiger Sanction (1975) was based on Trevanian's critically acclaimed spy novel of the same name. Eastwood plays Jonathan Hemlock in a role originally intended for Paul Newman, an assassin turned college art professor who decides to return to his former profession for one last \"sanction\" in return for a rare Pissarro painting. In the process he must climb the north face of the Eiger in Switzerland under perilous conditions. Mike Hoover taught Eastwood how to climb during several weeks of preparation at Yosemite in the summer of 1974 before filming commenced in Grindelwald, Switzerland on August 12. Despite prior warnings about the perils of the Eiger, Eastwood insisted on doing all his own climbing and stunts. The film crew suffered a number of accidents, including one fatality. Upon release in May 1975, The Eiger Sanction was marginally successful commercially, receiving $14.2 million at the box-office, and gained mixed reviews. Joy Gould Boyum of The Wall Street Journal dismissed the film as \"brutal fantasy\". Eastwood blamed Universal Studios for the film's poor promotion and turned his back on them to make an agreement with Warner Brothers, through Frank Wells, that has lasted to the present day.\n\nThe Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), a western inspired by Asa Carter's 1972 novel of the same name, has lead character Josey Wales (Eastwood) as a pro-Confederate guerrilla who refuses to surrender his arms after the American Civil War and is chased across the old southwest by a group of enforcers. The supporting cast included Locke as his love interest and Chief Dan George as an elderly Cherokee who strikes up a friendship with Wales. Director Philip Kaufman was fired by producer Bob Daley under Eastwood's command in October 1975, three weeks into the shoot, resulting in a fine reported to be around $60,000 from the Directors Guild of America – who subsequently passed new legislation reserving the right to impose a major fine on a producer for discharging and replacing a director. The film was pre-screened at the Sun Valley Center for the Arts and Humanities in Idaho during a six-day conference entitled Western Movies: Myths and Images. Invited to the screening were a number of esteemed film critics, including Jay Cocks and Arthur Knight; directors such as King Vidor, William Wyler, and Howard Hawks; and a number of academics. Upon release in the summer of 1976 The Outlaw Josey Wales was widely acclaimed, with many critics and viewers seeing Eastwood's role as an iconic one that related to America's ancestral past and the destiny of the nation after the American Civil War. Roger Ebert compared the nature and vulnerability of Eastwood's portrayal of Josey Wales with his Man with No Name character in the Dollars westerns and praised the film's atmosphere. The film would later appear in Time's \"Top 10 Films of the Year\".\nEastwood was then offered the role of Benjamin L. Willard in Francis Coppola's Apocalypse Now, but declined as he did not want to spend weeks on location in the Philippines. He also refused the part of a platoon leader in Ted Post's Vietnam War film, Go Tell the Spartans and instead decided to make a third Dirty Harry film, The Enforcer (1976). The film had Callahan partnered with a new female officer (Tyne Daly) to face a San Francisco Bay area group resembling the Symbionese Liberation Army. The film, culminating in a shootout on Alcatraz island, was considerably shorter than the previous Dirty Harry films at 95 minutes, but was a major commercial success grossing $100 million worldwide to become Eastwood's highest-grossing film to date.\n\nEastwood directed and starred in The Gauntlet (1977) opposite Locke, Pat Hingle, William Prince, Bill McKinney, and Mara Corday. In this film, he portrays a down-and-out cop assigned to escort a prostitute from Las Vegas to Phoenix to testify against the mob. Although a moderate hit with the viewing public, critics had mixed feelings about the film, with many believing it was overly violent. Ebert, in contrast, gave the film three stars and called it \"classic Clint Eastwood: fast, furious, and funny\". In Every Which Way but Loose (1978), he had an uncharacteristic offbeat comedy role. His character, Philo Beddoe, is a trucker and brawler who roams the American West searching for a lost love (Locke) accompanied by his best friend, Orville Boggs (played by Geoffrey Lewis) and an orangutan called Clyde. The film proved surprisingly successful upon its release and became Eastwood's most commercially successful film up to that time. Panned by critics, it ranked high among the box-office successes of his career and was the second-highest-grossing film of 1978.\nEastwood starred in Escape from Alcatraz (1979), the last of his films directed by Siegel. It was based on the true story of Frank Lee Morris who, along with John and Clarence Anglin, escaped from the notorious Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in 1962. The film was a major success; Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic praised it as \"crystalline cinema\" and Frank Rich of Time described it as \"cool, cinematic grace\".\nEastwood directed and played the title role in Bronco Billy (1980), alongside Locke, Scatman Crothers, and Sam Bottoms. Filming commenced on October 1, 1979, in the Boise metropolitan area and was shot in five and a half weeks on a budget of $5 million. Eastwood has cited Bronco Billy as being one of the most relaxed shoots of his career and biographer Richard Schickel argued that Bronco Billy is Eastwood's most self-referential character. The film was a commercial disappointment, but was liked by critics. Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that film was \"the best and funniest Clint Eastwood movie in quite a while\", and praised Eastwood's directing, intricately juxtaposing the old West and the new West. Released later in 1980, Any Which Way You Can was the sequel to Every Which Way but Loose and also starring Eastwood. The film received a number of bad reviews from critics, although Maslin described it as \"funnier and even better than its predecessor\". In theaters over the Christmas season, Any Which Way You Can was a major box office success and ranked among the top five highest-grossing films of the year.\n\nEastwood directed and starred in Honkytonk Man (1982), based on the eponymous Clancy Carlile's depression-era novel. Eastwood portrays a struggling western singer Red Stovall who suffers from tuberculosis, but has finally been given an opportunity to make it big at the Grand Ole Opry. He is accompanied by his young nephew (played by real-life son Kyle) to Nashville, Tennessee, where he is supposed to record a song. Only Time gave the film a good review in the United States, with most reviewers criticizing its blend of muted humor and tragedy. Nevertheless, the film received a more positive reception in France, where it was compared to John Ford's The Grapes of Wrath, and it has since acquired the very high rating of 93 percent on Rotten Tomatoes. Around the same time, Eastwood directed, produced, and starred in the Cold War-themed Firefox (also 1982). Based on a 1977 novel with the same name written by Craig Thomas, the film was shot before but released after Honkytonk Man. Russian filming locations were not possible due to the Cold War, and the film had to be shot in Vienna and other locations in Austria to simulate many of the Eurasian story locations. With a production cost of $20 million, it was Eastwood's highest budget film to that time. People magazine likened Eastwood's performance to \"Luke Skywalker trapped in Dirty Harry's Soul\".\nEastwood directed and starred in the fourth Dirty Harry film, Sudden Impact (1983), which is considered the darkest and most violent of the series. By this time, Eastwood received 60 percent of all profits from films he starred in and directed, with the rest going to the studio. Sudden Impact was his final on-screen collaboration with Locke. She plays a middle-aged painter who, along with her sister, was gang-raped years before the story takes place and seeks revenge for her sister's now-vegetative state by systematically murdering the rapists. The line \"Go ahead, make my day\" (uttered by Eastwood during an early scene in a coffee shop) has been cited as one of cinema's immortal lines. It was quoted by President Ronald Reagan in a speech to Congress, and used during the 1984 presidential elections. The film was the second most commercially successful of the Dirty Harry films, after The Enforcer, earning $70 million. It received very positive reviews, with many critics praising the feminist aspects of the film through its explorations of the physical and psychological consequences of rape.\nTightrope (1984) had Eastwood starring opposite Geneviève Bujold in a provocative thriller, inspired by newspaper articles about an elusive Bay Area rapist. Set in New Orleans to avoid confusion with the Dirty Harry films, Eastwood played a divorced cop drawn into his target's tortured psychology and fascination for sadomasochism. Tightrope was a critical and commercial hit and became the fourth highest-grossing R-rated film of 1984. Eastwood next starred in the crime comedy City Heat (also 1984) alongside Burt Reynolds, a film about an ex-cop turned private eye and his former police lieutenant partner who get mixed up with gangsters in the Prohibition era of the 1930s. The film grossed around $50 million domestically, but was overshadowed by Eddie Murphy's Beverly Hills Cop.\n\nWesterns. A period gone by, the pioneer, the loner operating by himself, without benefit of society. It usually has something to do with some sort of vengeance; he takes care of the vengeance himself, doesn't call the police. Like Robin Hood. It's the last masculine frontier. Romantic myth, I guess, though it's hard to think about anything romantic today. In a Western you can think, Jesus, there was a time when man was alone, on horseback, out there where man hasn't spoiled the land yet.\nEastwood made his only foray into TV direction with the Amazing Stories episode Vanessa in the Garden (1985), which starred Harvey Keitel and Locke as a married couple. This was his first collaboration with Steven Spielberg, who later co-produced Flags of Our Fathers and Letters from Iwo Jima. He would revisit the Western genre when he directed and starred in Pale Rider (1985), a film based on the classic western Shane (1953) and follows a preacher descending from the mists of the Sierras to side with the miners during the California Gold Rush of 1850. The title is a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, as the rider of the pale horse is Death, and shows similarities to Eastwood's western High Plains Drifter (1973) in its themes of morality and justice as well as its exploration of the supernatural. It was hailed as one of the best films of 1985 and the best western to appear for a considerable period, with Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune remarking, \"This year (1985) will go down in film history as the moment Clint Eastwood finally earned respect as an artist.\"\nEastwood co-starred with Marsha Mason in the military drama Heartbreak Ridge (1986), about the 1983 United States invasion of Grenada. He portrayed a United States Marine Corps Gunnery Sergeant veteran of the Vietnam War who realizes he is nearing the end of his military service. Production and filming were marred by internal disagreements between Eastwood and long-time friend and producer Fritz Manes, as well as between Eastwood and the United States Department of Defense, which had expressed contempt for the film. At the time, the film was a commercial rather than a critical success, and has only come to be viewed more favorably in recent times. The film grossed $70 million domestically.\nEastwood starred in The Dead Pool (1988), the fifth and final film in the Dirty Harry series. It co-starred Patricia Clarkson, Liam Neeson, and a young Jim Carrey who plays Johnny Squares, a drug-addled rock star and the first of the victims on a list of celebrities drawn up by horror film director Peter Swan (Neeson) who are deemed most likely to die, the so-called \"Dead Pool\". The list is stolen by an obsessed fan who, in mimicking his favorite director, makes his way through the list killing off celebrities, of which Dirty Harry is also included. The Dead Pool grossed nearly $38 million, relatively low receipts for a Dirty Harry film. It is generally viewed as the weakest film of the series, though Roger Ebert thought it was as good as the original.\nEastwood began working on smaller, more personal projects and experienced a lull in his career between 1988 and 1992. Always interested in jazz, he directed Bird (1988), a biopic starring Forest Whitaker as jazz musician Charlie \"Bird\" Parker. Alto saxophonist Jackie McLean and Spike Lee, son of jazz bassist Bill Lee and a long time critic of Eastwood, criticized the characterization of Charlie Parker remarking that it did not capture his true essence and sense of humor. Eastwood received two Golden Globes for the film, the Cecil B. DeMille Award for his lifelong contribution, and the Best Director award. However, Bird was a commercial failure, earning just $11 million, which Eastwood attributed to the declining interest in jazz among black people. Carrey would appear with Eastwood again in the poorly-received comedy Pink Cadillac (1989). The film is about a bounty hunter and a group of white supremacists chasing an innocent woman (Bernadette Peters) who tries to outrun everyone in her husband's prized pink Cadillac. The film failed both critically and commercially, earning barely more than Bird and marking a low point in Eastwood's career.\n\n1990–2009: critical acclaim and awards success\nEastwood directed and starred in White Hunter Black Heart (1990), an adaptation of Peter Viertel's roman à clef, about John Huston and the making of the classic film The African Queen. Shot on location in Zimbabwe in the summer of 1989, the film received some critical attention but with only a limited release earned just $8.4 million. Eastwood directed and co-starred with Charlie Sheen in The Rookie, a buddy cop action film released in December 1990. Critics found the film's plot and characterization unconvincing, but praised its action sequences. An ongoing lawsuit, in response to Eastwood allegedly ramming a woman's car, resulted in no Eastwood films being shown in cinemas in 1991. Eastwood won the suit and agreed to pay the complainant's legal fees if she did not appeal.\n\n[I]f possible, he looks even taller, leaner and more mysteriously possessed than he did in Sergio Leone's seminal Fistful of Dollars a quarter of a century ago. The years haven't softened him. They have given him the presence of some fierce force of nature, which may be why the landscapes of the mythic, late 19th-century West become him, never more so than in his new Unforgiven. ... This is his richest, most satisfying performance since the underrated, politically lunatic Heartbreak Ridge. There's no one like him.\nEastwood revisited the western genre in Unforgiven (1992), a film which he directed and starred in as an aging ex-gunfighter long past his prime. Scripts existed for the film as early as 1976 under titles such as The Cut-Whore Killings and The William Munny Killings, but Eastwood delayed the project because he wanted to wait until he was old enough to play his character and to savor it as the last of his western films. Unforgiven was a major commercial and critical success; Jack Methews of the Los Angeles Times described it as \"the finest classical western to come along since perhaps John Ford's 1956 The Searchers\". The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards (including Best Actor for Eastwood and Best Original Screenplay for David Webb Peoples), and won four, including Best Picture and Best Director for Eastwood. In June 2008 Unforgiven was ranked as the fourth-best American western, behind Shane, High Noon, and The Searchers in the American Film Institute's \"AFI's 10 Top 10\" list.\n\nEastwood played Frank Horrigan in the Secret Service thriller In the Line of Fire (1993), directed by Wolfgang Petersen and co-starring John Malkovich and Rene Russo. Horrigan is a guilt-ridden Secret Service agent haunted by his failure to save John F. Kennedy's life. The film was among the top 10 box office performers in that year, earning $102 million in the United States alone, and 25 years after he was first listed on Quigley's Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll, Eastwood was voted number one again. A few months after film wrapped, Eastwood directed and co-starred alongside Kevin Costner in A Perfect World (also 1993). Set in the 1960s, Eastwood plays a Texas Ranger in pursuit of an escaped convict (Costner) who hits the road with a young boy (T.J. Lowther). Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film marked the highest point of Eastwood's directing career, and the film has since been cited as one of his most underrated directorial achievements.\nAt the May 1994 Cannes Film Festival Eastwood received France's Ordre des Arts et des Lettres medal, and on March 27, 1995, he was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award at the 67th Academy Awards. His next film appearance was in a cameo role as himself in the children's film Casper (1995). He expanded his repertoire by playing opposite Meryl Streep in The Bridges of Madison County (also 1995). Based on the novel by Robert James Waller, the film relates the story of Robert Kincaid (Eastwood), a photographer working for National Geographic who, while photographing historic covered bridges in Iowa, meets and has an affair with an Italian-born farm wife, Francesca (Streep). Despite the novel receiving unfavorable reviews, The Bridges of Madison County film was a commercial and critical success. Roger Ebert wrote, \"Streep and Eastwood weave a spell, and it is based on that particular knowledge of love and self that comes with middle age.\" The film was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Picture and won a César Award in France for Best Foreign Film. Streep was also nominated for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe.\nEastwood directed and starred in the political thriller Absolute Power (1997), alongside Gene Hackman (with whom he had appeared in Unforgiven). Eastwood played the role of a veteran thief who witnesses the Secret Service cover-up of a murder. The film received a mixed reception from critics. Later in 1997, Eastwood directed Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil, based on the novel by John Berendt and starring John Cusack, Kevin Spacey, and Jude Law. The film met with a mixed critical response.\n\nThe roles that Eastwood has played, and the films that he has directed, cannot be disentangled from the nature of the American culture of the last quarter century, its fantasies and its realities.\nEastwood directed and starred in True Crime (1999). He plays Steve Everett, a journalist and recovering alcoholic, who has to cover the execution of murderer Frank Beechum (played by Isaiah Washington). True Crime received a mixed reception, with Janet Maslin of The New York Times writing, \"his direction is galvanized by a sense of second chances and tragic misunderstandings, and by contrasting a larger sense of justice with the peculiar minutiae of crime. Perhaps he goes a shade too far in the latter direction, though.\" The film was a box office failure, earning less than half its $55 million budget and was Eastwood's worst-performing film of the 1990s aside from White Hunter Black Heart, which had a limited release.\nEastwood directed and starred in Space Cowboys (2000) alongside Tommy Lee Jones, Donald Sutherland and James Garner. Eastwood played one of a group of veteran ex-test pilots sent into space to repair an old Soviet satellite. The original music score was composed by Eastwood and Lennie Niehaus. Space Cowboys was critically well-received and holds a 79 percent rating at Rotten Tomatoes, although Roger Ebert wrote that the film was, \"too secure within its traditional story structure to make much seem at risk\". The film grossed more than $90 million in its United States release, more than Eastwood's two previous films combined. Eastwood played an ex-FBI agent chasing a sadistic killer (Jeff Daniels) in the thriller Blood Work (2002), loosely based on the 1998 novel of the same name by Michael Connelly. The film was a commercial failure, grossing just $26.2 million on an estimated budget of $50 million and received mixed reviews, with Rotten Tomatoes describing it as, \"well-made but marred by lethargic pacing\".\n\nEastwood directed and scored the crime drama Mystic River (2003), a film dealing with themes of murder, vigilantism and sexual abuse and starring Sean Penn, Kevin Bacon, and Tim Robbins. The film was praised by critics and won two Academy Awards – Best Actor for Penn and Best Supporting Actor for Robbins – with Eastwood garnering nominations for Best Director and Best Picture. The film grossed $90 million domestically on a budget of $30 million. In 2003, Eastwood was named Best Director of the Year by the National Society of Film Critics.\n\nClint is a true artist in every respect. Despite his years of being at the top of his game and the legendary movies he has made, he always made us feel comfortable and valued on the set, treating us as equals.\nThe following year, Eastwood found further critical acclaim with Million Dollar Baby. The boxing drama won four Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress (Hilary Swank) and Best Supporting Actor (Morgan Freeman). At age 74, Eastwood became the oldest of eighteen directors to have directed two or more Best Picture winners. He also received a nomination for Best Actor, as well as a Grammy nomination for his score, and won a Golden Globe for Best Director, which was presented to him by daughter Kathryn, who was Miss Golden Globe at the 2005 ceremony. A. O. Scott of The New York Times lauded the film as a \"masterpiece\" and the best film of the year.\nEastwood directed two films about World War II's Battle of Iwo Jima released in 2006. The first, Flags of Our Fathers, focused on the men who raised the American flag on top of Mount Suribachi and featured the film debut of Eastwood's son Scott. This was followed by Letters from Iwo Jima, which dealt with the tactics of the Japanese soldiers on the island and the letters they wrote home to family members. Letters from Iwo Jima was the first American film to depict a war issue completely from the view of an American enemy. Both films received praise from critics and garnered several nominations at the 79th Academy Awards, including Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Original Screenplay for Letters from Iwo Jima. At the 64th Golden Globe Awards Eastwood received nominations for Best Director in both films. Letters from Iwo Jima won the award for Best Foreign Language Film.\n\nEastwood next directed Changeling (2008), based on a true story set in the late 1920s. Angelina Jolie stars as a woman reunited with her missing son only to realize he is an impostor. After its release at several film festivals the film grossed over $110 million, the majority of which came from foreign markets. The film was highly acclaimed, with Damon Wise of Empire describing Changeling as \"flawless\". Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine described it as \"emotionally powerful and stylistically sure-handed\" and that the film's characters and social commentary were brought into the story with an \"almost breathtaking deliberation\". For the film, Eastwood received nominations for Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, Best Direction at the 62nd British Academy Film Awards and director of the year from the London Film Critics' Circle.\nEastwood ended a four-year \"self-imposed acting hiatus\" by appearing in Gran Torino (also 2008), which he also directed, produced and partly scored with his son Kyle and Jamie Cullum. Biographer Marc Eliot called Eastwood's role \"an amalgam of the Man with No Name, Dirty Harry, and William Munny, here aged and cynical but willing and able to fight on whenever the need arose\". Gran Torino grossed almost $30 million during its opening weekend release in January 2009, the highest of his career as an actor or director. Gran Torino eventually grossed over $268 million in theaters worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of Eastwood's career so far (without adjustment for inflation).\nEastwood's 30th directorial outing came with Invictus (2009), a film based on the story of the South African team at the 1995 Rugby World Cup with Morgan Freeman as Nelson Mandela, Matt Damon as rugby team captain François Pienaar, and Grant L. Roberts as Ruben Kruger. The film was met with generally positive reviews; Roger Ebert gave it three and a half stars and described it as a \"very good film... with moments evoking great emotion\", while Variety's Todd McCarthy wrote, \"Inspirational on the face of it, Clint Eastwood's film has a predictable trajectory, but every scene brims with surprising details that accumulate into a rich fabric of history, cultural impressions and emotion.\" For the film, Eastwood was nominated for Best Director at the 67th Golden Globe Awards.\n\n2010–present: directorial focus and later roles\nIn the Eastwood-directed Hereafter (2010), he again worked with Matt Damon, who portrayed a psychic. The film had its world premiere on September 12, 2010, at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and had a limited release later in October. Hereafter received mixed reviews from critics, with the consensus at Rotten Tomatoes being, \"Despite a thought-provoking premise and Clint Eastwood's typical flair as director, Hereafter fails to generate much compelling drama, straddling the line between poignant sentimentality and hokey tedium.\" Around the same time, Eastwood served as executive producer for a TCM documentary about jazz pianist Dave Brubeck, Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way (also 2010), to commemorate Brubeck's 90th birthday.\n\nEastwood directed J. Edgar (2011), a biopic of FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, with Leonardo DiCaprio in the title role. The film received mixed reviews, although DiCaprio's performance as Hoover was widely praised. Roger Ebert wrote that the film is \"fascinating\", \"masterful\", and praised DiCaprio's performance. David Edelstein of New York Magazine, while also praising DiCaprio, wrote, \"It's too bad J. Edgar is so shapeless and turgid and ham-handed, so rich in bad lines and worse readings.\" Eastwood starred in the baseball drama Trouble with the Curve (2012), as a veteran baseball scout who travels with his daughter for a final scouting trip. Robert Lorenz, who worked with Eastwood as an assistant director on several films, directed the film.\n\nEverybody wonders why I continue working at this stage. I keep working because there's always new stories. ... And as long as people want me to tell them, I'll be there doing them.\nDuring Super Bowl XLVI, Eastwood narrated a halftime advertisement for Chrysler titled \"Halftime in America\" (2012). The advertisement was criticized by several U.S. Republicans, who claimed it implied that President Barack Obama deserved a second term. In response to the criticism, Eastwood stated, \"I am certainly not politically affiliated with Mr. Obama. It was meant to be a message about job growth and the spirit of America.\"\nEastwood next directed Jersey Boys (2014), a musical biography based on the Tony Award-winning musical. The film told the story of the musical group The Four Seasons. Eastwood directed American Sniper (also 2014), a film adaptation of Chris Kyle's eponymous memoir, following Steven Spielberg's departure from the project. The film was released on December 25, 2014. American Sniper grossed more than $350 million domestically and over $547 million globally, making it one of Eastwood's biggest movies commercially. His next film, Sully, starred Tom Hanks as Chesley Sullenberger, who successfully landed the US Airways Flight 1549 on the Hudson River in an emergency landing, keeping all passengers on board alive. Released in the United States in September 2016, it became another commercial success for Eastwood, grossing over $238 million worldwide. He directed the biographical thriller The 15:17 to Paris (2018), which saw previously non-professional actors Spencer Stone, Anthony Sadler, and Alek Skarlatos playing themselves as they stop the 2015 Thalys train attack. The film received a generally negative reception from critics, who were largely critical of the acting by the three leads. Eastwood next starred in and directed The Mule, which was released in December 2018. He played Earl Stone, an elderly drug smuggler based on Leo Sharp, Eastwood's first acting role since Trouble with the Curve in 2012.\nIn May 2019, it was announced that Eastwood would direct The Ballad of Richard Jewell, based on the life of heroic security guard Richard Jewell, who was wrongly suspected in the 1996 Olympic bombing. Later retitled simply Richard Jewell, Eastwood directed and produced the film, through Warner Bros., his tenth straight film with the company. Jonah Hill and Leonardo DiCaprio were originally set to star in the film in 2014, when it was to be directed by Paul Greengrass, but DiCaprio and Hill would ultimately serve only as producers on Eastwood's film. The film stars Paul Walter Hauser in the titular role, along with Sam Rockwell, Kathy Bates, Jon Hamm, and Olivia Wilde in supporting roles. Filming began on June 24, 2019, and Richard Jewell was released on December 13, 2019.\nIn October 2020, it was announced that Eastwood would direct, produce, and star in Cry Macho, an adaptation of the 1975 novel of the same name, for Warner Bros. Pictures. Production of the film took place in New Mexico between November and December 2020. It was released on September 17, 2021, to mixed reviews and commercial failure.\n\nUpcoming projects\nIn April 2023, reports emerged that Eastwood would direct and produce Juror No. 2, from a screenplay by Jonathan Abrams, and is expected to be Eastwood's final film. It will star Nicholas Hoult, Toni Collette, Zoey Deutch, and Kiefer Sutherland, and will be distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. The film's production began in June 2023, though it was temporarily suspended due to the 2023 SAG-AFTRA strike. Production resumed in November 2023.\n\nDirectorial style\nBeginning with the thriller Play Misty for Me, Eastwood has directed over 30 films, including Westerns, action films, musicals and dramas. He is one of few top Hollywood actors to have also become a critically and commercially successful director. The New Yorker's David Denby wrote that, unlike Eastwood,\n\nJohn Ford appeared in just a few silent films; Howard Hawks never acted in movies. Clark Gable, Gary Cooper, Spencer Tracy, James Stewart, Cary Grant, Humphrey Bogart, William Holden, Steve McQueen, and Sean Connery never directed a feature. John Wayne directed only twice, and badly; ditto Burt Lancaster. Paul Newman, Jack Nicholson, Warren Beatty, Robert Redford, Robert De Niro, and Sean Penn have directed a few movies each, with mixed commercial and artistic success.\nFrom the very early days of his career, Eastwood was frustrated by directors' insistence that scenes be re-shot multiple times and perfected, and when he began directing in 1970, he made a conscious attempt to avoid any aspects of directing he had been indifferent to as an actor. As a result, Eastwood is renowned for his efficient film directing and ability to reduce filming time and control budgets. He usually avoids actors' rehearsing and prefers to complete most scenes on the first take. Eastwood's rapid filmmaking practices have been compared to those of Woody Allen, Ingmar Bergman, and Jean-Luc Godard. When acting in others' films, he sometimes takes over directing, such as for The Outlaw Josey Wales, if he believes production is too slow. In preparation for filming Eastwood rarely uses storyboards for developing the layout of a shooting schedule. He also attempts to reduce script background details on characters to allow the audience to become more involved in the film, considering their imagination a requirement for a film that connects with viewers. Eastwood has indicated that he lays out a film's plot to provide the audience with necessary details, but not \"so much that it insults their intelligence\".\nAccording to Life magazine, \"Eastwood's style is to shoot first and act afterward. He etches his characters virtually without words. He has developed the art of underplaying to the point that anyone around him who so much as flinches looks hammily histrionic.\" Interviewers Richard Thompson and Tim Hunter commented that Eastwood's films are \"superbly paced: unhurried; cool; and [give] a strong sense of real time, regardless of the speed of the narrative\", while Ric Gentry considers Eastwood's pacing \"unrushed and relaxed\". Eastwood is fond of low-key lighting and back-lighting to give his films a \"noir-ish\" feel.\nEastwood's frequent exploration of ethical values has drawn the attention of scholars, who have explored Eastwood's work from ethical and theological perspectives, including his portrayal of justice, mercy, suicide and the angel of death.\n\nPolitics\nEastwood is a former Republican who has sometimes supported Democrats, and has long shown an interest in California politics; he is currently a registered Libertarian.\nHe won election as the nonpartisan mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, in April 1986. He earned $200 per month in that position which he donated to the Carmel Youth Center. While in office, he helped to make ice cream legal to consume on city streets, added public restrooms to the public beach, and a city library annex building was built. He served for two years and declined to run for a second term. In 2001, Governor Gray Davis appointed him to the California State Park and Recreation Commission, where he led opposition to an extension of the toll six-lane 16-mile (26 km) extension of the California State Route 241 toll road through San Onofre State Beach.\nEastwood endorsed Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election. He delivered a primetime address at the 2012 Republican National Convention, where he drew attention for a speech he delivered to an empty chair representing President Barack Obama, which he later regretted. On February 22, 2020, Eastwood announced that he would be endorsing Democrat Michael Bloomberg in the 2020 presidential election. Eastwood stated that he wishes that Trump would act \"in a more genteel way, without tweeting and calling people names. I would personally like for him to not bring himself to that level.\"\n\nMusical interests\nEastwood is an aficionado of jazz—particularly bebop, and blues, country and western and classical music. He dabbled in music early on by developing as a boogie-woogie pianist and had originally intended to pursue a career in music by studying for a music theory degree after graduating from high school. In late 1959, Eastwood produced the album Cowboy Favorites, released on the Cameo label, which included some classics such as Bob Wills's \"San Antonio Rose\" and Cole Porter's \"Don't Fence Me In\". Despite his attempts to plug the album by going on a tour, it never reached the Billboard Hot 100. In 1963, Cameo producer Kal Mann told him that \"he would never make it big as a singer\". Nevertheless, during the off season of filming Rawhide, Eastwood and Paul Brinegar – sometimes joined by Sheb Wooley – toured rodeos, state fairs, and festivals. In 1962, their act, entitled Amusement Business Cavalcade of Fairs, earned them as much as $15,000 a performance. Although he never made it as a major performing artist, he has passed on the influence to his son, Kyle, who is a professional jazz bassist and composer. An audiophile, Eastwood owns an extensive collection of LPs which he plays on a Rockport turntable. His favorite musicians include saxophonists Charlie Parker and Lester Young, pianists Thelonious Monk, Oscar Peterson, Dave Brubeck, and Fats Waller, and Delta bluesman Robert Johnson.\nEastwood has his own Warner Bros. Records-distributed imprint, Malpaso Records, as part of his deal with Warner Brothers. This deal was unchanged when Warner Music Group was sold by Time Warner to private investors. Malpaso Records, which has released all of the scores of Eastwood's films from The Bridges of Madison County onward, has also released the album of a 1996 jazz concert he hosted, titled Eastwood after Hours – Live at Carnegie Hall. He composed the film scores of Mystic River, Million Dollar Baby, Flags of Our Fathers, Grace Is Gone, Changeling, Hereafter, J. Edgar, and the original piano compositions for In the Line of Fire. He wrote and performed the song heard over the credits of Gran Torino and also co-wrote \"Why Should I Care\" with Linda Thompson and Carole Bayer Sager, a song recorded in 1999 by Diana Krall.\nThe music in Grace Is Gone received two Golden Globe nominations by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association for the 65th Golden Globe Awards. Eastwood was nominated for Best Original Score, while the song \"Grace is Gone\" with music by Eastwood and lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager was nominated for Best Original Song. It won the Satellite Award for Best Song at the 12th Satellite Awards. Changeling was nominated for Best Score at the 14th Critics' Choice Awards, Best Original Score at the 66th Golden Globe Awards, and Best Music at the 35th Saturn Awards. On September 22, 2007, Eastwood was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival, on which he serves as an active board member. Upon receiving the award he gave a speech claiming, \"It's one of the great honors I'll cherish in this lifetime.\"\nThe scoring stage at Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank was renamed the Eastwood Scoring Stage in the 1990s.\n\nPersonal life\nRelationships and children\nTwice divorced, Eastwood has had numerous casual and serious relationships of varying length and intensity over his life, many of which overlapped. He has eight known children by six women, only half of whom were contemporaneously acknowledged. Eastwood refuses to confirm his exact number of offspring, and there have been wide discrepancies in the media regarding the number. He is closed to discussing his families with the media, stating, \"they're vulnerable people. I can protect myself, but they can't.\" His biographer, Patrick McGilligan, has stated on camera that Eastwood's total number of children is indeterminate and that \"one was when he was still in high school\".\nEastwood's first marriage was to manufacturing secretary-turned-fitness instructor Margaret Neville Johnson in December 1953, having met her on a blind date the previous May. During the courtship, he had an affair that resulted in his daughter Laurie (born 1954), who was adopted by Clyde and Helen Warren of Seattle. While the identity of Laurie's biological mother is not public record, McGilligan said the mother belonged to a theatre group Eastwood participated in. Eastwood continued having affairs while married to Johnson, including a 1959 to 1973 liaison with stuntwoman Roxanne Tunis that produced a daughter, Kimber (born 1964). Tunis and Eastwood would keep up a \"healthy relationship\" until her death in 2023.\nJohnson tolerated the open marriage with Eastwood, and eventually they had two children, Kyle (born 1968) and Alison (born 1972). In 1975, Eastwood and married actress-director Sondra Locke began living together; she had been in a marriage of convenience since 1967 with Gordon Leigh Anderson, an unemployed homosexual. Locke claimed that Eastwood sang \"She Made Me Monogamous\" to her and confided he had \"never been in love before\". Eastwood finally divorced Johnson in 1984; Locke, however, would remain married to Anderson until her death in 2018. According to Bill Brown, publisher of the Carmel Pine Cone, Eastwood considered Locke the love of his life, yet he has never addressed her death.\nIn an unpublicized affair, Eastwood sired two legally fatherless children, Scott (born 1986) and Kathryn (born 1988) with Jacelyn Reeves, a flight attendant. When Locke and Eastwood separated in 1989, Locke filed a palimony lawsuit and later sued for fraud, reaching a settlement in both cases. During the early-to-mid-1990s, Eastwood had a relationship with actress Frances Fisher that produced a daughter, Francesca (born 1993). Eastwood was married for the second time in 1996 to news anchor Dina Ruiz, who gave birth to their daughter Morgan that same year. Ruiz and Eastwood's marriage lasted until 2014.\nBeginning 2014, Eastwood was seen in company with restaurant hostess Christina Sandera, though neither publicly confirmed a romance. Eastwood's spokespeople, managers, and press agents have long denied any knowledge of his life. Sandera died of a heart attack in July 2024, aged 61.\n\nHealth and leisure activities\nEastwood has been a health and fitness fanatic since he was a teenager. During the production of Rawhide, Eastwood featured in magazines and journals, which often documented his health-conscious lifestyle. In an August 1959 edition of TV Guide, for example, Eastwood was photographed doing push-ups. He gave tips on fitness and nutrition, telling people to eat plenty of fruit and raw vegetables, take vitamins, and avoid sugar-loaded beverages, excessive alcohol, and overloading on carbohydrates.\nEastwood's father's death from a heart attack at the age of 64 in 1970, described by Fritz Manes as \"the only bad thing that ever happened to him in his life\", came as a shock to Eastwood, since his grandfather had lived to be 92. It had a profound impact on his life; from then on he became more productive, working with greater speed and efficiency on set, and adopted an even more rigorous health regimen. Despite abstaining from hard liquor, he opened an old English-inspired pub called the Hog's Breath Inn in Carmel-by-the-Sea in 1971. Eastwood eventually sold the pub in 1999 and now owns the Mission Ranch Hotel and Restaurant, also located in Carmel-by-the-Sea.\n\nEastwood is an avid golfer and owns the Tehàma Golf Club. He is an investor in the world-renowned Pebble Beach Golf Links west of Carmel and donates his time to charitable causes at major tournaments. Eastwood is an FAA licensed fixed wing and rotary craft private pilot and often flies his helicopter to the studios to avoid traffic.\n\nSpiritual beliefs and meditation\nIn 1973, Eastwood told the film critic Gene Siskel, \"No, I don't believe in God\". In 2023, his daughter Kathryn stated, \"Most of my earthly family do not believe in or worship God. They either have a lack of faith or reject the god in the Bible in favor of other idols or ideas.\" Eastwood has said that he finds spirituality in nature (as suggested by his Western, Pale Rider, 1985), stating that \"I was born during the Depression and I was brought up with no specific church. We moved every four or five months during the first 14 years of my life, so I was sent to a different church depending on wherever we lived. Most of them were Protestant, but I went to other churches because my parents wanted me to try to figure out things for myself. They always said, 'I just want to expose you to some religious order and see if that's something you like'. So although my religious training was not really specific, I do feel spiritual things. If I stand on the side of the Grand Canyon and look down, it moves me in some way.\" He has also said: \"It would be wonderful to talk with my parents again, who are, of course, deceased. It makes the idea of death much less scary. But then again, if you think that nothing happens after you die, maybe it makes you live life better. Maybe you're supposed to do the best you can by the gift you're given of life and that alone.\"\nIn 1975, Eastwood publicly proclaimed his participation in Transcendental Meditation when he appeared on The Merv Griffin Show with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of Transcendental Meditation. He has meditated every morning for years.\n\nReal estate interests\nWhile serving in the US Army at nearby Fort Ord, Eastwood developed an interest in Carmel area real estate. With income from his acting career, on December 24, 1967, he bought five parcels totaling 283 acres (115 ha) of land from Charles Sawyer along Highway 1 near Malpaso Creek, south of the Carmel Highlands.\nIn May 1968, Eastwood and actor James Garner bought 340 acres (138 ha) of wooded land in Carmel Valley from the Howard Hattan estate for $640,000. The property was across the Carmel Valley Road from the Rancho Cañada Country Club and golf course. Eastwood and Garner donated the undeveloped property to the Housing Authority of the County of Monterey in November 1983 with the stipulation that some of the land be used for senior housing.\nHe named his production company Malpaso Productions. Eastwood later bought another parcel in the Highlands, together totaling 650 acres (263 ha) (6 parcels). In 1995, Monterey County bought the Malpaso land from him for $3.08 million and placed a permanent conservation easement on the property. Using the proceeds from the sale, Eastwood bought the 134 acres (54 ha) Odello Ranch at the mouth of the Carmel River during the same year. He paid to lower the levees along the southern side of the Carmel River to protect the Mission Ranch resort he owned, along with the neighboring Mission Fields residential neighborhood on the north side of the river, both of which were flooded in 1994. In 1997, Eastwood and his former wife Maggie Johnson (acting as the Eastwood Trust) donated 49 acres (20 ha) of the Odello Ranch property east of Highway 1 to the Big Sur Land Trust along with the associated water rights. On June 28, 2016, Eastwood finally donated the remaining Odello East land.\nEastwood purchased 550 acres (223 ha), known as the Cañada Woods development, immediately east of the Odello Ranch.\nIn 2010, at age 80, Eastwood spent approximately $20 million to build himself a 15,949-square-foot compound in Carmel-by-the-Sea. His California real estate portfolio also includes a 6,136-square-foot Spanish-style mansion in Bel-Air, the 1,067.5 acre Rising River Ranch near Cassel, an apartment in Burbank, a 5,575-square-foot Desert modern home in La Quinta (sometimes misidentified as Palm Springs), as well as a large but understated house located next door to his longtime primary Bel-Air residence. Eastwood is known to have purchased property in two other states. He owns a 5,700-square-foot house in Sun Valley, Idaho, and a 1.13-acre, oceanfront manor in Kihei, Hawaii. The latter was featured in an episode of the 2012 reality show Mrs. Eastwood & Company.\nEastwood previously occupied homes in Studio City, Sherman Oaks, Tiburon, and Pebble Beach.\n\nFilmography\nEastwood has contributed to over 50 films during his career as actor, director, producer, and composer. He has acted in several television series, including his co-starring role in Rawhide. He started directing in 1971, and made his debut as a producer in 1982 with Firefox, though he had been functioning as uncredited producer on all of his Malpaso Company films since Hang 'Em High in 1968. Eastwood also has contributed music to his films, either through performing, writing, or composing. He has mainly starred in western, action, and drama films. According to the box office revenue tracking website Box Office Mojo, films featuring Eastwood have grossed a total of more than $1.81 billion domestically, with an average of $38.6 million per film.\n\nAwards and honors\nEastwood has been recognized with multiple awards and nominations for his work in film, television, and music. His widest reception has been in film work, for which he has received Academy Awards, Directors Guild of America Awards, Golden Globe Awards, and People's Choice Awards, among others. Eastwood is one of only two people to have been twice nominated for Best Actor and Best Director for the same film (Unforgiven and Million Dollar Baby) the other being Warren Beatty (Heaven Can Wait and Reds). Along with Beatty, Robert Redford, Richard Attenborough, Kevin Costner, and Mel Gibson, he is one of the few directors best known as an actor to win an Academy Award for directing. On February 27, 2005, he became one of only three living directors (along with Miloš Forman and Francis Ford Coppola) to have directed two Best Picture winners. At the age of 74, he was the oldest recipient of the Academy Award for Best Director to date. Eastwood has directed five actors in Academy Award-winning performances: Gene Hackman in Unforgiven, Tim Robbins and Sean Penn in Mystic River, and Morgan Freeman and Hilary Swank in Million Dollar Baby.\nOn August 22, 1984, Eastwood was honored at a ceremony at Grauman's Chinese theater to record his hand and footprints in cement. Eastwood received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1996, and received an honorary degree from AFI in 2009. On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Eastwood into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts.\nIn early 2007, Eastwood was presented with the highest civilian distinction in France, Légion d'honneur, at a ceremony in Paris. French President Jacques Chirac told Eastwood that he embodied \"the best of Hollywood\". In October 2009, he was honored by the Lumière Award (in honor of the Lumière Brothers, inventors of the Cinematograph) during the first edition of the Lumière Film Festival in Lyon, France. This award honors his entire career and his major contribution to the 7th Art. In February 2010, Eastwood was recognized by President Barack Obama with an arts and humanities award. Obama described Eastwood's films as \"essays in individuality, hard truths and the essence of what it means to be American\".\nEastwood has also been awarded at least three honorary degrees from universities and colleges, including an honorary degree from the University of the Pacific in 2006, an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Southern California on May 27, 2007, and an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the Berklee College of Music at the Monterey Jazz Festival on September 22, 2007.\nOn February 26, 2009, Eastwood received the Honorary Golden Palm Award from Cannes Film Festival on big ceremony in Paris.\nIn the same year on July 22, he was honored by Emperor Akihito of Japan with the Order of the Rising Sun, 3rd class, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon for his contributions to the enhancement of Japan–United States relations.\nEastwood won the Golden Pine lifetime achievement award at the 2013 International Samobor Film Music Festival, along with Ryuichi Sakamoto and Gerald Fried.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCited references\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nClint Eastwood at IMDb \nClint Eastwood at the American Film Institute Catalog\nAppearances on C-SPAN \nClint Eastwood on Charlie Rose\nClint Eastwood collected news and commentary at The Guardian \nClint Eastwood collected news and commentary at The New York Times \nClint Eastwood at Rotten Tomatoes\nClint Eastwood at the TCM Movie Database \nClint Eastwood collected news and commentary at the Los Angeles Times",
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] | How many Best Director winners from the Academy Awards in the 1990s were born before 1950? | [] | Three. Steven Spielberg, Jonathan Demme, Clint Eastwood. | [] | true |
224 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Brazil national football team (Portuguese: Seleção Brasileira de Futebol), nicknamed Seleção Canarinho (\"Canary Squad\", after their bright yellow jersey), represents Brazil in men's international football and is administered by the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF), the governing body for football in Brazil. They have been a member of FIFA since 1923 and a member of CONMEBOL since 1916.\nBrazil is the most successful national team in the FIFA World Cup, being crowned winner five times: 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002. The Seleção also has the best overall performance in the World Cup competition, both in proportional and absolute terms, with a record of 76 victories in 114 matches played, 129 goal difference, 247 points, and 19 losses. It is the only national team to have played in all World Cup editions without any absence nor need for playoffs, and the only team to have won the World Cup in four different continents: once in Europe (1958 Sweden), once in South America (1962 Chile), twice in North America (1970 Mexico and 1994 United States), and once in Asia (2002 South Korea/Japan). Brazil was also the most successful team in the now-defunct FIFA Confederations Cup, winning it four times, in 1997, 2005, 2009, and 2013. With the capture of the gold medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics, Brazil has become one of only two countries, the others being France, to have won all men's FIFA 11-player competitions at all age levels.\nIn ranking standings, Brazil has the highest average football Elo rating, and the fourth all-time peak football Elo rating, established in 2022. In FIFA's ranking system Brazil holds the record for most Team of the Year first ranking wins with 13. Many commentators, experts, and former players have considered the Brazil team of 1970 to be the greatest team of all time. Other Brazilian teams are also highly esteemed and regularly appear listed among the best teams of all time, such as the Brazil teams of 1958–62 and the squads of the 1994–02 period, with honorary mentions for the gifted 1982 side. In 1996, the Brazil national team achieved 35 consecutive matches undefeated, a feat which they held as a world record for 25 years.\nBrazil has developed many rivalries through the years, with the most notable ones being with Argentina—known as the Superclássico das Américas in Portuguese, Italy—known as the Clássico Mundial in Portuguese or the World Derby in English, Uruguay—known as the Clássico do Rio Negro, due to the traumatic Maracanazo, and the Netherlands due to several important meetings between the two teams at several World Cups.\n\nHistory\nEarly history (1914–1922)\nIt is generally believed that the inaugural game of the Brazil national football team was a 1914 match between a Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo select team and the English club Exeter City, held in Fluminense's stadium. Brazil won 2–0 with goals by Oswaldo Gomes and Osman, though it is claimed that the match was a 3–3 draw.\nIn contrast to its future success, the national team's early appearances were not brilliant. Other early matches played during that time include several friendly games against Argentina (being defeated 3–0), Chile (first in 1916) and Uruguay (first on 12 July 1916). However, led by the goalscoring abilities of Arthur Friedenreich, they were victorious at home in the South American Championships in 1919, repeating their victory, also at home, in 1922.\n\nFirst World Cup and title drought (1930–1949)\nIn 1930, Brazil played in the first World Cup, held in Uruguay. The squad defeated Bolivia but lost to Yugoslavia, being eliminated from the competition at group stage. They lost in the first round to Spain in 1934 in Italy, but reached the semi-finals in France in 1938, being defeated 2–1 by eventual winners Italy. Brazil were the only South American team to participate in this competition.\nThe 1949 South American Championship held in Brazil ended a 27-year streak without official titles. The last one was in the 1922 South American Championship, also played on Brazilian soil.\n\nThe 1950 Maracanazo\nAfter that, Brazil first achieved international prominence when it hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup. The team went into the last game of the final round, against Uruguay at Estádio do Maracanã in Rio, needing only a draw to win the World Cup. Uruguay, however, won the match and the Cup in a game known as \"the Maracanazo\". The match led to a period of national mourning.\nFor the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland, Brazil was then almost completely renovated, with the team colours changed (to a new design by Aldyr Schlee) from all white to the yellow, blue and green of the national flag, to forget the Maracanazo, but still had a group of star players. Brazil reached the quarter-final, where they were beaten 4–2 by tournament favourites Hungary in one of the ugliest matches in football history, known as the \"Battle of Berne\".\n\nPelé and the First Golden Era (1958–1970)\nFor the 1958 World Cup, Brazil were drawn in a group with England, the USSR and Austria. They beat Austria 3–0 in their first match, then drew 0–0 with England. Before the match, coach Vicente Feola made three substitutions that were crucial for Brazil to defeat the Soviets: Zito, Garrincha and Pelé. From the kick-off, they kept up the pressure relentlessly, and after three minutes, which were later described as \"the greatest three minutes in the history of football\", Vavá gave Brazil the lead. They won the match by 2–0. Pelé scored the only goal of their quarter-final match against Wales, and they beat France 5–2 in the semi-final. Brazil then beat Sweden 5–2 in the final, winning their first World Cup and becoming the first nation to win a World Cup title outside of its own continent. Pelé described it tearfully as a nation coming of age.\n\nIn the 1962 World Cup, Brazil earned its second title with Garrincha as the star player, a mantle and responsibility laid upon him after the regular talisman, Pelé, was injured during the second group match against Czechoslovakia and unable to play for the rest of the tournament.\nIn the 1966 World Cup, Brazil had their worst performance in a World Cup. The 1966 tournament was remembered for its excessively physical play, and Pelé was one of the players most affected. Against Portugal, several violent tackles by the Portuguese defenders caused forward player Pelé to leave the match and the tournament. Brazil lost this match and was eliminated in the first round of the World Cup for the first time since 1934. They have not failed to reach the knockout stages of the competition since. Brazil became the second nation to be eliminated in the first round while holding the World Cup crown following Italy in 1950. After the 1998, 2002, 2010, 2014 and 2018 World Cups, France, Italy, Spain and Germany were also added to this list. After the tournament, Pelé declared that he did not wish to play in the World Cup again. Nonetheless, he returned in 1970.\n\nBrazil won its third World Cup in Mexico in 1970. It fielded what has been widely considered the best World Cup football squad ever, led by Pelé in his last World Cup finals, captain Carlos Alberto Torres, Jairzinho, Tostão, Gérson and Rivellino. Even though Garrincha had retired, this team was still a force to be reckoned with. They won all six of their games—against Czechoslovakia, England and Romania during group play, and against Peru, Uruguay and Italy in the knockout rounds. Jairzinho was the second top scorer with seven goals, and is the only player to score in every match in a World Cup; Pelé finished with four goals. Brazil lifted the Jules Rimet trophy for the third time (the first nation to do so), which meant that they were allowed to keep it. A replacement was then commissioned, though it would be 24 years before Brazil won it again.\n\nThe dry spell (1974–1990)\nAfter the international retirement of Pelé and other stars from the 1970 squad, Brazil was not able to overcome the Netherlands at the 1974 World Cup in West Germany, and finished in fourth place after losing the third place game to Poland.\nIn the second group stage of the 1978 World Cup, Brazil competed with tournament hosts Argentina for top spot and a place in the finals. In their last group match, Brazil defeated Poland 3–1 to go to the top of the group with a goal difference of +5. Argentina had a goal difference of +2, but in its last group match, it defeated Peru 6–0, and thus qualified for the final in a match accused of ultimately-unproven match fixing. Brazil subsequently beat Italy in the third place play-off, and were the only team to remain unbeaten in the tournament.\nAt the 1982 World Cup, held in Spain, Brazil were the tournament favorites, and easily moved through the early part of the draw, but a 3–2 defeat in Barcelona to Italy, in a classic World Cup match, eliminated them from the tournament in the match that they refer to as \"Sarriá's Tragedy\", referencing the stadium's name. The 1982 team, with a midfield of Sócrates, Zico, Falcão and Éder, is remembered as perhaps the greatest team never to win a World Cup.\nSeveral players, including Sócrates and Zico, from 1982 returned to play at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico. Brazil, still a very good team and more disciplined defensively than four years earlier, met the Michel Platini-led France in the quarter-finals in a classic of Total Football. The game played to a 1–1 draw in regulation time, and after a goalless extra time, it all came down to a penalty shoot-out, where Brazil was defeated 4–3.\nAfter a 40-year hiatus, Brazil was victorious in the 1989 Copa América, this being their fourth victory in four tournaments hosted in Brazil. This achievement ended Brazil's 19-year streak without an official championship since the 1970 World Cup.\nAt the 1990 World Cup in Italy, Brazil was coached by Sebastião Lazaroni, who had been the coach in the 1989 Copa América. With a defensive scheme, whose main symbol was midfielder Dunga, forward Careca and three centre-backs, the team lacked creativity but made it to the second round. Brazil was eliminated by Diego Maradona-led Argentina in the round of 16 in Turin, losing to their South American archrivals 1–0.\n\nThe Second Golden Era (1994–2002)\nBrazil went 24 years without winning a World Cup or even participating in a final. Their struggles ended at the 1994 tournament in the United States, where a solid side headed by Romário and Bebeto in attack, captain Dunga in midfield, goalkeeper Cláudio Taffarel and defender Jorginho, won the World Cup for a then-record fourth time. Highlights of their campaign included a 1–0 victory over the United States in the round of 16 at Stanford University, a 3–2 win over the Netherlands in the quarter-finals in Dallas, and a 1–0 victory over Sweden in the semi-finals at Pasadena's Rose Bowl. This set up Brazil–Italy in the final in Pasadena. A game played in searing heat which ended as a goalless draw, with Italy's defence led by Franco Baresi keeping out Romário, penalty kicks loomed, and Brazil became champions with Roberto Baggio missing Italy's last penalty. Despite the triumph, the 1994 World Cup winning team is not held in the same high esteem in Brazil as their other World Cup winning teams. FourFourTwo magazine labelled the 1994 team \"unloved\" in Brazil due to their pragmatic, defensive style over the more typical Brazilian style of attacking flair.\nEntering the 1998 World Cup as defending champions, Brazil finished runner-up. Having topped their group and won the next two rounds, Brazil beat the Netherlands on penalties in the semi-final following a 1–1 draw. Player of the tournament Ronaldo scored four goals and made three assists en route to the final. The build up to the final itself was overshadowed by Ronaldo suffering a convulsive fit only hours before kick off. The starting line up without Ronaldo was released to a shocked world media, but after pleading that he felt fine and requested to play, Ronaldo was reinstated by the coach, before giving a below par performance as France, led by Zidane, won 3–0.\n\nFuelled by the \"Three R's\" (Ronaldo, Rivaldo and Ronaldinho), Brazil won its fifth championship at the 2002 World Cup, held in South Korea and Japan. Brazil beat all three opponents in group play in South Korea and topped the group. In Brazil's opening game against Turkey, in Ulsan, Rivaldo fell to the ground clutching his face after Turkey's Hakan Ünsal had kicked the ball at his legs. Rivaldo escaped suspension but was fined £5,180 for play-acting, and became the first player ever to be punished in FIFA's crackdown on diving. In their knockout round matches in Japan, Brazil defeated Belgium 2–0 in Kobe in the round of 16. Brazil defeated England 2–1 in the quarter-finals in Shizuoka, with the winning goal coming from an unexpected free-kick by Ronaldinho from 40 yards out. The semi-final was against Turkey in Saitama; Brazil won 1–0. The final was between Germany and Brazil in Yokohama, where Ronaldo scored two goals in Brazil's 2–0 triumph. Ronaldo also won the Golden Shoe as the tournament's leading scorer with 8 goals. Brazil's success saw them receive the Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year.\nBrazil won the 2004 Copa América, their third win in four competitions since 1997.\nBrazil also won the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup for the second time. Manager Carlos Alberto Parreira built his side through a 4–2–2–2 formation. Nicknamed the \"Magic quartet\", the attack was built around four players: Ronaldo, Adriano, Kaká and Ronaldinho.\n\nWorld Cup drought (2006–present)\nIn the 2006 World Cup, Brazil won their three group games against Croatia (1–0), Australia (2–0) and Japan (4–1). Ronaldo scored twice and equalled the record for the most goals scored across all World Cups. In the round of 16, Brazil beat Ghana 3–0. Ronaldo's goal was his 15th in World Cup history, breaking the record. Brazil, however, were eliminated in the quarter-finals against France, losing 1–0 to a Thierry Henry goal.\nDunga was appointed as Brazil's new team manager in 2006. Brazil then won the 2007 Copa América. Two years later, Brazil won the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, defeating the U.S. 3–2 in the final, to seal their third Confederations Cup title. \n\nAt the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, Brazil won their first two matches against North Korea (2–1) and the Ivory Coast (3–1), respectively. Their last match, against Portugal, ended in a 0–0 draw. They faced Chile in the round of 16, winning 3–0, although in the quarter-final they fell to the Netherlands 2–1.\nIn July 2010, Mano Menezes was named as Brazil's new coach. At the 2011 Copa América, Brazil lost against Paraguay and was eliminated in the quarter-finals. In November 2012, coach Mano Menezes was sacked and replaced by Luiz Felipe Scolari.\n\nOn 6 June 2013, Brazil was ranked 22nd in the FIFA ranking, their lowest-ever rank. At the 2013 Confederations Cup, Brazil defended their title, beating Spain in the final, winning 3–0 and sealing their fourth Confederations Cup title.\n\n2014 FIFA World Cup\nIn the opening match of the 2014 World Cup against Croatia, two goals from Neymar and one from Oscar saw the Seleção off to a winning start in their first World Cup on home soil in 64 years. The team then drew with Mexico, before confirming qualification to the knockout stage by defeating Cameroon 4–1. Brazil faced Chile in the round of 16, needing penalties to prevail to the next round following a 1–1 draw.\n\nThe team again faced South American opposition in the quarter-final, defeating Colombia 2–1. However, late in the match, Neymar was stretchered off after suffering a fractured vertebra, ruling him out for the remainder of the tournament.\nThe Seleção went on to lose 7–1 to the Germans – their biggest ever defeat at the World Cup and first home loss in a competitive match since 1975. The match has been nicknamed the Mineirazo, making reference to the nation's previous World Cup defeat on home soil, the Maracanazo against Uruguay in 1950, and the Estádio do Mineirão where the match took place. Brazil subsequently lost 3–0 to the Netherlands in the third-place play-off match. Following the tournament, Scolari announced his resignation.\n\nReturn of Dunga (2014–2016)\nOn 22 July 2014, Dunga was announced as the new manager of Brazil, returning to the position for the first time since the team's exit at the 2010 World Cup.\nAt the 2015 Copa América, Brazil finished first in Group C to advance to the knockout stages. However, they were eliminated in the next round, losing on penalties to Paraguay.\nAt the 2016 Copa América Centenario, Brazil began the tournament with a goalless draw with Ecuador before beating Haiti 7–1 in the next match. Needing only a draw to progress to the knockout stage of the tournament, Brazil suffered a controversial 1–0 loss to Peru, with Raúl Ruidíaz scoring in the 75th minute. This defeat saw Brazil eliminated from the tournament in the group stage for the first time since 1987.\n\n2016–present\nOn 14 June 2016, Tite replaced Dunga as manager of Brazil. At the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Brazil finished top of their group. After defeating Mexico in the round of 16, Brazil were eliminated in the quarter-finals by Belgium, losing 2–1. Despite elimination from the tournament, Tite remained as head coach ahead of the 2019 Copa América held on home soil. He would lead Brazil to their first Copa América title since 2007. After beating rivals Argentina 2–0 in the semi-finals, Brazil beat Peru in the final to win their ninth Copa América title.\nAt the 2021 Copa América, Brazil reached the final match again, but this time they were defeated by Argentina 1-0 in the Maracana Stadium.\nAt the 2022 World Cup, Brazil finished first in their group. The team then faced South Korea in the round of 16, winning with a 3-goal margin, and progressed to the quarter-finals where they eventually lost 4–2 on penalties to Croatia. Following their exit from the World Cup, Tite resigned as head coach.\nAt the 2024 Copa América, Brazil were eliminated on penalties by Uruguay in the quarter-finals following a 0–0 draw.\n\nTeam image\nUniforms\nBrazil's first team colors were white with blue collars, but following the defeat at Maracanã in the 1950 World Cup, the colors were criticized for lacking patriotism. With permission from the Brazilian Sports Confederation, the newspaper Correio da Manhã held a competition to design a new kit incorporating the four colors of the Brazilian flag. The winning design was a yellow jersey with green trim and blue shorts with white trim drawn by Aldyr Garcia Schlee, a nineteen-year-old from Pelotas. The new colors were first used in March 1954 in a match against Chile, and have been used ever since. Topper were the manufacturers of Brazil's kit up to and including the match against Wales on 11 September 1991; Umbro took over before the next match, versus Yugoslavia in October 1991. Nike began making Brazil kits in late 1996, in time for the 1997 Copa América and the 1998 World Cup.\nThe use of blue and white as the second kit colors owes its origins to the defunct latter-day Portuguese monarchy and dates from the 1930s, but it became the permanent second choice accidentally in the 1958 World Cup Final. Brazil's opponents were Sweden, who also wore yellow, and a draw gave the home team, Sweden, the right to play in yellow. Brazil, who traveled with no second kit, hurriedly purchased a set of blue shirts and sewed the badges taken from their yellow shirts on them.\n\nKit sponsorship\nNicknames\nThe Brazil national team is known by different names in various parts of the world. Nicknames for the squad in Brazil include:\n\nCanarinho, meaning 'Little Canary', a reference to a species of bird commonly found in Brazil that has a vivid yellow color, this phrase was popularized by the late cartoonist Fernando \"Mangabeira\" Pieruccetti during the 1950 World Cup despite the team not wearing the color yet back then\nAmarelinha (Little Yellow One)\nSeleção (The National Squad)\nVerde-amarela (The Green and Yellow)\nPentacampeão (Five-time Champions)\nEsquadrão de Ouro (The Golden Squad)\nSome Latin American commentators often refer to the Brazil team as El Scratch (The Scratch), among others. In 2022 FIFA World Cup, FIFA's YouTube channel referred to the team as Samba Boys.\n\nTraining camp\nBrazil's training camp is the Granja Comary in Teresópolis, located 90 km (56 mi) from Rio de Janeiro. Granja Comary was opened in 1987, and underwent significant renovations in 2013 and 2014.\n\nResults and fixtures\nThe following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.\n Win\n Draw\n Loss\n Fixture\n\n2023\n2024\n2025\nCoaching staff\nPlayers\nCurrent squad\nThe following 23 players were called up for the 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification against Chile and Peru on 10 and 15 October 2024, respectively.\nCaps and goals are correct as of 10 September 2024, after the match against Paraguay.\n\nRecent call-ups\nThe following players have also been called up to the Brazil squad in the last twelve months.\n\nIndividual records\nAs of 12 October 2023.\nPlayers in bold are still active with Brazil.\n\nMost capped players\nTop goalscorers\nOther records\nYoungest goalscorer\nPelé (16 years and nine months) vs. Argentina, 7 July 1957\nOldest goalscorer\nRomário (39 years and two months) vs. Guatemala, 27 April 2005\nMost goals scored in a single match\nEvaristo (5 goals) vs. Colombia, 24 March 1957\nFirst goal scored\nOswaldo Gomes vs. Exeter City FC, 21 July 1914 (unofficial game)\nRubens Salles vs. Argentina, 27 September 1914 (official game)\nMost clean sheets\nCláudio Taffarel (52 matches)\nMost matches as a captain\nCafu (66 matches)\nMost yellow cards received\nNeymar (31 yellow cards)\nMost red cards received\nDunga and Éder Aleixo (3 red cards each)\n\nManager records\nMário Zagallo became the first person to win the FIFA World Cup both as a player (1958 and 1962) and as a manager (1970). In 1970, when he was of age 38, he won the FIFA World Cup which made him the second youngest coach to win the FIFA World Cup. While still in Brazil as an assistant coach, the team won the 1994 FIFA World Cup.\n\nCompetitive record\nChampions Runners-up Third place Fourth place Tournament played fully or partially on home soil\n\nFIFA World Cup\nBrazil has qualified for every FIFA World Cup they entered, never requiring a qualifying play-off. With five titles, they have won the tournament on more occasions than any other national team.\n\n*Draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out.\n\nCopa América\nFIFA Confederations Cup\nOlympic Games\nHead-to-head record\nBelow is a result summary of all matches Brazil have played against FIFA recognized teams. \nUpdated to 10 September 2024, after the match against Paraguay.\n Positive Record\n Neutral Record\n Negative Record\n\nMatches against non-FIFA and clubs\nHonours\nMajor competitions\nWorldwide\nFIFA World Cup\n Champions (5): 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, 2002\n Runners-up (2): 1950, 1998\n Third place (2): 1938, 1978\nFIFA Confederations Cup\n Champions (4): 1997, 2005, 2009, 2013\n Runners-up (1): 1999\nOlympic Games\n Silver medal (2): 1984, 1988\n\nContinental\nSouth American Championship / Copa América\n Champions (9): 1919, 1922, 1949, 1989, 1997, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2019\n Runners-up (12): 1921, 1925, 1937, 1945, 1946, 1953, 1957, 1959 (Argentina), 1983, 1991, 1995, 2021\n Third place (7): 1916, 1917, 1920, 1942, 1959 (Ecuador), 1975, 1979\nPanamerican Championship\n Champions (2): 1952, 1956\n Runners-up (1): 1960\nCONCACAF Gold Cup\n Runners-up (2): 1996, 2003\n Third place (1): 1998\n\nFriendly\nRoca Cup (vs Argentina)\nWinners (8): 1914, 1922, 1945, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1971 (shared), 1976\nSuperclásico de las Américas (vs Argentina)\nWinners (4): 2011, 2012, 2014, 2018\nCopa Confraternidad (vs Argentina)\nWinners: 1923\nCopa 50imo Aniversario de Clarín (vs Argentina)\nWinners: 1995\nCopa Río Branco (vs Uruguay)\nWinners (7): 1931, 1932, 1947, 1950, 1967 (shared), 1968, 1976\nCopa Rodrigues Alves (vs Paraguay)\nWinners (2): 1922, 1923\nTaça Oswaldo Cruz (vs Paraguay)\nWinners (8): 1950, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1961, 1962, 1968, 1976\nCopa Bernardo O'Higgins (vs Chile)\nWinners (4): 1955, 1959, 1961, 1966 (shared)\nCopa Teixeira (vs Chile)\nWinners: 1990 (shared)\nTaça Jorge Chavéz / Santos Dumont (vs Peru)\nWinners: 1968\nTaça Interventor Federal (vs EC Bahia)\nWinners: 1934\nTaça Dois de Julho (vs Bahia XI)\nWinners: 1934\nCopa Emílio Garrastazú Médici (vs Mexico)\nWinners: 1970\nTaça Independência\nWinners: 1972\nTaça do Atlântico\nWinners (3): 1956, 1970, 1976\nU.S.A. Bicentennial Cup Tournament\nWinners: 1976\nTaça Centenário Jornal O Fluminense (vs Rio de Janeiro XI)\nWinners: 1978\nSaudi Crown Prince Trophy (vs Al Ahli Saudi FC)\nWinners: 1978\nRous Cup\nWinners: 1987\nAustralia Bicentenary Gold Cup\nWinners: 1988\nAmistad Cup\nWinners: 1992\nUmbro Cup\nWinners: 1995\nNelson Mandela Challenge\nWinners: 1996\nLunar New Year Cup\nWinners: 2005\nKirin Challenge Cup\nWinners: 2022\n\nAwards\nFIFA Team of the Year\nWinners (13): 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2022\nWorld Soccer Team of the Year\nWinners (2): 1982, 2002\nLaureus World Team of the Year\nWinners: 2003\nGazzetta Sports World Team of the Year\nWinners (2): 1994, 2002\nFIFA World Cup Fair Play Trophy\nWinners (4): 1982, 1986, 1994, 2006\nFIFA Confederations Cup Fair Play Trophy\nWinners (2): 1999, 2009\nCopa América Fair Play Trophy\nWinners (2): 2019, 2021\n\nChronology of titles\nSummary\nSee also\nBrazil national football team results (2010–present)\nBrazil national under-23 football team\nBrazil national under-20 football team\nBrazil national under-17 football team\nBrazil national futsal team\nBrazil national beach soccer team\nBrazilian football songs\nList of Brazil national football team managers\nPra Frente Brasil\n\nReferences\nSources\nRuy Castro (2005). Garrincha – The triumph and tragedy of Brazil's forgotten footballing hero. Translated by Andrew Downie. London: Yellow Jersey Press. ISBN 0-224-06433-9.\nIvan Soter (2015). Enciclopédia da Seleção: 100 anos de seleção brasileira de futebol. Rio de Janeiro: Folha Seca. ISBN 978-85-87199-29-4.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website (in Portuguese)\nBrazil FIFA profile\nBrazil CONMEBOL profile\nBrazilian Football – Guide to Football in Brazil\nRSSSF Brazil\nAll about Brazilian Football – Sambafoot.com",
"title": "Brazil_national_football_team"
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"paragraph_text": "Blink-182 is an American rock band formed in 1992 in Poway, California. Their current and best-known line-up consists of bassist and vocalist Mark Hoppus, guitarist and vocalist Tom DeLonge, and drummer Travis Barker. Though their sound has diversified throughout their career, their musical style, described as pop-punk, blends catchy pop melodies with fast-paced punk rock. Their lyrics primarily focus on relationships, adolescent frustration, and maturity—or lack thereof. The group emerged from a suburban, Southern California skate punk scene and first gained notoriety for high-energy live shows and irreverent humour.\nThe band's debut studio album, Cheshire Cat, was released in 1994. Their second studio album, Dude Ranch, came out in 1997. After years of independent recording and touring, including stints on the Warped Tour, the group signed to MCA Records. Their third and fourth albums—Enema of the State (1999) and Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001)—reached their furthest commercial success while their singles, \"All the Small Things\", \"Dammit\" and \"What's My Age Again?\" became hit songs and MTV staples. Later efforts, including an untitled album (2003), Neighborhoods (2011), and an EP Dogs Eating Dogs (2012), marked stylistic shifts. Hoppus is the only member to remain in the band throughout its entire history. DeLonge left the group twice, both times a decade apart, before returning once more. Founding drummer Scott Raynor recorded and toured with the group before being dismissed in 1998, thereafter being replaced by Barker. During DeLonge's absence from 2015 to 2022, the band included Alkaline Trio singer and guitarist Matt Skiba, with whom they recorded two albums, California (2016), and Nine (2019), and toured in support of both. Their ninth album, One More Time..., was released on October 20, 2023.\nBlink-182's straightforward approach and simple arrangements, which helped initiate pop-punk's second mainstream rise, made them popular among generations of audiences. Worldwide, the group has sold 50 million albums and moved 15.3 million copies in the U.S.\n\nHistory\nFormation and initial years (1992–1994)\nBlink-182, originally named only Blink, was formed in August 1992 in Poway, California, a northern suburb of San Diego. Guitarist Tom DeLonge was expelled from Poway High School for being drunk at a basketball game and was forced to attend another school, Rancho Bernardo High School, for one semester. There, he performed at a Battle of the Bands competition, where he was introduced to drummer Scott Raynor. He also befriended Kerry Key, who was also interested in punk rock music. Key was dating Anne Hoppus, sister of bassist Mark Hoppus, who had recently moved from Ridgecrest, California, to work at a record store and attend college. Both Hoppus and DeLonge grew up listening to punk rock music, with both particularly enamoured by the Descendents. Southern California had a large punk population in the early 1990s, aided by an active surfing, skating, and snowboarding scene. In contrast to East Coast punk music, the West Coast wave of groups typically introduced more melodic aspects. \"New York is gloomy, dark and cold. It makes different music. The Californian middle-class suburbs have nothing to be that bummed about,\" said DeLonge.\n\nAnne introduced her brother to DeLonge on August 2, 1992. The pair instantly connected and played for hours in DeLonge's garage, exchanging lyrics and co-writing songs—one of which became fan favorite \"Carousel\". Hoppus, hoping to impress DeLonge, fell from a lamppost in front of DeLonge's home and cracked his ankles, putting him on crutches for three weeks. The trio began to practice together in Raynor's bedroom, spending time writing music, seeing movies and punk concerts, and playing practical jokes. The trio first operated under a variety of names, including Duck Tape and Figure 8, until DeLonge rechristened the band \"Blink\". Hoppus' girlfriend of the time was annoyed by his constant attention to the band, and demanded he make a choice between the band and her, which resulted in Hoppus leaving the band not long after its formation. Shortly thereafter, DeLonge and Raynor borrowed a four-track recorder from friend and collaborator Cam Jones and were preparing to record a demo tape, with Jones on bass. Hoppus promptly broke up with his girlfriend and returned to the band. Flyswatter—a combination of original songs and punk covers—was recorded in Raynor's bedroom in May 1993.\n\nThe band began booking shows, and were on stage nearly every weekend, even at Elks Lodges and YMCA centres. DeLonge constantly called clubs in San Diego asking for a spot to play, as well as local high schools, convincing them that Blink was a \"motivational band with a strong antidrug message\" in hopes to play at an assembly or lunch. San Diego at this time was \"hardly a hotbed of [musical] activity\", according to journalist Joe Shooman and the band's popularity grew as did punk rock concurrently in the mainstream. They quickly became part of a circuit that also included bands such as Ten Foot Pole and Unwritten Law, and Blink soon found its way onto the bill as the opening band for acts performing at Soma, a local all-ages venue. \"The biggest dreams we ever had when we started was to [headline] a show at Soma\", Hoppus said later. Meanwhile, Hoppus' manager at the record store, Patrick Secor, fronted the group money to properly record another demo at a local studio Doubletime. The result was Buddha (1994), which the members of the band viewed as the band's first legitimate release. That year, however, Raynor's family relocated to Reno, Nevada, and he was briefly replaced by musician Mike Krull. The band saved money and began flying Raynor out to shows, and he eventually moved back and in with Hoppus in mid-1995. During that time, the band would record its first album, first music video, and develop a larger following.\n\nEarly releases and touring (1995–1998)\nThe heart of the local independent music scene was Cargo Records, which offered to sign the band on a \"trial basis,\" with help from O, guitarist for local punk band Fluf, and Brahm Goodis, a friend of the band whose father was president of the label. Hoppus was the only member to sign the contract, as DeLonge was at work at the time and Raynor was still a minor. The band recorded their debut album—Cheshire Cat, released in February 1995—in three days at Westbeach Recorders in Los Angeles, fueled by both new songs and re-recordings of songs from previous demos. \"M+M's\", the band's first single, garnered local radio airplay from 91X, and Cargo offered the band a small budget to film a music video for it. Meanwhile, the record also drew the attention of Irish band Blink. Unwilling to engage in a legal battle, the band agreed to change their name. Cargo gave the band a week, but the trio put off the decision for more than two afterward. Eventually, Cargo called the trio, demanding that they \"change the name or [we'll] change it for you,\" after which the band decided on a random number, 182.\nThe band soon hired a manager, Rick DeVoe, who had worked with larger bands such as NOFX, Pennywise and The Offspring. In addition, the group drew the attention of Rick and Jean Bonde of the Tahoe booking agency, who were responsible for \"spreading the name of the band far and wide.\" In late 1995, the trio embarked on their first national tour, promoting the surf video Good Times with Unwritten Law, Sprung Monkey and 7 Seconds. Good Times was directed by filmmaker Taylor Steele, who was a friend of DeVoe. In preparation for the trek, the band members purchased their own tour van, which they nicknamed the Millennium Falcon. The Good Times tour extended outside the States with a leg in Australia; the trio were financially unable to go, but Pennywise's members paid for their plane tickets. Fletcher Dragge, guitarist of Pennywise, believed in the band strongly. He demanded that Kevin Lyman, founder of the traveling rock-based Warped Tour, sign the band for its 1996 iteration, predicting they would become \"gigantic.\" That year, the band toured heavily, with several domestic shows on and off the Warped Tour, trips to Canada and Japan, and more Australian dates. Australia was particularly receptive to the band and their humorous stage antics, which gained the band a reputation, but also made them ostracized and considered a joke.\n\nBy March 1996, the trio began to accumulate a genuine buzz among major labels, resulting in a bidding war between Interscope, MCA and Epitaph. MCA promised the group complete artistic freedom and ultimately signed the band, but Raynor held a great affinity for Epitaph and began to feel half-invested in the band when they chose MCA. The group, discouraged by Cargo's lack of distribution and faith in the group, held no qualms about signing to a major label but were fiercely criticized in the punk community. After nonstop touring, the trio began recording their follow-up LP, Dude Ranch, over the period of a month in late 1996 with producer Mark Trombino. The record was released the following June, and the band headed out on the 1997 Warped Tour. \"Dammit\", the album's second single, received heavy airplay on modern rock stations. Dude Ranch shipped gold by 1998, but an exhaustive touring schedule brought tensions among the trio. Raynor had been drinking heavily to offset personal issues, and he was fired by DeLonge and Hoppus in mid-1998 despite agreeing to attend rehab and quit drinking. Travis Barker, drummer for tour-mate The Aquabats, filled in for Raynor, learning the 20-song setlist in 45 minutes before the first show. By July, he joined the band full-time and later that year, the band entered the studio with producer Jerry Finn to begin work on their third album.\n\nMainstream breakthrough and continued success (1999–2004)\nAt the onset of the millennium, the band became one of the biggest international rock acts with the release of their third album, the fast-paced, melodic Enema of the State (1999). It became an enormous worldwide success, moving over fifteen million copies. Singles \"What's My Age Again?\", \"All the Small Things\", and \"Adam's Song\" became radio staples, with their music videos and relationship with MTV cementing their stardom. It marked the beginning of their friendship with producer Jerry Finn, a key architect of their \"polished\" pop-punk rhythm; according to journalist James Montgomery, writing for MTV News, the veteran engineer \"served as an invaluable member of the Blink team: part adviser, part impartial observer, he helped smooth out tensions and hone their multiplatinum sound.\" This style and sound made for an extensive impact on pop punk, igniting a new wave of the genre.\nIt became a transitionary time for the group, adjusting to larger venues than before, including amphitheaters, arenas, and stadiums. At the beginning of the album's promotional cycle, the trio were driving from show to show in a van with a trailer attached for merchandise and equipment; by its end, they were flying on private jets. Hoppus recalled that \"we had gone from playing small clubs and sleeping on people's floors to headlining amphitheaters and staying in five-star hotels.\" In the public eye, Blink became known for their juvenile antics, including running around nude; the band made a cameo appearance in the similarly bawdy comedy American Pie (1999). This goofy branding, encompassing video documentaries and merchandise, \"made fans feel like members of their extended social circle,\" according to music critic Kelefa Sanneh. While grateful for their success—which the trio parlayed into various business ventures, like Famous Stars and Straps, Atticus Clothing and Macbeth Footwear—they gradually became unhappy with their public image. In one instance, the European arm of UMG had taken photos shot lampooning boy bands and distributed them at face value, making their basis for parody appear thin.\nIn response, a conscious effort was made to make the trio appear more authentic with their next album—the comically titled Take Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001). It became the first punk rock album to reach number one in the U.S., and spawned the singles \"The Rock Show\", \"Stay Together for the Kids\" and \"First Date\". The band supported the LP with the Pop Disaster Tour, a series of co-headlining dates with Green Day. The relentless pace began to wear on the group: they felt rushed into making a follow-up album, with the record label reportedly penalizing the group if they did not \"make their quarterly revenue statements.\" Meanwhile, with time off from touring, DeLonge felt a desire to broaden his musical palette. He channelled his chronic back pain and resulting frustration into Box Car Racer (2002), a project emulating post-hardcore influences. Finn naturally returned to produce, and DeLonge invited Barker to record drums—making Hoppus the odd man out. It marked a major rift in their friendship: while DeLonge claimed he was not intentionally omitted, Hoppus nonetheless felt betrayed. With A&R representatives from MCA eager to market a new band by the guitarist, Box Car Racer quickly evolved into a full-fledged side project, launching two national tours throughout 2002. Barker also extended his love of hip-hop into the rap rock outfit Transplants, a collaboration with Rancid's Tim Armstrong.\n\nThe band regrouped in 2003 to record its fifth studio album, infusing experimentalist elements into its usual pop-punk sound, inspired by lifestyle changes: all three band members became fathers before the album was released. The new Blink-182 album—its front cover emblazoned with a \"smiley face\" logo—was released in November 2003 through Geffen Records, which absorbed sister label MCA earlier that year. Critics generally complimented the new, more emo direction taken for the album and its lead singles \"Feeling This\" and \"I Miss You\" were well received. The global touring schedule, which saw the band travel to Japan and Australia, also found the three performing for troops stationed in the Persian Gulf during the first year of the Iraq War. The band came to regard this period as a \"huge turning point\" in their career, marking a change in the way they write and record music, as well as view themselves. As the aughts wore on however, unresolved tensions within the trio—stemming from the gruelling schedule, Box Car Racer, and DeLonge's desire to spend more time with his family—started to become evident.\n\nHiatus, side projects, and Barker's plane crash (2005–2008)\nIn February 2005, a press statement announced the band's \"indefinite hiatus\"; the band had broken up after members' arguments regarding their future and recording process. DeLonge felt increasingly conflicted both about his creative freedom within the group and the toll touring was taking on his family life. He expressed his desire to take a half-year respite from touring; Hoppus and Barker felt that was overly long. Rehearsals for a benefit concert grew contentious, rooted in the trio's increasing bitterness toward one another; DeLonge considered his bandmates' priorities incompatible, coming to the conclusion that they had simply grown apart. Instead, DeLonge founded Angels & Airwaves, both a band and \"multimedia project\" composed of albums, films, and interactive services. Hoppus and Barker made one album with their next outfit, +44. Barker remained particularly famous; his rocky relationship with former Miss USA Shanna Moakler, chronicled in his MTV reality series Meet the Barkers, made them tabloid favorites.\nThe band members did not speak from their breakup until 2008. That August, former producer and mentor Jerry Finn suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and died. The following month, Barker and collaborator Adam Goldstein were involved in a plane crash that killed four people, leaving them the only two survivors. Barker sustained second and third degree burns and developed post-traumatic stress disorder, and the accident resulted in sixteen surgeries and multiple blood transfusions. Goldstein's injuries were less severe, but less than a year later, he died from a drug overdose. Barker's brush with death prompted him, DeLonge and Hoppus to meet that October, laying the grounds for the band's reunion. The three opened up, discussing the events of the hiatus and their break-up, and DeLonge was the first to approach the subject of reuniting. Hoppus remembered: \"I remember [Tom] said, 'So, what do you guys think? Where are your heads at?' And I said, 'I think we should continue with what we've been doing for the past 17 years. I think we should get back on the road and back in the studio and do what we love doing.'\"\n\nReunion (2009–2014)\nAfter five years apart, the band appeared on stage together as presenters at the February 2009 Grammy Awards, and announced their reunion. The trio embarked on successful a reunion tour of North America from July to October 2009, with a European trek following from August to September 2010. Barker, suffering from a fear of flying after his accident, travelled via bus domestically and in Canada, and by an ocean liner for overseas dates. The recording process for Neighborhoods (2011), the band's sixth studio album, was stalled by its studio autonomy, tours, managers, and personal projects. DeLonge recorded at his studio in San Diego while Hoppus and Barker recorded in Los Angeles—an extension of their strained communication. The self-produced album—their first without Jerry Finn since Enema of the State—was released in September 2011 and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200; its singles, \"Up All Night\" and \"After Midnight\", only attracted modest chart success. Pop punk was in a period of diminished commercial relevance, and label Interscope—now their home after a series of corporate mergers—was reportedly disappointed with album sales.\n\nThe band continued to tour in the early 2010s, \"despite growing evidence of remaining friction\" between the members, according to AllMusic biographer John Bush. They headlined the 10th Annual Honda Civic Tour in North America in 2011 with My Chemical Romance, and launched a 20th Anniversary Tour the next year. For that tour, the band played in Europe twice, North America, and Australia; drummer Brooks Wackerman filled-in for Barker, as he was not yet ready to fly. Additionally, the trio pursued a tenth anniversary celebration of Blink-182 with a series of shows, and played the Reading and Leeds Festivals; it was the band's fourth appearance at the festival and second headlining slot. The band also parted ways with long-time label UMG, self-releasing their next project, Dogs Eating Dogs, an EP. DeLonge's final performance with the group was at the Wine Amplified Festival in Las Vegas, Nevada, on October 11, 2014.\nThis initial reunion of the band has been characterized as dysfunctional by both Barker and DeLonge. Hoppus commented on this era of the band in a later interview: \"Everything was always very contentious. There was always just a strange vibe. [...] I knew there was something wrong.\" In his memoir, Can I Say, Barker claims DeLonge's behavior on tour was \"introverted\" until \"money started coming in,\" after which \"he'd get excited about Blink.\" He states DeLonge abruptly quit sometime in mid-2014, and re-joined the following day.\n\nDeLonge's second exit and Matt Skiba era (2015–2021)\nThe group planned to begin writing their seventh album in January 2015, which had continually seen delays. \"I'd do interviews and I just felt awful for fans because they were promised albums for years and we couldn't do it,\" Barker later said. A record deal with independent service BMG was finalized and sessions were booked before DeLonge's manager informed the band he intended to spend more time on \"non-musical activities\" and indefinitely depart from the group. In his own statement, DeLonge remarked that he \"Never planned on quitting, [I] just find it hard as hell to commit.\" For the rest of the 2010s, DeLonge focused on his company To the Stars... Academy of Arts & Sciences full-time, devoted to investigating UFOs.\nHoppus and Barker decided to continue on without DeLonge, and enlisted Alkaline Trio vocalist/guitarist Matt Skiba to \"fill in\" for three shows in March 2015. Hoppus and Skiba had been wanting to work together musically for several years, so he was the first and only person considered for the role. After legal battles with DeLonge were worked out, Skiba joined Blink-182 as an official member and began preparations for new music. The resulting album, California, was produced by John Feldmann, the group's first new producer since long-time collaborator Jerry Finn. Upon its July 2016 release though BMG, California became the band's second number-one album on the Billboard 200, and first in 15 years; it also topped the charts for the first time in the United Kingdom. Its lead single, \"Bored to Death\", became their biggest hit in years, marking their third domestic chart-topper on the Alternative Songs chart. Both the single and album became their first gold-certified releases in over a decade, with the LP earning the band their first Grammy Award nomination. The band supported the album with a large headlining tour across North America between July and October 2016, and a European leg in June and July 2017. A double-disc deluxe edition of California was issued in 2017.\nDuring these years, the band was active in collaborating with a variety of outside artists, sometimes without Skiba's involvement; the group jointly issued singles with XXXTentacion, Lil Wayne, Goody Grace, Steve Aoki, Powfu, Oliver Tree, and the Chainsmokers. The trio moved back to a major label, Columbia, for their eighth studio effort, Nine (2019). While Nine builds upon their partnership with Feldmann, it also utilizes additional outside producers and songwriters. Musically, the LP augments the band's pop punk sound with hip hop-inspired programming, as well as electronics. The promotional cycle for NINE was stunted by the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2020; a planned tour with the Used was shelved, with live concerts considered unsafe. The band responded with the release of \"Quarantine\", though the track–credited only to Barker, Hoppus, and other songwriters–raised questions about Skiba's continued involvement in the band. A partially-completed EP did not see release, and the band's last performance with Skiba, a pre-pandemic gig at iHeartRadio's 2020 ALTer EGO, took place in Los Angeles on January 18, 2020.\n\nHoppus' cancer battle and DeLonge's second return (2022–present)\nAs the band entered its fourth decade, a series of events prompted a change in the band's direction. Barker—experiencing a renewed spotlight due to his marriage to Kourtney Kardashian— helped re-ignite a rise in pop-punk's mainstream viability, and also overcame his long-held fear of flying. During this time, DeLonge began to repair his relationship with Barker, with the two frequently discussing when he could return to the band. Hoppus on the other hand still held some grievances against DeLonge, and while Barker would discuss DeLonge's return to the band with him, he was still uncertain. That same year, Hoppus was diagnosed with a deadly lymphoma; he underwent extensive chemotherapy and emerged cancer-free by late 2021. His diagnosis prompted DeLonge to re-convene with him again and overcome old disputes. Barker felt that the band having successfully toured and made albums in DeLonge's absence established themselves; he termed it a \"wake-up call\" for DeLonge. Likewise, Barker's renewed ability to travel by air opened possibilities to tour in areas the band had never, namely Latin America. With restored friendship and focus, the three tentatively began recording in secret in early 2022. Skiba quietly stepped aside with poise for DeLonge to reclaim his spot, maintaining he was happy for his time in the band.\nThe band announced DeLonge's return in October 2022, as well as a large world tour. News of DeLonge's imminent return had swirled in fan communities for months. A new single, \"Edging\", accompanied the announcement, which became their fourth number one on Billboard's Alternative Airplay, and the band's highest-charting single on the all-genre Hot 100 in eighteen years. The band returned to the stage with a surprise appearance at Coachella in April 2023, their first performance with DeLonge in nine years. The North American leg of the World Tour began mid-year, and became their best-performing outing yet, grossing over $85 million; a European tour commenced in September. The band continued to perform throughout 2024, with the band mounting their first tour of Australia in over a decade, and first-ever South American shows as a part of Lollapalooza in Chile, Argentina, and Brazil. They undertook a second North American leg alongside Pierce the Veil midway through the year, and headlined Reading and Leeds in the U.K. in August, marking the tenth anniversary since their last time headlining. These tours marked the first time the group were able to upgrade to stadiums.\nThe band's ninth studio album, One More Time..., was released in October 2023, and became the band's third number-one album on the Billboard 200 in the U.S., reaching the top five in a dozen other countries. The LP received largely favorable responses from music critics, with most celebrating the band's back-to-basics approach. The album's title track became the band's longest-running number one single on the Alternative Airplay chart domestically. A deluxe edition of One More Time called One More Time... Part-2 was released on September 6, 2024.\nIn August 2024, DeLonge stated that while they intended to take a break once the tour concluded, the band will \"be the priority forever [...] Honestly, I think this is a whole new beginning for the band. With what we’re planning on doing, who we’ve become, and how we’re doing it now I think it’s really, really exciting.\"\n\nMusical style, lyrical themes, and influences\nBlink-182's musical style is mainly considered pop-punk, a genre that combines influences of pop music with traditional punk rock. Throughout the band's career, though their sound has diversified, a large component of the band's music favors fast tempos, catchy melodies, prominent electric guitar with distortion, and power chord changes. Earlier albums by the band have also been considered as skate punk and punk rock, owing to the genre's most representative bands which they were influenced by and toured with. In addition, the band has also been classified under the umbrella of alternative rock as a whole. The band have claimed punk rock group the Descendents to be their greatest influence on a number of occasions. They have also named The Beatles, The Ramones, The Beach Boys, The Cure, Depeche Mode, U2, Stiff Little Fingers, All, Dinosaur Jr., NOFX, Bad Religion, Refused, Fugazi, Screeching Weasel, The Vandals, the Queers, and Jimmy Eat World as inspirations.\nCommon lyrical themes for the band involve relationships, suburbia, toilet humour, and teen angst. Hoppus and DeLonge, and later Skiba, split songwriting duty, and much of their lyrics tend toward autobiography. According to Nitsuh Abebe, of New York, the band's biggest recurring topic is maturity—\"more specifically, their lack of it, their attitude toward their lack of it, or their eventual wide-eyed exploration of it\". One of the band's biggest singles, \"What's My Age Again?\", specifically addresses the Peter Pan syndrome, while \"Dammit\", the band's first mainstream hit single, contains the hook \"Well, I guess this is growing up.\" Albums such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket near-exclusively deal in toilet humour and teen-cantered lyrics, leading Rolling Stone to dub it a concept album chronicling adolescence. For Hoppus, these themes were not exclusively adolescent: \"The things that happen to you in high school are the same things that happen your entire life. You can fall in love at sixty; you can get rejected at eighty.\" Mid-career albums, such as Neighborhoods (2011), explore darker territory, such as depression and loss. More recent efforts, like California (2016), aim for universality but also focus on miscommunication and loss of identity.\nMusically, the band's sound has progressed throughout their 30-year career. Tom DeLonge's guitar style, which trades solos for riffs, is often down-stroked and power-chord heavy, with large amounts of palm muting. His later guitar work heavily delves into effects, exploring ambience and delay prominently. Many Blink songs centre on the I–V–vi–IV progression. As a bassist, Hoppus is known for his well-defined midrange tone. Since the band is a trio, he approaches his role as a combination of being a rhythm guitarist and bassist. Early albums, such as Cheshire Cat (1995) and Dude Ranch (1997), were recorded with original drummer Scott Raynor, and consist of fast-paced, double-time songs. Drummer Travis Barker diversified the band's sound rhythmically when he joined in 1998. Throughout their discography, Barker's drumming references myriad musical genres, including Afro-Cuban music, bossa nova, reggae, and hip hop. Barker grew up playing in marching band, and it still influences his drum fills and kit setup.\nBlink-182 were considered more radio-friendly than their predecessors. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times writes that the band \"[took] punk's already playful core and [gave] it a shiny, accessible polish.\" Luke Lewis, writing for Total Guitar in 2003, summarized it aptly: \"They wrote catchy songs, radio stations played them.\" The band's biggest hit, \"All the Small Things\", was written partially because DeLonge figured the label might want a song for radio. \"It was obvious from the beginning it would fit that format,\" he told Lewis. \"There's nothing wrong with that. We don't want obstacles between us and our audience.\" DeLonge commented on the band's mainstream appeal in an interview in 2014:\n\nPunk rock was becoming polished. NOFX [was] a punk band we grew up listening to, and they had a record called Punk in Drublic, and it was awesome. It was game-changing; it sounded good. We wanted to take it to the next level. [...] There had never been a pop punk band that sounded like nursery rhymes on steroids, on the mainstream level at least. And that's what I used to have daydreams of. I used to think the radio could use that, could use a band that was really powerful and catchy and fast and youthful and angsty.\n\nPublic image\nOver the band's thirty-year career, the public image of Blink-182 has evolved with their sound. Whereas other punk acts emerged from sometimes dangerous urban environments, Blink-182 professed a love for their upbringing in the suburbs—\"beige little boxes in a row\", Hoppus extolled in one song. \"They weren't selling out; they were buying in,\" observed Pitchfork critic Jeremy Gordon. \"Part of that was Hoppus and Delonge's exurban SoCal upbringing, which encouraged a sunny prankishness at odds with urban despair.\" The band attracted criticism for their simplified arrangements and clean sound. British publication NME was particularly critical, with reviewer Steven Wells comparing them to \"that sanitized, castrated, shrink-wrapped 'new wave' crap that the major US record companies pumped out circa 1981 in their belated attempt to jump on the 'punk' bandwagon.\" Blink-182 were frequently listed among the most derided global rock acts in the 2000s, alongside acts like Creed or Nickelback; meanwhile, a 2001 Federal Trade Commission report condemned the entertainment industry for marketing lewd lyrics to American youth, specifically naming Blink-182 as among the most explicit acts. Their goofy public image and juvenilia also found detractors. Original punk veterans like John Lydon dismissed them as \"comedy act\", and forebears like Green Day openly critiqued their stage presence. NOFX, progenitors of this clownish camaraderie, felt they had copied their act; Fat Mike, its frontman, was known to sing \"fuck fans of Blink-182\" at shows.\nThe band's conventional appeal, as well as partnerships with MTV, boardsport companies, and clothing brands, led to accusations that they were betraying the independent spirit of punk rock. The band were considered sellouts from the underground punk scene as early as 1996, when they first partnered with music conglomerate UMG. A more far-left segment of the scene decried their fixation on female fans flashing them at concerts, in addition to lyrics considered sexist or misogynistic. Some writers have called their stage banter—juvenile, occasionally homophobic or sexist for shock value—an accurate reflection of millennial male conversation in its era. Others have considered them among the least offensive of the aughts pop-punk wave and its common disdain for women. \"Many of Blink's best songs endure because they turn inward: the lovelorn boy has sense enough to wonder what's wrong with him,\" observed Kelefa Sanneh. To this end, the band has also been examined through a homosocial lens, with the band's internal drama and the friendship between DeLonge and Hoppus scrutinized in this light: \"A queer reading of Blink-182 may almost be too obvious to make,\" admitted Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic, \"but playing with and panicking at the idea of being gay was actually vital to the band's identity [...] the guys' [brotherhood] is part of what inspires \"shipping\" blogs and slash fanfiction.\"\n\nLegacy\nBlink-182 was one of the most popular rock bands at the turn of the millennium, and spearheaded the second wave of pop-punk and its journey into the mainstream. The glossy production instantly set Blink-182 apart from the other crossover punk acts of the era, such as Green Day. Its third LP Enema of the State catapulted the band to stardom, creating what New York's Abebe described as a \"blanket immersion among America's twenty-some million teenagers.\" At the band's commercial peak, albums such as Take Off Your Pants and Jacket and Enema sold over 14 and 15 million copies worldwide, respectively. According to Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker, Blink-182 \"spawned more imitators than any American rock band since Nirvana. Their seeming ordinariness convinced a generation of goofy punks that maybe they, too, could turn out deceptively simple songs as well constructed as anything on the pop chart.\" Most Blink-182 songs are considered straightforward and easy to play on guitar, making them a popular choice of practice for beginner musicians. Lewis of Total Guitar notes that this was key in influencing a generation of kids to \"pick up the guitar and form bands of their own.\"\nDespite this, the band never received particularly glowing reviews, with many reviewers dismissing them as a joke. Nevertheless, subsequent reviews of the band's discography have been more positive. Andy Greenwald of Blender wrote, \"the quick transformation from nudists to near geniuses is down-right astonishing.\" James Montgomery of MTV said that \"despite their maturation, Blink never took themselves particularly seriously, which was another reason they were so accessible.\" A new generation of rock fans found the Blink sound \"hugely influential,\" according to Nicole Frehsée of Rolling Stone. Sanneh concurred: in his 2021 book Major Labels, he calls the band a \"generational touchstone\", arguing their sound and humor aged gracefully.\nIn 2011, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times asserted that \"no punk band of the 1990s has been more influential than Blink-182,\" stating that even as the band receded after their initial 2005 split, \"its sound and style could be heard in the muscular pop punk of Fall Out Boy or in the current wave of high-gloss Warped Tour punk bands, like All Time Low and The Maine.\" Montgomery agrees: \"...without them, there'd be no Fall Out Boy, no Paramore, or no Fueled by Ramen Records.\" Maria Sherman of The Village Voice took this a step further, writing \"Apart from the sound, Blink's ideology has been popularized [...] their presence is everywhere.\" \"When it comes to having inestimable influence, Blink-182 might well be contemporary punk's version of the Beatles\", wrote Scott Heisel in a 2009 Alternative Press cover story on the band. The same magazine later ranked Blink the fourth of the \"30 Most Influential Bands of the Past 30 Years,\" just behind Radiohead, Fugazi, and Nirvana. Bands such as Panic! at the Disco and All Time Low originated covering Blink-182 songs, while You Me at Six, and 5 Seconds of Summer have also named the band as influences. \"Anyone in our genre would be lying if they said they weren't influenced by Blink-182,\" said Joel Madden of Good Charlotte. The band's influence extends beyond punk and pop-punk groups as well: the band has been cited as an influence by Avril Lavigne, Best Coast, Juice Wrld, Lil Peep, DIIV, FIDLAR, Grimes, Male Bonding, Neck Deep, Mumford & Sons, A Day to Remember, Machine Gun Kelly, Owl City, Charly Bliss, Tucker Beathard, Joyce Manor, Wavves, Taylor Swift and the Chainsmokers; the latter even mentioned the band in the lyrics of their number-one hit song \"Closer\".\nIn 2019, Blink-182's song \"All the Small Things\" became the theme song of the National Hockey League's Colorado Avalanche.\n\nBand members\nCurrent members\n\nMark Hoppus – bass, vocals (1992–2005, 2009–present); guitars (2020)\nTom DeLonge – guitars, vocals (1992–2005, 2009–2015, 2022–present); keyboards (2012)\nTravis Barker – drums (1998–2005, 2009–present; touring member 1998); occasional backing vocals (2003, 2016, 2023–present), keyboards, piano (2012, 2018–2019)\nFormer members\n\nScott Raynor – drums (1992–1998)\nMatt Skiba – guitars, vocals (2015–2022; touring member 2015)\nFormer touring musicians\n\nTimeline\nDiscography\nCheshire Cat (1995)\nDude Ranch (1997)\nEnema of the State (1999)\nTake Off Your Pants and Jacket (2001)\nBlink-182 (2003)\nNeighborhoods (2011)\nCalifornia (2016)\nNine (2019)\nOne More Time... (2023)\n\nTours\nHeadlining\n\nCo-headlining\nPop Disaster Tour (with Green Day) (2002)\nSummer Tour 2004 (with No Doubt) (2004)\n10th Annual Honda Civic Tour (with My Chemical Romance) (2011)\nBlink-182 and Lil Wayne Tour (with Lil Wayne) (2019)\n\nAwards and nominations\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nBlink-182 at AllMusic",
"title": "Blink-182"
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"paragraph_text": "The Pop Disaster Tour was a concert tour co-headlined by American rock bands Blink-182 and Green Day. The two groups, with supporting acts Jimmy Eat World, Kut U Up, Saves the Day, and Simple Plan toured for two months across the United States, as well as one in Canada, mostly in outdoor amphitheatres.\n\nBackground\nThe tour was conceived by Blink-182 to echo the famous Monsters of Rock tours; the idea was to have, effectively, a Monsters of Punk tour. The tour, from the band's point of view, had been put together as a show of unity in the face of consistent accusations of rivalry between the two bands, especially in Europe. Instead, Green Day's Tré Cool acknowledged in a Kerrang! interview that they committed to the tour as an opportunity to regain their status at the top of the tree, as their spotlight had faded over the years. \"We set out to reclaim our throne as the most incredible live punk band from you know who\", said Cool. Cool contended that \"we heard they were going to quit the tour because they were getting smoked so badly […] We didn't want them to quit the tour. They're good for filling up the seats up front.\"\n\nRiding in Vans with Boys\nThe 2003 film Riding in Vans with Boys follows the Pop Disaster Tour throughout the U.S from Kut U Up's perspective. DeLonge and Hoppus had the idea for the film, and enlisted Matt Beauchesne, who also worked on their documentary The Urethra Chronicles II: Harder Faster Faster Harder, to direct. It was designed to be \"a social experiment that shows exactly what would happen if an average Joe band spent two months with two of the biggest groups in rock.\"\n\nSet list\nTour dates\nReception\nMany reviewers were unimpressed with Blink-182's headlining set following Green Day. \"Sometimes playing last at a rock show is more a curse than a privilege […] Pity the headliner, for instance, that gets blown off the stage by the band before it. Blink-182 endured that indignity Saturday at the Shoreline Amphitheatre\", a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle wrote in 2002.\nThe Pop Disaster Tour as a whole grossed nearly $20 million from 45 shows.\n\nPersonnel\nSee also\nHella Mega Tour\n\nReferences\nShooman, Joe (June 24, 2010). Blink-182: The Bands, The Breakdown & The Return. Independent Music Press. ISBN 978-1-906191-10-8.\n\n\n== Notes ==",
"title": "Pop_Disaster_Tour"
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"paragraph_text": "Capital One Arena is an indoor arena in Washington, D.C. Located in the Chinatown section of the larger Penn Quarter neighborhood, the arena sits atop the Gallery Place rapid transit station of the Washington Metro. The arena was opened on December 2, 1997, as MCI Center but renamed to Verizon Center in 2006 when MCI was acquired by Verizon Communications and changed again to its current name in 2017.\nOwned and operated by Monumental Sports & Entertainment, it is the home arena of the Washington Capitals of the National Hockey League (NHL), the Washington Wizards of the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the Georgetown University men's basketball team. It was also home to the Washington Mystics of the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) from 1998 to 2018, after which they moved to the Entertainment and Sports Arena in southeast Washington for the 2019 season.\nThough the arena project was a commercial success for its backers, it has contributed to the gentrification of the surrounding area, the displacement of most of its Asian-American residents (the local Chinese-American population, which numbered over 3,000 before the arena's construction, was a mere 300 in 2023), and the replacement of most of the small businesses and restaurants that served the Asian-American community by large national corporations.\n\nHistory\nThe block where the arena was built, between 6th and 7th and F and G Streets, historically held a mix of residences and small businesses. By the 1960s, it was suffering from urban decay, like much of the eastern end of Downtown Washington. In 1973, while the Gallery Place Metro station was being developed below it, the District government bought the land in hopes of redeveloping it. Capital Landmark Associates was selected in 1979 to develop the site with a planned mixed-use complex including retail, offices, apartments, and a hotel. Most of the remaining buildings on the site were demolished in 1985. The project languished for many years but never materialized, and was finally canceled in 1992.\nBefore the arena's opening, the Capitals and the Wizards (then known as the Washington Bullets) played at USAir Arena in the Washington suburb of Landover, Maryland. The teams experienced subpar attendance because the location was inconvenient for both Washington and Baltimore residents, and their arena, though only 20 years old, was not up to the standards of other NBA and NHL venues. In December 1993, Abe Pollin, the owner of both teams, began studying options to move the teams to a new arena to be built with public financing, with possible locations including Baltimore, downtown Washington, and Laurel, Maryland.\n\nA group of Washington business leaders brokered a deal between Pollin and the District government to build an arena at the Gallery Place site, with the District paying for the $150 million project, which was envisioned to have shopping, food, and exhibitors for daily use even when there was no arena event. The D.C. Council approved a special tax on businesses to finance the deal. However, a competing proposal soon emerged, when Robert Johnson, head of Black Entertainment Television, offered to build the arena with mostly private financing. With the arena deal facing criticism amid the District's budget crisis, Pollin eventually agreed to privately fund the construction of the building, which ultimately came to $200 million (US$365 million in 2023 dollars). The District would pay for other costs, including purchasing the portion of the land it did not already own, preparing the site, and expanding the Metro station; these eventually amounted to $79 million (US$138 million in 2023 dollars). The District leased the land to Pollin at a below-market rate of $300,000 per year.\nA naming rights deal was struck with MCI Communications to name the arena as the MCI Center. The groundbreaking ceremony for the project was held in October 1995. On December 2, 1997, the arena held its first event, a game between the Wizards and the Seattle SuperSonics, with President Bill Clinton in attendance. The arena had a 25,000-square-foot (2,300 m2) Discovery Channel Store from 1998 to 2001 and the MCI National Sports Gallery, an interactive sports museum with interactive games, memorabilia, and the American Sportscasters Hall of Fame inside from 1998 to 2000 or 2001 which was repurposed for office space. Clinton toured the gallery before the game, playing the museum games. A block of F Street NW between 6th and 7th Street NW outside the arena was declared Fun Street, complete with signage. This block later was declared Abe Pollin Way in 2007. The arena was noted for building spectator seats vertically rather than out, creating better views for all attending albeit with limited leg room in the upper levels, as well as spacious quarters for players and coaches with advanced competitive research technology. The arena concourse featured multimedia arenaNet stations where fans could check scores, watch highlights, and send digital postcards over email. These replaced an abandoned idea to have smart seats with televisions and technology that was scrapped due to technological challenges. Arena technology was powered by a virtual LAN software and switching technology called ArenaNET from Cabletron Systems.\nIn 1999, a group led by technology executive Ted Leonsis bought a 36% stake in Pollin's holdings, including the MCI Center, as well as full ownership of the Capitals. The Leonsis group increased its stake to 44% in 2000.\n\nIn January 2006, Verizon Communications purchased MCI and the arena's name was changed accordingly to Verizon Center. VIDA Fitness opened its first location in the arena that same year. The following year, in 2007, the \"first true indoor high-definition LED scoreboard\" was installed in the arena. In May 2024, VIDA Fitness announced they will be closing their Gallery Place location. Gallery Place, a 14-screen movie theater, opened at Capital One Arena in 2004.\nIn June 2010, following Pollin's death in November 2009, the Leonsis group, newly organized as Monumental Sports & Entertainment, bought out Pollin's interests, gaining full ownership of the arena and the Wizards.\nA report emerged in May 2015 that Verizon would not renew its naming rights to the Verizon Center when its agreement with Monumental was to end in 2018. In the same week, it was announced that Etihad Airways signed a deal to become the official airline of the arena, sparking speculation that Etihad might be the leading contender to assume naming rights in 2017. However, on August 9, 2017, it was announced the bank Capital One had purchased the rights, renaming the venue Capital One Arena.\n\nIn 2019 and 2020, Monumental Sports undertook a $30 million renovation of the stadium. This included completely replacing the arena's seating, improving the concourse, and altering many of the arena's dining options. A new, larger overhead video board was also added as well as a new SkyRing video screen that goes around the top of the arena.\nIn July 2020, bookmaker William Hill opened a sportsbook at the arena, following the 2018 legalization of sports betting in Washington. It was the first brick-and-mortar sportsbook in the District, and the first to open at a professional sports venue in the United States.\nOn June 23, 2023, The Washington Post reported that Monumental Sports was considering moving the Capitals and Wizards to a new arena in the National Landing area of Arlington in Northern Virginia if the Washington, D.C. government did not invest in upgrades to the arena and surrounding area. Despite this, the article outlined that the city intended on continuing its dialogue with the company to keep both teams in Capital One Arena. Monumental later pivoted to a part of the National Landing area lying in a different Northern Virginia jurisdiction, announcing on December 13, 2023, that it planned to build the new arena in the Potomac Yard area of Alexandria. Under the revised plan, Capital One Arena would have remained in use as a concert and event venue during the NBA and NHL seasons, and also become the permanent home of Monumental's Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) team, the Washington Mystics. In March 2024, after officials in Alexandria announced that the $2 billion entertainment and sports complex plans were scrapped, Washington, D.C. mayor Muriel Bowser announced she has signed a deal with both teams' majority owner, Ted Leonsis, to keep the Capitals and Wizards in the District \"at least until 2050.\" In May 2024, Capital One Arena was ranked as the 8th most dangerous arena based on factors including fan behavior and the crime rates for the surrounding area.\n\nSports\nIce hockey\nThe arena has been home to the Capitals NHL team since its opening. As a result, numerous memorable moments in franchise history have occurred in the arena. The arena hosted games three and four of the 1998 Stanley Cup Finals, when the Capitals lost to the Detroit Red Wings in four games. The Red Wings hoisted the namesake Stanley Cup in the arena on June 16, 1998, after winning game four by a score of 4–1. On April 5, 2008, the Capitals won the Southeast Division in the last game of the regular season, after beating the Florida Panthers 3–1. Game 2 of the 2009 Eastern Conference semifinals between the Capitals and the Pittsburgh Penguins, played on May 4, 2009, saw dueling hat tricks from Ovechkin and rival Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins, culminating in a 4–3 victory for Washington thanks to an additional goal from David Steckel. The arena also hosted games three and four of the 2018 Stanley Cup Finals. The Capitals won both games and then went on to win game five in Las Vegas to capture the Stanley Cup for the first major sports championship for a Washington, D.C. team since the 1991 Washington Redskins. The Capitals had their Stanley Cup banner installation ceremony in the arena before their first game of the next season, which took place on October 3, 2018.\n\nNon-NHL hockey events\nThe arena hosted the 2009 \"Frozen Four\", the final round of the 2009 NCAA Division I men's ice hockey tournament Boston University took Miami OH in overtime 4–3.\nThe JMU vs UVA non-varsity club teams played a 60 min thrilling rink-of-dreams-style match shortly after Washington's win against New York UVA Took JMU 6–4.\nThe inaugural 2024 Capital Hockey Classic is scheduled to take place on December 12, 2024, This event marks the first full-fledged college hockey event since the 2009 D1 Finals. It will feature military and club collegiate ice hockey teams, showcasing talent and competition.\nThe Capital Hockey Classic aims to capture attention, especially since it occurs just two days before the Army-Navy game at the nearby Commanders Field. The event will include two matches: the first game will feature Army vs Navy Club hockey, followed by the Army Black Knights vs. the Penn State Nittany Lions.\n\nBasketball\nThe arena has been home to the Wizards NBA team since its opening and was home to the Washington Mystics WNBA team from 1998 to 2018, before the Mystics moved to a new, smaller arena in the Congress Heights area of southeast Washington. In 2024, the Mystics relocated their June 7 and September 19 games against the Indiana Fever to CapitalOne Arena, citing the demand of tickets as a result of the rising popularity of Caitlin Clark. The Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball team has also played there since the arena's opening. The arena has hosted three basketball all star games: the 2001 NBA All-Star Game and the 2002 and 2007 WNBA All-Star Games. The arena has been home to many playoff games, but has yet to host an NBA Finals.\nThe arena has hosted games for the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament several times. It hosted first- and second-round games in 1998, 2002, 2008 and 2011, and hosted the regional finals in 2006, 2013 and 2019. Most notably the 2005–06 George Mason Patriots men's basketball team from nearby Fairfax, Virginia advanced to the Final Four in the arena. The arena also hosted the Atlantic 10 men's basketball tournament in 2018 and 2022. It hosted the ACC men's basketball tournament in 2005, 2016, and 2024. In 2017 the arena hosted the Big Ten men's basketball tournament.\nThe Harlem Globetrotters play in the arena on an annual basis.\n\nFighting and wrestling\nIn the professional fighting world, the arena has hosted WWE events, as well as the final four editions of WCW's Starrcade. The arena has hosted Backlash in 2000, SummerSlam in 2005, Cyber Sunday in 2007, Survivor Series in 2009, Capitol Punishment in 2011, and Battleground in 2016. The arena frequently hosts Raw and SmackDown shows as well. The arena was also home to Mike Tyson's final non-exhibition fight (Mike Tyson vs. Kevin McBride) on June 11, 2005. On October 1, 2011, UFC Live: Cruz vs. Johnson was held at the arena.\nOn December 7, 2019, UFC on ESPN: Overeem vs. Rozenstruik was held at the arena.\nOn October 2, 2019, Capital One Arena hosted AEW Dynamite, the first televised professional wrestling event by All Elite Wrestling. It was broadcast on TNT in the United States of America and on ITV4 in the United Kingdom.\n\nArena football\nIn 2017, the Washington Valor began play at the arena for their inaugural season in the Arena Football League. The Valor folded in 2019 and the arena has not hosted an Arena League game since.\n\nGymnastics and figure skating\nThe arena hosted the 2003 World Figure Skating Championships and the 2016 Kellogg's Tour of Gymnastics Champions.\n\nMusic and other entertainment\nThe arena is a major location for concerts and cultural events in the D.C. region. Among the musical performers, cultural figures, and entertainment shows that have performed at the arena are Olivia Rodrigo, Duran Duran, Ricardo Arjona, Kylie Minogue, Janet Jackson, Mariah Carey, Muse, Paul McCartney, Queen, U2, Iron Maiden, Shakira, Lady Gaga, Madonna, Britney Spears, The Three Tenors, Drake, Barbra Streisand, Bon Jovi, Prince, Tim McGraw, \nFaith Hill, Beyoncé, the Dalai Lama, Tina Turner, Keith Urban, Paul Simon, Sting, The Police, Taylor Swift, Tame Impala, Coldplay, Tyler, the Creator, Elton John, Usher, Green Day, blink-182, The Who, Bad Bunny, Billie Eilish, Dua Lipa, Harry Styles, Trans-Siberian Orchestra, Cage the Elephant, Monster Jam, Disney on Ice, K-POP groups Ateez, Seventeen, NCT DREAM, Jonas Brothers, AJR, IU, Howard University graduation speech by U.S. President Joe Biden, and a Michelle Obama book tour event.\nThe Washington International Horse Show took place every October in the arena for more than 20 years through 2019, after which it was moved out because of the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nCriticism\nGentrification\nWhen the arena opened, there was concern that it would lead to the displacement of Chinese businesses and culture in the area that is the city's Chinatown. The surrounding area has indeed been dramatically gentrified, and most of the Chinese residents and businesses who lived and operated in the neighborhood when the arena first opened have been displaced because of the spike in real estate prices. 2011 estimates hold that the number of Chinese in the neighborhood is down to around 400 to 500. The Chinese-owned restaurants and businesses in the Chinatown area are largely gone and there has not been a full-service Chinese grocery in the neighborhood since 2005.\nA similar stadium project proposed for Philadelphia's Chinatown sparked comparisons in 2023 to the Capital One Arena, and has caused some community backlash.\n\nIce quality issues\nIn December 2007, then-Capitals captain Chris Clark stated that he believed the arena had the worst ice in the NHL. \"There's a lot of ruts in the ice. It's soft. It's wet half the time. I could see a lot of injuries coming from the ice there. It could cost [players] their jobs... Even guys on other teams say the same thing. When we're facing off, they say, 'How do you guys play on this?'\" Capitals owner Ted Leonsis addressed this criticism directly. The ice quality issue has been persistent both since the opening of the facility and with the Capitals franchise in general. Since Leonsis' acquisition of the facility, the quality of the ice has improved and number of complaints has noticeably decreased. During playoff games, the arena installs additional portable refrigeration units outside the arena to aid the ice conditions during the warm and humid summer months.\n\nGallery\nSee also\nList of NCAA Division I basketball arenas\nList of National Hockey League arenas\nList of National Basketball Association arenas\nSports in Washington, D.C.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
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"paragraph_text": "Zooey Claire Deschanel ( ZO-ee day-shə-NEL; born January 17, 1980) is an American actress and musician. She made her film debut in Mumford (1999) and had a supporting role in Cameron Crowe's film Almost Famous (2000). Deschanel is known for her deadpan roles in comedy films such as The Good Girl (2002), The New Guy (2002), Elf (2003), The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (2005), Failure to Launch (2006), Yes Man (2008), 500 Days of Summer (2009), and Our Idiot Brother (2011). She has also ventured into dramatic film territory with Manic (2001), All the Real Girls (2003), Winter Passing (2005), Bridge to Terabithia (2007), The Happening (2008), and The Driftless Area (2015). From 2011 to 2018, she starred as Jess Day on the Fox sitcom New Girl, for which she received nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award and three Golden Globe Awards.\nFor a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in the jazz cabaret act If All the Stars Were Pretty Babies with actress Samantha Shelton. In 2006, Deschanel teamed up with M. Ward to form She & Him, and subsequently released their debut album, Volume One, in 2008. They have since released six albums: Volume Two (2010), A Very She & Him Christmas (2011), Volume 3 (2013), Classics (2014), Christmas Party (2016), and Melt Away: A Tribute to Brian Wilson (2022). She received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written for Visual Media for \"So Long\", which was featured on the soundtrack of the 2011 film Winnie the Pooh. Besides singing, she plays keyboards, percussion, banjo, and ukulele.\nDeschanel is also a co-founder of the female-focused website HelloGiggles, which was acquired by Time Inc. in 2015.\n\nEarly life\nZooey Claire Deschanel was born in Los Angeles, California on January 17, 1980, the younger daughter of cinematographer and director Caleb Deschanel and actress Mary Jo Deschanel (née Weir). Her paternal grandfather was French, from Oullins, Rhône, and her paternal grandmother came from a Quaker family; she also has Swiss, Dutch, English, Irish, and other French ancestry. She was named after Zooey Glass, the protagonist of J. D. Salinger's 1961 novella Franny and Zooey. Her older sister is actress Emily Deschanel, who starred in the Fox crime comedy-drama series Bones.\nDeschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location. She later said that she:\n\n... hated all the traveling... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to. \nShe attended Crossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, where she befriended future co-stars Jake Gyllenhaal and Kate Hudson. She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre and attending French Woods Festival of the Performing Arts. She attended Northwestern University for nine months before dropping out to pursue acting.\n\nActing career\n1997–2002: Early acting credits\nDeschanel had a guest appearance on the television series Veronica's Closet in 1998. She made her film debut in Lawrence Kasdan's comedy Mumford (1999), revolving around the neurotic residents in a small town and co-starring Hope Davis, Jason Lee, Alfre Woodard and Mary McDonnell.\nThat same year, she appeared in a non-singing role in the music video for The Offspring's single \"She's Got Issues\", which premiered on September 27, 1999. Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards. In 2005, she modeled for Chanel and Clements Ribeiro, and in 2010, she signed to represent Rimmel.\nDeschanel co-starred in Cameron Crowe's semi-autobiographical Almost Famous (2000), where she played Anita Miller, the rebellious older sister of a teenage journalist. Despite a modest box office response, the film received critical praise, winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Film – Musical or Comedy. Deschanel appeared in the independent drama Manic (2001), as the love interest of a troubled teen (Joseph Gordon-Levitt). The film was screened at the Sundance Film Festival and received a limited theatrical release. The New York Times found Deschanel to be \"particularly spontaneous, unaffected and emotionally direct\" in her role.\nFollowing early notice, Deschanel took on supporting parts in four feature films released throughout 2002: Big Trouble, The New Guy, The Good Girl, and Abandon. In the comedy Big Trouble, with Tim Allen and Rene Russo, she played the daughter of a devoted and reluctant woman, and in the teen comedy The New Guy, starred as a guitar player in a band. Deschanel portrayed a cynical, plain-spoken young woman working in a big-box store in the black dramedy The Good Girl, opposite Jennifer Aniston and Jake Gyllenhaal. The psychological thriller Abandon saw her play the roommate of a woman involved in her boyfriend's disappearance. Deschanel also made a one-episode appearance in Frasier, as Roz's out-of-control Cousin, Jen. The New York Times reported that Deschanel was \"one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars\", in 2002, and the Los Angeles Times wrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizable type, due to \"her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing [film] performances\" as the protagonist's best friend. Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, \"A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now.\"\n\n2003–2010: Breakthrough\nDeschanel obtained her first leading film role debut in the independent drama All the Real Girls (2003) as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-old virgin who has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and was an arthouse success. Her performance received wide critical acclaim, and Variety remarked: \"Performances are all credible and naturalistic, but standing out from the rest is Deschanel's work, which evinces an impressively direct connection to her character's emotions. The actress does a wonderful job presenting a young woman who is trying, with varying degrees of success, to give voice to all sorts of things she has never felt or expressed before\". She received an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Actress. Also in 2003, Deschanel starred opposite Will Ferrell in the Christmas comedy Elf as a deadpan department store worker and the love interest of a man raised by Santa's elves. Reviewers found the film to be a \"spirited, good-natured family comedy\" as part of an overall positive critical response; and, budgeted at US$33 million, Elf made US$220.4 million worldwide.\n\nIn 2004, Deschanel starred in Eulogy, and in 2005 played Trillian in the film adaptation of Douglas Adams's science fiction novel The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. She acted in Winter Passing (2005), co-starring Will Ferrell. Deschanel next appeared in Failure to Launch (2006), as the neurotic roommate of Sarah Jessica Parker's character. She also had a recurring role in four episodes of the Showtime television series Weeds from 2006 to 2007 where she played Kat, Andy Botwin's ex-girlfriend. In September 2006, it was announced that Deschanel had signed on to play 1960s singer Janis Joplin in the film The Gospel According to Janis, to be co-written and directed by Penelope Spheeris. The film was scheduled to begin shooting in 2006, but was then postponed indefinitely; it was then resurrected again, with a planned release date of 2012, before being cancelled altogether in 2011. Deschanel expressed frustration with the cancellation, saying she had spent three years working on imitating Joplin's scratchy singing voice.\nIn 2007, Deschanel played a music teacher in Bridge to Terabithia, and the voice of a penguin in the animated film Surf's Up. She had a small role as Dorothy Evans in the revisionist Western The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford and starred in the B comedy Flakes, which was released in only one theater. Deschanel starred as DG in the Syfy miniseries Tin Man, a re-imagined science fiction version of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. It aired in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's book Players in Pigtails. She voiced Mary, Cletus's daughter in three episodes of The Simpsons since debuting on the April 27, 2008, episode, \"Apocalypse Cow\".\nIn M. Night Shyamalan's thriller The Happening (2008), she starred opposite Mark Wahlberg as a couple trying to escape from an inexplicable natural disaster. Despite largely negative reviews, critic Roger Ebert felt that Wahlberg and Deschanel's performances \"bring a quiet dignity to their characters\", and globally, the film made US$163 million. She starred in the independent comedy Gigantic (2008), which screened at the Toronto International Film Festival and was distributed for a limited release in certain parts of the United States only. In the comedy Yes Man (also 2008), she played an unorthodox singer and the girlfriend of Jim Carrey's character. The film grossed US$223.1 million around the world.\nDeschanel reunited with Joseph Gordon-Levitt in the independent romantic drama about the development and demise of a relationship (500) Days of Summer (2009). The film garnered critical acclaim and became a \"sleeper hit\", earning over $60 million in worldwide returns, far exceeding its $7.5 million budget. Mark Adams of the Daily Mirror found the film to be a \"modern romance for grown-ups\" and a \"sweet-natured, funny, deeply-romantic tale\" blessed with \"top-notch performances by Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt, who are both charming and have real chemistry\". In December 2009, Deschanel guest-starred in a Christmas episode of the Fox crime procedural comedy-drama Bones, which was the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters.\n\nSince 2010: New Girl and other projects\nDeschanel was originally the top choice for Janet van Dyne / The Wasp in an early draft of Joss Whedon's The Avengers in which she would have played a prominent role. However, once Scarlett Johansson was cast as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow, Deschanel was no longer in consideration to portray the Wasp with Janet's daughter Hope van Dyne taking up the mantle in the Infinity Saga, played by Evangeline Lilly.\nDeschanel starred in the comedy Our Idiot Brother (2011) as the independent and bisexual sister of a dimwitted but idealistic man (Paul Rudd). The production was screened at the Sundance Film Festival, to a generally positive critical reception. She played Belladonna in the stoner fantasy-comedy Your Highness (2011), with Danny McBride and James Franco. The film received negative reviews and bombed at the box office. Describing her role, Roger Ebert noted in its review for the film: \"[Deschanel is] brought onstage, quickly kidnapped by an evil sorcerer, spends a good deal of time as a captive in his lair, is rescued and lives happily ever after. She might as well be a mannequin, for all she's given to say and do. This intelligent, nuanced actress, standing there baffled. Used as a placeholder\".\nDeschanel signed on to star as a bubbly and offbeat teacher Jessica \"Jess\" Day on the Fox sitcom New Girl, created by Elizabeth Meriwether. She became a producer on the show and helped build the character, which she has described as a part of her, especially in regards to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth. The series premiered in September 2011, and USA Today described her performance as \"a role tailored to launch her from respected indie actor to certified [television] star, Deschanel soars, combining well-honed skills with a natural charm\". She has received an Emmy Award nomination and three Golden Globe nominations for her role. The series finale ran on May 15, 2018.\nDeschanel hosted Saturday Night Live on February 11, 2012. That same year, she was featured in a commercial for the iPhone 4S (Siri).\nIn Rock the Kasbah (2015), she played a Los Angeles singer taken to Afghanistan by her former manager (Bill Murray). Despite a US$15 million budget, the comedy only made US$3 million at the North American box office. She obtained the role of a mysterious woman in the neo-noir drama The Driftless Area (2015), screened at the Tribeca Film Festival and released on video on demand and home media. She voiced a kind-hearted Bergen, Bridget, in the animated family comedy Trolls (2016), which grossed US$344 million worldwide.\nIn December 2020, Deschanel appeared in the music video for Katy Perry's song \"Not the End of the World\". In 2021, she co-hosted the ABC television series The Celebrity Dating Game with Michael Bolton.\nIn January 2022, she began cohosting Welcome to Our Show, a New Girl rewatch podcast with co-stars Hannah Simone and Lamorne Morris, distributed by IHeartRadio. Deschanel appears as Kelly in season 3 of Physical released on August 2, 2023 and Nancy in Dreamin' Wild, released on August 4, 2023. She would also appear as Terry in Harold and the Purple Crayon, which was released on August 2, 2024.\n\nMusic career\nSinging and performing\nIn 2001, Deschanel formed If All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, a jazz cabaret act with fellow actress Samantha Shelton. The pair performed around Los Angeles.\nIn March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals to two songs \"Slowly\" and \"Ask Her to Dance\" on the album Nighttiming by Jason Schwartzman's band Coconut Records. It was reported that Deschanel and M. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel on-stage, were recording music under the moniker She & Him. Their first album, titled Volume One, was released by Merge Records on March 18, 2008. It received a strong response from critics, with Paste magazine voting it the No. 1 Album of 2008. Patrick Caldwell of the Austin American Statesman wrote: \"The album gently rambled through 13 tracks of sun-dappled pop, with a gentle Orbisonian charm and sweet, wistful vocals from Deschanel.\"\n\nDeschanel recorded \"The Fabric of My Life\" for a 2009 advertising campaign for Cotton Incorporated. On March 23, 2010, the second She & Him album, Volume Two, was released. Deschanel and M. Ward both featured on The Place We Ran From (2010), the album by Snow Patrol member Gary Lightbody's side project, Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks \"Get on the Road\" and \"Point Me at Lost Islands\", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track \"Held in the Arms of Your Words\" and guitar to the track \"That Silver Necklace\".\nDeschanel performed \"God Bless America\" during the seventh-inning stretch in game three of the National League Championship Series between the Philadelphia Phillies and San Francisco Giants on October 19, 2010, at AT&T Park in San Francisco. On October 23, 2011, Deschanel performed \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" before game four of the World Series between the Texas Rangers and the St. Louis Cardinals at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington, Texas. Deschanel contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's \"It's So Easy\" for the tribute album Listen to Me: Buddy Holly, released on September 6, 2011. She had previously appeared on Rave On Buddy Holly, with She & Him performing \"Oh, Boy!\", released in June 2011. \nA Very She & Him Christmas was announced on Pitchfork.com in September 2011. The 12-track Christmas album was released October 25, 2011, under Merge Records. On December 28, 2011, she and Joseph Gordon-Levitt recorded an informal version of \"What Are You Doing New Year's Eve?\" for her HelloGiggles YouTube channel. It was immensely popular and within four days had over 6 million views. Deschanel was featured on bandmate M. Ward's sixth solo album, A Wasteland Companion (2012).\nDuring a May 2012 performance at the Ryman Auditorium, country music singer Loretta Lynn announced that she was in the development stages of creating a Broadway musical from her autobiography and Deschanel would play the title role., saying, \"There's a little girl back stage that's going to do the play of 'Coal Miner's Daughter' on Broadway\". She then brought Deschanel onstage and the two sang a duet of the title song. On September 21, 2012, it was announced that Deschanel was producing the comedy Must Be Nice, written by New Girl consulting producer J. J. Philbin.\nShe and Him's next album, Volume 3 was released by Merge Records in May 2013. In the 15-track album, Deschanel wrote eleven songs, while three others are cover songs. It debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200. The band's fifth studio album, Classics, received a December 2014 release by Columbia Records, and it features 13 covers of classic songs, recorded live and accompanied by a 20-piece orchestra. Response towards the album was positive, with Robert Hamm for Alternative Press writing that Deschanel \"is a delight, at times coy and romantic, and in other moments, moody and pensive\". She also appeared as a guest vocalist on Brian Wilson's album No Pier Pressure (2015). She & Him's second Christmas album and sixth album overall, Christmas Party, was released in 2016.\n\nFilm-related music\nDeschanel made her on-screen singing debut in The New Guy (2002). In Elf (2003), she sings \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" with Will Ferrell in the bathroom shower scene, \"Auld Lang Syne\" with James Caan on piano and with Leon Redbone on the soundtrack. Her piano composition \"Bittersuite\" was used thematically in the dark dramedy Winter Passing (2006), in which she co starred with Ferrell and Ed Harris, and also sings \"My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean\" in the film.\nIn 2007, other singing credits followed: the television musical Once Upon a Mattress (\"An Opening for a Princess\", \"In a Little While\", \"Normandy\", and \"Yesterday I Loved You\"); an old cabaret song in The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (\"A Bird in a Gilded Cage\"); and the short film Raving (\"Hello, Dolly!\"). Deschanel and a cast of school children sing the Steve Earle song \"Someday\" and War's \"Why Can't We Be Friends?\" in Bridge to Terabithia.\nIn Yes Man (2008), Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing \"Uh-Huh\" and \"Sweet Ballad\" with San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk group Von Iva in a fictional band called \"Munchausen by Proxy\". In 500 Days of Summer (2009), Deschanel sings a cover of The Smiths's \"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want\" and it appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She & Him. She also sings a cover of \"Sugar Town\" by Nancy Sinatra. Deschanel and Joseph Gordon-Levitt did a music video, called Bank Dance, directed by 500 Days of Summer director Marc Webb, to accompany the film. It uses the She & Him song \"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?\", and some complicated choreography, choreographed by Michael Rooney. Mason Novick, the film's producer said, \"We made the short because Zooey came in and said, 'I have this idea ... because I didn't get to dance in the movie'\" (as Gordon-Levitt did).\nDeschanel sings \"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land\" with James Franco in the comedy Your Highness (2011). She also appears with M. Ward in a number of songs on the soundtrack album for Disney's animated version of Winnie the Pooh (2011), earning a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media nomination for \"So Long\". Deschanel wrote and performed the theme song to New Girl. Also, in season three's episode \"Prince\", the song \"Fallinlove2nite\" is sung by Deschanel and Prince. In Rock the Kasbah (2015), she sang a cover of Meredith Brooks's \"Bitch\", which is featured in the soundtrack for the film. In 2016, Deschanel voiced Bridget, the scullery maid in the animated film Trolls.\n\nOther work\nIn May 2011, after the success of her HelloGiggles YouTube channel, Deschanel, along with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer, founded the website HelloGiggles.com, an entertainment website geared towards women. HelloGiggles.com was acquired by Time, Inc. in 2015.\nIn 2023, Deschanel hosted the Max informational show What Am I Eating?. It was based on a previous series Deschanel did for ATTN:, Your Food's Roots.\n\nPersonal life\nDeschanel is allergic to eggs, dairy products, and soy. She had a gluten allergy, but stated in a 2022 interview on Armchair Expert that she no longer suffers from it. She used to be a vegan, which she gave up because she found it difficult to eat enough calories on a vegan diet due to her sensitivities to wheat and soy. A year prior to giving up her vegan diet, she was featured on episode eight of season one of Bravo's Top Chef Masters, in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no soy or gluten. Deschanel is currently a pescetarian.\nIn December 2008, Deschanel became engaged to musician Ben Gibbard, lead vocalist for Death Cab for Cutie and The Postal Service. They married on September 19, 2009, near Seattle, Washington. On November 1, 2011, they announced their separation. Deschanel filed for divorce on December 27, 2011, citing \"irreconcilable differences\". The divorce was finalized on December 12, 2012.\nDeschanel confirmed her engagement to film producer Jacob Pechenik in January 2015, and they married in June 2015. They have two children: a daughter born in July 2015, and a son born in May 2017. Deschanel reportedly converted to Judaism before marrying Pechenik, who is Jewish.\nIn August 2019, Deschanel met Property Brothers star Jonathan Scott while filming an episode of Carpool Karaoke: The Series. \nOn September 6, 2019, Deschanel and Pechenik announced their separation. Deschanel and Pechenik divorced on June 1, 2020. \nOn August 13, 2023, Deschanel and Scott announced their engagement at Edinburgh Castle in Scotland.\n\nFilmography\nDiscography\nAwards and nominations\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nZooey Deschanel at IMDb\nZooey Deschanel on Instagram\nZooey Deschanel Archived October 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America",
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"paragraph_text": "New Girl is an American television sitcom created by Elizabeth Meriwether and produced by 20th Century Fox Television for Fox that aired from September 20, 2011, to May 15, 2018. The series revolves around quirky teacher, Jessica Day (Zooey Deschanel), after she moves into a Los Angeles loft with three men, Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), Schmidt (Max Greenfield), and Coach (Damon Wayans Jr.). Former roommate Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris) and Jess's best friend Cece Parekh (Hannah Simone) later join the characters. The show combines comedy and drama elements as the characters, who are in their late 20s and early 30s, deal with relationship issues and career choices. New Girl is a joint production between Elizabeth Meriwether Pictures and 20th Century Fox Television and is syndicated by 20th Television.\nProduced in Los Angeles as a single-camera comedy, New Girl is an ensemble show aimed at a general audience. New Girl received acclaim from critics and was named one of the best new comedies of the 2011 fall season. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since 2001. Particular praise has been given to the performances of Deschanel, Greenfield, Simone, Johnson and Morris. The show has garnered increased mainstream viewership following its inclusion on Netflix, becoming one of the most popular shows on the platform. The series concluded its seven season run in May 2018.\n\nPlot\nJessica \"Jess\" Day (Zooey Deschanel), a bubbly and quirky teacher in her late 20s, comes home from vacation to find her boyfriend, Spencer (Ian Wolterstorff), with another woman and leaves him immediately to look for somewhere else to live. After Jess answers an ad for a new roommate on Craigslist, she moves into a loft in Los Angeles with three men around her own age: Nick, Schmidt, and Coach. After the pilot episode, Winston, a former roommate and Nick's childhood friend, replaces Coach, who leaves the apartment to live with his girlfriend. Jess' childhood best friend, Cece, a fashion model frequently visits Jess and the guys.\nThe series follows the group's interactions with each other as they become closer friends and develop romantic relationships. Midway through season 1, Schmidt and Cece become involved in a mostly sexual relationship but break up at the end of the season. In Season 2, Jess is laid off from her teaching job; she and the others get involved in mostly temporary relationships however, Cece enters an arranged marriage engagement with Shivrang (Satya Bhabha) that is broken up at their wedding in the season 2 finale when Cece realizes she loves Schmidt. Schmidt had recently started dating his old college girlfriend Elizabeth had to choose between Elizabeth and Cece. Meanwhile, Nick and Jess develop feelings and start dating at Cece's wedding, making their relationship official at the end of season 2,and it lasts through most of season 3 until they realize that ultimately, they want different things in life.\nCoach returns to the loft in season 3, revealing that he had broken up with his girlfriend and rejoins the gang, and even has a short fling with Cece after ending the short relationship with Schmidt. He stays through season 4 until he moves out to be with another girl, May (Meaghan Rath) to New York. At the end of season 4, Schmidt proposes to Cece, and they marry at the end of season 5. Meanwhile, after bouncing around several random jobs and several dating choices throughout the series, Winston works to become a police officer with the LAPD, and falls in love with his partner Aly (Nasim Pedrad). In the beginning of season 5, Jess is called away to jury duty resulting in the group bringing in temporary roommate Reagan Lucas (Megan Fox), who becomes Nick's love interest for the rest of the season. Shortly after returning from jury duty, Jess realizes that she loves Nick and wants to be with him.\nAt the end of season 6, Nick and Reagan break up and shortly after, Nick and Jess get together, Cece and Schmidt are pregnant, and Winston is engaged to Aly and is trying to meet his father. Season 7 advances the storyline three years later where Schmidt and Cece have a three-year-old daughter named Ruth, Winston and Aly are expecting their first baby, and Nick proposes to Jess.\n\nCast and characters\nThe principal cast of New Girl includes:\n\nZooey Deschanel as Jessica \"Jess\" Day: a bubbly, offbeat teacher in her early thirties who is originally from Portland, Oregon. In the premiere episode, she moves into the guys' apartment where Nick, Schmidt, and Coach help her move on from a painful break-up with her boyfriend, Spencer. She later dates Nick on-and-off eventually becoming engaged in the final season.\nJake Johnson as Nick Miller: Jess' roommate who works as a bartender at a nearby bar. At the start of the series, he struggles with a break-up with his long-term girlfriend Caroline. He and Jess have an on-and-off relationship but ultimately end up together.\nMax Greenfield as Schmidt: Jess' roommate, a seemingly confident ladies' man. He is a successful marketing associate in a female-dominated office. He dates Cece in the earlier seasons but this ends after he cheats on her. However, they later marry and have a child, Ruth.\nLamorne Morris as Winston Bishop: a former basketball player and Nick's childhood friend from Chicago. Returns to the loft after playing for the Latvian Basketball League, in the second episode. He later becomes a cop and meets his wife on the force. He is very close to his cat, Ferguson, and sometimes is mocked for this.\nHannah Simone as Cece: a fashion model and Jess' best friend since childhood. In spite of their differences, Cece is a very loyal and protective friend to Jess. Initially skeptical of Jess' new roommates, Cece becomes interested in Schmidt and integrates herself more and more socially with the others as time progresses.\nDamon Wayans Jr. as Coach (pilot, season 4; special guest seasons 3 & 5–7): a cocky and driven former athlete who works as a personal trainer. He appears briefly in the \"Pilot\" episode as a roommate but leaves in the second episode. After a break-up with his girlfriend, Coach returns to the loft two years later and reintegrates himself back into the lives of his former roommates, becoming a coach at the middle school Jess teaches at.\nMegan Fox as Reagan Lucas (starring season 5; recurring season 6): is an attractive, no-nonsense bisexual pharmaceutical sales rep, first appearing in season 5 when she comes to town on business and rents out Jess' room while the latter is sequestered on jury duty (during Zooey Deschanel's parental leave). She knows Cece from a previous gig they did together.\nDanielle and Rhiannon Rockoff as Ruth (season 7): Schmidt and Cece's three-year-old daughter.\n\nSpecial guest stars\nTaylor Swift as Elaine (season 2 finale): Shivrang's love interest who Shivrang leaves Cece for during their wedding.\nPrince as Prince (season 3 episode \"Prince\"): hosts a party the characters attend and provides relationship advice for Nick and Jess.\nKareem Abdul-Jabbar as Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (season 1 episode \"Normal\"): works with Winston and shares a cubicle wall with him.\n\nProduction\nConception\n20th Century Fox Television first approached playwright Elizabeth Meriwether in 2008 to develop a pilot that was eventually shelved. After Meriwether's success with the 2011 romantic comedy film No Strings Attached, 20th Century Fox approached her once more, and she pitched an idea for a TV sitcom about an \"offbeat girl moving in with three single guys\", inspired by her experience of \"bouncing from Craigslist sublet to Craigslist sublet, for four years in L.A.\" when she was in her twenties. This show was initially called Chicks and Dicks with two of the characters similar to the final characters of Jess and Schmidt. The initial idea was a Will & Grace-style comedy inspired by Meriwether's close friendship with a guy after their exes started dating each other. The Fox network liked the script and pursued Zooey Deschanel for the role of Jess, to whose story Meriwether felt most connected. As the script developed, the plot moved on from being about the sexual endeavors of the roommates and became more socially oriented, so the title was changed to New Girl.\nThe show attempts to combine \"comedy and drama as the five characters explore the difficulties of the decade between 30 and 40, which is when many people take their biggest steps toward maturity\" with regard to relationships and careers, which, unlike Friends, is giving the show a \"built-in biological clock\". Producer Jake Kasdan said that \"Their lives are moving forward, [but] they're still trying to hang on to some kind of crazy youth\" although he does not \"want them ever to seem pathetic.\"\n\nCasting\nMovie actress and singer-songwriter Zooey Deschanel was in the process of developing an HBO show when she read the New Girl pilot script and responded to the material. The character of Jess was not specifically written for Deschanel, but the producers found it a great match and adjusted it to better fit the actress. With the support from Fox, Meriwether wanted to make Jess a unique, interesting and funny female character that would have been the side character on other shows. Deschanel became a producer on the show and helped build the character, requesting to not play the classic wife character who would be ignored by the guys she tries to keep out of trouble. Meriwether's goal was to write about herself from an honest perspective, with Jess mirroring her at the start and later Deschanel until Jess turned into a \"hybrid of me and Zooey, the writers, and the editor\". Deschanel described Jess as a part of her, especially with regard to \"the sort of enthusiasm and optimism\" of her youth. She does not shy away from playing embarrassing scenes or being unattractive. As Kasdan said, \"This show advocates for the attractive dork.\" Although Meriwether had always imagined the show as an ensemble show, Fox would later focus its first marketing push on Zooey Deschanel and gave the show the promotional tagline \"Simply Adorkable.\"\n\nBasing Nick Miller on a friend also surnamed Miller, she originally imagined Nick as the smartest one of the group who doesn't need to say that and thought of him as \"the everyman one, who's stepping away and commenting on what all the crazy people are doing around him.\" She sent the New Girl pilot script to movie actor Jake Johnson, with whom she had enjoyed working on No Strings Attached and guided him through the audition process. Johnson auditioned with Max Greenfield, who impressed the producers in his first audition as Schmidt. The actors auditioning for Schmidt were more varied in appearance than those auditioning for Nick, and Johnson and Greenfield were initially worried that they looked too much alike. however, both men were cast the same day.\nMeriwether originally envisioned Coach as \"a fat Jewish guy, like a manchild\" and later as \"this dumb jock [with] crazy rage problems\". David Neher (who would play Schmidt's so-called \"fremesis,\" Benjamin, in four episodes) was among the 400 actors auditioning for Coach before the producers settled on Damon Wayans Jr. who was expecting his show, the ABC sitcom Happy Endings, to be cancelled. When that show was renewed for a second season, Wayans' spot was replaced with Lamorne Morris, who had also read for Coach but had been unavailable for filming the pilot. Meriwether estimated that about 80 percent of the pilot would have needed to be re-shot in order to remove Wayans from the episode, since he was in one of the leading roles of the show. As the producers also liked reflecting the frequent apartment changes in young people's lives, Meriwether, 20th Century Fox and the studio decided to keep the characters and the plot of the pilot episode as they were. Morris joined the show in the second episode of the series when the producers had already broken seven episodes without knowing what the actor was going to be able to do. Wayans returned to New Girl in season 3 for a season-long arc after Happy Endings had been cancelled, and was officially added as a regular for season 4.\n\nWriting\nNew Girl had 11 writers during its first season and 15 during the second season—including Elizabeth Meriwether, Brett Baer, and Dave Finkel. Stories were developed in a collaborative effort and aimed at viewers of any gender. Writers intended to keep actors and audiences on their toes by planning very few story arcs and focusing on setting up characters in the first couple seasons . \nThe writers challenged themselves to create new stories and change the show's dynamics to keep things fresh, while aiming to be \"as emotionally real as possible.\" As the show's jokes rely on the actors' performance instead of perfectly constructed punch lines, Meriwether looked for the actors' strengths before writing. The A story generally revolved around Jess and had an emotional core. Still, Meriwether saw the show as an ensemble about friendship with \"everybody having their own stories and people being interested in all of the characters.\"\nEach New Girl episode started out as a pitch page, went through stages of an outline and a final draft before being filmed and edited, a process which could take weeks. The writers were broken up to rework drafts until they found the funniest and most emotionally resonant version. All characters were aimed to be tied into the story, and determining their motivation was the major goal so that people would laugh. During the first season, Meriwether usually made a final pass at the draft alone because of her film and theater background. The actors' performance influenced new story ideas with the actors also handing in story ideas.\n\nFilming and editing\nThe main set built for the pilot was to represent a factory-turned-loft in downtown Los Angeles. It was reused once the show was given a full season. The apartment building exterior is the Binford Building, located at 837 Traction Avenue in the city's Arts District, with interior shots done in a studio set. The exterior shots for the bar where Nick works is of The Griffin (now The High Low), located in Atwater Village. The interior shots of the bar are originally from a restaurant called The Prince in Koreatown, and were recreated in a studio set after the first season.\nAs a single-camera comedy, New Girl is neither performed in front of a studio audience nor has a laugh track. Some scenes are cross-covered (i.e. are filmed with a shooting camera on each person at the same time), to allow for better improvisations. Handheld cameras are avoided for a more filmic look.\nThe actors first perform scenes as written, then act out the alternatives or improvise, to later allow the producers and editors to choose the gags that ultimately work best. Morris estimated that 20 percent of each episode is improvised.\n\nTrue American\nTrue American is a fictional, convoluted drinking game that the New Girl characters first played in the season 1 episode 20, \"Normal\". After \"Normal\" aired, internet sources began to summarize the rules for True American, which the characters described as a mix of a drinking game and Candy Land where the floor is lava; it also involves shouting the names of American presidents. The idea of True American came from a New Girl writer who played a similar game in college. As she could not remember the game's exact rules, the writers focused on making the game as funny on the page as possible, but only established chanting \"JFK! FDR!\" and walking on chairs. Throughout the series, the writers created new rules on the spot in order to keep the actors improvising and encouraged them to \"have fun, dig in, jump in\".\nThe game's second appearance in season 2's \"Cooler\" was played with the strip-poker version called \"Clinton Rules\", but the exact rules remain unclear even to the actors. True American with updated rules and the resulting hangover were featured in season 3's \"Mars Landing\". The writers started to do new True American episodes once each year without ever giving explicit rules for the game. Liz Meriwether said the game would not be easier to comprehend in later appearances, as the writers' goal is to actually make it harder to understand.\n\nRelationships\nCreator Elizabeth Meriwether sees Nick, Schmidt and Winston \"on the weirder side of things\". The producers started learning more about the characters by seeing the actors' work and that \"We probably rely on them more than we should\" to define the characters. Each of the actors improvisations allowed for the characters to switch traits around in the first season before solidifying their characters. Producers found more variety in Nick's character in season 1 and enjoyed Johnson's improvisations, so they relayed Coach's previous attributed rage issues to Nick. Nick's character connects the most with the other roommates, childhood friends with Winston and college roommates with Schmidt, allowing him to be more involved in their stories. \nWriters developed the Nick–Winston dynamic in season 1 and sought to figure out Winston's relationship with the other loft mates in season 2. The writers noticed late during the first season that Morris seemed better suited to play a smart character and act as the loft's voice of reason, although Meriwether found that when Winston \"finally does blow up, he's crazier than all of them\" and that he works better \"in these kind of crazy, comedic runners, small pieces of the episode\" that contrast the relationship dramas of the other main characters. The Winston–Schmidt friendship was developed significantly in the second half of season 2 when the story focus moved to Nick and Jess. The Nick–Jess relationship affects the three guys' friendship as Nick starts being more considerate of Jess' feelings regarding shenanigans. Damon Wayans Jr. was planned to reprise his role as Coach in at least four episodes in the third season, according to Meriwether \"at a time when the roommates are at odds with each other\".\nWith Meriwether's openness regarding straight and gay communities, New Girl also plays with the guys' sexual orientation for humor. One of Winston's recurring alternate persona is Nick's gay lover \"Theodore K. Mullins\", which started out as an improv of Morris. Johnson thought that Nick and Schmidt had \"a pretty funny bromance\" with \"their own little weird will-they-won't-they\". Greenfield improvised kissing Nick a lot in season 1 until the writers started putting Schmidt–Nick kisses into the script, so that they shared more kisses than Nick and Jess did in the first two seasons.\n\nEpisodes\nBroadcast and ratings\nThe New Girl pilot was released via on-demand, iTunes, and TiVo on September 6, 2011 before its September 20 premiere on Fox in the United States and on City in Canada. Other international broadcasters include Channel 4 and E4 in the United Kingdom, RTÉ2 in the Republic of Ireland, Network Ten and Eleven in Australia, and Four in New Zealand. The pilot episode drew 10.28 million U.S. viewers and a 4.8 adults 18–49 demo rating, making it the highest-rated fall debut for a Fox scripted show since The Bernie Mac Show in 2001. The second episode made New Girl the top-rated show on television in the marketing-important 18–49 demographic, improved the rating of its lead-in hit series Glee and beat the long-running hit series NCIS and Dancing with the Stars. At this time, Fox ordered 11 additional episodes to the initial 13-episode order, bringing the first season to 24 episodes.\nThe ratings dropped when the show took a break for baseball, falling almost 30 percent to a 2.1 rating in the 18–49 audience group. During the 2011–12 television season, New Girl averaged 8.22 million viewers and a 4.2 adults 18–49 demo rating. In 18–49 demo, it ranked as the fifth highest rated show on Fox and 13th overall. On April 9, 2012, New Girl was officially renewed for a second season of 24 episodes; Fox ordered one more episode during the second half of the season.\n\nAwards and nominations\nMain article: List of awards and nominations received by New Girl\nThe show has been nominated for several awards, including five Golden Globe Awards and five Primetime Emmy Awards.\n\nSyndication and streaming\nNew Girl was added to TBS in 2015 and was removed in 2022. Additionally, the sitcom was added to MTV in 2015 and was removed in 2016. After 10 years on Netflix, the show became exclusively available on Hulu and Peacock since April 17, 2023.\n\nHome media\nTie-ins\nA 2012 book, The Douche Journals: The Definitive Account of One Man's Genius, compiled the many Schmidtisms from The Douchebag Jar, before Jess moved into the apartment. ISBN 9780062238672\nin January 2022, iHeartRadio launched the New Girl rewatch podcast Welcome to Our Show, hosted by Deschanel, Simone, and Morris, who reminisce on their experience filming the show and provide behind the scenes details on its production.\n\nReception\nCritical reviews\nOn the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, season one holds an approval rating of 84% based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.83/10. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 66 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\nIn June 2011, New Girl was one of eight honorees in the \"most exciting new series\" category at the 1st Critics' Choice Television Awards, voted by journalists who had seen the pilots. Robert Bianco of USA Today considered New Girl \"fall's most promising new series\" and praised how Deschanel and Meriwether \"have shaped Jess into something we haven't quite seen before – a woman who is sweet yet crass, innocent yet sexy, beautiful yet clumsy, and brash yet irresistibly adorable.\" However, he noted how \"Some people will be resistant to Deschanel's doe-eyed charm; others have a congenital need to insult anyone who most everyone else is praising, particularly if doing so gets them attention.\" The Hollywood Reporter's Tim Goodman saw the show as a \"mostly romantic comedy\", and although Jess' adorability \"might seem like a thin premise, [...] Meriwether manages to make the situations funny and lets Deschanel channel her charm – a winning combination.\" David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle would rather see the show tone down. He felt \"the show's fundamental setup isn't all that inspired, but it could work with smarter writing and better direction, especially with regard to Deschanel\", who, in his opinion, overplayed Jess' weird habits \"to the point of overkill within the first 10 minutes of the show\".\nAlan Sepinwall of HitFix considered New Girl \"the best new comedy of the fall season, and the only new show I genuinely enjoyed from start to finish\" because it was so well developed from the start. He praised Deschanel's \"wonderful comic performance\" and said that while the supporting actors \"all bounce nicely off of Deschanel\", the scenes without Deschanel around them fell flat for him. Writing for the Daily News, David Hinckley lauded how none of the characters \"settle in as the stereotypes they could easily become\", and presumed that all of them would evolve and get smarter as the show progresses. Lori Rack of the Chicago Sun-Times praised the actors' comedic timing and playing off each other. Despite the guys sounding \"like nightmares\" on paper, \"they have endearing, vulnerable cores that make them likable, and occasionally, lovable. [...] New Girl didn't give me as many laugh-out-loud moments as some comedies\", but instead made her \"feel warm and fuzzy\". Rob Owen of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said the show's pilot was \"more charming than hilarious\" and \"cuter than it is funny, but when it does conjure laughs, its style of humor is reminiscent of ABC's Happy Endings\".\nMany critics considered Max Greenfield the show's breakout star in season 1; The A.V. Club even named Greenfield's Schmidt \"the year's breakout TV character\" as a \"douchebag with a heart of gold\". Salon described Schmidt as \"a sort of self-created alpha male and a collection of beta male qualities [... which] are performed with such conviction they congeal into a sort of deranged machismo, one slathered in sandalwood-scented lotion. As part of this transition, Schmidt has gone from being a douchebag in the classic model—a guy who, in the pilot, constantly wanted to show off his pecs and scam girls, and seemed capable of doing so—to a douche of a more unique variety.\" The Huffington Post's Maureen Ryan said how \"Schmidt could have easily been 'the dumb guy', or the show could have exploited his status as an eminently mockable douche. But thanks to Max Greenfield's endearing depiction of the would-be lady-killer, there's a lot more the writers have been able to do with the character.\"\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, season two holds an approval rating of 88% based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.56/10. After the teasing of the Nick–Jess relationship in the first season, critics named Jake Johnson the breakout star of season 2 as the characters' romance unfolded. Saying that \"Not since Ross and Rachel's tango on Friends has watching a comedy romance been so satisfying\", The Hollywood Reporter said the producers \"did the impossible by engaging their leads in a love story, which only strengthened the artistry of the single-cam comedy\". The New York Times said season 2 \"erupted in fantastic and bizarre fits and starts\" because of the characters' unmatched personalities, and lauded the writers for not playing up the will-they-or-won't-they dynamic. By emphasizing how the characters got together, the show \"made for hilarious setups [that occasionally led] to high-level Abbott and Costello slapstick. The continued Nick–Jess relationship was criticized in season 3 for dropping the characters' personalities, lack of tension, and for neglecting the show's female friendship between Jess and Cece. \nOn Rotten Tomatoes, season three holds an approval rating of 88% based on 14 reviews, with an average rating of 6.46/10. Season four holds an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.67/10. The series' seventh and final season has an approval rating of 100% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 6.78, and a critical consensus of, \"After seven years of friendship, New Girl signs off with a thoughtful, funny final season that bids a proper adieu to its colorful cast of characters.\"\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nNew Girl at IMDb",
"title": "New_Girl"
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"paragraph_text": "New Girl is an American television sitcom that premiered on Fox on September 20, 2011. Developed by Elizabeth Meriwether under the working title Chicks & Dicks, the show stars Zooey Deschanel as Jessica \"Jess\" Day, a well-liked and bubbly woman who is trying to get over her surprise breakup with her boyfriend. With the help of her best friend Cece (Hannah Simone), she finds a new place to stay when she moves in with three single guys: Nick Miller (Jake Johnson), an underachieving bartender; Schmidt (Max Greenfield), who thinks of himself as a modern-day Casanova; and Coach (Damon Wayans, Jr.), who leaves the series in the next episode and is replaced by Winston Bishop (Lamorne Morris), a former professional athlete who achieved modest success abroad and is adjusting to life back in the United States. Coach reappears in the series during seasons three, four, five, six, and seven.\nOn May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a seventh and final season, which featured eight episodes. On January 4, 2018, it was announced that the seventh and final season would premiere on April 10, 2018, and also it would end with a one-hour series finale, which was aired on May 15, 2018.\nDuring the course of the series, 146 episodes of New Girl aired over seven seasons.\n\nSeries overview\nEpisodes\nSeason 1 (2011–12)\nSeason 2 (2012–13)\nSeason 3 (2013–14)\nSeason 4 (2014–15)\nSeason 5 (2016)\nSeason 6 (2016–17)\nSeason 7 (2018)\nRatings\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\nNew Girl at IMDb",
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] | As of August 2, 2024, what is the title of the most viewed episode in the second most viewed season of the TV show that Zooey Deschanel stars in as a character named "Jess Day"? | [] | The most viewed episode of the second season (second most viewed) is its first episode, "Re-Launch". | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Gods Must Be Crazy is a 1980 comedy film written, produced, edited and directed by Jamie Uys. An international co-production of South Africa and Botswana, it is the first film in The Gods Must Be Crazy series. Set in Southern Africa, the film stars Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, a hunter-gatherer of the Kalahari Desert whose tribe discovers a glass Coca-Cola bottle dropped from an aeroplane, and believe it to be a gift from their gods. When Xi sets out to return the bottle to the gods, his journey becomes intertwined with that of a biologist (Marius Weyers), a newly hired village school teacher (Sandra Prinsloo), and a band of guerrilla terrorists.\nThe Gods Must Be Crazy was released in South Africa on 10 September 1980 by Ster-Kinekor, and broke several box office records in the country, becoming the most financially successful South African film ever produced at the time. The film was a commercial and critical success in most other countries, but took longer to find success in the United States, where it was eventually re-released in 1984 by 20th Century Fox, with its original Afrikaans dialogue being dubbed into English. Despite its success, the film attracted criticism for its depiction of race and perceived ignorance of discrimination and apartheid in South Africa.\nIn 1989, it was followed by a sequel The Gods Must Be Crazy II.\n\nPlot\nXi and his San tribe live happily in the Kalahari Desert, away from industrial civilization. One day, a glass Coca-Cola bottle is thrown out of an aeroplane by a pilot and falls to the ground unbroken. Initially, Xi's people assume the bottle to be a gift from their gods, just as they believe plants and animals are, and find many uses for it. Unlike other gifts, however, there is only one glass bottle, which causes unforeseen conflict within the tribe. As a result, Xi, wearing only a loincloth, decides to make a pilgrimage to the edge of the world and dispose of the divisive object.\nAlong the way, Xi encounters biologist Andrew Steyn, who is studying the manure of wildlife; Steyn's assistant and mechanic, M'pudi; Kate Thompson, a woman who quit her job as a journalist in Johannesburg to become a village school teacher; and eventually a band of guerrillas led by Sam Boga, who are being pursued by government troops after a failed assassination attempt. In a fictitious town called Biryani, northwest of Botswana, Boga's men kill three cabinet members and injure two others in an attempt on the president's life, sending the military in hot pursuit.\nSteyn is tasked with bringing Thompson to the village where she will teach, but he is awkward and clumsy around her. Their Land Rover stalls while trying to ford a deep river; he hoists it out with a winch, but it continues lifting the vehicle to a very high treetop level while a forgetful Steyn is distracted extricating Thompson from a wait-a-bit tree. She more than once mistakes his attempts to evade wild animals, and putting out an evening campfire, as advances towards her. Eventually, a snobbish safari tour guide named Jack Hind arrives, and takes Thompson the rest of the way to the village.\nOne day, Xi happens upon a herd of goats, and shoots one with a tranquilizer arrow, planning to eat it. He is arrested and sentenced to jail. M'pudi, who once lived with the San and can speak the San language, is discontent with the verdict. He and Steyn arrange to hire Xi as a tracker for the remainder of his sentence in lieu of prison time, and teach Xi how to drive Steyn's Land Rover. Meanwhile, the guerrillas invade Thompson's school, taking her and the students as hostages as they make their escape to a neighbouring country.\nSteyn, M'pudi and Xi, immersed in their fieldwork, find that they are along the terrorists' and children's path, and observe their movements with a telescope. They manage to immobilize six of the eight guerrillas using makeshift tranquilizer darts launched by Xi with a miniature bow, allowing Thompson and the children to confiscate the guerillas' firearms. Steyn and M'pudi apprehend the remaining two guerrillas by frightening one with a snake and by shooting at a tree above the other, causing latex to drip from the tree and irritate his skin. Jack Hind arrives and takes Thompson and the children away, taking credit for the rescue that Steyn, M'pudi and Xi had actually planned and executed.\nLater, with Xi's term over, Steyn pays his wages and sends him on his way. Xi has never seen paper money (banknotes) before, and throws them on the ground. Steyn and M'pudi then drive from their camp to visit Thompson, where Steyn attempts to explain his tendency to be uncoordinated in her presence, but accidentally and repeatedly knocks over a number of objects in the process. Thompson finds his efforts endearing, and kisses Steyn.\nXi eventually arrives at God's Window, the top of a cliff with a solid layer of low-lying clouds obscuring the landscape below. Convinced that he has reached the edge of the world, he throws the bottle off the cliff, and returns to his family.\n\nCast\nDirector Jamie Uys appears in an uncredited role as the Reverend.\n\nProduction\nDevelopment and casting\nJamie Uys conceived the premise of The Gods Must Be Crazy while making the 1974 documentary Animals Are Beautiful People. The documentary was filmed partially on the Kalahari Desert, where Uys first encountered the San people and \"fell in love with them\". Uys chose a Coca-Cola bottle as the object that the San people would discover and covet in The Gods Must Be Crazy because he felt that the bottle was representative of \"our plastic society\", and because it \"is a beautiful thing, if you've never seen glass before\".\nUys noted that he modelled the character of Andrew Steyn after himself: \"I used to be awkward like that, especially with women. But then, I think most young guys knock things over with their first girl\".\nAfter writing the script for The Gods Must Be Crazy, Uys reportedly spent three months traversing the Kalahari Desert with an interpreter, searching for a San person to play the role of Xi in the film. Visiting areas of the desert inhabited by the San, Uys took photographs of individuals he felt he might cast, and then \"marked the longitude and latitude, so we could find them again\".\nUys decided to cast Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, and later recalled that \"At first [Nǃxau] didn't understand, because they have no word for work. Then the interpreter asked, 'Would you like to come with us for some days?'\" N!xau agreed and flew with Uys by aeroplane to Windhoek, Namibia, which served as a base for the film's production. Uys stated that \"the airplane didn't impress him at all. He thinks we are magicians, so he believes we can do anything. Nothing impressed him\". In his hotel room, N!xau agreed to use the toilet, but slept on the floor rather than on the provided bed.\nHowever, according to author Josef Gugler, Uys \"[fictionalized] the production of the film. The stories he told reviewers varied\". Unlike what was presented in The Gods Must Be Crazy, N!xau did not lead a hunter-gatherer lifestyle; he grew up as a herder on a farm in Botswana, before moving to Namibia to work as a cook. In the 1980 documentary film Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman, directed by John Marshall, footage of the filming of The Gods Must Be Crazy is used. The documentary shows San restricted to living in a reservation established by South African authorities in Tsumkwe, Namibia. The San there are shown to not be hunter-gatherers; they are instead dependent on the government for food and other aid, with some suffering from tuberculosis.\n\nFilming\nThe Gods Must Be Crazy was shot in Tsumkwe, Namibia, as well as in Botswana.\nAccording to Uys, N!xau would be flown back to his home in the Kalahari Desert every three or four weeks to prevent him from suffering from culture shock. During his time in urban areas, N!xau learned to smoke and acquired an affinity for liquor and sake. Uys said that he paid N!xau $300 for his first 10 days of work, but that the money was reportedly blown away by wind. N!xau was then compensated with 12 head of cattle. In 1985, Uys said that he had sent N!xau $100 a month since filming, which N!xau used at a trading store 100 km (60 miles) from his hunting ground; Uys also stated that a $20,000 trust account in N!xau's name had been established.\nA scene in which a rhinoceros stomps out a fire is based in a Burmese legend about fire-eating rhinos, which is not widely known in Africa and appears not to be based in fact.\n\nSoundtrack\nRelease\nBox office\nThe Gods Must Be Crazy was initially released in South Africa on 10 September 1980 by Ster-Kinekor Pictures.Within its first four days of its release, the film broke box office records in every city in South Africa. It became the highest-grossing film of 1982 in Japan, where it was released under the title Bushman. Executive producer Boet Troskie sold the distribution rights to the film to 45 countries.\nFor its release in the United States, the original Afrikaans dialogue was dubbed into English, and voiceover work was provided for !Kung and Tswana lines. The film initially received a limited American release through Jensen Farley Pictures in 1982, but performed poorly in at least half a dozen test cities. However, the film would eventually find critical and commercial success when it was re-released by 20th Century Fox on 9 July 1984, becoming the highest-grossing foreign film released in the United States at the time. The film also played at the Music Hall Theater in Beverly Hills, California for at least eight months.\nWithin its first four years of release, The Gods Must Be Crazy had grossed $90 million worldwide. As of 2014, the film has grossed R 1.8 billion (approx. $200 million) worldwide, including over $60 million in the United States.\n\nCritical reception\nRoger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, concluding that \"it might be easy to make a farce about screwball happenings in the desert, but it's a lot harder to create a funny interaction between nature and human nature. This movie's a nice little treasure\". Variety stated that the film's \"main virtues are its striking, widescreen visuals of unusual locations, and the sheer educational value of its narration\".\nIn his review of the film for The New York Times, critic Vincent Canby wrote that \"watching Jamie Uys's Gods Must Be Crazy, [...] one might suspect that there were no such things as apartheid or the Immorality Act or even South Africa\". Though he called the film \"often genuinely, nonpolitically funny\", he noted that \"there's also something disturbing about the film\", in that \"we tend to feel that any South African work that doesn't actively condemn apartheid has the secondary effect of condoning it, if only through silence\".\nOn the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, The Gods Must Be Crazy has an approval rating of 86% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on six reviews, indicating \"generally favourable reviews\".\n\nHome media\nIn mid-November 1986, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on VHS in the U.S. by CBS/Fox on its Playhouse Video label.\nIn 2004, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on DVD by Sony Pictures Entertainment. It was also released on DVD as a double feature with The Gods Must Be Crazy II.\n\nControversies\nThe Gods Must Be Crazy attracted criticism for its perpetuation of racial stereotypes and ignorance of discrimination and apartheid in South Africa. In the U.S., the film was reportedly picketed by the National Conference of Black Lawyers and other anti-apartheid groups when it screened at the 68th Street Playhouse in New York City.\n\nAccusations of patronization\nBoth New York Times critic Vincent Canby and author Josef Gugler called the film \"patronizing\" towards the San people. Canby wrote that the San in the film \"are seen to be frightfully quaint if not downright cute\", and compared the film's narrator's statement that the San \"must be the most contented people in the world\" to \"exactly the sort of thing that Mussolini might have said when he got those trains running on time\". Gugler considered both the film's narrator and the character of Mpudi condescending, writing that \"even if Mpudi feels for the San people, he is just as patronizing as the narrator: 'They are the sweetest little buggers'\". In response to accusations of patronization, Uys said that \"I don't think the film is patronizing. When the Bushman is with us in the city, I do patronize him, because he's stupid. But in the desert, he patronizes me, because I'm stupid and he's brilliant\".\n\nCriticisms related to apartheid\nIn 1985, cultural anthropologist Toby Alice Volkman wrote that money was \"a pressing concern\" for the San when The Gods Must Be Crazy was filmed, with many of them dependent on government aid and purchased food; she noted that many San enlisted in the South African Army due to the high wages it paid. She wrote: \"Because the myth of Bushman innocence and bliss underlies the popularity of The Gods Must Be Crazy, it is no surprise that Mr. Uys would like us to believe in it. There is, however, little to laugh about in Bushmanland: 1,000 demoralized, formerly independent foragers crowd into a squalid, tubercular homeland, getting by on handouts of cornmeal and sugar, drinking Johnny Walker or home brew, fighting with one another and joining the South African Army\".\nThe following year, Canadian anthropologist Richard Borshay Lee called the film \"an amusing but thinly disguised piece of South African propaganda in which a peculiar element of South African white mythology receives prominent attention\". Lee wrote that \"the notion that some San in the 1980s remain untouched by 'civilization' is a cruel joke. The San have been the subject of a century of rapid social change and especially in the last twenty years have been forced to endure all the 'benefits' of South Africa's apartheid policies in Namibia\".\nGugler wrote that the guerrillas in the film are depicted as \"bad Africans [...] dangerous and destructive all right, but they are also indolent and inept. In the end, even Kate Thompson gets to disarm one of them. Their leader, Sam Boga, articulates what the film is showing us about African guerrillas: 'Why do I have to work with amateurs?' He, in turn, serves to confirm the apartheid credo that Africans would be happy with the White dispensation were it not for foreigners fomenting discontent and making trouble\". Gugler goes on to state that Uys \"[perpetuates] the myths of apartheid: an ordered world with Whites on top, a world where Africans are content but for the interference of outsiders\".\nWhen asked about his thoughts on apartheid, Uys commented that \"I think it's a mess. We've done some silly, naughty things that we're ashamed of. We're trying to dismantle it, but it's a very complicated thing. If you go too slow, it's bad, and if you go too fast, it will ruin the economy and everyone will starve. I hope I'm not a racist, but everybody likes to think of himself as not racist, and I don't think that any of us can swear we're not racist. If it means you hate the coloured man, I'm not racist. If it means you choose to marry a girl of your own colour, is that racist, too? If the two are in love, it doesn't matter. But I chose a white girl as my wife\".\n\nSequel and related films\nThe Gods Must Be Crazy was followed by an official sequel, The Gods Must Be Crazy II, released by Columbia Pictures in 1989. It was written and directed by Uys, and again stars N!xau.\nAn unofficial sequel, Crazy Safari (also titled The Gods Must Be Crazy III), followed, a Hong Kong film starring N!xau. Other unofficial sequels include Crazy Hong Kong (The Gods Must Be Crazy IV) and The Gods Must Be Funny in China (The Gods Must Be Crazy V). Two other unrelated films, Jewel of the Gods and There's a Zulu On My Stoep, were marketed in some territories as sequels to The Gods Must Be Crazy.\n\nLegacy\nIrish Spring soap had a 1989 commercial parodying the film.\nThe video for the song \"Take Me to Your Leader\" by American rock band Incubus pays homage to the film.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nLee, Richard (2003). The Dobe Juǀʼhoansi. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology (3rd ed.). Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-03-032284-7.\nGugler, Josef (2004). African Film: Re-Imagining a Continent. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253216434.\n\nFurther reading\nGorelik, Boris (April 2015). \"The Gods Must Be Crazy: Sorry, but it's still funny\". Journal of African Cinemas.\n\nExternal links\n\nThe Gods Must Be Crazy at AllMovie \nThe Gods Must Be Crazy at Box Office Mojo \nThe Gods Must Be Crazy at IMDb \nThe Gods Must Be Crazy at Metacritic \nThe Gods Must Be Crazy at Rotten Tomatoes \n\"The Gods Must Be Crazy broke box-office records worldwide. The story behind it is even crazier.\" in Slate",
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"paragraph_text": "Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve (or Motlatse Canyon Provincial Nature Reserve) is situated in the Drakensberg escarpment region of eastern Mpumalanga, South Africa. The reserve protects the Blyde River Canyon, including sections of the Ohrigstad and Blyde Rivers and the geological formations around Bourke's Luck Potholes, where the Treur River tumbles into the Blyde below. Southwards of the canyon, the reserve follows the escarpment, to include the Devil's and God's Window, the latter a popular viewpoint to the lowveld at the reserve's southern extremity.\nThe Mogologolo (1,794 m), Mariepskop (1,944 m) and Hebronberg (1,767 m) massifs are partially included in the reserve. Elevation varies from 560 m to 1,944 m above sea level. Its resort areas are F.H. Odendaal and Swadeni, the latter only accessible from Limpopo province. The area of approximately 29,000 hectares (290 km2) is administered by the Mpumalanga Parks Board.\n\nBourke's Luck Potholes\nThis geological feature and day visitors' attraction, named after prospector Bernard Thomas Bourke (brother of Eddie Bourke), is situated at the confluence of the Treur and Blyde Rivers, on the reserve's western boundary 24°40′28″S 30°48′39″E. The reserve's nature conservation headquarters is located here, beside the village of Moremela, at the canyon's southern, or upper reaches. Bourke's Luck Potholes marks the beginning of the Blyde River Canyon.\nSustained kolks in the Treur River's plunge pools have eroded a number of cylindrical potholes or giant's kettles, which can be viewed from the crags above. It was named after a local prospector, Tom Bourke, who predicted the presence of gold, though he found none himself. The pedestrian bridges connect the various overlooks of the potholes and the gorge downstream.\n\nThe Three Rondavels\nThe Three Rondavels are three round, grass-covered mountain tops with somewhat pointed peaks. They quite closely resemble the traditional round or oval rondavels or African homesteads, which are made with local materials. Sometimes they are also called the Three Sisters, though this may confuse them with a similar threesome visible from the N1 road in the Northern Cape, very far to the south.\nThe names of the peaks commemorate a 19th-century chief, Maripi, and three of his wives. The flat-topped peak adjacent to the rondavels is Mapjaneng, \"the chief\", who is remembered for opposing invading Swazis in a memorable battle. The three rondavels are named for three of his more troublesome wives – Magabolle, Mogoladikwe and Maseroto. Behind the rondavels the distant high plateau of Mariepskop may be visible. Beside the dam, the isolated Thabaneng hill is known as the \"sundial\" or \"mountain with a shadow that moves\". It is said that the position of its shadow indicates the time of day.\nOn a clear day the lookout point provides extensive views. From here one looks over the canyon to the Three Rondavels on the other side, which is flanked on various sides by promontories of the northern Drakensberg range.\nThe formation of the attractive sedimentary formations are explained geologically as the slow erosion of underlying soft stone, leaving exposed the more resistant quartzite and shale that form the rondavels.\n\nGod's Window\nGod's Window 24°52′28″S 30°53′29″E is a popular vantage point along the Drakensberg escarpment, at the southern extremity of the Nature Reserve.\nHere, sheer cliffs plunge over 700 metres to the Lowveld. From this escarpment—a mostly unbroken rampart of cliffs—opens a vista into the Lowveld expanse and escarpment forests, the Eden-like aesthetic appearance of which prompted the name. On a clear day it is possible to see over the Kruger National Park towards the Lebombo Mountains on the border with Mozambique.\nGod's Window features prominently in the plot of the 1980 cult film The Gods Must Be Crazy. Near the end of the movie, the Bushman character Xi (played by Namibian bush farmer N!xau) travels to God's Window, and due to some low-lying cloud cover believes it to be the end of the Earth.\nThe original Window is a rock that is set further back on a private farm and due to quarry operations and tree plantation farming, this actual rock that looks like a square window could not be used. The site was moved by the government to the edge of the escarpment.\nA viewing platform 24°52′35.8″S 30°53′19.6″E near the car park gives extensive views down the gorge to the plain below.\n\nFauna\nThe high plateaus are inhabited by mountain reedbuck, baboon troops and rock hyraxes. Impala, kudu, blue wildebeest, waterbuck and zebra roam the wooded lowveld area. Hippo and crocodile are present in the Blyderivierpoort Dam.\nThree species of flat gecko were described in 2014 from the reserve and its vicinity. The Blyde River flat gecko, discovered in 1991, is as yet only known from the cliff face of one of the three rondavels, while the Mariepskop flat gecko was discovered on nearby Mariepskop in 1982. The Abel Erasmus flat gecko is known to occur at Bourke's Luck inside the reserve.\nExotic fish like smallmouth bass, brown and rainbow trout occur in the river, which have reduced the range of the local Treur river barb to upper catchments of the Blyde River system. Thanks to reintroductions after its rediscovery in the 1970s, it now flourishes here. The Natal mountain catfish occurs as an isolated population in the Limpopo system, and the Belvedere creek is the only place in the Limpopo system where the Rosefin barb is found.\nAfrican fish eagle and African finfoot are found along the Blyde River. The lowveld woodlands harbour purple-crested lourie, emerald cuckoo, red-backed mannikin, golden-tailed woodpecker, gorgeous bushshrike, white-faced owl and a number of raptors like white-backed vulture, gymnogene, black-chested snake eagle, Wahlberg's eagle and long-crested eagle. A number of raptors frequent the mountains and cliffs, including cape vulture, black eagle, jackal buzzard, peregrine falcon, lanner falcon and rock kestrel.\nBirds associated with flowering plants of the higher slopes include Gurney's sugarbird and malachite sunbird. A breeding colony of bald ibis occurs in the grassy uplands, besides small numbers of cape eagle-owl and red-breasted sparrowhawk. Forest birds include crowned eagle, Knysna lourie, cinnamon dove, olive bushshrike, green twinspot and wood owl.\n\nFlora\nThe reserve's vegetation is classified as the Northeastern Drakensberg High-Mountain Sourveld ecoregion, an area prone to lightning-induced burning. Its very diverse flora is ascribed to the variation in altitude and rainfall (541 mm to 2,776 mm p.a.), and the extremes in geology and pedology. It is topographically complex with a variety of habitats which include grassland plateaus, wetlands and sponge areas, grassland slopes, afromontane forest, riparian forest, moist woodlands, dry woodlands and shrublands. Its four veld types are Afromontane Forest, North-eastern Mountain Sour Grassland, Sour Lowveld Bushveld and Mixed Lowveld Bushveld.\nAround a 1,000 plant species have been recorded. This includes cycads, of which the Blyde river cycad is almost endemic to the reserve, with some 200 individuals remaining. A variety of orchid, lily and protea (genera Protea, Faurea and Leucospermum) species occur, including the Blyde river protea which is endemic to the canyon, and the escarpment pincushion of which about 30 plants are present. Tree ferns grow along seepages in the uplands.\nIndigenous forest covers 2,111 ha of the nature reserve, or 7.3% of its surface area. These are fragmented into some 60 patches between 0.21 ha and 567 ha in extent. They are assigned to two forest communities, high altitude moist and low altitude dry afromontane forest. The altitudinal gradient accounts for most of their variation in plant communities.\n\nGeneral area\nThe reserve is fringed to the east by the Mariepskop and Klaserie Waterfall Nature Reserves, and the Mapulaneng forestry region, below the escarpment. National Park status had been considered, if some adjacent areas were to be incorporated and their forestry activities discontinued.\nPercy FitzPatrick and George Fullerton's summer quarters as transport riders during the 1880s was situated at Paradise Camp 24°55′24″S 30°52′08″E, some 6 km south of God's Window, and similarly perched on the edge of the escarpment. Close to God's Window are several waterfalls, including Berlin Falls and Lisbon Falls.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n Media related to Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve at Wikimedia Commons\nGod’s Window\nhttp://tabsolutions.co.za/bron2/index.php/toeka-se-dae-mainmenu-76/2851-karakters-op-n-kruising-stories-oor-ou-pretoria-se-winkeliers",
"title": "Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve"
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"paragraph_text": "Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve (or Motlatse Canyon Provincial Nature Reserve) is situated in the Drakensberg escarpment region of eastern Mpumalanga, South Africa. The reserve protects the Blyde River Canyon, including sections of the Ohrigstad and Blyde Rivers and the geological formations around Bourke's Luck Potholes, where the Treur River tumbles into the Blyde below. Southwards of the canyon, the reserve follows the escarpment, to include the Devil's and God's Window, the latter a popular viewpoint to the lowveld at the reserve's southern extremity.\nThe Mogologolo (1,794 m), Mariepskop (1,944 m) and Hebronberg (1,767 m) massifs are partially included in the reserve. Elevation varies from 560 m to 1,944 m above sea level. Its resort areas are F.H. Odendaal and Swadeni, the latter only accessible from Limpopo province. The area of approximately 29,000 hectares (290 km2) is administered by the Mpumalanga Parks Board.\n\nBourke's Luck Potholes\nThis geological feature and day visitors' attraction, named after prospector Bernard Thomas Bourke (brother of Eddie Bourke), is situated at the confluence of the Treur and Blyde Rivers, on the reserve's western boundary 24°40′28″S 30°48′39″E. The reserve's nature conservation headquarters is located here, beside the village of Moremela, at the canyon's southern, or upper reaches. Bourke's Luck Potholes marks the beginning of the Blyde River Canyon.\nSustained kolks in the Treur River's plunge pools have eroded a number of cylindrical potholes or giant's kettles, which can be viewed from the crags above. It was named after a local prospector, Tom Bourke, who predicted the presence of gold, though he found none himself. The pedestrian bridges connect the various overlooks of the potholes and the gorge downstream.\n\nThe Three Rondavels\nThe Three Rondavels are three round, grass-covered mountain tops with somewhat pointed peaks. They quite closely resemble the traditional round or oval rondavels or African homesteads, which are made with local materials. Sometimes they are also called the Three Sisters, though this may confuse them with a similar threesome visible from the N1 road in the Northern Cape, very far to the south.\nThe names of the peaks commemorate a 19th-century chief, Maripi, and three of his wives. The flat-topped peak adjacent to the rondavels is Mapjaneng, \"the chief\", who is remembered for opposing invading Swazis in a memorable battle. The three rondavels are named for three of his more troublesome wives – Magabolle, Mogoladikwe and Maseroto. Behind the rondavels the distant high plateau of Mariepskop may be visible. Beside the dam, the isolated Thabaneng hill is known as the \"sundial\" or \"mountain with a shadow that moves\". It is said that the position of its shadow indicates the time of day.\nOn a clear day the lookout point provides extensive views. From here one looks over the canyon to the Three Rondavels on the other side, which is flanked on various sides by promontories of the northern Drakensberg range.\nThe formation of the attractive sedimentary formations are explained geologically as the slow erosion of underlying soft stone, leaving exposed the more resistant quartzite and shale that form the rondavels.\n\nGod's Window\nGod's Window 24°52′28″S 30°53′29″E is a popular vantage point along the Drakensberg escarpment, at the southern extremity of the Nature Reserve.\nHere, sheer cliffs plunge over 700 metres to the Lowveld. From this escarpment—a mostly unbroken rampart of cliffs—opens a vista into the Lowveld expanse and escarpment forests, the Eden-like aesthetic appearance of which prompted the name. On a clear day it is possible to see over the Kruger National Park towards the Lebombo Mountains on the border with Mozambique.\nGod's Window features prominently in the plot of the 1980 cult film The Gods Must Be Crazy. Near the end of the movie, the Bushman character Xi (played by Namibian bush farmer N!xau) travels to God's Window, and due to some low-lying cloud cover believes it to be the end of the Earth.\nThe original Window is a rock that is set further back on a private farm and due to quarry operations and tree plantation farming, this actual rock that looks like a square window could not be used. The site was moved by the government to the edge of the escarpment.\nA viewing platform 24°52′35.8″S 30°53′19.6″E near the car park gives extensive views down the gorge to the plain below.\n\nFauna\nThe high plateaus are inhabited by mountain reedbuck, baboon troops and rock hyraxes. Impala, kudu, blue wildebeest, waterbuck and zebra roam the wooded lowveld area. Hippo and crocodile are present in the Blyderivierpoort Dam.\nThree species of flat gecko were described in 2014 from the reserve and its vicinity. The Blyde River flat gecko, discovered in 1991, is as yet only known from the cliff face of one of the three rondavels, while the Mariepskop flat gecko was discovered on nearby Mariepskop in 1982. The Abel Erasmus flat gecko is known to occur at Bourke's Luck inside the reserve.\nExotic fish like smallmouth bass, brown and rainbow trout occur in the river, which have reduced the range of the local Treur river barb to upper catchments of the Blyde River system. Thanks to reintroductions after its rediscovery in the 1970s, it now flourishes here. The Natal mountain catfish occurs as an isolated population in the Limpopo system, and the Belvedere creek is the only place in the Limpopo system where the Rosefin barb is found.\nAfrican fish eagle and African finfoot are found along the Blyde River. The lowveld woodlands harbour purple-crested lourie, emerald cuckoo, red-backed mannikin, golden-tailed woodpecker, gorgeous bushshrike, white-faced owl and a number of raptors like white-backed vulture, gymnogene, black-chested snake eagle, Wahlberg's eagle and long-crested eagle. A number of raptors frequent the mountains and cliffs, including cape vulture, black eagle, jackal buzzard, peregrine falcon, lanner falcon and rock kestrel.\nBirds associated with flowering plants of the higher slopes include Gurney's sugarbird and malachite sunbird. A breeding colony of bald ibis occurs in the grassy uplands, besides small numbers of cape eagle-owl and red-breasted sparrowhawk. Forest birds include crowned eagle, Knysna lourie, cinnamon dove, olive bushshrike, green twinspot and wood owl.\n\nFlora\nThe reserve's vegetation is classified as the Northeastern Drakensberg High-Mountain Sourveld ecoregion, an area prone to lightning-induced burning. Its very diverse flora is ascribed to the variation in altitude and rainfall (541 mm to 2,776 mm p.a.), and the extremes in geology and pedology. It is topographically complex with a variety of habitats which include grassland plateaus, wetlands and sponge areas, grassland slopes, afromontane forest, riparian forest, moist woodlands, dry woodlands and shrublands. Its four veld types are Afromontane Forest, North-eastern Mountain Sour Grassland, Sour Lowveld Bushveld and Mixed Lowveld Bushveld.\nAround a 1,000 plant species have been recorded. This includes cycads, of which the Blyde river cycad is almost endemic to the reserve, with some 200 individuals remaining. A variety of orchid, lily and protea (genera Protea, Faurea and Leucospermum) species occur, including the Blyde river protea which is endemic to the canyon, and the escarpment pincushion of which about 30 plants are present. Tree ferns grow along seepages in the uplands.\nIndigenous forest covers 2,111 ha of the nature reserve, or 7.3% of its surface area. These are fragmented into some 60 patches between 0.21 ha and 567 ha in extent. They are assigned to two forest communities, high altitude moist and low altitude dry afromontane forest. The altitudinal gradient accounts for most of their variation in plant communities.\n\nGeneral area\nThe reserve is fringed to the east by the Mariepskop and Klaserie Waterfall Nature Reserves, and the Mapulaneng forestry region, below the escarpment. National Park status had been considered, if some adjacent areas were to be incorporated and their forestry activities discontinued.\nPercy FitzPatrick and George Fullerton's summer quarters as transport riders during the 1880s was situated at Paradise Camp 24°55′24″S 30°52′08″E, some 6 km south of God's Window, and similarly perched on the edge of the escarpment. Close to God's Window are several waterfalls, including Berlin Falls and Lisbon Falls.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n Media related to Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve at Wikimedia Commons\nGod’s Window\nhttp://tabsolutions.co.za/bron2/index.php/toeka-se-dae-mainmenu-76/2851-karakters-op-n-kruising-stories-oor-ou-pretoria-se-winkeliers",
"title": "Blyde_River_Canyon_Nature_Reserve"
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] | What is the name of the popular vantage point that is featured in the 1980 comedy film "The Gods Must Be Crazy", and which provincial nature reserve is it located in as of 2024? | [] | God's Window in Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve | [] | true |
157 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Brokeback Mountain is a 2005 American neo-Western romantic drama film directed by Ang Lee and produced by Diana Ossana and James Schamus. Adapted from the 1997 short story by Annie Proulx, the screenplay was written by Ossana and Larry McMurtry. The film stars Heath Ledger, Jake Gyllenhaal, Anne Hathaway, and Michelle Williams. Its plot depicts the complex romantic relationship between two American cowboys, Ennis Del Mar and Jack Twist, in the American West from 1963 to 1983.\nLee became attached to the project in 2001 after previous attempts to adapt Proulx's story into a film did not materialize. Focus Features and River Road Entertainment would jointly produce and distribute the film. After Ledger and Gyllenhaal's casting was announced in 2003, filming commenced in various locations in Alberta in 2004. Brokeback Mountain premiered at the 2005 Venice International Film Festival, where it won the Golden Lion, and was released to theaters on December 9 that year.\nThe film received widespread critical acclaim, with high praise for the performances of Ledger and Gyllenhaal. It emerged as a commercial success at the box-office, grossing over $178 million worldwide against its $14 million budget, and won various accolades. At the 78th Academy Awards, Brokeback Mountain was nominated for Best Picture and won for Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Original Score. It garnered seven nominations at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards, winning Best Motion Picture — Drama, Best Director and Best Screenplay and Best Song. At the 59th British Academy Film Awards, Brokeback Mountain had nine nominations, winning Best Film, Best Direction, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Supporting Actor (Gyllenhaal).\nBrokeback Mountain was subject to controversies; its loss to Crash (2004) for the Academy Award for Best Picture, subsequent censorship, and criticism from conservative media outlets received significant attention. The sexuality of the main characters has been subject to discussion. Brokeback Mountain has also been regarded as a turning point for the advancement of queer cinema into the mainstream. In 2018, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\nPlot\nIn Wyoming in 1963, cowboys Ennis Del Mar and Jack Twist are hired by Joe Aguirre to herd his sheep through the summer on grazing pastures on Brokeback Mountain. After a night of heavy drinking, Jack makes a pass at Ennis. While initially reluctant, Ennis becomes receptive, and he and Jack have sex in their tent. Despite Ennis telling Jack that it was a one-time incident, they develop a sexual and emotional relationship. Near the end of their work contract, Ennis and Jack have a brawl that leaves both of them bloodied. Before parting ways, Ennis offhandedly laments that he left one of his shirts on the mountain.\nEnnis marries his longtime fiancée Alma Beers and has two daughters with her: Alma Jr. and Jenny. Jack returns the next summer seeking work, but Aguirre, who observed Jack and Ennis engaging in homosexual activity on the mountain, refuses to hire him. Jack moves to Texas, where he meets wealthy rodeo rider Lureen Newsome; they marry and have a son.\nAfter four years apart, Jack visits Ennis. Upon meeting, they kiss passionately, which a stunned Alma inadvertently witnesses. In the privacy of a motel room, Jack broaches the subject of creating a life together, but Ennis refuses, as he is unwilling to abandon his family and is haunted by a childhood memory of his father showing him the body of a man who was tortured and killed for suspected homosexuality.\nEnnis and Jack meet infrequently for private fishing trips while their respective marriages deteriorate. Lureen abandons the rodeo and goes into business with her father, with Jack working in sales. Alma and Ennis divorce in 1975. Upon hearing about it, Jack drives to Wyoming and tells Ennis that they should live together, but Ennis refuses to move away from his children.\nAlma takes custody of Alma Jr. and Jenny, and marries Monroe, manager of the grocery store where she works. Ennis visits them during a Thanksgiving dinner. In the kitchen, when Alma and Ennis are alone, she confronts him about his relationship with Jack. The two spar, causing Ennis to storm out and cease contact with Alma.\nEnnis has a short-lived romantic relationship with a waitress named Cassie. Jack and Lureen befriend another couple, Randall and Lashawn Malone, and it is implied that Jack and Randall have a brief affair. At the end of a tryst disguised as a fishing trip, Ennis tells Jack that he cannot see him again for months due to work demands. The pair argue, before Jack embraces a crying Ennis.\nSometime later, Ennis receives a returned postcard that he had sent to Jack, stamped with \"Deceased\". Ennis calls Jack's phone number, and Lureen takes the call. She tells Ennis that Jack died in an accident from drowning in his own blood after a car tire exploded in his face. While she is describing what happened, Ennis envisions a group of men beating Jack to death with a tire iron. Lureen tells him that Jack wanted to have his ashes scattered on Brokeback Mountain.\nEnnis visits Jack's parents hoping to carry out his wish. Jack's father declares that Jack's ashes will be interred in a family plot. Jack's mother tells Ennis that he is welcome to visit Jack's bedroom. Going there alone, in the closet he finds the shirt that he had thought he had left on the mountain, which Jack had secretly kept, nested inside one of his own shirts. Ennis holds the shirts to his face and silently weeps. Jack's mother sees him holding the two shirts, and allows him to keep them.\nLater, a 19-year-old Alma Jr. arrives at Ennis's trailer to tell him that she is engaged to Kurt, a man who works in the oil fields. She asks for his blessing and invites him to the wedding. Ennis hesitates due to his work commitments, but then agrees to attend the wedding. Once Alma Jr. leaves, Ennis goes to the closet where the two shirts hang together, Jack's shirt now inside Ennis's. Next to them, tacked to the closet door, is a postcard of Brokeback Mountain. With tears in his eyes, he stares at the mementos, and says, \"Jack, I swear...\"\n\nCast\nCredits adapted from TV Guide.\n\nProduction\nDevelopment\nScreenwriter Diana Ossana discovered Annie Proulx's short story, Brokeback Mountain, in October 1997, just days after its publication. She convinced writing partner Larry McMurtry to read it, who thought it was a \"masterpiece\". The pair asked Proulx if they could adapt it into a film screenplay; although she did not think that the story would work as a film, she agreed. In a 1999 interview with The Missouri Review, Proulx praised their screenplay. Ossana said that convincing a director and production company to make the film was a challenging and nonstop process. Gus Van Sant attempted to make the film, hoping to cast Matt Damon and Joaquin Phoenix as Ennis and Jack, respectively. He also considered Leonardo DiCaprio, Brad Pitt and Ryan Phillippe. Josh Hartnett was originally attached to the film but dropped out due to scheduling conflicts with The Black Dahlia. Damon, who previously worked with Van Sant on Good Will Hunting, told the director, \"Gus, I did a gay movie (The Talented Mr. Ripley), then a cowboy movie (All the Pretty Horses). I can't follow it up with a gay-cowboy movie!\" Instead, Van Sant went on to make the 2008 biographical film Milk, based on the life of gay rights activist and politician Harvey Milk. Edward Norton and Joel Schumacher were also linked with the project at one point.\nFocus Features CEO James Schamus optioned the film rights in 2001, but thought it was a risky project. Pedro Almodóvar was initially offered the opportunity to direct, but turned it down, citing concerns about artistic freedom. At Ossana's request, Schamus showed the story and screenplay to director Ang Lee. Lee decided to make Hulk instead; his experience of Hulk, and Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon from two years prior left him exhausted. In 2003, he considered retirement but Brokeback Mountain came back to his mind and tempted him back into filmmaking. Lee attempted to get the film made as an independent producer. However, this did not work out, and before Lee would take a break after finishing Hulk, he contacted Schamus about Brokeback Mountain. Schamus thought Brokeback Mountain embraces the American West without being a traditional Western, and told Lee that he should consider directing it. Lee said, \"Towards the end [of the script] ... I got tears in my eyes\". He was particularly drawn to the authentic rural American life and repression depicted in the story. Bill Pohlad of River Road Entertainment, who had a two-year partnership with Focus Features, helped finance the film.\n\nCasting\nCasting director Avy Kaufman said Lee was very decisive about the actors for the lead roles. In 2003, screenwriters Ossana and McMurty suggested Heath Ledger (after being impressed by his performance in Monster's Ball), but the film studio thought he was not masculine enough. Regardless, Kaufman sent the script to Ledger, who thought it was \"beautiful\" and put himself forward. Gyllenhaal reacted to the script positively and signed on for the role; he also did not want to miss the opportunity to work with Lee and friend Ledger. Lee met with Mark Wahlberg for a role in the film, but Wahlberg declined as he was \"creeped out\" by the script. Gyllenhaal admired Ledger and described him as \"way beyond his years as a human\". Other actors were considered for the leads but Lee said they were too afraid to take on the roles.\n\nFrom the beginning, Ledger wanted to portray Ennis and not Jack. He opined that Ennis was more complex; a masculine and homophobic character. Ledger said, \"The lack of words he [Ennis] had to express himself, his inability to love\", made the role enjoyable. Ledger, who grew up around horses, researched his character's personal traits, and learned to speak in Wyoming and Texas accents. Lee gave Ledger and Gyllenhaal books about cowboys who were gay or shared similar experiences as the characters depicted in Proulx's story. Ledger and Gyllenhaal also went to a ranch on the outskirts of Los Angeles and learned to ride horses. Gyllenhaal later said:That what ties these two characters together is not just a love, but a loneliness. I think primarily it was deep loneliness. And what I always say about that movie [Brokeback Mountain], which I think maybe over time is more understood, is that this is about two people desperately looking for love. To be loved. And who were probably capable of it. And they just found it with someone of the same sex. And that does not dismiss the fact that it is about, really, primarily, the first kind of very profound gay love story. Hopefully it can create an equality of an idea: that is, it's possible that you can find love anywhere. That intimacy exists in so many places that convention and society won't always allow us to see. And we won't allow ourselves to see, because of what criticism—and danger, really—it might provoke.\nLee interviewed between 20 and 30 actresses for the roles of Alma and Lureen. Michelle Williams was one of the first to audition for the role of Alma, and Lee thought she was perfect for the part. Anne Hathaway, who was filming The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement at the time, showed up to the audition during her lunch break. She was wearing a ball gown and hairpiece \"that was way over the top\", but she still felt focused for the audition. At first, Lee did not think she was an obvious choice, but he was convinced with her audition and cast her as Lureen. Hathaway lied to Lee about her knowledge of horse riding in order to be cast. She took lessons for two months to prepare.\nLee was happy with Ledger and Gyllenhaal portraying Ennis and Jack, respectively, because he thought their \"young innocence\" will help carry a love story until the end. Lee added, \"I think these two are among the best in their age group [...] Jake plays the opposite of Heath and it creates a very good couple in terms of a romantic love story. The chemistry, I think, is great.\" Once all four leads were cast, Lee remembered being impressed with their maturity despite their young age; \"It really scared me how good they were\".\n\nFilming\nPrincipal photography began in the summer of 2004. While the Proulx story is set in Wyoming, Brokeback Mountain was filmed almost entirely in the Canadian Rockies in southern Alberta. Lee was given a tour of the locations from the story in Wyoming by Proulx, but chose to shoot in Alberta citing financial reasons. The mountain featured in the film is a composite of Mount Lougheed south of the town of Canmore, Fortress and Moose Mountain in Kananaskis Country. The campsites were filmed at Goat Creek, Upper Kananaskis Lake, Elbow Falls and Canyon Creek, also in Alberta. Other scenes were filmed in Cowley, Fort Macleod, and Calgary. Brokeback Mountain's production budget was approximately US$14 million.\nInitially, Alberta's environmental department prohibited the crew from bringing domestic sheep into the Rockies, due to a risk of disease harming the local wildlife. The authorities eventually gave permission for them to shoot on one mountain, as long as they transported the domestic sheep in and out, every day. A biologist was hired to supervise this process.\nLee prefers working with cinematographers who are open minded, eager to learn, and able to show an interest in the story and content before talking about the visuals. Therefore, he selected Rodrigo Prieto for the job; saying, \"I think he's versatile, and I wanted somebody who could shoot quickly [...] he was able to give me the tranquil, almost passive look I wanted for Brokeback. I believe a talent's a talent\".\nLedger and Gyllenhaal, who were friends before Brokeback Mountain, were mostly unconcerned with the intimate scenes. The first sex scene between Ennis and Jack took 13 takes to meet Lee's expectation. The director would keep his distance from them during filming, allowing the actors to be free and spontaneous. Lee said, \"I don't talk too much [to them] except for technical notes. So they [the intimate scenes] are a lot easier to deal with\". Ledger was observant of Lee's directing style, saying, \"There's two sides to Ang's direction — there's the pre-production, which is incredibly thorough and private, and then there's the shooting side, when he just doesn't say anything at all.\" Ledger said that this helped him try harder during takes. Gyllenhaal echoed Ledger's sentiment; \"He just totally disconnects from you while you're shooting\", but praised Lee's directorial skills. In regard to acting, Ledger was sometimes disrupted by Gyllenhaal's acting style; Gyllenhaal tended to improvise whereas Ledger preferred to be highly prepared. The director allowed Ledger to see his performance on the camera monitor so that he could improve.\nDuring the last scenes where Ennis meets Jack's parents, production designer Judy Becker was tasked in finding a suitable house. Lee took inspiration from painters Andrew Wyeth and Vilhelm Hammershoi for the white interior walls. Using two cameras, Lee would capture the actors from both angles, and then change lenses and repeat. \"When you edit it together, you can apply certain emphasis to certain reactions, emotions\", Lee said. Ossana remembers that the last scenes were emotional for Ledger and personally affected him. The actors who played Jack's parents, Roberta Maxwell and Peter McRobbie, said Ledger was very quiet and gave a \"powerful performance\".\n\nExecutive producer Michael Hausman rented Airstream trailers for the cast and crew to sleep in. He created an on-set atmosphere which mimicked a summer camp, where people could bond and feel close. Hausman recalled that they would sit around the fireplaces, cook food and go fishing on the creek. The production was not without commotion; the cast suffered several injuries during filming. Williams sprained her knee in the early days of filming, therefore, her character's movements were altered to be either sitting or standing most of the time. Ledger also injured his hand when he punched a wall for a scene. During a kissing scene, Ledger almost broke Gyllenhaal's nose. The American Humane raised concerns that animals were treated improperly during filming, alleging that sheep were handled roughly and that an elk appeared to have been \"shot on cue.\" They learned that the elk was shot with anesthetic, violating standard guidelines for animal handling in the film industry.\nDuring post-production, Geraldine Peroni and Dylan Tichenor served as film editors, but Peroni died in August 2004 and Tichenor took over. The pair relied on Media Composer for editing, and sound engineer Eugene Gearty used Pro Tools for the creation of sound effects. Buzz Image Group were hired to create 75 visual effect shots, including computer-generated clouds, landscapes and sheep. For the film's theatrical poster, Schamus took inspiration from James Cameron's Titanic, which depicts two star-crossed lovers.\n\nMusic\nGustavo Santaolalla scored the film's soundtrack, which consists of 17 tracks as well as songs from Bob Dylan and Roger Miller. The album was released on October 25, 2005. Based on the story and one conversation with the director, Santaolalla was able to score the music before filming began. He said, \"I mean if you are connected to the story and to the director, it makes a lot of sense because somehow you know, the music then becomes a part of the fabric of that film from the very beginning.\" He also used a real orchestra and played his own guitar.\n\nRelease\nBox office\nThe film received a limited release in the United States on December 9, 2005, and grossed $547,425 in its first weekend. Over the Christmas weekend, and beginning of January 2006, the film expanded into more domestic theaters. On January 20, the film opened in 1,194 theaters, then 1,652 theaters on January 27, and 2,089 theaters on February 3, its widest release.\nBrokeback Mountain was released in one theater in London on December 30 and received a wider release in the United Kingdom on January 6, 2006. The film was released in France on January 18, to 155 theaters, expanding to 290 by the third week. In its first week of release, Brokeback Mountain was in third place at the French box office. In Italy, the film grossed more than €890,000 in three days and was the fourth highest-grossing film in its first week. The film was released in Australia on January 26, where it ranked fourth place at the weekend box office. Brokeback Mountain was released in many other countries during the first three months of 2006. During its first week of release in Hong Kong, Brokeback Mountain was ranked first place at the box office, earning more than US$473,868 ($22,565 per theater). The film opened in Lee's native Taiwan on January 20. The film grossed $83 million in North America and $95 million internationally, for a worldwide $178 million. It is the highest-grossing release for Focus Features.\n\nInternational distribution\nThe film has been given different titles in accordance to different languages and regions. For the film's release in French and Italian, it was titled Le Secret de Brokeback Mountain and I segreti di Brokeback Mountain (The Secret(s) of Brokeback Mountain), respectively. In Canadian French, the title is Souvenirs de Brokeback Mountain (Memories of Brokeback Mountain). The film received two Spanish titles: Brokeback Mountain: En terreno vedado (In a forbidden terrain) for its release in Spain and Secreto en la Montaña (Secret in the mountain) for its release in Latin America. In Hungarian, the title was Túl a barátságon (Beyond friendship).The film was met with mixed responses in some regions, particularly China and Islamic nations of western Asia. According to reports, the film was not shown in theaters in China, though it was freely available in bootleg DVD and VHS. The Chinese government said the audience would have been too small; the foreign media accused the government of censorship. The word \"brokeback\" (Chinese: 断背; pinyin: duànbèi) also entered the Chinese lexicon as a slang for homosexuality. The film was dubbed \"the gay cowboy movie\" by the press, a term that was propelled into the American vernacular. The film was also released in Turkey.\nIn the Middle East, distribution of the film became a political issue. Homosexuality is considered a crime in most Islamic nations and is taboo in the few countries where it is legal. Lebanon was the only Arab country to show the film, although in a censored format. The film was officially banned from screenings in the United Arab Emirates; however, the DVD of the film was permitted to be rented from stores such as Blockbuster Video.\nOn December 8, 2008, the Italian state-owned television channel Rai Due aired a censored version of the film, removing all the scenes with homoerotic references. Viewers protested, saying the deletions made the plot hard to follow. The Arcigay organisation accused the channel of homophobic censorship. The state-owned television network RAI said the Italian film distributor had mistakenly censored the film. RAI showed an uncensored version of the film on March 17, 2009.\n\nHome media\nBrokeback Mountain was the first major film to be released simultaneously on both DVD and digital download via the Internet. It was released in the United States on April 4, 2006. More than 1 million copies of the DVD were sold in the first week, and it was the third-biggest seller of the week, behind Disney's The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and King Kong. Although the ranking fluctuated daily, by late March and early April 2006, Brokeback Mountain had been the top-selling DVD on Amazon.com for several days running.\nThe DVD in Europe was released in the UK on April 24, 2006. This was followed by France in July, and Poland in September, a considerable time after the theater release in both countries. Brokeback Mountain was re-released in a collector's edition on January 23, 2007. On the same day, it was also released in HD DVD format. The film was released on Blu-ray in the UK on August 13, 2007, and in the U.S. on March 10, 2009. The Blu-ray contains special features including interviews with the screenwriters, director and a short documentary about composer Gustavo Santaolalla. Kino Lorber released the film on Ultra HD Blu-ray on July 16, 2024.\n\nCritical response\nBrokeback Mountain was released to critical acclaim. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 88% based on 252 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"A beautifully epic Western, Brokeback Mountain's love story is imbued with heartbreaking universality, helped by moving performances by Heath Ledger and Jake Gyllenhaal.\" On Metacritic, the film has a rating of 87/100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\".\n\nDavid Ansen of Newsweek gave the film a positive review, praising the faithful screenplay. He adds, \"There's neither coyness nor self-importance in Brokeback Mountain—just close, compassionate observation, deeply committed performances, a bone-deep feeling for hardscrabble Western lives. Few films have captured so acutely the desolation of frustrated, repressed passion.\" Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw praised Ledger and Gyllenhaal for their complementary performances. Bradshaw thought the film was \"extremely moving, tragic even, and sensitive towards the feelings of the simple wives who attempt to understand their troubled husbands.\" Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post was equally positive, opining that the two lead actors' performances were unforgettable. In particular, she thought Ledger was impressive in his portrayal of a reserved and emotionally affected Ennis. Hornaday also praised the costumes and sets, writing \"The Wyoming vistas are flawlessly manicured, Ledger and Gyllenhaal perfectly costumed and coiffed; even Ennis and Alma's sad little apartment over a laundromat seems to have been designed to death.\"\nRoger Ebert gave Brokeback Mountain a rating of four out of four stars in his review. Ebert was impressed with the level of attention to the characters, and thought that the film was as observant as the work by Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman. Writing for The Sydney Morning Herald, Sandra Hall praised the screenplay and called Ledger and Gyllenhaal \"finely tuned\". Noting that it is a slow film, Hall thought the filmmakers had adapted Proulx's story without missing any nuances. USA Today's Mike Clark observed that Brokeback Mountain was directed and photographed with restraint, and praised its old-fashioned quality, and \"unassuming but people-oriented\" nature. The film also received a positive reaction from Christianity Today; the reviewer gave the film 3 out of 4 stars. In a mixed review, Ed Gonzalez of Slant magazine thought the film was too long, and the critic from Time magazine felt that the story became less intense towards the end. Conservative radio host Michael Medved described it as \"extremely well done\" and that as a film, it was \"better than the agenda\".\nSeveral conservative political pundits, including commentators Bill O'Reilly, John Gibson, and Cal Thomas, shared Medved's view of the \"agenda\". Gibson made jokes about the film on his Fox News Radio program for months after its release. After the death of Ledger in 2008, Gibson was criticized for mocking the deceased actor, and later apologized. Conservative radio host Rush Limbaugh referred to the film as \"Bareback Mountain\" and \"Humpback Mountain\". Don Imus referred to the film as \"Fudgepack Mountain\". Several conservative Christian groups, such as Concerned Women for America (CWA) and Focus on the Family, criticized the film for its subject matter. Following the success of Brokeback Mountain, Capote, and Transamerica at the Golden Globes Awards in 2006, Janice Crouse, a CWA member, cited these films as examples of how \"the media elites are proving that their pet projects are more important than profit\", and suggested they were not popular enough to warrant critical acclaim.\nFilm critic Gene Shalit, of The Today Show, described the character of Jack Twist as a \"sexual predator\" who \"tracks Ennis down and coaxes him into sporadic trysts.\" The LGBTQ media group GLAAD said that Shalit's characterization of Twist was like calling Jack in Titanic a sexual predator due to his romantic pursuit of Rose. Shalit's openly gay son, Peter Shalit, wrote an open letter to GLAAD: \"He [Gene] may have had an unpopular opinion of a movie that is important to the gay community, but he defamed no one, and he is not a homophobe.\" Gene Shalit later apologized for his review: \"I did not intend to use a word that many in the gay community consider incendiary... I certainly had no intention of casting aspersions on anyone in the gay community or on the community itself. I regret any emotional hurt that may have resulted from my review of Brokeback Mountain.\"\nSome commentators accused the filmmakers for hiding content about the film in advertising and in public events, such as press conferences and award ceremonies. New York Daily News writer Wayman Wong, Dave Cullen and Daniel Mendelsohn argued that the director, cast, and publicists avoided using the word gay to describe the story, and noted that the film's trailer did not show a kiss between the two men but showed a heterosexual love scene. The film's significance has been attributed to its portrayal of a same-sex relationship focused solely on the characters, as the film does not refer in any manner to the broader history of various LGBT social movements. It emphasizes the tragic love story aspect, and many critics have compared Ennis and Jack's drama to classic and modern romances such as Romeo and Juliet or Titanic, often using the term star-crossed lovers.\nProulx praised the film as \"huge and powerful\", adding, \"I may be the first writer in America to have a piece of writing make its way to the screen whole and entire. [...] I was astonished that the characters of Jack and Ennis came surging into my mind again\".\nCritics' lists of 2005\nBrokeback Mountain appeared on numerous American critics' lists as one of their favorite films of 2005.\n\nThe film was picked as one of the 400 nominated films for the American Film Institute list AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition). Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, best-of list. In a 2016 international poll conducted by BBC, Brokeback Mountain was ranked the 40th greatest film since 2000. In 2019, The Guardian ranked the film 66th in its 100 best films of the 21st century list.\n\nLegal issues\nOn January 6, 2006, Utah Jazz owner Larry H. Miller removed the film from theaters at the Jordan Commons entertainment complex in Sandy, Utah. Miller said the film's content had no resemblance of a traditional family, which he believed is \"dangerous\". Focus Features threatened legal action and announced it would no longer do business with him.\nOn March 23, 2006, Randy Quaid, who portrayed Joe Aguirre in the film, filed a lawsuit against Focus Features for misrepresenting Brokeback Mountain as \"a low-budget, art house film with no prospect of making any money\", in order to secure his role for a cheaper rate. On May 4, Quaid's publicist said he dropped the lawsuit as the company agreed to pay him a settlement; the company denies this, however.\n\nAccolades\nBrokeback Mountain garnered awards and nominations in a variety of categories, including for its directing, screenplay, acting, original score, and cinematography. At the 78th Academy Awards, Brokeback Mountain was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture and won three awards for Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Original Score. The film garnered seven nominations at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards, winning four for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay and Best Song. At the 59th British Academy Film Awards, Brokeback Mountain was nominated for nine awards, winning in the categories of Best Film, Best Direction, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Supporting Actor for Jake Gyllenhaal.\nAfter Brokeback Mountain lost the Academy Award for Best Picture to Crash, some critics accused the Academy of homophobia and for making a non-groundbreaking choice. Commentators including Kenneth Turan and Nikki Finke derided the Academy's decision, but Roger Ebert defended the decision to award Crash Best Picture, arguing that the better film won. Proulx wrote an essay expressing disappointment in the film not winning Best Picture. She also opined that Philip Seymour Hoffman's performance in Capote required less effort than that required of the actors in Brokeback Mountain. Following the loss, more than 800 supporters raised up to $26,000 to place an advertisement in the Daily Variety. The advert thanked the filmmakers \"for transforming countless lives through the most honored film of the year.\"\nThe film is one of several highly acclaimed LGBT-related films of 2005 to be nominated for critical awards; others include Breakfast on Pluto, Capote, Rent, and Transamerica. It was voted the top film involving homosexual relationships by readers at TheBacklot.com. In 2010, the Independent Film & Television Alliance selected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years.\nIn 2015, The Hollywood Reporter polled Academy members on controversial past decisions, in which Brokeback Mountain won the revote for Best Picture.\n\nCharacters' sexuality\nCritics and the cast and crew disagreed as to whether the film's two protagonists were homosexual, bisexual, heterosexual, or should be free of any sexual orientation classification. The film was frequently referred to in the media as the \"gay cowboy movie\", but a number of reviewers noted that both Jack and Ennis were bisexual. Sex researcher Fritz Klein said that the film was \"a nice film with two main characters who were bisexual\" and suggested that the character of Jack is more \"toward the gay side\" of the spectrum and Ennis is \"a bit more toward the straight side\".\nGyllenhaal said in 2006 that Ennis and Jack were straight men who \"develop this love, this bond,\" saying in a Details interview: \"I approached the story believing that these are actually two straight guys who fall in love.\" However, in 2015, he told The Hollywood Reporter that this was a \"gay love story\", and that his character was the more \"overtly gay\" of the two. Ledger told Time magazine in 2005: \"I don't think Ennis could be labeled as gay. Without Jack Twist, I don't know that he ever would have come out. I think the whole point was that it was two souls that fell in love with each other.\"\nOthers said they felt the characters' sexuality was meant to be ambiguous. Clarence Patton and Christopher Murray of New York's Gay City News wrote that Ennis and Jack's experiences were metaphors for \"many men who do not identify as gay or even queer, but who nevertheless have sex with other men\". Entertainment Weekly wrote that \"everyone called it 'The Gay Cowboy Movie' until they saw it. In the end, Ang Lee's 2005 love story wasn't gay or straight, just human.\" Tom Ciorciari of EFilmCritic.com wrote: \"We later see Jack eagerly engage Lureen sexually, with no explanation as to whether he is bisexual, so in need of physical intimacy that anyone, regardless of gender, will do, or merely very adept at faking it.\"\nLGBT non-fiction author Eric Marcus dismissed \"talk of Ennis and Jack being anything but gay as box office-influenced political correctness intended to steer straight audiences to the film\". Roger Ebert believed that both characters were gay, but doubted it themselves: \"Jack is able to accept a little more willingly that he is inescapably gay.\" Producer James Schamus said, \"I suppose movies can be Rorschach tests for all of us, but damn if these characters aren't gay to me.\" Brokeback Mountain author Annie Proulx said, \"how different readers take the story is a reflection of their own personal values, attitudes, hang-ups.\"\nWhen Ledger and Gyllenhaal were asked if they feared being cast in controversial roles, Ledger stated that he was not afraid of the role, but rather he was concerned that he would not be mature enough as an actor to do the story justice. Gyllenhaal has stated that he is proud of the film and his role, regardless of what the reactions would be. He thinks rumors of him being bisexual are flattering, stating: \"I'm open to whatever people want to call me. I've never really been attracted to men sexually, but I don't think I would be afraid of it if it happened.\" Lee described himself as shy upon shooting the first sex scene and found it initially, technically difficult but praised Ledger and Gyllenhaal for their professionalism. Ledger's performance was described by Luke Davies as a difficult and empowering portrayal given the environment of the film: \"In Brokeback Mountain the vulnerability, the potential for danger, is so great – a world so masculine it might destroy you for any aberration – that [Ledger's] real brilliance was to bring to the screen a character, Ennis Del Mar, so fundamentally shut down that he is like a bible of unrequited desires, stifled yearnings, lost potential.\"\nAuthor Jim Kitses quoted Diana Ossana's acknowledgement of how the film \"subverts the myth of the American West and its iconic heroes.\" He commented: \"What drives the emotional attack of the film is the inadequacy of its characters to articulate and understand, let alone control, the experience that strikes them like a storm. American cowboys—of all people—have no business falling in love with each other. Practical and conservative types of a rough and ready manhood are by no means ready for man-love.\"\n\nLegacy and impact\nBrokeback Mountain was lauded as a landmark in LGBT cinema and credited for influencing several films and television shows featuring LGBT themes and characters. In Out at the Movies, Steven Paul Davies explains that as a result of the film's success, \"most major film studios have been clamouring to get behind new, gay-themed projects... thanks to Brokeback, film financiers will continue to back scripts that don't simply rely on gay stereotypes...and that will certainly be progress.\" Davies cites Milk, Transamerica, and I Love You Phillip Morris as examples of such films. In 2018, Brokeback Mountain was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\nThe pair of shirts worn by Ledger's and Gyllenhaal's characters were sold on eBay on February 20, 2006, for US$101,100.51. The shirts were sold to benefit children's charity Variety. The buyer, Tom Gregory, film historian and collector, described the shirts as \"the ruby slippers of our time\", referring to an artifact from The Wizard of Oz film. In 2009, Gregory loaned the shirts to the Autry National Center in Los Angeles for its series, Out West, which explored the history of homosexual, bisexual and transgender people in the Old West. The series included a gallery tour, panel discussions, lectures and performances, with events held in four installments over the course of 12 months. According to the Autry, the series was the \"first of its kind\" for a western heritage museum.\nA book, Beyond Brokeback: The Impact of a Film (2007) is a collection of personal stories of how people were influenced by the story and film, compiled from members of the Ultimate Brokeback Forum website. In an associated Out West series program, the Autry screened Brokeback Mountain in December 2010 to commemorate the film's fifth anniversary and held a staged reading of Beyond Brokeback by historian and Out West organizer Gregory Hinton. Beyond Brokeback has been presented as a staged reading at other venues, such as Roosevelt University in Chicago, on November 13, 2011, together with a panel discussion and screening of the film. An American opera, Brokeback Mountain, was composed by Charles Wuorinen with a libretto by Annie Proulx. Written in English, it premiered at the Teatro Real in Madrid on January 28, 2014. It was championed by impresario Gerard Mortier, who had commissioned it. A play, based on Annie Proulx's short story, written by Ashley Robinson with songs by Dan Gillespie Sells, opened on May 10, 2023, at @sohoplace in London's West End.\nSeveral years after the film's release, Proulx said she regrets writing the story. She said that people have sent her too much fan fiction presenting alternative plots. Some authors, mostly men claiming to \"understand men better than I do\", often send their works. She said:\n\n[The film] is the source of constant irritation in my private life. There are countless people out there who think the story is open range to explore their fantasies and to correct what they see as an unbearably disappointing story [...] They constantly send ghastly manuscripts and pornish rewrites of the story to me, expecting me to reply with praise and applause for \"fixing\" the story. They certainly don't get the message that if you can't fix it you've got to stand it. Most of these \"fix-it\" tales have the character Ennis finding a husky boyfriend and living happily ever after, or discovering the character Jack is not really dead after all, or having the two men's children meet and marry, etc., etc.\n\nSee also\nList of LGBT-related films by storyline\nList of films considered the best\nList of LGBT Academy Award winners and nominees\nMixed-orientation marriage, sometimes referred to as a \"brokeback\" marriage\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nProulx, Annie (1997, 1999, 2006). Close Range: Wyoming Stories.\nProulx, Annie; McMurtry, Larry; Ossana, Diana (2005, 2006). Brokeback Mountain: Story to Screenplay. London, New York, Toronto and Sydney: Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-00-723430-1.\nPackard, Chris (2006) Queer Cowboys: And Other Erotic Male Friendships in Nineteenth-Century American Literature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-7597-3.\nCante, Richard C. (March 2008). \"Introduction\"; \"Chapter 3\". Gay Men and the Forms of Contemporary US Culture. London: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-7230-1.\nRich, B. Ruby (2013). \"Ang Lee's Lonesome Cowboys\". New Queer Cinema: The Director's Cut. London: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-5428-4.\n\nExternal links\n\nBrokeback Mountain at AllMovie\nBrokeback Mountain at Box Office Mojo\nBrokeback Mountain at IMDb\nBrokeback Mountain at the TCM Movie Database\nBrokeback Mountain at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films",
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"paragraph_text": "Gus Green Van Sant Jr. (born July 24, 1952) is an American filmmaker, photographer, painter, and musician who has earned acclaim as an independent filmmaker. His films typically deal with themes of marginalized subcultures.\nHis early career was devoted to directing television commercials in the Pacific Northwest. He made his feature-length directorial debut film Mala Noche (1985). His second film, Drugstore Cowboy (1989), was highly acclaimed, and earned him screenwriting awards from the Los Angeles Film Critics Association and New York Film Critics Circle and the award for Best Director from the National Society of Film Critics. His next film, My Own Private Idaho (1991), was similarly praised, as were the black comedy To Die For (1995), the drama Good Will Hunting (1997), and the biographical film Milk (2008); for the latter two, Van Sant was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director and both films received Best Picture nominations.\nIn 2003, Van Sant's film based on the Columbine High School massacre, Elephant, won the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Van Sant also received the festival's Best Director Award that same year, making him one of only two filmmakers—the other being Joel Coen—to win both accolades at the festival in the same year. Though most of Van Sant's other films received favorable reviews, such as Finding Forrester (2000) and Paranoid Park (2007), some of his efforts, such as the art house production Last Days (2005) and the environmental drama Promised Land (2012), have received more mixed reviews from critics, while his adaptation of Tom Robbins's Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (1993), his 1998 remake of Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho, and The Sea of Trees (2015), were critical and commercial failures.\nVan Sant wrote the screenplays for several of his earlier works, and is the author of a novel, Pink. A book of his photography, 108 Portraits, has been published, and he has released two musical albums.\nHe lives in the Los Feliz section of Los Angeles, California.\n\nEarly life\nVan Sant was born and raised in Louisville, Kentucky, the son of Betty (née Seay) and Gus Green Van Sant Sr. The younger Gus' father was a clothing manufacturer and traveling salesman, who rapidly worked his way into middle class prosperity, holding executive marketing positions that included being president of the White Stag Manufacturing Company's apparel operation. As a result of his father's job, the family moved continually during his childhood.\nGus Van Sant's paternal family is of partial Dutch origin; the name \"Van Sant\" is derived from the Dutch name \"Van Zandt\". The earliest Van Zandt arrived in the New Netherland area in the early 17th century, around what is now New York City.\nVan Sant is an alumnus of Darien High School in Darien, Connecticut, and The Catlin Gabel School in Portland, Oregon. One constant in the director's early years was his interest in visual arts (namely, painting and Super-8 filmmaking); while still in school he began making semi-autobiographical shorts costing between 30 and 50 dollars. Van Sant's artistic leanings took him to the Rhode Island School of Design in 1970, where his introduction to various avant-garde directors inspired him to change his major from painting to cinema.\n\nCareer\n1982–1989: Early career\nAfter spending time in Europe, Van Sant went to Los Angeles in 1976. He secured a job as a production assistant to filmmaker Ken Shapiro, with whom he developed a few ideas, none of which came to fruition. In 1981, Van Sant made Alice in Hollywood, a film about a naïve young actress who goes to Hollywood and abandons her ideals. It was never released. During this period, Van Sant began to spend time observing the denizens of the more down-and-out sections of Hollywood Boulevard. He became fascinated by the existence of this marginalized section of L.A.'s population, especially in context with the more ordinary, prosperous world that surrounded them. Van Sant would repeatedly focus his work on those existing on society's fringes, making his feature film directorial debut Mala Noche.\nIt was made two years after Van Sant went to New York to work in an advertising agency. He saved $20,000 during his tenure there, enabling him to finance the majority of his tale of doomed love between a gay liquor store clerk and a Mexican immigrant. The film, which was taken from Portland street writer Walt Curtis' semi-autobiographical novella, featured some of the director's hallmarks, notably an unfulfilled romanticism, a dry sense of the absurd, and the refusal to treat homosexuality as something deserving of judgment. Unlike many gay filmmakers, Van Sant—who had long been openly gay—declined to use same-sex relationships as fodder for overtly political statements, although such relationships would frequently appear in his films.\nShot in black-and-white, the film earned Van Sant almost overnight acclaim on the festival circuit, with the Los Angeles Times naming it the year's best independent film. The film's success attracted Hollywood interest, and Van Sant was briefly courted by Universal; the courtship ended after Van Sant pitched a series of project ideas (including what would become Drugstore Cowboy and My Own Private Idaho) that the studio declined to take interest in.\nVan Sant returned to Portland, Oregon, where he set up house and began giving life to the ideas rejected by Universal. He directed Drugstore Cowboy about four drug addicts robbing pharmacies to support their habit. The film met with great critical success and revived the career of Matt Dillon.\n\n1990–1995: Indie and arthouse success\nDrugstore Cowboy's exploration of the lives of those living on society's outer fringes, as well as its Portland setting, were mirrored in Van Sant's next effort, the similarly acclaimed My Own Private Idaho (1991). Only with the success of Cowboy was Van Sant now given license to make Idaho (a film he had originally pitched that was knocked back several times because the studios deemed the script 'too risky'). New Line Cinema now gave Van Sant the green light, and he went on a mission to get the Idaho script into the hands of River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves, his preferred choice for the two young leads. After months of struggle with agents and managers over the content of the script, Van Sant finally secured Phoenix and Reeves, who played the roles of Mike Waters and Scott Favor, respectively.\nCentering on the dealings of two male hustlers (played by Phoenix and Reeves), the film was a compelling examination of unrequited love, alienation and the concept of family (a concept Van Sant repeatedly explores in his films). The film won him an Independent Spirit Award for his screenplay (he had won the same award for his Drugstore Cowboy screenplay), as well as greater prestige. The film gained River Phoenix best actor honors at the Venice Film Festival among others. It helped Reeves—previously best known for his work in the Bill and Ted movies—to get the critical respect that had eluded him.\nVan Sant's next film, a 1993 adaptation of Tom Robbins' Even Cowgirls Get the Blues, was an excessive flop, both commercially and critically. Featuring an unusually large budget (for Van Sant, at least) of $8.5 million and a large, eclectic cast including Uma Thurman, John Hurt, Keanu Reeves and a newcomer in the form of River Phoenix's younger sister Rain (at Phoenix's suggestion), the film was worked and then reworked, but the finished product nonetheless resulted in something approaching a significant disaster.\nVan Sant's 1995 film To Die For helped to restore his luster. An adaptation of Joyce Maynard's novel, the black comedy starred Nicole Kidman as a murderously ambitious weather girl; it also stars Matt Dillon as her hapless husband and, the third Phoenix sibling in as many projects, Joaquin Phoenix, as her equally hapless lover (River had died of a drug overdose a year and half earlier). It was Van Sant's first effort for a major studio (Columbia), and its success paved the way for further projects of the director's choosing. The same year, he served as executive producer for Larry Clark's Kids; it was a fitting assignment, due to both the film's subject matter and the fact that Clark's photographs of junkies had served as reference points for Van Sant's Drugstore Cowboy.\n\n1997–2003: Mainstream breakout\nIn 1997, Van Sant gained mainstream recognition and critical acclaim thanks to Good Will Hunting, which was written by Matt Damon and Ben Affleck. The film, about a troubled, blue-collar mathematical genius, was a huge critical and commercial success. It was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Director for Van Sant. It won two, including Best Screenplay for Damon and Affleck, and Best Supporting Actor Oscar for Robin Williams, who, in his acceptance speech, referred to Van Sant as \"being so subtle you're almost subliminal.\" Van Sant, Damon and Affleck parodied themselves and the film's success in Kevin Smith's Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back.\nVan Sant received the opportunity to remake Alfred Hitchcock's classic Psycho. As opposed to reinterpreting the 1960 film, Van Sant opted to recreate the film shot-for-shot, in color, with a cast of young Hollywood A-listers. His decision was met with equal parts curiosity, skepticism, and derision from industry insiders and outsiders alike, and the finished result met with a similar reception. It starred Anne Heche, Vince Vaughn and Julianne Moore, and met with a negative critical reception and did poorly at the box office.\nIn 2000, Van Sant directed Finding Forrester, about a high-school student (Rob Brown) from the Bronx unlikely becoming a friend of a crusty, reclusive author (Sean Connery). Critical response was generally positive and became a box office success. In addition to directing, he devoted considerable energy to releasing two albums and publishing a novel, Pink, which was a thinly veiled exploration of his grief over River Phoenix's death.\n\n2003–present: Return to arthouse cinema\nVan Sant traveled to the deserts of Argentina, Utah, and Death Valley for the production of 2002's Gerry, a loosely devised, largely improvised feature in which stars Matt Damon and Casey Affleck—both playing characters named Gerry—wander through the desert, discussing Wheel of Fortune, video games, and nothing in particular. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival.\nIt took Gerry over a year to make it to theaters, in which time Van Sant began production on his next film, Elephant. Approached by HBO and producer Diane Keaton to craft a fictional film based on the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, the director chose to shoot in his hometown of Portland, employing dozens of untrained, teen actors. Melding improvisational long takes like those in Gerry with Harris Savides' fluid camerawork, the film was influenced by Alan Clarke's 1989 film of the same name (see Elephant). The finished film provoked strong reactions from audiences at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival. At the Cannes festival, the jury awarded Elephant with their top prize, the Palme d'Or, and Van Sant with his first Best Director statue from the festival.\nIn 2005, Van Sant released Last Days, the final component of what he refers to as his \"Death Trilogy\", (the other parts being Gerry and Elephant). It is a fictionalized account of what happened to Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain in the days leading up to his death. In 2006, Van Sant began work on Paranoid Park based on the book by Blake Nelson, about a skateboarding teenager who accidentally causes someone's death. The film was released in Europe in February 2008. He also directed the \"Le Marais\" segment of the omnibus film Paris, je t'aime.\nReleased in 2008, Van Sant's Milk is a biopic of openly gay San Francisco politician Harvey Milk, who was assassinated in 1978. The film received eight Oscar nominations at the 81st Academy Awards, including Best Picture, winning two for Best Actor in a Leading Role for Sean Penn, who starred as Milk, and Best Original Screenplay for writer Dustin Lance Black. Van Sant was nominated for Best Director. Van Sant later stated that his experience with Sean Penn on the film was \"amazing\". His 2011 film Restless was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, and starred Henry Hopper and Mia Wasikowska.\nVan Sant's film, Promised Land, was released on December 28, 2012. The film stars Frances McDormand, Matt Damon, and John Krasinski—the latter two co-wrote the screenplay based on a story by Dave Eggers. Filmed in April 2012, the production company, Focus Features, selected the release date so that the film is eligible to qualify for awards consideration. After Promised Land, Van Sant directed a film titled Sea of Trees, which starred Matthew McConaughey and Ken Watanabe. The film tells the story of a man who travels to the infamous Aokigahara suicide forest in Japan to kill himself, only to encounter another man wishing to kill himself as well, with whom he then embarks on a \"spiritual journey\". The film was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival but was met with harsh critical reception at the Cannes, being booed and laughed at.\nIn December 2016, it was announced Van Sant would direct Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot, a biopic about cartoonist John Callahan, starring Joaquin Phoenix, Rooney Mara, Jonah Hill, Jack Black, and Mark Webber. Principal photography began in March 2017.\n\nOther work\nVan Sant released two musical albums: Gus Van Sant and 18 Songs About Golf. Van Sant played himself in episodes of the HBO series Entourage and the IFC series Portlandia.\nVan Sant was credited for all photography, paintings and art direction on the Red Hot Chili Peppers' album Blood Sugar Sex Magik, and directed the video for \"Under the Bridge\". He directed the pilot for the Starz television program Boss, starring Kelsey Grammer. Van Sant went onto The Bret Easton Ellis Podcast in 2014 to discuss filmmaking, writing, film history and their collaborations that never got made (The Golden Suicides) and the one that did (The Canyons).\n\nArchive\nThe moving image collection of Gus Van Sant is held at the Academy Film Archive. The archive has preserved many of Van Sant's short films, including The Happy Organ, Ken Death Gets Out of Jail, Five Ways to Kill Yourself, and others.\n\nFilmography\nFeature films\nExecutive producer only\nKids (1995)\nSpeedway Junky (1999)\nTarnation (2003)\nWild Tigers I Have Known (2006)\nLightfield's Home Videos (2006)\nHowl (2010)\nVirginia (2010)\nAct Up! (2012)\nLaurence Anyways (2012)\nRevolution (2013)\nI Am Michael (2015)\nAge Out (2018)\n\nShort films\nFun with a Bloodroot (1967) 2 min 20 sec, 8 mm color\nThe Happy Organ (1971) 20 min, 16 mm black and white\nLittle Johnny (1972) 40 sec, 16 mm black and white\n1/2 of a Telephone Conversation (1973) 2 min, 16 mm black and white\nLate Morning Start (1975) 28 min, 16 mm color\nThe Discipline of DE (1978) 9 min, 16 mm black and white, adaptation of William S. Burroughs' short story, narrated by Ken Shapiro\nAlice in Hollywood (1981) 45 min, 16 mm color\nMy Friend (1982) 3 min, 16 mm black and white\nWhere'd She Go? (1983) 3 min, 16 mm color\nNightmare Typhoon (1984) 9 min, 16 mm black and white\nMy New Friend (1984) 3 min, 16 mm color\nKen Death Gets Out of Jail (1985) 3 min, 16 mm black and white\nFive Ways to Kill Yourself (1986) 3 min, 16 mm black and white\nThanksgiving Prayer (1991) 2 min, 35 mm color, written by and starring William S. Burroughs\nFour Boys on the Road in a Volvo (1996) 4min, color\nParis, je t'aime (2006) segment \"Le Marais\"\nTo Each His Own Cinema (2007) segment \"First Kiss\" (3 min)\n8 (2008) segment \"Mansion on the Hill\"\n\nMusic videos\n\"Thanksgiving Prayer\" by William Burroughs (1990)\n\"Fame '90\" by David Bowie (1990)\n\"I'm Seventeen\" by Tommy Conwell & The Young Rumblers (1991)\n\"Under the Bridge\" by Red Hot Chili Peppers (1992)\n\"Bang Bang Bang\" by Tracy Chapman (1992)\n\"Runaway\" by Deee-Lite (1992)\n\"The Last Song\" by Elton John (1992)\n\"San Francisco Days\" by Chris Isaak (1993)\n\"Just Keep Me Moving\" by k.d. lang (1993)\n\"Creep\" (alternative version) by Stone Temple Pilots (1993)\n\"Understanding\" by Candlebox (1995)\n\"Ballad of the Skeletons\" by Allen Ginsberg with Paul McCartney, Philip Glass, Lenny Kaye et al. (1996)\n\"Weird\" by Hanson (1998)\n\"Who Did You Think I Was\" (turntable version) by John Mayer Trio (2005)\n\"Desecration Smile\" by Red Hot Chili Peppers (2007)\n\"Ain't it Funny\" by Danny Brown (2016)\n\nRecordings\nThe Elvis of Letters (1985) with William S. Burroughs\nMillions of Images (1990) with William S. Burroughs\n18 Songs About Golf (1998)\n\nActor\nJay and Silent Bob Strike Back (2001) as Himself\nEntourage Season 5, Episode 12: \"Return to Queens Blvd.\" (2008) as Himself\nThe Canyons (2013) as Dr. Campbell\nThe Trainer (2024)\n\nTelevision\nBoss (2011) – Director, executive producer\nThe Devil You Know (2015) – Director, executive producer\nWhen We Rise (2017) – Director, executive producer\nFeud: Capote vs. The Swans (2024) – Director, executive producer\n\nAwards and nominations\nCareer achievement\nProvincetown International Film Festival Filmmaker on the Edge Award (2002)\nDrugstore Cowboy (1989)\nLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)\nIndependent Spirit Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)\nNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Director\nNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)\nNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Screenplay (with Daniel Yost)\nMy Own Private Idaho (1991)\nVenice Film Festival Official Selection\nToronto Festival of Festivals FIPRESCI Prize\nGood Will Hunting (1997)\nBerlin Film Festival Official Selection\nAcademy Award nomination for Best Director [film won for Best Supporting Actor and Best Original Screenplay]\nDirectors Guild of America (DGA) nomination for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures\nSatellite Award nomination for Best Director\nFinding Forrester (2000)\nBerlin Film Festival Prize of the Guild of German Art House Cinemas\nElephant (2003)\nCannes Film Festival Palme d'Or\nCannes Film Festival Prix de la mise en scène\nLast Days (2005)\nCannes Film Festival Official Selection\nParanoid Park (2007)\nBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Director\nCannes Film Festival \"Prix du 60ème anniversaire\" (also acknowledging his body of works)\nMilk (2008)\nAcademy Award nomination for Best Director [film won Best Actor in a Leading Role and Best Original Screenplay]\nBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Director\nBroadcast Film Critics Association Award nomination for Best Director\nThe Cinema for Peace Award for the Most Valuable Film of the Year\nDirectors Guild of America (DGA) nomination for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures\nSatellite Award nomination for Best Director\nFeud: Capote vs. The Swans (2024)\nPrimetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie\n\nSee also\nList of LGBT people from Portland, Oregon\nList of people from the Louisville metropolitan area\nList of Rhode Island School of Design people\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nWeber, Christian (2015). Gus Van Sant: Looking for a Place Like Home (PhD thesis, University of Mainz). Berlin, Bertz + Fischer. ISBN 978-3-86505-321-3\nTréguer, Florian (2023). Gus Van Sant : Cinéaste de l'Infinitif. Éditions Passages, collection « Focales ». ISBN 978-2492986123\n\nExternal links\n\nGus Van Sant at IMDb\nGus Van Sant on Charlie Rose\nGus Van Sant collected news and commentary at The Guardian",
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"paragraph_text": "Psycho is a 1998 American psychological horror film produced and directed by Gus Van Sant, and starring Vince Vaughn, Julianne Moore, Viggo Mortensen, William H. Macy, and Anne Heche. It is a modern remake of Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film of the same name, in which an embezzler arrives at an old motel run by a mysterious man named Norman Bates; both films are adapted from Robert Bloch's 1959 novel.\nThough filmed in color and set in 1998, the film is closer to a shot-for-shot retelling than most remakes, often copying Hitchcock's camera movements and editing, including the original script by Joseph Stefano (and uncredited writer Alma Reville) mostly being carried over. Bernard Herrmann's musical score is reused as well, though with a new arrangement by Danny Elfman and Steve Bartek, recorded in stereo. Some changes are introduced to account for advances in technology since the original film and to make the content more explicit. The film's murder sequences are also intercut with surreal images.\nPsycho was a commercial failure and received polarized reviews from critics who criticized the similarities to the original film. It won the Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Remake and Worst Director, and was nominated for Worst Actress (Heche). However, it earned two Saturn Award nominations for Best Actress (Heche) and Best Writing (Stefano).\n\nPlot\nDuring a Friday afternoon tryst in a Phoenix hotel, real-estate secretary Marion Crane and her boyfriend Sam Loomis discuss their inability to get married because of his debts. Returning to work, she decides to steal a cash payment of $400,000 entrusted to her for deposit at the bank and drive to Sam's home in Fairvale, California. En route, she hurriedly trades her car, arousing suspicion.\nRunning into bad weather, Marion stops for the night at the Bates Motel and uses an alias. Proprietor Norman Bates invites her to dine with him. After he returns to his house atop a hill overlooking the hotel, Marion overhears him arguing with his mother Norma about her presence. Norman returns and apologizes for his mother's outbursts. He discusses his taxidermy hobby, his mother's \"illness\" and how people have their own \"private trap\" that they wish to escape from. Marion, remorseful of her crime, decides to return the stolen money, unaware that the aroused Norman is watching her through a hole in the wall. As she showers, a shadowy figure brutally stabs her to death. Horrified upon finding Marion's corpse, Norman places her body and the hidden cash in her car, and sinks the car in a swamp nearby.\nMarion's sister Lila arrives a week later and tells Sam about the theft. Private investigator Milton Arbogast says that he has been hired to retrieve the money. He questions Norman and finds him suspicious; when he asks to speak to Norman's mother, Norman refuses. Arbogast enters the Bates home, where a figure resembling an elderly woman fatally stabs him.\nHearing no word from Arbogast, Sam and Lila grow curious about the Bates Motel, Arbogast's last stop. Al Chambers, the local sheriff, tells them that Norman's mother died in a murder-suicide ten years earlier. Convinced that something happened to Arbogast, Lila and Sam check into the Bates Motel posing as a married couple, and infiltrate Marion's room, finding a missing shower curtain and a paper indicating that Marion subtracted an amount from her cash payment. Sam distracts Norman in the office, while Lila sneaks into his house. Norman becomes agitated and knocks Sam unconscious. Lila hides in the fruit cellar, where she discovers the mother's mummified body. She screams, and Norman, wearing his mother's clothes and a wig, tries to stab her. Sam subdues him, rescuing Lila.\nAt the police station, psychiatrist Dr. Simon Richmond explains that Norman jealously murdered Norma and her lover by poisoning them with strychnine ten years earlier. He mummified her corpse and began treating it as if she were still alive, going so far as to recreate her in his mind as an alternate personality, as jealous and possessive as she was while alive. When Norman is attracted to a woman, \"Mother\" takes over: he had murdered two other women before Marion, and Arbogast was killed to hide \"his mother's\" crime. \"Mother\" has now completely taken over Norman's personality. Sitting in a jail cell, Norman hears his mother saying that the murders were all his doing, as Marion's car is retrieved from the swamp.\n\nCast\nProduction\nDevelopment\nDirector Gus Van Sant was a longtime admirer of Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960), and, while a film student, shot a parody commercial for a fictional \"Psycho Shampoo\" brand, which featured a recreation of the 1960 film's shower murder sequence. After the release of Van Sant's financially successful Good Will Hunting (1997), Universal Pictures agreed to option his proposed remake of the film. Van Sant's pitch was to remake the film shot-for-shot, which Casey Silver, then-head of production at Universal Pictures, felt was \"a very strange idea. The idea of remaking a classic like Psycho just seemed like a dangerous business to get into\". When asked why he wanted to remake the film in this manner, Van Sant responded: \"Why not? It's a marketing scheme. Why does a studio ever remake a film? Because they have this little thing they've forgotten about that they could put in the marketplace and make money from\".\n\nCasting\nMarion Crane was initially going be played by Nicole Kidman, but she was forced to leave the role due to scheduling problems. Drew Barrymore was also considered for the role before Anne Heche was ultimately cast.\nJulianne Moore, who was cast as Lila Crane, intentionally chose to portray the character as a more aggressive personality in contrast to Vera Miles's interpretation.\nWilliam H. Macy chose to stay true to the portrayal of his character in the 1960 film, while Vince Vaughn, who played Norman Bates, and Moore interpreted the dialogue and scenes from the original film differently.\n\nFilming\nFilming of Psycho took place largely on the Universal Studios Hollywood backlot in Los Angeles, with additional exterior filming taking place in Phoenix, including at the Hotel Westward Ho. from July 6, 1998, to August 26, 1998.\nVan Sant began with the vision of remaking the film entirely shot-for-shot, stating that he and his crew started out being fanatical about doing it exactly the same, but early into the filming process, realized that doing so was unfeasible: \"There were a couple of scenes we just couldn't get it right. We just couldn't see how Hitchcock did the blocking, where people were supposed to be standing in relation to the camera. So all we could do was loosely base them on the original\".\nBecause the film was shot in color, fake blood was used during the film's infamous shower murder scene, instead of chocolate syrup as had been done in the original film. Rick Baker designed the Mrs. Bates dummy. The new film heightened the violence to the levels of depictions of violence in films made circa 1998 by portraying two knife wounds in her back and blood on the wall in the shower scene. It also shows the buttocks of the Marion character when she dies, an aspect cut from the original film.\nThe costume designer, Beatrix Aruna Pasztor, originally thought that the film was going to be a period piece, so she acquired period clothing for the cast, which was used in the film.\n\nDiversions from the 1960 film\nThough almost entirely a shot-for-shot remake of the original, the film does feature slight differences in terms of visuals, minor plot details, as well as the actors' portrayals of the characters. Van Sant updated several elements in the screenplay, including setting the film in contemporary 1998, and adjusting the references to money that would be anachronistic in a modern-day setting. Due to inflation, the amount of money stolen as stipulated in the original film was adjusted from $40,000 (equivalent to $181,000 in 1998) to $400,000.\nWhere the 1960 film features little visual bloodletting in its murder sequences, Van Sant's film features more explicit violence, particularly during Marion Crane's murder sequence in the shower: in Van Sant's film, blood is shown streaming down the shower wall tiles, as well as visible stab wounds to Crane's back as she collapses in the bathtub.\nDuring the scene where Norman Bates spies on Marion through a peephole as she undresses, it is made explicit that Bates is masturbating through the use of sound effects as well as Vaughn's performance, which suggests Bates's voyeuristic encounter ends in him having an orgasm; in the 1960 film, the sequence consists merely of Bates observing, with no suggestion that he is masturbating.\nVan Sant also employed several surreal subliminal images that were edited into the film's murder sequences, likened by horror writer Charles Derry as \"surreal memory fragments\" that \"flash\" before the characters' eyes as they die.\n\nRelease\nBox office\nPsycho was released theatrically in the United States on December 4, 1998, in 2,477 theaters, ranking at number two at the domestic box office below A Bug's Life with a weekend gross of $10,031,850. It went on to earn a total of $37,141,130 in the worldwide box office, $21,456,130 domestically. The film's production budget was an estimated $60 million; while promoting his 2002 film Gerry, Van Sant said he thought the producers \"broke even\" financially.\n\nCritical reception\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, Psycho holds an approval rating of 41% based on 78 reviews, with an average rating of 5.30/10. The website's critics consensus reads: \"Van Sant's pointless remake neither improves nor illuminates Hitchcock's original\". At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"C−\" on an A+ to F scale.\nLiterary critic Camille Paglia commented that the only reason to watch it was \"to see Anne Heche being assassinated\" and that \"it should have been a much more important work and event than it was\". At the 1998 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, the film was cited as one of 37 dishonourable mentions for Worst Picture. Universal Pictures received the Founders Award \"for even thinking the moviegoing public would line up and pay to see a shot-for-shot remake of Psycho\".\nFilm critic Roger Ebert, who gave the film one-and-a-half stars, noted that the addition of a masturbation scene was \"appropriate, because this new Psycho evokes the real thing in an attempt to re-create remembered passion\". He thought Vaughn was miscast, unable to capture the \"secret pool of madness\" in the character of Norman Bates, and Heche was guilty of overacting. Ebert wrote that the film \"is an invaluable experiment in the theory of cinema, because it demonstrates that a shot-by-shot remake is pointless; genius apparently resides between or beneath the shots, or in chemistry that cannot be timed or counted\".\nJanet Maslin remarks that it is an \"artful, good-looking remake (a modest term, but it beats plagiarism) that shrewdly revitalizes the aspects of the real Psycho (1960) that it follows most faithfully but seldom diverges seriously or successfully from one of the cinema's most brilliant blueprints\"; she noted that the \"absence of anything like Anthony Perkins's sensational performance with that vitally birdlike presence and sneaky way with a double-entendre ('A boy's best friend is his mother') is the new film's greatest weakness\".\nEugene Novikov for Film Blather admired the film, saying that he enjoyed the remake more than the original film. Jonathan Romney of The Guardian also championed the film, writing: \"Somehow, Van Sant has managed to spin a big-budget studio project into a piece of conceptual art, a provocative inquiry into the nature of cinematic originality. It's not the full-on 'queer Psycho' that Van Sant fans predicted, but it is an extraordinary drag act\".\nLeonard Maltin's Movie Guide classified the film as a \"bomb\", compared to the four-out-of-four stars he gave the original. He describes it as a \"slow, stilted, completely pointless scene-for-scene remake of the Hitchcock classic (with a few awkward new touches to taint its claim as an exact replica)\". He ultimately calls it \"an insult, rather than a tribute, to a landmark film...What promised to be 'Drugstore Cowboy's answer to Hitchcock' is more like Hitchcock's answer to Even Cowgirls Get the Blues.\"\n\nAccolades\nAt the 19th Golden Raspberry Awards, the film was awarded two Golden Raspberry Awards (or \"Razzies\"), for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Director for Gus Van Sant, while Anne Heche was nominated for Worst Actress, where she lost the trophy to the Spice Girls for Spice World. Contrastingly, at the 25th Saturn Awards the film was nominated for the Saturn Awards of Best Supporting Actress for Heche and Best Writing for Stefano.\n\nHome media\nUniversal Pictures Home Entertainment released Psycho on VHS and in a collector's edition DVD on June 8, 1999. In June 2017, Scream Factory released the film on Blu-ray for the first time, which featured a new critical audio commentary, as well as the bonus materials included on Universal's 1999 DVD release.\n\nLegacy\nA number of critics and writers viewed Van Sant's version as an experiment in shot-for-shot remakes.\nScreenwriter Joseph Stefano, who wrote the original script that was carried over to the remake, thought that although she spoke the same lines, Anne Heche portrays Marion Crane as an entirely different character.\nEven Van Sant later admitted that it was an experiment that proved that no one can really copy a film exactly the same way as the original. One favorable take on the film came from an LA Weekly retrospective article published in 2013, in which writer Vern stated that the film was misunderstood as a commercially motivated film when it was in fact an \"experiment\" and this was the reason for the poor reception. Vern concluded that \"experiments don't always have to work to be worth doing\".\nAlthough the film's overall reception was less-than-favorable, it did receive a blessing from Hitchcock's daughter Pat, who stated that her father would have been flattered by the remake of his original work.\n\n\"Psychos\"\nOn February 24, 2014, a mashup of Alfred Hitchcock and Van Sant's versions of Psycho appeared on Steven Soderbergh's Extension 765 website. Retitled Psychos and featuring no explanatory text, the recut appears to be a fan edit of the two films by Soderbergh. The opening credits intermingle names from both the 1960 and 1998 versions, and all color has been removed from Van Sant's scenes with the exception of the infamous shower scene.\n\nSoundtrack\nThe film's soundtrack, Psycho: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture, included Danny Elfman's re-recordings of some of Bernard Herrmann's score for the original film, along with a collection of songs in genres from country to drum and bass, connected mainly by titles containing \"psycho\" or other death or insanity-related words. Many of the songs were recorded specifically for the soundtrack, and included a sampling of Bernard Herrmann's score composed by Danny Elfman. The soundtrack also includes the track \"Living Dead Girl\" by Rob Zombie, which can be heard during the film when Marion trades in her old car for a new one.\n\nNote\nReferences\nSources\nExternal links\n\nPsycho at IMDb\nPsycho at AllMovie\nPsycho at the TCM Movie Database\nPsycho at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films\nPsycho at Box Office Mojo\nPsycho at Rotten Tomatoes\nPsycho at Metacritic",
"title": "Psycho_(1998_film)"
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] | What horror movie remake did the director who was the first to attempt and failed to make Brokeback Mountian into a film direct in the 90's? | [] | Psycho | [] | true |
580 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Miss Venezuela (Spanish: Organización Miss Venezuela) is a Venezuelan beauty pageant operated by the Cisneros Group. Founded in 1952, it currently selects Venezuelan representatives to Miss Universe, Miss World, and Miss International. The current national director of Miss Venezuela is Miss Universe 2013 Gabriela Isler.\nThe current Miss Venezuela is Ileana Márquez of Amazonas who was crowned on 7 December 2023 at the Centro Comercial Líder in Caracas, Venezuela.\n\nHistory\nOn 7 May 1905, Manuela Victoria Mujica Antich of Lara, was elected by popular vote as Miss Venezuela. Many authors and scholars in the history of the Miss Venezuela contest consider her as the first Miss Venezuela ever, and its vote as a precursor of the pageant that it is currently known.\n\nMiss Venezuela (1952 - 1981)\nThe Miss Venezuela pageant was officially founded in 1952 by Pan Am and businesswoman Gloria Sánchez, with the purpose of sending a Venezuelan representative to the Miss Universe pageant in Long Beach, California.\nThe speed with which the contestants were chosen for that first contest would characterize its first editions, in which parades with different outfits were held over the course of a week or more in different locations in the country. Due to protests by religious organizations at the time, the swimsuit parades were held in private, for jurors only. Eventually, representatives to Miss World (since 1955) and Miss International (since 1960) would also begin to be elected.\nAfter a first interruption in 1954 during the Marcos Pérez Jiménez dictatorship, Pan Am ceded the rights to the contest in 1955 to Venezuelan journalist and musicologist, Reinaldo Espinoza Hernández.\nHernández, who despite the triumph of Susana Duijm in Miss World 1955 (first Hispanic American to win at one of the Big Four international beauty pageants), faced protests by the Venezuelan Catholic Church and feminist movements, which added to the lack of interest by the press of the time. In addition, a second interruption in 1959 caused by the 1958 Venezuelan coup d'état, led to the sale of the contest to Edwin E. Acosta-Rubio, a Cuban-Venezuelan businessman in 1962.\nBusiness-minded, Acosta-Rubio immediately changed the format of the competition. Turning the semi-improvised tourist pageant into an organized annual institution. In order to choose the contestants with professional and responsible criteria, Acosta-Rubio created the so-called Venezuelan Beauty Committee. Developed the publicity projection of the event and broadcast it for the first time on television in 1962, through the RCTV network, began to charge for tickets for the finals. With all these changes accomplished in the late 1960s, the Miss Venezuela contest began to be a favorite and traditional reference among Venezuelans, in the Venezuelan popular culture and more importantly, for Acosta-Rubio, as a profitable and appreciated business.\nIn 1968, the swimsuit and evening gown portions of the show were broadcast on television for the first time. Although it was not of great importance at the moment, Osmel Sousa began to work in those years as a graphic and fashion designer for the contest.\nIn 1969, Ignacio Font Coll, brother-in-law of Edwin Acosta-Rubio, who was the creator and president of OPPA Publicidad, appointed him as director of the current Miss Venezuela Organization.\nAlready in the 1960s, the Acosta-Rubio Organization had begun to obtain excellent results with Mercedes Revenga as first runner-up at the Miss Beauty Form 1964 contest and later on reaching the top 15 at Miss Universe 1964. The choice of Mariela Pérez and Peggy Kopp as first and third runners-up at Miss Universe 1967 and Miss Universe 1968, respectively. Adriana López with the Miss Planet Resort 1967 won, Judith Castillo, being first runner-up at Miss Universe 1976, and Zully Guilarte winning the 1968 Miss Tourism of Central America and the Caribbean pageant. Maritza Sayalero won Miss Universe 1979, being the first edition of Miss Universe to be televised in color in Venezuela. With her win, began what is considered the 'Golden age of Miss Venezuela'.\nSince 1972, the Cisneros Organization acquired the rights to start producing and broadcasting the beauty contest on its channel, Venevisión. María Antonieta Cámpoli, Miss Venezuela 1972 at Miss Universe 1972 was second runner-up, and later at Miss Intercontinental 1974, María Emilia de los Ríos of Bolívar state.\n\nMiss Venezuela Organization (1981 -)\nIn 1981, Irene Sáez won Miss Universe 1981, Pilín León won Miss World 1981, in addition to the death of Coll. Finally, in 1982, the Cisneros Group was placed at the helm of the beauty contest and the Miss Venezuela Organization was officially structured. After this, in February 1982, Cisneros and Acosta-Rubio appointed Osmel Sousa (a long time-worker at the empress) as Coll's successor, taking the charge of President. Besides, Joaquín Riviera, María Kallay and Mery Cortez, were appointed as official producer, coordinator and choreographer of the event, respectively.\nStarting in 1984, the crowns used in the organization's pageants were made by jewelry designer, George Wittels. Until July 2018, Wittels was in charge of making the goldsmith pieces for the contest. George was succeeded by Mila Toledo, Miss Federal District in 1980.\nIn 1996, the beauty pageant launched its website, missvenezuela.com. Also, in the same year, the Mister Venezuela competition was founded, as well as, Miss Venezuela Mundo in 2000. In both cases, at the request of the Miss World Organization\nIn 2009, Venezuela entered the Guinness World Records for being the first and so far only representation in Miss Universe to be crowned by another winner from the same nation.\nIn 2010, the pageant acquired the Miss Earth franchise, which it maintained until 2015, obtaining Alyz Henrich a second crown for this contest as Miss Earth 2013.\nJoaquín Riviera, Miss Venezuela executive producer, would be in charge of the event until his death in 2012. After María Kallay's death in 2013, the production of the event was realized by Peggy Navarro, Ricardo Di Salvatore, Vicente Alvarado and Erick Simonato, who were part of the original production team along with Riviera as General Producer. In 2015, Peggy left office, leaving three managers, who to date are still part of the Miss Venezuela Organization.\nIn 2016, Mery Cortez, announced her departure from the contest and from Venevisión network, after almost 45 years as the choreographic producer of the contest.\nOn 6 February 2018, Osmel Sousa, announced his retirement as President of the Miss Venezuela Organization, after being in charge of the contest for more than 40 years, leaving the presidency vacant.\nOn 17 April 2018, the organization announced that the contest would it be run by an executive committee, not a president. The next day, the committee members were announced: Gabriela Isler, Miss Universe 2013, Jacqueline Aguilera, Miss World 1995 and Nina Sicilia, Miss International 1985.\n\nContestant selection\nList of state titles\nThere is an unofficial formula to determine the states and regions represented in Venezuela. The base number of contestants over the last decade has been 26–28, which can be increased or decreased by the contest management.\n\nOfficial states (23)\n* Denotes that state has a preliminary pageant – which may or may not still be held – as of 2005 only Táchira, Zulia-Falcón, Lara, Aragua and Sucre held preliminaries.\n\nOfficial regions (3)\nCosta Oriental (Eastern shore of Lake Maracaibo)\nDistrito Capital (Capital District)\nDependencias Federales (\"Federal Dependencies\" Venezuelan islands)\nTogether, these 26 regions form the \"base\" of the Miss Venezuela contest. However, at times other regions and territories have been represented. If there are 27 sashes, the 27th candidate is Miss Peninsula Goajira. If there are 28 sashes, either Canaima (a national park in Bolivar state) or Peninsula de Paraguaná (a region of Falcon state) is represented. In 2003, additional titles of Península de Araya (a region of Sucre State) and Roraima (a national park in Bolivar State) were created to bring the pageant to its highest ever number of contestants: 32. Surprisingly, in 2008 Península de Araya was used again, and there was no Miss Península Goajira or Miss Costa Oriental that year. In the mid-1990s, the districts of Municipio Libertador and Municipio San Francisco were also represented, the last one only in 1997 and 1998. Also, only in 2003, Guayana Esequiba (part of Guyana that historically Venezuela claims as its own) was represented. Vargas State, the most recent modification to Venezuela's map (1999) was always present in the pageant, but with other names: Departamento Vargas (until 1986), Municipio Vargas (1987 to 1997), Territorio Federal Vargas (1998), and Vargas State since 1999. In 2009, only 20 delegates competed for the crown, the same number that competed on the final night in 2003, so some \"traditional\" states didn't have a representative.\n\nWinners by state/region\nVenezuelan representation\nVenezuela's international titleholders represented the following states during their Miss Venezuela competition (indicates year of international victory):\n\nMiss Universe: Departamento Vargas (1979), Miranda (1981), Trujillo (1986; 2009), Yaracuy (1996), Amazonas (2008) and Guárico (2013).\nMiss World: Miranda (1955; 1984), Aragua (1981), Zulia (1991), Nueva Esparta (1995) and Amazonas (2011).\nMiss International: Monagas (1985), Miranda (1997), Costa Oriental (2000), Carabobo (2003), Barinas (2006; 2018), Trujillo (2010), Anzoátegui (2015) and Portuguesa (2023).\nMiss Earth: Nueva Esparta (2005), Falcón (2013).\n\nMain pageant\nTraining\nThere are Miss Venezuela schools and \"beauty factories\" in which girls as young as 5 years old are trained to be the next potential Miss Venezuela. At both the schools and factories the young girls and women are taught how to walk properly, given beauty tips, and given lessons in proper etiquette.\nOnce a candidate is shortlisted for the pageant, she begins an intensive training program which can last for six months. She receives coaching in speech, physical fitness, make-up, modelling, and all the other skills required for the competition. Plastic surgery and cosmetic dentistry are optional, and some delegates elect to use padding. As the Miss Venezuela broadcast lasts up to four hours long, with countless musical numbers and dances, rehearsals require weeks of preparation. Contestants also participate in official photo-shoots and also fittings by fashion designers.\nThe evening gowns worn by candidates are a major source of politicking by Venezuela's domestic fashion houses, with top designers such as Mayela Camacho, Ángel Sanchez, Durant & Diego, Jose María Almeida, and Gionni Straccia selecting candidates that they will dress for the final night, while other, newer designers compete to present designs for the pageant. As a general rule the evening gowns are always custom-designed for each of the candidates on the final night, and always by a Venezuelan designer. By tradition, Nidal Nouaihed dresses the representatives of his home state of Zulia (Miss Costa Oriental, Miss Peninsula Goajira, Miss Zulia); Ángel Sanchez designs the gown for Miss Trujillo; Jose María Almeida designs the dress for Miss Mérida and the national costume for Miss Venezuela to Miss Universe. In 1999, 26 different designers took part in the evening gown competition, one candidate for each one. Also, in 2006, for the first time ever, the designers appeared on stage with the delegates, showing their fabulous creations. For the first time, in Miss Venezuela 2008, a \"best evening gown\" prize was given to a designer; the winner was Gionni Straccia for Miss Monagas' dress. He also made the gown for Dayana Mendoza in the Miss Universe finals.\nThe winners chosen to represent Venezuela in the major pageants undergo continuous preparation before they compete internationally. These efforts are funded by corporate sponsors like Pepsi-Cola, Palmolive, Colgate, Ebel and Lux who were attracted to the pageant by its high ratings.\n\nParticipation in international pageants\nAs of 2024, Venezuela has a total of 24 wins at Big Four international beauty pageants, the most by any country in the world, and consisting of seven Miss Universe titles, six Miss World titles, nine Miss International titles, and two Miss Earth titles.\nMiss Venezuela reached the semifinals of Miss Universe each year from 1983 to 2003, and reached the question-and-answer round consistently from 1991 to 2003 (winning in 1986 and 1996), constituting the longest streak of Miss Universe finalists by any country. This streak was ended in 2004, when Ana Karina Áñez was not included in the semifinals at Miss Universe 2004. Venezuela has also held Miss Universe and Miss World titles simultaneously in 1981 (Irene Saez and Pilin Leon), and Miss Universe and Miss Earth titles simultaneously in 2013 (Gabriela Isler and Alyz Henrich). Henrich's Miss Earth victory made Venezuela the only country in the world to have won each of the Big Four pageants multiple times. Venezuela also holds the distinction of being the first, and so far only, country to win back-to-back Miss Universe titles when Dayana Mendoza, outgoing Miss Universe 2008, crowned Stefania Fernandez as Miss Universe 2009.\n\nSuccess in other fields\nCompeting in the pageant can get a contestant noticed and launched on a successful television or print career. At least a dozen well-sought models come out of the pageant. Virtually all of Venezuela's female top models and television personalities are alumni of the pageant, including Maite Delgado (who competed in 1986 against future Miss Universe Bárbara Palacios and became the primary annual emcee of Miss Venezuela's live shows in recent decades), and Dominika van Santen (Top Model of the World 2005). In fact, only Gaby Espino and several other entertainment figures stand out as never having competed in the pageant. Many of today's top young models, such as Onelises Brochero and Wendy Medina, have repeatedly been rejected by Miss Venezuela; on the other hand, Goizeder Azua and Desiree Pallotta, who have variously been considered the top domestic supermodels in the country, joined the pageant after establishing their careers.\nNowadays, familiar faces on Spanish TV networks around the world, from Venezuela, include Ruddy Rodríguez, Catherine Fulop, Carolina Perpetuo, Norkys Batista, Daniela Kosán, Viviana Gibelli, Marjorie de Sousa, Chiquinquirá Delgado, Alicia Machado and Natalia Streignard. Two of the Latin world's best known people, supermodel Patricia Velásquez and singer/actress María Conchita Alonso, also participated, in 1989 and 1975, respectively.\nMiss Universe 1981, Irene Sáez, became mayor of Chacao (Caracas), governor of Nueva Esparta State, and then a candidate in the 1998 Venezuelan presidential election. The Times of London ranked her 13th in its list of the 100 most powerful women in the world.\nAlexandra Braun, Miss Earth 2005 became the most decorated international actress from Venezuela with the most acting awards when she won four international best actress awards in various film festivals all over the world for her portrayal of the lead role in the movie, \"Uma\" at the London Film Festival, Monaco International Film Festival, the Milan International Film Festival and the Georgia Latino Film Festival in Atlanta; the film also won recognition in the \"Film of the World\" category at the International Film Festival of India and won best foreign film at the Burbank International Film Festival in the United States.\n\nMiss Venezuela and other countries\nSome delegates in the pageant went on to win other national pageants. Natascha Börger became the first Venezuelan to switch countries, when she won the Miss Germany title in 2002 after placing 14th at Miss Venezuela 2000. She went on to place in the Top 10 at Miss Universe 2002 in Puerto Rico while Cynthia Lander, Miss Venezuela 2001, placed fifth in the same competition. Miss Trujillo 2005 Angelika Hernandez Dorendorf also placed fourth at Miss Germany 2007 and cancelled her participation at the Miss Intercontinental of that same year in order to continue her master's degree. In 2006, Francys Sudnicka, who placed in the Top 10 representing Trujillo in Miss Venezuela 2003, won the Miss Poland Universe title. She represented Poland at Miss Universe 2006, and later represented Poland in Miss Earth 2006, taking a place in the Top 8. The following Venezuelans who have won the Miss Italia nel Mondo (Miss World Italy) pageant placed in the final five of Miss Venezuela: Barbara Clara (Miss Amazonas 2004), Valentina Patruno (Miss Miranda 2003) and Silvana Santaella (Miss Península de Paraguaná 2003). Patruno, though born Venezuelan, represented the United States.\nIn the past, other countries have sent their titleholders to be trained by Osmel Sousa and the Miss Venezuela Organization. In 1999, Miriam Quiambao of the Philippines trained in Venezuela before competing at Miss Universe 1999 in Trinidad and Tobago and eventually placing second to Botswana, while Carolina Indriago, Miss Venezuela 1998, appeared in the Top 5. The Miss Venezuela Organization, however, ended its policy allowing training of foreign candidates after Amelia Vega of the Dominican Republic received training from them before eventually winning Miss Universe 2003 in Panama, while Mariangel Ruiz, Miss Venezuela 2002, placed second behind her.\nIn recent years the pageant organization has begun to \"import\" expatriates who have been working as international models. Miami has produced Valentina Patruno (Miss World Venezuela 2003), Andrea Gómez (Miss International Venezuela 2004), Mónica Spear (Miss Venezuela 2004 and 4th runner-up at Miss Universe 2005), Ileana Jiménez (Miss Portuguesa 2005), and María Alessandra Villegas (Miss Península de Paraguaná 2008).\n\nOrder of succession\nThere has been considerable controversy in a number of major national pageants as to how to direct their contestants to Miss Universe, Miss World, and the other international contests. The reason for this issue is the dispute between the international pageants, who generally desire that the winner of a national contest be sent. Although many nations such as Italy and Germany have completely separate pageants for Miss Universe and Miss World, in the case of Miss Venezuela the national pageant organization must field candidates to almost all of the major world contests.\nBetween 2000 and 2002, the Miss Venezuela pageant was split into two contests: the Miss World Venezuela pageant, to elect the representative to Miss World, from which a reduced group of contestants would go on to compete in Miss Venezuela to go to the Miss Universe contest. In 2002, the organization merged the Miss World Venezuela contest with the Gala de Belleza, making the final \"state cut\" before the election of the Miss World representative. The two pageants were rejoined in 2003. Using the most prominent format used in Miss Venezuela's entire run, the winners of the Miss Venezuela title (who goes to Miss Universe) and Miss World Venezuela are equal in rank. Nevertheless, the representative to Miss Universe is still announced last, and she is still considered the holder of the one single Miss Venezuela title. Nowadays, the final five finalists are announced during the telecast, followed by the elimination of the second and first runners-up, then Miss Venezuela to Miss International, Miss Venezuela to Miss World, and Miss Venezuela to Miss Universe. Since 2010, yet another new system has been introduced, with the fifth-place finisher as the 1st. runner-up, fourth place being designated as a \"representative\" to Miss Earth, the third place as a \"representative\" to Miss International and two 'equal' crowned winners—Miss Venezuela World and Miss Venezuela Universe.\nWhile this system is similar to that of Mexico and India, in Mexico the first runner-up is known as the \"substitute\" and in the order of succession automatically fills into any title above her that is emptied. For example, if \"Nuestra Belleza Mexico Mundo\" (Miss Mexico to Miss World) is unable to fulfill her duties, the first runner-up assumes her title. While the Miss Universe representative is similarly considered the \"greater of the two equals\", if her position is vacated, the first runner-up ascends to her crown, instead of Miss Mexico-World becoming Miss Mexico-Universe and the first runner-up going to Miss World. In India, however, the succession does follow the other option: the top three titles go Earth->Universe->World in rising order of importance (although they are also emphasized as \"equals\").\nIn Venezuela, neither policy of succession is explicitly laid down. Osmel Sousa made the final decisions as to who is appointed when a vacancy arises; i.e. in 2003, there were significant rumors that Mariangel Ruiz might be replaced by Amara Barroeta, the first runner-up, to Miss Universe (and not Goizeder Azua, who was Miss World Venezuela). In fact, in 2003, the Miss International Pageant was concurrent with Miss Venezuela, meaning that it would be impossible to send a \"fresh\" contestant, and Osmel actually opted not to send Amara, who should have gone (as the first runner-up then was almost always automatically titled Miss Venezuela International) and instead replaced her with Goizeder Azua, who won Miss International 2003. Due to scheduling conflicts between Miss International and Miss Venezuela, a similar situation occurred in 2002 when Cynthia Lander, Miss Venezuela (Universe), gave up her crown to the next Miss Venezuela and immediately boarded a flight for Japan to participate in Miss International. The reasoning was that her first runner-up had already participated the year before, and it would have been ridiculous to crown a Miss Venezuela (International) and immediately send her on a plane to her contest with no specific preparation whatsoever. Incidentally in 2006 the Miss World pageant shifted its pageant date from its usual November–December timeframe to September when the organization announced Poland as the competition venue. Due to the change in dates; it resulted to a timing conflict with the Miss Venezuela pageant. The Miss Venezuela organization decided to hold a snap pageant called \"Miss Venezuela Mundo\" to elect a representative for Miss World 2006. The said competition was composed of former Miss Venezuela contestants from previous editions. At the end of the night Federica Guzman who represented the state of Miranda in 2001 was the winner. Thus, all four winners, Miss Earth Venezuela, Miss Venezuela International, Miss Venezuela World and Miss Venezuela Universe now compete in the year after their coronation.\nIronically, the only time in the \"modern\" pageant that the famous \"if the winner should not fulfill her duties, the first runner-up will take over\" statement was made for Miss Venezuela was in 1999. The decision was made to send whoever won to Miss World first, and then to Miss Universe if she did not win. This policy was adopted after the consecutive eliminations of Christina Dieckmann and Veronica Schneider in 1997 and 1998, both of whom were considered amongst the strongest Miss World Venezuelas in history and whose eliminations were seen by the organization as a signal that it needed to send its winner to Miss World. Therefore, in 1999, there were no Miss World Venezuela or Miss Venezuela International titles, only an official Miss Venezuela, who was Martina Thorogood. Her first runner-up, Norkys Batista, was told that she would become Miss Venezuela to Miss Universe only if Martina won the Miss World crown outright. Martina came in second at Miss World and she was expected continue on to Miss Universe 2000 the next year. However, due to a number of major controversies, she was barred from Miss Universe 2000 on the grounds that as the first runner-up to Miss World, Osmel also declared that Miss Universe demanded a winner from Venezuela, thereby barring Norkys Batista from succeeding to the title. The only option for Norkys to go was for Martina to renounce the Miss Venezuela title, which neither she or the organization was willing to do. Therefore, a new emergency (and temporary) pageant was held, called Miss Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which was conducted among ten former contestants (some semi-finalists and other non-finalists) from the previous five years. The winner, Claudia Moreno, had placed as seventh in the semi-finals behind Martina and Norkys in Miss Venezuela 1999, and she ended up performing excellently and becoming first runner-up to Miss Universe 2000. In years to come, 2002's first runner-up Amara Barroeta would join Norkys Batista as one of several runners-ups to be \"denied\" the chance to compete at a \"big three\" pageant.\nIn the US and many other countries, an occasion when the order of succession comes into play is when the reigning titleholder wins her international contest, e.g. in 1997 when Brook Mahealani Lee became Miss Universe and her first runner-up Brandi Sherwood became Miss USA. However, Venezuela does not have this official provision, even when the two \"equal\" winners both win Miss Universe and Miss World. In 1981, Miriam Quintana was considered somewhat unofficially as the serving Miss Venezuela, because both Irene Saez and Pilin Leon had won their respective pageants. However, in 1995–1996, when Alicia Machado took the Miss Universe title and Jacqueline Aguilera the Miss World crown, no new \"Miss Venezuela\" was appointed to hold the crown while they reigned internationally, though some newspapers said that Carla Steinkopf, Miss International Venezuela 1995, would give the crown to the 1996 winner. In general, all the times Venezuela has won the Miss Universe Pageant, it's Miss Universe herself who returns to crown the new Miss Venezuela, not Miss World Venezuela from the previous year or another finalist. Since 2013, the Miss World delegate is no longer crowned at the Miss Venezuela final but is crowned in a separate Miss Venezuela World pageant, and competes in the same year of her coronation. In 2014, Maira Alexandra Rodriguez was crowned as Miss Earth Venezuela to compete in the 2015 edition, but due to the destitution of her predecessor, Stephanie de Zorzi, she was sent to Miss Earth 2014, in which she ended as Miss Water (2nd runner-up).\nFrom 2015 onwards, Miss Earth Venezuela will compete in the same year of her coronation. In 2017, the announcing was made as it was years before: Top 5 consisting of 2nd and 1st runners-up, then Miss Venezuela International, Miss World Venezuela and Miss Venezuela Universe, all three competing in 2018. This avoids the rumors of major pageants not allowing contestants to participate if they weren't in their current reign year. However, in 2018, Osmel's resignation coincided with the same year Miss Venezuela sent their winner, Isabella Rodríguez, to Miss World. As a result, since 2019, the organization switched to a separate Miss World Venezuela national pageant while retaining the Miss Universe and Miss International national titles under the main Miss Venezuela pageant for all succeeding candidates.\n\nControversies\nObjectification\nEsther Pineda, a Venezuelan women's studies expert, stated that the popularity of Miss Venezuela and other pageants in Venezuela reveals how the country is \"deeply sexist\". Despite controversies facing Miss Venezuela, the Me Too movement has not carried any significance in Venezuela. According to Pineda, in Venezuela \"[p]hysical beauty is seen as a value. ... And it's given more importance than any other attribute\".\n\nSexual exploitation\nMiss Venezuela contestants are often subject to prostitution and sexual exploitation. Young contestants are passed to powerful individuals in Venezuelan society for sexual favors. In a poverty-filled country, vulnerable women turn to wealthy individuals for funds. With participation often costing tens of thousands of United States dollars, these participants perform sexual favors for their wardrobe, cosmetic surgery, photo shoots and for sponsorships in order to \"create the illusion of 'perfect' beauty\" that is held in esteem in Venezuelan culture. Some contestants allegedly involved in such acts include Miss Venezuela 1989 participant Patricia Velásquez and Miss Venezuela 2006 runner-up Claudia Suárez.\n\nRecent titleholders\nThe following women have been recently crowned Miss Venezuela:\n\nBig Four pageants representatives\nThe following women have represented Venezuela in the Big Four international beauty pageants.\n\nMiss Venezuela Universe\nColor key\n\nThe winner of Miss Venezuela represents her country at Miss Universe. On occasion, when the winner does not qualify (due to age) for either contest, a runner-up is sent.\n\nMiss Venezuela World\nColor key\n\nIn recent years Miss Venezuela Mundo under Miss Venezuela Organization holds a separate contest to select its winner to Miss World pageant.\n\nMiss World Venezuela gallery\n\nMiss Venezuela International\nColor key\n\nThe 2nd Runner-Up of Miss Venezuela traditionally represented her country at Miss International. In recent years Miss Venezuela selects a runner-up or second position at Miss Venezuela pageant as Miss Venezuela Internacional winner. The winner goes to Miss International.\n\nMiss International Venezuela gallery\n\nMiss Venezuela Tierra\nColor key\n\nSince its establishment in 2001 Miss Earth Venezuela is chosen by another organization, called Sambil Model Organization. From 2010 to 2015 Miss Earth Venezuela was chosen by the beauty czar Osmel Sousa. In 2010, Miss Venezuela Organization acquired the franchise for Miss Earth Venezuela and the organization declared that Miss Earth, along with Miss Universe and Miss World contests, is one of the three largest beauty pageants in the world in terms of the number of participating countries. The organization conducted a selection process which attended by several former beauty queens and runners up to qualify for participation. Mariángela Bonanni who competed in the Miss Venezuela 2009 (placed as first runner up) representing the state of Táchira, was chosen by the organization to participate in Miss Earth 2010. Since 2016, Venezuela representatives at the Miss Earth are chosen in a separate pageant Miss Earth Venezuela. Although Miss Venezuela Organization is not related to Sambil Model Organization, here are Venezuela's Miss Earth representatives sent by the Sambil Model Organization, Miss Venezuela Organization and Miss Earth Venezuela Organization .\n\nGallery of Miss Earth Venezuela\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nNotes\n\nBig Seven pageants historial\nThis is a list of Venezuela's representatives and their placements at the Big Seven international beauty pageants. Venezuela, widely considered a beauty pageant powerhouse with an extensive and successful history in beauty pageants, is also referred as the most powerful country in beauty pageants, winning multiple times, with a total of 181 placements and 30 victories, counting:\n\nSeven — Miss Universe titles (1979 • 1981 • 1986 • 1996 • 2008 • 2009 • 2013)\nSix — Miss World titles (1955 • 1981 • 1984 • 1991 • 1995 • 2011)\nNine — Miss International titles (1985 • 1997 • 2000 • 2003 • 2006 • 2010 • 2015 • 2018 • 2023)\nFive — Miss Intercontinental titles (1974 • 2001 • 2005 • 2009 • 2012)\nTwo — Miss Earth titles (2005 • 2013)\nOne — Miss Grand International title (2019)\nHundreds of beauty pageants are conducted yearly, but the Big Seven are considered the most prestigious, widely covered and broadcast by media. Various news agencies collectively refer to the seven major pageants as \"Big Seven\" namely: the original Big Four (Miss Universe, Miss World, Miss International, Miss Earth); the sub-major competitions, aside the Big Four as the Big Six (Miss Supranational and Miss Grand International); and the oldest minor competition (Miss Intercontinental).\n\nSummary\nWith Andrea Rubio's win on October 26, 2023 as Miss International 2023 there have been 30 winners from Venezuela in the Big Seven international beauty pageants by a total of 303 titleholders from around the world.\nThe following table details the placing of the Venezuela's representatives in the Big Seven pageants.\n\nColor key\n\n× Did not compete↑ No pageant held\n\nNotes\nMargarita Island competed in Miss Intercontinental twice. Inés Mujica Díaz placed as Top 12 in 2002 and Emily Fernández ended as 2nd Runner-Up in 2007.\n\nPlacements\nHistoric placement positions\nAbsences\n\nHosting\nVenezuela first hosted its major international pageant in 1980 for Miss Intercontinental. It has also hosted Miss Grand International once.\n\nMiss Venezuela Organization\nThe Miss Venezuela Organization is the organization that currently owns and runs the Miss Venezuela, Miss World Venezuela, Miss International Venezuela and Mister Venezuela beauty pageant competitions.\nBased in Caracas, the organization is currently owned by the Venezuelan holding and conglomerate Cisneros Group since 1972. The current president is Gustavo Cisneros and Adriana Cisneros as CEO, co-directed by Jonathan Blum, Gabriela Isler, Jacqueline Aguilera and Nina Sicilia. The organization sells television rights mostly to Latin American countries and the US.\n\nCurrent Miss Venezuela Organization titleholders\nSince 1985, the Venezuelan representative chosen for Miss Universe and Miss World are titled individually, as well, since 1987 for Miss International. For this reason, since those editions, any finalist or other contestant who is selected to represent the country in said competitions without having initially the mentioned titles achieved in a competition run by the Miss Venezuela Organization is taken into account as a designation.\nThe following is a list of all Miss Venezuela Organization titleholders from the founding of each pageant.\n\nKey\n\nPast Miss Venezuela Organization titleholders\nThe following is a list of all past Miss Venezuela Organization titleholders from the founding of each pageant.\n\nKey\n\nOther titleholders\nUntil 1984, all the candidates who qualified below the 'Miss Venezuela' position were announced as 'runners-up' and officially are recognized as such. However, in a few editions, the same finalists were given saches (with the name or prefixing the preposition 'to') of the international contest they had to attend or in other cases it was simply announced by the presenter. In such cases we have:\n\nSee also\nMister Venezuela\nList of Miss Venezuela titleholders\nList of Miss Venezuela editions\nList of beauty contests\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nMiss Venezuela Official Website\nMiss Venezuela La Nueva Era MB",
"title": "Miss_Venezuela_1970"
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"paragraph_text": "Bella Teresa De Jesus La Rosa De La Rosa (born November 1, 1949) is a Venezuelan model and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss Venezuela 1970 and was the official representative of Venezuela to the Miss Universe 1970 pageant held in Miami Beach, Florida, United States on July 11, 1970 when she classified in the Top 15 semifinalists.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nMiss Venezuela Official Website\nMiss Universe Official Website",
"title": "Bella_La_Rosa"
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"paragraph_text": "The 68th Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 1995 in the United States and took place on March 25, 1996, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 6:00 p.m. PST / 9:00 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by David Salzman and Quincy Jones and directed by Jeff Margolis. Actress Whoopi Goldberg hosted the show for the second time, having previously presided over the 66th ceremony in 1994. Three weeks earlier, in a ceremony held at the Regent Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, on March 2, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Richard Dreyfuss.\nBraveheart won five awards, including Best Picture. Other winners included Apollo 13, Pocahontas, Restoration, and The Usual Suspects with two awards and Anne Frank Remembered, Antonia's Line, Babe, A Close Shave, Dead Man Walking, Leaving Las Vegas, Lieberman in Love, Mighty Aphrodite, One Survivor Remembers, Il Postino: The Postman, and Sense and Sensibility with one. The telecast garnered almost 45 million viewers in the United States.\n\nWinners and nominees\nThe nominees for the 68th Academy Awards were announced on February 13, 1996, at 5:38 a.m. PST (13:38 UTC) at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater by president of the academy, and the music producer Quincy Jones. Braveheart led all nominees with ten nominations; Apollo 13 came in second with nine.\nThe winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 25, 1996. Braveheart was the ninth film to win Best Picture with no acting nominations. With her Best Supporting Actress win for Mighty Aphrodite, Mira Sorvino became the second consecutive actress to win the aforementioned category for a performance in a film directed by Woody Allen. Best Adapted Screenplay winner Emma Thompson was the first person to win Oscars for both acting and screenwriting. She had previously won Best Actress for her performance in the 1992 film Howards End. This was the first year since the 42nd Academy Awards—and last to date—that none of the acting winners appeared in Best Picture nominees.\n\nAwards\nWinners are listed first, highlighted in boldface, and indicated with a double dagger (‡).\n\nAcademy Honorary Awards\nChuck Jones\nKirk Douglas\n\nSpecial Achievement Award\nJohn Lasseter for Toy Story\n\nMultiple nominations and awards\nPresenters and performers\nThe following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.\n\nPresenters\nPerformers\nCeremony information\nAs a result of the negative reception of David Letterman's stint as host from the preceding year's ceremony, veteran film and television director Gil Cates declined to helm the upcoming festivities. In November 1995, AMPAS recruited music producer and Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award recipient Quincy Jones as producer of the 1996 ceremony. Jones immediately selected actress and comedian Whoopi Goldberg to host the ceremony. In an interview with Los Angeles Times writer Susan King, Jones explained the decision to hire Goldberg saying, \"She has all the qualifications to move on a dime, to carry the elegance and the dignity of the show and is very funny. She understands the street. She has everything.\"\nOne segment that was staged during the ceremony was an elaborate fashion show showcasing the nominees for Best Costume Design. Produced by fashion photographer Matthew Rolston, the production featured models such as Cameron Alborzian, Tyson Beckford, Tyra Banks, Marcus Schenkenberg and Joel West sporting various costumes from the five films nominated in the category. Initially, actor Jack Nicholson was approached to introduce the segment along with models Naomi Campbell and Claudia Schiffer. However, actor Pierce Brosnan accepted the role of presenter of the segment and award after Nicholson declined those respective duties.\nSeveral other people and elements were also involved with the production of the ceremony. Jeff Margolis served as director for the program. Actress and talk show host Oprah Winfrey interviewed several nominees and other attendees during a seven-minute red carpet arrival segment shown at the beginning of the telecast. Musician and saxophonist Tom Scott served as musical director for the ceremony. Choreographer Jamie King supervised the performances of the Best Song nominees and two dance numbers. Babe, the pig from the eponymous film, and Miss Piggy participated in a comedy sketch during the proceedings. Actor Christopher Reeve, who was paralyzed in a horse riding accident nearly a year earlier, made a surprise appearance on the telecast urging filmmakers to make movies that face the world's most important issues head-on.\n\nRainbow Coalition protest\nSeveral days before the ceremony, activist group Rainbow Coalition, led by Reverend Jesse Jackson, planned a protest regarding African Americans and other racial minorities in the film industry. The group was voicing its objections to unflattering portrayals of minorities in film and television and the fact that minorities were underemployed in the entertainment industry. Jackson further pointed out the disparity in racial minorities in Hollywood by noting that Best Live Action Short Film nominee Dianne Houston was the only African American nominated that year. Although the group initially planned to demonstrate outside the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, an agreement between Jackson and producer Jones caused the protest to be moved adjacent to the broadcast facilities of the local ABC affiliate KABC-TV. Nevertheless, Jones remarked that the Academy Awards were not the appropriate venue for such protest declaring \"Why should the movie business be different from anything else in America? It's a problem that permeates everything in the country. Every facet of America discriminates.\"\n\nDivision of Best Original Score category\nBeginning with this ceremony, the AMPAS music branch divided the category of Best Original Score into two categories: Best Dramatic Score and Best Musical or Comedy Score. This was seen as a response to the dominance of Walt Disney Feature Animation films in the Original Score and Original Song categories in recent years. Four years later, the two scoring categories were merged back into one category.\n\nChristopher Reeve appearance\nAt the ceremony, Christopher Reeve presented a montage of films which tackled social issues. His appearance was a surprise to the majority of those present and occurred less than a year after the horse-riding accident in which he was paralyzed. Reeve's appearance was kept secret in part so that if any physical issue came about, he could drop out quietly. He attended an early morning closed-door rehearsal, during which he vetoed the idea of using John Williams' 1978 Superman Theme as entrance music. Reeve, along with Jones, had chosen the film clips used in the montage. Reeve received a two-minute standing ovation at during his appearance.\n\nBox office performance of nominees\nAt the time of the nominations announcement on February 13, the combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees at the US box office was $333 million, with an average of $66.5 million per film. Apollo 13 was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $172 million in domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by Braveheart ($67 million), Babe ($58.2 million), Sense and Sensibility ($24.6 million) and finally Il Postino: The Postman ($10.7 million).\nOf the top 50 grossing movies of the year, 47 nominations went to 14 films on the list. Only Toy Story (2nd), Apollo 13 (3rd), Braveheart (23rd), Babe (29th), 12 Monkeys (31st), Casino (38th) and Mr. Holland's Opus (39th) were nominated for directing, acting, screenwriting, or Best Picture. The other box office hits that earned nominations were Batman Forever (1st), Pocahontas (4th), Seven (9th), Crimson Tide (10th), Waterworld (12th), The Bridges of Madison County (21st), The American President (27th) and Sabrina (34th).\n\nCritical reviews\nThe show received a positive reception from most media publications. The New York Times film critic Janet Maslin raved, \"Mr. Jones pointedly turned this year's ceremony into a showcase for Hollywood's new guard.\" She also praised host Goldberg's opening monologue, remarking that it \"established the sharpness of this year's gag writing.\" People columnist Janice Min wrote that \"the most egregious crime at the 68th Academy Awards on March 25 was–egad!–the relentless elegance and good taste that deprived viewers of genuine, Grade A snicker fodder. Television critic Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times applauded Goldberg's performance, noting that her \"confident performance [...] was symbolic of her whopping improvement as host over her showing on the 1994 Oscars.\"\nSome media outlets were more critical of the show. Chicago Tribune television critic Steve Johnson lamented that Goldberg \"settled into bland script reading that made one long for David Letterman's cranky unpredictability in the role last year.\" He also stated that the \"Best Costume Design fashion show\" was the silliest opening Oscar production number since Rob Lowe and Snow White sang \"Proud Mary\" in 1989. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly bemoaned that the dominance of Best Picture winner Braveheart and the lack of fashion glamour \"had the makings of a tiresome evening.\"\n\nRatings and reception\nThe American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 44.81 million people over its length, which was a 9% decrease from the previous year's ceremony. The show also garnered lower Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony, with 30.48% of households watching over a 48.88 share. It also earned a lower 18–49 demographic rating with an 18.76 rating over a 35.27 share among viewers in that demographic.\nIn July 1996, the ceremony presentation received seven nominations at the 48th Primetime Emmys. Two months later, the ceremony won one of those nominations for Greg Brunton's lighting design and direction during the telecast.\n\n\"In Memoriam\"\nThe annual \"In Memoriam\" tribute was presented by Academy President Arthur Hiller. The montage featured an excerpt of the main title of The Prince of Tides composed by James Newton Howard.\n\nA separate tribute to actor, dancer and veteran Oscar host Gene Kelly featured tap dancer Savion Glover dancing to the song \"Singin' in the Rain\" from the 1952 film of the same name.\n\nSee also\n2nd Screen Actors Guild Awards\n16th Golden Raspberry Awards\n38th Grammy Awards\n48th Primetime Emmy Awards\n49th British Academy Film Awards\n50th Tony Awards\n53rd Golden Globe Awards\nList of submissions to the 68th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\nOfficial websites\nAcademy Awards Official website Archived March 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine\nThe Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Official website Archived January 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine\nOscar's Channel Archived October 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine at YouTube (run by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences)\nThe Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Video Highlights\nAnalysis\n1995 Academy Awards Winners and History Archived March 31, 2014, at the Wayback Machine Filmsite\nAcademy Awards, USA: 1996 Archived December 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Internet Movie Database\nNews resources\nAcademy Awards coverage Archived October 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine CNN\nOther resources\nThe 68th Annual Academy Awards at IMDb",
"title": "68th_Academy_Awards"
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] | How old was the Miss Miss Venezuela 1970 winner on the day the 68th Academy Awards was held? | [] | Bella La Rosa was 46 years old on March 25, 1996. | [] | true |
519 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Nobel Prize in Literature (Swedish: Nobelpriset i litteratur) is awarded annually by the Swedish Academy to authors for outstanding contributions in the field of literature. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which are awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by the Swedish Academy. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. In 1901, the first laureate Sully Prudhomme received 150,782 SEK, which is equivalent to 8,823,637.78 SEK in January 2018. The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.\nAs of 2023, the Nobel Prize in Literature had been awarded to 120 individuals. 17 women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the second highest number of any of the Nobel Prizes behind the Nobel Peace Prize. As of 2023, there have been 29 English-speaking laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature, followed by French with 16 laureates and German with 14 laureates. France has the highest number of Nobel laureates.\n\nLaureates\nNobel laureates by birthplace\nNobel laureates by country\nThe 120 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2023 have come from the following countries:\n\nNobel Prize in Literature (by language)\n1Rabindranath Tagore (Nobel Prize in Literature 1913) wrote in Bengali and English, Samuel Beckett (Nobel Prize in Literature 1969) wrote in French and English and Joseph Brodsky (Nobel Prize in Literature 1987) wrote poetry in Russian and prose in English. These three Nobel laureates have been sorted under Bengali, French and Russian, respectively.\n2Karl Adolph Gjellerup (Nobel Prize in Literature 1917) wrote in Danish and German.\n\nNobel laureates by gender\nThe 120 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2023 were from the following genders:\n\nReferences\nNotes\nCitations\n\n\n=== Sources ===",
"title": "List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature"
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"paragraph_text": "The Academy Award for Best Actor is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It has been awarded since the 1st Academy Awards to an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a leading role in a film released that year. The award is traditionally presented by the previous year's Best Actress winner.\nThe Best Actor award has been presented 96 times, to 86 actors. The first winner was German actor Emil Jannings for his roles in The Last Command (1928) and The Way of All Flesh (1927). The most recent winner is Cillian Murphy for Oppenheimer (2023), who simultaneously became the first Irish-born actor to win this award. Italian actor Roberto Benigni gave the first non-English winning performance in Life Is Beautiful (1997) in this category. The record for most wins is three, held by Daniel Day-Lewis, while nine other actors have won twice. The record for most nominations is nine, jointly held by Spencer Tracy and Laurence Olivier. James Dean, with two consecutive nominations, remains the only actor to have been posthumously nominated for this award more than once. At the 5th Academy Awards, Fredric March finished one vote ahead of Wallace Beery; under the rules of the time, this meant both actors were awarded, in this category's only tie. Peter O'Toole holds the record in this category for most nominations (eight) without a win—albeit in 2003, he was an Honorary Oscar recipient.\n\nNominations process\nNominees are currently determined by single transferable vote within the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy.\nIn the first three years of the awards, actors and actresses were nominated as the best individuals in their categories. At that time, all of their work during the qualifying period (as many as three films, in some cases) was listed after the award. Despite this, at the 3rd Academy Awards, held in 1930, only one film was cited in each winner's award regardless of how many they were eligible to be considered for during that span. The current system, in which an actor is nominated for a specific performance in a single film, was introduced for the 4th Academy Awards. Starting with the 9th Academy Awards, held in 1937, the category was limited to a maximum five nominations per year.\n\nWinners and nominees\nIn the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months, from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.\n\n1920s\n1930s\n1940s\n1950s\n1960s\n1970s\n1980s\n1990s\n2000s\n2010s\n2020s\nMultiple awards and nominations\nThe following individuals received two or more Best Actor awards:\n\nThe following individuals received three or more Best Actor nominations:\n\nAge superlatives\nFilms with multiple Leading Actor nominations\nWinners are in bold.\n\nMutiny on the Bounty (1935) – Clark Gable, Charles Laughton, and Franchot Tone\nGoing My Way (1944) – Bing Crosby and Barry Fitzgerald\nFrom Here to Eternity (1953) – Montgomery Clift and Burt Lancaster\nGiant (1956) – James Dean and Rock Hudson\nThe Defiant Ones (1958) – Tony Curtis and Sidney Poitier\nJudgment at Nuremberg (1961) – Maximilian Schell and Spencer Tracy\nBecket (1964) – Richard Burton and Peter O'Toole\nMidnight Cowboy (1969) – Dustin Hoffman and Jon Voight\nSleuth (1972) – Michael Caine and Laurence Olivier\nNetwork (1976) – Peter Finch and William Holden\nThe Dresser (1983) – Tom Courtenay and Albert Finney\nAmadeus (1984) – F. Murray Abraham and Tom Hulce\n\nMultiple character nominations\nThe following were nominated for their portrayals of the same fictional or non-fictional character in separate films (including variations of the original).\nWinners are in bold.\n\nCyrano de Bergerac from Cyrano de Bergerac (José Ferrer, 1950) & Cyrano de Bergerac (Gérard Depardieu, 1990)\nEddie \"Fast Eddie\" Felson from The Hustler (Paul Newman, 1961) & The Color of Money (Paul Newman, 1986)\nFather Chuck O'Malley from Going My Way (Bing Crosby, 1944) & The Bells of St. Mary's (Bing Crosby, 1945)\nJoe Pendleton from Here Comes Mr. Jordan (Robert Montgomery, 1941) & Heaven Can Wait (Warren Beatty, 1978)\nKing Henry II from Becket (Peter O'Toole, 1964) & The Lion in Winter (Peter O'Toole, 1968)\nKing Henry V from Henry V (Laurence Olivier, 1946) & Henry V (Kenneth Branagh, 1989)\nKing Henry VIII from The Private Life of Henry VIII (Charles Laughton, 1933), & Anne of the Thousand Days (Richard Burton, 1969)\nMr. Chipping from Goodbye, Mr. Chips (Robert Donat, 1939) & Goodbye, Mr. Chips (Peter O'Toole, 1969)\nNorman Maine (né Hinkle/né Ernest (Sidney) Gubbins) from A Star Is Born (Fredric March, 1937) & A Star Is Born (James Mason, 1954)\nJackson \"Jack\" Maine from A Star Is Born (Bradley Cooper, 2018)\nPresident Abraham Lincoln from Abe Lincoln in Illinois (Raymond Massey, 1940) & Lincoln (Daniel Day-Lewis, 2012)\nPresident Richard Nixon from Nixon (Anthony Hopkins, 1995) & Frost/Nixon (Frank Langella, 2008)\nProfessor Henry Higgins from Pygmalion (Leslie Howard, 1938) & My Fair Lady (Rex Harrison, 1964)\nRooster Cogburn from True Grit (John Wayne, 1969) & True Grit (Jeff Bridges, 2010)\nVincent van Gogh from Lust for Life (Kirk Douglas, 1956) & At Eternity's Gate (Willem Dafoe, 2018)\n\nSee also\nAcademy Award for Best Actress\nAll Academy Award acting nominees\nBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role\nCritics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actor\nGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama\nGolden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy\nIndependent Spirit Award for Best Male Lead\nScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role\nList of Academy Award–nominated films\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nOscars.org Archived January 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (official Academy site)\nThe Academy Awards Database (official site)\nOscar.com Archived September 9, 2014, at the Wayback Machine (official ceremony promotional site)",
"title": "Academy_Award_for_Best_Actor"
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] | Who won the Academy Award for Best Actor the year that John Steinbeck was awarded the Nobel prize for Literature? | [] | Gregory Peck | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Sweden Democrats (Swedish: Sverigedemokraterna [ˈsvæ̂rjɛdɛmʊˌkrɑːtɛɳa] , SD [ˈɛ̂sːdeː] ) is a nationalist and right-wing populist political party in Sweden founded in 1988. As of 2024, it is the largest member of Sweden's right-wing bloc and the second-largest party in the Riksdag. It provides confidence and supply to the centre-right ruling coalition. Within the European Union, the party is a member of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party.\nThe party describes itself as social conservative with a nationalist foundation. The party has also been variously characterised by academics, political commentators, and media as national-conservative, anti-immigration, anti-Islam, Eurosceptic, and far-right. The Sweden Democrats reject the far-right label, saying that it no longer represents its political beliefs. Among the party's founders and early members were several people that had previously been active in white nationalist and neo-Nazi political parties and organizations. Under the leadership of Jimmie Åkesson since 2005, the SD underwent a process of reform by expelling hardline members and moderating its platform, building on a work that had begun during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Today, the SD officially rejects fascism on their platform and since 2012 has maintained a zero-tolerance policy against \"extremists,\" \"lawbreakers,\" and \"racists.\"\nThe Sweden Democrats oppose current Swedish immigration and integration policies, instead supporting stronger restrictions on immigration and measures for immigrants to assimilate into Swedish culture. The party supports closer cooperation with Nordic countries, but is against further European integration and believes Sweden must have a strategy to exit the European Union if it assumes more power and that the Swedish people should be allowed to vote on future EU treaties. The Sweden Democrats are critical of multiculturalism and support having a common national and cultural identity, which they believe improves social cohesion. The party supports the Swedish welfare state but is against providing welfare to people who are not Swedish citizens and permanent residents of Sweden, a policy known as welfare chauvinism. The Sweden Democrats support a mixed market economy combining ideas from the centre-left and centre-right. The party supports same-sex marriage, civil unions for gay couples, and gender-affirming surgery but prefers that children be raised in a traditional nuclear family and argues that churches or private institutions should have the final say on performing a wedding over the state. The SD also calls for a ban on forced, polygamous or child marriages and stricter enforcement of laws against honour violence. The Sweden Democrats support keeping Sweden's nuclear power plants in order to mitigate climate change but argues that other countries should reduce their greenhouse gas emissions instead of Sweden, which the party believes is doing enough to reduce their emissions. The Sweden Democrats support generally increasing minimum sentences for crimes, as well as increasing police resources and personnel. The party also supports increasing the number of Swedish Army brigades and supports raising Sweden's defense spending.\nSupport for the Sweden Democrats has grown steadily since the 1990s and the party crossed the 4% threshold necessary for parliamentary representation for the first time during the 2010 Swedish general election, polling 5.7% and gaining 20 seats in the Riksdag. This increase in popularity has been compared by international media to other similar anti-immigration movements in Europe. The party received increased support in the 2018 Swedish general election, when it polled 17.5% and secured 62 seats in parliament, becoming the third largest party in Sweden. The Sweden Democrats were formerly isolated in the Riksdag until the late 2010s, with other parties maintaining a policy of refusing cooperation with them. In 2019, the leader of the Christian Democrats, Ebba Busch announced that her party was ready to start negotiations with the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag, as did Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson. In the 2022 Swedish general election, the party ran as part of a broad right-wing alliance with those two parties and the Liberals, and came second overall with 20.5% of the vote. Following the election and the Tidö Agreement, it was negotiated that SD agreed to support a Moderate Party-led government together with the Christian Democrats and the Liberals. It is the first time that SD holds direct influence over the government.\n\nHistory\nEarly years (1988–1995)\nThe Sweden Democrats party was founded in 1988 as a direct successor to the Sweden Party, which in turn had been formed in 1986 by the merger of Bevara Sverige Svenskt (BSS; in English: \"Keep Sweden Swedish\") and a faction of the Swedish Progress Party. The SD continued to use Keep Sweden Swedish as its slogan until the late 1990s. The SD claims 6 February 1988 as the date of its foundation and that the party was formally registered after a meeting in Stockholm designed to bring together various nationalist movements who issued a white paper for a new party, although observers tend to see the party's foundation as part of a complex decade-long series of events, with some even calling into question whether a meeting took place.\nInitially, the party did not have a single centralized leader and was instead fronted by two alternating spokespeople before Anders Klarström became the party's sole official chairman and head of the Sweden Democrats' national board in 1989.\nAccording to Expo, it is generally agreed that the Sweden Democrats have never been a neo-Nazi party, although some of the SD's early members and founders had previously been connected with Swedish fascist and white nationalist groups. A study by Expo documented that around nine of the original 30 people who played a role in founding the SD had direct associations to known Nordic fascist organisations such as the New Swedish Movement and the neo-Nazi Nordiska rikspartiet (\"Nordic Realm Party,\" abbr. NRP), although most of these members were no longer active within the party by the mid-1990s. The party's first auditor, Gustaf Ekström, was a Waffen-SS veteran and had been a member of the national socialist party Svensk Socialistisk Samling in the 1940s. The SD's first chairman Anders Klarström and deputy board members and party co-founders Fritz Håkansson and Sven Davidson (politician) had all been active in the Nordic Realm Party. Klarström later elaborated he had briefly been part of the NRP as a teenager before distancing himself from it by the time he became SD leader. The SD's logo from the 1990s until 2006 was a version of the torch used by the British National Front. Political historian Duncan McDonnell has argued that it is disputed as to whether the SD was explicitly founded to be a neo-fascist movement, but it was widely known to publicly align itself with extreme fringe politics and faced criticism in the late 1980s and early 1990s for attracting skinhead gangs to its public events. The SD also encountered controversy for some of its early policy ideas before 1999, which included a proposal to repatriate most immigrants who came to Sweden from 1970, banning adoption of foreign born children and reinstating the death penalty.\nThe party promoted concerts by the Swedish offshoot of Rock Against Communism and sponsored music of the nationalist Viking rock band Ultima Thule. Various party officials today acknowledge that being fans of Ultima Thule's music factored prominently in their decision to become politically engaged. Early on, the party recommended international connections to its members such as the National Democratic Party of Germany, the American National Association for the Advancement of White People (founded by David Duke) and publications like the Nazi Nation Europa and Nouvelle École, a newspaper that advocates racial biology and the British neo-Nazi Combat 18 movement.\nThe SD won municipal representation for the first time during the 1991 Swedish local elections in Dals-Ed Municipality and Höör.\n\nModeration and growth (1995–2010)\nIn 1995, Klarström was replaced as party chairman by Mikael Jansson, a former member of the Centre Party. Jansson strove to make the party more respectable and, after skinheads started to impose on party meetings, the wearing of any kind of political uniform was formally banned in 1996. Also in 1996, it was revealed that a party member, Tina Hallgren, had been to a party meeting of National Socialist Front posing in a Nazi uniform. Opposition to the party have mistakenly mixed these two events together and falsely claim that she was wearing the uniform at a rally of the Sweden Democrats and that it was because of this that the uniform ban came about. During the early 1990s, the party became more influenced by the French National Rally, as well as the Freedom Party of Austria, the Danish People's Party, German The Republicans and Italian National Alliance. SD received economic support for the 1998 election from the then called French National Front, and became active in Le Pen's Euronat from the same time. By the end of the decade, the party took further steps to moderate itself by softening its policies on immigration and capital punishment. In 1999, the SD left Euronat although the youth wing remained affiliated until 2002. In 2001 the most extreme faction was expelled from the party, leading to the formation of the more radical National Democrats which in turn resulted in many of the SD's remaining hardline members leaving for the new party.\nDuring the early 2000s, the so-called \"Scania gang\", also known as the \"Gang of Four\" or \"Fantastic Four,\" which consisted of the youth wing chairman Jimmie Åkesson, as well as Björn Söder, Mattias Karlsson and Richard Jomshof continued and expanded the moderation policy, which included ousting openly extremist members, banning neo-Nazi activists from attending party events or obtaining membership, and further revising the SD's policy platform. Before the 2002 election, former Member of Parliament (MP) for the Moderate Party, Sten Andersson defected to SD, citing that the party had gotten rid of its extreme-right elements. In 2003, the party declared the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be a cornerstone of its policies. In 2005, Åkesson defeated Jansson in a leadership contest. Shortly after, the party changed its logo from the flaming torch to one featuring an Anemone hepatica, reminiscent of the party's very first, but short-lived, logo (a stylised Myosotis scorpioides).\n\nEntrance into parliament and ideological realignment (2010–2014)\nIn the 2010 Swedish general election, SD won representation in the Swedish Riksdag for the first time, with 5.7% of the vote and 20 MPs.\nIn 2010, the SD leadership introduced a charter against racism on the party platform and later expanded this into a zero-tolerance policy regarding political extremism and law breaking. After some of the SD's elected members caused controversies during the party's first term in the Riksdag, the SD also stated it would introduce a vetting procedure for its future parliamentary candidates to exclude those who had previously belonged to any extremist groups and issued updated guidelines on conduct and communication for party members. In 2011, the party also changed its self-description from \"nationalist\" to \"social conservative\".\nSweden Democrat MP William Petzäll was persuaded to leave the party on 26 September 2011 while still retaining his parliamentary seat. This was done because of Petzäll's substance abuse and the problems this might cause for SD's public image. Petzäll later died of an overdose and his seat was turned over to Stellan Bojerud in September 2012.\nIn November 2012, videos from August 2010 were released, in segments, over the course of three days by Swedish newspaper Expressen (a year earlier, Expressen had released the same videos without making much noise). This came to be known as the Iron pipe scandal, although the same videos had already been released on YouTube by Erik Almqvist in 2010. The videos, recorded by MP Kent Ekeroth, featured him along with fellow Sweden Democrats MP Erik Almqvist and Christian Westling. The videos show Almqvist arguing with comedian Soran Ismail: Almqvist is referring to Sweden as \"my country, not your country\", as an insult to Ismail. They are also shown arguing with a drunken man. A woman can also be seen approaching Kent Ekeroth while filming; he calls her a whore and pushes her out of the way. A few minutes later they are seen picking up iron bars. Coming only a month after party leader Åkesson had instated a zero-tolerance policy towards racism in the party, the release of the video caused Almqvist to leave his position as the party's economic policy spokesperson and his place in the executive committee on 14 November. He excused himself as having been under a lot of pressure and threats of violence at the time. As more segments of the video were released, revealing the other two men's involvement, the party announced on 15 November that Ekeroth would take a break from his position as the party's justice policy spokesman. Almqvist and Ekeroth both took time off from their parliament seats. Sweden Democratic Youth president Gustav Kasselstrand and vice president William Hahne criticised the decision to remove Almqvist and Ekeroth in an op-ed in Dagens Nyheter, arguing that the party should not give in to media pressure.\n\nOnly two weeks after Almqvist and Ekeroth were forced to step down, fellow MP Lars Isovaara reported being robbed of his backpack and pushed out of his wheelchair by \"two unknown men of an immigrant background\". When trying to get into the Riksdag, Isovaara was himself reported by the police for racial abuse against safety guards. The Sweden Democrats initially defended Isovaara, but backed down when Expressen revealed that Isovaara had actually forgotten his backpack at a restaurant, and that the two men had helped him when he fell out of his wheelchair. He left his seat in the Riksdag on 29 November, and was replaced by Markus Wiechel.\n\nRise in national support (2014–2018)\nIn the European election of 2014 SD received 9.67% of votes, winning two seats in the European Parliament and becoming the fifth largest party in the country. The party later joined the Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe and the Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy group.\nIn the 2014 election, the Sweden Democrats received 12.9% of the votes, doubling their support and becoming the third-largest party. The party remained big in Scania and Blekinge; for example in Malmö the party received 14% of the votes, in Landskrona it received 19% of the votes and in Sjöbo a total of 30% rendering the party the largest in that municipality. Other parties, however, remained firm in their decision to isolate them from exerting influence. Out of 29 constituencies electing parliamentarians, the party was the second largest in \"Scania North & East\" while being the third largest party in 25. Although relying heavily on rural areas and the deep south, the party also made strong inroads and results above 15% in some medium-sized central Sweden cities such as Norrköping, Eskilstuna and Gävle, indicating a widening of its voter base in all areas.\nSome time after that, Åkesson announced he would go on sick leave due to burnout. Mattias Karlsson was appointed to temporarily take over Åkesson's duties as party leader.\nOn 23 March 2015, it was announced that Åkesson would return from his leave of absence to resume his duties as party leader following an interview to be broadcast on the Friday, 27 March instalment of the Skavlan program on SVT, and a subsequent press conference with the Swedish media.\nAmid media coverage regarding the high immigration figures and the European migrant crisis, the Sweden Democrats soared in all opinion polls during the summer of 2015, even topping web-based polls from YouGov and Sentio in late summer, with a little over a quarter of the vote. The party also saw rising support in phone-based polls, although the swing was lower.\n\nEntering mainstream politics (2018–2022)\nIn early 2018, the far-right Alternative for Sweden was founded by members of the Sweden Democratic Youth, who were collectively expelled from the Sweden Democrats in 2015. Three Sweden Democrat members of the Riksdag, Olle Felten, Jeff Ahl and former leader Mikael Jansson subsequently defected to the party.\nOn 2 July 2018, the two Sweden Democrats MEPs left the EFDD group and moved to the European Conservatives and Reformists Group.\nIn the 2018 Swedish general election, the SD increased its support to 17.5% of the vote, though it did not grow as much as most polls had predicted. According to Emily Schultheis of Foreign Policy, the SD won an ideological victory, as it \"effectively set the terms for debate\" and forced its rivals to adopt immigration policies similar to its own, and other reporters made similar observations. The SD performed particularly well in Skåne County, having the highest number of voters in 21 out of the county's 33 municipalities. An SVT analysis of the results found that at least 22 seats in 17 city councils would be empty as the Sweden Democrats won more seats than the number of candidates it had. The party also received its first mayor, in Hörby Municipality.\nFollowing the election, Christian Democratic leader Ebba Busch announced that her party was willing to enter negotiations with the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag. In December 2019, Moderate Party leader Ulf Kristersson held an official meeting with the Sweden Democrat leadership for the first time, despite having previously ruled out negotiating with the party. This led to speculation that the SD could be included in a new centre-right grouping to replace the Alliance which had collapsed after the Centre Party and the Liberal Party left to support the Social Democratic led government.\nIn October 2018, the Sweden Democrats went into a governing coalitions with the Moderate Party and the Christian Democrats for the first time in Staffanstorp Municipality, Sölvesborg Municipality, Herrljunga Municipality and Bromölla Municipality. In Bromölla, coalition felt apart in 2020, while new coalitions with the SD emerged in Svalöv Municipality (2019), Bjuv Municipality (2020) and Surahammar Municipality (2021).\nIn 2020, Mattias Karlsson, the former group leader of the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag founded Oikos, a conservative think-tank which has been alleged to be an \"extension of the Sweden Democrats' political project\", supposedly also receiving funding from the party.\nIn 2021, the SD was invited to participate in alternative budget agreement talks with the Christian Democrats and the Moderates for the first time. That same year the SD also issued a vote of no confidence against the Löfven II cabinet citing the government's handling on immigration, the economy and housing which was carried by the other opposition parties and led to Löfven's impeachment. The SD had previously issued a vote of no confidence in the government in 2015, albeit without success.\n\n2022 general election (since 2022)\nAhead of the 2022 Swedish general election, the SD attempted to form a conservative grouping with the Moderates, Christian Democrats and the Liberals and requested ministerial posts in government should the right-wing bloc form a parliamentary majority. During the election, the SD campaigned to reduce asylum migration close to zero, stricter policies on work permits, lower energy bills and a tougher stance on gang violence with longer prison sentences. Preliminary results indicated that the Sweden Democrats had seen their strongest result to date and had overtaken the Moderates to become the second largest party with 20.6% of the vote. The result was confirmed after the election.\nIn October 2022, the SD was allocated chairmanship of four parliamentary committees for the first time in the Riksdag with party secretary Richard Jomshof appointed to head the Justice Committee, Aron Emilsson the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Tobias Andersson the Committee on Industry and Trade, and Magnus Persson the Committee on the Labour Market. SD parliamentarians were appointed as international delegation leaders for the first time, with Markus Wiechel becoming chairman of the Swedish delegation to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, Björn Söder for the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and Adam Marttinen the chairman of the joint-parliamentary group for Europol.\nThe party also formed a deal with Moderate leader Ulf Kristersson to provide for the first time in their history parliamentary support to a Moderate Party-led government as part of the Tidö Agreement.\n\nIdeology and political positions\nThe Sweden Democrats' current party programme is based on \"democratic nationalism\" and social conservatism. The SD says that its core philosophy is inspired by Swedish national conservatism and \"parts of the social democratic folkhemmet (people's home) idea.\" SD rejects any positioning of the party within the classic left-right scale, instead referring to itself as a \"value-oriented\" party and stating that \"basic social justice with traditional conservative ideas,\" nationalism and desires for democratic and good governance form the party's main principles. Nevertheless, the party is often described as being right-wing to far-right.\nIn policy, SD articulates its main focus to be the areas of immigration, law and order and the elderly. The party also attaches particular importance to its economic and family policy. The SD criticizes multiculturalism in Sweden and emphasizes preserving national heritage. It is also opposed to what it sees as a constant shift of power from Stockholm to the European Union and campaigns to protect Swedish sovereignty and financial autonomy against the EU. Until the 2000s, the SD used ethnopluralist arguments in its defense of a Swedish homeland and culture with its 2005 handbook calling for a \"high degree of ethnic and cultural similarity among the population\" while the party platform described the need to preserve the \"inhereted essence\" of ethnic Swedes. However, since 2018 SD has stressed a more moderate cultural conservative position by promoting a shared national identity in which foreign-born people can become culturally Swedish through strong assimilation policies.\n\nPolitical analysis\nNordic Studies scholar Benjamin R. Teitelbaum has called the SD radical nationalist and in 2018 said the party has since evolved to the \"softer side\" of European populist parties. The party has been described by sociologist Jens Rydgren and political scientist Cas Mudde variously as xenophobic, far-right, racist or right-wing populist. In 2013, a Sveriges Radio journalist called the SD \"xenophobic,\" which resulted in a complaint lodged to the broadcasting regulator by the party. The Swedish Broadcasting Commission determined that this description was acceptable to use. According to Sveriges Radio in 2017, a European research agency classed the party as \"extreme\" using the Swedish GAL-TAN political scale, arguing that the SD is more traditionalist, socially authoritarian and nationalist and less progressive compared to other Swedish parliamentary parties and described the SD as similar to the French National Rally in some of its policies.\nHowever, the characterization of the SD as radical or extreme far-right has come under dispute in recent years by scholars and political observers. Commentator on political extremism and national security Kateřina Lišaníková observed that the SD had hardline origins through its founders and initial support network, and notes the SD's leadership openly acknowledges its history, but argues the present version of the SD does not match the description of a radical far-right party but is mistakenly labelled as such by media or opponents who focus on the party's early rather than current beliefs. She stated that the SD is now a national conservative party with populist elements but does not contradict democratic or Swedish constitutional principles. Similar observations were made in 2021 by Swedish political scientist Sören Holmberg that \"extreme right\" was not a good description for the SD when placed within the traditional left-right scale, since the party contains centre-left and centrist policies on some issues compared to the other centre-right parties in Sweden. Holmberg furthermore argued that while SD can be considered a right-wing populist party, the label \"populist\" has become unstable due to some of the other parties in the Riksdag adopting populist ideas of their own. He concluded national-conservative was a better term for the SD. Swedish sociologist Göran Adamson has also argued some political opposition conflate the SD's national conservative image as being right-wing extremist, and argued the SD today is not comparable to European extreme-right or neo-fascist parties since the SD has a more liberal direction in several areas, and there is no evidence to suggest that the current incarnation of the party's policies are fascist or anti-democratic. Sweden-based British journalist Richard Orange noted in 2018 that the SD stands out due to its neo-Nazi roots but in the present is comparably less extreme than other European populist forces and now endorses more inclusive \"cultural nationalism\" over ethnic homogeny while calling for stricter immigration policies. In 2022, British political scientist Matthew Goodwin described the SD as having transformed itself from an extreme past to becoming part of a broader European family of national-populist parties which combine social and cultural conservative nationalism and populism but are opposed to fascist, anti-democratic and revolutionary ideas.\nWithin the party, the SD's leadership have rejected the extreme and \"far-right\" label and argued it no longer represents the party. Oscar Sjöstedt, the SD's financial spokesperson, places the party around the centre on the left–right political spectrum, while leader Jimmie Åkesson has stated that they are parallel with the Moderate Party. In addition, the party has in recent years increasingly distanced itself from other European ultra-nationalist or far-right parties. In spite of this, a 2022 report by Swedish researchers Acta Publica claimed to have found 289 Swedish politicians who expressed racist or neo-Nazi views, with 214 of them being members of the SD. The SD itself has argued that some of these controversies with members have been as a result of the party's rapid growth since the late 2000s rather than the party being extreme.\n\nImmigration\nThe Sweden Democrats believe that current Swedish immigration and integration policies have been a national failure. In a statement filed before the Riksdag Committee on Migration in August 2020, SD claims that Sweden's \"irresponsible\" immigration and asylum policies have subjected Sweden to an on-going \"long-term, albeit low-intensity crisis\". Their official policy brief states that the party \"welcomes those who contribute to our [Sweden's] society, who follow our laws and respect our customs. On the other hand, anyone who comes here and exploits our systems, commits crimes or exposes our citizens to danger is not welcome.\"\nWhen handling asylum seekers, the party supports protecting national sovereignty in regards to Sweden's decisions on migration and border control, as well as \"the principle of first safe country\", meaning that asylum seekers should only be able to seek asylum in the first safe country that they arrive in. Until such legislation is realized, SD supports setting limits on the right to welfare and making cultural integration mandatory. The party opposes offering permanent residency to asylum seekers, believing that temporary residency should be the standard for those who claim asylum in Sweden. SD supports Sweden eventually accepting refugees exclusively through the UNHCR resettlement programme in accordance with a quota based on each municipality's capacity. SD has also referred to the recommendations from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) which state that the return of refugees should be the solution to refugee problems. The party also supports giving priority to cases of persecuted Christian, former Muslim and other religious or sexual minorities fleeing war or death for apostasy believing that such individuals are less likely to be offered refuge elsewhere. Ahead of the 2022 Swedish general election, the party campaigned to tighten the rules in the Swedish Aliens Act (Utlänningslagen) to the strictest possible level within European law and encourage voluntary re-migration of asylum seekers and immigrants who are economically inactive or remain culturally unassimilated.\nHistorically, SD sought to repatriate most immigrants and ban immigration entirely; however, these policies were moderated in the 1990s before being scrapped altogether. Presently, SD wishes to strongly restrict and place more controls on immigration, and instead give generous support to immigrants who do not want to assimilate into Swedish society to emigrate back to their country of origin and change laws to revoke residency or citizenship of those who engage in illegal activity. The party argues that its migration policies are not based on xenophobia towards immigrants, but believe immigration must stay at a level where it does not \"threaten national identity, the country's welfare or security.\" SD has also campaigned to restrict immigration from what it calls \"culturally distant\" countries and that temporary work visas should be limited only to skills that are impossible to find in Sweden. SD are against free movement of labour within the European Union, calling on Sweden to revise its membership of the Schengen agreement, but support free movement between Nordic nations. As more state funds are made free from funding immigration, SD believes that Sweden will be better able to help refugees and economic migrants in their home areas. Torbjörn Kastell (former party secretary from 2003 to 2004) said in 2002 that the party wanted \"a multicultural world, not a multicultural society\". SD also favours assimilation over integration of immigrants from non-European backgrounds, arguing that integration is a meet in the middle approach and that Swedes should not have to bear the burden over what the party claims have been reckless immigration policies. In 2017, members of the Sweden Democrats' leadership defended comments made by then US President Donald Trump in response to Trump's assertion that Sweden's migration and asylum policies had led to a rise of terrorism and crime in Sweden. However, following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the SD supported accepting and accommodating Ukrainian refugees in Sweden.\nThe SD wants European governments to construct a security wall along the European border with Turkey in response to illegal immigration, terrorism and incursions by the Grey Wolves into Greece. It also calls on Europe to commonly adopt a migration system based on the Australian model to prevent human trafficking across the Mediterranean which the party states enables illegal immigrants and would-be terrorists to reach Sweden. SD calls for compulsory measures for immigrants to be employed, learn the Swedish language, be put through an assimilation program, and be subject to a language and social skills test before becoming eligible for citizenship. The party also supports increased spending on border patrol forces, expulsion of illegal immigrants and foreign-born criminals, repatriations of Schengen Area migrants who move to Sweden to make a living from street begging, changes in the law to enable the government to strip foreign-born Swedish nationals of their citizenship if found guilty of a serious crime or involvement in terrorism, penalties against employers who use foreign and undocumented labor to circumvent Swedish working conditions and stricter laws against family migration.\nIn recent years, the SD has tried to approach the immigration policies of the Danish People's Party, which from 2001 to 2011 provided parliamentary support for the former Danish liberal/conservative governments in return for a tightening of Danish immigration policies and stricter naturalisation laws. Following the 2022 Swedish general election, the Sweden Democrats achieved this objective under the Tidö Agreement with the centre-right Moderate, Christian Democrat and Liberal Party coalition government. In exchange for SD parliamentary support, the Swedish government conceded to some of the SD's immigration policy demands on requirements for obtaining Swedish citizenship and expanding the deportation criteria for foreign-born residents and asylum seekers.\nFollowing scenes of people in Swedish cities celebrating the Palestinian attack on Israel, the SD leadership stated that those who praised the attack should be expelled from the country and that the Tidö Agreement clause on deporting non-citizens on grounds of poor character and not just criminal convictions should be used against those who support Hamas.\nThe Sweden Democrats have also called for an expansion of circumstances in which citizenship can be revoked from naturalized citizens, with Åkesson mentioning individuals who commit crimes, abuse state welfare or are unintegrated into society. The Sweden Democrats support raising the remigration allowance given to foreign-born residents who seek to voluntarily leave the country.\n\nForeign policy\nThe Sweden Democrats support close political co-operation within the Nordic sphere, but are eurosceptic and against further EU integration and cession of Swedish sovereignty to the European Union. The party opposes EU regulation over Swedish tax and domestic affairs and calls for the national sovereignty and cultural identity of European nations to be prioritized over the EU's political ambitions. SD rejects joining the Economic and Monetary Union by opposing the Euro currency and favors keeping the krona. They also seek to reduce Swedish financial contributions to Brussels, renegotiate Swedish membership of the Schengen Agreement, protect freedom of speech and the free access to the internet from EU copyright bills, and are against the accession of Turkey to the European Union. The SD states that it supports European political cooperation to combat cross-border organized crime, illegal immigration, Islamism, terrorism and environmental challenges but opposes creating an EU army or policies that could lead to the creation of a Federal European Superstate. The party also calls for Sweden to renegotiate its EU membership terms and seeks an amendment to the Swedish constitution to make it mandatory that proposed EU treaties be first put to a public vote. The SD believes that if the EU cannot be reformed and tries to transform itself into a Superstate, Sweden should immediately reconsider its membership via a referendum and prepare to leave the EU. The SD's youth-wing, the Ungsvenskarna support a Swedish exit from the EU. In 2023, party leader Akesson and SD European Union spokesman Charlie Weimers unveiled a new EU strategy calling for Sweden to create a referendum lock in the Riksdag based on the UK European Union Act 2011 to prevent transfer of powers to Brussels without a referendum first and for Sweden's withdrawal from the EU to be possible by removing references to membership in the constitution. \nThe Sweden Democrats are supportive of Israel and favors recognising Jerusalem as Israel's capital and proposes moving the Swedish embassy there. A study by the European Coalition for Israel documented that SD had the most pro-Israel voting record of the Swedish parties in the European Parliament. In 2021, the Israeli government stated that they did not maintain relations with the SD due to \"its roots in Nazism\" but by 2023 had dropped its non-cooperation stance after SD representatives signed a document of principle with Israeli ministers pledging to combat antisemitism. Between 2023 and 2024, a delegation of senior SD members visited Israel to hold meetings with Knesset politicians and discuss a cooperation pact with the Likud party. The party has also taken a strongly pro-Israel position following the outbreak of the 2023 Israel-Hamas war, supporting military action to remove Hamas and calling on the Swedish government to review all funding to Palestinian organizations which the SD accuse of spending aid money on terrorism.\nIn 2011, SD was the only Swedish political party to vote against Swedish involvement in the 2011 military intervention in Libya. SD has advocated a \"neutral\" position on the Syrian civil war and sent a delegation to meet with Syrian officials in 2017. SD also supports the creation of an independent Kurdish state and for the Armenian genocide to be formally recognised by the international community.\nThe party supports closer military cooperation with neighboring Nordic countries and previously opposed Swedish membership of NATO, instead calling for an alignment without full membership. However, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine the SD leadership announced it would consider changing its policy to endorse NATO membership and support joining if Finland also applied for NATO membership. The SD has also taken a strongly pro-Ukraine position following the invasion and has called on Sweden and Western governments to help the Ukrainian people defend their homeland.\nIn 2022, an analysis of votes relating to Russia in the European Parliament found that the Sweden Democrats were the 10th-most critical party in the parliament having voted against Russian interests 93 percent of the time. The report found that among all Swedish parties the Sweden Democrats were the most critical of Russia. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the party got rid of members who had previously expressed support for Putin.\n\nNational identity and culture\nSD values a strong, common national and cultural identity, believing this to be one of the most basic cornerstones of a functioning democracy. Minimizing linguistic, cultural and religious differences in society has a positive effect on societal cohesion, according to the party. On its platform, SD states the Swedish nation is defined \"in terms of loyalty, a common language and common culture.\" A requirement for becoming a member of the Swedish nation is to either \"be born in it or [...] by actively choosing to be a part of it.\" For these reasons among others, SD firmly rejects multiculturalism.\nIn an interview for Dagens Nyheter, Second Deputy Speaker of the Riksdag and then-party secretary Björn Söder elaborated on the SD party programme with respect to its views on national identity by saying that he personally did not think people with dual national identities in Sweden would necessarily identify themselves as Swedish. Although an immigrant of any ethnic background in theory can become a Swedish citizen, they would have to adapt and be assimilated in order to be considered Swedish in the cultural sense. Björn Söder stated that the officially recognised Swedish minority peoples (e.g. Sámi, Tornedalians and Jews) in many cases have dual cultural identities and that they probably would be proud of both heritages. It was widely interpreted that Söder had stated in the interview that Jews cannot be Swedish unless they abandon their Jewish identity. Söder's comments were understood to be anti-semitic and caused Swedish parliamentary groups and party leaders to call for Björn Söder's resignation. The Simon Wiesenthal Center listed the statement as number six on their list of the top ten most anti-semitic events of 2014. Söder responded in The Jerusalem Post, denying the charges of anti-semitism and claiming Dagens Nyheter had taken his statements out of context.\nThe Sweden Democrats advocates a cultural policy that would strip funding for multicultural initiatives and strengthen support for traditional Swedish culture. This agenda has often manifested itself as opposition to state funding of immigrant cultural organisations and festivals, and support for traditional Swedish craft, folk music, and folk dance groups. The party also tends to oppose state support for cultural initiatives deemed provocative or elitist. A 2014 letter signed by 52 Swedish anthropologists, criticised the Sweden Democrats' use of the terms \"culture\" (kultur [kɵlˈtʉːr] ) and \"anthropology\" (antropologi [antrɔpʊlʊˈɡiː] ), claiming their views on culture were \"essentialist and obsolete\", clarifying that culture is \"dynamic\" and \"in constant change\".\nThe Sweden Democrats criticise modern art and have accused local councils of wasting public money on what it calls \"provocative\" art. The SD want citizens to be able to vote in local referendums on public art displayed near schools, public transport stations and town centres. \"The important thing is that what is expressed in the public environment is anchored to the citizens and especially the local residents who are most often in the environment so that they feel an identification\", says the party's cultural spokesperson Aron Emilsson. Sweden Democrats mayor in Sölvesborg Louise Erixon claimed \"There's a big division between what the general public thinks is beautiful and interesting and what a tiny cultural elite thinks is exciting.\"\nThe Sweden Democrats also support a ban on the burqa and niqāb in public places and are against proposals to publicly broadcast the Islamic call to prayer from minarets. Leading party representatives have also spoken out in various contexts against mosques and Islamic centres in Sweden. The SD wants tougher enforcement of existing laws against female genital mutilation, honor violence and social segregation. The party also wants Swedish to remain Sweden's sole official language in state funded schools, government agencies and public funded media, and for more teaching of Swedish cultural history in schools. It also supports prohibiting the hijab in primary schools, arguing that while it is not opposed to hijabs in general, the choice to wear it should be made on an individual basis when a child reaches adulthood. The SD is strongly opposed to sharia law being incorporated into the Swedish legal system.\nJimmie Åkesson has declared that he wants to destroy mosques, ban the construction of new buildings and wiretap Muslim religious communities, in order to combat \"Islamism\". In 2009 he described Muslims as \"the greatest foreign threat since the Second World War\". In January 2024, Richard Jomshof, chairman of the Justice Committee in the Riksdag, ignited controversy in Sweden by proposing the prohibition of the Islamic star and crescent. He drew parallels to the ban on the Swastika, claiming that both symbols represent something dangerous.\n\nEconomy and welfare\nThe Sweden Democrats have described themselves as supporters of the Swedish welfare state, labour rights and the public sector, but argue that welfare should be restricted to Swedish citizens and permanent residents. The party argues that foreign-born nationals must show proof of legal residence, paid taxes and financial self-support for a certain period to become eligible for welfare. In its platform, the SD claims that its economic policies are neither left or right-wing, but designed to improve conditions for small and medium-sized companies, self-employed citizens and entrepreneurs to boost employment and stimulate the economy, as opposed to what it describes as \"constructed jobs\" created by the state to reduce unemployment but hold no long term benefit for the Swedish economy or career paths for the people who work them. SD wants to abolish the Swedish Employment Service in its current form and replace it with a new authority for the supervision and close regulation of private employment services to ensure large corporations do not exploit or undercut Swedish workers. The party supports affordable and free access to public healthcare for Swedish nationals.\nSD supports certain free trade conditions but believe Sweden must exit or revise trade agreements that pose a threat to Sweden's sovereignty and Swedish workers. The party favours certain measures of economic protectionism and support state-ownership of companies that operate Swedish mines, agricultural land and produce energy or defense equipment. However, SD also support abolishing inheritance tax and reducing property tax. Since the 2010s, the SD has been critical of Chinese government involvement in infrastructure projects and trade deals with Sweden.\nPolitical author Anders Backlund described the party as \"economically centrist,\" leaning towards economic nationalism (in contrast to the other Swedish conservative parties who tend to favour open free markets and global cosmopolitan philosophies) and supporting a mixed market economy combining centre-left and centre-right ideas, as well as promoting \"welfare chauvinist\" policies which blend national-populism with socio-economics. According to political scientist Johan Martinsson: \"In economic terms, the party is more centrist and pragmatic, with a mixture of left and right-wing proposals\".\n\nFamily and social issues\nThe Sweden Democrats consider children raised in a nuclear family as the preferred option for the child's development. Those not raised by their biological parents should have the right to associate with or at least find out who they were. SD has been critical of adoption and artificial insemination for same-sex couples and polyamorous people. The party today fully supports legalization of same-sex marriage and civil unions for gay couples but believes the ultimate decision to perform a wedding ceremony should be decided by the individual religious institution rather than the state.\nSD previously opposed government sanctioned adoption to single people and same-sex couples unless the adopting party are close relatives or already have a close relationship with the child, but has since shifted its stance to permitting same-sex adoption and supports privately funded insemination for single or gay parents. Historically, members of SD have criticized a so-called \"Homosex Lobby\" but the party has since changed and moderated its position on LGBT in Swedish society. Party leader Jimmie Åkesson has expressed concerns that what he describes as the gradual Islamisation of Sweden will eventually lead to the rights of sexual minorities being violated.\nThroughout the early 2000s, SD-Kuriren (the official SD party newspaper) regularly published articles criticizing LGBT events and describing homosexuality as \"perversion\", before moderating itself alongside a shift in party ideology. A blog post claiming Stockholm Pride sexualised young children and equating homosexuality with pedophilia titled Botten måste snart vara nådd (Soon enough we'll hit rock bottom) was published by SD Party secretary Björn Söder on 1 August 2007. The post was widely criticised in the Swedish media as an attack on LGBT people.\nAn unofficial pride parade called Pride Järva was organised by SD member and former party magazine editor Jan Sjunnesson in the Stockholm suburbs of Tensta and Husby, two areas with large immigrant populations. The event was disavowed by the official Stockholm Pride organisation and the Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights; in a joint statement both organisations called Sjunnesson \"a person who's spreading hatred towards Muslims on social media [and] who's not supporting LGBT rights\". Approximately 30 people participated in Pride Järva, with a larger amount of LGBT and heterosexual anti-racist counter-protestors arriving to oppose them. In 2014, the official Stockholm Pride voted to ban the SD from participating that year which was met with criticism from both within the party and from some opposition politicians who argued it was undemocratic.\nIn recent years, the SD has shifted its stance to being more supportive of LGBT rights and same-sex parenting by updating and expanding its policies regarding LGBT issues. In 2010, SD leader Jimmie Åkesson and party vice-president Carina Ståhl Herrstedt published an article apologizing for past homophobic statements made by party members and arguing that mass immigration risked eroding the rights of Sweden's gay community. In its current platform, the SD states \"everyone must be treated equally, regardless of sexual orientation, and discrimination must be combated.\" In a 2018 interview, SD member of the Riksdag and gender-equality spokesperson Paula Bieler stated that homophobes \"are not welcome in our party.\"\nThe SD supports gender-affirming surgery as long as the motive behind it is mental wellbeing and permission is given by a medical professional.\nThe party also calls for a ban on child, polygamous and forced marriages, as well as harsher penalties for honor violence. It also supports a zero-tolerance stance against female genital mutilation within Sweden and abroad, and for perpetrators to be prosecuted or if necessary deported. SD also wants certain restrictions on male circumcision, calling for a ban on minors unless its for medical reasons. The party says that while it does support male circumcision for religious reasons, it should be performed at the age of consent and the state should not fund it through the healthcare system.\nSD supports abortion being legal in Sweden and for free access to abortions for up to twelve weeks but opposes late-term abortions unless permission is given by the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare. The party also calls for a law to ban abortion tourism in Sweden.\n\nGender equality and social justice\nSD opposes any \"negative or positive special treatment on the basis of gender, age, sexual orientation, nationality or ethnic origin\" in the labour market.\nThe party maintains that, collectively, there are biological differences between men and women, some of which that cannot be \"observed with the naked eye\". Perceived differences between men and women in regards to preference, behaviour and life choices exist due to each individual's choices and does not necessarily have to be \"problematic, the result of discrimination nor the result of an oppressive gender power structure\".\n\nEnvironment\nThe party argues that, while Sweden should maintain its \"active role in global climate cooperation\", other countries should reduce their emissions, as it believes Sweden to already be doing enough on that front. The party opposed the Paris agreement, and advocates keeping nuclear power plants as a prominent energy source in Sweden, believing it to be an efficient way to mitigate climate change. They also advocate investing in climate research internationally and funding climate action on a global scale.\n\nLaw and order and security\nThe Sweden Democrats support generally increased minimum sentences as well as increased resources and personnel for the police. SD wishes to instate the possibility of life imprisonment without parole for the worst crimes and to repatriate foreign citizens found guilty of serious crimes. SD also wants to establish a public register of individuals convicted of certain sexual crimes. The party also supports increased surveillance of those known to be involved in criminal gangs and terrorism. SD argues for a zero-tolerance law for people who physically attack police officers and emergency workers.\nSD previously supported the reinstatement of capital punishment before dropping it as an official policy after the party program was updated in 1998, although individuals within the party continue to support the death penalty for serious crimes such as murder and infanticide and have called for chemical castration of convicted child sexual abusers.\nThe SD is also opposed to repatriating and offering state funded assistance to Swedish citizens who joined ISIS.\n\nDefense\nSD wants to increase the number of Swedish Army brigades to seven from today's two.\nThe party has stated that it would seek to raise Sweden's defense spending to 2–2.5% of GDP.\n\nMonarchy\nThe party is a supporter of the Swedish monarchy playing a constitutional and cultural role in Swedish life, but also supports an amendment to the constitution that obligates the Riksdag to elect a new monarch in the event of there being no heir to the throne. In 2014 the party proposed that granting of citizenship should be contingent on declaring loyalty to the king.\n\nOther public policies\nSD wishes to lower the tax rate for the elderly, as well as increase subsidised housing for the elderly. SD also wishes to allocate additional resources to municipalities in order to provide seniors with greater food assistance and, in general, improve their quality of life. SD has also emphasised a desire to crack down on abuses and crimes of which the elderly are particular targets.\nThe Sweden Democrats are critical of the special rights given to the indigenous Sámi people of northern Sweden. In 2008 the party accepted a motion against the rights to reindeer husbandry. They have argued that those \"who do not involve themselves with reindeer husbandry are treated as second class citizens\" and that the privileges the herders have are \"undemocratic\". They want to restructure the councils and funds that are used to benefit the Sami population, so that they are used \"regardless of ethnic identity and business operations\". They also want to abolish the Sámi Parliament, which claims special privileges for an \"ethnic minority while the society claims equal rights for others\".\n\nInternational relations\nIn its early days, the Sweden Democrats was known to associate itself with both native Swedish and wider European extreme-right activist groups and parties. During the 1990s, the Sweden Democrats began distancing itself from such groups and made connections with the French National Front (FN) and Jean-Marie Le Pen through his Euronat initiative and received support from the FN but otherwise the party did not actively seek formal relationships outside of Sweden. After party left Euronat, it became more influenced by the neighboring Danish People's Party (DF) and by the 2000s said it had ceased regarding the National Front as a role model and instead saw the DF as a sister party. In 2010, party secretary Björn Söder published an article disowning the SD's older connections to extreme groups or individuals like Le Pen and said SD was more focused on Sweden's issues over interacting with foreign parties. The party has also been active within counter-jihad networks, explicitly from 2007 to 2011.\nIn Europe, SD has had some contacts with the Austrian FPÖ, the Dutch Party for Freedom and Forum for Democracy, the Flemish Vlaams Belang and the now defunct Belgian People's Party over the early 2010s. The Danish People's Party was initially indifferent on collaborating with the SD until 2010 when Pia Kjærsgaard travelled to Sweden to help with the party's general election campaign. Shortly after, Danish People's Party foreign affairs spokesman Søren Espersen hosted the SD's conference and said both parties would work together in the Nordic Council. Before the European election of 2014 there was some speculation that the SD would enter a grouping with other European nationalist parties led by Marine Le Pen. SD politicians confirmed they had had met with representatives from the proposed group but said the talks were informal. The Danish People's Party reportedly threatened to end ties with SD if they joined the group, stating that while they were willing to work with the SD and the Dutch Freedom Party, they opposed inclusion of parties like the National Front and the FPÖ. However, after the election the SD began to distance itself from other European far-right parties and elected to become a member of the more moderate Europe of Freedom and Direct Democracy (EFDD) group with the UK Independence Party. The SD was also active in the European Alliance for Freedom and the Alliance for Direct Democracy in Europe (ADDE) Euro parties with members of the UK Independence Party (UKIP). In 2016, Marine Le Pen stated that the Sweden Democrats were no longer in official cooperation with her party.\nIn 2015, SD began forging closer relations with the Danish People's Party, and in 2018 announced an official cooperation pact with the Finns Party, which had previously distanced itself from the SD. All three parties are members of the Nordic Freedom group in the Nordic Council, though the Norwegian Progress Party has refused to join.\nThe SD maintained cooperation with the Alternative for Germany party under Frauke Petry's leadership when both parties sat with the EFDD group and were members of the ADDE alliance, with Jimmie Åkesson describing the AfD as the SD's \"sister party\" in Germany during the 2017 German federal election. However, Åkesson has since distanced the SD from statements made by some AfD politicians and by 2024 said the AfD was no longer ideologically compatible with his party.\nSince 2018, the SD has been a member of the European Conservatives and Reformists Group (ECR Group) and the European Conservatives and Reformists Party and presently sits alongside Brothers of Italy, the Czech Civic Democratic Party, Spanish Vox party, the Flemish N-VA, Polish Law and Justice, the Finns Party and JA21 from the Netherlands. In 2019, there was discussions on whether they SD would join a new group with the Danish People's Party headed by Matteo Salvini's Lega Nord. However, Åkesson said SD was not invited to join a new European Parliament group and would stay with the ECR but suggested this may have been due to his party's reluctance to cooperate with Le Pen and pro-Putin parties in Europe. In 2024, the SD sought to distance itself from Hungary's Fidesz citing what they perceive as Viktor Orbán's soft stance on Russia following its invasion of Ukraine and threatened to leave the ECR if Fidesz joined unless Orbán demonstrated a more pro-NATO and Putin-critical position. However, the Sweden Democrats later softened its stance against Fidesz and said it was open to working with the party in the European Parliament, but maintained it would not cooperate with Alternative for Germany and cast doubt on an alliance with the French National Rally. \nIn July 2024, the Sweden Democrats formed the European Parliament 'Nordic Freedom' alliance within the ECR along with the Denmark Democrats and the Finns Party, citing common stances on opposing Russian influence, reducing the EU's intervention into the market, and a desire to participate in governments.\nOutside of the EU, SD has had informal contacts with the British Conservative Party and the US Republican Party. Individual politicians of the Norwegian Progress Party have also called for more collaboration with the SD. The SD has also sought to improve and build relations with Israel's Likud which had previously turned down meetings with the SD due to the party's past. In 2024, the SD and Likud began official cooperation with each other.\n\nReception and controversies\nDuring the 1980s and early 1990s, many outspoken far-right and Nazi advocates were involved with the party. It was founded by, among others, the Swedish Waffen-SS veteran Gustaf Ekström and members of both older Nazi and neo-Nazi organisations. In its early days, the SD also had a reputation for attracting biker and skinhead gangs to its rallies. The party had flyers printed by the French National Front in the 1998 general election, and was financially backed for the 2004 European election by Belgian businessman and racial conspiracy theorist Bernard Mengal. In the 1990s, the party was a member of the Euronat initiative which was set up by Jean-Marie Le Pen. However, as part of the moderation process the Sweden Democrats began expelling extreme far-right members from the early 2000s onwards and updated the party constitution to include clauses against racism, extremism and criminal behaviour. Since the 2010s, the SD has sought to distance itself from far-right parties in Europe, including turning down an invitation to join a grouping in the European Parliament with the French National Front in 2014 and choosing to ally themselves with more moderate parties during the 2014 and 2019 European elections.\n\nIsolation in parliament\nBoth before and after the 2010 Swedish general election all the major parties, including the Swedish Social Democrats and the Moderate Party, declared they would not collaborate or work with the Sweden Democrats. The move was described by international pundits as an unofficial cordon sanitaire. The policy of non-cooperation was kept in place for the 2014 Swedish general election. However, at a local level other parties from the Moderates to the Left Party have collaborated or voted in favour of SD initiatives. Following the 2018 general election, which saw the disintegration of the centre-right Alliance, Christian Democrats leader Ebba Busch and Moderates leader Ulf Kristersson signaled an end to the non-cooperation policy and began talks with the SD. The policy of non-cooperation was officially scrapped by the Moderates, Christian Democrats and The Liberals for the 2022 election when all four parties signed the Tidö Agreement.\n\nMedia boycotts\nThe Sweden Democrats have complained about difficulties buying advertising space due to the media banning the party from advertising and have accused media outlets of trying to censor or limit the party's campaign messages during elections. This has been criticised by free speech organisations in Sweden and abroad. On 16 June 2006, Dagens Nyheter and Svenska Dagbladet decided to stop their boycott. Expressen, however, still retains a ban on Sweden Democrat advertising. During the 2010 Swedish general election, broadcaster TV4 refused to air a Sweden Democrats campaign video which depicted a Swedish pensioner being outrun by burka-clad women with prams. TV4's decision was criticized by both free speech advocates and politicians from Denmark, including by Danish People's Party leader Pia Kjærsgaard, Venstre and the Conservative People's Party (who reacted to TV4's decision to ban the video by calling for international election observers to be sent to Sweden), and by members of the Norwegian Progress Party who called the decision a \"violation of democratic rules.\" Journalist Hanne Kjöller argued that attempts to censor the SD in 2010 ended up emboldening their support by giving them more publicity.\n\nMuhammad cartoon debate\nAfter the Danish daily newspaper Jyllands-Posten published twelve cartoons depicting Muhammad and ignited a controversy during the 2005 autumn and winter, the Sweden Democrats gave their unreserved support to the publication with reference to the freedom of speech. SD stated that it saw no reason why a Danish newspaper should be forced to abide by Muslim rules and prohibitions regarding expression. When the boycott of Danish products was launched in the Middle East, SD launched a \"Buy Danish\" campaign in support of Danish workers. In 2006 SD entered the Muhammad cartoon debate by publishing a cartoon depicting Muhammad on its youth league (SDU) and SD-Kuriren (pronounced [ˈɛ̂sːdeːkɵˌriːrɛn] ) websites. The cartoon showed Muhammad from behind holding a mirror in front of his face. However, instead of any facial features, the mirror showed only a blank head. The cartoon was captioned \"Muhammad's Face\" (Swedish: Muhammeds ansikte [mɵˈhǎmːɛds ˈânːsɪktɛ] ).\nThe publication attracted the attention of the Swedish government, which informed internet service provider Levonline about the SD's publications. Subsequently, Levonline shut down SD's web page. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, Laila Freivalds, denied any direct interference. However, at the same time, Laila Freivalds condemned the publication as a provocation. Freivalds then resigned from the Persson Cabinet after being accused of interference with press freedom and lying about such actions.\nThis event spurred debate on government censorship in Sweden. The Sweden Democrats also had a hate speech charge filed against them due to the posted caricature. Similar hate speech charges were filed against other Swedish publishers who had depicted Muhammad. However, these charges were immediately deemed to be unfounded by the Swedish Chancellor of Justice.\nThe Sweden Democrats originally planned to publish a set of cartoons in their newspaper SD-Kuriren. However, after the controversy erupted, Jimmie Åkesson issued a statement on SD's website on 9 February 2006, stating that they would refrain from further publications online and in print, due to concerns that publishing might spur hostile actions against Swedes and Swedish interests.\nThe shutdown of the Sweden Democrats' websites was reported to the Committee on the Constitution by the Liberal People's Party leader Lars Leijonborg. SD filed complaints against the Security Service (Säpo) and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs with the Justitiekansler and Justitieombudsmannen, alleging that the government's interference was unconstitutional. The spokesperson of the Green Party, Peter Eriksson, also criticised the involvement of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in the event.\n\nRacist incidents and expulsions\nThe Sweden Democrats have, among all Swedish parliamentary parties, had the largest share of elected municipal representatives resign since the 2010 elections (27.8%). Many of these resignations were brought on by racist statements or actions by these representatives.\nIn November 2012, party spokesperson Erik Almqvist resigned after he had been caught on tape making racist and sexist statements. In November 2012, parliamentarian Lars Isovaara resigned after accusing two people of foreign origin of stealing his bag (which Isovaara had left at a restaurant) and then proceeding to verbally abuse a security guard of a foreign background. Isovaara's replacement in parliament, Markus Wiechel, was found in April 2013 to have referred to a group of black people as \"monkeys\" in a Facebook comment back in 2011. Wiechel later apologised and stated the comment had been in reference to a video of a tribal witch burning in Africa.\nIn March 2013, 12 individuals were thrown out of the party for their involvement in neo-Nazi or other extremist movements. In November 2013, parliamentarian and then vice party leader Jonas Åkerlund gained attention for having called immigrants \"parasites\" during a broadcast on SD's own radio station in 2002, after the recording was publicly rediscovered. In his defence, Åkerlund stated that he only said it to provoke people. In September 2014, the party chairman of the local Stockholm branch, Christoffer Dulny was asked to resign from his position after it was found he had previously posted mocking comments about immigrants, calling them \"shameless liars\" on alternative media sites. He also resigned from parliament on the same day.\nIn October 2016, a video of the parliamentarian and economic policy spokesperson Oscar Sjöstedt laughing at antisemitic jokes was released by a former school friend of his who also accused Sjöstedt of chanting fascist slogans. Whilst at a party believed to have been organized by the neo-Nazi group Info-14 in 2011 when Sjöstedt was a member of the SD's youth wing, he laughingly told a story about former co-workers with Nazi sympathies mocking Jews and comparing them to sheep. Following an investigation by the party, Sjöstedt stated that a friend had invited him to the party but he had walked out upon discovering who had organized it and denied expressing fascist statements. During the same month, the parliamentarian and second deputy party leader Carina Herrstedt was confronted with having sent an allegedly racist, antisemitic, homophobic and anti-romanyist email to her then spouse in 2011. The email, which had been leaked from the party's internal servers, for instance contained phrases that named black football players from the team Landskrona BoIS as \"niggers\" whilst also picturing Romani people as thieves. The email was meant to be playful and ironic, Herrstedt told Aftonbladet.\nBetween 2015 and 2016 various members of the party were expelled from the SD for expressing extremist or racist views, or because of disagreement with the party's shift towards moderation and social conservatism. In April 2015, the Sweden Democratic Youth leaders were also expelled for these reasons, and the organisation was dissolved shortly after with the mother party issuing a warning for remaining SDU members to leave the youth wing or be expelled from the party. In December 2016, the parliamentarian Anna Hagwall was thrown out of the party after using arguments associated with antisemitism to argue for a bill that she introduced in parliament intended to reduce concentration of media ownership in Sweden.\nIn September 2017, a report from Dagens ETC found that 14 former municipal representatives of the party had infiltrated the SD in order to financially support the Nordic Resistance Movement, a neo-Nazi organisation, through financial transactions, memberships, or purchases of antisemitic and racist literature or souvenirs. In August 2018, 2 members were kicked out due to purchases of Nazi memorabilia online; following the expulsions, Michael Erlandsson, one of the SD's spokespeople, publicly stated that people who \"have these types of views and share these types of materials\" have no place in the party and that the SD maintains a zero-tolerance stance on expressing fascist views. 14 candidates were expelled from the party as well after being exposed as former members of neo-Nazi organisations. Referring to the latest expulsions, SD leader Jimmie Åkesson declared that the party \"works extremely hard to keep clean\".\nIn 2017, Martin Strid, party spokesman in Borlänge, appeared to state at a televised SD rally that Muslims were not \"fully human\" and humane. Strid's comments were met with condemnation within the SD. Åkesson and SD party secretary Richard Jomshof described them as racist, with Jomshof stating the SD advocates ideological criticism, but not violating human rights. SD board member Aron Emilsson said that Strid would face a disciplinary meeting for violating the party's code of conduct. In response, Strid said he had expressed himself \"clumsily\" but chose to quit the party after being given an ultimatum to resign or be expelled.\nIn March 2022, parliamentarian Roger Richthoff was sacked from his role as party defense spokesman and subsequently expelled from the SD and banned by the party from standing as a candidate for them in the 2022 Swedish general election after posting controversial comments on Twitter, including sharing a video supporting Russia in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine in which several antisemitic conspiracy theories were presented.\nResearcher on Nordic nationalism Benjamin R. Teitelbaum described the present day version Sweden Democrats as paradoxical compared to other European nationalist parties on the issues of racism and radicalism. Teitelbaum notes that in contrast to other Nordic and wider European populist parties, the SD differs by having a past rooted in white nationalism and extremism, but in the present day is comparably more proactive in rejecting ethno-nationalism and expelling members who make racist statements to the point where he considers the SD to be on the \"softer side\" of national-populism. Similar observations were made by British conservative author Douglas Murray who described the SD as undergoing one of the most significant transformations on the European political right from a party on the fringes that openly pushed extreme tendencies to a more mainstream movement that draws on diverse support. Kateřina Lišaníková argued that out of all the parties in Sweden, the SD was more likely to attract individual members who made extreme statements regarding immigrants but this was a consequence of the SD being the only party in the Riksdag willing to challenge the political consensus on immigration for several years as opposed to the SD itself being an extremist or racist party.\nAshley Fox, leader of the British Conservative MEPs, praised the Sweden Democrats regarding the party's policy decisions on the expulsion of extremist and racist members: \"Over the past decade the Sweden Democrats have made progress in reforming themselves, expelling any members displaying unacceptable views or behaviour and diversifying their party base.\"\n\nIron pipe scandal\nOn November 14, 2012, Erik Almqvist, in addition to party spokesperson Kent Ekeroth and party official Christian Westling were filmed arming themselves with iron pipes before they sought out a confrontation with Soran Ismail, a Swedish comedian of Kurdish descent.\n\nSplinter parties\nSince the SD's inception, breakaway parties have been formed by former SD members, many of whom were either removed from the party due to controversial actions or resigned after the SD began to ideologically shift and moderate itself.\nIn 1995, former SD spokesman Leif Zeilon established the minor neo-Nazi Hembygdspartiet (Homeland Party) along with other founding members of the SD after Anders Klarström was replaced as party chairman by a less hardline leadership.\nIn 2001, a major breakaway occurred when the more radical ethno-nationalist faction of the SD's national board and their supporters were collectively expelled and formed the National Democrats party.\nOn 18 March 2018, Alternative for Sweden (AfS) was formed by former members of the SD's old youth wing after they were kicked out of the party after alleged ties with extremist groups and for coming into conflict with the mother party. Three SD parliamentarians joined Alternative for Sweden but all lost their seats during the 2018 general election. AfS's policies have been criticised as too extreme by members of the SD such as Henrik Vinge.\n\nLobbying\nThe Sweden Democrats came under fire in 2015 for changing their position on profits made by private welfare companies. Before the election in 2014 they favored having restrictions on the amount of profit that welfare companies could take and use for their own gain. Since the election, they have favored the approach of the Alliance parties, that is higher and more restrictive quality standards. This has been suspected to be because of extensive lobbying done by the organisation Svenskt Näringsliv among others. The story was discovered by the Swedish newspaper Dagens Industri on 14 September 2015. SD has denied all accusations of corruption.\n\nAnonymous social media accounts\nOn May 7, 2024, one month prior to the 2024 EU elections, the TV4 investigative journalism program Kalla fakta ('Hard Facts') premiered a two-part documentary (Undercover i trollfabriken, 'Undercover in the Troll Factory') revealing that the Sweden Democrats systematically used anonymous accounts on social media platforms such as TikTok, X and Facebook. The scoop was obtained through the use of the wallraff method where a reporter spent five months as an employee at the previously SD-owned YouTube channel Riks as well as the party's communications department, documenting internal discussions on the party's communication strategies. The documentary revealed that at least 23 anonymous social media accounts were actually run from SD's communications department, spreading xenophobic content and satirical attacks on opposing politicians from other parties, including deepfake videos. According to Kalla fakta, posts from these accounts reached 27 million views across social media platforms. SD's head of communication, Joakim Wallerstein, repeated earlier claims that the party does not run any anonymous social media accounts. However, according to Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet, internal communication reveals that Wallerstein already in 2012 wanted to include anonymous internet campaigns as part of the party's strategy.\nIn an official response from the Sweden Democrats' leader Jimmie Åkesson, the Kalla fakta documentary was dismissed as a \"gigantic, domestic influence operation by the left-liberal establishment\". In numerous interviews, SD representatives toned down the content posted on the anonymous accounts as simple satire and humor material. Following the documentary, and the party's response to it, SD received massive criticism from all other Swedish parliamentary parties. The government parties accused SD of not following the Tidö Agreement, which contains a clause about showing respect towards other parties. After a meeting on May 16, SD agreed that some of the anonymous accounts' posts went against the agreement and agreed to delete 45 posts. They did not agree to stop running anonymous accounts but said they would use a softer tone towards parties in the Tidö coalition.\n\nElectoral results\nRiksdag\nEuropean Parliament\nMaps\nLeadership\nParty leader\nAnders Klarström (1989–1995)\nMikael Jansson (1995–2005)\nJimmie Åkesson (2005–2014)\nMattias Karlsson (interim, 2014–2015)\nJimmie Åkesson (2015–present)\n\nFirst Deputy Party leader\nJonas Åkerlund (2006–2015)\nJulia Kronlid (2015–2019)\nHenrik Vinge (2019–present)\n\nSecond Deputy Party leader\nJonas Åkerlund (2005–2006)\nAnna Hagwall (2006–2009)\nCarina Ståhl Herrstedt (2009–2019)\nJulia Kronlid (2019–present)\n\nSecretary\nJakob Eriksson (1998–2001)\nJimmy Windeskog (2001–2003)\nTorbjörn Kastell (2003–2004)\nJan Milld (2004–2005)\nDavid Lång (2005)\nBjörn Söder (2005–2015)\nRichard Jomshof (2015–2022)\nMattias Bäckström Johansson (2022–present)\n\nParliamentary group leader\nBjörn Söder (2010–2014)\nMattias Karlsson (2014–2019)\nHenrik Vinge (2019–2023)\nLinda Lindberg (2023–present)\n\nInternational secretary\nMattias Karlsson (2022-)\n\nParty spokespeople\nLeif Zeilon and Jonny Berg (1988–1989; spokespersons)\nOla Sundberg and Anders Klarström (1989–1990; spokespersons)\nAnders Klarström and Madeleine Larsson (1990–1992; spokespersons)\n\nOther prominent party members\nSten Andersson (28 February 1943 – 16 August 2010)\nTommy Funebo\nDragan Klaric\n\nInternal structure\nThe Sweden Democrats are made up of 16 districts of local party associations with executive boards. Each district consists of a number of municipal associations, which may include one or more municipalities. In municipalities that are not covered by a municipal association, the party organises its members as working groups instead. The SD also has a centralized national board permanently chaired by the party leader and party secretary and whose other members are elected by the SD's membership base.\nWithin the SD there is a women's branch SD-Women and an affiliated youth-wing Young Swedes SDU which was founded in 2015. The SD's first youth-wing was founded in 1993 as the Sweden Democratic Youth Association before it was renamed the Sweden Democratic Youth (SDU). The old SDU was disbanded in 1995 due to extremism problems before it was reconstituted in 1998. Many prominent SD politicians including party leader Jimmie Åkesson were members of the SDU. In 2015, the SD announced it would expel the leadership of the SDU from the mother party and officially sever ties with it due to ongoing controversies with its members. The party subsequently created the Young Swedes SDU as a replacement.\nFollowing the 2010 Swedish general election, the SD created its own security unit which by 2014 consisted of an estimated 60 people. SD states that the unit is intended to handle internal issues within the party, including cybersecurity, to marshal public events and to encourage members to report external threats to the police. The SD has argued the security wing is necessary due to threats against SD politicians and highlighted a 2012 report by the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention which found one in two of every local SD politician had experienced some form of threat, harassment or physical violence, and that SD legislators were statistically twice as more likely to be threatened than members of other parties. SD reported 95 instances of threats or violence against elected officials to the police and Riksdag security in 2012.\n\nAssociated organisations and media\nSince its founding, the SD has published its own newspaper SD-Kuriren which was previously known as Sverige-Kuriren and then SD Bulletin until 2003. Party secretary Richard Jomshof currently serves as the paper's editor. In 2014, the party also launched an online magazine Samtiden ('Contemporary'). It is currently edited by Swedish economist Dick Erixon.\nIn 2020, Mattias Karlsson, the former group leader of the Sweden Democrats in the Riksdag founded Oikos, a conservative think-tank. Expo has alleged the think-tank to be an \"extension of the Sweden Democrats' political project\" supposedly also receiving funding from the party although the group itself claims to be non-partisan.\nIn 2020, the party also helped to launch a web based TV channel called Riks, through their wholly owned online magazine Samtiden, with the ambition that the media channel should not be an official party TV. However, in a 2024 investigatory exposé conducted by TV4’s investigatory branch, Kalla fakta, it was discovered that Riks and the SD are in a close-knit relationship with each other. For example, the exposé showed that Riks rents its office spaces from the Sweden Democrats, and that members of the SD and Riks come into frequent contact with one another, moving freely between each other's offices. Moreover, the SD's communications department instructed Riks to hide any connection to SD before an Expressen interview with Dick Erixon in Riks' offices. In addition to that, the programme showed that the SD's communications department used anonymous social media accounts to artificially disseminate Riks' posts and YouTube videos.\n\nVoter demography\nAccording to Statistics Sweden's (SCB) 2017 party preference survey, the Sweden Democrats (SD) have a stronger support among men than among women. There is no noticeable difference in support for the party among different age groups. The support for SD is greater among native born than among foreign born. Since 2014 the SD has substantially increased its support among both foreign-born and foreign-background voters, becoming the third largest party in Sweden also among this demographic by 2017. Sympathies are greater for the party among persons with primary and secondary education than among those with a higher education. The 2018 party preference survey of the SCB show that SD has twice as much support among men than among women.\nA study by Aftonbladet in 2010 found that 14% of SD members were of immigrant origin, which matches the share of foreign-born inhabitants of Sweden, while their vote share in this population group has always been lower. For the 2010 election in the municipality of Södertälje (Stockholm County), SD was the only party with a majority of immigrants on its electoral list, mostly Assyrians from the Middle East. Polling 7.31% (3,447 votes), SD's municipal list in Södertälje got 5 of the 65 municipal seats. Nader Helawi and four other Swedes of immigrant origin will sit as municipal councilors. Since 2014, the SD has seen growing support from foreign-born Swedish voters, and was estimated to have become the third most popular party for voters of immigrant backgrounds by 2017. In recent years, politicians of ethnic minority and immigrant backgrounds have become increasingly active in the party, with notable examples including Nima Gholam Ali Pour, Kent Ekeroth, Sara Gille and Rashid Farivar.\n\nChanges in voter base at the general elections, 2006–2022\nSee also\nList of political parties in Sweden\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n Media related to Sverigedemokraterna at Wikimedia Commons\n\n(in Swedish) Official website\n(in Swedish) Jimmie Åkesson's website\n(in Swedish) SD-Kuriren\n(in Swedish) Young Swedes SDU",
"title": "Sweden_Democrats"
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"paragraph_text": "The Eurovision Song Contest 2006 was the 51st edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Athens, Greece, following the country's victory at the 2005 contest with the song \"My Number One\" by Helena Paparizou. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), the contest was held at the Olympic Indoor Hall, and consisted of a semi-final on 18 May, and a final on 20 May 2006. The two live shows were presented by American television personality Maria Menounos and Greek former contestant Sakis Rouvas.\nThirty-seven countries participated in the contest. Armenia took part for the first time. Meanwhile, Austria, Hungary, and Serbia and Montenegro announced their non-participation in the contest. Serbia and Montenegro had intended to participate, but due to a scandal in the national selection, tensions were caused between the Serbian broadcaster, RTS, and the Montenegrin broadcaster, RTCG. Despite this, the nation did retain voting rights for the contest.\nThe winner was Finland with the heavy metal-song \"Hard Rock Hallelujah\", performed by Lordi and written by lead singer Mr. Lordi. This was Finland's first victory in the contest - and first top five placing - in 45 years of participation, the longest time a country had competed without a win at that point. It was also the first ever hard rock song to win the contest, as well as the first band to win since 1997. Russia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and Sweden rounded out the top five. Bosnia and Herzegovina achieved their best result in their Eurovision history. Further down the table, Lithuania also achieved their best result to date, finishing sixth. Of the \"Big Four\" countries Germany placed the highest, finishing joint fourteenth (with Norway).\nThe contest saw the 1,000th song performed in the contest, when Ireland's Brian Kennedy performed \"Every Song Is a Cry for Love\" in the semi-final.\n\nLocation\nThe contest took place in Athens, Greece, following the country's victory at the 2005 edition. It was the first time Greece hosted the contest.\nThe venue that was chosen as the host venue was the Olympic Indoor Hall, which is located in the Athens Olympic Sports Complex, in the capital city of Greece. Completed in 1995, it was the largest indoor venue used at the 2004 Summer Olympics when hosted gymnastics and the basketball finals and the 2004 Summer Paralympics when hosted the wheelchair basketball.\n\nBidding phase\nWhen Greece won the 2005 contest, the Head of the Greek Delegation, Fotini Yiannoulatou, said that ERT was ready to host the event in Athens the next year. However, multiple cities bid to host the 2006 contest, including Thessaloniki and Patras, the second and the third largest city in Greece, respectively. The majors of the three cities (Athens, Thessaloniki, Patras) were said that their cities were ready to host the event. The venues that were rumored for each city were: the Olympic Indoor Hall for Athens, Pylea Sports Hall for Thessaloniki and Dimitris Tofalos Arena for Patras.\nA few days after Greece's win, the Greek public broadcaster stated that \"ERT intends to hold the Eurovision Song Contest in Athens, taking into account EBU's already expressed wish for the event to be combined with the Olympic facilities and amenities that the city of Athens has to offer\". Mr. Panaghiotis Psomiadis, the Prefect of Thessaloniki stated the city will fight for the hosting of the contest. As the city of Patras seemed not to be available to host the contest, at the end it was a two-horse race between Athens and Thessaloniki.\nFinally, on June 30, 2005, ERT and EBU announced that Athens will be the host city of the 2006 contest, despite the opposition of some Greek politicians, stated that Athens already had its promotion during the 2004 Summer Olympics and that it's \"another city's turn now\". The joint decision of the EBU and ERT is to host the 51st Eurovision Song Contest in Athens, which has several modern Olympic venues, infrastructure and a proven ability to host events of this size.\n\nOther sites\nThe Eurovision Village was the official Eurovision Song Contest fan and sponsors' area during the events week. There it was possible to watch performances by local artists, as well as the live shows broadcast from the main venue. Located at the Zappeion, it was open from 15 to 21 May 2006.\nThe EuroClub was the venue for the official after-parties and private performances by contest participants. Unlike the Eurovision Village, access to the EuroClub was restricted to accredited fans, delegates, and press. It was located at Athens Technopolis, an industrial museum and a major cultural venue of the city.\nThe official \"Welcome and Opening Ceremonies\" events, where the contestants and their delegations are presented before the accredited press and fans, took place also in Zappeon on 15 May 2006 at 21:00 EET, followed by the Opening Ceremony.\n\nParticipating countries\nAll participating countries in a Eurovision Song Contest must be active members of the EBU.\nIt was initially announced on 16 January 2006 that thirty-eight countries would participate in the contest, with Austria opting not to participate due to the bad result at the previous contest and Hungary also deciding not to participate due to financial reasons. Armenia participated for the very first time in the history of the contest.\nSerbia and Montenegro announced its withdrawal on 15 March 2006, reducing the participants number from 38 to 37 and leaving a vacancy in the final; however, the country retained their rights to vote in the contest.\n\nReturning artists\nBold indicates a previous winner.\n\nAdditionally, Hari Mata Hari were selected to represent Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1999 contest, but their entry was disqualified. Ireland's Brian Kennedy performed in Lumen, the interval act of the 1995 contest.\nHost Sakis Rouvas previously represented Greece at the 2004 contest. If No Name had been permitted to represent Serbia and Montenegro, they would have done so for the second consecutive year.\n\nOther countries\nActive EBU members\nActive EBU member broadcasters in Austria, the Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary confirmed non-participation prior to the announcement of the participants list by the EBU. Serbia and Montenegro withdrew from the contest due to a scandal in the selection process, which caused tensions between the Serbian and Montenegrin broadcasters (RTS and RTCG).\n\nFormat\nVisual design\nThe official logo of the contest remained the same from 2004 and 2005 with the country's flag in the heart being changed. The 2006 sub-logo was presented to the public through a press conference that was held in November 1, 2005, in King George Hotel in Athens, while it was created by the design company Karamela for Greek television and was apparently based on the Phaistos Disc which is a popular symbol of ancient Greece. According to ERT, it was \"inspired by the wind and the sea, the golden sunlight and the glow of the sand\". Following Istanbul's \"Under The Same Sky\" and Kyiv's \"Awakening\", the slogan for the 2006 show was \"Feel The Rhythm\". This theme was also the basis for the postcards for the 2006 show, which emphasized Greece's historical significance as well as being a major modern tourist destination.\nIn addition to the graphic design, there was a theme music for the contest composed by Nikko Patrelakis, which was used in the intros and in-between commercial breaks, as well as besides the participating entries. The theme music package was conducted by Andreas Pylarinos, while the ERT Symphony Orchestra recorded all music used during the show.\n\nBroadcasting\nAs with the 2005 edition, the shows were broadcast in widescreen 16:9 format. The final was also filmed (but not broadcast) in high-definition, as part of collaboration between host broadcaster ERT and R&D teams of EBU members (including Rai and BBC) to test high-definition television. In 2021, the EBU released the high-definition footage onto their YouTube channel, allowing the public to view it for the first time. The first song contest produced and broadcast in high-definition was the subsequent edition in 2007.\n\nStage design\nThe host broadcaster ERT announced that the British company Stage One has been appointed to build the set for the contest. Stage One was designed the sets for the Opening and Closing ceremonies of the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. The broadcaster have announced that the concept will be rich with traditional Greek elements, paying homage to the country's history and culture. The stage for the contest was designed by Greek stage designer Elias Ledakis. He would go on to design the stage for the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Kyiv, Ukraine. The stage was a replica of an ancient Greek amphitheatre.\n\nPostcards\nAs it was referred, the theme \"Feel The Rhythm\" was also the basis for the postcards, which emphasized Greece's historical significance as well as being a major modern tourist destination. The postcards filmed between March and April 2006. The host broadcaster ERT spent 3 million euros on the production of the 37 postcards. Fanis Papathanisiou of ERT said: \"An impressive, international tourism campaign is expensive as well. The Eurovision Song Contest is a perfect platform to achieve equal or even better results. That's why it is worth the investment\". To decide what to show in the postcards, ERT hold surveys in all participating countries, asking what people associate Greece with.\n\nVoting segment\nTo save time in the final, the voting time lasted ten minutes and the voting process was changed: points 1–7 were shown immediately on-screen. The spokespersons only announced the countries scoring 8, 10 and 12 points. Despite this being intended to speed proceedings up, there were still problems during voting – EBU imaging over-rode Maria Menounos during a segment in the voting interval and some scoreboards were slow to load. The Dutch spokesperson Paul de Leeuw also caused problems, giving his mobile number to presenter Rouvas during the Dutch results, and slowing down proceedings, also by announcing the first seven points. Constantinos Christoforou (who also represented Cyprus in 1996, 2002 and 2005) saluted from \"Nicosia, the last divided capital in Europe\"; during Cyprus' reading, the telecast displayed Switzerland by mistake. This voting process has been criticized because suspense was lost by only reading three votes instead of ten. And for the first and only time before the Prespa agreement, the display for the Macedonian entry had the title spelled out in its entirety (as \"Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia\") instead of being abbreviated as it has been in previous years (as \"FYR Macedonia\").\n\nPresenters\nAfter Greece's win, several websites claimed to know that Alexandra Pascalidou would be co-host the 2006 Contest, together with the Greek-French journalist and entertainer Nikos Aliagas, but these speculations were untrue.\nInitially, the Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT) asked Sakis Rouvas to represent again Greece in Athens, an offer which he didn't accept. With the Greek broadcaster wanting Rouvas' involvement in the contest, they offered him to be one of the hosts of the contest, where he accepted. Between the names that were rumored for the female host, included the Greek Canadian actress, screenwriter, director, and producer Nia Vardalos (known for writing and starring in My Big Fat Greek Wedding), the Greek social entrepreneur and philanthropist Elizabeth Filippouli (later, she founded the Global Thinkers Forum in London), the Greek American actress, producer, and businesswoman Jennifer Aniston (known for her role as Rachel Green on the television sitcom Friends (1994–2004), for which she earned Primetime Emmy, Golden Globe, and Screen Actors Guild awards), all three of them having Greek roots, and the previous edition's winner, Helena Paparizou.\nAfter a lot of speculations, the Greek broadcaster announced on 7 March 2006 that the Greek American entertainment reporter, television personality, professional wrestler, actress, and businesswoman Maria Menounos would be the hostess of the contest. Menounos was starring along with Sean Connery in the movie remake video game James Bond 007: From Russia with love, while in 2002 she joined the NBC show Entertainment Tonight.\nMenounos and Rouvas also hosted the allocation draw on March 21, 2006, in order to determine the running order for the semi-final, the grand final and - for the first time in the history of the contest – the voting order.\nThe \"Welcome to the Party\" opening ceremony was hosted by actress Zeta Makrypoulia and actor/screenwriter of the show, Giorgos Kapoutzidis, while Ioanna Papanikolopoulou was moderating the press conferences.\n\nContest overview\nSemi-final\nThe semi-final was held on 18 May 2006 at 21:00 (CET). 23 countries performed and all 37 participants and Serbia (as a part of Serbia and Montenegro) voted.\nThe semi-final opened with a medley of former Eurovision songs performed by Greek gods: \"Welcome to the Party\" (runner-up at the Ellinikós Telikós 2006) of Anna Vissi performed by Muses, \"Nel blu, dipinto di blu\" (Italy 1958) of Domenico Modugno performed by Zeus, \"L'amour est bleu\" (Luxembourg 1967) of Vicky Leandros performed by Poseidon, \"Save Your Kisses for Me\" (United Kingdom 1976) of Brotherhood of Man performed by Hermes, \"Making Your Mind Up\" (United Kingdom 1981) of Bucks Fizz performed by Athena, \"A-Ba-Ni-Bi\" (Israel 1978) of Izhar Cohen & The Alphabeta performed by Hephaestus, \"Dschinghis Khan\" (Germany 1979) of Dschinghis Khan performed by Ares, \"Diva\" (Israel 1998) of Dana International performed by Aphrodite, \"Waterloo\" (Sweden 1974) of ABBA performed by Charites, \"Wild Dances\" (Ukraine 2004) of Ruslana performed by Artemis and \"My Number One\" (Greece 2005) of Helena Paparizou performed by the ensemble cast of the Greek gods. In addition, the hosts Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas sang the winning song of the 1997 contest, \"Love Shine a Light\" of Katrina and the Waves, representing the United Kingdom.\nThe voting lines for the semi-final were opened by Emilia Tsoulfa (gold medalist in Athens 2004 at 470 class sailing representing Greece) and Dimosthenis Tampakos (Greek gymnast and Olympic gold medalist).\nThe interval act of the semi-final began with the English cover of the song \"S'eho Erotefthi\", performed as \"I'm In Love With You\" from the host Sakis Rouvas. A folkloric ballet composed by Dimitris Papadimitriou and choreographed by Fokas Evangelinos followed, using traditional Greek music and dances, with the pan flute as a conducting element.\n\nFinal\nThe finalists were:\n\nthe four automatic qualifiers France, Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom;\nthe top 10 countries from the 2005 final (other than the automatic qualifiers);\nthe top 10 countries from the 2006 semi-final.\nThe final was held on 20 May 2006 at 21:00 (CET) and was won by Finland. 24 countries performed and all 37 participants and Serbia (as a part of Serbia and Montenegro) voted.\nThe grand final opened with a ballet dance, symbolizing the birth of Greece. Greek singer Foteini Darra performed \"The Mermaid Song\" (also known as \"The Song of Life\"), while the dancers and the sets mimicked the creative elements (the sea, the wind, the sun). At the end of the ballet, the presenters appeared in the air, suspended from ropes. They landed on the stage and greeted the audience. They immediately introduced the previous year's winner, Helena Paparizou, who covered her winning song, \"My Number One\".\nThe voting lines for the final were opened by the Luxembourgish entrant at the 1963 contest, Nana Mouskouri.\nThe interval act of the final featured Helena Paparizou performed her song \"Mambo!\", already a smash hit in Greece, and a contemporary ballet composed by Dimitris Papadimitriou and choreographed by Fokas Evangelinos entitled 4000 Years of Greek Song and which traced the history of the musical culture of the host country.\n\nSpokespersons\nThe following people were the spokespersons for their countries. A spokesperson delivers the results of national televoting during the final night, awarding points to the entries on behalf of his or her country. Although Serbia and Montenegro withdrew from the contest, it retained its voting rights. A draw was held to determine each country's voting order. Countries revealed their votes in the following order:\n\nDetailed voting results\nTelevoting was used in all nations except Monaco and Albania. Monaco used a jury as the chances of getting enough votes needed to validate the votes were low. Albania used a jury since there were problems with their televote. In the semi-final, Monaco and Albania used the jury voting due to insufficient televoting numbers. Coincidentally, Albania and Monaco were two of the three countries that did not vote for the winning entry, the third one was Armenia.\nSerbia had been allowed to vote in the show, despite not competing, and despite not being an independent country, but a part of Serbia and Montenegro.\n\nSemi-final\n12 points\nBelow is a summary of all 12 points in the semi-final:\n\nFinal\n12 points\nBelow is a summary of all 12 points in the final:\n\nBroadcasts\nAll participating broadcasters may choose to have on-site or remote commentators providing an insight about the show to their local audience and, while they must broadcast at least the semi-final they are voting in and the final, most broadcasters air all three shows with different programming plans. Similarly, some non-participating broadcasters may still want to air the contest. The tables below show known data regarding the broadcasts:\n\nInternational broadcasts\nAustralia – Although Australia was not itself eligible to enter, the semi-final and final were broadcast on SBS, and took commentary from the BBC broadcast. As is the case each year, they were not however broadcast live due to the difference in Australian time zones. The final rated an estimated 462,000, and was ranked 21st of the broadcaster's top rating programs for the 2005/06 financial year.\n Azerbaijan – Azerbaijan were willing to enter the contest but since AzTV applied for active EBU membership but was denied on June 18, 2007, they missed the contest and had to wait until they were accepted. Another Azerbaijan broadcaster, İctimai, broadcast the contest. It was a passive EBU member, and had broadcast it for the last 2 years. It was the only non-participating broadcaster this year to send its own commentators to the contest.\n Gibraltar – Gibraltar screened only the final on GBC.\n Italy – Italy did not enter because RAI, the national broadcaster, is in strong competition with commercial TV stations and they believed that the Eurovision Song Contest would not be a popular show in Italy. They had not broadcast the contest in recent years, although an independent Italian channel for the gay community had shown it in 2003. Italy eventually rejoined in 2011, and has since enjoyed an upturn in fortunes.\n Serbia and Montenegro – Serbia and Montenegro was originally set to compete in 2006, before withdrawing after being unable to select an entry following a controversy at its national final. Despite this, Serbia's broadcaster RTS retained broadcasting rights, and viewers in Serbia were allowed to vote in both the semi-final and the final.\n\nRatings\nAfter the contest, EBU officials stated that the overall ratings for the semi-final were 35% higher than in 2005, and for the Final had risen by 28%.\nIn France, average market shares reached 30.3%, up by 8% over the 2005 figure. Other countries that showed a rise in average market shares included Germany with 38% (up from 29%), United Kingdom with 37.5% (up from 36%), Spain with 36% (up from 35%), Ireland with 58% (up from 35%) and Sweden, which reached over 80% compared to 57% the year previously.\nVoting revenues had also risen from the Kyiv contest, and the official Eurovision website, www.eurovision.tv, reported visits from over 200 countries and over 98 million page views, compared with 85 million in 2005.\n\nHigh-definition broadcast\nLarge parts of the final were filmed in high-definition to gather \"artistic and scientific knowledge\" for future contests, but the footage was never intended to be used as part of the original broadcast and was filmed as part of a research experiment carried by those including the EBU, host broadcaster ERT, the Institute for Broadcasting Technology in Munich, the research and development laboratories of RAI and the BBC. The footage was broadcast for the first time, as part of EurovisionAgain, on Eurovision's YouTube channel on 31 July 2021.\n\nAftermath\nERT's net income from the Eurovision event amounted to 7,280,000 euros, while the cost of the entire event reached 5,500,000 euros, said on Thursday in a press conference the president of ERT, Christos Panagopoulos and the authorized consultant George Chouliaras, who stated: \"The allegations about the waste of money of the Greek taxpayer do not apply. The Greek people did not pay a penny for the event. It was a commercial and profitable event and the money we spent was donor money\".\nAccording to G. Chouliaras, the revenues that ERT had from the event were 3,630,000 euros from national sponsors, 2,200,000 euros from tickets and 1,450,000 euros from the share of international sponsors, advertising revenues outside sponsorships, sms, etc.\nRegarding the costs paid by ERT for the event together with the EBU, it amounted to a total of 9 million euros, of which 5.5 million euros were paid by ERT and 3.5 million euros by the EBU. These costs include the costs for the television production, the production of the artistic program, the technical production, the payment of contributions, the organization of the competition and any other direct costs related to the organization of Eurovision 2006. It is also noted that EOT paid for the production of 47 commercials and their promotion during the semifinals and the final 3.5 million euros.\n\nSpectacles and rewards\nThe president of ERT, Christos Panagopoulos, clarified, however, that the total cost does not include the shows that started in February for the advertising support of the event, for which he estimated that their cost will not exceed 1 million euros. He stated that in essence the net profit of ERT amounts to 745,000 euros, which will be allocated for other cultural events.\nIt was also clarified that ERT did not pay anything to Anna Vissi, nor to Nikos Karvelas, as well as did not pay for the dress of Anna Vissi. Chouliaras stressed that all the participants of the event were paid at market prices and in particular Zeta Makrypoulia and Giorgos Kapoutzidis received 8-10 thousand euros per month for their four-month employment, Sakis Rouvas 50,000 euros and Maria Menounos 45,000 euros.\nIt was also clarified that the costs of the \"promotour\" of Anna Vissi are included in the total cost and that from these the transfers were covered by Olympic Airlines and the hotels, the cost of which amounted to 150,000 euros, by the sponsors.\nRegarding the future, Giorgos Chouliaras noted that \"ERT should have a dynamic participation in the next Eurovision Song Contests and not devalue the institution, since it is a television product watched by 3.5 million Greeks\".\n\nOther awards\nIn addition to the main winner's trophy, the Marcel Bezençon Awards and the Barbara Dex Award were contested during the 2006 Eurovision Song Contest.\n\nMarcel Bezençon Awards\nThe Marcel Bezençon Awards, organised since 2002 by Sweden's then-Head of Delegation and 1992 representative Christer Björkman, and 1984 winner Richard Herrey, honours songs in the contest's final. The awards are divided into three categories: Artistic Award which was voted by previous winners of the contest, Composer Award, and Press Award.\n\nBarbara Dex Award\nThe Barbara Dex Award was a humorous fan award given to the worst dressed artist each year. Named after Belgium's representative who came last in the 1993 contest, wearing her self-designed dress, the award was handed by the fansite House of Eurovision from 1997 to 2016 and by the fansite songfestival.be from 2017 to 2021.\n\nOfficial album\nEurovision Song Contest: Athens 2006 was the official compilation album of the 2006 contest, put together by the European Broadcasting Union and released by CMC International on 28 April 2006. The album featured all 37 songs that entered in the 2006 contest, including the semi-finalists that failed to qualify into the grand final.\n\nCharts\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website – Audio and video clips available in the Multimedia Lounge\nEurovision Record Book",
"title": "Eurovision_Song_Contest_2006"
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"paragraph_text": "Carola Maria Häggkvist (Swedish pronunciation: [kaˈrôːla ˈhɛ̂ɡːkvɪst]; born 8 September 1966), commonly known simply as Carola, is a Swedish pop singer. She has been among Sweden's most popular performers since the early 1980s and has released albums ranging from pop and disco to hymns and folk music. Her debut album, Främling (1983), sold around one million copies and remains the biggest-selling album in Swedish music history. She has also worked as a songwriter. During her career, she has recorded many top-selling albums and singles and is referred to as Sweden's most prominent female singer. Some of her biggest hits are \"Främling\", \"Tommy tycker om mig\", \"Fångad av en stormvind\", \"All the Reasons to Live\", \"I Believe in Love\", \"Genom allt\", and \"Evighet\". She has released records in various languages: Swedish, Dutch, German, English, Norwegian and Japanese.\nHäggkvist has represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest on three occasions: in 1983, finishing third; in 1991, winning the contest; and in 2006, finishing fifth.\n\nEarly life\nCarola Maria Häggkvist was born on 8 September 1966 at Södersjukhuset in Stockholm. She grew up in Norsborg, south of the Swedish capital. At the age of eight, she began to perform at Stockholm's Miniteatern; she also attended Adolf Fredrik's Music School. In 1977, Häggkvist won a talent competition and appeared on television for the first time, on Sveriges magasin, performing \"Krokodilbarnets klagan\".\n\nCareer\n1981–1989: Early career and Främling\nIn 1981, Swedish music promoter Bert Karlsson met then 15-year-old Häggkvist after she performed on the television series Hylands hörna and offered her the chance to take part in Melodifestivalen, the Swedish selection for the Eurovision Song Contest in 1982. She turned down the offer. Songwriter Lasse Holm offered Häggkvist two of his songs for Melodifestivalen 1983, \"Mona Lisa\" and \"Främling\". \"Främling\" was chosen, and with it Häggkvist won the right to represent Sweden at that year's Eurovision Song Contest in Munich. The song scored eight points, the highest possible mark, from all eleven regional juries. Häggkvist represented Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest on 23 April. She finished third in front of 6.1 million Swedish television viewers, 84% of the country's population. This is still a record in Sweden.\n\"Främling\" became the title track to Häggkvist's debut album, which sold over one million copies, making it the biggest-selling album in Swedish history. After Eurovision, Häggkvist embarked on a tour of European television programmes, promoting \"Främling\" and performing in it several languages: in English as \"Love Isn't Love\", in German as \"Fremder\", and in Dutch as \"Je ogen hebben geen geheimen\". The album contained hits like \"Mickey\", \"Liv\", \"Gloria\" and \"Tokyo\". In December 1983, she released her first Christmas album, Julefrid med Carola, which sold 200,000 copies. In 1984, Häggkvist released two top-selling pop/rock albums that together sold over 1 million copies. \"Tommy tycker om mig\" became a huge hit in Sweden, together with \"Hunger\". She later travelled to Japan and recorded a single in Japanese. In 1985, the Bee Gees collaborated with her on the album Runaway, which was written by the Gibb brothers and produced by Maurice Gibb. The record sold double platinum when released in Sweden the following year. \"The Runaway\", \"Brand New Heart\", \"Spread your wings\" and \"Radiate\" became massive hits in Scandinavia. In 1987, Häggkvist embarked on a church tour with pianist Per-Erik Hallin. After this followed a career hiatus for the singer.\n\n1990–1991: New image, independence, and Eurovision victory\nIn 1990, she returned to Melodifestivalen, with \"Mitt i ett äventyr\" (\"In the middle of an adventure\"). The song finished second in the festival, failing to earn Häggkvist the right to represent Sweden at Eurovision. Edin-Ådahl won the event. Her comeback album, titled Much More, was released, earning a gold certificate in Sweden. However, Häggkvist and songwriter Stephan Berg had already begun planning another attempt at Eurovision.\nIn 1991, she returned to Melodifestivalen with \"Fångad av en stormvind\" (\"Captured by a lovestorm\"). The song won the festival by thirty-two points and became the Swedish entry for the Eurovision Song Contest in Rome. British bookmakers considered Häggkvist second favourite to win the contest. On the night of the contest, with one voting jury left to announce their scores, three countries remained in contention to win the contest: Sweden, with 146 points; Israel, with 139; and France, with 134. Neither Israel nor Sweden won any points from the Italian jury, but France won twelve, leaving Sweden and France tied for first place with 146 at the conclusion of the voting. Sweden won the contest after a countback, having received five ten-point scores during the voting versus France's two. \"Fångad av en stormvind\" became a huge hit in Europe, and was followed by a compilation album, Hits, and a Christmas album, Jul. After her victory, she released an international version of \"Much More\" and went on an extended promotional tour throughout Europe. Her album produced several hits, among them \"I'll live\" and \"All the Reasons to Live\".\n\n1992–2004: Albums, tours, and musicals\nHäggkvist was the first Scandinavian pop artist to perform in China—in front of an estimated 600 million television viewers; she also released an album in China in 1992. In 1992 and 1993, Rival International, released Carola's earlier albums on CD. She was originally signed to Mariann Records in Scandinavia.\nIn 1993, ten years after her breakthrough representing Sweden at the 1983 Eurovision Song Contest, she recorded a gospel album, My Tribute, which was released in sixteen countries, making her gospel artist of the year in the Netherlands in 1994. The album contains the hit-single \"My Tribute\", one of Häggkvist's best-known songs. In 1994, Häggkvist released a rock-themed album, '\"Personligt\" (Personally), marking her debut as a songwriter and selling gold. \"Så länge jag lever\", \"Sanna Vänner\" and \"Guld i dina ögon\" became hits and received a great amount of radio airplay.\nIn 1995, Häggkvist made her debut as a musical actress, playing Maria in The Sound of Music opposite Tommy Körberg as the male lead. She played the role in 325 performances and won the prestigious Guldmasken (Golden Mask) award. Three years later, she sang the theme song in the Norwegian musical Sophie's World, which was released on the album Songs from Sophie's World. Also in 1998, Häggkvist played the voice of Mirjam in the Swedish version of The Prince of Egypt. In 2002, she made a short appearance as Fantine in Les Misérables in London and five Scandinavian cities.\nIn November 1997, Häggkvist released another compilation album, De bästa av Carola (\"The Best of Carola\"), and with it several new singles like \"Dreamer\". Following this came an album of tracks penned by Lina Sandell, Blott en dag (\"Just One Day\"). The album received excellent reviews and revealed Carola's passion for hymns. In 1999, another Christmas album was released: Jul i Betlehem (\"Christmas in Bethlehem\"). The album sold 600,000 units throughout Scandinavia, including 350,000 in Sweden. and became the biggest-selling album of 1999. She also co-wrote the ballad \"Himlen i min famn\", which remains a popular Christmas song that is often performed at Christmas concerts. In the summer of 1999, she toured in the Rhapsody in Rock.\nIn 2001, she released Sov på min arm, an album based on Christian hymns, gospel melodies and intimate ballads. It became one of the most-sold albums in Scandinavia that year. In 2002, she release the pop/country album My Show, which received great reviews. The album, which marked Häggkvist's return to the pop scene, contained several hits such as \"The Light\", \"I believe in love\", which also topped the Estonian and Brazilian charts, and \"A Kiss Goodbye\". Even though the album only peaked at number 6 on the Swedish album chart, it sold 100,000 copies by the end of the year. In the summer, Häggkvist embarked on a huge and luxurious Scandinavian tour.\nIn 2003, Häggkvist submitted a song, \"Autumn Leaf\", for Melodifestivalen 2003. Having performed the demo, she was required to perform the song when it qualified for the competition. Häggkvist decided against doing that, and the song was disqualified from the competition. \"Autumn Leaf\" appeared on Häggkvist's next album, Guld, platina & passion, in Swedish as \"När löven faller\" (When the leaves fall). The ballad became an enormous hit. Guld, platina & passion reached number 1 on the Swedish charts and sold over 300,000 copies. She also recorded her favorite Elvis Presley songs, \"Walk a mile in my shoes\" and \"If I can dream\". The following year, Häggkvist released a religious album, Credo, which she described as \"an expression of my love for God\". The album peaked at spot 2 on the Swedish album chart. This was followed by Störst av allt, which Dan Backman of Svenska Dagbladet wrote featured \"spiritually aimed music…revolving around belonging, love, death and eternity\". Genom Allt became a huge radio hit in Sweden and the soul ballad \"Allt kommer bli bra mamma\", a dedication to her deceased mother, became popular at religious events.\n\n2005–present: Return to Eurovision\nHaving performed as part of the interval act at Melodifestivalen 2005, Häggkvist confirmed that she would return to the competition in 2006. She performed \"Evighet\" (\"Eternity\"), written by Bobby Ljunggren, Henrik Wikström and Thomas G:son, which she described as a \"true winning song\". The song qualified from the fourth semi-final in Gothenburg on 11 March 2006, and was widely tipped to win the festival outright as the final at the Stockholm Globe Arena approached. Despite finishing second with the regional juries to Andreas Johnson, \"Evighet\" won the competition with 232 points. Prior to the contest, Carola visited 12 countries where she promoted her song. \"Invincible\" received a large amount of air play on the radios in these countries. The song qualified from the semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest in Athens, in English as \"Invincible\". Häggkvist in the end finished fifth out of twenty-four with 170 points. This placing also made her the third-most successful artist in the history of Eurovision, counting by total points earned in her performances, with her three songs scoring a total of 442 points, behind only Dima Bilan, the 2006 runner-up and 2008 winner; and Loreen, winner of 2012 and 2023.\nFollowing Melodifestivalen, Häggkvist released a pop album, Från nu till evighet (\"From Now to Eternity\"). Lennart Wrigholm reviewed the album for Musiklandet; he criticised the amount of new material on the album: \"Has this old lady really got such a workload that she cannot put more than ten new tracks on her album?\" and wrote that the inclusion of the English version of \"Evighet\" as a bonus track was \"an insult to the potential buyer\". On the other hand, Expressen's Anders Nunstedt wrote that on \"Jag ger allt\" (\"I Give It All\") \"the title does not lie\" and that \"Vem kan älska mig\" (\"Who Can Love Me\") features a \"brilliant refrain\". The album topped the Swedish sales chart, and sold approximately 100,000 copies by the end of the year. Stanna eller gå, a Latin-inspired pop song, became a radio hit during the summer. Following the album's release, Häggkvist toured Sweden and received outstanding reviews. During the autumn, Häggkvist had problems with her voice but nonetheless sang \"Because We Believe\", a song written by Andrea Bocelli, with the Italian tenor.\nIn late 2007, Häggkvist released another Christmas album, I denna natt blir världen ny (\"There is a New World This Night\"), a sequel to Jul i Betlehem. The album featured songs in Swedish and English, and was recorded in Jerusalem in June 2007. Stefan Malmqvist of Svenska Dagbladet wrote that, as in previous Christmas albums, Häggkvist is \"a saccharine version of herself\" when singing Christmas carols. The album was reported to have sold 90,000 copies. Included on the album was the gospel song Go and Tell It on the Mountain. After the release she toured Scandinavia.\nCarola entered Melodifestivalen 2008 as part of the duo Johnson & Häggkvist with Andreas Johnson. Their first single was called \"Lucky Star\" which became popular on the radio. In the melodifestival in February, they sang \"One Love\", written by Carola, Johnson and Peter Kvint. They were the early favourites to win the whole show, taking part in the second qualifier. They qualified for the Second Chance round, missing out on an automatic final spot. Though widely tipped to qualify for the final after all, they did not even proceed from the first voting round in the Second Chance programme. Although One Love did not become an enormous success, the song Lucky Star which they released a few months prior to the contest did sell well, and topped the Swedish charts for weeks. Carola decided to take it easy the rest of the year, but did embark on a small Christmas tour at the end of the year. In 2009, Carola was reportedly working on her upcoming album, and other projects. She went to the United States to record some new material. She departed from her recording company and signed a contract with X5 Music Group, in which she aims to transfer her music abroad through the internet. In June, she hosted Carola Camp, a camp designed to help talented young singers and entertainers. In May, she performed at the Eurovision Song Contest held in Moscow at the kick-off ceremony, performing her 3 Eurovision songs. In July, she performed, together with the Eurovision winner Alexander Rybak in Norway and sang \"Fairytale\" and \"Främling\" and The Jackson 5's \"I'll Be There\".\nAt the end of 2009, she released the album Christmas in Bethlehem, which contained duets with artists like Paul Potts. She embarked on yet another Christmas tour, visiting Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland. She also launched her new website.\nCarola attended in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2013 in Malmö and performed in a humorous interval act about Swedish culture.\nIn the summer of 2010, Carola embarked on tour across Sweden, singing the hits of both Elvis Presley and Barbra Streisand. The influence came from Carola's childhood, where her father and her mother would play records by both their favourite artists. The tour was an instant success, selling out and becoming one of the few tours to sell out that year. She took time out from the tour to appear on Allsång på Skansen, and in March 2011 she released a studio album, containing twelve songs.\nIn 2014 Häggkvist participated in Så mycket bättre on TV4.\nCarola attended the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 in Stockholm and was briefly interviewed on screen along with another previous Swedish winner Loreen.\nIn late-October 2016, she released her new Christmas album titled Drömmen om julen. The release was followed by a tour.\nIn April 2021, it was announced that Carola would be the spokesperson for Sweden at the Eurovision Song Contest 2021, reading out the Swedish jury points at the Grand Final. She will perform \"Waterloo\" with Charlotte Perrelli and Conchita Wurst as an interval act for the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2024.\n\nPersonal life and media attention\nHer status as one of the most popular national celebrities of her country made her more or less constantly followed by the tabloid press. She has often talked about her Christian faith and much of the focus has been around her membership in the controversial evangelical church Livets Ord (Word of Life).\nShe was married to Runar Søgaard, a Norwegian Christian preacher, with whom she has a son, Amadeus. The couple divorced in 2000, after ten years of marriage. She adopted a daughter, Zoe, from South Africa, in 2012. (Her parents had both died in 2004.)\nIn 2015 she was assisting a man to transport eight refugees on the Greek island of Kos. She prevented thieves from stealing the refugees' boat engine, but caused a high-speed car chase. At a police station, the motor thieves accused her of illegally transporting refugees. She was arrested, but released a few hours later with no charges.\n\nControversy regarding opinions on homosexuality\nIn an interview in 2002 for the Swedish gay magazine QX, she alienated many gay and some heterosexual fans by alleging that she knew homosexual people who had become heterosexual through prayers. She also said that homosexuality would always remain \"unnatural\" to her.\nFour years later, her comment was brought up when she participated in the Swedish national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest in March 2006. During a press conference a journalist tried to ask her about her opinions on homosexuality, but she did not answer.\nOn 15 March 2006 Rickard Engfors, who was Carola's cooperating partner during the Melodifestivalen and Eurovision Song Contest 2006, said \"Carola doesn't hate gays. If she did, I wouldn't work for her. She is a fantastic person.\"\nDuring an exclusive interview for one of the Eurovision-related websites before the 2006 contest, Carola was also questioned about this, and she stated that she \"would love for every gay person to feel that she loves them\" and that she does not think that \"being gay is a sickness\". She went on to criticize the tabloids for misinterpreting her original words and making an issue out of it. Later in the interview, she also commented on one of her supporting dancers being gay and his boyfriend being \"great\".\nIn 2008, she spoke to the newspaper Aftonbladet and again revisited her opinions about homosexuality, which she insisted have evolved over the past two decades and are very inclusive. She said, \"I actually invited gays from QX to my 25-year anniversary [concert], but QX turned it down. What can I do? I love all people. I love the gays. So I am definitely not homophobic in any way. We are here for the music and I have no wacky opinions. And I feel love from many homosexuals too.\"\nIn 2014, while participating on the TV show Så mycket bättre, she revealed that she had a romance with a woman in the 1980s. She said \"I remember when I hung out with a girl actually in the '80s. We were definitely not a couple, but I tested. It was a bit hard because I felt an extreme attraction and a force in that, but I chose not to go further\". On the 2019 series of Så mycket bättre, she was asked about possibly having a relation with a woman in the future, and she said that it is a possibility.\n\nDiscography\nDubbing\nAwards\nHäggkvist was awarded the Illis quorum medal by the Government of Sweden on 13 July 2023.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website",
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"paragraph_text": "The Sound of Music is a musical with music by Richard Rodgers, lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II, and a book by Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse. It is based on the 1949 memoir of Maria von Trapp, The Story of the Trapp Family Singers. Set in Austria on the eve of the Anschluss in 1938, the musical tells the story of Maria, who takes a job as governess to a large family while she decides whether to become a nun. She falls in love with the children, and eventually their widowed father, Captain von Trapp. He is ordered to accept a commission in the German Navy, but he opposes the Nazis. He and Maria decide on a plan to flee Austria with the children. Many songs from the musical have become standards, including \"Do-Re-Mi\", \"My Favorite Things\", \"Edelweiss\", \"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\", and the title song \"The Sound of Music\".\nThe original Broadway production, starring Mary Martin and Theodore Bikel, opened in 1959 and won five Tony Awards, including Best Musical, out of nine nominations. The first London production opened at the Palace Theatre in 1961. The show has enjoyed numerous productions and revivals since then. It was adapted as a 1965 film musical starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer, which won five Academy Awards, including Best Picture. The Sound of Music was the last musical written by Rodgers and Hammerstein, as Oscar Hammerstein died of stomach cancer nine months after the Broadway premiere.\n\nHistory\nAfter viewing The Trapp Family, a 1956 West German film about the von Trapp family, and its 1958 sequel (The Trapp Family in America), stage director Vincent J. Donehue thought that the project would be perfect for his friend Mary Martin; Broadway producers Leland Hayward and Richard Halliday (Martin's husband) agreed. The producers originally envisioned a non-musical play that would be written by Lindsay and Crouse and that would feature songs from the repertoire of the Trapp Family Singers. Then they decided to add an original song or two, perhaps by Rodgers and Hammerstein. But it was soon agreed that the project should feature all new songs and be a musical rather than a play.\nDetails of the history of the von Trapp family were altered for the musical. The real Georg von Trapp did live with his family in a villa in Aigen, a suburb of Salzburg. He wrote to the Nonnberg Abbey in 1926 asking for a nun to help tutor his sick daughter, and the Mother Abbess sent Maria. His wife, Agathe Whitehead, had died in 1922. The real Maria and Georg married at the Nonnberg Abbey in 1927. Lindsay and Crouse altered the story so that Maria was governess to all of the children, whose names and ages were changed, as was Maria's original surname (the show used \"Rainer\" instead of \"Kutschera\"). The von Trapps spent some years in Austria after Maria and the Captain married and he was offered a commission in Germany's navy. Since von Trapp opposed the Nazis by that time, the family left Austria after the Anschluss, going by train to Italy and then traveling on to London and the United States. To make the story more dramatic, Lindsay and Crouse had the family, soon after Maria's and the Captain's wedding, escape over the mountains to Switzerland on foot.\n\nSynopsis\nAct I\nIn Salzburg, Federal State of Austria, just before World War II, nuns from Nonnberg Abbey sing the Dixit Dominus. One of the postulants, Maria Rainer, is on the nearby mountainside, regretting leaving the beautiful hills (\"The Sound of Music\"). She returns late to the abbey where the Mother Abbess and the other nuns have been considering what to do about the free-spirit (\"Maria\"). Maria explains her lateness, saying she was raised on that mountain, and apologizes for singing in the garden without permission. The Mother Abbess joins her in song (\"My Favorite Things\"). The Mother Abbess tells her that she should spend some time outside the abbey to decide whether she is suited for the monastic life. She will act as the governess to the seven children of a widower, Austro-Hungarian Navy submarine Captain Georg von Trapp.\nMaria arrives at the villa of Captain von Trapp. He explains her duties and summons the children with a boatswain's call. They march in, clad in uniforms. He teaches her their individual signals on the call, but she openly disapproves of this militaristic approach. Alone with them, she breaks through their wariness and teaches them the basics of music (\"Do-Re-Mi\").\nRolf, a young messenger, delivers a telegram and then meets with the eldest child, Liesl, outside the villa. He claims he knows what is right for her because he is a year older than she (\"Sixteen Going on Seventeen\"). They kiss, and he runs off, leaving her squealing with joy. Meanwhile, the housekeeper, Frau Schmidt, gives Maria material to make new clothes, as Maria had given all her possessions to the poor. Maria sees Liesl slipping in through the window, wet from a sudden thunderstorm, but agrees to keep her secret. The other children are frightened by the storm. Maria sings \"The Lonely Goatherd\" to distract them.\nCaptain von Trapp arrives a month later from Vienna with Baroness Elsa Schrader and Max Detweiler. Elsa tells Max that something is preventing the Captain from marrying her. He opines that only poor people have the time for great romances (\"How Can Love Survive\"). Rolf enters, looking for Liesl, and greets them with \"Heil\". The Captain orders him away, saying that he is Austrian, not German. Maria and the children leapfrog in, wearing play-clothes that she made from the old drapes in her room. Infuriated, the Captain sends them off to change. She tells him that the children need him to show his love for them, and he angrily orders her back to the abbey. As she apologizes, they hear the children singing \"The Sound of Music\", which she had taught them, to welcome Elsa Schrader. He joins in and embraces them. Alone with Maria, he asks her to stay, thanking her for bringing music back into his house. Elsa is suspicious of her until she explains that she will be returning to the abbey in September.\nThe Captain gives a party to introduce Elsa, and guests argue over the Anschluss (the Nazi German annexation of Austria). Kurt asks Maria to teach him to dance the Ländler. When he fails to negotiate a complicated figure, the Captain steps in to demonstrate. He and Maria dance until they come face-to-face; and she breaks away, embarrassed and confused. Discussing the expected marriage between Elsa and the Captain, Brigitta tells Maria that she thinks Maria and the Captain are really in love with each other. Elsa asks the Captain to allow the children to say goodnight to the guests with a song (\"So Long, Farewell\"). Max is amazed at their talent and wants them for the Kaltzburg Festival, which he is organizing. The guests leave for the dining room, and Maria slips out the front door with her luggage.\nAt the abbey, Maria says that she is ready to take her monastic vows; but the Mother Abbess realizes that she is running away from her feelings. She tells her to face the Captain and discover if they love each other, and tells her to search for and find the life she was meant to live (\"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\").\n\nAct II\nMax teaches the children how to sing on stage. When the Captain tries to lead them, they complain that he is not doing it as Maria did. He tells them that he has asked Elsa to marry him. They try to cheer themselves up by singing \"My Favorite Things\" but are unsuccessful until they hear Maria singing on her way to rejoin them. Learning of the wedding plans, she decides to stay only until the Captain can arrange for another governess. Max and Elsa argue with the Captain about the imminent Anschluss, trying to convince him that it is inevitable (\"No Way to Stop It\"). When he refuses to compromise on his opposition to it, Elsa breaks off the engagement. Alone, the Captain and Maria finally admit their love, desiring only to be \"An Ordinary Couple\". As they marry, the nuns reprise \"Maria\" against the wedding processional.\nWhile Maria and the Captain are on their honeymoon, Max prepares the children to perform at the Kaltzburg Festival. Herr Zeller, the Gauleiter of the region, demands to know why they are not flying the Flag of Nazi Germany now that the Anschluss has occurred. The Captain and Maria return early from their honeymoon before the Festival. In view of the Nazi German occupation, the Captain decides the children should not sing at the event. Max argues that they would sing for Austria, but the Captain points out that it no longer exists. Maria and Liesl discuss romantic love; Maria predicts that in a few years Liesl will be married (\"Sixteen Going on Seventeen (Reprise)\"). Rolf enters with a telegram that offers the Captain a commission in the German Navy, and Liesl is upset to discover that Rolf is now a committed Nazi. The Captain consults Maria and decides that they must secretly flee Austria. German Admiral von Schreiber arrives to find out why Captain von Trapp has not answered the telegram. He explains that the German Navy holds him in high regard, offers him the commission, and tells him to report immediately to Bremerhaven to assume command. Maria says that he cannot leave immediately, as they are all singing in the Festival concert; and the Admiral agrees to wait.\nAt the concert, after the von Trapps sing an elaborate reprise of \"Do-Re-Mi\", Max brings out the Captain's guitar. Captain von Trapp sings \"Edelweiss\", as a goodbye to his homeland, while using Austria's national flower as a symbol to declare his loyalty to the country. Max asks for an encore and announces that this is the von Trapp family's last chance to sing together, as the honor guard waits to escort the Captain to his new command. While the judges decide on the prizes, the von Trapps sing \"So Long, Farewell\" (reprise), leaving the stage in small groups. Max then announces the runners-up, stalling as much as possible. When he announces that the first prize goes to the von Trapps and they do not appear, the Nazis start a search. The family hides at the Abbey, and Sister Margaretta tells them that the borders have been closed. Rolf comes upon them and calls his lieutenant, but after seeing Liesl he changes his mind and tells him they aren't there. The Nazis leave, and the von Trapps flee over the Alps as the nuns reprise \"Climb Ev'ry Mountain\".\n\nMusical numbers\nNotes\nThe musical numbers listed appeared in the original production unless otherwise noted.\n† Sometimes replaced by \"Something Good\", which was written for the film version.\n‡ Replaced by \"The Lonely Goatherd\" in the 1998 revival.\nIn some productions, \"My Favorite Things\" follows \"Sixteen Going on Seventeen\" in the thunderstorm scene, while \"The Lonely Goatherd\" is shifted to the concert scene.\nMany stage revivals have also included \"I Have Confidence\" and \"Something Good\", which were written by Richard Rodgers for the film version (since the film was made after original lyricist Oscar Hammerstein's death).\nAlthough many people believe that \"Edelweiss\" is a traditional Austrian song, it was written for the musical and did not become known in Austria until after the film's success.\nThe Ländler dance performed by Maria and the Captain during the party is only loosely based on the traditional Austrian dance of the same name.\n\nCharacters and casts\nCharacters\nMaria Rainer, a postulant at Nonnberg Abbey\nCaptain Georg von Trapp\nThe Children:\nLiesl von Trapp, age 16\nFriedrich von Trapp, age 14\nLouisa von Trapp, age 13\nKurt von Trapp, age 11\nBrigitta von Trapp, age 10\nMarta von Trapp, age 7\nGretl von Trapp, age 5\nThe Mother Abbess, the head of Nonnberg Abbey\nBaroness Elsa Schraeder \"wealthy and sophisticated\" and Captain von Trapp's would-be fiancée\nMax Detweiler, Captain von Trapp's friend, a music agent and producer\nRolf Gruber, the 17-year-old Nazi delivery boy who is in love with Liesl\nSister Bertha, the Mistress of Novices\nSister Margareta, the Mistress of Postulants\nSister Sophia, a sister at the Abbey\nFranz, Captain von Trapp's butler\nFrau Schmidt, Captain von Trapp's housekeeper\nHerr Zeller, the Gauleiter\nAdmiral von Schreiber, a high-ranking member of the German Navy\nEnsemble includes nuns, high-society neighbors of Captain von Trapp who attend the ball thrown in Elsa's honor, Nazi soldiers and contestants in the festival concert\n\nOriginal casts\nNotable replacements\nBroadway (1959–63)\nMaria: Martha Wright, Jeannie Carson, Nancy Dussault\nBaroness: Lois Hunt\nMax: Paul Lipson\nRolf: Jon Voight\nBroadway (1998–99)\nMaria: Laura Benanti\nCaptain von Trapp: Dennis Parlato, Richard Chamberlain\nMax: Patrick Quinn, Lenny Wolpe\nWest End (2006–09)\nMaria: Summer Strallen, Aoife Mulholland (s/b)\nCaptain von Trapp: Simon Burke, Simon MacCorkindale\nThe Mother Abbess: Margaret Preece\n\nProductions\nOriginal productions\nThe Sound of Music premiered at New Haven's Shubert Theatre where it played an eight-performance tryout in October and November 1959 before another short tryout in Boston. The musical then opened on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on November 16, 1959, moved to the Mark Hellinger Theatre on November 6, 1962, and closed on June 15, 1963, after 1,443 performances. The director was Vincent J. Donehue, and the choreographer was Joe Layton. The original cast included Mary Martin as Maria, Theodore Bikel as Captain Georg von Trapp, Patricia Neway as Mother Abbess, Kurt Kasznar as Max Detweiler, Marion Marlowe as Elsa Schrader, Brian Davies as Rolf, Lauri Peters as Liesl and Muriel O'Malley as Sister Margaretta. Patricia Brooks, June Card and Tatiana Troyanos were ensemble members in the original production. The show tied for the Tony Award for Best Musical with Fiorello!. Other awards included Martin for Best Actress in a Musical, Neway for Best Featured Actress, Best Scenic Design (Oliver Smith) and Best Conductor And Musical Director (Frederick Dvonch). Bikel and Kasznar were nominated for acting awards, and Donehue was nominated for his direction. The entire children's cast was nominated for Best Featured Actress category as a single nominee, even though two of the children were boys.\nMartha Wright replaced Martin in the role of Maria on Broadway in October 1961, followed by Karen Gantz in July 1962, Jeannie Carson in August 1962 and Nancy Dussault in September 1962. Jon Voight, who later married co-star Lauri Peters, was a replacement for Rolf from September 1961 to June 1962. The national tour starred Florence Henderson as Maria and Beatrice Krebs as Mother Abbess. It opened at the Grand Riviera Theater, Detroit, on February 27, 1961, and closed November 23, 1963, at the O'Keefe Centre, Toronto. Henderson was succeeded by Barbara Meister in June 1962. Theodore Bikel was not satisfied playing the role of the Captain, and Bikel did not like to play the same role over and over again. In his autobiography, he writes: \"I promised myself then that if I could afford it, I would never do a run as long as that again.\" The original Broadway cast album sold three million copies.\nThe musical premiered in London's West End at the Palace Theatre on May 18, 1961, and ran for 2,385 performances. It was directed by Jerome Whyte and used the original New York choreography, supervised by Joe Layton, and the original sets designed by Oliver Smith. The cast included Jean Bayless as Maria, followed by Sonia Rees, Roger Dann as Captain von Trapp, Constance Shacklock as Mother Abbess, Eunice Gayson as Elsa Schrader, Harold Kasket as Max Detweiler, Barbara Brown as Liesl, Nicholas Bennett as Rolf and Olive Gilbert as Sister Margaretta.\n\n1981 London revival\nIn 1981, at producer Ross Taylor's urging, Petula Clark agreed to star in a revival of the show at the Apollo Victoria Theatre in London's West End. Michael Jayston played Captain von Trapp, Honor Blackman was the Baroness and June Bronhill played the Mother Abbess. Other notable cast members included Helen Anker, John Bennett and Martina Grant. Despite her misgivings that, at age 49, she was too old to play the role convincingly, Clark opened to unanimous rave reviews and the largest advance sale in the history of British theatre at that time. Maria von Trapp, who attended the opening night performance, described Clark as \"the best\" Maria ever. Clark extended her initial six-month contract to thirteen months. Playing to 101 percent of seating capacity, the show set the highest attendance figure for a single week (October 26–31, 1981) of any British musical production in history (as recorded in The Guinness Book of Theatre). It was the first stage production to incorporate the two additional songs (\"Something Good\" and \"I Have Confidence\") that Richard Rodgers composed for the film version. \"My Favorite Things\" had a similar context to the film version, while the short verse \"A Bell is No Bell\" was extended into a full-length song for Maria and the Mother Abbess. \"The Lonely Goatherd\" was set in a new scene at a village fair.\nThe cast recording of this production was the first to be recorded digitally. It was released on CD for the first time in 2010 by the UK label Pet Sounds and included two bonus tracks from the original single issued by Epic to promote the production.\n\n1998 Broadway revival\nDirector Susan H. Schulman staged the first Broadway revival of The Sound of Music, with Rebecca Luker as Maria and Michael Siberry as Captain von Trapp. It also featured Patti Cohenour as Mother Abbess, Jan Maxwell as Elsa Schrader, Fred Applegate as Max Detweiler, Dashiell Eaves as Rolf, Patricia Conolly as Frau Schmidt and Laura Benanti, in her Broadway debut, as Luker's understudy. Later, Luker and Siberry were replaced by Richard Chamberlain as the Captain and Benanti as Maria. Lou Taylor Pucci made his Broadway debut as the understudy for Kurt von Trapp. The production opened on March 12, 1998, at the Martin Beck Theatre, and closed on June 20, 1999, after 533 performances. This production was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical. It then toured in North America.\n\n2006 London revival\nAn Andrew Lloyd Webber production opened on November 15, 2006, at the London Palladium, produced by Live Nation's David Ian and Jeremy Sams. Following failed negotiations with Hollywood star Scarlett Johansson, the role of Maria was cast through a UK talent search reality TV show called How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria? The talent show was produced by (and featured) Andrew Lloyd Webber and also featured presenter/comedian Graham Norton and a judging panel of David Ian, John Barrowman and Zoë Tyler.\nConnie Fisher was selected by public voting as the winner of the show. In early 2007, Fisher suffered from a heavy cold that prevented her from performing for two weeks. To prevent further disruptions, an alternate Maria, Aoife Mulholland, a fellow contestant on How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria?, played Maria on Monday evenings and Wednesday matinee performances. Simon Shepherd was originally cast as Captain von Trapp, but after two preview performances he was withdrawn from the production, and Alexander Hanson moved into the role in time for the official opening date along with Lesley Garrett as the Mother Abbess. After Garrett left, Margaret Preece took the role. The cast also featured Lauren Ward as the Baroness, Ian Gelder as Max, Sophie Bould as Liesl, and Neil McDermott as Rolf. Other notable replacements included Simon Burke and Simon MacCorkindale as the Captain and newcomer Amy Lennox as Liesl. Summer Strallen replaced Fisher in February 2008, with Mulholland portraying Maria on Monday evenings and Wednesday matinees.\nThe revival received enthusiastic reviews, especially for Fisher, Preece, Bould and Garrett. A cast recording of the London Palladium cast was released. The production closed on February 21, 2009, after a run of over two years and was followed by a UK national tour, described below.\n\nOther notable productions\n1960s to 2000\nThe first Australian production opened at Melbourne's Princess Theatre in 1961 and ran for three years. The production was directed by Charles Hickman, with musical numbers staged by Ernest Parham. The cast included June Bronhill as Maria, Peter Graves as Captain von Trapp and Rosina Raisbeck as Mother Abbess. A touring company then played for years, with Vanessa Lee (Graves' wife) in the role of Maria. The cast recording made in 1961 was the first time a major overseas production featuring Australian artists was transferred to disc.\nIn 1988, the Moon Troupe of Takarazuka Revue performed the musical at the Bow Hall (Takarazuka, Hyōgo). Harukaze Hitomi and Gou Mayuka starred. A 1990 New York City Opera production, directed by Oscar Hammerstein II's son, James, featured Debby Boone as Maria, Laurence Guittard as Captain von Trapp, and Werner Klemperer as Max.\nAn Australian revival played in the Lyric Theatre, Sydney, New South Wales, from November 1999 to February 2000. Lisa McCune played Maria, John Waters was Captain von Trapp, Bert Newton was Max, Eilene Hannan was Mother Abbess and Rachel Marley was Marta. This production was based on the 1998 Broadway revival staging. The production then toured until February 2001, in Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. Rachael Beck took over as Maria in Perth and Adelaide, and Rob Guest took over as Captain von Trapp in Perth.\n\n21st century\nAn Austrian production premiered in 2005 at the Volksoper Wien in German. It was directed and choreographed by Renaud Doucet. The cast included Sandra Pires as Maria, Kurt Schreibmayer and Michael Kraus as von Trapp, with Heidi Brunner as Mother Abbess. The song \"Do-Re-Mi\" was rewritten as \"C wie Cellophanpapier\", replacing the solfège syllables with the German letter notation C through H and selecting mnemonics that begin with each letter. The production is still in the repertoire of the Volksoper with performances each season; performances are scheduled for 2024.\nThe Salzburg Marionette Theatre has toured extensively with their version that features the recorded voices of Broadway singers such as Christiane Noll as Maria. The tour began in Dallas, Texas, in 2007 and continued in Salzburg in 2008. The director is Richard Hamburger. In 2008, a Brazilian production with Kiara Sasso as Maria and Herson Capri as the Captain played in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, and a Dutch production was mounted with Wieneke Remmers as Maria, directed by John Yost.\nAndrew Lloyd Webber, David Ian and David Mirvish presented The Sound of Music at the Princess of Wales Theatre in Toronto from 2008 to 2010. The role of Maria was chosen by the public through a television show, How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria?, which was produced by Lloyd Webber and Ian and aired in mid-2008. Elicia MacKenzie won and played the role six times a week, while the runner-up in the TV show, Janna Polzin, played Maria twice a week. Captain von Trapp was played by Burke Moses. The show ran for more than 500 performances. It was Toronto's longest running revival ever.\nA UK tour began in 2009 and visited more than two dozen cities before ending in 2011. The original cast included Connie Fisher as Maria, Michael Praed as Captain von Trapp and Margaret Preece as the Mother Abbess. Kirsty Malpass was the alternate Maria. Jason Donovan assumed the role of Captain Von Trapp, and Verity Rushworth took over as Maria, in early 2011. Lesley Garrett reprised her role as Mother Abbess for the tour's final engagement in Wimbledon in October 2011.\nA production ran at the Ópera-Citi theater in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 2011. The cast included Laura Conforte as Maria and Diego Ramos as Captain Von Trapp. A Spanish national tour began in November 2011 at the Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The tour visited 29 Spanish cities, spending one year in Madrid's Gran Vía at the Teatro Coliseum, and one season at the Tívoli Theatre in Barcelona. It was directed by Jaime Azpilicueta and starred Silvia Luchetti as Maria and Carlos J. Benito as Captain Von Trapp.\nA production was mounted at the Open Air Theatre, Regent's Park from July to September 2013. It starred Charlotte Wakefield as Maria, with Michael Xavier as Captain von Trapp and Caroline Keiff as Elsa. It received enthusiastic reviews and became the highest-grossing production ever at the theatre. In 2014, the show was nominated for Best Musical Revival at the Laurence Olivier Awards and Wakefield was nominated for Best Actress in a Musical.\nA brief South Korean production played in 2014 The same year, a Spanish language translation opened at Teatro de la Universidad in San Juan, under the direction of Edgar García. It starred Lourdes Robles as Maria and Braulio Castillo as Captain Von Trapp, with Dagmar as Elsa. A production (in Thai: มนต์รักเพลงสวรรค์) ran at Muangthai ratchadalai Theatre, Bangkok, Thailand, in April 2015 in the Thai language. The production replaced the song \"Ordinary couple\" with \"Something Good\".\nA North American tour, directed by Jack O'Brien and choreographed by Danny Mefford, began at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles in September 2015. The tour ran until July 2017. Kerstin Anderson played Maria, with Ben Davis as Capt. von Trapp and Ashley Brown as Mother Abess. The production has received warm reviews. A UK tour produced by Bill Kenwright began in 2015 and toured into 2016. It was directed by Martin Connor and starred Lucy O'Byrne as Maria. A 2016 Australian tour of the Lloyd Webber production, directed by Sams, included stops in Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne and Adelaide. The cast included Amy Lehpamer as Maria, Cameron Daddo as Captain Von Trapp, Marina Prior as Baroness Schraeder and Lorraine Bayly as Frau Schmidt. The choreographer was Arlene Phillips.\n\nFilm adaptation\nOn March 2, 1965, 20th Century Fox released a film adaptation of the musical starring Julie Andrews as Maria Rainer and Christopher Plummer as Captain Georg von Trapp. It was produced and directed by Robert Wise with the screenplay adaptation written by Ernest Lehman. Two songs were written by Rodgers specifically for the film, \"I Have Confidence\" and \"Something Good\". The film won five Oscars at the 38th Academy Awards, including Best Picture.\n\nTelevision adaptations\nA live televised production of the musical aired twice in December 2013 on NBC. It was directed by Beth McCarthy-Miller and Rob Ashford. Carrie Underwood starred as Maria, with Stephen Moyer as Captain von Trapp, Christian Borle as Max, Laura Benanti as Elsa, and Audra McDonald as the Mother Abbess. The production was released on DVD the same month.\nBritish network ITV presented a live version of its own on December 20, 2015. It starred Kara Tointon as Maria, Julian Ovenden as Captain von Trapp, Katherine Kelly as the Baroness and Alexander Armstrong as Max.\n\nReception\nMost reviews of the original Broadway production were favorable. Richard Watts Jr. of the New York Post stated that the show had \"strangely gentle charm that is wonderfully endearing. The Sound of Music strives for nothing in the way of smash effects, substituting instead a kind of gracious and unpretentious simplicity.\" The New York World-Telegram and Sun pronounced The Sound of Music \"the loveliest musical imaginable. It places Rodgers and Hammerstein back in top form as melodist and lyricist. The Lindsay-Crouse dialogue is vibrant and amusing in a plot that rises to genuine excitement.\" The New York Journal American's review opined that The Sound of Music is \"the most mature product of the team ... it seemed to me to be the full ripening of these two extraordinary talents\".\nBrooks Atkinson of The New York Times gave a mixed assessment. He praised Mary Martin's performance, saying \"she still has the same common touch ... same sharp features, goodwill, and glowing personality that makes music sound intimate and familiar\" and stated that \"the best of the Sound of Music is Rodgers and Hammerstein in good form\". However, he said, the libretto \"has the hackneyed look of the musical theatre replaced with Oklahoma! in 1943. It is disappointing to see the American musical stage succumbing to the clichés of operetta.\" Walter Kerr's review in the New York Herald Tribune was unfavorable: \"Before The Sound of Music is halfway through its promising chores it becomes not only too sweet for words but almost too sweet for music\", stating that the \"evening suffer[s] from little children\".\n\nCast recordings\nColumbia Masterworks recorded the original Broadway cast album at the Columbia 30th Street Studio in New York City a week after the show's 1959 opening. The album was the label's first deluxe package in a gatefold jacket, priced $1 higher than previous cast albums. It was No. 1 on Billboard's best-selling albums chart for 16 weeks in 1960. It was released on CD from Sony in the Columbia Broadway Masterworks series. In 1959, singer Patti Page recorded the title song from the show for Mercury Records on the day that the musical opened on Broadway. The 1961 London production was recorded by EMI and released on the HMV label and later re-issued on CD in 1997, on the Broadway Angel label.\nThe 1965 film soundtrack was released by RCA Victor and is one of the most successful soundtrack albums in history, having sold over 20 million copies worldwide. RCA Victor also released an album of the 1998 Broadway revival produced by Hallmark Entertainment and featuring the full revival cast, including Rebecca Luker, Michael Siberry, Jan Maxwell and Fred Applegate. The Telarc label made a studio cast recording of The Sound of Music, with the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra conducted by Erich Kunzel (1987). The lead roles went to opera stars: Frederica von Stade as Maria, Håkan Hagegård as Captain von Trapp, and Eileen Farrell as the Mother Abbess. The recording \"includes both the two new songs written for the film version and the three Broadway songs they replace, as well as a previously unrecorded verse of \"An Ordinary Couple\"\". The 2006 London revival was recorded and has been released on the Decca Broadway label. There have been numerous studio cast albums and foreign cast albums issued, though many have only received regional distribution. According to the cast album database, there are 62 recordings of the score that have been issued over the years.\nThe soundtrack from the 2013 NBC television production starring Carrie Underwood and Stephen Moyer was released on CD and digital download in December 2013 on the Sony Masterworks label. Also featured on the album are Audra McDonald, Laura Benanti and Christian Borle.\n\nAwards and nominations\nOriginal Broadway production\n1998 Broadway Revival\nNotes\nReferences\nGreen, Stanley. Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre (1980). Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80113-2\nHischak, Thomas. The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia (2007). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-34140-0\nMaslon, Laurence, with a foreword by Andrew Lloyd Webber. The Sound of Music Companion (2007) Simon and Schuster. ISBN 1-4165-4954-4\nMonush, Barry. The Sound of Music FAQ: All That's Left to Know About Maria, the von Trapps, and Our Favorite Things (2015) Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 1495025942\nNolan, Frederick. The Sound of Their Music: The Story of Rodgers & Hammerstein, New York: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books. ISBN 1-55783-473-3\nSuskin, Steven. Opening Night on Broadway: A Critical Quotebook of the Golden Era of the Musical Theatre (1990), Schirmer Books ISBN 0-02-872625-1\n\nFurther reading\nBell, Bethany, \"Austria discovers The Sound of Music\", BBC, Saturday, March 19, 2005.\nBlock, Geoffrey. The Richard Rodgers Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.\nEwen, David. With a Song in His Heart (Richard Rodgers). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1963.\nFordin, Hugh. Getting To Know Him: The Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. New York: Random House, 1977; Decapo Press, 1995.\nGreen, Stanley. The Rodgers and Hammerstein Fact Book. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 1980.\nHirsch, Julia Antopol. The Sound Of Music—The Making Of America's Favorite Movie. McGraw-Hill Publishing, 1993\nMordden, Ethan. Rodgers & Hammerstein. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1992.\nPapamichael, Stella. The Sound of Music: 40th Anniversary Collector's Edition DVD (1965), BBC, review and history, November 23, 2005\nWilk, Max. The Making of The Sound of Music (2007), Routledge ISBN 0-415-97934-X\n\nExternal links\n\nThe Sound of Music at the Internet Broadway Database\nThe Sound of Music at RNH Theatricals\nSynopsis on theatrehistory\nSound of Music character descriptions and plot summary from StageAgent.com\nThe Sound of Music: 50th Anniversary Edition Podcast Series",
"title": "The_Sound_of_Music"
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"paragraph_text": "Maria Augusta von Trapp DHS (née Kutschera; 26 January 1905 – 28 March 1987), often styled as “Baroness”, was the stepmother and matriarch of the Trapp Family Singers. She wrote The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, which was published in 1949 and was the inspiration for the 1956 West German film The Trapp Family, which in turn inspired the 1959 Broadway musical The Sound of Music and its 1965 film version.\n\nBiography\nEarly life\nMaria was purportedly born on 26 January 1905 to Karl and Augusta (née Rainer) Kuczera. She claimed to have been delivered on a train on the night of the 25th, during her mother's return from her homeland of Tyrol to their family residence in Vienna, Austria. She was baptized into the Catholic Church on the 29th within the Alservorstadt parish and maternity hospital.\nHer father was a hotel commissionaire, born in Vienna, the son of Josef Kučera from a Moravian village, Vídeň. Karl was first married in Graz to Klara Rainer in 1887. The couple had a son Karl in 1888 before Klara's death a few months later. Maria's father remained a widower until he remarried to Klara's younger sister, Augusta, in 1903. Augusta died of pulmonary tuberculosis when Maria was nearly 10 months old. Maria’s grief-stricken father left her with his cousin (and foster mother) in Kagran, who also cared for Maria's half-brother Karl after his mother Klara had died. Maria's father then traveled the world, although Maria would visit him upon occasion at his apartment in Vienna. He changed the spelling of their surname to Kutschera in 1914, dying at home later that year. Her foster mother's son-in-law, Uncle Franz, then became her guardian.\nUncle Franz maltreated Maria and punished her for things she did not do; he was later found to be mentally ill. This changed Maria from a shy child into the teenage \"class cut-up\", figuring she may as well have fun if she was going to get in trouble either way. Despite this change, Maria continued to get good grades.\nAfter graduating from high school at 15, Maria ran away to stay with a friend, with the intent to become a tutor for children staying at nearby hotels. Because she looked so young, no one took her seriously. Finally, a hotel manager asked her to be umpire for a tennis tournament. Although she did not know what an umpire was and had never played tennis, she took the job.\nFrom this job, she saved enough money to enter the State Teachers College for Progressive Education in Vienna, where she also received a scholarship. She graduated from there at age 18 in 1923.\nIn 1924, she entered Nonnberg Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Salzburg, as a postulant, intending to become a nun.\n\nMarriage\nWhile still teaching at the Abbey in 1926, Maria was asked to teach Maria Franziska von Trapp, one of seven children born to widowed naval commander Georg von Trapp. His first wife, the Anglo-Austrian heiress Agathe Whitehead, had earlier died in 1922 from scarlet fever. Eventually, Maria began to look after the other children: Rupert, Agathe, Werner, Hedwig, Johanna, and Martina.\nCaptain von Trapp saw how much she cared about his children and asked her to marry him, although he was 25 years her senior. Frightened, she fled back to Nonnberg Abbey to seek guidance from the mother abbess, Virgilia Lütz, who advised her it was God's will that she should marry him. She then returned to the family and accepted his proposal. She wrote in her autobiography that she was very angry on her wedding day, both at God and at her new husband, because she really wanted to be a nun. \"I really and truly was not in love. I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after.\" They married at Nonnberg Abbey on 26 November 1927 and had three children together: Rosmarie (1929–2022), Eleonore (\"Lorli\") (1931–2021) and Johannes (born 1939).\n\nMedical problems\nThe von Trapps enjoyed hiking. On one outing, they stayed overnight at a farmer's house. The next morning, they were informed that Maria and two of Georg’s daughters, Johanna and Martina, had scarlet fever. Johanna and Martina recovered, but the older Maria developed kidney stones due to dehydration. Her stepdaughter, Maria Franziska, accompanied her to Vienna for a successful surgery, but Maria experienced lifelong kidney problems.\n\nFinancial problems\nThe family met with financial ruin in 1935. Georg had transferred his savings from a bank in London to an Austrian bank run by a friend named Frau Lammer. Austria was experiencing economic difficulties during a worldwide depression because of the Crash of 1929, and Lammer's bank failed. To survive, the Trapps dismissed most of their servants, moved into the top floor of their house, and rented out the other rooms. The Archbishop of Salzburg, Sigismund Waitz, sent Father Franz Wasner to stay with them as their chaplain and this began their singing career.\n\nEarly musical career and departure from Austria\nSoprano Lotte Lehmann heard the family sing, and she suggested they perform at concerts. When the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg heard them over the radio, he invited them to perform in Vienna.\nAfter performing at a festival in 1935, they became a popular touring act. They experienced life under the Nazis after the annexation of Austria by Germany in March 1938. Life became increasingly difficult as they witnessed hostility toward Jewish children by their classmates, the use of children against their parents, the advocacy of abortion both by Maria's doctor and by her son's school, and finally by the extension of an offer for Georg to join the German Navy. They visited Munich in the summer of 1938 and encountered Hitler at a restaurant. In September, the family fled Austria for Italy via train, then to England and finally the United States. The Nazis made use of their abandoned home as Heinrich Himmler's headquarters.\nInitially calling themselves the \"Trapp Family Choir\", the von Trapps began to perform in the United States and Canada. They performed in New York City at The Town Hall on 10 December 1938. The New York Times wrote:\n\nThere was something unusually lovable and appealing about the modest, serious singers of this little family aggregation as they formed a close semicircle about their self-effacing director for their initial offering, the handsome Mme. von Trapp in simple black, and the youthful sisters garbed in black and white Austrian folk costumes enlivened with red ribbons. It was only natural to expect work of exceeding refinement from them, and one was not disappointed in this.\n\nCharles Wagner was their first booking agent, then they signed on with Frederick Christian Schang. Thinking the name \"Trapp Family Choir\" too churchy, Schang Americanized their repertoire and, following his suggestion, the group changed its name to the \"Trapp Family Singers\". The family, which by then included all ten children, was soon touring the world giving concert performances. Alix Williamson served as the group's publicist for over two decades. After the war, they founded the Trapp Family Austrian Relief fund, which sent food and clothing to the impoverished in Austria.\n\nMove to the United States\nIn the 1940s, the family moved to Stowe, Vermont, where they ran a music camp when they were not touring. In 1944, Maria Augusta, Maria Franziska, Johanna, Martina, Hedwig and Agathe applied for U.S. citizenship, whereas Georg never applied to become a citizen. Rupert and Werner became citizens by serving during World War II, while Rosmarie and Eleonore became citizens by virtue of their mother's citizenship. Johannes was born in the United States in Philadelphia on the 17 January 1939 during a concert tour. Georg von Trapp died in 1947 in Vermont after suffering lung cancer.\nThe family made a series of 78-rpm records for RCA Victor in the 1950s, some of which were later issued on RCA Camden LPs. There were also a few later recordings released on LPs, including some stereo sessions. In 1957, the Trapp Family Singers disbanded and went their separate ways. Maria and three of her children became missionaries in Papua New Guinea. In 1965, Maria moved back to Vermont to manage the Trapp Family Lodge, which had been named Cor Unum. She began turning over management of the lodge to her son Johannes, although she was initially reluctant to do so. Hedwig returned to Austria and worked as a teacher in Umhausen.\n\nDeath\nMaria von Trapp died of heart failure on 28 March 1987, aged 82, in Morrisville, Vermont, three days following surgery. She is interred in the family cemetery at the lodge, along with her husband and five of her step-children.\n\nDecorations and awards\nThe family has won the following awards:\n\n1949 – Benemerenti Medal (Pope Pius XII), in recognition of the benefits of the Trapp Family Austrian Relief for needy Austrians\n1952 – Dame of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre (Vatican-Pope Pius XII)\n1956 – Catholic Mother of the Year in the United States. Women receive this honorary title, to recognise exemplary behavior\n1957 – Decoration of Honour in Gold for Services to the Republic of Austria\n1962 – Siena Medal – an award given by Theta Phi Alpha women's fraternity to \"an outstanding woman to recognize her for her endurance and great accomplishment.\" The medal is the highest honor the organization bestows upon a non-member and is named after Saint Catherine of Siena.\n1967 – Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art, 1st class\n2007 – The von Trapp Family received the Egon Ranshofen Wertheimer Prize in Braunau am Inn\n2012 – Naming of Maria Trapp-Platz in Donaustadt (22nd District of Vienna)\n\nChildren\nAdaptations of the autobiography\nMaria von Trapp's book, The Story of the Trapp Family Singers, published in 1949, was a best-seller. It was made into two successful German / Austrian films:\n\nThe Trapp Family (1956)\nThe Trapp Family in America (1958)\nThe book was then adapted into The Sound of Music, a 1959 Broadway musical by Rodgers and Hammerstein, starring Mary Martin and Theodore Bikel. It was a success, running for more than three years. The musical was adapted in 1965 as a motion picture of the same name, starring Julie Andrews. The film version set US box office records, and Maria von Trapp received about $500,000 ($5.28 million today) in royalties.\nMaria von Trapp made a cameo appearance in the movie version of The Sound of Music (1965). For an instant, she, her daughter Rosmarie, and Werner's daughter Barbara can be seen walking past an archway during the song, \"I Have Confidence\", at the line, \"I must stop these doubts, all these worries / If I don't, I just know I'll turn back.\"\nMaria von Trapp sang \"Edelweiss\" with Andrews on The Julie Andrews Hour in 1973. In 1991, a 40 episode anime series, titled Trapp Family Story aired in Japan, her character referred to by her maiden name (Maria Kutschera), voiced by Masako Katsuki. She was portrayed in the 2015 film The von Trapp Family: A Life of Music by Yvonne Catterfeld.\n\nAuthored books\nYesterday, today, and forever. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1952. OCLC 1423861.\nThe story of the Trapp Family Singers. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1954. OCLC 226201826.\nAround the year with the Trapp family. New York, N.Y.: Pantheon. 1955. OCLC 573806.\nThe Trapp family on wheels. London: G. Bles. 1960. OCLC 8153355.\nMaria. Carol Stream, Ill.: Creation House. 1972. OCLC 615981.\nWhen the King was Carpenter. Harrison, Arkansas: New Leaf Press. 1976. OCLC 2800726.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nMaria von Trapp at IMDb \nMaria von Trapp interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, 29 December 1983",
"title": "Maria_von_Trapp"
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"paragraph_text": "In Western astrology, astrological signs are the twelve 30-degree sectors that make up Earth's 360-degree orbit around the Sun. The signs enumerate from the first day of spring, known as the First Point of Aries, which is the vernal equinox. The astrological signs are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces. The Western zodiac originated in Babylonian astrology, and was later influenced by the Hellenistic culture. Each sign was named after a constellation the sun annually moved through while crossing the sky. This observation is emphasized in the simplified and popular sun sign astrology. Over the centuries, Western astrology's zodiacal divisions have shifted out of alignment with the constellations they were named after by axial precession of the Earth while Hindu astrology measurements correct for this shifting. Astrology (i.e. a system of omina based on celestial appearances) was developed in Chinese and Tibetan cultures as well but these astrologies are not based upon the zodiac but deal with the whole sky.\nAstrology is a pseudoscience. Scientific investigations of the theoretical basis and experimental verification of claims have shown it to have no scientific validity or explanatory power. More plausible explanations for the apparent correlation between personality traits and birth months exist, such as the influence of seasonal birth in humans.\nAccording to astrology, celestial phenomena relate to human activity on the principle of \"as above, so below\", so that the signs are held to represent characteristic modes of expression. Scientific astronomy used the same sectors of the ecliptic as Western astrology until the 19th century.\nVarious approaches to measuring and dividing the sky are currently used by differing systems of astrology, although the tradition of the Zodiac's names and symbols remain mostly consistent. Western astrology measures from Equinox and Solstice points (points relating to equal, longest, and shortest days of the tropical year), while Hindu astrology measures along the equatorial plane (sidereal year).\n\nWestern zodiac signs\nHistory\nWestern astrology is a direct continuation of Hellenistic astrology as recorded in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos in the 2nd century. Hellenistic astrology in turn was partly based on concepts from Babylonian tradition. Specifically, the division of the ecliptic in twelve equal sectors is a Babylonian conceptual construction. This division of the ecliptic originated in the Babylonian \"ideal calendar\" found in the old compendium MUL.APIN and its combination with the Babylonian lunar calendar, represented as the \"path of the moon\" in MUL.APIN. In a way, the zodiac is the idealisation of an ideal lunar calendar.\nBy the 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomy and its system of celestial omens influenced the culture of ancient Greece, as did the astronomy of Egypt by late 2nd century BC. This resulted, unlike the Mesopotamian tradition, in a strong focus on the birth chart of the individual and the creation of Horoscopic astrology, employing the use of the Ascendant (the rising degree of the ecliptic, at the time of birth), and of the twelve houses. Association of the astrological signs with Empedocles' four classical elements was another important development in the characterization of the twelve signs.\nThe body of the Hellenistic astrological tradition as it stood by the 2nd century is described in Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos. This is the seminal work for later astronomical tradition not only in the West but also in India and the Islamic sphere and has remained a reference for almost seventeen centuries as later traditions made few substantial changes to its core teachings.\n\nWestern astrological correspondence chart\nThe following table shows the approximate dates of the twelve astrological signs, along with the classical and modern rulerships of each sign. By definition, Aries starts at the First Point of Aries which is the location of the Sun at the March equinox. The precise date of the Equinox varies from year to year but is always between 19 March and 21 March. The consequence is the start date of Aries and therefore the start date of all the other signs can change slightly from year to year. The following Western astrology table enumerates the twelve divisions of celestial longitude with the Latin names. The longitude intervals, are treated as closed for the first endpoint (a) and open for the second (b) – for instance, 30° of longitude is the first point of Taurus, not part of Aries. The signs are occasionally numbered 0 through 11 in place of symbols in astronomical works.\n\nThe twelve signs are positioned in a circular pattern, creating a pattern of oppositions related to different philosophically polarized attributes. Fire and air elements are generally 180 degrees opposed in Western astrology, as well as earth and water elements. Not all systems of astrology have four elements, notably the Sepher Yetzirah describes only three elements emanating from a central divine source. Spring signs are opposite to autumn ones, winter signs are opposite to summer ones and vice versa.\n\nAries is opposite to Libra\nTaurus is opposite to Scorpio\nGemini is opposite to Sagittarius\nCancer is opposite to Capricorn\nLeo is opposite to Aquarius\nVirgo is opposite to Pisces\n\nPolarity\nIn Western astrology, the polarity divides the zodiac in half and refers to the alignment of a sign's energy as either positive or negative, with various attributes associated to them as a result. Positive polarity signs, also called active, yang, expressive, or masculine signs, are the six odd-numbered signs of the zodiac: Aries, Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagittarius, and Aquarius. Positive signs make up the fire and air triplicities. Negative polarity signs, also called passive, yin, receptive, or feminine signs, are the six even-numbered signs of the zodiac: Taurus, Cancer, Virgo, Scorpio, Capricorn, and Pisces. Negative signs make up the earth and water triplicities.\n\nThe three modalities\nThe modality or mode of a given sign refers to its position in the season it is found in. Each of the four elements manifests in three modalities: cardinal, fixed, and mutable. Since each modality comprehends four signs, they are also known as Quadruplicities. For example, the sign Aries is found in the first month of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, so practitioners of astrology describe it as having a cardinal modality. The combination of element and modality provides the signs with their unique characterizations. For instance, Capricorn is the cardinal earth sign, impressing its association with action (cardinal modality) in the material world (earth element).\n\nTriplicities of the four elements\nThe Greek philosopher Empedocles identified fire, earth, air, and water as elements in the fifth-century BC. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles, love and strife, which manipulate the elements into different mixtures that produce the different natures of things. He stated all the elements are equal, the same age, rule their own provinces, and possess their own individual character. Empedocles said that those born with nearly equal proportions of the elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions.\nThe elemental categories are called triplicities because each classical element is associated with three signs The four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent to Hippocrates' personality types (sanguine = air; choleric = fire; melancholic = earth; phlegmatic = water). A modern approach looks at elements as \"the energy substance of experience\" and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords. The elements have grown in importance and some astrologers begin natal chart interpretations by studying the balance of elements in the location of planets (especially the Sun's and Moon's ascendant signs) and the position of angles in the chart.\n\nCelestial body rulerships\nRulership is the connection between planet and correlated sign and house. The conventional rulerships are as follows: \n\nAries: Mars\nTaurus: Venus\nGemini: Mercury\nCancer: Moon\nLeo: Sun\nVirgo: Mercury\nLibra: Venus\nScorpio: classically Mars, Pluto starting in the 20th century\nSagittarius: Jupiter\nCapricorn: Saturn\nAquarius: classically Saturn, Uranus starting in the 20th century\nPisces: classically Jupiter, Neptune starting in the 20th century\n\nDignity and detriment, exaltation and fall\nA traditional belief of astrology, known as essential dignity, is the idea that the Sun, Moon, and planets are more powerful and effective in some signs than others because the basic nature of both is held to be in harmony. By contrast, they are held to find some signs to be weak or difficult to operate in because their natures are thought to be in conflict. These categories are Dignity, Detriment, Exaltation, and Fall.\n\nDignity and Detriment: A planet is strengthened or dignified if it falls within the sign that it rules. In other words, it is said to exercise Rulership of the sign. For example, the Moon in Cancer is considered \"strong\" (well-dignified). If a planet is in the sign opposite which it rules (or is dignified in), it is said to be weakened or in Detriment (for example, the Moon in Capricorn). This may also be termed a \"debility\".\nIn traditional astrology, other levels of Dignity are recognised in addition to Rulership. These are known as Exaltation, Triplicity, Terms or bounds, and Face or Decan, which together are known as describing a planet's Essential dignity, the quality or ability of one's true nature.\n\nExaltation and Fall: A planet is also strengthened when it is in its sign of exaltation. In traditional horary astrology, this denotes a dignity just less than rulership. Exaltation was considered to give the planet's significance(s) the dignity of an honoured guest: the centre of attention but constrained in power. Examples of planets in their Exaltation are: Saturn (Libra), Sun (Aries), Venus (Pisces), Moon (Taurus), Mercury (Virgo, although some disagree with this classification), Mars (Capricorn), Jupiter (Cancer). A planet in the opposite sign of this is in its fall, and thus weakened, perhaps more than Detriment. There is discord as to the signs in which the two extra-Saturnian planets may be considered to be exalted.\n\nIn addition to essential dignity, the traditional astrologer considers Accidental dignity of planets. This is placement by house in the chart under examination. Accidental dignity is the planet's \"ability to act\". So we might have, for example, Moon in Cancer, dignified by rulership, is placed in the 12th house it would have little scope to express its good nature. The twelfth is a cadent house as are the third, sixth and ninth and planets in these houses are considered weak or afflicted. On the other hand, Moon in the first, fourth, seventh, or 10th would be more able to act as these are Angular houses. Planets in Succedent houses of the chart (second, fifth, eighth, eleventh) are generally considered to be of medium ability to act. Besides Accidental Dignity, there are a range of Accidental Debilities, such as retrogradation, Under the Sun's Beams, Combust, and so forth.\n\nAdditional classifications\nEach sign can be divided into three 10° sectors known as decans or decanates, though these have fallen into disuse. The first decanate is said to be most emphatically of its own nature and is ruled by the sign ruler. The next decanate is sub-ruled by the planet ruling the next sign in the same triplicity. The last decanate is sub-ruled by the next in order in the same triplicity.\nWhile the element and modality of a sign are together sufficient to define it, they can be grouped to indicate their symbolism. The first four signs, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, and Cancer, form the group of personal signs. The next four signs, Leo, Virgo, Libra, and Scorpio form the group of interpersonal signs. The last four signs of the zodiac, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, and Pisces, form the group of transpersonal signs.\nDane Rudhyar presented the tropical zodiac primary factors, used in the curriculum of the RASA School of Astrology. The tropical zodiac is the zodiac of seasonal factors as opposed to the sidereal zodiac (constellation factors). The primary seasonal factors are based on the changing ratio of sunlight and darkness across the year. The first factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when daylight is increasing, or the half of the year when darkness is increasing. The second factor is whether the chosen time falls in the half of the year when there is more daylight than darkness, or the half when there is more darkness than daylight. The third factor is which of the four seasons the chosen time falls in, defined by the first two factors. Thus \n\nThe spring season is when daylight is increasing and there is more daylight than darkness.\nThe summer season is when darkness is increasing and there is more daylight than darkness.\nThe autumn season is when darkness is increasing and there is more darkness than daylight.\nThe winter season is when daylight is increasing and there is more darkness than daylight.\n\nWestern sign gallery\nIndian astrology\nIn Indian astrology, there are five elements: fire, earth(Land), air, water, and ether. The master of fire is Mars, while Mercury is of land, Saturn of air, Venus of water, and Jupiter of ether.\nJyotisha recognises twelve zodiac signs (Rāśi), that correspond to those in Western astrology. The relation of the signs to the elements is the same in the two systems.\n\nNakshatras\nA nakshatra (Devanagari: नक्षत्र, Sanskrit nakshatra, a metaphorical compound of naksha- 'map/chart', and tra- 'guard'), or lunar mansion, is one of the 27 divisions of the sky identified by prominent star(s), as used in Hindu astronomy and astrology (Jyotisha). \"Nakshatra\" in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tulu and Tamil and Prakrit also, thus, it refers to stars themselves.\n\nChinese zodiac signs\nChinese astrological signs operate on cycles of years, lunar months, and two-hour periods of the day (also known as shichen). A particular feature of the Chinese zodiac is its operation in a 60-year cycle in combination with the Five Phases of Chinese astrology (Wood, Fire, Metal, Water and Earth).\nNevertheless, some researches say that there is an obvious relationship between the Chinese 12-year cycle and zodiac constellations: each year of the cycle corresponds to a certain disposal of Jupiter. For example, in the year of Snake Jupiter is in the Sign of Gemini, in the year of Horse Jupiter is in the Sign of Cancer and so on. So the Chinese 12-year calendar is a solar-lunar-jovian calendar.\n\nZodiac symbolism\nThe following table shows the twelve signs and their attributes.\n\nThe twelve signs\nIn Chinese astrology, the zodiac of twelve animal signs represents twelve different types of personality. The zodiac traditionally begins with the sign of the Rat, and there are many stories about the Origins of the Chinese Zodiac which explain why this is so. When the twelve zodiac signs are part of the 60-year calendar in combination with the four elements, they are traditionally called the twelve Earthly Branches. The Chinese zodiac follows the lunisolar Chinese calendar and thus the \"changeover\" days in a month (when one sign changes to another sign) vary each year. The following are the twelve zodiac signs in order.\n\n子 Rat (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Water): Rat years include 1900, 1912, 1924, 1936, 1948, 1960, 1972, 1984, 1996, 2008, 2020, 2032. The Rat also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rat are 11pm – 1am.\n丑 Ox (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Earth: Ox years include 1901, 1913, 1925, 1937, 1949, 1961, 1973, 1985, 1997, 2009, 2021, 2033. The Ox also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Ox are 1am – 3am.\n寅 Tiger (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Tiger years include 1902, 1914, 1926, 1938, 1950, 1962, 1974, 1986, 1998, 2010, 2022, 2034. The Tiger also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Tiger are 3am – 5am.\n卯 Rabbit (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Wood): Rabbit Years include 1903, 1915, 1927, 1939, 1951, 1963, 1975, 1987, 1999, 2011, 2023, 2035. The Rabbit also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rabbit are 5am – 7am.\n辰 Dragon (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Dragon years include 1904, 1916, 1928, 1940, 1952, 1964, 1976, 1988, 2000, 2012, 2024, 2036. The Dragon also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Dragon are 7am – 9am.\n巳 Snake (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Snake years include 1905, 1917, 1929, 1941, 1953, 1965, 1977, 1989, 2001, 2013, 2025, 2037. The Snake also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Snake are 9am – 11am.\n午 Horse (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Fire): Horse years include 1906, 1918, 1930, 1942, 1954, 1966, 1978, 1990, 2002, 2014, 2026, 2038. The Horse also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Horse are 11am – 1pm.\n未 Goat (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Goat years include 1907, 1919, 1931, 1943, 1955, 1967, 1979, 1991, 2003, 2015, 2027, 2039. The Goat also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Goat are 1pm – 3pm.\n申 Monkey (Yang, 1st Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Monkey years include 1908, 1920, 1932, 1944, 1956, 1968, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2016, 2028, 2040. The Monkey also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Monkey are 3pm – 5pm.\n酉 Rooster (Yin, 2nd Trine, Fixed Element Metal): Rooster years include 1909, 1921, 1933, 1945, 1957, 1969, 1981, 1993, 2005, 2017, 2029, 2041. The Rooster also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Rooster are 5pm – 7pm.\n戌 Dog (Yang, 3rd Trine, Fixed Element Earth): Dog years include 1910, 1922, 1934, 1946, 1958, 1970, 1982, 1994, 2006, 2018, 2030, 2042. The Dog also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Dog are 7pm – 9pm.\n亥 Pig (Yin, 4th Trine, Fixed Element Water): Pig years include 1911, 1923, 1935, 1947, 1959, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2007, 2019, 2031, 2043. The Pig also corresponds to a particular month in the year. The hours of the Pig are 9pm – 11pm.\n\nThe five elements\nWood: The wood person has high morals, is self-confident, expansive and co-operative, with wide and varied interests and idealistic goals. The direction associated with Wood is East, and the season is spring, which makes it the fixed element for the animal signs Tiger and Rabbit.\nFire: The fire person has leadership qualities, dynamic passion, and is decisive, self-confident, positive, and assertive. The direction associated with Fire is South, and the season is summer, which makes it the fixed element for the animal signs Snake and Horse.\nEarth: The earth person is serious, logical and methodical, intelligent, objective and good at planning. The direction associated with Earth is Center. The season for Earth is the changeover point of the four seasons. It is the fixed element for the animal signs Ox, Dragon, Goat and Dog.\nMetal: The metal person is sincere, has fixed values and opinions, is strong of will, and has eloquence of speech. The direction associated with Metal is West. The season for Metal is Autumn. It is the fixed element for the animal signs Monkey and Rooster.\nWater: The water person is persuasive, intuitive, and empathetic. The water person is objective and often sought out for their counsel. The direction associated with water is North. The season for Water is Winter. It is the fixed element for the animal signs Rat and Pig.\nThe five elements operate together with the twelve animal signs in a 60-year calendar. The five elements appear in the calendar in both their yin and yang forms and are known as the ten Heavenly Stems. The yin/yang split seen in the Gregorian calendar means years that end in an even number are Yang (representing masculine, active, and light), those that end with an odd number are Yin (representing feminine, passive and darkness), subject to Chinese New Year having passed.\n\nSee also\nInfluence of seasonal birth in humans\nChinese zodiac\nGlossary of astrology\n\nNotes\nReferences\nArroyo, Stephen (1975). Astrology, Psychology and The Four Elements. California: CCRS Publications\nArroyo, Stephen (1989). Chart Interpretation Handbook. California: CCRS Publications. ISBN 0-916360-49-0\nBobrick, Benson (2005). The Fated Sky: Astrology in History. Simon & Schuster. 369 pp.\nCaiozzo, Anna (2003). Images of the Sky. Paris-Sorbonne. Signs and Constellations. Archived 2021-04-17 at the Wayback Machine\nEric Francis (2016). \"Why Your Zodiac Sign is Not Wrong\"\nHone, Margaret (1978). The Modern Text-Book of Astrology. Revised edition. England: L. N. Fowler & Co. Ltd. ISBN 085243-357-3\nJohnsen, Linda (2004 March). A Thousand Suns: Designing Your Future with Vedic Astrology. Yes International Publishers.\nMayo, Jeff (1979). Teach Yourself Astrology. London: Hodder and Stoughton.\nRochberg, Francesca (1998), \"Babylonian Horoscopes\", American Philosophical Society, New Series, Vol. 88, No. 1, pp. i–164. doi:10.2307/1006632. JSTOR 1006632.\nRudhyar, Dane (1943). Astrological Signs – The Pulse of Life.\nSachs, Abraham (1948), \"A Classification of the Babylonian Astronomical Tablets of the Seleucid Period\", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 271–290. doi:10.2307/3515929. JSTOR 3515929.\nSutton, Komilla (1999). The Essentials of Vedic Astrology. England: The Wessex Astrologer Ltd.",
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] | This singer represented Sweden in Eurovision four years before the Sweden Democrats entered Parliament for the first time. What astrological sign was the real person behind the character she played in her first musical? | [] | Aquarius | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "RMS Titanic was a British ocean liner that sank on 15 April 1912 as a result of striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to New York City, United States. Of the estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, approximately 1,500 died (figures vary), making the incident one of the deadliest peacetime sinkings of a single ship. Titanic, operated by the White Star Line, carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from the British Isles, Scandinavia, and elsewhere in Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States and Canada. The disaster drew public attention, spurred major changes in maritime safety regulations, and inspired a lasting legacy in popular culture.\nRMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat upon entering service and the second of three Olympic-class ocean liners built for the White Star Line. The ship was built by the Harland and Wolff shipbuilding company in Belfast. Thomas Andrews Jr., the chief naval architect of the shipyard, died in the disaster. Titanic was under the command of Captain Edward John Smith, who went down with the ship.\nThe first-class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury. It included a gymnasium, swimming pool, smoking rooms, fine restaurants and cafes, a Victorian-style Turkish bath, and hundreds of opulent cabins. A high-powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available to send passenger \"marconigrams\" and for the ship's operational use. Titanic had advanced safety features, such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, which contributed to the ship's reputation as \"unsinkable\".\nTitanic was equipped with 16 lifeboat davits, each capable of lowering three lifeboats, for a total capacity of 48 boats. Despite this capacity, the ship was scantly equipped with a total of only 20 lifeboats. Fourteen of these were regular lifeboats, two were cutter lifeboats, and four were collapsible and proved difficult to launch while the ship was sinking. Together, the 20 lifeboats could hold 1,178 people — roughly half the number of passengers on board, and a third of the number the passengers the ship could have carried at full capacity (a number consistent with the maritime safety regulations of the era). The British Board of Trade's regulations required 14 lifeboats for a ship 10,000 tonnes. Titanic carried six more than required, allowing 338 extra people room in lifeboats. When the ship sank, the lifeboats that had been lowered were only filled up to an average of 60%.\n\nBackground\nThe name Titanic derives from the Titans of Greek mythology. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in what was then the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic-class ocean liners—the lead vessel was RMS Olympic and the final ship in the class was HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J. P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).\nWhite Star faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals, Cunard Line—which, with the aid of the Royal Navy, had recently launched the twin sister ships Lusitania and Mauretania, the fastest passenger ships then in service—and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners larger than anything that had come before, which would be the last word in comfort and luxury. The new ships would have sufficient speed to maintain a weekly service with only three ships instead of the original four. Olympic and Titanic would replace RMS Teutonic of 1889, RMS Majestic of 1890 and RMS Adriatic of 1907. RMS Oceanic first departed from a new home port in June 1907 along with the Teutonic, Majestic, and the new Adriatic on the Southampton-New York run.\nThe ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilder Harland & Wolff, which had a long-established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for Wilhelm Wolff to sketch a general concept, which Edward James Harland would turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were a relatively low priority; Harland & Wolff were authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five per cent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic-class ships, a cost of £3 million (approximately £370 million in 2023) for the first two ships was agreed, plus \"extras to contract\" and the usual five per cent fee.\nHarland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing Olympic-class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews's deputy and responsible for calculating the ship's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment, and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.\nOn 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three \"letters of agreement\" two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point, the first ship—which was later to become Olympic—had no name but was referred to simply as \"Number 400\", as it was Harland and Wolff's 400th hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.\n\nDimensions and layout\nTitanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m).\nThe ship's total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). Titanic measured 46,329 GRT and 21,831 NRT and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m) and displaced 52,310 tonnes.\nAll three of the Olympic-class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:\n\nThe boat deck, on which the lifeboats were housed. It was from here during the early hours of 15 April 1912 that Titanic's lifeboats were lowered into the North Atlantic. The bridge and wheelhouse were at the forward end, in front of the captain's and officers' quarters. The bridge stood 8 feet (2.4 m) above the deck, extending out to either side so that the ship could be controlled while docking. The wheelhouse stood within the bridge. The entrance to the First Class Grand Staircase and gymnasium were located midships along with the raised roof of the First Class lounge, while at the rear of the deck were the roof of the First Class smoke room and the Second Class entrance. Just forward of the Second Class entrance sat the kennels, where the First Class passengers' dogs would stay. The wood-covered deck was divided into four segregated promenades: for officers, First Class passengers, engineers, and Second Class passengers respectively. Lifeboats lined the side of the deck except in the First Class area, where there was a gap so that the view would not be spoiled.\nA Deck, also called the promenade deck, extended along the entire 546 feet (166 m) length of the superstructure. It was reserved exclusively for First Class passengers and contained First Class cabins, the First Class reading and writing room, lounge, smoke room, and Palm Court.\nB Deck, the bridge deck, was the top weight-bearing deck and the uppermost level of the hull. More First Class passenger accommodations were located here with six palatial staterooms (cabins) featuring their own private promenades. On Titanic, the à la carte restaurant and the Café Parisien provided luxury dining facilities to First Class passengers. Both were run by subcontracted chefs and their staff; all were lost in the disaster. The Second Class smoking room and entrance hall were both located on this deck. The raised forecastle of the ship was forward of the bridge deck, accommodating Number 1 hatch (the main hatch through to the cargo holds), numerous pieces of machinery and the anchor housings. Aft of the bridge deck was the raised poop deck, 106 feet (32 m) long, used as a promenade by Third Class passengers. It was where many of Titanic's passengers and crew made their last stand as the ship sank. The forecastle and poop deck were separated from the bridge deck by well decks.\nC Deck, the shelter deck, was the highest deck to run uninterrupted from stem to stern. It included both well decks; the aft one served as part of the Third-Class promenade. Crew cabins were housed below the forecastle and Third-Class public rooms were housed below the poop deck. In between were the majority of First Class cabins and the Second-Class library. \nD Deck, the saloon deck, was dominated by three public rooms—the First-Class reception room, the First-Class dining saloon and the Second-Class dining saloon. The first- and second-class galleys were also located on this deck. An open space was provided for Third Class passengers. First, Second- and Third-Class passengers had cabins on this deck, with berths for firemen located in the bow. It was the highest level reached by the ship's watertight bulkheads (though only by eight of the fifteen bulkheads).\nE Deck, the upper deck, was predominantly used for passenger accommodation for all three classes plus berths for cooks, seamen, stewards and trimmers. Along its length ran a long passageway nicknamed 'Scotland Road', in reference to a famous street in Liverpool. Scotland Road was used by Third Class passengers and crew members.\nF Deck, the middle deck, mainly accommodated Second- and Third-Class passengers and several departments of the crew. The Third Class dining saloon was located here, as was the First Class bath complex, containing the swimming pool and the Turkish bath.\nG Deck, the lower deck, had the lowest portholes, just above the waterline. The first-class squash court was located here along with the travelling post office where letters and parcels were sorted ready for delivery when the ship docked. Food was also stored here. The deck was interrupted at several points by orlop (partial) decks over the boiler, engine and turbine rooms.\nThe orlop decks, and the tank top below that, were on the lowest level of the ship, below the waterline. The orlop decks were used as cargo spaces, while the tank top—the inner bottom of the ship's hull—provided the platform on which the ship's boilers, engines, turbines and electrical generators were housed. This area of the ship was occupied by the engine and boiler rooms, areas which passengers would have been prohibited from seeing. They were connected with higher levels of the ship by two flights of stairs in the fireman's passage; twin spiral stairways near the bow provided access up to D Deck. Ladders in the boiler, turbine, and engine rooms provided access to higher decks in those compartments.\n\nFeatures\nPower\nTitanic propulsion was supplied by three main engines—two reciprocating four-cylinder, triple-expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low-pressure Parsons turbine—each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 horsepower (22,000 kW). The output of the steam turbine was 16,000 horsepower (12,000 kW). The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic-class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all-turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.\nThe two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tonnes, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tonnes. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double-ended and five single-ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tonnes and capable of holding 48.5 tonnes of water.\nThey were fuelled by burning coal, 6,611 tonnes of which could be carried in Titanic's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tonnes in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tonnes of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tonnes of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively well, there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.\nExhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese-bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.\nTitanic's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam-driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.\nTitanic lacked a searchlight, in accordance with the ban on the use of searchlights in the merchant navy.\n\nTechnology\nCompartments and funnels\nThe interiors of the Olympic-class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads that extended above the waterline. The eleven vertically closing watertight doors on the orlop deck could be closed automatically via a switch on the bridge, by a lever next to the door itself, or by an automatic buoyancy mechanism that would activate in the event water reached six feet high in the compartment. There were also several other horizontally closing watertight doors along Scotland Road, and various crew and third class passenger spaces on the G, F, and E decks. These doors required a small key to be placed into a slot on the deck above. Once the key was turned, the watertight door would close. The ship's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted in the White Star buff with black tops; only three were functional—the aftmost one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes, and used for providing ventilation to the kitchen, as well as for the First and Second Class smoking rooms. Two masts, each 155 ft (47 m) high, supported derricks for working cargo.\n\nRudder and steering engines\nTitanic's rudder was 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tonnes. Its size was such that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam-powered steering engines were installed, though only one was used at any given time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).\n\nWater, ventilation and heating\nThe ship was equipped with waterworks capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency, the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater. However, this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant could quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air around the ship with electric fans and First-Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.\n\nRadio communications\nTitanic's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24-hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams (\"marconigrams\"), but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.\nThe radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers' quarters. A soundproofed \"Silent Room\", next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor-generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a 'state of the art' 5-kilowatt rotary spark-gap transmitter, with the wireless telegraph call sign MGY, and communication was in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark-gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (304 nmi; 563 km). An elevated T-antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength); however, the equipment could also operate on the \"short\" wavelength of 1,000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.\n\nPassenger facilities\nThe passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, Titanic's capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of the original configuration have stated that the full carrying capacity for passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. The ship's interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the style of a manor house or an English country house.\nTitanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high-class hotels—the Ritz Hotel was a reference point—with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship. As one passenger recalled, on entering the ship's interior a passenger would \"at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore\". Cabins in First Class also contained buttons that, when pressed, would signal for a steward to come to the cabin.\nAmong the more novel features available to first-class passengers was a 7 ft (2.1 m) deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Victorian-style Turkish bath which comprised hot room, warm (temperate) room, cooling-room, and two shampooing (massage) rooms. Complementing the Turkish bath, and within the same area, was a steam room and an electric bath. First-class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous reception room, a men's smoking room, and a reading and writing room. There was an à la carte restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy-covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first-class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft (35 m) long by 92 ft (28 m) wide, the dining saloon on D Deck, designed by Charles Fitzroy Doll, was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nThird Class (commonly referred to as steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class but were better than on many other ships of the time, where Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities. The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third-Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and ten passengers. Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a general room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing.\nLeisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.\nOne of Titanic's most distinctive features was the First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the boat deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls panelled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.\nAt the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of \"Honour and Glory Crowning Time\" flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.\n\nMail and cargo\nAlthough Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, the ship also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Under the designation of Royal Mail Ship (RMS), Titanic carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m3) of space was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks (three Americans and two Britons), who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week, sorting up to 60,000 items daily.\nThe ship's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m3) was taken up by first- and second-class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £405 (£50,600 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry-Joseph Blondel. The painting's owner, first-class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström-Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 (equivalent to $2,300,000 in 2023) in compensation for the loss of the artwork. Other intriguing items in the manifest included 12 cases of ostrich feathers, 76 cases of \"Dragon's Blood,\" and 16 cases of Calabashes.\nTitanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the holds. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tonnes of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.\n\nLifeboats\nLike Olympic, Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Engelhardt \"collapsible\" (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, Titanic had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic carried at least two collapsible boats on either side of the number one funnel. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd-numbered 1–15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even-numbered 2–16 from bow to stern.\nBoth cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.\nTitanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle three lifeboats, unlike what Carslile had hoped. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 48 wooden lifeboats. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one-third of Titanic's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tonnes to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.\nTherefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship—not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had SS Californian responded to Titanic's distress calls, the lifeboats might have been able to ferry all passengers to safety as planned.\n\nBuilding and preparing the ship\nConstruction, launch and fitting-out\nThe sheer size of the Olympic class vessels posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long and weighed more than 6,000 tonnes. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tonnes, was brought in from Germany.\nThe construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.\nThe 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tonnes. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the \"in and out\" fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the \"in strakes\") with the gaps covered by the \"out strakes\", overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy-fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy. Like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tonnes. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s, material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.\nTwo side anchors and a centre anchor were among the last items to be fitted on Titanic before it launched. The anchors were a challenge to make; the centre anchor was the largest ever forged by hand. The head weighed nearly 16 tonnes and the shank another 8. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. It was then shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before boarding a ship to Belfast.\nConstructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. Safety precautions were rudimentary at best for the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time. Much of the work was carried out without safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. 246 injuries were recorded during Titanic's construction, including 28 severe injuries, such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship during construction and fitting out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch, a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.\nTitanic was launched at 12:15 pm on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpont Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. Twenty-two tonnes of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting-out berth where, over the course of the next year, the engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and interior was fitted out.\nAlthough Titanic was virtually identical to the class's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable exterior difference was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last-minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay and was intended to provide additional shelter to First Class passengers. Extensive changes were made to B Deck on Titanic as the promenade space in this deck, which had proven unpopular on Olympic, was converted into additional First-Class cabins, including two opulent parlour suites with their own private promenade spaces. The À la Carte restaurant was also enlarged and the Café Parisien, an entirely new feature which did not exist on Olympic, was added. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than Olympic and allowed claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, the ship might well have missed colliding with an iceberg.\n\nSea trials\nTitanic's sea trials began at 6 am on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after the fitting out was finished and eight days before departure from Southampton on the maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic's sea trials: Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff, and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators and performed fine-tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.\nThe sea trials consisted of a number of tests of handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, turning ability was tested, and a \"crash stop\" was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing the ship to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. Titanic covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km/h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h).\nOn returning to Belfast at about 7 pm, the surveyor signed an \"Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew\", valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours, Titanic arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of passengers and the remainder of the crew.\n\nMaiden voyage\nBoth Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line, as well as Cunard, were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed from Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company's founding in 1845, a vast majority of their operations had taken place from Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star Line established another service from Southampton on England's south coast, which became known as White Star's \"Express Service\". Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.\n\nIn addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton-Cherbourg-New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.\nTitanic's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans-Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. The entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, the ship replaced Teutonic, which after completing a last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star Line's main Liverpool-New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months and was mothballed as a reserve ship.\nWhite Star Line's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep-water dock at Southampton, then known as the \"White Star Dock\", had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic-class liners, and had opened in 1911.\n\nCrew\nTitanic had about 885 crew members on board for the maiden voyage. Like other vessels of the time, Titanic did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before sailing from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits began on 23 March and some were to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew on Titanic's sea trials and passage to England in early April.\nCaptain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of chief mate. Titanic's previously designated chief mate and first officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were downgraded to the ranks of first and second officer respectively, and the original second officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The third officer, Herbert Pitman, was the only deck officer not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second-to-last surviving officer.\nTitanic's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling, with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97% were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a variety of professions—bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed-makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship's wireless operators.\nMost of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40% were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self-employed or subcontractors, including: five postal clerks who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class À La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second-class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith's £105 a month (equivalent to £13,100 today) to the £3 10s (£440 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower-paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.\n\nPassengers\nTitanic's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66%) were male and 447 (34%) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of whom were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under-capacity for the maiden voyage and could have accommodated 2,453 passengers—833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.\nUsually, a high-prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on a maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would-be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal that Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.\nSome of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them (with those who perished marked with a dagger†) were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV† and his wife, Madeleine Force Astor (with John Jacob Astor VI in utero); industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim†; painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet†; Macy's owner Isidor Straus† and his wife, Ida†; millionairess Margaret \"Molly\" Brown; Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, Lucy (Lady Duff-Gordon); Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen; writer and historian Archibald Gracie; cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer† with his wife, Marian, and son Jack; George Dunton Widener† with his wife, Eleanor, and son Harry†; Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes; Mr.† and Mrs. Charles M. Hays; Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper; Mr.† and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas; Mr.† and Mrs. George D. Wick; Mr.† and Mrs. Henry B. Harris; Mr.† and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson; Mr.† and Mrs.† Hudson J. C. Allison; Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop; noted architect Edward Austin Kent†; brewery heir Harry Molson†; tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams; author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee; future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith; journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead†; journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum; socialite Edith Corse Evans†; wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza; French sculptor Paul Chevré; author Jacques Futrelle† with his wife May; silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline; President of the Swiss Bankverein, Col. Alfons Simonius-Blumer; James A. Hughes's daughter Eloise; banker Robert Williams Daniel; the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin; Arthur Wellington Ross's son John H. Ross; Washington Roebling's nephew Washington A. Roebling II; Andrew Saks's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband Edgar Joseph Meyer† (son of Marc Eugene Meyer); William A. Clark's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife, Virginia; a great-great-grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife; John S. Pillsbury's grandson John P. Snyder and wife Nelle; and Dorothy Parker's uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth.\nTitanic's owner J. P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic's designer Thomas Andrews†, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.\nThe exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £7 5s (equivalent to £900 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £23 (£2,900 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £870 in high season (£109,000 today).\n\nCollecting passengers\nTitanic's maiden voyage began on Wednesday, 10 April 1912. Following the embarkation of the crew, the passengers began arriving at 9:30 am, when the London and South Western Railway's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic's berth. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States – a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. In all, 920 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton – 179 First Class, 247 Second Class, and 494 Third Class. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.\n\nThe maiden voyage began at noon, as scheduled. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later, as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and Oceanic of the White Star Line, the latter of which would have been a running mate on the service from Southampton. The ship's displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and dropped into a trough. New York's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging around stern-first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic's engines to be put \"full astern\". The two ships avoided a collision by a distance of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.\nAfter making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic disembarked the Southampton pilot at the Nab Lightship and headed out into the English Channel. The ship headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two tenders at Cherbourg: SS Traffic and SS Nomadic (Nomadic is the only surviving White Star Line ship). Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic-class liners and launched shortly after Titanic. Four hours after leaving Southampton, Titanic arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders where 274 additional passengers were taken aboard (142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class). Twenty-four passengers had booked a cross-Channel passage only and were left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore, a process completed within 90 minutes. At 8 pm, Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather remaining cold and windy.\n\nAt 11:30 am on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic's size, and the tenders America and Ireland were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown – three First Class, seven Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-Channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including one of the last known photographs of the ship. The very last one was taken by another cross-channel passenger, Kate Odell. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1:30 pm and departed on the westward journey across the Atlantic.\n\nAtlantic crossing\nTitanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 59 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown, Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there the voyage of 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic, reached a spot in the ocean known as \"the corner\", southeast of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when making fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.\nFrom 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of the voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of sinking, the ship travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km/h).\nThe weather cleared as Titanic left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm, and very cold.\nThe first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in Titanic's forward most coal bunker (that supplied coal to boiler rooms six and five) approximately 10 days prior to the ship's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships at the time, due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. The fire was finally extinguished on 14 April. There has been some speculation and discussion as to whether this fire and attempts to extinguish it may have made the ship more vulnerable to sinking.\nTitanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, but Captain Smith ignored them. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line's Mesaba. Nevertheless, Titanic continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed; ice warnings were seen as advisories, and reliance was placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head-on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907, SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still completed the voyage, and Captain Smith said in 1907 that he \"could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that.\"\n\nSinking\nAt 11:40 pm (ship's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the iceberg and the engines to be reversed, but it was too late. The starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured, but rather dented such that the steel plates of the hull buckled and separated, allowing water to rush in. Five of the sixteen watertight compartments were heavily breached and a sixth was slightly compromised. It soon became clear that Titanic would sink, as the ship could not remain afloat with more than four compartments flooded. Titanic began sinking bow-first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment over the top of each watertight bulkhead as the ship's angle in the water became steeper.\n\nThose aboard Titanic were ill-prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, as ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried the full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half-full. Third-class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The \"women and children first\" protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard. Women and children survived at rates of about 75 per cent and 50 per cent, while only 20 per cent of men survived.\nBetween 2:10 and 2:15 am, a little over two and a half hours after Titanic struck the iceberg, the rate of sinking suddenly increased as the boat deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates: in between that time, the electrical power on board also went out. As the ship's unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship broke in two main pieces between the second and third funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before foundering at 2:20 am. It was believed that Titanic sank in one piece, but the discovery of the wreck many years later revealed that the ship had broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed in water at a temperature of −2 °C (28 °F). Only five who were in the water were helped into the lifeboats, though the lifeboats had room for almost 500 more people.\nDistress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded were near enough to reach Titanic before sinking. A radio operator on board SS Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 am before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 am, RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic's earlier distress calls.\nWhen the ship sank, the lifeboats that had been lowered were only filled up to an average of 60%. 706 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic's original destination, while 1,517 people died.\n\nAftermath of sinking\nImmediate aftermath\nRMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster with a journey slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. Carpathia was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confusing, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by SS Virginian. Late on the night of 15 April White Star reported a message was received saying Titanic had sunk, but all passengers and crew had been transferred to another vessel. Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of the passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking; four out of every five crew members came from this town.\nCarpathia docked at 9:30 pm on 18 April at New York's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.\nCarpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming the journey to Fiume, Austria-Hungary. The crew were given a bonus of a month's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic's passengers joined to give them an additional bonus of nearly £900 (£113,000 today), divided among the crew members.\nThe ship's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before docking. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.\n\nInsurance, aid for survivors and lawsuits\nIn January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd's of London and London Marine Insurance. The total coverage was £1,000,000 (£123,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be \"free from all average\" under £150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £100, or £7,500 (£940,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.\nMany charities were set up to help the survivors and their families, many of whom lost their sole wage earner, or, in the case of many Third-Class survivors, everything they owned. In New York City, for example, a joint committee of the American Red Cross and Charity Organization Society formed to disburse financial aid to survivors and dependents of those who died. On 29 April, opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of \"Autumn\" and \"Nearer My God To Thee\" were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic's lost crew members, raising nearly £450,000 (£56,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.\nIn the United States and Britain, more than 60 survivors combined to sue the White Star Line for damages connected to loss of life and baggage. The claims totalled $16,804,112 (appr. $419 million in 2018 USD), which was far in excess of what White Star argued it was responsible for as a limited liability company under American law. Because the bulk of the litigants were in the United States, White Star petitioned the United States Supreme Court in 1914, which ruled in its favour that it qualified as an LLC and found that the causes of the ship's sinking were largely unforeseeable, rather than due to negligence. This sharply limited the scope of damages survivors and family members were entitled to, prompting them to reduce their claims to some $2.5 million. White Star only settled for $664,000 (appr. $16.56 million in 2018), about 27% of the original total sought by survivors. The settlement was agreed to by 44 of the claimants in December 1915, with $500,000 set aside for the American claimants, $50,000 for the British, and $114,000 to go towards interest and legal expenses.\n\nInvestigations into the disaster\nEven before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and the United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert-orientated.\nThe US Senate's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing \"his moment to stand on the world stage\". Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on US railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J. P. Morgan, Titanic's ultimate owner.\nThe British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star's conduct being found negligent.\nEach inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.\nNeither inquiry's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice, the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long-standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done \"only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position\". Lord Mersey did, however, find fault with the \"extremely high speed (twenty-two knots) which was maintained\" following numerous ice warnings, noting that \"what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future\".\nThe recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.\nOn 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.\nThe way the Titanic sank brought to light serious design issues with the Olympic-class. As a result, the Olympic went through a major refit and design changes for the construction of the Britannic.\nIn August 1912, the liner Corsican struck an iceberg in the Atlantic, severely damaging the bow. However, because the weather was hazy at the time, speed had been reduced to 'dead slow', which limited further damage. While the lifeboats had been deployed, they were not boarded.\n\nRole of SS Californian\nOne of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up distress calls or responded to signal rockets. Californian had stopped for the night because of icy conditions and warned Titanic by radio, but was rebuked by Titanic's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.\nTestimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10:10 pm, Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11:10 pm) that this was a passenger liner. At 11:50 pm, the officer watched that ship's lights flash out, as if shutting down or turning sharply, and noted that the port light was visible. Morse light signaled to the ship, upon Lord's order, were made between 11:30 pm and 1:00 am, but were not acknowledged. If Titanic was as far from the Californian as Lord claimed Morse signals would not have been be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.\nCaptain Lord had gone to the chart room at 11:00 pm. Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1:10 am that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1:50 am and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if the ship were listing. At 2:15 am, Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.\nCalifornian eventually responded. At around 5:30 am, Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance, arriving well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.\nThe inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to aid rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.\n\nSurvivors and victims\nThe number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, because of a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double-counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. While the use of the Marconi wireless system did not achieve the result of bringing a rescue ship to Titanic before it sank, the use of wireless did bring Carpathia in time to rescue some of the survivors who otherwise would have perished due to exposure.\nThe water temperature was well below normal in the area where Titanic sank. It also contributed to the rapid death of many passengers during the sinking. Water temperature readings taken around the time of the accident were reported to be −2 °C (28 °F). Typical water temperatures were normally around 7 °C (45 °F) during mid-April. The coldness of the water was a critical factor, often causing death within minutes for many of those in the water.\nFewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3% of first-class women were lost, 54% of those in third-class died. Similarly, five of six first-class and all second-class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third-class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first- and second-class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50% of the children survived, 20% of the men and 75% of the women.\nThomas Andrews, the chief naval architect of the shipyard, died in the disaster.\nThe last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who, at only nine weeks old, was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. Two special survivors were the stewardess Violet Jessop and the stoker Arthur John Priest, who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and HMHS Britannic and were aboard RMS Olympic when the ship was rammed in 1911.\n\nRetrieval and burial of the dead\nOnce the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay-Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.\nThe first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay-Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay-Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first-class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third-class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.\nBodies of passengers of the Titanic were numbered as they were brought aboard. Physical characteristics, clothing, identifying marks, and personal effects were all documented. Personal effects were stored separately, labeled with the same body number, and valuables were locked up by the purser. Without enough material or space to handle bodies and their belongings, the crew had to triage.\nBodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax Registrar of Vital Statistics, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two-thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.\nIn mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.\nThe last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.\n333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, which amounted to one in five of the over 1,500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles, making them difficult to recover. By June, one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.\n\nWreck\nTitanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, where the water pressure is over 5,300 pounds per square inch (37 megapascals), about 370 standard atmospheres. A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco-American expedition led by Jean-Louis Michel and Robert Ballard succeeded.\nThe team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic's radio operators on the night of the ship's sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.\nBoth sections struck the seabed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.\nThe two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8 km × 5 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship while sinking or ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots—which have proved to be inedible—as the only sign that bodies once lay there.\nSince its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron-eating bacteria on the hull. In 2006, it was estimated that within 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic would eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.\n\nMany artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the seabed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.\nOn 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic's stern which experts called \"compelling evidence\" that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.\nSubmersible dives in 2019 have found further deterioration of the wreck, including loss of the captain's bathtub. Between 29 July and 4 August 2019, a two-person submersible vehicle that was conducting research and filming a documentary crashed into the wreck. EYOS Expeditions executed the dives. It reported that the strong currents pushed the submersible into the wreck, leaving a red rust stain on the submersible's side. The report did not mention if the Titanic sustained damage.\nIn May 2023, Magellan Ltd., a deep-water seabed-mapping company, announced that they had created a \"digital twin\" of the Titanic, showing the wreckage in a level of detail that had never been captured before. The company created the model from some 715,000 3D images, captured over the course of a six-week expedition in the summer of 2022, using two submersibles, named Romeo and Juliet. They mapped \"every millimetre\" of the wreckage as well as the entire three-nautical-mile (5.6 km) debris field. Creating the model took about eight months.\nOn 18 June 2023, the submersible Titan, operated by OceanGate Expeditions, went missing in the North Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Newfoundland. The submersible, designed to carry five people, was carrying an expedition of tourists to view the wreckage of the Titanic. On 22 June 2023, the operating company announced that they believe the Titan crew were lost at sea after a catastrophic implosion of the submersible, and, six days later, the U.S. Coast Guard announced its discovery of “presumed human remains” consistent with such an implosion found within recovered remnants of the Titan.\nOn 15 July 2024, RMS Titanic Inc. held their first expedition to the wreck in 14 years, with the objective of examining its status in high-resolution photography for future scientific studies, likewise with identifying and searching for on-site artefacts. The expedition also gave tribute to Nargeolet's contributions within the debris field, having made numerous efforts in the preceding years in expanding knowledge over the area; A memorial plaque was placed on the seafloor in his honour. Numerous other uncharted areas within the vicinity were explored as well. Moreover, the event received coverage from the BBC, who interviewed numerous figures involved, such as co-leader David Gallo, who said \"We want to see the wreck with a clarity and precision that's never before been achieved\". Imaging programme chief Evan Kovacs also expressed his optimism in producing distinctly defined resolution, stating that \"If all of the weather gods, the computer gods, the ROV gods, the camera gods – if all those gods align, we should be able to capture Titanic and the wreck site in as close to digital perfection as you can get. You would be able to quite literally count grains of sand\". Furthermore, a magnetometer was utilised to produce metal detection – whether visible or not – for the first time in the history of Titanic expeditions. The expedition was facilitated through an ROV.\n\nLegacy\nSafety\nAfter the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the Convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example, in Britain, new \"Rules for Life Saving Appliances\" were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.\nFurther, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This Act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed, it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships. In the same year, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look-out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless telegraph was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.\nFinally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the U.S. Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period, there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area.\n\nCultural legacy\nThe story of Titanic has been remembered in history as a tragedy and cautionary tale, particularly because the ship had been considered unsinkable. Titanic has inspired fiction, been the subject of documentaries, and commemorated in monuments for the dead and museum exhibitions. Shortly after sinking, memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even mourning teddy bears. The sinking inspired ballads such as \"The Titanic\". Several survivors wrote books about their experiences, but it was not until 1955 that the first historically accurate book – A Night to Remember – was published.\nThe first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star—the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. This film is considered lost. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron's Titanic (1997), which became the highest-grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.\nThe Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English-speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton and Liverpool in England; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Belfast and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic; the most prominent is in Belfast, the ship's birthplace (see below).\nRMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22-tonne slab of the ship's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins. Royal Mail (whose mail was carried by RMS (Royal Mail Ship) Titanic) issued ten 1st class UK postage stamps, each with the \"crown seal\", to mark the centenary of the disaster.\nIn a frequently commented-on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel, the ship is SS Titan, a four-stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable; like the Titanic, sinks in April after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.\n\nIn Northern Ireland\nIt took many decades before the significance of Titanic was promoted in Northern Ireland, where it was built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast. While the rest of the world embraced the glory and tragedy of Titanic, it remained a taboo subject throughout the 20th century in its birth city. The sinking brought tremendous grief and was a blow to Belfast's pride. Its shipyard was also a place many Catholics regarded as hostile. In the latter half of the century, during a 30-year sectarian conflict, Titanic was a reminder of the lack of civil rights that in part contributed towards the Troubles. While the fate of Titanic remained a well-known story within local households throughout the 20th century, commercial investment in projects recalling RMS Titanic's legacy was modest because of these issues.\nAfter the Troubles and Good Friday Agreement, the number of overseas tourists visiting Northern Ireland increased. It was subsequently identified in the Northern Ireland Tourism Board's Strategic Framework for Action 2004–2007 that the significance of and interest in Titanic globally (partly due to the 1997 film Titanic) was not being fully exploited as a tourist attraction. Thus, Titanic Belfast was spearheaded, along with some smaller projects, such as a Titanic memorial.\nIn 2012 on the ship's centenary, the Titanic Belfast visitor attraction was opened on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. It was Northern Ireland's second most visited tourist attraction with almost 700,000 visitors in 2016.\nDespite over 1,600 ships being built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast Harbour, Queen's Island became renamed after its most famous ship, Titanic Quarter in 1995. Once a sensitive story, Titanic is now considered one of Northern Ireland's most revered and uniting symbols.\nIn late August 2018, several groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 Titanic relics that were an asset of the bankrupt Premier Exhibitions. Eventually, Titanic Belfast, Titanic Foundation Limited and the National Museums Northern Ireland joined with the National Maritime Museum as a consortium that was raising money to purchase the 5,500 artefacts. The group intended to keep all of the items together as a single exhibit. Oceanographer Robert Ballard said he favoured this bid since it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where Titanic was built) and in Greenwich. The museums were critical of the bid process set by the Bankruptcy court in Jacksonville, Florida. The minimum bid for the 11 October 2018 auction was set at US$21.5 million (£16.5m) and the consortium did not have enough funding to meet that amount. On 17 October 2018, The New York Times reported that a consortium of three hedge funds—Apollo Global Management, Alta Fundamental Advisers, and PacBridge Capital Partners—had paid US$19.5 million for the collection. At the time of the purchase, the consortium agreed to continued oversight by the court concerning new exploration or salvage expedition must receive approval from NOAA and the court. Further, the purchase price gives Premier's unsecured creditors an 80% recovery.\n\nDiagrams and timeline\nReplicas\nThere have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.\nA Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in November 2016 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel was to house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first-class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists were to be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It was to be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism. As of 2022, however, it was reportedly only 25% complete, and its website and Twitter account are offline.\n\nSee also\nTitanic conspiracy theories\nTitanic in popular culture\nSeamen's Act\nLists of shipwrecks\nThe Wreck of the Titan: Or, Futility\n\nComparable disasters\nSS Atlantic, White Star Line ship lost in 1873 with the greatest loss of life for the company before Titanic\nSS Eastland, a ship capsizing in 1915 after being fitted with extra lifeboats\nMS Estonia\nRMS Empress of Ireland\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nBooks\nExternal links\n\nRMS Titanic, Inc, exclusive steward of RMS Titanic\nTitanic Historical Society\nRMS Titanic at Curlie\nCollection of Marconigram radio messages related to the Titanic Archived 25 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine\nTitanic collected news and commentary at The Guardian \nNew York Times coverage of the Titanic\n\"Titanic in Black and White\" at Library of Virginia\nRuhlow, Tina (December 2020). \"50 Images From The Titanic You Have To See To Believe\". Reference.com. Archived from the original on 26 December 2020.\nTitanic Footage and Survivors Interviews on YouTube\nTitanic Footage: Leaving Belfast – British Pathé on YouTube\nReferences to the Titanic in European Historic Newspapers\nRare Postcard from the Titanic\nRMS Titanic: Fascinating Engineering Facts on YouTube – Professor William S. Hammack",
"title": "Titanic"
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"paragraph_text": "Titanic is a 1997 American epic romantic disaster film directed, written, co-produced and co-edited by James Cameron. Incorporating both historical and fictionalized aspects, it is based on accounts of the sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912. Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet star as members of different social classes who fall in love during the ship's maiden voyage. The film also features an ensemble cast of Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Danny Nucci, David Warner and Bill Paxton.\nCameron's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks. He felt a love story interspersed with human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster. Production began on September 1, 1995, when Cameron shot footage of the Titanic wreck. The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck. Scale models, computer-generated imagery, and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Baja Studios were used to recreate the sinking. The film was initially in development at 20th Century Fox, but a mounting budget and being behind schedule resulted in Fox asking Paramount Pictures for financial help; Paramount handled distribution in the United States and Canada, while 20th Century Fox released the film internationally. Titanic was the most expensive film ever made at the time, with a production budget of $200 million. Filming took place from July 1996 to March 1997.\nTitanic was released on December 19, 1997. It was praised for its visual effects, performances (particularly those of DiCaprio, Winslet, and Gloria Stuart), production values, direction, score, cinematography, story, and emotional depth. Among other awards, it was nominated for 14 Academy Awards and won 11, including Best Picture and Best Director, tying Ben-Hur (1959) for the most Academy Awards won by a film. With an initial worldwide gross of over $1.84 billion, Titanic was the first film to reach the billion-dollar mark. It was the highest-grossing film of all time until Cameron's next film, Avatar (2009), surpassed it in 2010. Income from the initial theatrical release, retail video, and soundtrack sales and US broadcast rights exceeded $3.2 billion. A number of re-releases have pushed the film's worldwide theatrical total to $2.264 billion, making it the second film to gross more than $2 billion worldwide after Avatar. In 2017, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\".\n\nPlot\nIn 1996, aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, Brock Lovett and his team search the wreck of RMS Titanic. They recover a safe they hope contains a necklace with a large diamond known as the Heart of the Ocean. Instead, they find only a drawing of a young nude woman wearing the necklace. The sketch is dated April 14, 1912, the same day the Titanic struck an iceberg that caused it to sink. After viewing a television news story about the discovery, centenarian Rose Dawson Calvert contacts Lovett, identifying herself as the woman in the drawing. Hoping she can help locate the necklace, Lovett brings Rose aboard Keldysh, where she recounts her experiences as a Titanic passenger.\nIn 1912 Southampton, 17-year-old Rose DeWitt Bukater, her wealthy 30-year-old fiancé Cal Hockley, and her widowed mother, Ruth, board the Titanic. Ruth emphasizes that Rose will resolve the family's financial problems and maintain their upper-class status by marrying Cal, but Rose is distraught over her loveless engagement. After the Titanic sets sail, she contemplates jumping from the stern railing, but Jack Dawson, a poor nomadic artist who won his passage in a poker game, coaxes her back onto the deck. They develop a friendship, and Jack soon admits that he has feelings for Rose. When Cal and Ruth object, Rose rejects Jack's attentions but returns to him after realizing she has fallen in love.\nRose brings Jack to her stateroom and requests he draw her nude, wearing only the Heart of the Ocean. After evading Cal's servant Lovejoy, they have sex in a Renault Towncar inside the cargo hold. Escaping to the forward deck, they witness the ship's collision with an iceberg and overhear officers discussing its seriousness. Cal discovers Jack's sketch and an insulting note from Rose in his safe, along with the necklace.\nWhen Jack and Rose return to warn others about the collision, Cal has Lovejoy slip the necklace into Jack's pocket to frame him for theft. Jack is confined in the master-at-arms' office. Cal puts the necklace into his own overcoat pocket. With the ship sinking, the crew prioritize women and children for evacuation. Rose finds and frees Jack, and they make it back to the deck, where Cal and Jack urge Rose to board a lifeboat. Intending to save himself, Cal lies that he will get Jack safely off the ship and wraps his overcoat around Rose.\nAs her lifeboat is lowered, Rose jumps back onto the ship, unable to abandon Jack. Cal grabs Lovejoy's pistol and chases Jack and Rose, but they escape. Cal realizes the necklace is still in the coat he gave Rose. He poses as a lost child's father to board a lifeboat. As the flooded bow of the ship sinks, the stern rises. Jack and Rose desperately cling to the stern rail. The upended ship breaks in half, and the bow section sinks. The stern slams back onto the ocean, upends again, and sinks. In the freezing water, Jack helps Rose onto a wood transom panel among the debris and makes her promise to survive and live her life to the fullest. The panel is buoyant enough for only one person. Jack dies of cold shock, but Rose is among six people saved by the one returning lifeboat. RMS Carpathia rescues the survivors. Still wearing Cal's overcoat, Rose avoids Cal and her mother by hiding among the steerage passengers and giving her name as Rose Dawson.\nIn the present, Rose says she heard that Cal committed suicide after losing his fortune in the Crash of '29. Lovett abandons his search for the necklace. Alone on the stern of Keldysh, Rose holds the Heart of the Ocean, which has been in her possession all along, and drops it into the sea over the wreck site. While she is seemingly asleep in her bed, her photos on the dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by Jack. A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic's Grand Staircase, applauded by those who died on the night of the disaster.\n\nCast\nFictional characters\nLeonardo DiCaprio as Jack Dawson. Cameron said he needed the cast to feel they were really on the Titanic, to relive its liveliness, and \"to take that energy and give it to Jack, ... an artist who is able to have his heart soar\". Jack is portrayed as an itinerant, poor orphan from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, who has travelled the world, including Paris. He wins two third-class tickets for the Titanic in a poker game and travels with his friend Fabrizio. He is attracted to Rose at first sight. Her fiancé's invitation to dine with them the next evening enables Jack to mix with first-class passengers for a night. Cameron's original choice for the role was River Phoenix; however, he died in 1993. Though established actors like Matthew McConaughey, Chris O'Donnell, Billy Crudup, and Stephen Dorff were considered, Cameron felt they were too old for the part of a 20-year-old. Tom Cruise was interested, but his asking price was too high. Cameron considered Jared Leto for the role, but Leto refused to audition. Jeremy Sisto did a series of screen tests with Winslet and three other actresses vying for the role of Rose. DiCaprio, 21 years old at the time, was brought to Cameron's attention by casting director Mali Finn. Initially, he did not want the role and refused to read his first romantic scene. Cameron said, \"He read it once, then started goofing around, and I could never get him to focus on it again. But for one split second, a shaft of light came down from the heavens and lit up the forest.\" Cameron strongly believed in DiCaprio's acting ability and told him, \"Look, I'm not going to make this guy brooding and neurotic. I'm not going to give him a tic and a limp and all the things you want.\" Cameron envisioned the character as being like those played by James Stewart or Gregory Peck. Although Jack Dawson was a fictional character, in Fairview Cemetery in Halifax, Nova Scotia, where 121 victims are buried, there is a grave labeled \"J. Dawson\". The producers did not know of the real J. Dawson until after the film was released.\nKate Winslet as Rose DeWitt Bukater. Cameron said Winslet \"had the thing that you look for\" and that there was \"a quality in her face, in her eyes\" that he \"just knew people would be ready to go the distance with her\". Rose is a 17-year-old girl from Philadelphia, who is forced into an engagement to 30-year-old Cal Hockley so she and her mother, Ruth, can maintain their high-class status after her father's death left the family debt-ridden. Rose boards Titanic with Cal and Ruth as a first-class passenger and meets Jack. Winslet said of her character, \"She has got a lot to give, and she's got a very open heart. And she wants to explore and adventure the world, but she [feels] that's not going to happen.\" Gwyneth Paltrow, Winona Ryder, Claire Danes (who had worked with DiCaprio in Romeo + Juliet the previous year), Gabrielle Anwar, and Reese Witherspoon were considered for the role. When they turned it down, Winslet campaigned heavily for the role. She sent Cameron daily notes from England, which led Cameron to invite her to Hollywood for auditions. As with DiCaprio, casting director Mali Finn originally brought her to Cameron's attention. When looking for a Rose, Cameron described the character as \"an Audrey Hepburn type\". He was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him. After she screen tested with DiCaprio, Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him that she whispered to Cameron, \"He's great. Even if you don't pick me, pick him.\" Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed, \"From Your Rose\", and lobbied him by phone. \"You don't understand!\" she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee. \"I am Rose! I don't know why you're even seeing anyone else!\" Her persistence, as well as her talent, eventually convinced him to cast her in the role.\nBilly Zane as Cal Hockley, Rose's arrogant and snobbish 30-year-old fiancé, who is the heir to a Pittsburgh steel fortune. He is resentful of Rose's affection for Jack. Cameron initially considered Michael Biehn, whom he had previously collaborated with on The Terminator, Aliens, and The Abyss, for the role, before offering it to Matthew McConaughey, and Rob Lowe said he pursued it.\nFrances Fisher as Ruth DeWitt Bukater, Rose's widowed mother, who arranges Rose's engagement to Cal to maintain her family's high-society status. Like many aristocratic passengers portrayed in the film, her disposition is elitist and frivolous. She loves her daughter but believes that social position is more important than having a loving marriage. She strongly dislikes Jack, even though he saved her daughter's life.\nGloria Stuart as the modern-day Rose Dawson Calvert. Rose narrates the film in a framing device. Cameron stated, \"In order to see the present and the past, I decided to create a fictional survivor who is [close to] 101 years, and she connects us in a way through history.\" The 100-year-old Rose gives Lovett information regarding the Heart of the Ocean after he discovers a nude drawing of her in the wreck. She shares the story of her time aboard the ship and speaks about her relationship with Jack for the first time since the sinking. At 87, Stuart had to be made up to look older for the role. Of casting Stuart, Cameron stated, \"My casting director found her. She was sent out on a mission to find retired actresses from the Golden Age of the thirties and forties.\" Cameron said that he did not know who Stuart was. Fay Wray was also considered for the role, but Cameron said, \"[Stuart] was just so into it, and so lucid, and had such a great spirit. And I saw the connection between her spirit and [Winslet's] spirit. I saw this joie de vivre in both of them, that I thought the audience would be able to make that cognitive leap that it's the same person.\"\nBill Paxton as Brock Lovett, a treasure hunter looking for the Heart of the Ocean in the wreck of the Titanic in the present. Time and funding for his expedition are running out. He reflects at the film's conclusion that, despite thinking about Titanic for three years, he has never understood it until he hears Rose's story.\nSuzy Amis as Lizzy Calvert, Rose's granddaughter, who accompanies her when she visits Lovett on the ship and learns of her grandmother's romantic past with Jack Dawson.\nDanny Nucci as Fabrizio De Rossi, Jack's Italian best friend, who boards Titanic with him after Jack wins two tickets in a poker game. Fabrizio fails to board a lifeboat when the Titanic sinks and is killed when one of the ship's funnels breaks and crashes into the water, crushing him and several other passengers to death.\nDavid Warner as Spicer Lovejoy, an ex-Pinkerton constable and Cal's English valet and bodyguard. He monitors Rose and is suspicious about the circumstances surrounding Jack rescuing her. He dies when the Titanic splits in half, causing him to fall into a massive opening. Warner also appeared in the 1979 TV miniseries S.O.S. Titanic, portraying passenger Lawrence Beesley.\nJason Barry as Tommy Ryan, an Irish third-class passenger who befriends Jack and Fabrizio. Tommy is killed when he is accidentally pushed forward and shot by a panicked First Officer Murdoch.\nAlexandrea Owens-Sarno as Cora Cartmell, a young third-class girl who dances with Jack at the Irish party. In a deleted scene, Cora and her family drowned after they were trapped at the locked third-class gate.\n\nHistorical characters\nAlthough not intended to be an entirely accurate depiction of events, the film includes portrayals of various historical figures:\n\nKathy Bates as Margaret \"Molly\" Brown. Brown is looked down upon by other first-class women, including Ruth, as \"vulgar\" and \"new money\". She is friendly to Jack and lends him a suit of evening clothes (bought for her son) when he is invited to dinner in the first-class dining saloon. She was dubbed the Unsinkable Molly Brown by historians because, with the support of other women, she commandeered Lifeboat 6 from Quartermaster Robert Hichens. Some aspects of this altercation are portrayed in Cameron's film. Reba McEntire was offered the role but had to turn it down because it conflicted with her touring schedule.\nVictor Garber as Thomas Andrews, the ship's builder. Andrews is portrayed as a kind, decent man who is modest about his grand achievement. After the collision, he tries to convince the others, particularly Ismay, that it is a \"mathematical certainty\" that the ship will sink. He is depicted during the sinking of the ship as standing next to the clock in the first-class smoking room, lamenting his failure to build a strong and safe ship. Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic, this story, which was published in a 1912 book (Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder) and therefore perpetuated, came from John Stewart, a steward on the ship who in fact left the ship in boat no.15 at approximately 1:40 a.m. There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment. It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts; then he continued assisting with the evacuation.\n\nBernard Hill as Captain Edward John Smith. Smith planned to make the Titanic his final voyage before retiring. He retreats into the wheelhouse on the bridge as the ship sinks, dying when the windows burst from the water pressure whilst he clings to the ship's wheel. There are conflicting accounts as to whether he died in this manner or later froze to death in the water near the capsized collapsible lifeboat B.\nJonathan Hyde as J. Bruce Ismay, White Star Line's ignorant, boorish managing director. With the prospect of an earlier arrival in New York and favorable press attention, Ismay influences Captain Smith to go faster; although this situation appears in popular portrayals of the disaster, it is unsupported by evidence. After the collision, he struggles to comprehend that his \"unsinkable\" ship is doomed. Ismay later boards Collapsible C (one of the last lifeboats to leave the ship) just before it is lowered. He was branded a coward by the press and public for surviving the disaster while many women and children drowned.\nEric Braeden as John Jacob Astor IV, a first-class passenger and the richest man on the ship. In the film, Rose introduces Jack to Astor and his 18-year-old wife, Madeleine (Charlotte Chatton), in the first-class dining saloon. During the introduction, Astor asks whether Jack is connected to the \"Boston Dawsons\", a question Jack deflects by saying that he is instead affiliated with the Chippewa Falls Dawsons. Astor is last seen as the glass dome over the Grand Staircase implodes and water surges in.\nBernard Fox as Colonel Archibald Gracie IV. The film depicts Gracie making a comment to Cal that \"women and machinery don't mix\" and congratulating Jack for saving Rose from falling off the ship, unaware that Jack saved Rose from a suicide attempt. He is later seen offering to lead Jack and Rose to the remaining lifeboats during the sinking. Fox portrayed Frederick Fleet in the 1958 film A Night to Remember.\nMichael Ensign as Benjamin Guggenheim, a mining magnate traveling in first class. He shows off his French mistress, Madame Aubert (Fannie Brett), to his fellow passengers while his wife and three daughters wait for him at home. When Jack joins the first-class passengers for dinner after rescuing Rose, Guggenheim refers to him as a \"bohemian\". Guggenheim is seen in the flooding Grand Staircase during the sinking, saying he is prepared to go down as a gentleman.\n\nJonathan Evans-Jones as Wallace Hartley, the ship's bandmaster and violinist, who plays uplifting music with his colleagues on the boat deck as the ship sinks. As the final plunge begins, he leads the band in a final performance of \"Nearer, My God, to Thee\", to the tune of Bethany, and dies in the sinking.\nMark Lindsay Chapman as Chief Officer Henry Wilde, the ship's chief officer, who lets Cal board a lifeboat because he has a child in his arms. Before he dies, he tries to get boats to return to the sinking site to rescue passengers by blowing his whistle. After he freezes to death, Rose uses his whistle to attract the attention of Fifth Officer Lowe, leading to her rescue.\nEwan Stewart as First Officer William Murdoch, the officer in charge of the bridge when the Titanic struck an iceberg. During a rush for the lifeboats, Murdoch shoots Tommy Ryan, as well as another passenger, in a momentary panic and then commits suicide by shooting himself in the head. When Murdoch's nephew Scott saw the film, he objected to his uncle's portrayal, seeing it as damaging to Murdoch's heroic reputation. A few months later, Fox vice president Scott Neeson went to Dalbeattie, Scotland, where Murdoch lived, to deliver a personal apology and also presented a £5000 donation to Dalbeattie High School to boost the school's William Murdoch Memorial Prize. Cameron apologized on the DVD commentary but stated that there were officers who fired gunshots to enforce the \"women and children first\" policy. According to Cameron, his depiction of Murdoch is that of an \"honorable man,\" not of a man \"gone bad\" or of a \"cowardly murderer.\" He added, \"I'm not sure you'd find that same sense of responsibility and total devotion to duty today. This guy had half of his lifeboats launched before his counterpart on the port side had even launched one. That says something about character and heroism.\"\nJonathan Phillips as Second Officer Charles Lightoller. Lightoller took charge of the port side evacuation. In the film, Lightoller informs Captain Smith that it will be difficult to see icebergs without breaking water and, after the collision, suggests that the crew begin boarding women and children in the lifeboats. He is seen brandishing a gun and threatening to use it to keep order. He can be seen on top of Collapsible B when the first funnel collapses. Lightoller was the most senior officer to survive the disaster.\nFilm producer Kevin De La Noy as Third Officer Herbert Pitman, who survived the sinking and manned Lifeboat 5\nSimon Crane as Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall, the officer in charge of firing flares and manning Lifeboat 2 during the sinking. He is shown on the bridge wings helping the seamen firing the flares.\nIoan Gruffudd as Fifth Officer Harold Lowe, the only officer to lead a lifeboat to retrieve survivors of the sinking from the icy waters. The film depicts Lowe rescuing Rose.\nEdward Fletcher as Sixth Officer James Moody, the only junior officer to have died in the sinking. The film depicts Moody admitting Jack and Fabrizio onto the ship only moments before it departs from Southampton. Moody is later shown following Murdoch's orders to put the ship to full speed ahead and informs Murdoch about the iceberg. He is last seen clinging to one of the davits on the starboard side after having unsuccessfully attempted to launch collapsible A.\nJames Lancaster as Father Thomas Byles, a second-class passenger and a Catholic priest from England. He is portrayed praying and consoling passengers during the ship's final moments.\nLew Palter and Elsa Raven as Isidor and Ida Straus. Isidor is a former owner of R.H. Macy and Company, a former congressman from New York, and a member of the New York and New Jersey Bridge Commission. During the sinking, the couple were offered seats on a lifeboat together. Isidor refused to go before all women and children have been evacuated, and urged his wife Ida to go ahead. Ida is portrayed refusing to board the lifeboat, saying that she will honor her wedding pledge by staying with Isidor. They are last seen lying on their bed, embracing each other as water fills their stateroom.\nMartin Jarvis as Sir Cosmo Duff-Gordon, a Scottish baronet who is rescued in Lifeboat 1. Lifeboats 1 and 2 were emergency boats with a capacity of 40. Situated at the forward end of the boat deck, these were kept ready to launch in case of a person falling overboard. On the night of the disaster, Lifeboat 1 was the fourth to be launched, with 12 people aboard, including Duff-Gordon, his wife and her secretary. The baronet was much criticized for his conduct during the incident. It was suggested that he had boarded the emergency boat in violation of the \"women and children first\" policy, and that the boat had failed to return to rescue those struggling in the water. He offered five pounds to each of the lifeboat's crew, which those critical of his conduct viewed as a bribe. The Duff-Gordons at the time (and his wife's secretary in a letter written at the time and rediscovered in 2007) stated that there had been no women or children waiting to board in the vicinity of the launching of their boat; there is confirmation that lifeboat 1 of the Titanic was almost empty, and that First Officer William Murdoch was apparently glad to offer Duff-Gordon and his wife and her secretary a place (simply to fill it) after they had asked if they could get on. Duff-Gordon denied that his offer of money to the lifeboat crew represented a bribe. The British Board of Trade's inquiry into the disaster accepted Duff-Gordon's denial of bribing the crew, but maintained that, if the emergency boat had rowed towards the people who were in the water, it might very well have been able to rescue some of them.\nRosalind Ayres as Lady Duff-Gordon, a world-famous fashion designer and Sir Cosmo's wife. She is rescued in Lifeboat 1 with her husband. They never lived down rumors that they had forbidden the lifeboat's crew to return to the wreck site in case they would be swamped. Jarvis and Ayres were husband and wife in real life.\nRochelle Rose as Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes. The Countess is shown to be friendly with Cal and the DeWitt Bukaters. Despite being of a higher status in society than Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff-Gordon, she is kind, and helps row the boat and even looks after the steerage passengers.\nScott G. Anderson as Frederick Fleet, the lookout who saw the iceberg. Fleet escapes the sinking ship aboard Lifeboat 6.\nPaul Brightwell as Quartermaster Robert Hichens, one of the six quartermasters and at the ship's wheel at the time of collision. He is in charge of lifeboat 6. He refuses to go back and pick up survivors after the sinking and eventually the boat is commandeered by Molly Brown.\nMartin East as Reginald Lee, the other lookout in the crow's nest. He survives the sinking.\nGregory Cooke as Jack Phillips, the senior wireless operator whom Captain Smith ordered to send the distress signal.\nCraig Kelly as Harold Bride, a junior wireless operator.\nLiam Tuohy as Chief Baker Charles Joughin. The baker appears in the film helping Rose stand up after she falls, following her and Jack to the ship's stern, and finally hanging onto the ship's railing as it sinks, drinking brandy from a flask. According to the real Joughin's testimony, he rode the ship down and stepped into the water without getting his hair wet. He also admitted to hardly feeling the cold, most likely thanks to alcohol. In a deleted scene, he's shown throwing deckchairs overboard before taking a drink from his bottle.\nTerry Forrestal as Chief Engineer Joseph G. Bell: Bell and his men worked throughout the sinking to keep the lights and the power on in order for distress signals to get out. The film portrays Bell and all of the engineers as having died in the bowels of the Titanic, however there is evidence to suggest that at least some of the engineers were released to come on deck when the flooding became severe. Greaser Frederick Scott testified to seeing eight engineers between approximately 1:50 and 1:55 a.m. standing up against the electric crane on the starboard Boat Deck; by then, all the lifeboats had gone.\n\nCameos\nSeveral crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear, including Anatoly Sagalevich, the creator and pilot of the Mir self-propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. Van Ling portrayed Fang Lang; his backstory inspired Cameron to produce a documentary The Six, based on a group of Chinese survivors who survived the sinking. Anders Falk, who filmed a documentary about the film's sets for the Titanic Historical Society, makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda, then President and Vice President of the Society, who served as film consultants, were cast as extras in the film.\n\nPre-production\nWriting and inspiration\nJames Cameron has long had a fascination with shipwrecks, and for him Titanic was \"the Mount Everest of shipwrecks\". He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition, but said he still had \"a mental restlessness\" to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college. When an IMAX film, Titanica, was made from footage shot of the Titanic wreck, Cameron decided to seek Hollywood funding for his own expedition. It was \"not because I particularly wanted to make the movie,\" Cameron said. \"I wanted to dive to the shipwreck.\"\nCameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film, met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin, and pitched it as \"Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic\". Cameron said the executives were unconvinced of the commercial potential, and had instead hoped for action scenes similar to his previous films. They approved the project as they hoped for a long-term relationship with Cameron.\nCameron convinced 20th Century Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck, and organized several dives over a period of two years. He also convinced 20th Century Fox that shooting the real wreck for the film scenes, instead of simulating it with special effects, would provide value: \"We can either do [the shots] with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that, which will cost X amount of money – or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck.\"\nThe crew shot at the wreck in the Atlantic Ocean 12 times in 1995. The work was risky, as the water pressure could kill the crew if there were a tiny flaw in the submersible structure. Additionally, adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting footage. During one dive, one of the submersibles collided with Titanic's hull, damaging both sub and ship, and leaving fragments of the submersible's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure. The external bulkhead of the captain's quarters collapsed, exposing the interior, and the area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was damaged.\nDescending to the site emphasized to the crew that the Titanic disaster was not simply a story but a real event with real loss of life. Cameron said: \"Working around the wreck for so much time, you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it, and the message of it.\" He felt a \"great mantle of responsibility\" to convey the emotional message of the story, as he was aware there might never be another filmmaker to visit the wreck.\nCameron felt the Titanic sinking was \"like a great novel that really happened\", but that the event had become a mere morality tale; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history. The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy. He believed that the romance of Jack and Rose would be the most engaging element: when their love is finally destroyed, the audience would mourn the loss. He said: \"All my films are love stories, but in Titanic I finally got the balance right. It's not a disaster film. It's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history.\"\nAfter filming the underwater shots, Cameron began writing the screenplay. He wanted to honor the people who died, and spent six months researching the Titanic's crew and passengers. He created a detailed timeline of the events of the voyage and sinking and had it verified by historical experts. From the beginning of the shoot, the team had \"a very clear picture\" of what happened on the ship. Cameron said \"That set the bar higher in a way – it elevated the movie in a sense. We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you'd gone back in a time machine and shot it.\" Cameron was influenced by the 1958 British film about Titanic, A Night to Remember, which he had seen as a youth. He liberally copied some dialogue and scenes, including the lively party of the passengers in steerage, and the musicians playing on the deck during the sinking.\nCameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant. While Winslet and Stuart believed Rose dies at the end of the film, Cameron said \"the answer has to be something you supply personally; individually\".\n\nScale modeling\nHarland & Wolff, Titanic's builders, opened their private archives to the crew, sharing blueprints that were previously thought lost. For the ship's interiors, production designer Peter Lamont's team looked for artifacts from the era. The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch. 20th Century Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico and began building a new studio on May 31, 1996. A horizon tank of 17 million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship, providing 270 degrees of ocean view. The ship was built to full scale, but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank, with the remaining sections filled with digital models. The lifeboats and funnels were shrunk by ten percent. The boat deck and A-deck were working sets, but the rest of the ship was steel plating. Within was a 50-foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences. The 60-foot 1/8th scale model of the stern section was designed by the naval architect Jay Kantola using plans of the Titanic's sister ship RMS Olympic. Above the model was a 162-foot-tall (49 m) tower crane on 600 feet (180 m) of rail track, acting as a combined construction, lighting, and camera platform.\nThe sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly using photographs and plans from the Titanic's builders. The Grand Staircase, which features prominently in the film, was recreated to a high standard, though it was widened 30% compared to the original and reinforced with steel girders. Craftsmen from Mexico and Britain sculpted the ornate paneling and plasterwork based on Titanic's original designs. The carpeting, upholstery, individual pieces of furniture, light fixtures, chairs, cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece were among the objects recreated according to original designs. Cameron hired two Titanic historians, Don Lynch and Ken Marschall, to authenticate the historical detail.\n\nProduction\nPrincipal photography began on July 31, 1996 at Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, with the modern-day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh. In September 1996, the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios in Rosarito, Mexico, where a full-scale Titanic had been constructed. The poop deck was built on a hinge that could rise from zero to 90 degrees in a few seconds, just as the ship's stern rose during the sinking. For the safety of the stuntmen, many props were made of foam rubber. By November 15, the boarding scenes were being shot. Cameron built his Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data revealed it was a prevailing north-to-south wind, which blew the funnel smoke aft. This posed a problem for shooting the ship's departure from Southampton, as it was docked on its port side. Implementation of written directions, as well as props and costumes, had to be reversed; for example, if someone walked to their right in the script, they had to walk left during shooting. In post-production, the film was flipped to the correct direction. A full-time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast in the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912. Despite this, several critics noted anachronisms in the film.\n\nCameron sketched Jack's portrait of Rose; Winslet posed in a bathing suit. Cameron felt the scene had a backdrop of repression and freedom: \"You know what it means for her, the freedom she must be feeling. It's kind of exhilarating for that reason,\" he said. The sketching scene was DiCaprio and Winslet's first scene together. \"It wasn't by any kind of design, although I couldn't have designed it better. There's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them,\" Cameron stated. \"They had rehearsed together, but they hadn't shot anything together. If I'd had a choice, I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot.\" Cameron said he and his crew \"were just trying to find things to shoot\" because the big set \"wasn't ready for months, so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot.\" Cameron felt the final scene worked well.\nThe shoot was an arduous experience that \"cemented Cameron's formidable reputation as 'the scariest man in Hollywood\". He became known as an \"uncompromising, hard-charging perfectionist\" and a \"300-decibel screamer, a modern-day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie-talkie, swooping down into people's faces on a 162ft crane\". Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m-gallon water tank in which the ship would sink. \"There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him. Jim has a temper like you wouldn't believe,\" she said. \"'God damn it!' he would yell at some poor crew member, 'That's exactly what I didn't want!'\" Bill Paxton was familiar with Cameron's work ethic from his earlier experience, and said: \"There were a lot of people on the set. Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds.\" The crew felt Cameron had an evil alter ego and so nicknamed him \"Mij\" (Jim spelled backwards). In response to the criticism, Cameron said, \"Film-making is war. A great battle between business and aesthetics.\" More than 800 crew members worked on the film.\nOn August 9, 1996, during the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada, an unknown person, suspected to be a crew member, put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. It sent more than 50 people to the hospital. Paxton and Cameron ate the soup and went to the hospital but Paxton decided to leave, telling Cameron \"Jim, I'm not gonna hang out here, this is bedlam. I'm gonna ... wander back down to the set and just drink a case of beer.\" \"There were people just rolling around, completely out of it. Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics,\" said actor Lewis Abernathy. Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold. Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked. \"One eye was completely red, like the Terminator eye. A pupil, no iris, beet red. The other eye looked like he'd been sniffing glue since he was four.\" The Nova Scotia Department of Health confirmed that the soup had contained PCP on August 27, and the Halifax Regional Police Service announced a criminal investigation the next day. The investigation was closed in February 1999. The person behind the poisoning was never caught.\n\nThe filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160 (filming officially wrapped on March 23, 1997). Many cast members came down with colds, flu, or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water, including Winslet. In the end, she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned \"a lot of money\". Several others left the production, and three stuntmen broke their bones, but the Screen Actors Guild decided, following an investigation, that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set. Additionally, DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming. Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets, although he acknowledged:I'm demanding, and I'm demanding on my crew. In terms of being kind of militaresque, I think there's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe. I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people.\nThe costs of filming Titanic ballooned and eventually reached $200 million, a bit over $1 million per minute of screen time. Fox executives panicked and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three-hour film. They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings, thus less revenue, even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars. Cameron refused, telling Fox, \"You want to cut my movie? You're going to have to fire me! You want to fire me? You're going to have to kill me!\" The executives did not want to start over, because it would mean the loss of their entire investment. The executives initially rejected Cameron's offer to forfeit his share of the profits as an empty gesture, as they predicted profits would be unlikely. Worried about the mounting costs, 20th Century Fox wanted to find a partner studio to co-finance the film. Fox first approached Universal Pictures as they had picked up the international distribution rights to Cameron's True Lies (1994) when production costs began to mount; however Universal would turn Fox down. Instead, Fox and Paramount Pictures came together in May 1996 following the success both studios had collaborating together on the distribution for Mel Gibson's Braveheart (1995), and ultimately agreed to co-finance the film together and split the distribution rights. In an effort to recoup their $135 million investment, Fox sold the domestic rights to the film to Paramount in return for Paramount providing Fox an additional $65 million for production, while retaining international rights; Fox however would still be responsible for any further budget overruns going forward, but also retain all profits from any merchandise sold based on the film as part of the deal with Paramount.\nCameron explained forfeiting his share as complex. \"... the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies. Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget. Titanic also had a large budget to begin with, but it went up a lot more,\" he said. \"As the producer and director, I take responsibility for the studio that's writing the checks, so I made it less painful for them. I did that on two different occasions. They didn't force me to do it; they were glad that I did.\" Amidst the film's successful box office run, a Fox executive, William Mechanic, commented that \"Jim Cameron told us we could have an expensive bad movie or a more expensive potentially great movie. We made our judgment. And we made the best choice.\"\nIn July 2024, Cameron stated that it was actually co-producer Jon Landau who \"bore the brunt of the studio pressure\" when Titanic was being made. According to Cameron, Landau \"gave his all to provide the time and resources for me to make the film I saw in my head.\"\n\nPost-production\nEffects\nCameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects, and enlisted Digital Domain and Pacific Data Images to continue the developments in digital technology he pioneered on The Abyss and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. Many previous films about Titanic shot water in slow motion, which did not look wholly convincing. Cameron encouraged his crew to shoot their 45-foot-long (14 m) miniature of the ship as if \"we're making a commercial for the White Star Line\". Afterwards, digital water and smoke were added, as were extras captured on a motion capture stage. Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors, including himself and his children, for the digital extras and stuntmen. There was also a 65-foot-long (20 m) model of the ship's stern that could break in two repeatedly, the only miniature to be used in water. For scenes set in the ship's engines, footage of the SS Jeremiah O'Brien's engines were composited with miniature support frames, and actors shot against a greenscreen. In order to save money, the first-class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop behind the actors. The miniature of the Lounge would later be crushed to simulate the destruction of the room and a scale model of a First-Class corridor flooded with jets of water while the camera pans out.\n\nAn enclosed 5,000,000-US-gallon (19,000,000 L) tank was used for sinking interiors, in which the entire set could be tilted into the water. In order to sink the Grand Staircase, 90,000 US gallons (340,000 L) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank. Unexpectedly, the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel-reinforced foundations, although no one was hurt. The 744-foot-long (227 m) exterior of Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank, but as the heaviest part of the ship it acted as a shock absorber against the water; to get the set into the water, Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself. After submerging the dining saloon, three days were spent shooting Lovett's ROV traversing the wreck in the present. The post-sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350,000-US-gallon (1,300,000 L) tank, where the frozen corpses were created by applying on actors a powder that crystallized when exposed to water, and wax was coated on hair and clothes.\nThe climactic scene, which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic, involved a tilting full-sized set, 150 extras, and 100 stunt performers. Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the liner's final plunge as a graceful slide underwater. He \"wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was\". When carrying out the sequence, people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck, plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down. A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt artists resulted in some minor injuries, and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts. The risks were eventually minimized \"by using computer-generated people for the dangerous falls\". A Linux-based operating system was utilized for the creation of the effects.\n\nEditing\nCameron said there were aspects of the Titanic story that seemed important in pre- and post-production but became less important as the film evolved. He omitted the SS Californian, the ship that was close to the Titanic the night she sank but had turned off its radio for the night, did not hear her crew's SOS calls, and did not respond to their distress flares. A scene involving the Californian was cut, according to Cameron, \"because it focuses you back onto that world. If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor, as a microcosm, for the end of the world in a sense, then that world must be self-contained.\" He said its omission was not \"a compromise to mainstream filmmaking\" but \"about emphasis, creating an emotional truth to the film\".\nDuring the first assembly cut, Cameron altered the ending. In the original version, Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat and fear she is going to commit suicide. Rose reveals that she had the Heart of the Ocean diamond all along but never sold it, to live on her own without Cal's money. She allows Brock to hold it but tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean. After accepting that treasure is worthless, Brock laughs at his stupidity. In the editing room, Cameron decided that by this point, the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the scene, so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond. He also did not want to disrupt the audience's melancholy after the Titanic's sinking. Paxton agreed that his scene with Brock's epiphany and laugh was unnecessary, saying \"I would have shot heroin to make the scene work better ... Our job was done by then ... If you're smart and you take the ego and the narcissism out of it, you'll listen to the film, and the film will tell you what it needs and what it does not need.\"\nThe version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon. The scene was written to give the film more suspense, and had Cal offering to give Lovejoy, his valet, the Heart of the Ocean if he can get it from Jack and Rose. Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first-class dining room. Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a window; this is why Lovejoy has a gash later in the film. Test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one's life for wealth, and Cameron cut it for this reason, as well as for timing and pacing reasons. Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons.\n\nHeart of the Ocean\nFor the Heart of the Ocean design, London-based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold to create an Edwardian-style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. The studio designed and produced three variations, very similar but unique and distinguishable in character. Two of them were used in the film while the third went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace and the Asprey necklace.\nThe third and final design was not used in the film. After the film's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum-set, 171-carat (34.2 g) heart-shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds. This design featured a much larger inverted pear-shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client for $1.4 million (equivalent to $2.62 million in 2023), under the agreement that Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. Since then, this necklace has not been made available for public viewing.\n\nSoundtrack\nCameron wrote Titanic while listening to the work of the Irish new-age musician Enya. After Enya declined an invitation to compose for the film, Cameron instead chose James Horner. The two had parted ways after a tumultuous working experience on Aliens, but Titanic cemented a successful collaboration that lasted until Horner's death. For the vocals heard throughout the film, Horner chose the Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø, commonly known as \"Sissel\". Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen, and particularly liked how she sang \"Eg veit i himmerik ei borg\" (\"I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle\"). He tried around 30 singers before choosing Sissel.\nHorner wrote the end theme, \"My Heart Will Go On\", in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs in the film. Céline Dion agreed to record a demo at the persuasion of her husband René Angélil. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, although worried that he would have been criticized for \"going commercial at the end of the movie\". Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and \"saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion\".\nThe soundtrack was the best-selling album of 1998 with sales of over 27 million.\n\nRelease\nInitial screening\nDistribution for the film was split between Paramount Pictures and 20th Century Fox; the former handling the distribution in the United States and Canada, and the latter handling the international release. Both studios expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2, 1997. The film was to be released on this date \"to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better\". In April, Cameron said the film's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film on that date would not be possible. The studios considered pushing the film to late July or the first week of August, but Harrison Ford, whose film Air Force One was to be released on July 25, is reported to have informed Paramount, which had produced his lucrative Indiana Jones and Jack Ryan franchises, that he would never work with them again if they released Titanic so close to his own film. On May 29, 1997, Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19, 1997. \"This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster.\" A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 \"generated positive reviews\" and \"[c]hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the [film]\". This eventually led to more positive media coverage.\nCameron refused to hold the film's world premiere in Los Angeles. Paramount disagreed with Cameron's decision, but 20th Century Fox acquiesced and went ahead and held the premiere on November 1, 1997, at the Tokyo International Film Festival, where reaction was described as \"tepid\" by The New York Times. Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14, 1997, where \"the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media\".\n\nBox office\nIncluding revenue from the 2012, 2017 and 2023 reissues, Titanic earned $674.3 million in North America and $1.583 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of $2.257 billion. It became the highest-grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998, beating Jurassic Park (1993). The film remained so for twelve years, until Avatar (2009), also written and directed by Cameron, surpassed it in 2010. On March 1, 1998, it became the first film to earn more than $1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13–15, 2012—a century after the original vessel's foundering, Titanic became the second film to cross the $2 billion threshold during its 3D re-release. Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth-highest-grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation. The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.\nTitanic was the first foreign-language film to succeed in India, which claims to have the largest movie-going audience in the world. A Hindustan Times report attributes this to the film's similarities and shared themes with most Bollywood films.\n\nInitial theatrical run\nThe film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday, December 19, 1997. By the end of that same weekend, theaters were beginning to sell out. The film earned $8,658,814 on its opening day and $28,638,131 over the opening weekend from 2,674 theaters, averaging to about $10,710 per venue, and ranking number one at the box office, ahead of Mouse Hunt, Scream 2 and the eighteenth James Bond film, Tomorrow Never Dies. It would go on to surpass The Godfather Part III's record for having the highest Christmas Day gross, generating a total of $9.2 million. For its second weekend, the film made $35.6 million, making it the biggest December weekend gross, surpassing Scream 2. By New Year's Day, Titanic had made over $120 million, had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out. In just 44 days, it became the fastest film to approach the $300 million mark at the domestic box office, surpassing the former record held by Jurassic Park, which took 67 days to do so. Titanic would hold this record until 1999 when it was taken by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.\nIts highest grossing single day was Saturday, February 14, 1998, on which it earned $13,048,711, more than eight weeks after its North American debut. On March 14, it surpassed Star Wars as the highest-grossing film ever in North America. It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America, a record for any film. By April 1998, the film's number one spot would be overtaken by Lost in Space, dropping into second place. The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday, October 1, 1998, with a final domestic gross of $600,788,188, equivalent to $1140.3 million in 2023. Outside North America, the film made double its North American gross, generating $1,242,413,080 and accumulating a grand total of $1,843,201,268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run.\n\nCommercial analysis\nBefore Titanic's release, various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office, especially since it was the most expensive film ever made at the time. When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997, \"it was with massive forebodings\", since the \"people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs – because of this great albatross of a picture on which, finally, two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making\". Cameron also thought he was \"headed for disaster\" at one point during filming. \"We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $100 million. It was a certainty,\" he stated. As the film neared release, \"particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance\". A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that \"Cameron's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project\" and that the film was \"a hackneyed, completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances\".\n\nWhen the film became a success, with an unprecedented box-office performance, it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers' emotions. The film was playing on 3,200 screens ten weeks after it opened, and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts, jumped 43% in total sales in its ninth week of release. It earned over $20 million for each of its first 10 weekends, and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $1 million on weekdays. 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week. Although young women who saw the film several times and subsequently caused \"Leo-Mania\" were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all-time box office record, other reports have attributed the film's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground-breaking special effects. The Hollywood Reporter estimated that after a combined production and promotion cost of $487 million, the film turned a net profit of $1.4 billion, with a modern profit of as much as $4 billion after ancillary sources.\nTitanic's impact on men has also been especially credited. It is considered one of the films that make men cry, with MSNBC's Ian Hodder stating that men admire Jack's sense of adventure and his ambitious behavior to win over Rose, which contributes to their emotional attachment to Jack. The film's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland, where character Tallahassee (Woody Harrelson), when recalling the death of his young son, states: \"I haven't cried like that since Titanic.\"\nScott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense, given its success, it is considered a film \"for 15-year-old girls\" by its main detractors. He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for teenage girls fails to consider the film's accomplishment: \"that [this] grandiose, 3+ hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone—including teenage boys.\" Meslow stated that despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18, matching the ratings for teenage boy-targeted films like Iron Man, it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic. He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it. \"It's this collection of elements—the history, the romance, the action—that made (and continues to make) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe,\" he stated. \"Titanic has flaws, but for all its legacy, it's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe. It's a great movie for 15-year-old girls, but that doesn't mean it's not a great movie for everyone else too.\"\nQuotes in the film aided its popularity. Titanic's catchphrase \"I'm the king of the world!\" became one of the film industry's more popular quotations. According to Richard Harris, a psychology professor at Kansas State University, who studied why people like to cite films in social situations, using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others. \"People are doing it to feel good about themselves, to make others laugh, to make themselves laugh\", he said.\nCameron explained the film's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing. \"When people have an experience that's very powerful in the movie theatre, they want to go share it. They want to grab their friend and bring them, so that they can enjoy it,\" he said. \"They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life. That's how Titanic worked.\" Media Awareness Network stated, \"The normal\nrepeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5%. The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20%.\" The box office receipts \"were even more impressive\" when factoring in \"the film's 3-hour-and-14-minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie's four showings\". In response to this, \"[m]any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3:30 am\".\nTitanic held the record for box office gross for 12 years. Cameron's follow-up film, Avatar, was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross, and did so in 2010. Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given. For one, \"Two-thirds of Titanic's haul was earned overseas, and Avatar [tracked] similarly ... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no. 1 in all of them\" and the markets \"such as Russia, where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998, are white-hot today\" with \"more screens and moviegoers\" than ever before. Brandon Gray, president of Box Office Mojo, said that while Avatar may beat Titanic's revenue record, the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance. \"Ticket prices were about $3 cheaper in the late 1990s.\" In December 2009, Cameron had stated, \"I don't think it's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch. Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years. Titanic just struck some kind of chord.\" In a January 2010 interview, he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar's performance was easier to predict, saying \"It's gonna happen. It's just a matter of time,\".\nAuthor Alexandra Keller, when analyzing Titanic's success, stated that scholars could agree that the film's popularity \"appears dependent on contemporary culture, on perceptions of history, on patterns of consumerism and globalization, as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s – awesome screen spectacle, expansive action, and, more rarely seen, engaging characters and epic drama.\"\n\nCritical reception\nInitial\nTitanic garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics, and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars, who commented on the film's cultural, historical, and political impacts. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 255 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"A mostly unqualified triumph for James Cameron, who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old-fashioned melodrama.\" Metacritic, which assigned a weighted average score of 75 out of 100, based on 35 critics, reports the film has \"generally favorable reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare \"A+\" grade, one of fewer than 60 films in the history of the service from 1982 to 2011 to earn the score.\nWith regard to the film's overall design, Roger Ebert stated: \"It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding ... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all, but almost impossible to make well.\" He credited the \"technical difficulties\" with being \"so daunting that it's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion\" and \"found [himself] convinced by both the story and the sad saga\". He named it his ninth-best film of 1997. On the television program Siskel & Ebert, the film received \"two thumbs up\" and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship's sinking; Ebert described the film as \"a glorious Hollywood epic\" and \"well worth the wait,\" and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio \"captivating\".\nJames Berardinelli stated: \"Meticulous in detail, yet vast in scope and intent, Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity. You don't just watch Titanic, you experience it.\" It was named his second best film of 1997. Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded: \"To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short. James Cameron's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the 'unsinkable' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood.\"\nThe romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised. Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said: \"You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time, but of its enormous emotive power, big as the engines of the ship itself, determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart, and as lasting as the love story that propels it.\" Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as \"a lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom. Writer-director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking.\" Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that \"Cameron's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind.\" Adrian Turner of Radio Times awarded it four stars out of five, stating \"Cameron's script wouldn't have sustained Clark Gable and Vivien Leigh for 80 minutes, but, somehow, he and his magical cast revive that old-style studio gloss for three riveting hours. Titanic is a sumptuous assault on the emotions, with a final hour that fully captures the horror and the freezing, paralysing fear of the moment. And there are single shots, such as an awesome albatross-like swoop past the steaming ship, when you sense Cameron hugging himself with the fun of it all.\"\nTitanic suffered backlash in addition to its success. Some reviewers felt that while the visuals were spectacular, the story and dialogue were weak. Richard Corliss of Time magazine wrote a mostly negative review, criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements. Kenneth Turan's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing. Dismissing the emotive elements, he stated, \"What really brings on the tears is Cameron's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities. Not only is it not, it is not even close.\" He later argued that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total. Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four, citing a friend as saying, \"The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two [lead characters] refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say.\"\n\nRetrospective\nAccording to Dalin Rowell of /Film, \"With complaints about its lengthy runtime, observations that certain characters could have easily fit onto pieces of floating furniture, and jokes about its melodramatic nature, Titanic is no stranger to modern-day criticism.\" In 2002, filmmaker Robert Altman called it \"the most dreadful piece of work I've ever seen in my entire life\". Similarly, French New Wave director and former Cahiers du Cinéma editor Jacques Rivette referred to it as \"garbage\" in a 1998 interview with Frédéric Bonnaud and was particularly critical of Winslet's performance, who he said was \"unwatchable, the most slovenly girl to appear on the screen in a long, long time.\" In 2003, the film topped a poll of \"Best Film Endings\", but it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as \"the worst movie of all time\".\nIn his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic, historian Richard Davenport-Hines said, \"Cameron's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English, anathematizing their emotional restraint, good tailoring, punctilious manners and grammatical training, while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered.\" The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review, to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition, to accommodate its readers' tastes, who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film, and the reported activities of its fans, such as those attending multiple screenings. In addition to this, positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet, often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film. Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film. \"What really irks me ...,\" he said, \"are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it.\" Willcock stated, \"I obviously don't have anything against those who dislike Titanic, but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so (and they do exist, trust me) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy.\"\nIn 1998, Cameron responded to the backlash, and Kenneth Turan's review in particular, by writing \"Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off. They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3-hour and 14-minute chunk out of their lives, and dragging others with them, so they can share the emotion.\" Cameron emphasized that people from all ages (ranging from 8 to 80) and from all backgrounds were \"celebrating their own essential humanity\" by seeing it. He described the script as earnest and straightforward, and said it intentionally \"incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless – and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric\" and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes. He did not see it as pandering. \"Turan mistakes archetype for cliché,\" he said. \"I don't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience, or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration.\"\nIn 2000, Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that \"the critical knives were out long before James Cameron's Titanic was complete. Spiralling costs that led to it becoming the most expensive motion picture of the 20th Century, and a cast without any big stars seemed to doom the film before release. But box office and audience appreciation proved Cameron right and many critics wrong.\" He added that \"the sinking of the great ship is no secret, yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy\" and that \"when you consider that [the film] tops a bum-numbing three-hour running time, then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron\". Empire eventually reinstated its original five-star rating of the film, commenting: \"It should be no surprise[,] then[,] that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet's favourite film. Ever.\"\nThe film's climax has sparked many debates over the years on whether both Jack and Rose should have been able to fit on the floating door and survive, becoming among the most talked about aspects of the film. Cameron has stated he often gets asked about the scene and has spoken about and tested it numerous times; one early test said they could not, while another in advance of the film's 25th anniversary, said it was possible but unlikely and depended on numerous variables.\nIn 2017, on the 20th anniversary of its release, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". It was listed among the 100 best films in an Empire poll and in a later poll of members of the film industry. In 2021, Dalin Rowell of /Film ranked it the third-best film of Cameron's career, stating that it is \"easily one of his best films, simply because it defied the odds\", and considering it \"a legitimately remarkable achievement — one that, despite its large budget, has a humble, earnest center. Even with all of the jokes the Internet loves to throw its way, Titanic demonstrates that Cameron is truly capable of everything he can imagine.\"\nIn 2024, Looper ranked it number 45 on its list of the \"51 Best PG-13 Movies of All Time,\" writing \"Cameron's immersive visuals, achieved using groundbreaking special effects, transport viewers back in time to the opulence of the Titanic and the heart-wrenching chaos of its final hours. The sheer grandness of the film, combined with its tragic tale, pushed the boundaries of storytelling and visual effects, paving the way for future blockbusters.\"\n\nAccolades\nAt the Golden Globes, Titanic won Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Original Score, and Best Original Song. Winslet and Stuart were also nominated. At the 70th Academy Awards, Titanic garnered fourteen Academy Award nominations, tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz's All About Eve and won eleven: Best Picture (the second film about the Titanic to win that award, after 1933's Cavalcade), Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound (Gary Rydstrom, Tom Johnson, Gary Summers, Mark Ulano), Best Sound Effects Editing, Best Original Dramatic Score, Best Original Song. Winslet, Stuart and the make-up artists were nominated, but lost to Helen Hunt in As Good as It Gets, Kim Basinger in L.A. Confidential and Men in Black. Titanic was the second film to receive eleven Academy Awards, after Ben-Hur (1959). The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King matched the record in 2004.\nTitanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song, as well as four Grammy Awards for Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. The soundtrack became the best-selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time, spending sixteen weeks at number-one in the United States, and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone. It was also the best-selling album of 1998 in the US. \"My Heart Will Go On\" won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television.\nTitanic also won various awards outside the United States, including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year. It eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty-seven nominations from various award-giving bodies around the world. The book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times' bestseller list for several weeks, \"the first time that such a tie-in book had achieved this status\".\nTitanic has appeared on the American Film Institute's award-winning 100 Years ... series six times.\n\nHome media\nTitanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS on September 1, 1998. More than $50 million was spent to market the home video release of the film. Both VHS formats were also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie. In the first 3 months, the film sold 25 million copies in North America with a total sales value of $500 million, becoming the best selling live-action video, beating Independence Day. In that time, it sold 58 million copies worldwide, outselling The Lion King for a total worldwide revenue of $995 million. By March 2005, the film has sold 8 million DVD and 59 million VHS units. In the United Kingdom, the film sold 1.1 million copies on its first day of release, making it the country's fastest-selling home video release. It would hold this record until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in May 2002 when that film sold 1.2 million home video units during its first day. Within the first week of release, Titanic quickly beat The Full Monty, selling a total of 1.8 million home video copies.\nNBC acquired the US television broadcast rights for $30 million, which was considered a bargain.\nA DVD version was released on August 31, 1999, in a widescreen-only (non-anamorphic) single-disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer. Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later. This release became the best-selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000, becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies. At the time, less than 5% of all U.S. homes had a DVD player. \"When we released the original Titanic DVD, the industry was much smaller, and bonus features were not the standard they are now,\" said Meagan Burrows, Paramount's president of domestic home entertainment, which made the film's DVD performance even more impressive.\nTitanic was re-released to DVD on October 25, 2005, when a three-disc Special Collector's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada. This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film, a 6.1 DTS-ES Discrete surround sound mix and various special features. In PAL regions, two-disc and four-disc variants were released, marketed as the Special Edition and Deluxe Collector's Edition respectively. They were released in the United Kingdom on November 7, 2005. A limited 5-disc set of the film, under the title Deluxe Limited Edition, was also only released in the United Kingdom with only 10,000 copies manufactured. The fifth disc contains Cameron's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss, which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures. Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss, which contained two discs, only the first disc was included in the set. In 2007, for the film's tenth anniversary, a 10th Anniversary Edition was released on DVD, which consists of the first two discs from the three-disc 2005 set containing the movie and the special features on those discs.\nThe film was released by Paramount Home Entertainment on Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on September 10, 2012. The 3D presentation of the film is split over two discs and is also THX-certified. Special features on another disc included many of those featured on the 2005 Special Collector's Edition DVD along with two new documentaries titled \"Reflections on Titanic\" and \"Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron.\" The latter aired on National Geographic on April 9, 2012, and was executively produced by Cameron.\nA 4K release of the film was released on December 5, 2023, on both digital and Ultra HD Blu-ray.\n\nRe-releases\n3D conversion\nA 2012 3D re-release was created by re-mastering the original to 4K resolution and post-converting to stereoscopic 3D format. The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $18 million to produce, including the 4K restoration. The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D. Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process. The only scene entirely redone for the re-release was Rose's view of the night sky at sea on the morning of April 15, 1912. The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night-sky star pattern, including the Milky Way, adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912. The change was prompted by the astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson, who had criticized the unrealistic star pattern. He agreed to send Cameron a corrected view of the sky, which was the basis of the new scene.\n\nThe 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27, 2012, with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance, and entered general release on April 4, 2012, six days before the centenary of Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage.\nRolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3+1⁄2 stars out of 4, explaining he found it \"pretty damn dazzling\". He said, \"The 3D intensifies Titanic. You are there. Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule.\" Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade. He wrote, \"For once, the visuals in a 3-D movie don't look darkened or distracting. They look sensationally crisp and alive.\" Richard Corliss of Time, who was very critical in 1997, remained in the same mood: \"I had pretty much the same reaction: fitfully awed, mostly water-logged.\" In regards to the 3D effects, he noted the \"careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments ... [but] in separating the foreground and background of each scene, the converters have carved the visual field into discrete, not organic, levels.\" Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking \"whether the film's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron's 3-D conversion, and the answer to that is: They aren't.\" She added that the \"3-D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy, not to mention odd moments in framing and composition.\"\nThe film grossed an estimated $4.7 million on the first day of its re-release in North America (including midnight preview showings) and went on to make $17.3 million over the weekend, finishing in third place behind The Hunger Games and American Reunion. Outside North America it earned $35.2 million, finishing second, and it improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $98.9 million. China has proven to be its most successful territory, where it earned $11.6 million on its opening day, going on to earn a record-breaking $67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run.\nThe reissue earned $343.4 million worldwide, with $145 million coming from China and $57.8 million from Canada and the United States. With a worldwide box office of nearly $350 million, the 3D re-release of Titanic remains the highest grossing re-released film of all time, ahead of The Lion King, Star Wars, and Avatar.\nThe 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories, which allows the audience to experience the film's environment using motion, wind, fog, lighting and scent-based special effects.\n\n20th anniversary\nFor the 20th anniversary of the film, Titanic was re-released in cinemas in Dolby Vision (in both 2D and 3D) for one week beginning December 1, 2017.\n\n25th anniversary\nTitanic was re-released in theaters by Paramount domestically and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (through the 20th Century Studios and Buena Vista International labels) internationally on February 10, 2023, in a remastered 3D 4K HDR render, with high frame rate, as part of the film's 25th anniversary. For this version, the international prints update 20th Century's logo with the studio's current name, as a result of Disney's 2019 acquisition of the studio.\n\nTitanic Live\nTitanic Live was a live performance of James Horner's original score by a 130-piece orchestra, choir and Celtic musicians, accompanying a showing of the film. In April 2015, Titanic Live premiered at the Royal Albert Hall, London, where the 2012 3D re-release had premiered.\n\nOther media\nIn 1998, an official tie-in computer game was released, titled James Cameron's Titanic Explorer. The educational game covered the history of the vessel's construction, maiden voyage and sinking, as well as the discovery and exploration of the wreck. The game included deleted footage from the film and extensive 360-degree video footage of the film's sets.\nIn 2020, a board game based on the film, titled Titanic: The Game, was released by Spin Master Games.\n\nSee also\nList of Academy Award records\nList of films by box office admissions\nTitanic: Music from the Motion Picture\nList of films about the Titanic\nBritannic (film)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nTitanic at IMDb\nTitanic at the TCM Movie Database\nTitanic at AllMovie\nTitanic at The Numbers\nScreenplay of Titanic at The Internet Movie Script Database\nParamount Movies - Titanic\nYouTube video detailing model construction on YouTube",
"title": "Titanic_(1997_film)"
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] | Which one was longer and by how much? James Cameron's film Titanic (1997) or the actual sinking of the Titanic in 1912? | [] | James Cameron's film Titanic was longer than the actual sinking Titanic, with a running time of 195 minutes, 35 minutes longer than the actual sinking of the Titanic in 1912. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Hiyō (Japanese: 飛鷹, \"Flying Hawk\") was the name ship of her class of two aircraft carriers of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). Originally planned as the ocean liner Izumo Maru (出雲丸) in 1939, she was purchased by the Navy Ministry in 1941 for conversion to an aircraft carrier. Completed shortly after the Battle of Midway in June 1942, she participated in the Guadalcanal campaign, but missed the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands in October because of an electrical generator fire.\nThe carrier's aircraft were disembarked several times and used from land bases in battles in the South West Pacific. Hiyō was torpedoed in mid-1943 and spent three months under repair. She spent most of the next six months training and ferrying aircraft before returning to combat. She was sunk by a gasoline-vapour explosion caused by an American torpedo hit during the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 20 June 1944 with the loss of 247 officers and ratings, about a fifth of her complement.\n\nDesign and description\nThe ship was ordered as the fast luxury passenger liner Izumo Maru by Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japan Mail Steamship Company) in late 1938. In exchange for a Navy Ministry subsidy of 60% of her building costs, she was designed to be converted to an aircraft carrier in the event of war. The designs of Izumo Maru and her sister ship Kashiwara Maru were based on the German ocean liner SS Bremen, although they were only about half that ship's size at 27,700 gross register tons (GRT). If completed as designed, they would have been the largest ocean liners in Japan. The ships were designed to carry a total of 890 passengers; 220 first class, 120 second class and 550 third class.\nAfter her conversion, Hiyō had a length of 220 metres (721 ft 9 in) overall. She had a beam of 26.7 metres (87 ft 7 in) and a draught of 8.15 metres (26 ft 9 in). She displaced 24,150 tonnes (23,770 long tons) at standard load. Her crew ranged from 1,187 to 1,224 officers and ratings.\nThe ship was fitted with a pair of Mitsubishi-Curtis geared steam turbine sets with a total of 56,250 shaft horsepower (41,950 kW), each driving one propeller, using steam provided by six Kawasaki-LaMont boilers. Hiyō had a designed speed of 25.5 knots (47.2 km/h; 29.3 mph) and slightly exceeded that during sea trials. The ship carried enough fuel oil to give her a range of 11,700 nautical miles (21,700 km; 13,500 mi) at 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph).\n\nFlight deck arrangements\nHiyō's flight deck was 210.3 metres (690 ft) long and had a maximum width of 27.3 metres (89 ft 7 in). The ship was designed with two superimposed hangars, each approximately 153 metres (502 ft) long, 15 metres (49 ft) wide and 5 metres (16 ft) high. Each hangar could be subdivided by four fire curtains and they had fire fighting foam dispensers on each side. The hangars were served by two aircraft lifts.\nHer air group was initially intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A5M \"Claude\" fighters, plus four in storage, 18 Aichi D3A \"Val\" dive bombers, plus two in storage, and 18 Nakajima B5N \"Kate\" torpedo bombers. This was revised to substitute a dozen Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters and three in storage for the A5Ms by the time the ship was commissioned in 1942. As a result of the lessons learnt from the Battle of Midway in June, the fighter complement was increased to 21 Zeros and the B5Ns were reduced to 9. By the end of the year, 6 more Zeros replaced an equal number of D3As, giving totals of 27 A6Ms, 12 D3As and 9 B5Ns. Although it was possible to fit all these aircraft into the hangars, 8 or 9 were usually stored on the flight deck to reduce congestion below decks.\n\nArmour, armament and sensors\nAs a conversion from an ocean liner, it was not possible to add much armour, although the ship had a double hull. Two plates of Ducol steel, each 25 millimetres (1 in) thick, protected the sides of the ship's machinery spaces. The ship's aviation gasoline tanks and magazines were protected by one layer of Ducol steel. Her machinery spaces were further subdivided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads to limit any flooding.\nThe ship's primary armament consisted of a dozen 12.7-centimetre (5 in) Type 89 dual-purpose guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull. Hiyō was also initially equipped with eight triple mounts for 2.5 cm Type 96 light AA guns alongside the flight deck. This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings which rendered it a largely ineffective weapon. According to historian Mark Stille, the twin and triple mounts \"lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets; the gun exhibited excessive vibration; the magazine was too small, and, finally, the gun produced excessive muzzle blast\". In early 1943, four more triple mounts were added, and another four triple mounts were added late in the year. Two of these last four mounts were mounted on the stern and the others were placed in front of and behind the island. A dozen single mounts were also added, some of which were portable and could be mounted on tie-down points on the flight deck.\nTwo Type 94 high-angle fire-control directors, one on each side of the ship, were fitted to control the Type 89 guns. Four Type 95 directors controlled the 2.5 cm guns, and another pair were added in early 1943. Early warning was provided by two Type 2, Mark 2, Model 1 early-warning radars. The first of these was mounted on the top of the island shortly before she was completed in July 1942 and the other was added later in the year. This latter system was fitted on the port side of the hull, outboard of the aft lift. A smaller Type 3, Mark 1, Model 3 early-warning radar was added in 1944.\n\nConstruction and career\nHiyō was laid down on 30 November 1939 by Kawasaki on Slipway No. 4 at their shipyard in Kobe. She was yard number 660 and had the name Izumo Maru. The ship was purchased on 10 February 1941 by the Navy Ministry, and she was temporarily referred to as No. 1002 Ship (Dai 1002 bankan) to keep her conversion secret. She was launched on 24 June 1941 and commissioned on 31 July 1942 with Captain Akitomo Beppu in command.\nThe ship was assigned to the Second Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet after commissioning and became flagship of Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta on 12 August. After spending the next few months working up, Hiyō arrived at Truk, together with her sister Jun'yō, on 9 October, to begin operations against American forces in the Guadalcanal area as part of the 3rd Fleet. On the night of 16 October, the two carriers were ordered to attack the American transports off Lunga Point, Guadalcanal, and they moved south to their launching point 180 nautical miles (330 km; 210 mi) north of Lunga. At 05:15 local each ship launched nine A6M Zeros and nine B5Ns. One of Jun'yō's B5Ns was forced to turn back with mechanical problems; the rest reached their objective and discovered two destroyers bombarding Japanese supply dumps on Guadalcanal around 07:20. Hiyō's aircraft attacked USS Aaron Ward seven minutes later without effect, and the American ship shot down one B5N and damaged another which was forced to make a crash landing. Jun'yō's eight B5Ns engaged USS Lardner and also failed to hit their target, not least because they were attacked by Marine Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters at 07:32. The Marine pilots shot down three B5Ns on their first pass and severely damaged another pair which were also forced to crash-land. The US fighters then shot down the three remaining bombers after they missed Lardner. The defending Zeros were able to shoot down only one Wildcat at the cost of one of Hiyō's fighters forced to crash land, although they claimed to have shot down thirteen Marine fighters.\nA fire in the ship's generator room occurred on 21 October and reduced her top speed to 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph), so Kakuta transferred his flag to Jun'yō while Hiyō returned to Truk for repairs. Three Zeros, one D3A and five B5Ns were also transferred to Jun'yō before she left. The remaining aircraft of her air group (16 Zeros and 17 D3As) were flown off for Rabaul, on the island of New Britain, on 23 October, from where the fighters escorted bombers attacking Guadalcanal the following day. A detachment from the air group was transferred to Buin, New Guinea, on 1 November and attacked American ships off Lunga Point on 11 November. Escorted by 18 Zeros from Hiyō and the 204th Naval Air Group, 9 D3As slightly damaged three cargo ships in exchange for 4 dive bombers shot down and another forced to crash land. The Zeros were able to ambush six Wildcats in the heavy cloud and shot down four while losing two of their own. That same day, those aircraft that remained at Rabaul flew back to Truk, but the Buin detachment remained there until 14 December when they were ferried back to Japan. Captain Michio Sumikawa relieved Beppu on 30 November.\nHiyō spent November in Truk before returning in early December to Japan, where she was rejoined by the rest of her air group. Aside from a brief refit at Kure from 26 February to 4 March 1943 that saw her anti-aircraft armament augmented and an additional radar installed, the ship was training in the Inland Sea until she sailed for Truk on 22 March. Her air group consisted of 27 Zeros and 12 D3As, and they were detached from Hiyō in early April to participate in Operation I-Go, a land-based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. On 7 April her aircraft formed most of the third wave of attacks on Guadalcanal. Escorted by 24 Zeros from Hiyō and another 6 from the light carrier Zuihō, the D3As attacked shipping in the Sealark Channel. The escorts claimed to have shot down three American aircraft for the loss of one Zero and three dive bombers. Allied naval losses during the entire day included Aaron Ward, the oil tanker Kanawha, the minesweeper HMNZS Moa and damage to a transport and another tanker, although it is uncertain which aircraft sank or damaged each ship.\nA second series of attacks was made against Oro Bay, New Guinea, on 11 April. Jun'yō's 9 Zeros, together with Hiyō's 21 fighters, escorted the latter's D3As. One defending fighter was claimed for the loss of a single dive bomber. The following day, 17 of Hiyō's Zeros provided top cover for several waves of attacks on Port Moresby, New Guinea, her pilots claiming nine victories without losing any of their own. On 14 April, the Japanese attacked Milne Bay, New Guinea, with a large force escorted by 75 Zeros contributed by all the carriers involved. Hiyō's fighter pilots claimed to have shot down three Allied aircraft without loss, and the bombers sank two transports. Her air group returned to Truk by 18 April to rejoin the ship.\n\nIn response to the invasion of Attu Island on 11 May, the Second Carrier Division departed Truk, accompanied by three battleships and two heavy cruisers, and reached Japan on 25 May. The Americans recaptured Attu before the fleet could depart to counter-attack. Now the flagship of the Second Carrier Division under Rear Admiral Munetaka Sakamaki, Hiyō departed Yokosuka on 7 June with Junyō en route for Truk. Later that evening, the ship was torpedoed by the submarine USS Trigger off Miyakejima. Hits in the starboard bow and boiler room knocked out all power but she managed to return to Japan the following day after restoring power. Hiyō's fighters were flown to Truk by 15 July and assigned to the light carrier Ryūhō, as were Sakamaki and his staff. While being repaired at Yokosuka until 15 September, more 2.5 cm Type 96 AA guns were installed, and Sumikawa was relieved by Captain Tamotsu Furukawa on 1 September. Two months later, Hiyō's air group was reconstituted in Singapore with 24 Zeros, 18 D3As and 9 B5Ns; the ship departed Japan for Singapore on 24 November. She arrived on 3 December, loaded her air group and was almost immediately assigned duties as an aircraft ferry. On 9 December, Hiyō left Singapore en route for Truk with several deliveries on the way. The ship arrived there on 22 December and disembarked her aircraft before proceeding to Saipan to deliver more aircraft. The air group was transferred to Kavieng and later Rabaul to provide air cover for Japanese operations there, in which the fighters claimed 80 victories in exchange for 12 losses.\nHiyō returned to Japan on 1 January 1944, and Furukawa was relieved by Captain Toshiyuki Yokoi on 15 February. Her air group was reassigned to her on 2 March, albeit without aircraft. The Japanese Navy had restructured its carrier air groups so that one air group was assigned to one carrier division and the 652nd Naval Air Group was assigned to the Second Carrier Division with Hiyō, Jun'yō and Ryūhō. The air group was the last to be rebuilt; it had only 30 Model 21 Zeros, 13 Model 52 Zeros and four D3As on hand on 1 April of its authorised 81 fighters, 36 dive bombers and 27 torpedo bombers. The ship conducted training for her aircraft in the Inland Sea until 11 May when she sailed for Tawi-Tawi in the Philippines. The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied for fuel and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands, where the Japanese expected the next American attack. The location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots, and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage.\n\nBattle of the Philippine Sea\nThe Japanese fleet was en route to Guimaras Island in the central Philippines on 13 June 1944 where it intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines, when Vice-Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learnt of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day. Upon reaching Guimaras, the fleet refuelled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where it spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June. The Americans failed to detect the Japanese ships that day. Ozawa decided to launch his air strikes early the following morning, so the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers. The 652nd Naval Air Group had 81 Zeros, 27 D3As, 9 Yokosuka D4Y \"Judy\" dive bombers and 18 Nakajima B6N \"Jill\" torpedo bombers, roughly evenly divided among the three carriers under his command. The carriers began launching their first air strike of 26 bomb-carrying A6M2 Zeros, 7 B6Ns and 16 A6M5 Zeros as escorts around 09:30. Most of these aircraft were misdirected and failed to find any American ships, although a dozen persisted in their search and found one of the American task groups. A B6N, 5 bomb-carrying Zeros and an escort Zero were shot down by the defending fighters, and no damage was inflicted on the American ships.\nA second air strike of 27 D3As, 9 D4Ys, 2 B6Ns and 26 escorting Zeros was launched around 11:00, accompanied by at least 18 A6Ms and B6Ns from the carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku. They had also been given an erroneous spot report and were unable to find any American ships. Some of the aircraft headed for airfields at Rota and Guam to refuel while the remainder headed back to the carriers. A pair of Zeros and six D4Ys bound for Rota spotted the carriers Wasp and Bunker Hill en route, but failed to inflict any damage on them while losing five D4Ys to anti-aircraft fire. Radar had spotted those aircraft headed for Guam, and they were intercepted by 41 Grumman F6F Hellcats. Only an A6M5, a D4Y and seven D3As of the 49 Japanese aircraft survived the encounter and landed.\nAt dusk, the Japanese turned away to the north west to regroup and to refuel, and the Americans turned west to close the distance. They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day, and Vice-Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike. Hiyō was struck by two bombs, one of which detonated above the bridge and killed or wounded virtually everyone there. More seriously, the ship was struck by one torpedo dropped by a Grumman TBF Avenger from the light carrier Belleau Wood. The torpedo knocked out the starboard engine room and started fires but Hiyō was able to continue, at reduced speed. Two hours later, a large explosion occurred when leaking gasoline vapour ignited and knocked out all power on the ship. The fires raged out of control and Hiyō sank stern first shortly afterwards at 16°20′N 132°32′E. Roughly 1,200 men were rescued by her escorting destroyers, but 247 officers and ratings died aboard the carrier.\n\nFootnotes\nReferences\nBrown, J. D. (2009). Carrier Operations in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-108-2.\nHata, Ikuhiko; Izawa, Yasuho & Shores, Christopher (2011). Japanese Naval Air Force Fighter Units and Their Aces 1932–1945. London: Grub Street. ISBN 978-1-906502-84-3.\nJentschura, Hansgeorg; Jung, Dieter & Mickel, Peter (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-893-X.\nLengerer, Hans & Rehm-Takahara, Tomoko (1985). \"The Japanese Aircraft Carriers Junyo and Hiyo\". In Lambert, Andrew (ed.). Warship IX. London: Conway Maritime Press. pp. 9–19, 105–114, 188–193. ISBN 978-0-85177-403-9.\nLundstrom, John B. (2005). The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-472-8.\nPolmar, Norman & Genda, Minoru (2006). Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events: 1909–1945. Vol. I. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-57488-663-4.\nRohwer, Jürgen (2005). Chronology of the War at Sea 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (3rd rev. ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-119-2.\nSilverstone, Paul H. (1984). Directory of the World's Capital Ships. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-88254-979-0.\nStille, Mark (2005). Imperial Japanese Navy Aircraft Carriers 1921–1945. New Vanguard. Vol. CIX. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84176-853-3.\nTully, Anthony P. & Casse, Gilbert (2013). \"IJN Hiyo: Tabular Record of Movement\". Kido Butai. Combinedfleet.com. Retrieved 23 January 2018.\n\nExternal links\n\nHiyo in the World War II Database",
"title": "Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Hiy%C5%8D"
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"paragraph_text": "The Battle of the Philippine Sea was a major naval battle of World War II on 19–20 June 1944 that eliminated the Imperial Japanese Navy's ability to conduct large-scale carrier actions. It took place during the United States' amphibious invasion of the Mariana Islands during the Pacific War. The battle was the last of five major \"carrier-versus-carrier\" engagements between American and Japanese naval forces, and pitted elements of the United States Navy's Fifth Fleet against ships and aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Mobile Fleet and nearby island garrisons. This was the largest carrier-to-carrier battle in history, involving 24 aircraft carriers, deploying roughly 1,350 carrier-based aircraft.\nThe aerial part of the battle was nicknamed the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot by American aviators for the severely disproportional loss ratio inflicted upon Japanese aircraft by American pilots and anti-aircraft gunners. During a debriefing after the first two air battles, a pilot from USS Lexington remarked \"Why, hell, it was just like an old-time turkey shoot down home!\" The outcome is generally attributed to a wealth of highly trained American pilots with superior tactics and numerical superiority, and new anti-aircraft ship defensive technology (including the top-secret anti-aircraft proximity fuze), versus the Japanese use of replacement pilots with not enough flight hours in training and little or no combat experience. Furthermore the Japanese defensive plans were directly obtained by the Allies from the plane wreckage of the commander-in-chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Combined Fleet, Admiral Mineichi Koga, in March 1944.\nDuring the course of the battle, American submarines torpedoed and sank two of the largest Japanese fleet carriers taking part in the battle. The American carriers launched a protracted strike, sinking one light carrier and damaging other ships, but most of the American aircraft returning to their carriers ran low on fuel as night fell. Eighty American planes were lost. Although at the time the battle appeared to be a missed opportunity to destroy the Japanese fleet, the Imperial Japanese Navy had lost the bulk of its carrier air strength and would never recover. This battle, along with the Battle of Leyte Gulf four months later, marked the end of Japanese aircraft carrier operations. The few surviving carriers remained mostly in port thereafter.\n\nBackground\nJapanese plan for a decisive battle\nFrom the very start of the conflict in December 1941, the Japanese war plan had been to inflict such severe and painful losses on the US military that its public would become war weary and the American government would be convinced to sue for peace and allow Japan to keep its conquests.\nAdmiral Isoroku Yamamoto had grown wary of this strategy, but he was killed in Operation Vengeance on 18 April 1943. The following day, Admiral Mineichi Koga succeeded Yamamoto as commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet, and Koga wanted the Imperial Japanese Navy to engage the American fleet in the \"single decisive battle\" in early 1944. On 31 March 1944 Koga was killed when his aircraft (a Kawanishi H8K) flew into a typhoon and crashed. Koga's chief of staff, Vice Admiral Shigeru Fukudome, was flying in an accompanying plane and carrying the Z Plan documents, and also crashed. Fukudome survived, but the Z Plan briefcase did not sink with the destroyed aircraft and was recovered by Filipino guerillas who over the next few weeks transported the documents to General Douglas MacArthur's Military Intelligence Service (MIS) in Brisbane, Australia. MIS forwarded the translated Z Plan to Admiral Chester Nimitz in Honolulu, and the Japanese plans were quickly dispatched to the fleet commanders in the Philippine Sea in June. A new commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Soemu Toyoda, was appointed, and he finalized the Japanese plans known as Plan A-Go or Operation A-Go. Operation A-go did not change much from the Z Plan, so the U.S. Navy knew exactly what was going to happen during the upcoming naval battle. The plan was adopted in early June 1944. Within weeks, an opportunity arose to engage the American fleet now detected heading for Saipan.\nThe Japanese had some advantages they hoped would turn the battle in their favor. Though outnumbered in ships and aircraft, they planned to supplement their carrier airpower with land-based aircraft.\n\nAdvantages for the Americans\nMeanwhile, IJN aircrew losses, suffered during earlier carrier battles at Coral Sea, Midway, and the long Solomon Islands campaign of 1942–43, had greatly weakened the Japanese Navy's ability to project force with its carriers. Losses suffered in the Solomons drastically reduced the number of skilled carrier pilots available to fill the carrier air groups. It took nearly a year for the Japanese to reconstitute their groups following the Solomons campaign.\nJapan no longer had enough oil tankers to transport the required volume of petroleum from the Dutch East Indies to Japanese refineries. Without adequate supplies of refined residual fuel oil, Japanese aircraft carriers refueled with unrefined Tarakan petroleum in June 1944. This undesalted petroleum damaged boiler tubes, and the unremoved naphtha fraction volatilized the fuel to form explosive atmospheres incompatible with aircraft carrier damage control procedures.\nIn early 1944 the U.S. fleet continued its advance in a steady progression across the islands of the central Pacific. While U.S. commanders, particularly Admiral Spruance, were concerned about the Japanese trying to attack U.S. transports and newly landed forces, the Japanese objective was actually to engage and defeat the Fast Carrier Task Force in a decisive battle.\n\nInitial stages\nOn 12 June 1944 U.S. carriers made air strikes on the Marianas, convincing Admiral Soemu Toyoda that the U.S. was preparing to invade. This move came as a surprise; the Japanese had expected the next U.S. target to be farther to the south, either the Carolines or the Palaus, and had protected the Marianas with only 50 land-based aircraft. On 13–15 June, American carriers made additional airstrikes while surface forces bombarded the Marianas. On June 15, the first American troops went ashore on Saipan.\nSince control of the Marianas would bring American strategic bombers within range of the Japanese home islands, the IJN decided it was time for the long-awaited Kantai Kessen (decisive battle). Toyoda immediately ordered a fleet-based counterattack, committing nearly all of the Japanese navy's serviceable ships.\nThe main portions of the fleet rendezvoused on 16 June in the western part of the Philippine Sea and completed refueling on 17 June. Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa commanded this force from his newly commissioned flagship, Taihō. In addition to extensive command facilities, reinforced torpedo blisters and a large air group, Taihō was the first Japanese carrier with an armor-plated flight deck, designed to withstand bomb hits with minimal damage.\nAt 18:35 on 15 June the submarine USS Flying Fish sighted a Japanese carrier and battleship force coming out of San Bernardino Strait. An hour later USS Seahorse spotted a battleship and cruiser force steaming up from the south, 200 miles (320 km) east of Mindanao. The submarines were under orders to report sightings before attempting to attack, so Flying Fish waited until nightfall, then surfaced to radio in its report. Fifth Fleet commander Spruance was convinced that a major battle was at hand. After consulting with Nimitz at Pacific Fleet Headquarters in Hawaii, he ordered Rear Admiral Marc Mitscher, commander of the Fast Carrier Task Force (Task Force 58), who had sent two carrier task groups north to intercept aircraft reinforcements from Japan, to reform and move west of Saipan into the Philippine Sea. TF 52's battleships, cruisers and escort carrier groups were ordered to remain near Saipan to protect the invasion fleet and provide air support for the landings.\nShortly before midnight on 18 June Nimitz radioed Spruance that a Japanese vessel had broken radio silence. The message intercepted was an apparent dispatch from Ozawa to his land-based air forces on Guam. Radio direction-finding placed the sender approximately 355 miles (571 km) west-southwest of TF 58. Mitscher considered whether the radio messages were a Japanese deception, as the Japanese were known to send a single vessel off to break radio silence, to mislead their adversaries about the actual location of the main force.\nMitscher realized that there was a chance of a night surface encounter with Ozawa's forces. Arleigh Burke, Mitscher's chief of staff (a former destroyer squadron commander who had won several night battles in the Solomons), assumed that battle line commander Willis Lee would welcome the opportunity. But Lee strongly opposed such an encounter. Having personally experienced a confused night action off Guadalcanal, Lee was not enthusiastic about a night engagement with Japanese surface forces, believing that his crews were not adequately trained for it. Shortly after learning Lee's opinion, Mitscher requested permission from Spruance to move TF 58 west during the night, to reach a launch position at dawn that would allow for a maximum aerial assault on the enemy force. Spruance considered for an hour, then refused Mitscher's request. Mitscher's staff was disappointed with Spruance's decision. Burke later commented: \"We knew we were going to have hell slugged out of us in the morning. We knew we couldn't reach them. We knew they could reach us.\"\nSpruance's decision was influenced by his orders from Nimitz, who had made it clear that the protection of the invasion fleet was the primary mission of TF 58. Spruance had concerns that the Japanese would attempt to draw his main fleet away from the Marianas with a diversionary force while slipping an attack force in to destroy the landing fleet. Locating and destroying the Japanese fleet was not his primary objective, and he was unwilling to allow the main strike force of the Pacific Fleet to be drawn westward, away from the amphibious forces. Mitscher accepted the decision without comment. Spruance's decision in this matter, although subsequently criticized, was certainly justified; by this point in the war, it was well known that Japanese operational plans frequently relied on the use of decoys and diversionary forces. Spruance, as it turned out, was acting appropriately to the Japanese plans that called for a diversion to draw the fleet far away so there would be a great opportunity for land-based Japanese planes to also augment the carrier aircraft to attack Spruance's fleet.\nBefore daybreak, Spruance suggested that if the daybreak searches revealed no targets, the bombers could be sent to crater the airfields on Rota and Guam. However, the fleet's contact-fused bombs had been largely used up in the earlier strikes, and Mitscher was left with only the armor-piercing bombs needed to combat the Japanese fleet, so he informed Spruance he could not launch such strikes. As the morning broke, TF 58 launched search aircraft, combat air patrols (CAP) and anti-submarine patrols and then turned the fleet west to gain maneuvering room from the islands. The U.S. Navy had developed a sophisticated air control system, which vectored CAP fighters by radar to intercept enemy bombers well before they reached the fleet. Any attackers that got through the CAP would then face a \"gun line\" of screening battleships and cruisers that would put up devastating barrages of VT-fuzed anti-aircraft fire before the attackers reached the aircraft carriers.\n\nBattle\nEarly actions\nThe Japanese had already launched their morning search patrols, using some of the 50 aircraft stationed on Guam, and at 05:50 one of these, a Mitsubishi A6M Zero, found TF-58. After radioing his sighting of U.S. ships, the bomb-carrying Zero attacked picket destroyer Stockham but was shot down by the destroyer Yarnall.\nAlerted, the Japanese began launching their Guam-based aircraft for an attack. These were spotted on radar by U.S. ships. A group of thirty Grumman F6F Hellcats were dispatched from USS Belleau Wood to deal with the threat. The Hellcats arrived while aircraft were still launching from Orote Field. Minutes later, additional radar contacts were seen, which were later discovered to be the additional forces being sent north from the other islands. A battle broke out in which 35 Japanese aircraft were shot down for the loss of a single Hellcat. It was a pattern that would be repeated throughout the day. At 09:57 large numbers of Japanese aircraft were picked up approaching the fleet. Mitscher said to Burke, \"Get those fighters back from Guam.\" The call \"Hey, Rube!\" was sent out. The fleet held steady until 10:23, when Mitscher ordered TF 58 to turn into the wind on course east-southeast, and ordered all fighter aircraft aloft, deployed in several layers of CAP to await the Japanese. He then sent his bomber aircraft aloft to orbit open waters to the east rather than leaving them in a hangar deck full of aircraft vulnerable to a Japanese bomb attack.\n\nJapanese raids\nThe recall had been ordered after several ships in TF 58 picked up radar contacts 150 miles (240 km) to the west around 10:00. This was the first of the raids from the Japanese carrier forces, with 68 aircraft. TF 58 started launching every fighter it could; by the time they were in the air the Japanese had closed to 70 miles (110 km). However, the Japanese began circling to regroup their formations for the attack. This 10-minute delay proved critical, and the first group of Hellcats met the raid, still at 70 miles (110 km), at 10:36. They were quickly joined by additional groups. Within minutes, 25 Japanese aircraft had been shot down, against the loss of only one U.S. aircraft.\nThe Japanese aircraft that survived were met by other fighters, and 16 more were shot down. Of the 27 aircraft which remained, some made attacks on the picket destroyers USS Yarnall and Stockham but caused no damage. Between three and six bombers broke through to Lee's battleship group and attacked; one bomb hit the main deck of USS South Dakota, killing or injuring over 50 men but failing to disable her. South Dakota was the only American ship damaged in this attack. No aircraft of Ozawa's first wave got through to the American carriers.\n\nAt 11:07, radar detected another, larger attack. This second wave consisted of 107 aircraft. They were met while still 60 miles (97 km) out, and at least 70 of these aircraft were shot down before reaching the ships. Six attacked Rear Admiral Alfred E. Montgomery's group, nearly hitting two of the carriers and causing casualties on each. Four of the six were shot down. A small group of torpedo aircraft attacked Enterprise, with one torpedo exploding in the wake of the ship. Three other torpedo aircraft attacked the light carrier Princeton and were shot down. In all, 97 of the 107 attacking aircraft were destroyed.\nA third raid, consisting of 47 aircraft, came in from the north. It was intercepted by 40 fighters at 13:00, while 50 miles (80 km) out from the task force. Seven Japanese aircraft were shot down. A few broke through and made an ineffective attack on the Enterprise group. Many others did not press home their attacks. This raid therefore suffered less than the others, and 40 of its aircraft managed to return to their carriers.\nA fourth Japanese raid was launched between 11:00 and 11:30, but pilots had been given an incorrect position for the U.S. fleet and could not locate it. They broke into two loose groups and turned for Guam and Rota to refuel. One group flying toward Rota stumbled upon Montgomery's task group. Eighteen aircraft joined battle with American fighters and lost half their number. A smaller group of nine Japanese dive bombers of this force evaded U.S. aircraft and attacked Wasp and Bunker Hill but scored no hits; eight were shot down. The larger group of Japanese aircraft had flown to Guam and were intercepted over Orote Field by 27 Hellcats while landing. Thirty of the forty-nine Japanese aircraft were shot down, and the rest were damaged beyond repair. Aboard the Lexington afterward, a pilot was heard to remark \"Hell, this is like an old-time turkey shoot!\"\n\nIncluding the continued aerial slaughter over Orote Field, Japanese losses exceeded 350 planes on the first day of battle. About 30 American planes were lost, and there was little damage to American ships; even the damaged South Dakota was able to remain in formation to continue her anti-aircraft duties.\n\nSubmarine attacks\nThroughout the day, American scout aircraft had been unable to locate the Japanese fleet. However, two American submarines had already spotted Ozawa's carriers early that morning and were about to provide important assistance to the Fast Carrier Task Force.\n\nAt 08:16 the submarine USS Albacore, which had sighted Ozawa's carrier group, had maneuvered into an ideal attack position; Lieutenant Commander James W. Blanchard selected the closest carrier as his target, which happened to be Taihō, the largest and newest carrier in the Japanese fleet and Ozawa's flagship. As Albacore was about to fire, however, her fire-control computer failed, and the torpedoes had to be fired \"by eye\". Determined to go ahead with the attack, Blanchard ordered all six torpedoes to be fired in a single spread to increase the chances of a hit.\n\nTaihō had just launched 42 aircraft as a part of the second raid when Albacore fired the torpedo spread. Of the six torpedoes fired, four veered off-target. Japanese pilot Sakio Komatsu had recently launched and from his aircraft sighted one of the two torpedoes which were heading for Taihō. Komatsu dived into the path of the torpedo which then detonated. The sixth torpedo struck the carrier on her starboard side and ruptured two aviation fuel tanks. The carrier's escorting destroyers made depth charge attacks but caused only minor damage to Albacore. Initially, the damage to Taihō seemed minor; the flooding was quickly contained and the carrier's propulsion and navigation were unaffected. Taihō quickly resumed regular operations, but gasoline vapor from the ruptured fuel tanks began to fill the hangar decks, creating an increasingly dangerous situation on board.\n\nAnother submarine, USS Cavalla, was able to maneuver to an attack position on the 25,675-ton carrier Shōkaku by about noon. The submarine fired a spread of six torpedoes, three of which struck Shōkaku on her starboard side. Badly damaged, the carrier came to a halt. One torpedo had hit the forward aviation fuel tanks near the main hangar, and aircraft that had just landed and were being refueled exploded into flames. Ammunition and exploding bombs added to the conflagration, as did burning fuel spewing from shattered fuel pipes. With her bows subsiding into the sea and fires out of control, the captain gave orders to abandon ship. Within minutes, there was a catastrophic explosion of aviation fuel vapor which had built up between decks, which blew the ship apart. The carrier rolled over and sank about 140 miles (230 km) north of the island of Yap. 887 crew and 376 men of the 601st Naval Air Group, 1,263 men in all, were killed. There were 570 survivors, including the carrier's commanding officer, Captain Hiroshi Matsubara. Destroyer Urakaze attacked the submarine, but Cavalla escaped with relatively minor damage despite near misses from depth charges.\nMeanwhile, Taihō was falling victim to poor damage control. Hoping to clear the explosive fumes, an inexperienced damage-control officer ordered her ventilation system to operate at full blast. This action instead spread the vapors throughout Taihō, putting the entire vessel at risk. At approximately 14:30, a spark from an electric generator on the hangar deck ignited the accumulated fumes, triggering a series of catastrophic explosions. After the first explosions, it was clear that Taihō was doomed, and Ozawa and his staff transferred to the nearby destroyer Wakatsuki. Soon thereafter, Taihō suffered a second series of explosions and sank. From a crew of 2,150, 1,650 officers and men were lost.\n\nU.S. counterattack\nTF 58 sailed west during the night to attack the Japanese at dawn. Search patrols were put up at first light.\nOzawa had transferred to the destroyer Wakatsuki, but the radio gear on board was incapable of sending the number of messages needed, so he transferred again, to the carrier Zuikaku, at 13:00. He then learned of the disastrous results of the previous day and that he had about 150 aircraft left. Nevertheless, he decided to continue the attacks, thinking there were still hundreds of aircraft on Guam and Rota and started planning new raids for 21 June.\nThe main problem for TF 58 was locating the enemy, who had been operating at a great distance. Early-morning American searches on 20 June found nothing. An extra mid-day search by Hellcat fighter pilots was also unsuccessful. Finally at 15:12 a garbled message from an Enterprise search plane indicated a sighting. At 15:40 the sighting was verified, along with distance, course, and speed. The Japanese fleet was 275 miles (443 km) out, moving due west at a speed of 20 knots. The Japanese were at the limit of TF 58's strike range, and daylight was slipping away. Mitscher decided to launch an all-out strike. After the first attack group had launched, a third message arrived, indicating the Japanese fleet were 60 miles (97 km) farther out than previously indicated. The first launch would be at their limits of fuel and would have to attempt landing at night. Mitscher canceled the second launch of aircraft but chose not to recall the first launch. Of the 240 planes that were launched for the strike, 14 aborted for various reasons and returned to their ships. The 226 planes that continued consisted of 95 Hellcat fighters (some carrying 500-pound bombs), 54 Avenger torpedo bombers (only a few carrying torpedoes, the rest four 500-pound bombs) and 77 dive bombers (51 Helldivers and 26 Dauntlesses). The TF 58 aircraft arrived over the Japanese fleet just before sunset.\nThe 35 or so fighters Ozawa was able to put up were overwhelmed by the 226 incoming aircraft of Mitscher's attack. While the few Japanese aircraft were often skillfully handled and the Japanese anti-aircraft fire was intense, the U.S. planes were able to press in on the attack.\nThe first ships sighted by the U.S. strike were oilers, 30 miles (48 km) before the carrier groups. The strike group from Wasp, more concerned with their low fuel levels than with finding the more important Japanese carriers and battleships, dived on the tankers. Two of these were damaged so severely that they were later scuttled, while a third was able to put out fires and get underway. The carrier Hiyō was attacked and hit by bombs and aerial torpedoes from four Grumman TBF Avengers from Belleau Wood. Hiyō was set afire after a tremendous blast from leaking aviation fuel. Dead in the water, she sank stern first, with the loss of 250 officers and men. The rest of her crew, about one thousand, were rescued by Japanese destroyers.\nThe carriers Zuikaku, Junyō and Chiyoda were damaged by bombs. Returning American strike pilots generally assessed these carriers as more crippled than they actually were, mistaking for devastating direct hits what Japanese post-war records revealed to have actually been huge geysers caused by near misses. The battleship Haruna was also hit by two bombs, including one directly on a main battery turret. Damage was contained, and she was able to keep station because her captain promptly called to flood the turret's magazine to avoid the possibility of an explosion.\nTwenty American aircraft in the strike were destroyed by Japanese fighters and anti-aircraft fire that made up for a relative lack of accuracy with high volume of fire. After the protracted strike, it became clear that most of the aircraft returning to their carriers were running dangerously low on fuel, and to worsen matters, night had fallen. At 20:45, the first returning U.S. aircraft reached TF 58. Knowing his aviators would have difficulty finding their carriers, Admiral Joseph J. Clark of Hornet decided to illuminate his carrier, shining searchlights directly up into the night, despite the risk of attack from Japanese submarines and night-flying aircraft. Mitscher backed up the decision, and soon every ship in Task Force 58 was lit up, in spite of the risks involved. Picket destroyers fired starshells to help the aircraft find the task groups.\nPlanes were given clearance to land on any available flight deck (not just their home carriers, as usual), and many did land on other carriers. Despite this, 80 of the returning aircraft were lost. Some crashed on flight decks, but the majority ditched into the sea. Some pilots intentionally went down in groups to facilitate rescue, and more ditched individually either in a controlled landing with a few gallons of fuel left or in a crash after their engines ran dry. Approximately three-quarters of the crews were rescued from the sea, either that night from crash locations within the task forces, or over the next few days for those further out, as search planes and destroyers criss-crossed the ocean looking for them.\n\nAftermath\nJapanese\nThat night, Toyoda ordered Ozawa to withdraw from the Philippine Sea. U.S. forces gave chase, but the battle was over. The four Japanese air strikes involved 373 carrier aircraft, of which 243 were lost and 130 returned to the carriers; many of them were subsequently lost when Taiho and Shōkaku were sunk. After the second day of the battle, losses totaled three carriers, more than 350 carrier aircraft, and around 200 land-based aircraft.\nIn the five major \"carrier-on-carrier\" battles, from the Battle of the Coral Sea to the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the IJN had lost nine carriers, while the USN had lost four. The aircraft and trained pilots lost at Philippine Sea were an irreplaceable blow to the already outnumbered Japanese fleet air arm. The Japanese had spent the better part of a year (following the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands) reconstituting their depleted carrier air groups, and the American Fast Carrier Task Force had destroyed 90% of it in two days. The Japanese had only enough pilots left to form the air group for one of their light carriers. As a consequence, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf four months later, they sent out a decoy carrier group with only 108 aircraft, across six carriers (two were hybrid-carriers), that was sacrificed in an attempt to draw the American fleet away from protecting the troops and supplies being landed for the Battle of Leyte.\nThe Japanese military, which had hidden the extent of their previous losses from the Japanese public, continued this policy. Though the occurrence of the simultaneous Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Saipan were made known to the public, the extent of the disasters was withheld.\n\nAmerican\nLosses on the U.S. side on the first day were 23 aircraft. The second day's airstrike against the Japanese fleet saw most of the aircraft losses for the U.S.; of the 226 aircraft launched on the strike, 115 returned; 20 were lost to enemy action in the attack, and 80 were lost when they ran out of fuel returning to their carriers and had to ditch into the sea, or crashed attempting to land at night.\nSpruance's conservative battle plan for TF 58, while sinking just one light carrier, severely weakened the Japanese naval aviation forces by killing most of the remaining trained pilots and destroying their operational reserves of naval aircraft, a blow that effectively shattered the Japanese naval air arm, from which it never recovered. Without the time or resources to build sufficient aircraft and train new pilots, the surviving Japanese carriers were almost useless in an offensive role, a fact the Japanese acknowledged by using them as sacrificial decoys at Leyte Gulf. With the effective crippling of her best striking arm, Japan chose to rely increasingly on land-based kamikaze suicide aircraft in a last-ditch effort to make the war so costly that the U.S. would offer peace terms better than unconditional surrender.\nSpruance was heavily criticized after the battle by many officers, particularly the aviators, for his decision to fight the battle cautiously rather than exploiting his superior forces and intelligence data with a more aggressive posture. By failing to close on the enemy earlier and more forcefully, his critics argue, he squandered an opportunity to destroy the entire Japanese Mobile Fleet. \"This is what comes of placing a non-aviator in command over carriers\" was the common refrain. Admiral John Towers, a naval aviation pioneer and Deputy Commander-in-Chief Pacific Fleet, demanded that Spruance be relieved. The request was denied by Nimitz. Moreover, Spruance was supported in his decision by Admiral Kelly Turner and Admiral Ernest King, Chief of Naval Operations.\nSpruance's caution (in particular, his suspicion of a diversionary force) can be compared with Admiral William Halsey's headlong pursuit of an actual diversionary force at Leyte Gulf four months later. Halsey left the American invasion fleet weakly protected during the Battle off Samar, nearly resulting in a devastating attack on the landing force by Japanese heavy surface units. It was prevented only by the heroic and desperate attack of 5 small American surface ships, which put up such an intense fight that the 23-ship-strong Japanese fleet thought they were engaging a much larger force and withdrew. In addition, by focusing on defense first, the carrier forces under Spruance at Philippine Sea suffered no significant harm. This was in contrast to Leyte Gulf when Halsey's carriers were trying to neutralize the enemy airfields and attack the enemy fleet simultaneously, such that a Japanese bomber managed to evade the Combat Air Patrols to fatally cripple the light carrier USS Princeton. Likewise, during the carrier-based air raids, U.S. carriers were in a vulnerable position, and the low visibility coupled with radar confusion let a Japanese bomber slip through and severely damage USS Franklin.\nAlthough the American carrier aircraft strikes caused less destruction to enemy naval vessels than earlier battles, American submarines made up for it by sinking two of the three Japanese fleet carriers, which left Zuikaku as the only remaining operational IJN fleet carrier.\nThe American F6F Hellcat fighter proved its worth, as its powerful engine generated superior speed, while its heavier armor and firepower made it rugged and deadly. The Japanese on the other hand were still flying the A6M Zero which, though highly maneuverable and revolutionary during the early stages of the Pacific War, was now underpowered, fragile and essentially obsolete by 1944. In addition, the D4Y \"Judy\", though fast, was also fragile and easily set on fire. The Japanese naval airmen were also inadequately trained. The Japanese training programs could not replace the quality aviators lost during the past two years of the Pacific Campaign. Flying against the well-trained and often veteran U.S. aviators, it was a one-sided contest. The Americans lost fewer than two dozen Hellcats in air-to-air combat. Naval aviation and anti-aircraft fire shot down nearly 480 Japanese aircraft, 346 of those carrier aircraft on 19 June alone.\nA very fortunate result of the Battle of the Philippine Sea for the Allies was it greatly benefited General MacArthur's invasion of Biak in Dutch New Guinea which started weeks before the Mariana Islands operations started. The Japanese military had designated Biak as its most important island of defense in the Southwest Pacific theater. 13 June was the original starting date of a massive operation, spearheaded by the battleships Yamato and Musashi, to challenge MacArthur's paltry naval forces, which had no aircraft carriers or battleships and consisted of only a few cruisers and destroyers. On that very same day Yamato and Musashi and their supporting ships received new orders to head north to screen aircraft carriers that were about to begin Operation A-Go. The battleships didn't take part in the Marianas operations other than anti-aircraft duty.\n\nSee also\nUnited States Navy in World War II\nImperial Japanese Navy in World War II\nImperial Japanese Navy Air Service\nZ Plan (Japan)\nNaval Air Base Saipan\nWWII carrier-versus-carrier engagements between Allied and Japanese naval forces:\nBattle of the Coral Sea\nBattle of Midway\nBattle of the Eastern Solomons\nBattle of the Santa Cruz Islands\nBattle off Cape Engaño\n\nFootnotes\nNotes\nReferences\nCrowl, Philip A. (1995), The Pacific War: Campaign in the Marianas, United States Army in World War II, United States Army, ISBN 978-0-16-089915-7, LCCN 60-60000, archived from the original on 21 July 2022, retrieved 10 February 2017\nHoyt, Edwin Palmer (1986), Japan's War: the Great Pacific Conflict, 1853 to 1952, New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-030612-5\nMorison, Samuel Eliot (1953), New Guinea and the Marianas, March 1944 – August 1944, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. VIII\nPolmar, Norman (2008), Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events, 1946–2006, vol. II, Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, pp. 377–400, ISBN 978-1-57488-665-8, archived from the original on 21 July 2022, retrieved 1 June 2014\nPotter, E. B. (1990), Admiral Arleigh Burke, Naval Institute Press, ISBN 978-1-59114-692-6\nRoscoe, T. (1949). Pig Boats. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-13040-4.\nShaw, Henry I. Jr.; Nalty, Bernard C.; Turnbladh, Edwin T. (1966). \"Strategic Victory in the Marianas Liberation of Guam; Capture of Saipan and Tinian\". Central Pacific Drive (PDF). History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. III. Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2020.\nShores, Christopher (1985), Duel for the Sky: Ten Crucial Battles of World War II, London: Grub Street, ISBN 978-0-7137-1601-6\nTaylor, Theodore (1991) [1954], The Magnificent Mitscher, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-55750-800-3\nTillman, Barrett (2006), Clash of the Carriers: The True Story of the Marianas Turkey Shoot of World War II, Penguin Group, ISBN 978-0-451-21956-5\nWillmott, H. P. (1984), June 1944, New York: Blandford Press, ISBN 0-7137-1446-8\nWolborsky, Stephen L. (1994). Choke Hold: The Attack on Japanese Oil in World War II (PDF) (Thesis). Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Air University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2020.\nY'Blood, William T. (1981), Red Sun Setting: The Battle of the Philippine Sea, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, ISBN 1-59114-994-0\n\nFurther reading\nBryan, J. III; Reed, Philip G. (1945). Mission Beyond Darkness: The story of USS Lexington's Air Group 16 June 20, 1944 attack on the Japanese carrier fleet as told by the men who flew that day. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. OCLC 899039875.\nBuell, Thomas B. (1974). The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 0-316-11470-7. OCLC 1036813407. OL 5041914M. Retrieved 25 November 2020.\nD'Albas, Andrieu (1965). Death of a Navy: Japanese Naval Action in World War II. New York: Devin-Adair. ISBN 0-8159-5302-X.\nDull, Paul S. (1978). A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-097-1.\nHornfischer, James D. (2016). The Fleet at Flood Tide: The U.S. at Total War in the Pacific, 1944–1945. Random House. ISBN 978-0-345-54872-6.\nLacroix, Eric; Wells, Linton (1997). Japanese Cruisers of the Pacific War. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-311-3.\nSmith, Douglas V. (2006). Carrier Battles: Command Decision in Harm's Way. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-59114-794-8.\nToll, Ian W. (2015). The Conquering Tide: War in the Pacific Islands, 1942–1944. New York: W. W. Norton.\n\nExternal links\n\nBattle for the Mariana Islands on YouTube\nOrder of battle\nWW2DB: The Marianas and the Great Turkey Shoot\nBattle of the Philippine Sea at Combinedfleet.com\nAnimated History of The Battle of the Philippine Sea\nThe Controversy over Spruance's Decision\nAir Group 31's participation in the Battle of the Philippine Sea\nA Brief Account of the Battle",
"title": "Battle_of_the_Philippine_Sea"
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] | A Japanese aircraft carrier that was first built to become a luxury ocean liner was sunk by the U.S. torpedos in a battle four months prior to the Battle of Leyte Gulf in World War II. What is the name of the aircraft carrier and what battle did it sink in? | [] | The aircraft carrier Hiyō was sunk in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Treasury of Atreus or Tomb of Agamemnon is a large tholos or beehive tomb constructed between 1300 and 1250 BCE in Mycenae, Greece.\nIt is the largest and most elaborate tholos tomb known to have been constructed in the Aegean Bronze Age, and one of the last to have been built in the Argolid. The main tomb consisted of a circular burial chamber, or thalamos, topped with a corbelled dome. This dome was the largest in the world until the Roman period, and remains the world's largest corbelled dome. Originally, the façade was decorated with marble columns and sculptures, which used marble from the Mani Peninsula in the southern Peloponnese. Its artwork has been suggested to have been inspired by that of Minoan Crete and of Ancient Egypt.\nLittle is known of the persons who might have been buried in the tomb: the identification with the mythical Atreus and Agamemnon likely dates to the 18th century. The immense labour involved in the construction of the tomb, as well as the similarities between the architecture of the tholos and the structures of the citadel of Mycenae, has led to suggestions that it may have been intended for a ruler of Mycenae, and represent Mycenae's increasingly dominant status in the later part of the Bronze Age.\nThe tomb was first excavated in the 19th century, when parts of the marble sculptures of its façade were removed by the British aristocrat Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin and the Ottoman governor Veli Pasha. It was partly excavated by Heinrich Schliemann, and more fully by Panagiotis Stamatakis, in the 1870s. Throughout the 20th century, the British School at Athens made a series of excavations in and around the tomb, led by Alan Wace, which primarily aimed to settle the difficult question of the date of its construction.\n\nName\nMythology\nIn Greek mythology, Atreus was the son of Hippodamia and Pelops, the king of Pisa in the western Peloponnese. In the version of the myth recounted by Hyginus, Atreus and his brother Thyestes killed their half-brother Chrysippus by casting him into a well out of jealousy, urged on by their mother. As a punishment for their crime, they were banished to Mycenae, where Hippodamia is variously said to have died by suicide or further exiled herself to Midea.\nAtreus and Thyestes quarrelled for the throne of Mycenae: first, Thyestes gained it after Atreus' wife, Aerope, gave a golden lamb from Atreus' flock to Thyestes and then tricked him into agreeing that whoever held the lamb should become king. Atreus in turn managed to regain the throne after Hermes persuaded Thyestes to hand the kingship to Atreus if the sun were to rise in the west and set in the east, and then Helios altered the usual course of the sun so that it did exactly that. Finally, Atreus banished Thyestes after tricking him into eating the flesh of his own sons.\nOn the advice of an oracle, Thyestes had a son by his daughter, Pelopia, as it was foretold that this son would kill Atreus. When the infant, Aegisthus, was born, his mother abandoned him, but he was found by a shepherd and given to Atreus to raise; when Aegisthus entered adulthood, Thyestes revealed the truth of his parentage. Aegisthus killed Atreus and ruled Mycenae jointly with Thyestes.\nThe heroes Agamemnon and Menelaus were the twin sons of Atreus, sometimes known as the Atreides in Greek literature. After their father's murder, they took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta: later, with Menelaus' assistance, Agamemnon overthrew Aegisthus and Thyestes and became king of Mycenae. However, Aegisthus would, along with Agamemnon's wife Clytemnestra, kill Agamemnon on his return from the Trojan War, before being himself killed by Agamemnon's son, Orestes.\n\nModern name\nThe precise origin of the name is uncertain, but it probably dates to the 18th century. The tomb was visible in Antiquity, but not associated with Atreus or Agamemnon when Pausanias visited in the 2nd century CE, since he describes the graves of both rulers as being within the walls of Mycenae. After Pausanias, there are no documented accounts of travellers visiting Mycenae until 1700, when the Venetian engineer and surveyor Francesco Vandeyk identified both the Lion Gate and the tomb now known as the 'Treasury of Atreus', which he conjectured was the tomb of a king. Claude-Louis Fourmont, who visited Mycenae in 1729–1730, used the name 'Tomb of Atreus' for the monument: by the time Edward Daniel Clarke visited at the beginning of the 19th century, he could report a tradition that the tomb was known as 'Treasury of Atreus' and identified with the tomb of Agamemnon mentioned in Pausanias.\nThe nearby tombs known as the Tomb of Clytemnestra and Tomb of Aegisthus are so named by association with the Treasury of Atreus.\n\nConstruction\nThe Treasury of Atreus is the largest and most elaborate of the known Mycenaean tholos tombs. It follows the typical typical tripartite division of these tombs into a narrow rectangular passageway (dromos), joined by a deep doorway (stomion) to a burial chamber (thalamos) surmounted by a corbelled dome. The dome was covered with earth to heighten it; some of this mound remains, but erosion has reduced its height and moved its apex towards the west.\nThe dromos of the tomb is oriented east-west and is 36 m long by 6 m wide. For the first 19 metres from the stomion, the sides are dressed with conglomerate stone walls: while the dromoi of earlier tombs had been lined with rubble or poros ashlar, the Treasury of Atreus is the first tomb at Mycenae to be fully lined with conglomerate. The source of this conglomerate is likely to have been local to Mycenae. Wace estimates the total volume of masonry in the dromos at over 600 m3, or a weight of over 1200 tons. The height of the walls increases from 0.5 m at the eastern end to 10 m at the façade; their thickness correspondingly increases from around 2 m at the eastern entrance to around 3 m at the western entrance nearest to the façade, reflecting the additional pressure of the earth behind the walls as well as from the façade they support. The ashlar walls are bonded by yellow 'Plesia' clay, a mortar commonly used in Mycenaean architecture. \n\nThe façade of the stomion is 10.5 m high, with a doorway 5.4 m high, 2.7 m wide and 5.4 m deep. On top of this doorway are two lintel blocks, the innermost of which is 8 m in length, 5 m in width and 1.2 m thick: with a weight of around 120 tons, it is the heaviest single piece of masonry known from Greek architecture and may have required up to 1,000 people to transport it to the tomb. Above the doorway is a 'relieving triangle', an innovation first used at Mycenae on the earlier Tomb of Aegisthus to reduce the stress placed upon the lintel. This triangle is believed to have originally been decorated with sculpture. It has been suggested that the scale of the relieving triangle was intended to symbolise the power to harness resources.\n\nDue to the fragmentary and scattered nature of the remains, there are various reconstructions of the decoration of the façade. The door was flanked by semi-engaged columns in green marble, with zig-zag motifs on the shaft. Two smaller half-columns were placed on either side of the relieving triangle, while red marble was used to create a frieze with rosettes above the architrave of the door, and spiral decoration in bands of red marble that closed the triangular aperture. In the 1960s, Richard Hope Simpson, along with Reynold Higgins and S.E. Ellis, demonstrated that the red marble, known as rosso antico, came from quarries on the Mani peninsula, and suggested that it was 'highly probable' that the green marble traced to the same source. This red marble was later known as lapis Taenarius after Cape Taenarum. Two reliefs in gypsum (the only such use of the material in the tomb), carved with the image of bulls, may have decorated either the façade or the side chamber. The empty 'relieving triangle' above the lintel of the façade served to direct the weight of the dome away from the centre of the lintel, reducing the stress placed upon it. Christos Tsountas suggested that the façade may have included an alabaster cornice, since fragments of a similar structure were found in the Tomb of Clytemnestra, which he believed to be contemporary with 'Atreus': however, recent re-evaluation of the Tomb of Clytemnestra has suggested that it may have been built up to two centuries later, making this suggestion hypothetical at best.\nThe thalamos is made up of 33 courses of ashlar masonry (cut and worked limestone), 14.5 m in diameter and 13.2 m high. It was initially constructed by the excavation of a cylindrical cavity from the hillside, which was then built up with masonry into a corbelled dome. Traces of nails hammered into the interior have been recovered, which have been interpreted as evidence for decorations, perhaps golden rosettes, once hung from the inside dome. A 2.5-meter-high doorway on the northern side of the inner chamber leads into a 6-meter square side chamber: along with the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenos in Boeotia, which appears to be built to the same plan, the Treasury of Atreus is the only known Mycenaean tholos with a side chamber. Most scholars consider this to have been the location of any burials that were made inside the tomb, though no direct evidence of such burials has survived; Alan Wace, however, believed that it was used as an ossuary to which the remains of previous burials were relocated while further interments were made in the main thalamos. The tomb was the tallest and widest stone dome in the world for over a thousand years, until the Roman period, which saw the construction of the “Temple of Mercury” (actually part of a bath complex) at Baiae in the late 1st century BCE or early 1st century CE and of the Pantheon in Rome in the 2nd century CE. Both of these are \"true\" domes, as opposed to corbelled domes, making the Treasury of Atreus the world's largest corbelled dome.\n\nThe earthen tumulus above the tomb was originally supported by a retaining wall of poros stone, which is preserved to a height of 1.5 m and a thickness of around 1 m. It is believed that this poros stone was quarried in the hills north-west of Mycenae, in the direction of Nemea. A terrace, approximately 27 m in both length and breadth, was constructed in front of the tomb.\nJames Wright has described the construction of tholos tombs as a 'monumental expression of power', and highlighted the connections between the architecture of the tomb and that of the broadly-contemporary fortifications and palace on the acropolis. In particular, Wright draws attention to the resemblance between the relieving triangle and the sculpted relief of the Lion Gate, and the heavy use of conglomerate on the tomb, which is used within the citadel to accentuate key architectural features, particularly column and anta bases, thresholds and door jambs. It has also been suggested that the tapering sides and inward slant of the doorway may have been inspired by Ancient Egyptian architecture, while the running-spiral motif on the upper half-columns may trace back to Minoan art.\nLittle is known about the organisation of the tomb's construction or the workers who built it. Elizabeth French has suggested that the same workforce who constructed the LH III megaron (the so-called 'Palace III') on the acropolis may subsequently have been used to construct the Treasury of Atreus, and that they may have been worked as part of a corvée system. It has been calculated that the construction of the tomb required at least 20,000 worker-days of labour, and estimated that it may have occupied up to 1600 people and been a years- or decades-long project.\nNothing is known of who might have been buried inside the tomb, though it is generally considered to have been an elite or royal figure, perhaps a ruler of the site or somebody close to its rulers.\n\nDate\nThe date of the tomb has historically been controversial, though most scholars would now date it to c. 1400–1250 BCE. In the early 20th century, it was the focus of a debate between Arthur Evans and Alan Wace, which became known as the 'Helladic Heresy'. After the beginnings of his excavations of Knossos from 1900, Evans began increasingly to argue for a distinction between the 'Minoan' civilisation of Crete and the 'Mycenaean' civilisation of the mainland. Although he had used the terms 'Minoan' and 'Mycenaean' interchangeably for his findings on Crete during the first two years of excavation, Evans came to follow the German archaeologist Arthur Milchhöfer in arguing that the origins of Mycenaean civilisation lay on Crete: specifically, through the 'domination' of the mainland of Greece by 'Minoan dynasts'. In 1918, however, Wace published an article entitled 'The Pre-Mycenaean Pottery of the Mainland' along with Carl Blegen, whose own excavations at Korakou in Corinthia in 1915–1916 had convinced him that substantial differences existed between 'Minoan' and 'Helladic' culture in the Late Bronze Age. In their article, Wace and Blegen argued for the essential continuity of mainland-Greek, or 'Helladic', culture from the early to late Bronze Age, and that 'Mycenaean' civilisation (which then referred specifically to the period now designated as the Late Helladic). Mycenaean culture, they argued, was 'not merely transplanted from Crete, but [was] the fruit of the cultivated Cretan graft set on the wild stock of the mainland'. Moreover, while they accepted the influence of Crete on mainland Greece during the Middle Helladic period, they argued that the culture of the mainland remained 'Mycenaean as opposed to Cretan', and that it was 'inconceivable' that Late Helladic culture represented a different 'race' to that of the Early Helladic.\nWace and Blegen's argument stood in direct opposition to Evans' narrative, by which the Shaft Graves of Mycenae, first used in the transition between the Middle Helladic and Late Helladic periods, represented the tombs of the 'Minoan' rulers of Mycenae, and therefore a sharp break with the cultural forms that preceded them. He further argued that the tholoi, particularly the Treasury of Atreus, were not only contemporary with the Shaft Graves but themselves copies of similar-looking structures found on Crete. In the report of his first excavations at Mycenae in 1920, of which he informed Evans by letter, Wace suggested a later date for the Treasury of Atreus of c.1400–1200 BCE, rather than the c.1600–1500 BCE needed to conform with Evans' theory. This chronological disagreement, and the associated implication that the monumentality and elaboration of Mycenae's funerary forms had increased over the Late Helladic period — which was seen to contradict the idea of the site having been dominated by Cretan rulers — was dubbed the 'Helladic Heresy' by John Percival Droop.\nFollowing further excavations in the 1920s, including that of the Tomb of Aegisthus, which he dated securely to LH IIA and argued as earlier than 'Atreus', Wace dated the tomb to LH III, later giving a terminus ante quem of 1350 BCE. This was primarily based on the findings of his 1939 excavation, which showed that the dromos had been dug through the so-called 'Bothros deposit', which included LH IIIA1 material, providing a terminus post quem for its construction. Most modern treatments consider the construction of the Treasury of Atreus and the fortification of the citadel of Mycenae, including the construction of the Lion Gate, to be broadly contemporary and to belong to the LH III period. However, there is some disagreement about the relative chronology: George Mylonas argued that the fortifications began in LH IIIA2 and that the Treasury of Atreus was constructed in LH IIIB1, contemporary with the final phase of fortification, while William Cavanagh and Christopher Mee, along with Elizabeth French, considered that 'Atreus' belongs to the early part of LH IIIA1.\nBy LH III, Mycenae and nearby Tiryns were the only sites in the Argolid where tholos tombs were constructed: previously, such tombs had been constructed at Dendra, Kazarma, Berbati, Prosymna and Kokla. Scholars generally consider that the Treasury of Atreus was the penultimate tholos constructed at Mycenae, ahead of the Tomb of Clytemnestra.\nA single sherd beneath the threshold of the tomb dates to LH IIIB middle: this is considered to have come to be there during a later refurbishment of the tomb.\n\nLocation\nThe site of Mycenae is situated in Argolis, in the north-eastern Peloponnese, on the eastern edge of the Argive Plain. The Treasury of Atreus is located to the west side of the modern road leading to the citadel, approximately 500 m south-southwest of the Lion Gate.\nThe earliest of Mycenae's tholoi were constructed around the Kalkani necropolis, which had previously been used for the earliest chamber tombs. The Lion and Aegisthus tholoi, by contrast, were built much closer to the acropolis, a trend followed by the later Tomb of Clytemnestra. This creates a division of most of Mycenae's nine tholos tombs into two groups, separated by the Panagia ridge. The greater size and elaboration of the tombs nearer the citadel has led to the suggestion that they are 'more royal' than those on the other side of the Panagia ridge, though the chronological concentration of most of the tholoi in LH IIA, the fact that the smaller Cyclopean and Epano Phournos tholoi predate the grander Lion and Aegisthus tombs, and the fact that ostentatious burials continued in monumental chamber tombs all problematise a straightforward connection between tholos tombs and royalty at Mycenae, at least before LH IIB.\n\nThe Treasury of Atreus is set alone at the southern edge of a bowl on the Panagia ridge's eastern slope. Prior to its construction, the site was occupied by a building, which was demolished to build the tholos. Michael Boyd has suggested that the tomb's position was intended to 'co-opt the traditions of the past without directly competing with the present', since most contemporary burials were made in chamber tombs further from the acropolis. David Mason has drawn attention to the tomb's position alongside a likely Mycenaean route to the acropolis, which perhaps gave it a protective function, and to the views created both of the citadel from the tomb and of the tomb from the citadel, which he argues would have emphasised the connection between the dead interred in the tomb and the living who held power over Mycenae. James Wright has also suggested that the location may have been selected for the greatest possible impact upon those arriving at Mycenae from the south.\nThe alignment of the dromos is believed to have reflected topographic considerations — it is aligned perpendicular to the slope of the hill, which would have best facilitated its construction.\n\nPost-Mycenaean history\nThe remains of a seventh-century BCE krater decorated with the image of a horse, found beside the retaining wall of the tumulus, has been taken as evidence of cult activity at the tomb. Unlike the earlier Tomb of Aegisthus and the later Tomb of Clytemnestra, there is little direct evidence of the tomb's use in the post-Mycenaean period, though a bronze pin found in the side chamber and a handful of other bronze objects from the tomb have been suggested as possibly belonging to the Geometric period. In other tombs of Mycenae, post-Mycenaean finds which are not associated with burials have been interpreted as signs of hero cult. Remains of this period in tholos tombs have been seen as a means for the short-lived Argive colony at Mycenae, established in the 3rd century BCE but abandoned within a century, to assert its connection with Mycenae's mythological heroes and so its status and prestige in relation to Argos.\n\nExcavation\nIn the 19th century, a local tradition believed that the tomb had been once explored by the agha of the nearby village of Karvati, who took from it a bronze lamp. The first securely-documented entrance to the tomb was undertaken by the British aristocrat Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin. In 1801, Elgin had tasked his draughtsman, Giovanni Battista Lusieri, and Philip Hunt, a chaplain to the British embassy in Greece, to investigate various archaeological sites in Greece with a view to finding antiquities that might be taken back to Britain. Hunt visited Mycenae in August, and reported the Treasury of Atreus as 'a most stupendous conical subterranean building, quite entire, called by some antiquaries the Tomb of Agamemnon, by others the Royal Treasury of Mycenae'. Hunt also noted that the tomb was not intact, but open to the elements, and that 'floods of rain' and ingress of debris had made access difficult.Elgin visited on 8 May 1802, crawling, as his wife Mary attested in a letter to her mother, through the tomb's relieving triangle. He asked the voivode of Nafplio to clear the tomb, which was completed by Elgin's return to Mycenae on the 12th: the voivode presented him with fragments of pottery vases, ornamental stonework and a marble vase found within. Elgin also had parts of the columns flanking the doorway removed and shipped to England, along with the fragmentary gypsum reliefs of bulls, and architectural drawings made of the tomb by Sebastiano Ittar.\nIn June 1810, Veli Pasha, the Ottoman Pasha of the Morea, excavated the monument. He cleared most of the entrance to the tomb and entered the chamber with ladders; according to Heinrich Schliemann's later publication of his own excavations at Mycenae, he discovered 'bones covered with gold', as well as gemstones and other gold and silver objects. Veli Pasha sold some artefacts to the British MPs and antiquarians John Nicholas Fazakerley and Henry Gally Knight, and removed four large fragments of the semi-engaged columns beside the doorway. One of the fragments — last seen in 1815 — became part of a mosque in Argos; Veli Pasha gave the others as a gift to Howe Browne, 2nd Marquess of Sligo, who visited him shortly after the excavations and gave him two fourteen-pounder cannons in exchange. Sligo described the columnar fragments as 'trifles', but had them shipped to his estate at Westport House in County Mayo, Ireland, where they were discovered in a basement by his grandson, George Browne, in 1904. George Browne offered them for 'public benefit' to the British Museum, to be combined with the fragments taken by Elgin and given in 1816 to the museum, in exchange for replicas of the reconstructed columns; they entered the museum in 1905.\n\nHeinrich Schliemann may have explored the tomb during his brief, illegal excavations of Mycenae in 1874. In 1876, he excavated in the side chamber, finding a small pit of unknown purpose; Alan Wace later suggested that it was the base for a column which was never put in. Between 1876 and 1879, Panagiotis Stamatakis cleared the debris from the dromos and entrance of the tomb, recovering fragments of sculpture believed to have come from the relieving triangle.In 1920 and 1921, archaeologists of the British School at Athens under Alan Wace made small-scale excavations in the tomb for the purposes of establishing its date, including a trench in the dromos. During the campaigns of 1920–1923, which had originally intended to excavate the seven thus-far unexcavated tholoi (that is, all except 'Atreus' and 'Clytemnestra'), Wace had the first architectural plans of the tomb drawn up by Piet de Jong.\nAnother effort was made in 1939, where Wace dug trenches on the outside of the dromos in line with the façade and beyond the eastern end of the dromos. Wace found that the façade and dromos were bonded together, showing that they were constructed together, and that the dromos had not previously been any larger than its present dimensions. The 1939 excavation also showed that the dromos had been dug through the so-called 'Bothros deposit', which included LH IIIA1 material, providing a terminus post quem for its construction.\nIn 1955, Wace dug trial trenches in the area around the tomb, containing large quantities of Mycenaean potsherds, which have been interpreted (in line with similar contemporary deposits at the Tomb of Clytemnestra) as offerings made to the tomb's occupants.\n\nGallery\nSee also\nList of megalithic sites\nList of world's largest domes\n\nFootnotes\nExplanatory notes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nTreasury of Atreus at Structurae\nTreasury of Atreus 360° Interactive virtual tour\nA different light inside Treasury of Atreus",
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"paragraph_text": "The periodization of ancient Egypt is the use of periodization to organize the 3,000-year history of ancient Egypt. The system of 30 dynasties recorded by third-century BC Greek-speaking Egyptian priest Manetho is still in use today; however, the system of \"periods\" and \"kingdoms\" used to group the dynasties is of modern origin (19th and 20th centuries CE). The modern system consists of three \"Golden Ages\" (Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms), interspersed between \"intermediate periods\" (often considered times of crisis or Dark Ages) and early and late periods.\n\nOld, Middle and New Kingdoms\nBunsen\nIn his 1844–1857 Ägyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte, Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen became the first Egyptologist to propose what became the modern tripartite division for Egypt's history:\n\nAltes Reich (\"Old Empire\") = Menes until the beginning of the 13th Dynasty\nMittleres Reich (\"Middle Empire\") = Hyksos until the 17th Dynasty\nNeues Reich (\"New Empire\") = from the 18th Dynasty onward\nBunsen explained, in the English translation of his 1844 work, how he came to derive the three Kingdoms:\n\nIn 1834 I discovered in the list of Eratosthenes the key to the restoration of the first 12 Dynasties of Manetho, and was thereby enabled to fix the length of the Old Empire. These two points being settled, the next step obviously was, to fill up the chasm between the Old and New Empires, which is commonly called the Hyksos Period ... I have been fully convinced ever since my first restoration (in 1834) of the three Egyptian Empires, the middle one of which embraces the time of the Hyksos, that the 12th Dynasty of Manetho was the last complete one of the Old Empire, and that the throne of the Memphitic Pharaohs, according to the connection which that restoration enabled me to establish between Manetho and Eratosthenes, passed with the 4th King of the 13th Dynasty over to the Shepherd-Kings.\nCompared to the modern arrangement, Bunsen's Old Empire included what is today known as the Middle Kingdom, whereas Bunsen's Middle Empire is today known as the Second Intermediate Period.\n\nLepsius\nBunsen's student Karl Richard Lepsius primarily used a bipartite system in his 1849–1858 Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien:\n\nAltes Reich = dynasties 1–16\nNeues Reich = dynasties 17–31\n\nOther scholars\nAuguste Mariette's 1867 Aperçu de l'histoire ancienne d'Égypte:\n\nOld Kingdom = Dynasties 1–10\nMiddle Kingdom = Dynasties 11–17\nNew Kingdom = Dynasties 18–30\nAlfred Wiedemann's Ägyptische Geschichte:\n\nPrehistory = Dynasties 1–11\nMiddle Kingdom = Dynasties 12–19\nNew Kingdom = Dynasties 20–31\nHenri Gauthier's 1907–1917 Le Livre des Rois d'Egypte:\n\nAncien Empire (\"Ancient Empire\") = Dynasties 1–10\nMoyen Empire (\"Middle Empire\")= Dynasties 11–17\nNouvel Empire (\"New Empire\") = Dynasties 17–25\nÉpoque saïto-persane (\"Saito-Persian period\") = Dynasties 26–31\nÉpoque macédo-grecque (\"Macedonian–Greek period\") = Dynasties 32 (Macedonian) and 33 (Ptolemaic)\n\nIntermediate periods\nFirst Intermediate Period\n19th-century Egyptology did not use the concept of \"intermediate periods\"; these were included as part of the preceding periods \"as times of interval or transition\".\nIn 1926, after the First World War, Georg Steindorff's Die Blütezeit des Pharaonenreiches and Henri Frankfort's Egypt and Syria in the First Intermediate Period assigned dynasties 6–12 to the terminology \"First Intermediate Period\". The terminology had become well established by the 1940s.\n\nSecond Intermediate Period\nIn 1942, during the Second World War, German Egyptologist Hanns Stock's Studien zur Geschichte und Archäologie der 13. bis 17. Dynastie fostered use of the term \"Second Intermediate Period\".\n\nThird Intermediate Period\nIn 1978, British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen's book The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) coined the term \"Third Intermediate Period\".\n\nModern periodization\nNotes\nBibliography\nSchneider, Thomas (27 August 2008). \"Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond\". In Klaus-Peter Adam (ed.). Historiographie in der Antike. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 181–197. ISBN 978-3-11-020672-2.\nClayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05074-3.",
"title": "Periodization_of_ancient_Egypt"
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"paragraph_text": "The Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (notated Dynasty XIX), also known as the Ramessid dynasty, is classified as the second Dynasty of the Ancient Egyptian New Kingdom period, lasting from 1292 BC to 1189 BC. The 19th Dynasty and the 20th Dynasty furthermore together constitute an era known as the Ramesside period. This Dynasty was founded by Vizier Ramesses I, whom Pharaoh Horemheb chose as his successor to the throne.\n\nHistory\nBackground\nThe warrior kings of the early 18th Dynasty had encountered only little resistance from neighbouring kingdoms, allowing them to expand their realm of influence easily, but the international situation had changed radically towards the end of the dynasty. The Hittites had gradually extended their influence into Syria and Canaan to become a major power in international politics, a power that both Seti I and his son Ramesses II would confront in the future.\n\n19th Dynasty\nSeti I and Ramesses II\nThe New Kingdom of Egypt reached the zenith of its power under Seti I and Ramesses II (\"The Great\"), who campaigned vigorously against the Libyans and the Hittites. The city of Kadesh was first captured by Seti I, who decided to concede it to Muwatalli of Hatti in an informal peace treaty between Egypt and Hatti. Ramesses II later attempted unsuccessfully to alter this situation in his fifth regnal year by launching an attack on Kadesh in his Second Syrian campaign in 1274 BC; he was caught in history's first recorded military ambush, but thanks to the arrival of the Ne'arin (a force allied with Egypt), Ramesses was able to rally his troops and turn the tide of battle against the Hittites. Ramesses II later profited from the Hittites' internal difficulties, during his eighth and ninth regnal years, when he campaigned against their Syrian possessions, capturing Kadesh and portions of Southern Syria, and advancing as far north as Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen for 120 years. He ultimately accepted that a campaign against the Hittites was an unsupportable drain on Egypt's treasury and military. In his 21st regnal year, Ramesses signed the earliest recorded peace treaty with Urhi-Teshub's successor, Hattusili III, and with that act Egypt-Hittite relations improved significantly. Ramesses II even married two Hittite princesses, the first after his second Sed Festival.\n\nMerneptah and successors\nThis dynasty declined as infighting for the throne between the heirs of Merneptah increased. Amenmesse apparently usurped the throne from Merneptah's son and successor, Seti II, but he ruled Egypt for only four years. After his death, Seti regained power and destroyed most of Amenmesse's monuments. Seti was served at court by Chancellor Bay, who was originally just a 'royal scribe' but quickly became one of the most powerful men in Egypt, gaining the unprecedented privilege of constructing his own tomb in the Valley of the Kings (KV13). Both Bay and Seti's chief wife, Twosret, had a sinister reputation in Ancient Egyptian folklore. After Siptah's death, Twosret ruled Egypt for two more years, but she proved unable to maintain her hold on power amid the conspiracies and powerplays being hatched at the royal court. She was likely ousted in a revolt led by Setnakhte, founder of the 20th Dynasty.\n\nPharaohs of the 19th Dynasty\nThe pharaohs of the 19th Dynasty ruled for approximately 110 years: from c. 1292 to 1187 BC. Many of the pharaohs were buried in the Valley of the Kings in Thebes (designated KV). More information can be found on the Theban Mapping Project website.\n\nTimeline of the 19th Dynasty\nGallery of images\nSee also\nList of children of Ramesses II\nKa-Nefer-Nefer\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt"
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"paragraph_text": "Ramesses II (; Ancient Egyptian: rꜥ-ms-sw, Rīꜥa-masē-sə, Ancient Egyptian pronunciation: [ɾiːʕamaˈseːsə]; c. 1303 BC – 1213 BC), commonly known as Ramesses the Great, was an Egyptian pharaoh. He was the third ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty. Along with Thutmose III of the Eighteenth Dynasty, he is often regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom, which itself was the most powerful period of ancient Egypt. He is also widely considered one of ancient Egypt's most successful warrior pharaohs, conducting no fewer than 15 military campaigns, all resulting in victories, excluding the Battle of Kadesh, generally considered a stalemate.\nIn ancient Greek sources, he is called Ozymandias, derived from the first part of his Egyptian-language regnal name: Usermaatre Setepenre. Ramesses was also referred to as the \"Great Ancestor\" by successor pharaohs and the Egyptian people.\nFor the early part of his reign, he focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. After establishing the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta, he designated it as Egypt's new capital and used it as the main staging point for his campaigns in Syria. Ramesses led several military expeditions into the Levant, where he reasserted Egyptian control over Canaan and Phoenicia; he also led a number of expeditions into Nubia, all commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein. He celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen Sed festivals—more than any other pharaoh.\nEstimates of his age at death vary, although 90 or 91 is considered to be the most likely figure. Upon his death, he was buried in a tomb (KV7) in the Valley of the Kings; his body was later moved to the Royal Cache, where it was discovered by archaeologists in 1881. Ramesses' mummy is now on display at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization, located in the city of Cairo.\n\nEarly life\nRamesses II was not born a prince. His grandfather Ramesses I was a vizier and military officer during the reign of pharaoh Horemheb, who appointed Ramesses I as his successor; at this time, Ramesses II was about eleven years old.\n\nAfter Ramesses I died, his son, Seti I became king, and designated his son Ramesses II as prince regent at about the age of fourteen.\n\nReign length\nRamesses date of accession to the throne is recorded as III Shemu, day 27, which most Egyptologists believe to be 31 May 1279 BC.\nThe Jewish historian Josephus, in his book Contra Apionem which included material from Manetho's Aegyptiaca, assigned Ramesses II (\"Armesses Miamun\") a reign of 66 years, 2 months. This is essentially confirmed by the calendar of Papyrus Gurob fragment L, where Year 67, I Akhet day 18 of Ramesses II is immediately followed by Year 1, II Akhet day 19 of Merneptah (Ramesses II's son), meaning Ramesses II died about 2 months into his 67th Regnal year. \nIn 1994, A.J. Peden proposed that Ramesses II died between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13 on the basis of Theban graffito 854+855, equated to Merneptah's Year 1 II Akhet day 2. The workman's village of Deir el-Medina preserves a fragment of a mid-20th dynasty necropolis journal (P.Turin prov.nr. 8538 recto I,5; unpublished) which records that the date II Akhet day 6 was a Free feast day for the \"Sailing of UsimaRe-Setepenre.\" (for Ramesses II). As the Egyptologist Robert J. Demarée notes in a 2016 paper:\n\nThe feast called ẖnw – ‘Sailing’ - was clearly observed in Thebes or at Deir el-Medina during the Ramesside Period in remembrance of the passing of deified royals. The ‘Sailing’ of Ahmose-Nefertari was celebrated on II Shemu 15; the ‘Sailing’ of Seti I on III Shemu 24; and the ‘Sailing’ of Ramesses II on II Akhet 6.\nThe date of Ramesses II's recorded passing on II Akhet day 6 falls perfectly within A.J. Peden's estimated timeline for this king's death in the interval between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13. This means that Ramesses II died on Year 67, II Akhet day 6 of his reign after ruling Egypt for 66 years 2 months and 9 days.\n\nMilitary campaigns\nEarly in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to restore possession of previously held territories lost to the Nubians and Hittites and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Though the Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over Egypt's enemies. During his reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled some 100,000 men: a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence.\n\nBattle against Sherden pirates\nIn his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated the Sherden sea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes to Egypt. The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia, from southwest Anatolia or perhaps, also from the island of Sardinia. Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their perceived prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action. A stele from Tanis speaks of their having come \"in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them\". There probably was a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterward, many Sherden are seen among the pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets having a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields, and the great Naue II swords with which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh. In that sea battle, together with the Sherden, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka (L'kkw, possibly the people later known as the Lycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples.\n\nSyrian campaigns\nFirst Syrian campaign\nThe immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of what became the first of the Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb near what is now Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering.\nIn the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of the Amurru during his campaign in Syria.\n\nSecond Syrian campaign\nThe Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatalli II. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria, and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses. There he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields, supposedly producing some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in two weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in the Levant, which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced in war: the Hittite Empire.\nAfter advancing through Canaan for exactly a month, according to the Egyptian sources, Ramesses arrived at Kadesh on 1 May, 1274 BC. Here, Ramesses' troops were caught in a Hittite ambush and were initially outnumbered by the enemy, whose chariotry smashed through the second division of Ramesses' forces and attacked his camp. Receiving reinforcements from other Egyptian divisions arriving on the battlefield, the Egyptians counterattacked and routed the Hittites, whose survivors abandoned their chariots and swam the Orontes river to reach the safe city walls. Although left in possession of the battlefield, Ramesses, logistically unable to sustain a long siege, returned to Egypt. While Ramesses claimed a great victory, and this was technically true in terms of the actual battle, it is generally considered that the Hittites were the ultimate victors as far as the overall campaign was concerned, since the Egyptians retreated after the battle, and Hittite forces invaded and briefly occupied the Egyptian possessions in the region of Damascus.\n\nThird Syrian campaign\nEgypt's sphere of influence was now restricted to Canaan while Syria fell into Hittite hands. Canaanite princes, seemingly encouraged by the Egyptian incapacity to impose their will and goaded on by the Hittites, began revolts against Egypt. Ramesses II was not willing to let this stand, and prepared to contest the Hittite advance with new military campaigns. Because they are recorded on his monuments with few indications of precise dates or the regnal year, the precise chronology of the subsequent campaigns is not entirely clear. Late in the seventh year of his reign (April/May 1272 BC ), Ramesses II returned to Syria once again. This time he proved more successful against his Hittite foes. During this campaign he split his army into two forces. One force was led by his son, Amun-her-khepeshef, and it chased warriors of the Šhasu tribes across the Negev as far as the Dead Sea, capturing Edom-Seir. It then marched on to capture Moab. The other force, led by Ramesses himself, attacked Jerusalem and Jericho. He, too, then entered Moab, where he rejoined his son. The reunited army then marched on Hesbon, Damascus, on to Kumidi, and finally, recaptured Upi (the land around Damascus), reestablishing Egypt's former sphere of influence.\n\nLater Syrian campaigns\nRamesses extended his military successes in his eighth and ninth years. He crossed the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) and pushed north into Amurru. His armies managed to march as far north as Dapur, where he had a statue of himself erected. The Egyptian pharaoh thus found himself in northern Amurru, well past Kadesh, in Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time of Thutmose III, almost 120 years earlier. He laid siege to Dapur before capturing it, and returning to Egypt. By November 1272 BC, Ramesses was back in Egypt, at Heliopolis. His victory in the north proved ephemeral. After having reasserted his power over Canaan, Ramesses led his army north. A mostly illegible stele at the Dog River near Beirut, which appears to be dated to the king's second year, was probably set up there in his tenth (1269 BC). The thin strip of territory pinched between Amurru and Kadesh did not make for a stable possession. Within a year, they had returned to the Hittite fold, so that Ramesses had to march against Dapur once more in his tenth year. This time he claimed to have fought the battle without even bothering to put on his corslet, until two hours after the fighting began. Six of Ramesses's youthful sons, still wearing their side locks, took part in this conquest. He took towns in Retjenu, and Tunip in Naharin, later recorded on the walls of the Ramesseum. This second success at the location was equally as meaningless as his first, as neither power could decisively defeat the other in battle. In year eighteen, Ramesses erected a stele at Beth Shean, on 19 January, 1261 BC.\n\nPeace treaty with the Hittites\nIn Year 21 of Ramesses's reign, he concluded a peace treaty with the Hittites known to modern scholars as the Treaty of Kadesh. Though this treaty settled the disputes over Canaan, its immediate impetus seems to have been a diplomatic crisis that occurred following Ḫattušili III's accession to the Hittite throne. Ḫattušili had come to power by deposing his nephew Muršili III in the brief and bitter Hittite Civil War. Though the deposed king was initially sent into exile in Syria, he subsequently attempted to regain power and fled to Egypt once these attempts were discovered.\nWhen Ḫattušili demanded his extradition, Ramesses II denied any knowledge of his wherabouts. When Ḫattušili insisted that Muršili was in Egypt, Ramesses's response suggested that Ḫattušili was being deceived by his subjects. This demand precipitated a crisis, and the two empires came dangerously close to war. Eventually, in the twenty-first year of his reign (1259 BC ), Ramesses decided to conclude an agreement at Kadesh to end the conflict.\nThe peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, the other in Hittite, using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, in that the two language versions are worded differently. While the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version says the Egyptians came suing for peace and the Egyptian version says the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and this \"pocket-book\" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the temple at Karnak. The Egyptian account records Ramesses II's receipt of the Hittite peace treaty tablets on I Peret 21 of Year 21, corresponding to 10 November 1259 BC, according to the standard \"Low Chronology\" used by Egyptologists.\nThe treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Ḫattušili III in year 21 of Ramesses's reign (c. 1259 BC). Its 18 articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceeds to maintain that their respective deities also demand peace. The frontiers are not laid down in this treaty, but may be inferred from other documents. The Anastasy A papyrus describes Canaan during the latter part of the reign of Ramesses II and enumerates and names the Phoenician coastal towns under Egyptian control. The harbour town of Sumur, north of Byblos, is mentioned as the northernmost town belonging to Egypt, suggesting it contained an Egyptian garrison.\nNo further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan are mentioned after the conclusion of the peace treaty. The northern border seems to have been safe and quiet, so the rule of the pharaoh was strong until Ramesses II's death, and the subsequent waning of the dynasty. When the King of Mira attempted to involve Ramesses in a hostile act against the Hittites, the Egyptian responded that the times of intrigue in support of Mursili III, had passed. Ḫattušili III wrote to Kadashman-Enlil II, Kassite king of Karduniaš (Babylon) in the same spirit, reminding him of the time when his father, Kadashman-Turgu, had offered to fight Ramesses II, the king of Egypt. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to oppose another enemy, which must have been the king of Assyria, whose allies had killed the messenger of the Egyptian king. Ḫattušili encouraged Kadashman-Enlil to come to his aid and prevent the Assyrians from cutting the link between the Canaanite province of Egypt and Mursili III, the ally of Ramesses.\n\nNubian campaigns\nRamesses II also campaigned south of the first cataract of the Nile into Nubia. When Ramesses was about 22, two of his own sons, including Amun-her-khepeshef, accompanied him in at least one of those campaigns. By the time of Ramesses, Nubia had been a colony for 200 years, but its conquest was recalled in decoration from the temples Ramesses II built at Beit el-Wali (which was the subject of epigraphic work by the Oriental Institute during the Nubian salvage campaign of the 1960s), Gerf Hussein and Kalabsha in northern Nubia. On the south wall of the Beit el-Wali temple, Ramesses II is depicted charging into battle against tribes south of Egypt in a war chariot, while his two young sons, Amun-her-khepsef and Khaemwaset, are shown behind him, also in war chariots. A wall in one of Ramesses's temples says he had to fight one battle with those tribes without help from his soldiers.\n\nLibyan campaigns\nDuring the reign of Ramesses II, the Egyptians were evidently active on a 300-kilometre (190 mi) stretch along the Mediterranean coast, at least as far as Zawyet Umm El Rakham, where remains of a fortress described by its texts as built on Libyans land have been found. Although the exact events surrounding the foundation of the coastal forts and fortresses is not clear, some degree of political and military control must have been held over the region to allow their construction.\nThere are no detailed accounts of Ramesses II's undertaking large military actions against the Libyans, only generalised records of his conquering and crushing them, which may or may not refer to specific events that were otherwise unrecorded. It may be that some of the records, such as the Aswan Stele of his year 2, are harking back to Ramesses's presence on his father's Libyan campaigns. Perhaps it was Seti I who achieved this supposed control over the region, and who planned to establish the defensive system, in a manner similar to how he rebuilt those to the east, the Ways of Horus across Northern Sinai.\n\nSed festivals\nAfter reigning for 30 years, Ramesses joined a select group that included only a handful of Egypt's longest-lived rulers. By tradition, in the 30th year of his reign Ramesses celebrated a jubilee called the Sed festival. These were held to honour and rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength. Only halfway through what would be a 66-year reign, Ramesses had already eclipsed all but a few of his greatest predecessors in his achievements. He had brought peace, maintained Egyptian borders, and built great and numerous monuments across the empire. His country was more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century.\nSed festivals traditionally were held again every three years after the 30th year; Ramesses II, who sometimes held them after two years, eventually celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen.\n\nBuilding projects and monuments\nIn the third year of his reign, Ramesses started the most ambitious building project after the pyramids, which were built almost 1,500 years earlier. The population was put to work changing the face of Egypt. Ramesses built extensively from the Delta to Nubia, \"covering the land with buildings in a way no monarch before him had.\"\n\nSome of the activities undertaken were focused on remodeling or usurping existing works, improving masonry techniques, and using art as propaganda.\n\nIn Thebes, the ancient temples were transformed, so that each one of them reflected honour to Ramesses as a symbol of his putative divine nature and power.\nThe elegant but shallow reliefs of previous pharaohs were easily transformed, and so their images and words could easily be obliterated by their successors. Ramesses insisted that his carvings be deeply engraved into the stone, which made them not only less susceptible to later alteration, but also made them more prominent in the Egyptian sun, reflecting his relationship with the sun deity, Ra.\nRamesses used art as a means of propaganda for his victories over foreigners, which are depicted on numerous temple reliefs.\nHis cartouches are prominently displayed even in buildings that he did not construct.\nHe founded a new capital city in the Delta during his reign, called Pi-Ramesses. It previously had served as a summer palace during Seti I's reign.\nRamesses II expanded gold mining operations in Akuyati (modern day Wadi Allaqi).\nRamesses also undertook many new construction projects. Two of his biggest works, besides Pi-Ramesses, were the temple complex of Abu Simbel and the Ramesseum, a mortuary temple in western Thebes.\n\nPi-Ramesses\nRamesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, although he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Canaan and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name, Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning \"Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory\") was dominated by huge temples and his vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. In the 10th century AD, the Bible exegete Rabbi Saadia Gaon believed that the biblical site of Ramesses had to be identified with Ain Shams. For a time, during the early 20th century, the site was misidentified as that of Tanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it now is recognized that the Ramesside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km (18.6 mi) south, near modern Qantir. The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today. The rest is buried in the fields.\n\nRamesseum\nThe temple complex built by Ramesses II between Qurna and the desert has been known as the Ramesseum since the 19th century. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus marveled at the gigantic temple, now no more than a few ruins.\nOriented northwest and southeast, the temple was preceded by two courts. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king looming up at the back. Only fragments of the base and torso remain of the syenite statue of the enthroned pharaoh, 17 metres (56 ft) high and weighing more than 1,000 tonnes (980 long tons; 1,100 short tons). Scenes of the great pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh are represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upper registers, feast and honor of the phallic deity Min, god of fertility.\nOn the opposite side of the court the few Osiride pillars and columns still remaining may furnish an idea of the original grandeur. Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king also may be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the great hypostyle hall (41 × 31 m) still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities. Part of the ceiling, decorated with gold stars on a blue ground, also has been preserved. Ramesses's children appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and the tetrastyle cell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and few remains of the second room are all that is left. Vast storerooms built of mud bricks stretched out around the temple. Traces of a school for scribes were found among the ruins.\nA temple of Seti I, of which nothing remains beside the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall.\n\nAbu Simbel\nIn 1255 BC, Ramesses and his queen Nefertari had traveled into Nubia to inaugurate a new temple, the great Abu Simbel. It is ego cast into stone; the man who built it intended not only to become Egypt's greatest pharaoh, but also one of its deities.\nThe great temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel was discovered in 1813 by the Swiss Orientalist and traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. An enormous pile of sand almost completely covered the facade and its colossal statues, blocking the entrance for four more years. The Paduan explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni reached the interior on 4 August 1817.\n\nOther Nubian monuments\nAs well as the temples of Abu Simbel, Ramesses left other monuments to himself in Nubia. His early campaigns are illustrated on the walls of the Temple of Beit el-Wali (now relocated to New Kalabsha). Other temples dedicated to Ramesses are Derr and Gerf Hussein (also relocated to New Kalabsha). For the temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, the temple's foundation probably occurred during the reign of Thutmose III, while the temple was shaped during his reign and that of Ramesses II.\n\nOther archeological discoveries\nThe colossal statue of Ramesses II dates back 3,200 years, and was originally discovered in six pieces in a temple near Memphis. Weighing some 83-tonne (82-long-ton; 91-short-ton), it was transported, reconstructed, and erected in Ramesses Square in Cairo in 1955. In August 2006, contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate. The new site is near the future Grand Egyptian Museum.\nIn 2018, a group of archeologists in Cairo's Matariya neighborhood discovered pieces of a booth with a seat that, based on its structure and age, may have been used by Ramesses. \"The royal compartment consists of four steps leading to a cubic platform, which is believed to be the base of the king's seat during celebrations or public gatherings,\" such as Ramesses' inauguration and Sed festivals. It may have also gone on to be used by others in the Ramesside Period, according to the mission's head. The excavation mission also unearthed \"a collection of scarabs, amulets, clay pots and blocks engraved with hieroglyphic text.\"\nIn December 2019, a red granite royal bust of Ramesses II was unearthed by an Egyptian archaeological mission in the village of Mit Rahina in Giza. The bust depicted Ramesses II wearing a wig with the symbol \"Ka\" on his head. Its measurements were 55 cm (21.65 in) wide, 45 cm (17.71 in) thick and 105 cm (41.33 in) long. Alongside the bust, limestone blocks appeared showing Ramesses II during the Heb-Sed religious ritual. \"This discovery is considered one of the rarest archaeological discoveries. It is the first-ever Ka statue made of granite to be discovered. The only Ka statue that was previously found is made of wood and it belongs to one of the kings of the 13th dynasty of ancient Egypt which is displayed at the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square,\" said archaeologist Mostafa Waziri.\nIn September 2024 it was published that during an archaeological excavation of a 3,200 year old fort along the Nile, researches found a golden sword with Ramses II signature on it.\n\nDeath and burial\nThe Egyptian scholar Manetho (third century BC) attributed Ramesses a reign of 66 years and 2 months.\nBy the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued by arthritis and hardening of the arteries. He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and bounty he had collected from other empires. He had outlived many of his wives and children and left great memorials all over Egypt. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour.\n\nMummy\nOriginally Ramesses II was buried in the tomb KV7 in the Valley of the Kings, but because of looting, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queen Ahmose Inhapy. Seventy-two hours later it was again moved, to the tomb of the high priest Pinedjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body of the coffin of Ramesses II. His mummy was eventually discovered in 1881 in TT320 inside an ordinary wooden coffin and is now in Cairo's National Museum of Egyptian Civilization (until 3 April 2021 it was in the Egyptian Museum).\n\nThe pharaoh's mummy reveals an aquiline nose and strong jaw. It stands at about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in). Gaston Maspero, who first unwrapped the mummy of Ramesses II, writes, \"on the temples there are a few sparse hairs, but at the poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, straight locks about five centimeters in length. White at the time of death, and possibly auburn during life, they have been dyed a light red by the spices (henna) used in embalming ... the moustache and beard are thin. ... The hairs are white, like those of the head and eyebrows ... the skin is of earthy brown, splotched with black ... the face of the mummy gives a fair idea of the face of the living king.\"\nIn 1975, Maurice Bucaille, a French doctor, examined the mummy at the Cairo Museum and found it in poor condition. French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing succeeded in convincing Egyptian authorities to send the mummy to France for treatment. In September 1976, it was greeted at Paris–Le Bourget Airport with full military honours befitting a king, then taken to a laboratory at the Musée de l'Homme. Persistent claims that the mummy was issued with a passport for the journey are incorrect, but may be based on the French word passeport being used to describe the extensive documentation required.\nThe mummy was forensically tested in 1976 by Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Ceccaldi observed that the mummy had slightly wavy, red hair; from this trait combined with cranial features, he concluded that Ramesses II was of a \"Berber type\" and hence – according to Ceccaldi's analysis – fair-skinned. Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was red, which suggests that he came from a family of redheads. This has more than just cosmetic significance: in ancient Egypt people with red hair were associated with the deity Set, the slayer of Osiris, and the name of Ramesses II's father, Seti I, means \"follower of Seth\". \nCheikh Anta Diop disputed the results of the study, arguing that the structure of hair morphology cannot determine the ethnicity of a mummy and that a comparative study should have featured Nubians in Upper Egypt before a conclusive judgement was reached.\nIn 2006, French police arrested a man who tried to sell several tufts of Ramesses' hair on the Internet. Jean-Michel Diebolt said he had got the relics from his late father, who had been on the analysis team in the 1970s. They were returned to Egypt the following year.\n\nDuring the examination, scientific analysis revealed battle-wounds, old fractures, arthritis and poor circulation. Ramesses II's arthritis is believed to have made him walk with a hunched back for the last decades of his life. A 2004 study excluded ankylosing spondylitis as a possible cause and proposed diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis as a possible alternative, which was confirmed by more recent work. A significant hole in the pharaoh's mandible was detected. Researchers observed \"an abscess by his teeth (which) was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty\".\nAfter being irradiated in an attempt to eliminate fungi and insects, the mummy was returned from Paris to Egypt in May 1977.\nIn April 2021, his mummy was moved from the old Egyptian Museum to the new National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.\n\nBurial of wives and relatives\nTomb of Nefertari\nThe tomb of the most important consort of Ramesses was discovered by Ernesto Schiaparelli in 1904. Although it had been looted in ancient times, the tomb of Nefertari is extremely important, because its magnificent wall-painting decoration is regarded as one of the greatest achievements of ancient Egyptian art. A flight of steps cut out of the rock gives access to the antechamber, which is decorated with paintings based on chapter seventeen of the Book of the Dead. The astronomical ceiling represents the heavens and is painted in dark blue, with a myriad of golden five-pointed stars. The east wall of the antechamber is interrupted by a large opening flanked by representation of Osiris at the left and Anubis at the right; this in turn leads to the side chamber, decorated with offering-scenes, preceded by a vestibule in which the paintings portray Nefertari presented to the deities, who welcome her. On the north wall of the antechamber is the stairway down to the burial-chamber, a vast quadrangular room covering a surface-area of about 90 square metres (970 sq ft), its astronomical ceiling supported by four pillars, entirely decorated. Originally, the queen's red granite sarcophagus lay in the middle of this chamber. According to religious doctrines of the time, it was in this chamber, which the ancient Egyptians called the Golden Hall, that the regeneration of the deceased took place. This decorative pictogram of the walls in the burial-chamber drew inspiration from chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead: in the left half of the chamber, there are passages from chapter 144 concerning the gates and doors of the kingdom of Osiris, their guardians, and the magic formulas that had to be uttered by the deceased in order to go past the doors.\n\nTomb KV5\nIn 1995, Professor Kent Weeks, head of the Theban Mapping Project, rediscovered Tomb KV5. It has proven to be the largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and originally contained the mummified remains of some of this king's estimated 52 sons. Approximately 150 corridors and tomb chambers have been located in this tomb as of 2006 and the tomb may contain as many as 200 corridors and chambers. It is believed that at least four of Ramesses's sons, including Meryatum, Sety, Amun-her-khepeshef (Ramesses's first-born son) and \"the King's Principal Son of His Body, the Generalissimo Ramesses, justified\" (i.e., deceased) were buried there from inscriptions, ostraca or canopic jars discovered in the tomb. Joyce Tyldesley writes that thus far\n\nno intact burials have been discovered and there have been little substantial funeral debris: thousands of potsherds, faience ushabti figures, beads, amulets, fragments of Canopic jars, of wooden coffins ... but no intact sarcophagi, mummies or mummy cases, suggesting that much of the tomb may have been unused. Those burials which were made in KV5 were thoroughly looted in antiquity, leaving little or no remains.\n\nIn literature and the arts\nRamesses is the basis for Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem \"Ozymandias\". Diodorus Siculus gives an inscription on the base of one of his sculptures as: \"King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works.\" This is paraphrased in Shelley's poem.\nThe life of Ramesses II has inspired many fictional representations, including the historical novels of the French writer Christian Jacq, the Ramsès series; the graphic novel Watchmen, in which the character of Adrian Veidt uses Ramesses II to form part of the inspiration for his alter-ego, Ozymandias; Norman Mailer's novel Ancient Evenings, which is largely concerned with the life of Ramesses II, though from the perspective of Egyptians living during the reign of Ramesses IX; and the Anne Rice book The Mummy, or Ramses the Damned (1989), in which Ramesses was the main character. In The Kane Chronicles Ramesses is an ancestor of the main characters Sadie and Carter Kane. Ramesses II is one of the characters in the video game Civilization V, as well as in additional downloadable content for its sequel, Civilization VI.\nThe East Village underground rock band The Fugs released their song \"Ramses II Is Dead, My Love\" on their 1968 album It Crawled into My Hand, Honest.\nRamesses II is a main character in the fiction book The Heretic Queen by Michelle Moran published in 2008. It is a novel about the love story and beginning years of the marriage of Pharaoh Ramesses and Queen Nefertari, during the time Pharaoh Rameses II is trying to decide who will be queen between his two wives Nefertari and Iset. Nefertari is the daughter and orphan of Queen Mutnodjmet and General Nakhtmin, niece of Queen Nefertiti and Pharaoh Ankhenaten. The book is told from the perspective of Nefertari and is fiction but does deal with many historical events during the beginning of Rameses II reign and many historical people giving readers a view of what life and these historical figures may have been like.\n\nAs the pharaoh in the Bible's Book of Exodus\nThough scholars generally do not recognize the biblical portrayal of the Exodus as an actual historical event, various historical pharaohs have been proposed as the corresponding ruler at the time the story takes place, with Ramesses II as the most popular candidate for Pharaoh of the Exodus. He is cast in this role in the 1944 novella The Tables of the Law by Thomas Mann. Although not a major character, Ramesses appears in Joan Grant's So Moses Was Born, a first-person account from Nebunefer, the brother of Ramose, which paints a picture of the life of Ramose from the death of Seti, replete with the power play, intrigue, and assassination plots of the historical record, and depicting the relationships with Bintanath, Tuya, Nefertari, and Moses.\nIn film, Ramesses is played by Yul Brynner in Cecil B. DeMille's classic The Ten Commandments (1956). Here Ramesses is portrayed as a vengeful tyrant as well as the main antagonist of the film, ever scornful of his father's preference for Moses over \"the son of [his] body\". The animated film The Prince of Egypt (1998) also features a depiction of Ramesses (voiced by Ralph Fiennes, for both the speaking and the singing), portrayed as Moses' adoptive brother, and ultimately as the film's villain with essentially the same motivations as in the earlier 1956 film. Joel Edgerton played Ramesses in the 2014 film Exodus: Gods and Kings. Sérgio Marone plays Ramesses in the 2015–2016 Brazilian telenovela series Os Dez Mandamentos (English: 'The Ten Commandments').\nIn the 2013 miniseries The Bible, he is portrayed by Stewart Scudamore.\n\nSee also\nList of pharaohs\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nEgypt's Golden Empire: Ramesses II\nRamesses II Usermaatre-setepenre (c. 1279–1213 BC)\nList of Ramesses II's family members and state officials",
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"paragraph_text": "Merneptah () or Merenptah (reigned July or August 1213–2 May 1203 BCE) was the fourth pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. According to contemporary historical records, he ruled Egypt for almost ten years, from late July or early August 1213 until his death on 2 May 1203. He was the first royal-born pharaoh since Tutankhamun of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.\nMerneptah was the thirteenth son of Ramesses II, only coming to power because all of his older brothers had died, including his full brother Khaemweset.\nHe was around seventy years old when he ascended to the throne. He is arguably best known for the Merneptah Stele, featuring the first known mention of the name Israel. His throne name was Ba-en-re Mery-netjeru, which means \"Soul of Ra, Beloved of the Gods\".\n\nFamily\nMerneptah was likely the fourth child born to Isetnofret and Ramesses II, and his thirteenth son. He was the first royal-born pharaoh since Tutankhamun. He married Isetnofret II, who was likely his full sister or niece, who would become Great Royal Wife when he was named pharaoh. They had at least two sons, Merenptah, named after his father, and Seti II, and a daughter, Tausret. When Seti II became pharaoh, his sister Tausret became his Great Royal Wife. She became pharaoh in her own right after the death of pharaoh Siptah.\nTakhat, the mother of Amenmesse, may have been a secondary queen, though scholars are yet to confirm this.\n\nPrior to accession\nRamesses II lived well into his nineties and was one of the oldest pharaohs in Egyptian history. He outlived many of his heirs; eventually, Merneptah would be the son to succeed him. Merneptah would have been prepared to be pharaoh through the responsibility of his government roles. By year 40 of Ramesses II, Merneptah had been promoted to Overseer of the Army. In year 55, he was officially proclaimed crown prince. At that point, he gained additional responsibilities by serving as Prince Regent for the last twelve years of Ramesses II's life.\n\nChronology\nAccording to one reading of contemporary historical records, Merneptah ruled Egypt for almost ten years, from late July or early August 1213 BC until his death on 2 May 1203 BC.\n\nReign\nMerneptah moved Egypt's administrative center from Pi-Ramesses, his father's capital, back to Memphis, where he constructed a royal palace next to the temple of Ptah. The Penn Museum, led by Clarence Stanley Fisher, excavated this palace in 1915.\n\nCampaigns\nMerneptah had to carry out several military campaigns during his reign. In the fifth year of his rule, he fought against the Libyans, who—with the assistance of the Sea Peoples—were threatening Egypt from the west. Merneptah led a victorious six-hour battle against a combined Libyan and Sea People force at the city of Perire, probably located on the western edge of the Nile delta. His account of this campaign against the Sea Peoples and Libu is described in prose on a wall beside the sixth pylon at Karnak, which states:\n\n[Beginning of the victory that his majesty achieved in the land of Libya] -I, Ekwesh, Teresh, Lukka, Sherden, Shekelesh, Northerners coming from all lands.\nLater in the inscription, Merneptah receives news of the attack:\n\n... the third season, saying: 'The wretched, fallen chief of Libya, Meryre, son of Ded, has fallen upon the country of Tehenu with his bowmen—Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukka, Teresh, Taking the best of every warrior and every man of war of his country. He has brought his wife and his children—leaders of the camp, and he has reached the western boundary in the fields of Perire.'\n\nAn inscription on the Athribis Stele, now in the garden of Cairo Museum, declares \"His majesty was enraged at their report, like a lion\", assembled his court, and gave a rousing speech. Later he dreamed that he saw Ptah handing him a sword and saying \"Take thou (it) and banish thou the fearful heart from thee.\" When the bowmen went forth, says the inscription, \"Amun was with them as a shield.\" After six hours the surviving Nine Bows threw down their weapons, abandoned their baggage and dependents, and ran for their lives. Merneptah states that he defeated the invasion, killing 6,000 soldiers and taking 9,000 prisoners. To be sure of the numbers, among other things, he took the penises of all uncircumcised enemy dead and the hands of all the circumcised, from which history learns that the Ekwesh were circumcised, a fact causing some to doubt that they were Greek people.\nThere is also an account of the same events in the form of a poem from the Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israel Stele, which mentions the suppression of revolts in Canaan and makes reference to the supposed utter destruction of Israel in a campaign prior to his fifth year, in Canaan: \"Israel has been wiped out ... its seed is no more.\" This is the first recognised ancient Egyptian record of the existence of Israel—\"not as a country or city, but as a tribe\" or people. A newly discovered massive layer of fiery destruction confirms Merneptah's boast about his Canaanite campaign.\n\nSuccession\nMerneptah was already an elderly man in his late 60s, if not early 70s, when he assumed the throne. \nMerneptah's successor, Seti II, was a son of Queen Isetnofret. However, Seti II's accession to the throne was not unchallenged: a rival king named Amenmesse, who was either another son of Merneptah by Takhat or, much less likely, of Ramesses II, seized control of Upper Egypt and Kush during the middle of the reign of Seti II. Only after he overcame Amenmesse, was Seti able to reassert his authority over Thebes in his fifth year. It is possible that before seizing Upper Egypt, Amenmesse had been known as Messuy and had been viceroy of Kush.\n\nMummy\nMerneptah suffered from arthritis and atherosclerosis and died as an old man after a reign that lasted for nearly a decade. He was originally buried within tomb KV8 in the Valley of the Kings, but his mummy was not found there. In 1898 it was located along with eighteen other mummies in the mummy cache found in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35) by Victor Loret. His mummy was taken to Cairo and eventually unwrapped by G. Elliott Smith on July 8, 1907. Smith notes that:\n\nThe body is that of an old man and is 1 meter 714 millimeters [5'6\"] in height. Merneptah was almost completely bald, only a narrow fringe of white hair (now cut so close as to be seen only with difficulty) remaining on the temples and occiput. A few short (about 2 mill) black hairs were found on the upper lip and scattered, closely clipped hairs on the cheeks and chin. The general aspect of the face recalls that of Ramesses II, but the form of the cranium and the measurements of the face much more nearly agree with those of his [grand]father, Seti the Great.\nIn April 2021 his mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.\n\nSee also\nList of children of Ramesses II\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nEva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song, and Art, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), Vol. III: Egypt, Africa, and Arabia, trans. W. K. Flinders Petrie, pp. 47–55, scanned by J. S. Arkenberg, Department of History, California State Fullerton; Professor Arkenberg has modernized the text and it is available via Internet Ancient History Sourcebook",
"title": "Merneptah"
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] | Who was the successor of the Egyptian Pharaoh that was in power when the Treasury of Atreus was completed? | [] | Merneptah | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Rahul Ligma is a fictional fired Twitter employee, a character played by one of a pair of amateur improvisational actors that pranked multiple major media outlets on October 28, 2022. Ligma, the fictional character's surname, is a reference to the Ligma joke. The spontaneous and intentionally transparent hoax was revealed the same day, after the initial news coverage triggered debate among real Twitter employees about whether or not expected mass layoffs had already started. The Rahul Ligma character next appeared in early November as a recently unemployed FTX employee in the Bahamas. On November 15, Elon Musk, the incoming CEO of Twitter, facetiously offered Ligma and his compatriot their (fictional) old jobs back, and posted a photograph taken with them at Twitter headquarters. Although at least one journalist had publicly apologized for their failure to fact check before reporting the news, several notable media outlets were still oblivious to the running joke, and reported the duo's firing and rehiring as actual news. In social media, the follow-up stunt was widely criticized for lack of sensitivity to actual Twitter employees who had lost their jobs. On November 23, news reports surfaced once again, this time reporting that the actor playing Daniel Johnson had in fact been hired by Twitter for the first time.\n\nBackground\nOn October 28, 2022, many members of the press were present outside Twitter's San Francisco headquarters on the first day that Elon Musk gained control of the social media company. It had been previously reported that mass layoffs were expected in the coming weeks and months. That day, two individuals identifying as \"Rahul Ligma\" and \"Daniel Johnson\" left Twitter's building carrying large cardboard boxes, pretending to be two recently fired employees departing with their belongings. Neither had ever worked for Twitter, but the inventor of the Ligma character regularly exercised in a gymnasium in the same building, and he \"thought it would be really funny\" if he and a friend \"walked out with a [cardboard] box and they fell for it.\"\n\nThe prank\nRahul Ligma, in character, acted dismayed about his firing, telling a group of reporters his concerns about the \"future of their democracy... the future of celebrity conservatorship\" (a Britney Spears reference) and lamenting that \"this wouldn't have happened under Michelle Obama\", while holding up a copy of the former first lady's autobiography. Claiming to be a Tesla owner and a software engineer with Twitter for the past three years, he also identified himself as \"a big fan of clean energy, climate change, even free speech too.\"\n\"Daniel Johnson\", also part of the fictional team of fired data engineers, said he had to leave the interview to \"touch base with my husband and wife\" using a version of the \"My wife's son\" meme.\nAlthough no \"Rahul Ligma\" exists in Twitter's Slack or email system, nor shows up LinkedIn as an employee, multiple news networks reported the fictional names along with statements, photographs, and video of the pranksters as being of actual ex-employees of Twitter. California State Senator Melissa Melendez tweeted at the time, \"This is too funny. Two guys posing as laid-off Twitter employees. They said their names were Rahul Ligma and Daniel Johnson. Not one reporter thought that was odd. They just ran with the story.\"\nCNBC technology reporter Deirdre Bosa tweeted, \"It's happening. The entire team of data engineers let go. These are two of them. They are visibly shaken. Daniel tells us he owns a Tesla and doesn't know how he will make payments.\" The San Francisco ABC News affiliate reported that one \"was terminated during a Zoom meeting\". Based on the visual of the fake employees carrying boxes, two Bloomberg journalists wrote that mass layoffs were already underway at Twitter, but actually it was only top executives that had lost their jobs. Reuters was also among the major media companies fooled by the hoax.\n\nReactions\nAmong Twitter employees, the initial news reports launched a debate about whether or not layoffs had already begun. Later in the day on October 28, Twitter CEO Elon Musk, aware of the joke, continued the crude puns by tweeting about the firing that \"Ligma Johnson had it coming\", along with eggplant and water splash emojis.\nThe Times of India called the Ligma–Johnson hoax \"perfectly-timed\" and \"one of the greatest pranks on the internet.\"\nBlake Shuster wrote for USA Today that the journalists involved were \"duped by real-life trolls\" and \"all it would've taken was 30 seconds to stop and actually do their jobs to avoid the whole news-cycle\". He criticized the journalists for not bothering to search for \"Daniel Johnson\" and \"Rahul Ligma\" before publishing their stories, and remarked, \"it's probably not great that during a time of immense and worrisome change at one of the largest tech platforms...all we're left with is BOFA reporting.\"\nOn October 31, 2022, CNBC's Bosa apologized and told The Daily Beast, \"They got me\" and \"I didn't do enough to confirm who they were\". But NBC, as of December 2022, still had not corrected its October 28 coverage that, \"some Twitter employees appeared to have been let go\".\nThe Rahul Ligma character resurfaced a few weeks later, apparently having relocated along with his \"husband and wife\" to the Bahamas to work for the cryptocurrency platform FTX. But when the company suddenly faced financial collapse, on November 11, 2022, he found himself unemployed once again. Again on video with a cardboard box, this time on a sandy beach, Ligma commented, \"It's really tough, this is my second job in a month\", adding, \"Web2 chewed me up and spit me out, I just really thought Web3 was gonna be different.\"\n\nThe fictional rehiring\nOn November 15, 2022, Musk changed course and apologized for \"firing these geniuses\", jokingly saying it was \"truly one of [my] biggest mistakes\" and offered them their (fictional) jobs back. Calling their October media stunt \"one of the best trolls ever\", Musk publicized a photograph taken with himself along with \"Ligma & Johnson\" at Twitter headquarters. Meanwhile, Newsweek reported that \"there was widespread criticism of Musk for joking about firings when his employees were losing their jobs in the shake-up\", noting that initial reactions were divided among those who thought the prank was \"disrespectful\" and \"cruel to the real employees who were fired\", and those who thought that the joke was \"top-notch\".\nOn November 16, 2022, the Hindi news channel Aaj Tak reported the comic duo's fictional rehiring as an actual news story, continuing to fall for the prank. In a 37-second video, the broadcaster announced, \"After the large scale layoff, Elon is realizing his mistake. He is now calling back fired employees and has shared an image with two who have returned.\" The following day, the Indonesian news website VOI also published the photograph in an article with the caption \"Rahul Ligma, Elon Musk, and Daniel Johnson, are back as a team\".\nIn the November 17, 2022 edition of Rising, co-host Briahna Joy Gray said that the rehiring proved Musk \"actually needs these employees to work for him\" and that \"the employees didn't look so happy in that photograph\" to be back, having been \"fired—prematurely\".\n\nAftermath\nOn November 23, 2022, The Daily Beast reported that Daniel Francis, the actor who played Daniel Johnson in the hoax, had just been hired by Twitter as a software developer, citing a Business Insider article. \nIn a December 2022 article for TechCrunch reflecting on the absurd nature of tech industry news over the past year, Amanda Silberling commented that because \"a herd of reporters did not get the joke\" about Rahul Ligma, she had to explain the \"ligma\" meme on four different podcasts.\nAlso in December 2022, Ligma announced his presidential run in 2024 \"to fight for the rights of laid off workers, polygamists, and men who wear gym shorts outside in November.\"\n\nSee also\nLigma joke\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nAFP News Agency interview excerpt of Ligma & Johnson on YouTube\nAssociated Press archive interview of Ligma & Johnson on YouTube\nArchive of Ligma-Johnson 2024 presidential campaign website",
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"paragraph_text": "Elon Reeve Musk (; born June 28, 1971) is a businessman and investor known for his key roles in the space company SpaceX and the automotive company Tesla, Inc. Other involvements include ownership of X Corp., the company that operates the social media platform X (formerly known as Twitter), and his role in the founding of the Boring Company, xAI, Neuralink, and OpenAI. He is one of the wealthiest individuals in the world; as of August 2024 Forbes estimates his net worth to be US$247 billion.\nMusk was born in Pretoria, South Africa, to Maye (née Haldeman), a model, and Errol Musk, a businessman and engineer. Musk briefly attended the University of Pretoria before immigrating to Canada at the age of 18, acquiring citizenship through his Canadian-born mother. Two years later he matriculated at Queen's University at Kingston in Canada. Musk later transferred to the University of Pennsylvania and received bachelor's degrees in economics and physics. He moved to California in 1995 to attend Stanford University, but dropped out after two days and, with his brother Kimbal, co-founded the online city guide software company Zip2. The startup was acquired by Compaq for $307 million in 1999. That same year Musk co-founded X.com, a direct bank. X.com merged with Confinity in 2000 to form PayPal. In October 2002, eBay acquired PayPal for $1.5 billion. Using $100 million of the money he made from the sale of PayPal, Musk founded SpaceX, a spaceflight services company, in 2002. \nIn 2004, Musk was an early investor who provided most of the initial financing in the electric-vehicle manufacturer Tesla Motors, Inc. (later Tesla, Inc.), assuming the position of the company's chairman. He later became the product architect and, in 2008, the CEO. In 2006, Musk helped create SolarCity, a solar energy company that was acquired by Tesla in 2016 and became Tesla Energy. In 2013, he proposed a hyperloop high-speed vactrain transportation system. In 2015, he co-founded OpenAI, a nonprofit artificial intelligence research company. The following year Musk co-founded Neuralink, a neurotechnology company developing brain–computer interfaces, and The Boring Company, a tunnel construction company. In 2018 the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) sued Musk, alleging that he had falsely announced that he had secured funding for a private takeover of Tesla. To settle the case Musk stepped down as the chairman of Tesla and paid a $20 million fine. In 2022, he acquired Twitter for $44 billion, merged the company into the newly-created X Corp. and rebranded the service as X the following year. In March 2023, Musk founded xAI, an artificial-intelligence company.\nMusk has expressed views that have made him a polarizing figure. He has been criticized for making unscientific and misleading statements, including COVID-19 misinformation, promoting right-wing conspiracy theories, and \"endorsing an antisemitic theory\"; he later apologized for the last of these. His ownership of Twitter has been controversial because of the layoffs of large numbers of employees, an increase in hate speech, misinformation and disinformation posts on the website, and changes to website features, including Twitter Blue verification.\n\nEarly life and education\nChildhood and family\nElon Reeve Musk was born on June 28, 1971, in Pretoria, South Africa's administrative capital. He is of British and Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry. His mother, Maye (née Haldeman), is a model and dietitian born in Saskatchewan, Canada, and raised in South Africa. His father, Errol Musk, is a South African electromechanical engineer, pilot, sailor, consultant, emerald dealer, and property developer, who partly owned a rental lodge at the Timbavati Private Nature Reserve. Elon has a younger brother, Kimbal, and a younger sister, Tosca. Elon has four paternal half-siblings.\nThe family was wealthy during Elon's youth. Despite both Musk and Errol previously stating that Errol was a part owner of a Zambian emerald mine, in 2023, Errol recounted that the deal he made was to receive \"a portion of the emeralds produced at three small mines.\" Errol was elected to the Pretoria City Council as a representative of the anti-apartheid Progressive Party and has said that his children shared their father's dislike of apartheid.\nElon's maternal grandfather, Joshua N. Haldeman, was an American-born Canadian who took his family on record-breaking journeys to Africa and Australia in a single-engine Bellanca airplane; Haldeman died when Elon was still a toddler. \nElon has recounted trips to a wilderness school (\"veldskool\") that he described as a \"paramilitary Lord of the Flies\" where \"bullying was a virtue\" and children were encouraged to fight over rations.\nAfter his parents divorced in 1980, Elon chose to live primarily with his father. Elon later regretted his decision and became estranged from his father. Elon attended Bryanston High School. In one incident, after an altercation with a fellow pupil, Elon was thrown down concrete steps and beaten severely by the boy and his friends, leading to him being hospitalized for his injuries. Elon described his father berating him after he was discharged from the hospital, saying \"I had to stand for an hour as he yelled at me and called me an idiot and told me that I was just worthless\". Errol denied berating Elon but claimed \"The boy had just lost his father to suicide and Elon had called him stupid. Elon had a tendency to call people stupid. How could I possibly blame that child?\" After the incident, Elon was enrolled in private school.\nElon was an enthusiastic reader of books, later attributing his success in part to having read The Lord of the Rings, the Foundation series, and The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. At age ten, he developed an interest in computing and video games, teaching himself how to program from the VIC-20 user manual. At age twelve, Elon sold his BASIC-based game Blastar to PC and Office Technology magazine for approximately $500.\n\nEducation\nMusk attended Waterkloof House Preparatory School, Bryanston High School, and then Pretoria Boys High School, where he graduated. Musk was a good but not exceptional student, earning a 61 in Afrikaans and a B on his senior math certification. Musk applied for a Canadian passport through his Canadian-born mother, knowing that it would be easier to immigrate to the United States this way. While waiting for his application to be processed, he attended the University of Pretoria for five months.\nMusk arrived in Canada in June 1989, connected with a second cousin in Saskatchewan, and worked odd jobs including at a farm and a lumber mill. In 1990, he entered Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario.\nTwo years later, he transferred to the University of Pennsylvania, an Ivy League university in Philadelphia, where he earned two degrees: a Bachelor of Arts in physics, and a Bachelor of Science in economics from the university's Wharton School. Although Musk has said that he earned the degrees in 1995, the University of Pennsylvania did not award them until 1997. He reportedly hosted large, ticketed house parties to help pay for tuition, and wrote a business plan for an electronic book-scanning service similar to Google Books.\nIn 1994, Musk held two internships in Silicon Valley: one at energy storage startup Pinnacle Research Institute, which investigated electrolytic ultracapacitors for energy storage, and another at Palo Alto–based startup Rocket Science Games. In 1995, he was accepted to a graduate program in materials science at Stanford University, but did not enroll. Musk decided to join the Internet boom, applying for a job at Netscape, to which he reportedly never received a response.\n\nBusiness career\nElon Musk has started a number of businesses since 1995, with initial business success and liquidity gained from sales of equity in one business providing the capital for him to start subsequent business enterprises. Musk is widely considered a serial entrepreneur. By the 2020s, several Musk businesses had formed strategic partnerships with some employees playing roles simultaneously in more than one of Musk's companies.\n\nZip2\nIn 1995, Musk, his brother Kimbal, and Greg Kouri founded Global Link Information Network, later renamed to Zip2. The company developed an Internet city guide with maps, directions, and yellow pages, and marketed it to newspapers. They worked at a small rented office in Palo Alto, with Musk coding the website every night. Musk and his brother's immigration statuses during this period was described by Musk as a \"gray area\". Eventually, Zip2 obtained contracts with The New York Times and the Chicago Tribune. The brothers persuaded the board of directors to abandon a merger with CitySearch; however, Musk's attempts to become CEO were thwarted. Compaq acquired Zip2 for $307 million in cash in February 1999, and Musk received $22 million for his 7-percent share.\n\nX.com and PayPal\nIn March 1999, Musk co-founded X.com, an online financial services and e-mail payment company with $12 million of the money he made from the Compaq acquisition. X.com was one of the first online banks that was federally insured, and over 200,000 customers joined in its initial months of operation.\nMusk's friends expressed skepticism about the naming of the online bank, fearing it might have been mistaken for a pornographic site. Musk brushed off their concerns, emphasizing that the name was meant to be straightforward, memorable, and easy to type. Additionally, he was fond of the email addresses derived from it, such as \"[email protected]\". Even though Musk founded the company, investors regarded him as inexperienced and replaced him with Intuit CEO Bill Harris by the end of the year.\nIn 2000, X.com merged with the online bank Confinity to avoid competition, as the latter's money-transfer service PayPal was more popular than X.com's service. Musk then returned as CEO of the merged company. His preference for Microsoft- over Unix-based software caused a rift among the company's employees, and eventually led Confinity co-founder Peter Thiel to resign. With the company suffering from compounding technological issues and the lack of a cohesive business model, the board ousted Musk and replaced him with Thiel in September 2000. Under Thiel, the company focused on the money-transfer service and was renamed PayPal in 2001.\nIn 2002, PayPal was acquired by eBay for $1.5 billion in stock, of which Musk—PayPal's largest shareholder with 11.7% of shares—received $176 million. In 2017, more than 15 years later, Musk purchased the X.com domain from PayPal for its \"sentimental value\". In 2022, Musk discussed a goal of creating \"X, the everything app\".\n\nSpaceX\nIn early 2001, Musk became involved with the nonprofit Mars Society and discussed funding plans to place a growth-chamber for plants on Mars. In October of the same year, he traveled to Moscow, Russia with Jim Cantrell and Adeo Ressi to buy refurbished intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that could send the greenhouse payloads into space. He met with the companies NPO Lavochkin and Kosmotras; however, Musk was seen as a novice and the group returned to the United States without an agreement to purchase Russian launch services. In February 2002, the group returned to Russia to look for three ICBMs. They had another meeting with Kosmotras and were offered one rocket for $8 million, which Musk rejected. He instead decided to start a company that could build affordable rockets. With $100 million of his own money, Musk founded SpaceX in May 2002 and became the company's CEO and chief engineer.\nSpaceX attempted its first launch of the Falcon 1 rocket in 2006. Though the rocket failed to reach Earth orbit, it was awarded a Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program contract from NASA. After two more failed attempts that nearly caused Musk and his companies to go bankrupt, SpaceX succeeded in launching the Falcon 1 into orbit in 2008. Later that year, SpaceX received a $1.6 billion Commercial Resupply Services contract from NASA for 12 flights of its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS), replacing the Space Shuttle after its 2011 retirement. In 2012, the Dragon vehicle docked with the ISS, a first for a commercial spacecraft.\n\nWorking towards its goal of reusable rockets, in 2015 SpaceX successfully landed the first stage of a Falcon 9 on a land platform. Later landings were achieved on autonomous spaceport drone ships, an ocean-based recovery platform. In 2018, SpaceX launched the Falcon Heavy; the inaugural mission carried Musk's personal Tesla Roadster as a dummy payload. Since 2019, SpaceX has been developing Starship, a fully-reusable, super-heavy-lift launch vehicle intended to replace the Falcon 9 and the Falcon Heavy. In 2020, SpaceX launched its first crewed flight, the Demo-2, becoming the first private company to place astronauts into orbit and dock a crewed spacecraft with the ISS. In 2024, NASA awarded SpaceX an $843 million contract to deorbit the ISS at the end of its lifespan.\n\nStarlink\nIn 2015, SpaceX began development of the Starlink constellation of low-Earth-orbit satellites to provide satellite Internet access, with the first two prototype satellites launched in February 2018. A second set of test satellites, and the first large deployment of a piece of the constellation, occurred in May 2019, when the first 60 operational satellites were launched. The total cost of the decade-long project to design, build, and deploy the constellation was estimated by SpaceX in 2020 to be $10 billion. Some critics, including the International Astronomical Union, have alleged that Starlink blocks the view of the sky and poses a collision threat to spacecraft.\nDuring the March 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Musk sent Starlink terminals to Ukraine to provide Internet access and communication. In October 2022, Musk stated that about 20,000 satellite terminals had been donated to Ukraine, together with free data transfer subscriptions, which cost SpaceX $80 million. After asking the United States Department of Defense to pay for further units and future subscriptions on behalf of Ukraine, Musk publicly stated that SpaceX would continue to provide Starlink to Ukraine for free, at a yearly cost to itself of $400 million. At the same time, Musk refused to block Russian state media on Starlink, declaring himself \"a free speech absolutist\".\nIn September 2023, Ukraine asked for the activation of Starlink satellites over Crimea to attack Russian naval vessels located at the port Sevastopol; Musk denied the request, citing concerns that Russia would respond with a nuclear attack.\n\nTesla\nTesla, Inc., originally Tesla Motors, was incorporated in July 2003 by Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning. Both men played active roles in the company's early development prior to Musk's involvement. Musk led the Series A round of investment in February 2004; he invested $6.35 million, became the majority shareholder, and joined Tesla's board of directors as chairman. Musk took an active role within the company and oversaw Roadster product design, but was not deeply involved in day-to-day business operations.\nFollowing a series of escalating conflicts in 2007, and the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Eberhard was ousted from the firm. Musk assumed leadership of the company as CEO and product architect in 2008. A 2009 lawsuit settlement with Eberhard designated Musk as a Tesla co-founder, along with Tarpenning and two others. As of 2019, Musk was the longest-tenured CEO of any automotive manufacturer globally. In 2021, Musk nominally changed his title to \"Technoking\" while retaining his position as CEO.\n\nTesla began delivery of the Roadster, an electric sports car, in 2008. With sales of about 2,500 vehicles, it was the first serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells. Tesla began delivery of its four-door Model S sedan in 2012. A crossover, the Model X was launched in 2015. A mass-market sedan, the Model 3, was released in 2017. In 2020, the Model 3 became the all-time bestselling plug-in electric car worldwide, and in June 2021 it became the first electric car to sell 1 million units globally. A fifth vehicle, the Model Y crossover, was launched in 2020, and in December 2023, became the best-selling vehicle of any kind, as well as the all-time best-selling electric car. The Cybertruck, an all-electric pickup truck, was unveiled in 2019, and delivered in November 2023. Under Musk, Tesla has also constructed multiple lithium-ion battery and electric vehicle factories, named Gigafactories.\nSince its initial public offering in 2010, Tesla stock has risen significantly; it became the most valuable carmaker in summer 2020, and it entered the S&P 500 later that year. In October 2021, it reached a market capitalization of $1 trillion, the sixth company in U.S. history to do so. In November 2021, Musk proposed on Twitter to sell 10% of his Tesla stock, since \"much is made lately of unrealized gains being a means of tax avoidance\". After more than 3.5 million Twitter accounts supported the sale, Musk sold $6.9 billion of Tesla stock within a week, and a total of $16.4 billion by year end, reaching the 10% target. In February 2022, The Wall Street Journal reported that both Musk and his brother Kimbal were under investigation by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for possible insider trading related to the sale. In 2022, Musk unveiled Optimus, a robot being developed by Tesla. In June 2023, Musk met with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in New York City, stating he was interested in investing in India \"as soon as humanly possible\".\n\nSEC and shareholder lawsuits regarding tweets\nIn 2018, Musk was sued by the SEC for a tweet stating that funding had been secured for potentially taking Tesla private. The lawsuit characterized the tweet as false, misleading, and damaging to investors, and sought to bar Musk from serving as CEO of publicly traded companies. Two days later, Musk settled with the SEC, without admitting or denying the SEC's allegations. As a result, Musk and Tesla were fined $20 million each, and Musk was forced to step down for three years as Tesla chairman but was able to remain as CEO. Shareholders filed a lawsuit over the tweet, and in February 2023, a jury found Musk and Tesla not liable. Musk has stated in interviews that he does not regret posting the tweet that triggered the SEC investigation.\nIn 2019, Musk stated in a tweet that Tesla would build half a million cars that year. The SEC reacted by asking a court to hold him in contempt for violating the terms of the 2018 settlement agreement. A joint agreement between Musk and the SEC eventually clarified the previous agreement details, including a list of topics about which Musk needed preclearance. In 2020, a judge blocked a lawsuit that claimed a tweet by Musk regarding Tesla stock price (\"too high imo\") violated the agreement. Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)-released records showed that the SEC concluded Musk had subsequently violated the agreement twice by tweeting regarding \"Tesla's solar roof production volumes and its stock price\".\n\nSolarCity and Tesla Energy\nMusk provided the initial concept and financial capital for SolarCity, which his cousins Lyndon and Peter Rive founded in 2006. By 2013, SolarCity was the second largest provider of solar power systems in the United States. In 2014, Musk promoted the idea of SolarCity building an advanced production facility in Buffalo, New York, triple the size of the largest solar plant in the United States. Construction of the factory started in 2014 and was completed in 2017. It operated as a joint venture with Panasonic until early 2020.\nTesla acquired SolarCity for $2 billion in 2016 and merged it with its battery unit to create Tesla Energy. The deal's announcement resulted in a more than 10% drop in Tesla's stock price; at the time, SolarCity was facing liquidity issues. Multiple shareholder groups filed a lawsuit against Musk and Tesla's directors, stating that the purchase of SolarCity was done solely to benefit Musk and came at the expense of Tesla and its shareholders. Tesla directors settled the lawsuit in January 2020, leaving Musk the sole remaining defendant. Two years later, the court ruled in Musk's favor.\n\nNeuralink\nIn 2016, Musk co-founded Neuralink, a neurotechnology startup company, with an investment of $100 million. Neuralink aims to integrate the human brain with artificial intelligence (AI) by creating devices that are embedded in the brain. Such technology could enhance memory or allow the devices to communicate with software. The company also hopes to develop devices with which to treat neurological conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and spinal cord injuries.\nIn 2019, Musk announced work on a device akin to a sewing machine that could embed threads into a human brain. In an October 2019 paper that detailed some of Neuralink's research, Musk was listed as the sole author, which rankled Neuralink researchers. At a 2020 live demonstration, Musk described one of their early devices as \"a Fitbit in your skull\" that could soon cure paralysis, deafness, blindness, and other disabilities. Many neuroscientists and publications criticized these claims, with MIT Technology Review describing them as \"highly speculative\" and \"neuroscience theater\". During the demonstration, Musk revealed a pig with a Neuralink implant that tracked neural activity related to smell. In 2022, Neuralink announced that clinical trials would begin by the end of the year.\nNeuralink has conducted further animal testing on macaque monkeys at the University of California, Davis' Primate Research Center. In 2021, the company released a video in which a Macaque played the video game Pong via a Neuralink implant. The company's animal trials—which have caused the deaths of some monkeys—have led to claims of animal cruelty. The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine has alleged that Neuralink's animal trials have violated the Animal Welfare Act. Employees have complained that pressure from Musk to accelerate development has led to botched experiments and unnecessary animal deaths. In 2022, a federal probe was launched into possible animal welfare violations by Neuralink. In September 2023, the Food and Drug Administration approved Neuralink to initiate human trials, and it plans to conduct a six-year study.\n\nThe Boring Company\nIn 2017, Musk founded The Boring Company to construct tunnels, and revealed plans for specialized, underground, high-occupancy vehicles that could travel up to 150 miles per hour (240 km/h) and thus circumvent above-ground traffic in major cities. Early in 2017, the company began discussions with regulatory bodies and initiated construction of a 30-foot (9.1 m) wide, 50-foot (15 m) long, and 15-foot (4.6 m) deep \"test trench\" on the premises of SpaceX's offices, as that required no permits. The Los Angeles tunnel, less than two miles (3.2 km) in length, debuted to journalists in 2018. It used Tesla Model Xs and was reported to be a rough ride while traveling at suboptimal speeds.\nTwo tunnel projects announced in 2018, in Chicago and West Los Angeles, have been canceled. However, a tunnel beneath the Las Vegas Convention Center was completed in early 2021. Local officials have approved further expansions of the tunnel system.\n\nTwitter / X\nMusk expressed interest in buying Twitter as early as 2017, and had questioned the platform's commitment to freedom of speech. Additionally, his ex-wife Talulah Riley had urged him to buy Twitter to stop the \"woke-ism\". In January 2022, Musk started purchasing Twitter shares, reaching a 9.2% stake by April, making him the largest shareholder. When this was publicly disclosed, Twitter shares experienced the largest intraday price surge since the company's 2013 initial public offering. On April 4, Musk agreed to a deal that would appoint him to Twitter's board of directors and prohibit him from acquiring more than 14.9% of the company. However, on April 13, Musk made a $43 billion offer to buy Twitter, launching a takeover bid to buy 100% of Twitter's stock at $54.20 per share. In response, Twitter's board adopted a \"poison pill\" shareholder rights plan to make it more expensive for any single investor to own more than 15% of the company without board approval. Nevertheless, by the end of the month Musk had successfully concluded his bid for approximately $44 billion. This included about $12.5 billion in loans against his Tesla stock and $21 billion in equity financing.\nTesla's stock market value sank by over $100 billion the next day in reaction to the deal. He subsequently tweeted to his 86 million followers criticism of Twitter executive Vijaya Gadde's policies, which led to some of them engaging in sexist and racist harassment against her. Exactly a month after announcing the takeover, Musk stated that the deal was \"on hold\" following a report that 5% of Twitter's daily active users were spam accounts. Although he initially affirmed his commitment to the acquisition, he sent notification of his termination of the deal in July; Twitter's Board of Directors responded that they were committed to holding him to the transaction. On July 12, 2022, Twitter formally sued Musk in the Chancery Court of Delaware for breaching a legally binding agreement to purchase Twitter. In October 2022, Musk reversed again, offering to purchase Twitter at $54.20 per share. The acquisition was officially completed on October 27.\nImmediately after the acquisition, Musk fired several top Twitter executives including CEO Parag Agrawal; Musk became the CEO instead. He instituted a $7.99 monthly subscription for a \"blue check\", and laid off a significant portion of the company's staff. Musk lessened content moderation, including reinstating accounts like The Babylon Bee. The Southern Poverty Law Center noted that Twitter has verified numerous extremists; hate speech also increased on the platform after his takeover.\nIn December 2022, Musk released internal documents relating to Twitter's moderation of Hunter Biden's laptop controversy in the leadup to the 2020 presidential election. Comments on these internal documents by journalists Matt Taibbi, Bari Weiss, Michael Shellenberger and others were posted on Twitter as the Twitter Files. Musk and many Republicans alleged the documents showed the FBI had engaged in government censorship by ordering Twitter to suppress a New York Post story about the laptop. Upon review of the documents, Taibbi said he had found no evidence to support the allegation, and Twitter attorneys denied the allegation in a subsequent court filing. The United States House Committee on the Judiciary held hearings on the Twitter Files on March 9, 2023, at which Taibbi and Shellenberger gave testimony.\nIn late 2022, Musk promised to step down as CEO after a Twitter poll posted by Musk found that a majority of users wanted him to do so. Five months later, Musk stepped down from CEO and placed former NBCUniversal executive Linda Yaccarino in the position and transitioned his role to executive chairman and chief technology officer.\nOn November 20, 2023, in a U.S. District Court in Texas, X filed a lawsuit stating that Media Matters \"manipulated\" the X platform, in that it used accounts that followed major brands, and \"resorted to endlessly scrolling and refreshing\" the feed until it found ads next to extremist posts.\nThe Wall Street Journal reported in August 2024 that the $13 billion Musk borrowed to buy Twitter \"is now considered the worst deal in merger finance that banks have participated in since the 2008 to '09 financial crisis\", adding that \"the allure of banking Elon Musk, providing capital for him to buy a company, not only would reward them handsomely if things went according to plan\" but \"you can certainly say things have not gone according to plan.\" The Washington Post reported in September 2024 that the company had lost $24 billion in equity value, \"a vaporization of wealth that has little parallel outside the realm of economic or industry-specific crashes, or devastating corporate scandals.\" Two years after the acquisition, Fidelity Investments estimated the value of its stake in X that implied the company had lost 79% of its value.\n\nLeadership style\nMusk is often described as a micromanager and has called himself a \"nano-manager\". The New York Times has characterized his approach as absolutist. Musk does not make formal business plans. He has forced employees to adopt the company's own jargon and launched ambitious, risky, and costly projects against his advisors' recommendations, such as removing front-facing radar from Tesla Autopilot. His insistence on vertical integration causes his companies to move most production in-house. While this resulted in saved costs for SpaceX's rocket, vertical integration (as of 2018) has caused many usability problems for Tesla's internal corporate software.\nMusk's handling of employees—whom he communicates with directly through mass emails—has been characterized as \"carrot and stick\", rewarding those \"who offer constructive criticism\" while also being known to impulsively threaten, swear at, and fire his employees. Musk said he expects his employees to work for long hours, sometimes 80 hours per week. He has his new employees sign strict non-disclosure agreements and often fires in sprees, such as during the Model 3 \"production hell\" in 2018. In 2022, Musk revealed plans to fire 10 percent of Tesla's workforce, due to his concerns about the economy. That same month, he suspended remote work at SpaceX and Tesla and threatened to fire employees who do not work 40 hours per week in the office. He laid off more than 10 percent of the Tesla workforce in early 2024.\nMusk's leadership has been praised by some, who credit it with the success of Tesla and his other endeavors, and criticized by others, who see him as callous and his managerial decisions as \"show[ing] a lack of human understanding.\" The 2021 book Power Play contains anecdotes of Musk berating employees. The Wall Street Journal reported that, after Musk insisted on branding his vehicles as \"self-driving\", he faced criticism from his engineers for putting customer \"lives at risk\", with some employees resigning in consequence.\n\nOther activities\nMusk Foundation\nMusk is president of the Musk Foundation he founded in 2001, whose stated purpose is to: provide solar-power energy systems in disaster areas; support research, development, and advocacy (for interests including human space exploration, pediatrics, renewable energy and \"safe artificial intelligence\"); and support science and engineering educational efforts. \nAs of 2020, the foundation has made 350 donations. Around half of them were made to scientific research or education nonprofits. Notable beneficiaries include the Wikimedia Foundation, his alma mater the University of Pennsylvania, and his brother Kimbal's nonprofit Big Green. From 2002 to 2018, the foundation gave $25 million directly to nonprofit organizations, nearly half of which went to Musk's OpenAI, which was a nonprofit at the time. The Foundation also allocated $100 million of donations to be used to establish a new higher education university in Texas. \nIn 2012, Musk took the Giving Pledge, thereby committing to give the majority of his wealth to charitable causes either during his lifetime or in his will. He has endowed prizes at the X Prize Foundation, including $100 million to reward improved carbon capture technology. \nVox said in February 2021, \"the Musk Foundation is almost entertaining in its simplicity and yet is strikingly opaque\", noting that its website was only 33 words in plain-text. In 2020, Forbes gave Musk a philanthropy score of 1, because he had given away less than 1% of his net worth. In November 2021, Musk donated $5.7 billion of Tesla's shares to charity, according to regulatory filings. However, Bloomberg News noted that all of it went to his own foundation, bringing Musk Foundation's assets up to $9.4 billion at the end of 2021. The foundation disbursed $160 million to nonprofits that year. Reporting by The New York Times found that in 2022, the Musk Foundation gave away $230 million less than the minimum required by law to maintain tax-deductible status, and that in 2021 and 2022 over half the foundation's funds went to causes connected to Musk, his family, or his businesses.\n\nHyperloop\nIn August 2013, Musk announced plans for a version of a vacuum tube train and assigned a dozen engineers from SpaceX and Tesla to establish the conceptual foundations and create initial designs. Later that year, Musk unveiled the concept, which he dubbed the Hyperloop. The alpha design for the system was published in a whitepaper posted to the Tesla and SpaceX blogs. The document scoped out the technology and outlined a notional route where such a transport system could be built between the Greater Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area, at an estimated cost of $6 billion. The proposal, if technologically feasible at the costs cited, would make Hyperloop travel cheaper than any other mode of transport for such long distances. Biographer Ashlee Vance noted that Musk hoped Hyperloop would \"make the public and legislators rethink the high-speed train\" proposal current in California at the time and consider more \"creative\" ideas.\nIn 2015, Musk announced a design competition for students and others to build Hyperloop pods, to operate on a SpaceX-sponsored mile-long track, for a 2015–2017 Hyperloop pod competition. The track was used in January 2017, and Musk also announced that the company had started a tunnel project, with Hawthorne Municipal Airport as its destination. In July 2017, Musk said that he had received \"verbal government approval\" to build a Hyperloop from New York City to Washington, D.C., with stops in Philadelphia and Baltimore. Mention of the projected DC-to-Baltimore leg was removed from The Boring Company website in 2021. The tunnel project to Hawthorne was discontinued in 2022 and is planned to be converted into parking spots for SpaceX workers.\nMobility experts have criticized the Hyperloop concept for potential safety issues, planning complexity, low passenger capacity, and extremely high costs. Jose Gomez-Ibanez, a professor of urban planning and public policy at Harvard, said \"It gives me pause to think that otherwise intelligent people are buying into this kind of utopian vision\".\n\nOpenAI and xAI\nIn December 2015, Musk co-founded OpenAI, a not-for-profit artificial intelligence (AI) research company aiming to develop artificial general intelligence intended to be safe and beneficial to humanity. A particular focus of the company was to democratize artificial superintelligence systems, against governments and corporations. Musk pledged $1 billion of funding to OpenAI. In 2023, Musk tweeted that he had ended up giving a total of $100 million to OpenAI. TechCrunch later reported that, according to its own investigation of public records, \"only $15 million\" of OpenAI's funding could be definitively traced to Musk. Musk subsequently stated that he had donated about $50 million.\nIn 2018, Musk left the OpenAI board to avoid possible future conflicts with his role as CEO of Tesla as Tesla increasingly became involved in AI through Tesla Autopilot. Since then, OpenAI has made significant advances in machine learning, producing neural networks such as ChatGPT (producing human-like text), and DALL-E (generating digital images from natural language descriptions).\nOn July 12, 2023, Elon Musk launched an artificial intelligence company called xAI, which aims to develop a generative AI program that competes with existing offerings like ChatGPT. The company hired engineers from Google and OpenAI. Musk obtained funding from investors in SpaceX and Tesla.\n\nTham Luang cave rescue and defamation case\nIn July 2018, Musk arranged for his employees to build a mini-submarine to assist the rescue of children trapped in a flooded cavern in Thailand. Richard Stanton, leader of the international rescue diving team, encouraged Musk to facilitate the construction of the vehicle as a backup in case flooding worsened. However, Stanton later concluded that the mini-submarine would not work and said that Musk's involvement \"distracted from the rescue effort\". Engineers at SpaceX and The Boring Company built the mini-submarine from a Falcon 9 liquid oxygen transfer tube in eight hours and personally delivered it to Thailand. Thai authorities ultimately declined to use the submarine, stating that it wasn't practical for the rescue mission. In March 2019, Musk was one of the 187 people who received various honors conferred by the King of Thailand for involvement in the rescue effort.\nSoon after the rescue, Vernon Unsworth, a British recreational caver who had been exploring the cave for the previous six years and played a key advisory role in the operation, criticized the submarine on CNN as amounting to nothing more than a public relations effort with no chance of success, maintaining that Musk \"had no conception of what the cave passage was like\" and \"can stick his submarine where it hurts\". Musk asserted on Twitter that the device would have worked and referred to Unsworth as a \"pedo guy\". He then deleted the tweets, apologized, and deleted his responses to critical tweets from Cher Scarlett, a software engineer, which had caused his followers to harass her. In an email to BuzzFeed News, Musk later called Unsworth a \"child rapist\" and said that he had married a child.\nIn September, Unsworth filed a defamation suit seeking $190 million in damages. In his defense, Musk argued that \"'pedo guy' was a common insult used in South Africa when I was growing up ... synonymous with 'creepy old man' and is used to insult a person's appearance and demeanor\". During the trial Musk apologized to Unsworth again for the tweet. In December 2019, the jury found in favor of Musk and ruled he was not liable.\n\n2018 cannabis incident\nIn September 2018, Musk was interviewed on The Joe Rogan Experience podcast, during which he appeared to smoke a joint. In 2022, Musk said that he and other SpaceX employees had subsequently been required to undergo random drug tests for about a year following the incident, as required by the Drug-Free Workplace Act of 1988 for Federal contractors. In a 2019 60 Minutes interview, Musk had said, \"I do not smoke pot. As anybody who watched that podcast could tell, I have no idea how to smoke pot.\"\n\nMusic\nIn March 2019, Musk, through his own label Emo G Records, released a rap track, \"RIP Harambe\", on SoundCloud. The track refers to the killing of Harambe the gorilla and the subsequent Internet sensationalism surrounding the event. The following year, Musk released an EDM track, \"Don't Doubt Ur Vibe\", featuring his own lyrics and vocals. While Guardian critic Alexi Petridis described it as \"indistinguishable... from umpteen competent but unthrilling bits of bedroom electronica posted elsewhere on SoundCloud\", TechCrunch said it was \"not a bad representation of the genre\".\n\nPrivate jet\nMusk uses a private jet owned by Falcon Landing LLC, a SpaceX-linked company, and acquired a second jet in August 2020. His heavy use of the jets—which flew over 150,000 miles in 2018 alone—and the consequent fossil fuel usage has received criticism.\nMusk's flight usage is tracked on social media through ElonJet. After Musk said that his son X AE A-XII had been harassed by a stalker after the account posted the airport at which his jet had landed, Musk banned the ElonJet account on Twitter, as well as the accounts of journalists that posted stories regarding the incident, including Donie O'Sullivan, Keith Olbermann, and journalists from The New York Times, The Washington Post, CNN, and The Intercept. Musk equated the reporting to doxxing. Police do not believe there is a link between the account and alleged stalker. Musk later took a Twitter poll on whether the journalists' accounts should be reinstated, which resulted in reinstating the accounts.\n\nCompany towns\nAfter 2020, thousands of acres of land just outside Austin, Texas, were acquired by Musk and his companies with a total value of $2.5 billion. The project to build the company town named Snailbrook in Bastrop County, Texas began in 2021 according to reports by the Wall Street Journal. Musk's then-girlfriend Grimes and Kanye West were involved in the planning. The name \"Snailbrook\" alludes to The Boring Company's stated goal of building a machine that can bore tunnels faster than a snail can move. In 2023 the town had a reported population of 12 people. There are plans to establish a school and a university there.\n\nWealth\nMusk made $175.8 million when PayPal was sold to eBay in October 2002. He was first listed on the Forbes Billionaires List in 2012, with a net worth of $2 billion.\n\nPersonal views and Twitter usage\nMusk credits science fiction writers, particularly Robert A. Heinlein, for inspiring many of his personal views and business ventures, including SpaceX, Grok, and his libertarian inclinations. Since joining Twitter (now known as X) in 2009, Musk has been an active user and has over 163 million followers as of November 2023. He posts memes, promotes business interests, and comments on contemporary political and cultural issues. Musk's statements have provoked controversy, such as for mocking preferred gender pronouns and comparing Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau to Adolf Hitler. \nThe New York Times describes his contributions to international relations as \"chaotic\", and critics of Musk argue that there is a lack of separation between his opinions and his business interests. As CEO of Twitter, Musk emerged as a source of misinformation and right-wing conspiracy theories, for example by suggesting online details about mass murderer Mauricio Garcia's apparent interest in Nazism could have been planted as part of a psyop. Allegations of him being transphobic appeared as well in response to actions taken by Twitter under his guidance. In September 2024, Rolling Stone described him and the platform as the \"biggest purveyors of online misinformation\".\n\nFinance\nMusk said that the U.S. government should not provide subsidies to companies, but impose a carbon tax to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The free market, in his view, would achieve the best solution, and producing environmentally unfriendly vehicles should have consequences. \nTesla has received billions of dollars in subsidies. As of February 2024, Tesla has made $9 billion from government-initiated systems of zero-emissions credits. Tax credits offered in California, at the United States federal level, and by other governments have enabled Tesla's battery electric vehicles to be price-competitive in comparison with internal combustion engine vehicles and facilitated initial consumer adoption of Tesla vehicles. \nMusk, a longtime opponent of short-selling, has repeatedly criticized the practice and argued it should be illegal. Wired magazine speculated that Musk's opposition to short-selling stems from how short sellers have an incentive to find and promote unfavorable information about his companies. In early 2021, he encouraged the GameStop short squeeze.\nIn December 2022, Musk sold $3.6 billion of his stock in Tesla, equal to 22 million shares in the company, despite pledging earlier in the year that he would not sell any additional shares.\n\nTechnology\nMusk has promoted cryptocurrencies and supports them over traditional government-issued fiat currencies. Given the influence of Musk's tweets in moving cryptocurrency markets, his statements about cryptocurrencies have been viewed as market manipulation by some, such as economist Nouriel Roubini. Musk's social media praising of Bitcoin and Dogecoin was credited for increasing their prices. Consequently, Tesla's 2021 announcement, against the backdrop of Musk's social media behavior, that it bought $1.5 billion worth of Bitcoin, raised questions. Tesla's announcement that it would accept Bitcoin for payment was criticized by environmentalists and investors, due to the environmental impact of cryptocurrency mining. A few months later, in response to the criticism, Musk announced on Twitter that Tesla would no longer accept payments in Bitcoin and would not engage in any Bitcoin transactions until the environmental issues are solved.\nDespite The Boring Company's involvement in building mass transit infrastructure, Musk has criticized public transport and promoted individualized transport (private vehicles). His comments have been called \"elitist\" and have sparked widespread criticism from both transportation and urban planning experts, who have pointed out that public transportation in dense urban areas is more economical, more energy efficient, and requires much less space than private cars.\n\nExistential threats\nMusk has been described as believing in longtermism, emphasizing the needs of future populations. Accordingly, Musk has stated that artificial intelligence poses the greatest existential threat to humanity. He has warned of a \"Terminator-like\" AI apocalypse and suggested that the government should regulate its safe development. In 2015, Musk was a cosignatory, along with Stephen Hawking and hundreds of others, of the Open Letter on Artificial Intelligence, which called for the ban of autonomous weapons. Musk's AI stances have been called alarmist and sensationalist by critics such as computer scientist Yann LeCun and Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg, and led the think tank Information Technology and Innovation Foundation to award Musk its Annual Luddite Award in 2016.\nMusk has described climate change as the greatest threat to humanity after AI, and has advocated for a carbon tax. Musk was a critic of President Donald Trump's stance on climate change, and resigned from two presidential business advisory councils following Trump's 2017 decision to withdraw the United States from the Paris Agreement.\nMusk has long promoted the colonization of Mars and argues that humanity should become a \"multiplanetary species\". He has suggested the use of nuclear weapons to terraform Mars. He envisioned establishing a direct democracy on Mars, with a system in which more votes would be required to create laws than remove them. Musk has also voiced concerns about human population decline, saying that \"Mars has zero human population. We need a lot of people to become a multiplanet civilization.\" Speaking at The Wall Street Journal's CEO Council session in 2021, Musk claimed that the supposedly declining birth rate, and consequent population decline, is one of the biggest risks to human civilization. According to anonymous sources inside SpaceX speaking with The New York Times, Musk has repeatedly volunteered his sperm to help colonize Mars. He later denied the claim.\n\nPolitics\nMusk's views are generally described as right-wing and conservative. While previously considered relatively apolitical and moderate, he has since shifted to the right and become more vocal about his views, notably since acquiring Twitter in 2022. He is an outlier among social media executives who typically avoid partisan political advocacy. Musk has shared far-right misinformation and numerous conspiracy theories. Despite this, Musk still describes himself as politically moderate, rejecting the conservative label.\nMusk was a registered independent voter when he lived in California. Historically, he has donated to both Democrats and Republicans, many of whom are in states in which he has a vested interest; however, beginning in the late 2010s, his political contributions have shifted almost entirely to supporting Republicans.\nMusk voted for Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. In the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries, Musk endorsed candidate Andrew Yang and expressed support for his proposed universal basic income. He also endorsed Kanye West's 2020 presidential campaign. He said he voted for Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election. In May 2022, Musk said that he could \"no longer support\" the Democrats because they are the \"party of division & hate\", and wrote a tweet encouraging \"independent-minded voters\" to vote Republican in the 2022 U.S. elections. That fall he gave over $50 million to Citizens for Sanity, a conservative political action committee that ran advertisements about transgender care and illegal immigration in swing states. He has supported Republican Ron DeSantis for the 2024 U.S. presidential election, giving $10 million to the campaign in 2023, and hosted DeSantis's campaign announcement on a Twitter Spaces event. In August 2023, Musk suggested Republican presidential candidate Vivek Ramaswamy should be the vice presidential candidate on the Republican ticket. \nIn July 2024, Bloomberg reported that Musk donated an unknown sum to the pro-Donald Trump America PAC, a super PAC; in a later interview, Musk clarified that he created America PAC. After the attempted assassination of Donald Trump, Musk wished Trump a speedy recovery and endorsed him for president. In a July 2024 post on X, Musk shared a deepfake video of Vice President Kamala Harris, Trump's opponent in the 2024 presidential election, which appeared to show Harris saying she was the \"ultimate diversity hire\" and did not know how to manage the United States. Musk wrote that the video was \"amazing\" and did not reveal that it was edited, despite X prohibiting \"synthetic, manipulated\" content \"that may deceive\". In August 2024, Musk and Trump spoke for over two hours on a livestream on X, in which Musk suggested that Trump create a government efficiency commission which he offered to serve on. Trump said he would \"love\" to have Musk involved and later said he needed Musk's help to eliminate the Department of Education. In October 2024, Musk joined Trump on stage at a campaign rally.\nMusk opposes a \"billionaire tax\", and has argued on Twitter with more left-leaning Democratic politicians such as Bernie Sanders, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, and Elizabeth Warren. He has raised questions about the Black Lives Matter protests, partially based on the fact that the phrase \"Hands up, don't shoot\" was made up. Musk also promoted a baseless theory relating to the attack of Speaker Nancy Pelosi's husband, but Musk deleted his tweet.\nMusk has praised China and has been described as having a close relationship with the Chinese government, allowing access to its markets for Tesla. After Gigafactory Shanghai produced its first batch of vehicles, Musk thanked the Chinese government and Chinese people while criticizing the United States and its people.: 207–208 In 2022, Musk wrote an article for China Cyberspace, the official publication of Cyberspace Administration of China, which enforces Internet censorship in China. His writing the article was described as conflicting with his advocacy for free speech. Musk later advocated for Taiwan to become a \"special administrative zone\" of China which drew cross-party criticism from Taiwanese lawmakers.\nIn October 2022, Musk posted a Twitter poll and \"peace plan\" to resolve the Russian invasion of Ukraine by allowing Russia to keep the Crimea Peninsula, while Ukraine would adopt a neutral status and drop the bid to join NATO. It was reported that Musk allegedly spoke with Russian President Vladimir Putin prior to the proposal, which Musk denied. Musk has repeatedly expressed concern that a protracted war between Russia and Ukraine could lead to the use of nuclear weapons and the outbreak of World War III.\n\nIn a YouTube podcast interview on November 10, 2023, Musk criticized Israel's retaliatory actions in the Gaza Strip during the Israel–Hamas war, saying that Hamas \"wanted to commit the worst atrocities that they could in order to provoke the most aggressive response possible from Israel.\" He added that \"if you kill somebody's child in Gaza, you have made at least a few Hamas members who will die just to kill an Israeli.\" On November 17, 2023, Musk announced a policy change on the X platform, stating that X users who use terms such as \"decolonization\" and \"from the river to the sea,\" or similar expressions that \"necessarily imply genocide\" of the Jewish people in Israel, will be suspended. Several weeks later, Musk traveled to Israel by visiting the kibbutz Kfar Aza with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, which had been part of the aftermath of the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel, and described it as \"jarring.\"\nIn August 2024, Musk criticized UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer amid the riots taking place in that country, saying \"Shouldn’t you be concerned about attacks on *all* communities?\" Responding to a tweet with footage of the disorder that said the riots were due to the \"effects of mass migration and open borders\", Musk tweeted, \"Civil war is inevitable\". His comments were condemned by Starmer's official spokesman. Musk had previously restored far-right UK activist Tommy Robinson's account (after Robinson had been banned under Twitter's previous owners) and interacted with him on the platform. Musk went on to refer to Starmer as \"two-tier Keir\" and ask, \"Why aren't all communities protected in Britain?\" Musk promoted a conspiracy theory that the UK government was planning to build detainments camps in the Falkland Islands to hold rioters.\nOn September 15, 2024, after the second assassination attempt on Donald Trump, Musk wrote on X that it was odd that nobody had tried to kill Biden or Kamala Harris. He then deleted the post following widespread condemnation. On September 19, the United States Secret Service announced that the agency was probing the post.\n\nAccusations of antisemitism\nThe Israeli government and several media outlets accused Musk of sowing antisemitism due to his promotion of George Soros conspiracy theories, although some Israeli officials defended Musk and denied that his criticism of Soros constituted antisemitism.\nOn November 15, 2023, Twitter user Charles Weber, who identifies as a Jewish conservative, posted a video from StopJewishHate.org condemning the phrase \"Hitler was right\"; Weber captioned the video: \"To the cowards hiding behind the anonymity of the internet and posting 'Hitler was right': You got something you want to say? Why don't you say it to our faces\". In response, a second user posted \"Okay. Jewish communities have been pushing the exact kind of dialectical hatred against whites that they claim to want people to stop using against them. I'm deeply disinterested in giving the tiniest shit now about western Jewish populations coming to the disturbing realization that those hordes of minorities that support flooding their country don't exactly like them too much. You want truth said to your face, there it is.\" To this second user, Musk replied \"You have said the actual truth.\" Musk further clarified that he doesn't believe that \"all Jewish communities\" hate white people, but specifically took aim at the Anti-Defamation League (ADL). He added, \"You [sic] right that this does not extend to all Jewish communities, but it is also not just limited to ADL\".\nThe first tweet was widely regarded as echoing white nationalist sentiments and affirmed another antisemitic conspiracy theory that Jews push \"hatred against Whites.\" The following day, Musk made a tweet which critics regarded as supporting white pride. Advertisers distanced themselves from his tweets. \nAt the DealBook Summit on November 29, 2023, after comments from Disney CEO Bob Iger explaining his decision to stop advertising on X after Musk's recent post, journalist Andrew Ross Sorkin questioned Musk about the withdrawal of advertisers. Musk responded, \"I hope they stop. Don't advertise\" and \"If somebody is going to try to blackmail me with advertising, blackmail me with money, go fuck yourself. Go fuck yourself. Is that clear? I hope it is.\"; Musk singled out Iger, saying \"Hey Bob, if you're in the audience.\" Musk acknowledged to Sorkin that one of his tweets—the one affirming an antisemitic conspiracy theory—was a mistake, saying \"I handed a loaded gun to those who hate me and to those who are antisemitic and for that I am quite sorry.\" Musk described his tweet as \"one of the most foolish, if not the most foolish, thing I've done.\"\nIn January 2024, Musk visited the Auschwitz concentration camp with European Jewish Association Chairman Rabbi, conservative political commentator Ben Shapiro and Holocaust survivor Gidon Lev. He also spoke on a conference about rising antisemitism. The New York Times described the trip as a part of an image \"rehabilitation tour.\"\n\nCOVID-19\nMusk was criticized for his public comments and conduct related to the COVID-19 pandemic. He spread misinformation about the virus, including promoting a widely discredited paper on the benefits of chloroquine and claiming that COVID-19 death statistics were inflated.\nIn March 2020, Musk stated, \"The coronavirus panic is dumb.\" In an email to Tesla employees, Musk referred to COVID-19 as a \"specific form of the common cold\" and predicted that confirmed COVID-19 cases would not exceed 0.1% of the U.S. population. On March 19, 2020, Musk predicted that there would be \"probably close to zero new cases in [the U.S.] by end of April\". Politico labeled this statement one of \"the most audacious, confident, and spectacularly incorrect prognostications [of 2020]\". Musk also falsely stated that children \"are essentially immune\" to COVID-19.\nMusk condemned COVID-19 lockdowns and initially refused to close the Tesla Fremont Factory in March 2020, defying the local shelter-in-place order. In May 2020, he reopened the Tesla factory, defying the local stay-at-home order, and warned workers that they would be unpaid, and their unemployment benefits might be jeopardized, if they did not report to work. In December 2022, Musk called for prosecution of former National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases director Anthony Fauci.\nIn March 2020, Musk promised that Tesla would make ventilators for COVID-19 patients if there were a shortage. After figures like New York City mayor Bill de Blasio responded to Musk's offer, Musk offered to donate ventilators which Tesla would build or buy from a third party. However, Musk ended up buying and donating BiPAP and CPAP machines, which are devices that support respirations of someone able to breathe on their own, rather than the much more expensive and sought-after mechanical ventilator machines that are able to breathe for a patient entirely.\nIn September 2020, Musk stated that he would not get the COVID-19 vaccine, because he and his children were \"not at risk for COVID\". Two months later, Musk contracted COVID-19 but suggested his COVID-19 rapid antigen test results were dubious, as he had been tested four times on the same device with the same nurse but had received equal numbers of positive and negative results. Following this, a postdoctoral fellow at the Princess Margaret Cancer Centre in Toronto explained in a Tweet why this result does not undermine the value of the test, referring to Musk as \"Space Karen\", which then trended on Twitter. In December 2021, Musk said that he and his eligible children had received the vaccine, saying that the science behind the COVID vaccines was \"unequivocal\" but expressing his opposition to COVID vaccine mandates.\n\nPersonal life\nIn 2002, Musk became a U.S. citizen. From the early 2000s until late 2020, Musk resided in California, where both Tesla and SpaceX were founded. He then relocated to Austin, Texas, saying that California had become \"complacent\" about its economic success. While hosting Saturday Night Live in 2021, Musk stated that he has Asperger syndrome, although he has never been medically diagnosed. \nDuring a South African safari in late 2000, he contracted malaria and was then hospitalized in an intensive care unit back in California.\nMusk trained in Brazilian jiu-jitsu while preparing for a proposed fight with Mark Zuckerberg. In his leisure time, he plays video games including Quake, Diablo IV, Elden Ring, and Polytopia. Musk has stated he uses prescribed ketamine for occasional depression, while The Wall Street Journal has repeatedly alleged he uses it and other drugs recreationally.\n\nRelationships and children\nMusk has at least 12 children, one of whom is deceased. He met his first wife, Canadian author Justine Wilson, while attending Queen's University in Ontario, Canada; they married in 2000. In 2002, their first child died of sudden infant death syndrome at the age of 10 weeks. After his death, the couple used in vitro fertilization (IVF) to continue their family; they had twins in 2004 followed by triplets in 2006. The couple divorced in 2008 and shared custody of their children.\nIn 2022, the elder twin officially changed her name to Vivian Jenna Wilson, reflecting her gender identity as a trans woman and using her mother's surname because she no longer wished to be associated with Musk. Musk blamed the estrangement of his daughter on what the Financial Times characterized as \"the supposed takeover of elite schools and universities by neo-Marxists\", and has said that her gender transition is primarily what sparked his drive to \"destroy the woke mind virus\". In a July 2024 episode of Jordan Peterson's podcast, Musk said regarding Vivian that he had \"lost [his] son [sic], essentially\" because of gender-affirming care. He commented: \"You know, they call it deadnaming for a reason. The reason it's called deadnaming is because your son [sic] is dead\", and went on to state that the eldest twin \"is dead, killed by the woke mind virus\". Vivian responded publicly, criticizing Musk for lying about her and the circumstances of her transition; claiming that Musk was \"cold\", \"quick to anger\", \"uncaring and narcissistic”, whose infrequent visits commonly involved him berating her for being feminine.\nIn 2008, Musk began dating English actress Talulah Riley. They married two years later at Dornoch Cathedral in Scotland. In 2012, the couple divorced, before remarrying the following year. After briefly filing for divorce in 2014, Musk finalized a second divorce from Riley in 2016. Musk then dated Amber Heard for several months in 2017; he had reportedly been pursuing her since 2012.\nIn 2018, Musk and Canadian musician Grimes said that they were dating. Grimes gave birth to their son in May 2020. Musk and Grimes originally gave the baby the name \"X Æ A-12\", which would have violated California regulations as it contained characters that are not in the modern English alphabet, which they then changed to \"“X Æ A-Xii”. They have received criticism for choosing such an impractical and difficult to pronounce name.\nIn December 2021, Grimes and Musk had a second child, a daughter born via surrogacy. Despite the pregnancy, Musk confirmed reports that the couple were \"semi-separated\" in September 2021; in an interview with Time in December 2021, he said he was single. In March 2022, Grimes said of her relationship with Musk: \"I would probably refer to him as my boyfriend, but we're very fluid.\" Later that month, Grimes tweeted that she and Musk had broken up again. In September 2023 it was reported that the pair had a third child, a son. In October 2023, Grimes sued Musk over parental rights and custody of their eldest son.\nIn July 2022, Insider published court documents revealing that Musk had had twins via IVF with Shivon Zilis, director of operations and special projects at Neuralink, in November 2021. They were born weeks before Musk and Grimes had their second child via surrogate in December. The news \"raise[d] questions about workplace ethics\", given that Zilis directly reported to Musk. Their third child together was born in early 2024 via surrogacy. Also in July 2022, The Wall Street Journal reported that Musk allegedly had an affair with Nicole Shanahan, the wife of Google co-founder Sergey Brin, in 2021, leading to their divorce the following year. Musk denied the report. Musk also had a relationship with Australian actress Natasha Bassett, who has been described as \"an occasional girlfriend.\"\n\nLegal matters after 2020\nIn May 2022, Business Insider cited an anonymous friend of an unnamed SpaceX contract flight attendant, alleging that Musk engaged in sexual misconduct in 2016. The source stated that in November 2018, Musk, SpaceX, and the former flight attendant entered into a severance agreement granting the attendant a $250,000 payment in exchange for a promise not to sue over the claims. Musk responded, \"If I were inclined to engage in sexual harassment, this is unlikely to be the first time in my entire 30-year career that it comes to light\". He accused the article from Business Insider of being a \"politically motivated hit piece\". After the release of the article, Tesla's stock fell by more than 6%, and Barron's wrote \"...some investors considered key-man risk – the danger that a company could be badly hurt by the loss of one individual.\"\nIn April 2023, the government of the U.S. Virgin Islands sought to subpoena Musk for documents in a lawsuit alleging that JPMorgan Chase profited from Jeffrey Epstein's sex trafficking operation. The efforts to subpoena Musk for documents do not implicate him in any wrongdoing and do not seek to have Musk testify under oath.\nMusk's former girlfriend Grimes filed a parental relationship petition in late September 2023 as part of a custody dispute. The petition came a month after Grimes openly accused him in a social media post of blocking her access to the youngest of their three children. On July 27, 2024, Grimes' mother accused Musk of withholding the passports of her grandchildren.\nBen Brody, a 22-year-old Los Angeles-based college graduate, initiated a defamation lawsuit in October 2023 against Musk for over $1 million. He alleged Musk had falsely identified him as a participant \"in a violent street brawl on behalf of a neo-Nazi extremist group\" near Portland, Oregon. According to Brody's complaint, one of Musk's X posts promoted conspiracy theories that \"Ben Brody's alleged participation in the extremist brawl meant the incident was probably a 'false flag' operation to deceive the American public\". The complaint also alleged that Musk's accusations led to Brody and his family being subjected to harassment and threats. In February 2024, Musk was ordered to testify in a deposition for the lawsuit. In the deposition, Musk denied knowing who was suing him and admitted to doing no research on whether his claims were true. Musk attempted to keep the deposition from being made public.\nIn October 2023, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) sued Musk over his refusal to testify a third time in an investigation into whether he violated federal law by purchasing Twitter stock in 2022. Musk claimed the SEC was harassing him. In February 2024, Judge Laurel Beeler ruled that Musk must testify again. \nIn January 2024, Delaware Judge Kathaleen McCormick ruled in a 2018 lawsuit that Musk's $55 billion pay package from Tesla be rescinded. McCormick called the compensation granted by the company's board \"an unfathomable sum\" that was unfair to shareholders. In response to the ruling, Musk posted on X: \"Never incorporate your company in the state of Delaware.\" A re-ratification shareholders' vote passed in mid-June 2024, though much follow-up litigation is expected, including a lawsuit filed by a Tesla investor beforehand that alleged Musk employed \"coercive tactics\" to move the vote in his favor.\nIn June 2024, The Wall Street Journal reported Musk had a \"romantic relationship\" with a former intern at SpaceX, confirmed with affidavits supplied by the intern's lawyers who also represent Musk, and alleged that he had sexual relations with a woman who directly reported to him there. The article further alleges he also pursued sex with other SpaceX employees, and repeatedly asked an employee who reported directly to him to \"have his babies.\" In the same month, eight ex-employees, the same eight who were previously fired for penning an anti-Musk letter at SpaceX, filed a lawsuit against Musk alleging sexual harassment. \nAlso in June 2024, a former Twitter executive sued Musk for \"cheating\" him and other ousted executives out of $200 million in severance pay.\nIn August 2024, Musk sued advertisers for a boycott of X (formerly Twitter). Later that month, Olympic boxer Imane Khelif filed a lawsuit for cyber harassment against X over alleged “acts of aggravated cyber harassment\", in which Musk was named.\n\nPublic perception\nThough his ventures have been highly influential within their separate industries up to current day, Musk only became a public figure in the early 2010s. He has been described as an eccentric who makes spontaneous and impactful decisions, while also often making controversial statements, contrary to other billionaires who prefer reclusiveness to protect their businesses. Biographer Ashley Vance described people's opinions of Musk as polarized due to his \"part philosopher, part troll\" role on Twitter.\nMusk was a partial inspiration for the characterization of Tony Stark in the Marvel film Iron Man (2008). Musk also had a cameo appearance in the film's 2010 sequel, Iron Man 2. Musk has made cameos and appearances in other films such as Machete Kills (2013), Why Him? (2016), and Men in Black: International (2019). Television series in which he has appeared include The Simpsons (\"The Musk Who Fell to Earth\", 2015), The Big Bang Theory (\"The Platonic Permutation\", 2015), South Park (\"Members Only\", 2016), Young Sheldon (\"A Patch, a Modem, and a Zantac®\", 2017), Rick and Morty (\"One Crew over the Crewcoo's Morty\", 2019), and Saturday Night Live (2021). He contributed interviews to the documentaries Racing Extinction (2015) and the Werner Herzog-directed Lo and Behold (2016).\nAwards for his contributions to the development of the Falcon rockets include the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics George Low Transportation Award in 2008, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Gold Space Medal in 2010, and the Royal Aeronautical Society Gold Medal in 2012. In 2015, he received an honorary doctorate in engineering and technology from Yale University and an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Honorary Membership. Musk was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2018. In February 2022, Musk was elected to the National Academy of Engineering.\nTime has listed Musk as one of the most influential people in the world on four occasions: in 2010, 2013, 2018, and 2021. Musk was selected as Time's \"Person of the Year\" for 2021. Then Time editor-in-chief Edward Felsenthal wrote that \"Person of the Year is a marker of influence, and few individuals have had more influence than Musk on life on Earth, and potentially life off Earth too\".\n\nNotes and references\nNotes\nCitations\nWorks cited\nFurther reading\nTarnoff, Ben, \"Ultra Hardcore\" (subscription required) (review of Walter Isaacson, Elon Musk, Simon and Schuster, 2023, 670 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (January 18, 2024), pp. 6, 8, 10. \"There is an anti-modern impulse to Musk, a craving for lordship that can't be entirely satisfied within the confines of a capitalist economy. A king doesn't have advertisers or shareholders or customers, and Musk, if he continues on his current trajectory, may very well be abandoned by all three. Aristotle says a good ending should be surprising but inevitable. It's possible to imagine multiple finales for Musk that meet these criteria, but the story always begins the same way. Once upon a time in Pretoria, there was a boy who wanted to be a man.\" (p. 10.)\n\nExternal links\n\nAppearances on C-SPAN",
"title": "Elon_Musk"
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"paragraph_text": "Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's syndrome or Asperger's, is a term formerly used to describe a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. Asperger syndrome has been merged with other conditions into autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and is no longer considered a diagnosis. It was considered milder than other diagnoses which were merged into ASD due to relatively unimpaired spoken language and intelligence.\nThe syndrome was named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger, who, in 1944, described children in his care who struggled to form friendships, did not understand others' gestures or feelings, engaged in one-sided conversations about their favorite interests, and were clumsy. In 1994, the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome was included in the fourth edition (DSM-IV) of the American Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; however, with the publication of DSM-5 in 2013 the syndrome was removed, and the symptoms are now included within autism spectrum disorder along with classic autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS). It was similarly merged into autism spectrum disorder in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) as of 2021.\nThe exact cause of Asperger syndrome is not well understood. While it has high heritability, the underlying genetics have not been determined conclusively. Environmental factors are also believed to play a role. Brain imaging has not identified a common underlying condition. There is no single treatment, and the UK's National Health Service (NHS) guidelines suggest that \"treatment\" of any form of autism should not be a goal, since autism is not \"a disease that can be removed or cured\". According to the Royal College of Psychiatrists, while co-occurring conditions might require treatment, \"management of autism itself is chiefly about the provision of the education, training, and social support/care required to improve the person's ability to function in the everyday world\". The effectiveness of particular interventions for autism is supported by only limited data. Interventions may include social skills training, cognitive behavioral therapy, physical therapy, speech therapy, parent training, and medications for associated problems, such as mood or anxiety. Autistic characteristics tend to become less obvious in adulthood, but social and communication difficulties usually persist.\nIn 2015, Asperger syndrome was estimated to affect 37.2 million people globally, or about 0.5% of the population. The exact percentage of people affected has still not been firmly established. Autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed in males more often than females, and females are typically diagnosed at a later age. The modern conception of Asperger syndrome came into existence in 1981 and went through a period of popularization. It became a standardized diagnosis in the 1990s and was merged into ASD in 2013. Many questions and controversies about the condition remain.\n\nClassification\nThe extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism (HFA – autism unaccompanied by intellectual disability) is unclear. The ASD classification is to some extent an artifact of how autism was discovered, and it may not reflect the true nature of the spectrum; methodological problems have beset Asperger syndrome as a valid diagnosis from the outset. In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published in May 2013, Asperger syndrome, as a separate diagnosis, was eliminated and folded into autism spectrum disorder. Like the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome, the change was controversial. Subsequently, it was also not included in the ICD-11, which came into effect in 2022.\nThe World Health Organization (WHO) previously defined Asperger syndrome (AS) as one of the pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are a spectrum of psychological disorders that are characterized by abnormalities of social interaction and communication that pervade the individual's functioning, and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior. Like other neurodevelopmental conditions, ASD begins in infancy or childhood, has a steady course without remission or relapse, and has impairments that result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain.\n\nCharacteristics\nAs a pervasive developmental disorder, Asperger syndrome is distinguished by a pattern of symptoms rather than a single symptom. It is characterized by qualitative impairment in social interaction, by stereotyped and restricted patterns of behavior, activities, and interests, and by no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or general delay in language. Intense preoccupation with a narrow subject, one-sided verbosity, restricted prosody, and physical clumsiness are typical of the condition, but are not required for diagnosis.\nSuicidal thoughts and behaviors are a serious concern within the autistic population. One study found that adults with Asperger syndrome exhibited suicidal thoughts at 9 times the rate of the general population. Of autistic study participants, 66% had experienced suicidal ideation, while 35% had planned or attempted suicide.\n\nSocial interaction\nA lack of demonstrated empathy affects aspects of social relatability for persons with Asperger syndrome. Individuals with Asperger syndrome experience difficulties in basic elements of social interaction, which may include a failure to develop friendships or to seek shared enjoyments or achievements with others (e.g., showing others objects of interest); a lack of social or emotional reciprocity; and impaired nonverbal behaviors in areas such as eye contact, facial expression, posture, and gesture.\nPeople with Asperger syndrome may not be as withdrawn around others, compared with those with other forms of autism; they approach others, even if awkwardly. For example, a person with Asperger syndrome may engage in a one-sided, long-winded speech about a favorite topic, while misunderstanding or not recognizing the listener's feelings or reactions, such as a wish to change the topic of talk or end the interaction. This social awkwardness has been called \"active but odd\". Such failures to react appropriately to social interaction may appear as disregard for other people's feelings and may come across as rude or insensitive. However, not all individuals with Asperger syndrome will approach others. Some may even display selective mutism, not speaking at all to most people and excessively to specific others.\nThe cognitive ability of children with Asperger syndrome often allows them to articulate social norms in a laboratory context, where they may be able to show a theoretical understanding of other people's emotions; however, they typically have difficulty acting on this knowledge in fluid, real-life situations. People with Asperger syndrome may analyze and distill their observations of social interaction into rigid behavioral guidelines and apply these rules in awkward ways, such as forced eye contact, resulting in a demeanor that appears rigid or socially naïve. A history of failed attempts to establish reciprocal social relationships can cause autistic individuals to isolate themselves and cease attempts to engage; however, autistic people overwhelmingly report a desire for social contact and friendship.\n\nViolent or criminal behavior\nThe hypothesis that individuals with Asperger syndrome are predisposed to violent or criminal behavior has been investigated but is not supported by data. More evidence suggests that children diagnosed with Asperger syndrome are more likely to be victims, rather than offenders.\nA 2008 review found that an overwhelming number of reported violent criminals with Asperger syndrome also had other coexisting psychotic psychiatric disorders such as schizoaffective disorder.\n\nEmpathy\nPeople with an Asperger profile might not be recognized for their empathetic qualities, due to variation in the ways empathy is felt and expressed. Some people feel deep empathy, but do not outwardly communicate these sentiments through facial expressions or language. Some people come to empathy through intellectual processes, using logic and reasoning to arrive at the feelings. People with Asperger profiles may be bullied or excluded by peers, and might as a result be guarded around people, which could appear as lack of empathy. People with Asperger profiles can still be caring individuals; indeed, it is particularly common for those with the profile to feel and exhibit deep concern for individual rights, human welfare, animal rights, environmental protection, and other global and humanitarian causes.\nEvidence suggests that in the \"double empathy problem model, autistic people have a unique interaction style which is significantly more readable by other autistic people, compared to non-autistic people.\"\n\nRestricted and repetitive interests and behavior\nPeople with Asperger syndrome can display behavior, interests, and activities that are restricted and repetitive and are sometimes abnormally intense or focused. They may stick to inflexible routines, move in stereotyped and repetitive ways, preoccupy themselves with parts of objects, or engage in compulsive behaviors like lining objects up to form patterns.\nThe pursuit of specific and narrow areas of interest is one of the most striking among possible features of AS. Individuals with AS may collect volumes of detailed information on a relatively narrow topic such as weather data or star names without necessarily having a genuine understanding of the broader topic. For example, a child might memorize camera model numbers while caring little about photography. This behavior is usually apparent by age five or six. Although these special interests may change from time to time, they typically become more unusual and narrowly focused and often dominate social interaction so much that the entire family may become immersed. Because narrow topics often capture the interest of children, this symptom may go unrecognized.\nStereotyped and repetitive motor behaviors, called stimming, are a core part of the diagnosis of AS and other ASDs. Stims are believed to be used for self-soothing and regulate sensory input. They include hand movements such as flapping or twisting, and complex whole-body movements. These are typically repeated in longer bursts and look more voluntary or ritualistic than tics, which are usually faster, less rhythmical, and less often symmetrical. Stimming may have a connection with tics, and studies have reported a consistent comorbidity between AS and Tourette syndrome in the range of 8–20%, with one figure as high as 80% for tics of some kind or another, for which several explanations have been put forward, including common genetic factors and dopamine, glutamate, or serotonin abnormalities.\nAccording to the Adult Asperger Assessment (AAA) diagnostic test, a lack of interest in fiction and a positive preference towards non-fiction is common among adults with AS.\n\nSpeech and language\nAlthough individuals with Asperger syndrome acquire language skills without significant general delay and their speech typically lacks significant abnormalities, language acquisition and use is often atypical. Abnormalities include verbosity; abrupt transitions; literal interpretations and miscomprehension of nuance; use of metaphor meaningful only to the speaker; auditory perception deficits; unusually pedantic, formal, or idiosyncratic speech; and oddities in loudness, pitch, intonation, prosody, and rhythm. Echolalia has also been observed in individuals with AS.\nThree aspects of communication patterns are of clinical interest: poor prosody, tangential and circumstantial speech, and marked verbosity. Although inflection and intonation may be less rigid or monotonic than in classic autism, people with AS often have a limited range of intonation: speech may be unusually fast, jerky, or loud. Speech may convey a sense of incoherence; the conversational style often includes monologues about topics that bore the listener, fails to provide context for comments, or fails to suppress internal thoughts. Individuals with AS may fail to detect whether the listener is interested or engaged in the conversation. The speaker's conclusion or point may never be made, and attempts by the listener to elaborate on the speech's content or logic, or to shift to related topics, are often unsuccessful.\nChildren with AS may have a sophisticated vocabulary at a young age and such children have often been colloquially called \"little professors\" but have difficulty understanding figurative language and tend to use language literally. Children with AS appear to have particular weaknesses in areas of nonliteral language that include humor, irony, teasing, and sarcasm. Although individuals with AS usually understand the cognitive basis of humor, they seem to lack understanding of the intent of humor to share the enjoyment with others. Despite strong evidence of impaired humor appreciation, anecdotal reports of humor in individuals with AS seem to challenge some psychological theories of AS and autism.\n\nMotor and sensory perception\nIndividuals with Asperger syndrome may have signs or symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis but can affect the individual or the family. These include differences in perception and problems with motor skills, sleep, and emotions.\nIndividuals with AS often have excellent auditory and visual perception. Children with ASD often demonstrate enhanced perception of small changes in patterns such as arrangements of objects or well-known images; typically this is domain-specific and involves processing of fine-grained features. Conversely, compared with individuals with high-functioning autism, individuals with AS have deficits in some tasks involving visual-spatial perception, auditory perception, or visual memory. Many accounts of individuals with AS and ASD report other unusual sensory and perceptual skills and experiences. They may be unusually sensitive or insensitive to sound, light, and other stimuli; these sensory responses are found in other developmental disorders and are not specific to AS or to ASD. There is little support for increased fight-or-flight response or failure of habituation in autism; there is more evidence of decreased responsiveness to sensory stimuli, although several studies show no differences.\nHans Asperger's initial accounts and other diagnostic schemes include descriptions of physical clumsiness. Children with AS may be delayed in acquiring skills requiring dexterity, such as riding a bicycle or opening a jar, and may seem to move awkwardly or feel \"uncomfortable in their own skin\". They may be poorly coordinated or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture, poor handwriting, or problems with motor coordination. They may show problems with proprioception (sensation of body position) on measures of developmental coordination disorder (motor planning disorder), balance, tandem gait, and finger-thumb apposition. There is no evidence that these motor skills problems differentiate AS from other high-functioning ASDs.\nChildren with AS are more likely to have sleep problems, including difficulty in falling asleep, frequent nocturnal awakenings, and early morning awakenings. AS is also associated with high levels of alexithymia, which is difficulty in identifying and describing one's emotions. Although AS, lower sleep quality, and alexithymia are associated with each other, their causal relationship is unclear.\n\nCauses\nHans Asperger described common traits among his patients' family members, especially fathers, and research supports this observation and suggests a genetic contribution to Asperger syndrome. Although no specific genetic factor has yet been identified, multiple factors are believed to play a role in the expression of autism, given the variability in symptoms seen in children. Hundreds of genes have been linked to AS, and these genes play crucial role in a multitude of biological processes, exerting influence over the maturation and functioning of the brain. Evidence for a genetic link is that AS tends to run in families where more family members have limited behavioral symptoms similar to AS (for example, some problems with social interaction, or with language and reading skills). Most behavioral genetic research suggests that all autism spectrum disorders have shared genetic mechanisms. There may be shared genes in which particular alleles make an individual vulnerable, and varying combinations result in differing severity and symptoms in each person with AS.\nA few ASD cases have been linked to exposure to teratogens (agents that cause birth defects) during the first eight weeks from conception. Although this does not exclude the possibility that ASD can be initiated or affected later, it is strong evidence that ASD arises very early in development. Many environmental factors have been hypothesized to act after birth, but none has been confirmed by scientific investigation. These environmental elements can act as independent and significant risk factors, or they can potentially influence pre-existing genetic factors in people who have a genetic predisposition.\n\nMechanism\nAsperger syndrome appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems, as opposed to localized effects.\nAlthough the specific underpinnings of AS or factors that distinguish it from other ASDs are unknown, and no clear pathology common to individuals with AS has emerged, it is still possible that AS's mechanism is separate from other ASDs.\nNeuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that the mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception. Abnormal fetal development may affect the final structure and connectivity of the brain, resulting in altered neural circuits controlling thought and behavior. Several theories of mechanism are available; none are likely to provide a complete explanation.\n\nGeneral-processing theories\nOne general-processing theory is weak central coherence theory, which hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in ASD. A related theory—enhanced perceptual functioning—focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals.\n\nMirror neuron system (MNS) theory\nThe mirror neuron system (MNS) theory hypothesizes that alterations to the development of the MNS interfere with imitation and lead to Asperger syndrome's core feature of social impairment. One study found that activation is delayed in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with AS. This theory maps well to social cognition theories like the theory of mind, which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from impairments in ascribing mental states to oneself and others; or hyper-systemizing, which hypothesizes that autistic individuals can systematize internal operation to handle internal events but are less effective at empathizing when handling events generated by other agents.\n\nDiagnosis\nStandard diagnostic criteria require impairment in social interaction and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, activities, and interests, without significant delay in language or cognitive development. Unlike the international standard, the DSM-IV-TR criteria also required significant impairment in day-to-day functioning; DSM-5 eliminated AS as a separate diagnosis in 2013, and folded it into the umbrella of autism spectrum disorders. Other sets of diagnostic criteria have been proposed by Szatmari et al. and by Gillberg and Gillberg.\nDiagnosis is most commonly made between the ages of four and eleven. A comprehensive assessment involves a multidisciplinary team that observes across multiple settings, and includes neurological and genetic assessment as well as tests for cognition, psychomotor function, verbal and nonverbal strengths and weaknesses, style of learning, and skills for independent living. The \"gold standard\" in diagnosing ASDs combines clinical judgment with the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), a semistructured parent interview; and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), a conversation and play-based interview with the child. Delayed or mistaken diagnosis can be traumatic for individuals and families; for example, misdiagnosis can lead to medications that worsen behavior.\nUnderdiagnosis and overdiagnosis may be problems. The cost and difficulty of screening and assessment can delay diagnosis. Conversely, the increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has motivated providers to overdiagnose ASD. There are indications AS has been diagnosed more frequently in recent years, partly as a residual diagnosis for children of normal intelligence who are not autistic but have social difficulties.\nThere are questions about the external validity of the AS diagnosis. That is, it is unclear whether there is a practical benefit in distinguishing AS from HFA or PDD-NOS; different screening tools may render different diagnoses for the same person.\n\nDifferential diagnosis\nMany children with AS are initially misdiagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Diagnosing adults is more challenging, as standard diagnostic criteria are designed for children and the expression of AS changes with age. Adult diagnosis requires painstaking clinical examination and thorough medical history gained from both the individual and other people who know the person, focusing on childhood behavior.\nConditions that must be considered in a differential diagnosis along with ADHD include other ASDs, the schizophrenia spectrum, personality disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder, major depressive disorder, semantic pragmatic disorder, nonverbal learning disorder, social anxiety disorder, Tourette syndrome, stereotypic movement disorder, bipolar disorder, social-cognitive deficits due to brain damage from alcohol use disorder, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD).\n\nScreening\nParents of children with Asperger syndrome can typically trace differences in their children's development to as early as 30 months of age. Developmental screening during a routine check-up by a general practitioner or pediatrician may identify signs that warrant further investigation. The United States Preventive Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there are no concerns.\nDifferent screening instruments are used to diagnose AS, including the Asperger Syndrome Diagnostic Scale (ASDS); Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ); Childhood Autism Spectrum Test (CAST), previously called the Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test; Gilliam Asperger's disorder scale (GADS); Krug Asperger's Disorder Index (KADI); and the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ), with versions for children, adolescents, and adults. None have been shown to reliably differentiate between AS and other ASDs.\n\nManagement\nTreatment attempts to manage distressing symptoms and to teach age-appropriate social, communication, and vocational skills that are not naturally acquired during development. Intervention is tailored to the needs of the individual based on multidisciplinary assessment. Although progress has been made, data supporting the efficacy of particular interventions are limited.\n\nTherapies\nManaging ASD may involve multiple therapies that address core symptoms of the disorder. While many professionals agree that the earlier the professional support the better, there is no combination that is recommended above others. Professional support for ASD varies depending on the individual; it takes into account the linguistic capabilities, verbal strengths, and nonverbal vulnerabilities of individuals.\nMany of those diagnosed with ASD or similar disorders advocate against behavioral therapies, like Applied behavior analysis (ABA) and Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), often as part of the autism rights movement, on the grounds that these approaches frequently reinforce the demand on autistic people to mask their neurodivergent characteristics or behaviors to favor a more 'neurotypical' and narrow conception of normality. ABA has faced a great deal of criticism over the years. Recently, studies have shown that ABA may be abusive and can increase PTSD symptoms in patients. The Autistic Self Advocacy Network campaigns against the use of ABA in autism.\nIn the case of CBT and talking therapies, the effectiveness varies, with many reporting that they appeared 'too self-aware' to gain significant benefit, as the therapy was designed with neurotypical people in mind. In autistic children, specifically, they also report that it is only mildly beneficial in aiding with their anxieties.\nA typical program of professional support generally includes:\n\nApplied behavior analysis (ABA) procedures, including positive behavior support (PBS)—or training and support of parents and school faculty in behavior management strategies to use in the home and school, and social skills training for more effective interpersonal interactions. The Autistic Self Advocacy Network campaigns against the use of ABA in autism;\nCognitive behavioral therapy to improve stress management relating to anxiety or explosive emotions and to help reduce obsessive interests (although this may produce negative impact by demonising special interests) and repetitive routines;\nMedication for coexisting conditions such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders;\nOccupational or physical therapy to assist with poor sensory processing and motor coordination; and,\nSocial communication intervention, which is specialized speech therapy to help with the pragmatics and give-and-take of normal conversation.\nOf the many studies on behavior-based early intervention programs, most are case reports of up to five participants and typically examine a few problem behaviors such as self-injury, aggression, noncompliance, stereotypies, or spontaneous language; unintended side effects are largely ignored. Despite the popularity of social skills training, its effectiveness is not firmly established. A randomized controlled study of a model for training parents in problem behaviors in their children with AS showed that parents attending a one-day workshop or six individual lessons reported fewer behavioral problems, while parents receiving the individual lessons reported less intense behavioral problems in their AS children. Vocational training may be important to teach job interview etiquette and workplace behavior to older children and adults with AS, and organization software and personal data assistants can improve the work and life management of people with AS.\nFecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) is an innovative therapy for AS that aims to restore microbial balance in the patient's gastrointestinal tract by introducing healthy fecal microbiota acquired from people with a diverse microbial composition. This approach attempts to reconstruct the patient's gut microbiota by taking into account the intricate interactions between the human gut and the central nervous system via the gut-brain axis (GBA). Any disruption in gut health has been linked to an increased susceptibility to diverse neurodevelopmental disorders.\nIt is vital to remember that research of AS specifically operates upon the out-dated classification of this syndrome as external to ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder). Similarly, we should also note that ASD is a spectrum and support varies dramatically depending on the individual.\n\nMedications\nNo medications directly treat the core symptoms of AS. Although research into the efficacy of pharmaceutical intervention for AS is limited, it is essential to diagnose and treat comorbid conditions. Deficits in self-identifying emotions or in observing effects of one's behavior on others can make it difficult for individuals with AS to see why medication may be appropriate. Medication can be effective in combination with behavioral interventions and environmental accommodations in treating comorbid symptoms such as anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, inattention, and aggression. The atypical antipsychotic medications risperidone, olanzapine and aripiprazole have been shown to reduce the associated symptoms of AS; risperidone can reduce repetitive and self-injurious behaviors, aggressive outbursts, and impulsivity, and improve stereotypical patterns of behavior and social relatedness. The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, and sertraline have been effective in treating restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors, while stimulant medication, such as methylphenidate, can reduce inattention. In addition, scientists have made a noteworthy finding that oxytocin, a hormone, plays a significant role in shaping human social behavior and the formation of interpersonal connections.\nCare must be taken with medications, as side effects may be more common and harder to evaluate in individuals with AS, and tests of drugs' effectiveness against comorbid conditions routinely exclude individuals from the autism spectrum. Abnormalities in metabolism, cardiac conduction times, and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes have been raised as concerns with antipsychotic medications, along with serious long-term neurological side effects. SSRIs can lead to manifestations of behavioral activation such as increased impulsivity, aggression, and sleep disturbance. Weight gain and fatigue are commonly reported side effects of risperidone, which may also lead to increased risk for extrapyramidal symptoms such as restlessness and dystonia and increased serum prolactin levels. Sedation and weight gain are more common with olanzapine, which has also been linked with diabetes. Sedative side-effects in school-age children have ramifications for classroom learning. Individuals with AS may be unable to identify and communicate their internal moods and emotions or to tolerate side effects that for most people would not be problematic.\n\nPrognosis\nThere is some evidence that children with AS may see a lessening of symptoms; up to 20% of children may no longer meet the diagnostic criteria as adults, although social and communication difficulties may persist. As of 2006, no studies addressing the long-term outcome of individuals with Asperger syndrome are available and there are no systematic long-term follow-up studies of children with AS. Individuals with AS appear to have normal life expectancy, but have an increased prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions, such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders that may significantly affect prognosis. Although social impairment may be lifelong, the outcome is generally more positive than with individuals with lower-functioning autism spectrum disorders; for example, ASD symptoms are more likely to diminish with time in children with AS or HFA. Most students with AS and HFA have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in mathematics than in general intelligence. However, mathematicians are at least three times more likely to have autism-spectrum traits than the general population, and are more likely to have family members with autism.\nAlthough many attend regular education classes, some children with AS may attend special education classes such as separate classroom and resource room because of their social and behavioral difficulties. Adolescents with AS may exhibit ongoing difficulty with self-care or organization, and disturbances in social and romantic relationships. Despite high cognitive potential, most young adults with AS remain at home, yet some do marry and work independently. The \"different-ness\" adolescents experience can be traumatic. Anxiety may stem from preoccupation over possible violations of routines and rituals, from being placed in a situation without a clear schedule or expectations, or from concern with failing in social encounters; the resulting stress may manifest as inattention, withdrawal, reliance on obsessions, hyperactivity, or aggressive or oppositional behavior. Depression is often the result of chronic frustration from repeated failure to engage others socially, and mood disorders requiring treatment may develop. Clinical experience suggests the rate of suicide may be higher among those with AS, but this has not been confirmed by systematic empirical studies.\nEducation of families is critical in developing strategies for understanding strengths and weaknesses; helping the family to cope improves outcomes in children. Prognosis may be improved by diagnosis at a younger age that allows for early interventions, while interventions in adulthood are valuable but less beneficial. There are legal implications for individuals with AS as they run the risk of exploitation by others and may be unable to comprehend the societal implications of their actions.\n\nEpidemiology\nFrequency estimates vary enormously. In 2015, it was estimated that 37.2 million people globally are affected. A 2003 review of epidemiological studies of children found autism rates ranging from 0.03 to 4.84 per 1,000, with the ratio of autism to Asperger syndrome ranging from 1.5:1 to 16:1; combining the geometric mean ratio of 5:1 with a conservative prevalence estimate for autism of 1.3 per 1,000 suggests indirectly that the prevalence of AS might be around 0.26 per 1,000. Part of the variance in estimates arises from differences in diagnostic criteria. For example, a relatively small 2007 study of 5,484 eight-year-old children in Finland found 2.9 children per 1,000 met the ICD-10 criteria for an AS diagnosis, 2.7 per 1,000 for Gillberg and Gillberg criteria, 2.5 for DSM-IV, 1.6 for Szatmari et al., and 4.3 per 1,000 for the union of the four criteria. Boys seem to be more likely to have AS than girls; estimates of the sex ratio range from 1.6:1 to 4:1, using the Gillberg and Gillberg criteria. Females with autism spectrum disorders may be underdiagnosed.\n\nComorbidities\nAnxiety disorders and major depressive disorder are the most common conditions seen at the same time; comorbidity of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65%. Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as aminoaciduria and ligamentous laxity, but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. One study of males with AS found an increased rate of epilepsy and a high rate (51%) of nonverbal learning disorder. AS is associated with tics, Tourette syndrome and bipolar disorder. The repetitive behaviors of AS have many similarities with the symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, and 26% of a sample of young adults with AS were found to meet the criteria for schizoid personality disorder (which is characterised by severe social seclusion and emotional detachment), more than any other personality disorder in the sample. However many of these studies are based on clinical samples or lack standardized measures; nonetheless, comorbid conditions are relatively common.\n\nCorrelated characteristics\nResearch indicates that individuals with Aspergers have significantly higher rates of LGBT identities and feelings than the general population. They are also significantly more likely to be non-theistic.\n\nHistory\nNamed after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger (1906–1980), Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of autism, though a syndrome like it was described as early as 1925 by Soviet child psychiatrist Grunya Sukhareva (1891–1981), leading some of those diagnosed with Asperger syndrome to instead refer to their condition as 'Sukhareva's Syndrome', in opposition to Hans Asperger's association with Nazism. As a child, Asperger appears to have exhibited some features of the very condition named after him, such as remoteness and talent in language. In 1944, Asperger described four children in his practice who had difficulty in integrating themselves socially and showing empathy towards peers. They also lacked nonverbal communication skills and were physically clumsy. Asperger described this \"autistic psychopathy\" as social isolation. Fifty years later, several standardizations of AS as a medical diagnosis were tentatively proposed, many of which diverge significantly from Asperger's original work.\nUnlike today's AS, autistic psychopathy could be found in people of all levels of intelligence, including those with intellectual disability. Asperger defended the value of so-called \"high-functioning\" autistic individuals, writing: \"We are convinced, then, that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community. They fulfill their role well, perhaps better than anyone else could, and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care-givers.\" Asperger also believed some would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life.\nAsperger's paper was published during World War II and in German, so it was not widely read elsewhere. Lorna Wing used the term Asperger syndrome in 1976, and popularized it to the English-speaking medical community in her February 1981 publication of case studies of children showing the symptoms described by Asperger, and Uta Frith translated his paper to English in 1991. Sets of diagnostic criteria were outlined by Gillberg and Gillberg in 1989 and by Szatmari et al. in the same year. In 1992, AS became a standard diagnosis when it was included in the tenth edition of the World Health Organization's diagnostic manual, International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). It was added to the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's diagnostic reference, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), published in 1994.\nHundreds of books, articles, and websites now describe AS and prevalence estimates have increased dramatically for ASD, with AS recognized as an important subgroup. Whether it should be seen as distinct from high-functioning autism is a fundamental issue requiring further study, and there are questions about the empirical validation of the DSM-IV and ICD-10 criteria. In 2013, DSM-5 eliminated AS as a separate diagnosis, folding it into the autism spectrum on a severity scale.\n\nSociety and culture\nPeople identifying with Asperger syndrome may refer to themselves in casual conversation as aspies (a term first used in print in the Boston Globe in 1998). Some autistic people have advocated a shift in perception of autism spectrum disorders as complex syndromes rather than diseases that must be cured. Proponents of this view reject the notion that there is an \"ideal\" brain configuration and that any deviation from the norm is pathological; they promote tolerance of neurodiversity. These views are the basis for the autistic rights and autistic pride movements. There is a contrast between the attitude of people with AS, who typically do not want to be cured and are proud of their identity; and parents of children with AS, who typically seek assistance and a cure for their children.\nSome researchers have argued that AS can be viewed as a different cognitive style, not a disorder, and that it should be removed from the standard Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, much as homosexuality was removed. (In 2013 Asperger Syndrome was indeed eliminated as a separate diagnosis in DSM-5.) In a 2002 paper, Simon Baron-Cohen wrote of those with AS: \"In the social world, there is no great benefit to a precise eye for detail, but in the worlds of maths, computing, cataloging, music, linguistics, engineering, and science, such an eye for detail can lead to success rather than failure.\" Baron-Cohen cited two reasons why it might still be useful to consider AS to be a disability: to ensure provision for legally required special support, and to recognize emotional difficulties from reduced empathy. Baron-Cohen argues that the genes for ASD's combination of abilities have operated throughout recent human evolution and have made remarkable contributions to human history.\nBy contrast, Pier Jaarsma and Welin wrote in 2011 that the \"broad version of the neurodiversity claim, covering low-functioning as well as high-functioning autism, is problematic. Only a narrow conception of neurodiversity, referring exclusively to high-functioning autists, is reasonable.\" They say that \"higher functioning\" individuals with autism may \"not [be] benefited with such a psychiatric defect-based diagnosis ... some of them are being harmed by it, because of the disrespect the diagnosis displays for their natural way of being\", but \"think that it is still reasonable to include other categories of autism in the psychiatric diagnostics. The narrow conception of the neurodiversity claim should be accepted but the broader claim should not.\"\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\n\nAutistic Empire, Are you Autistic? Take the test – an online version of the Adult Asperger's Assessment developed by Cohen, S. et al. (2005) (see Woodbury-Smith MR, \"Screening adults for Asperger Syndrome using the AQ: a preliminary study of its diagnostic validity in clinical practice\", in §References).\nHus V, Lord C (August 2014). \"The autism diagnostic observation schedule, module 4: revised algorithm and standardized severity scores\". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 44 (8): 1996–2012. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2080-3. PMC 4104252. PMID 24590409. A public paper re-calibrating the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule for appropriate assessment of autistic adults, who typically score lower on measures of impairment than autistic children due to compensatory strategies.\nRoyal College of Psychiatrists (2017), Interview Guide for the Diagnostic Assessment of Able Adults with Autistic Spectrum Disorder – based on the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R)",
"title": "Asperger_syndrome"
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] | The person who posted a photo with Rahul Ligma and Daniel Johnson at the headquarters of a social media company claims to have a certain syndrome, despite never receiving a formal diagnosis. Who was this syndrome named after? | [] | Hans Asperger | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Grammy Award for Song of the Year is an honor presented at the Grammy Awards, a ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards. The Song of the Year award is one of the four most prestigious categories at the awards (alongside Best New Artist, Record of the Year and Album of the Year), presented annually since the 1st Grammy Awards in 1959. According to the 54th Grammy Awards description guide, the award is presented: to honor artistic achievement, technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry, without regard to album sales or chart position.\n\nIf a winning song contains samples or interpolations of existing material, the publisher and songwriter(s) of the original song(s) can apply for a Winners Certificate.\nSong of the Year is related to but is conceptually different from Record of the Year or Album of the Year:\n\nSong of the Year is awarded for a single or for one track from an album. This award goes to the songwriter who actually wrote the lyrics and/or melodies to the song. \"Song\" in this context means the song as composed, not its recording.\nRecord of the Year is also awarded for a single or individual track, but the recipient of this award is the performing artist, the producer, recording engineer and/or mixer for that song. In this sense, \"record\" means a particular recorded song, not its composition or an album of songs.\nAlbum of the Year is awarded for a whole album, and the award is presented to the artist, songwriter, producer, recording engineer, and mastering engineer for that album. In this context, \"album\" means a recorded collection of songs (a multi-track LP, CD, or download package), not the individual songs or their compositions.\n\nHistory and description\nThe Song of the Year awards have been awarded since 1959. It is one of the four most prestigious Grammy Awards. Despite both the Record of the Year award and Song of the Year being awarded for a single or for one track from an album, this award goes only to the composer(s) of the song whereas the Record of the Year award goes to the performer(s) and production team for a particular recording of the song. According to the 54th Grammy Awards description guide, the award is given to the songwriter(s) of a song that \"must contain melody and lyrics and must be either a new song or a song first achieving prominence during the eligibility year. Songs containing prominent samples or interpolations are not eligible\".\nThe award has not always been restricted to new or newly prominent songs; for instance, in 1992, when the winner was Natalie Cole's cover of \"Unforgettable\" (a song that had first been recorded by Nat King Cole and achieved prominence in the 1950s), the rule was merely that the song had to have been recorded during the eligibility year and not previously nominated for the award.\nSince the late 1960s other songwriter's awards have been presented for genre-specific categories, including Grammy Award for Best Country Song (since 1965), Grammy Award for Best R&B Song (since 1969), Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media (since 1988), Grammy Award for Best Rock Song (since 1992), and most recently Grammy Award for Best Rap Song (since 2004), Grammy Award for Best Gospel Song (from 2006 to 2014), Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Song (from 2012 to 2014), Grammy Award for Best American Roots Song (since 2014), Grammy Award for Best Gospel Performance/Song (since 2015), and Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song (since 2015).\nThe category was expanded to include eight nominees in 2019 and 10 nominees in 2022. The number of nominees was reverted to eight starting with the 2024 ceremony.\nAs of 2023, a distinct category to honor songwriters was established: Songwriter of the Year, Non-Classical.\n\nAchievements\nIn many cases, the songwriters were also the performers (Domenico Modugno, Henry Mancini, John Lennon & Paul McCartney, Joe South, Paul Simon, Carole King, Barbra Streisand, Billy Joel, Michael McDonald, Christopher Cross, Sting, Michael Jackson & Lionel Richie, Bobby McFerrin, Eric Clapton, Bruce Springsteen, Seal, Shawn Colvin, Rob Thomas, U2, Alicia Keys, Luther Vandross, John Mayer, Dixie Chicks, Amy Winehouse, Coldplay, Beyoncé, Lady Antebellum, Adele, Fun, Lorde, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Bruno Mars, Childish Gambino, Billie Eilish, H.E.R., Anderson .Paak, and Bonnie Raitt).\nDernst Emile II is the only songwriter to win Song of the Year in two consecutive years: in 2021 (\"I Can't Breathe\") and 2022 (\"Leave the Door Open\").\nOther multiple winners in this category include Henry Mancini (\"Moon River\" and \"Days of Wine and Roses\"); Johnny Mercer (\"Moon River\" and \"Days of Wine and Roses\"); James Horner (\"Somewhere Out There\" and \"My Heart Will Go On\"); Will Jennings (\"Tears in Heaven\" and \"My Heart Will Go On\"); U2 (\"Beautiful Day\" and \"Sometimes You Can't Make It on Your Own\"); Adele (\"Rolling in the Deep\" and \"Hello\"); Christopher Brody Brown (\"That's What I Like\" and \"Leave the Door Open\"); Bruno Mars (\"That's What I Like\" and \"Leave the Door Open\"); Billie Eilish (\"Bad Guy\" and \"What Was I Made For?\"); and Finneas O'Connell (\"Bad Guy\" and \"What Was I Made For?\"), winning two times each. However, songs written for Andy Williams, Roberta Flack, Barbra Streisand and Bette Midler have received this award twice.\nAmerican singer/songwriter Taylor Swift is the most nominated songwriter in this category with seven nominations. Swift has never won the award.\nThe first woman to win the award was Carole King in 1972, for \"You've Got a Friend\". Adele was the first female songwriter to win the award twice, winning for \"Rolling in the Deep\" and \"Hello\".\nLorde is the youngest songwriter to win in the category, winning for \"Royals\" in 2014 at the age of 17.\nIrving Gordon is the oldest songwriter to win the award, winning for \"Unforgettable\" in 1992 at age 77.\nChristopher Cross and Billie Eilish are the only artists to receive the Grammys for Song of the Year as well as Record of the Year, Album of the Year, and Best New Artist in a single ceremony. Adele was the first artist to win the awards for Song of the Year, Record of the Year, Album of the Year, and Best New Artist on separate occasions. Only six artists have won the Song of the Year and Best New Artist awards the same year: Christopher Cross (\"Sailing\" in 1981), Alicia Keys (\"Fallin'\" in 2002), Amy Winehouse (\"Rehab\" in 2008), Fun (\"We Are Young\" in 2013), Sam Smith (\"Stay with Me (Darkchild Version)\" in 2015) and Billie Eilish (\"Bad Guy\" in 2020); Marvin Hamlisch is the only composer to win the Song of the Year and Best New Artist awards the same year in 1975, for \"The Way We Were\".\nJohn Lennon, Paul McCartney, Lionel Richie, Diane Warren, Billie Eilish, H.E.R, and Finneas O'Connell are the only songwriters to receive three consecutive nominations for Song of the Year.\nThe song \"Nel blu, dipinto di blu (Volare)\", winner in 1959, written by Domenico Modugno and performed in Italian, is the only foreign-language song to win this award, although the 1967 winner \"Michelle\" penned by Lennon–McCartney for The Beatles to perform, has a critical part of its lyrics in French.\nThe Ernest Gold song \"Theme of Exodus\", which won in 1961, is the only instrumental song to ever receive this award.\nThe first and only tie in this category in Grammy history took place in 1978, when both Barbra Streisand's & Paul Williams' \"Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)\" and Joe Brooks' \"You Light Up My Life\" won the award.\nThe first time in Grammy history that two different songs with the same title have been nominated in this category happened with \"Hello\" written by Lionel Richie in 1985 and \"Hello\" by Adele & Greg Kurstin in 2017.\nThe song with the most writers to win this award is \"That's What I Like\", which won in 2018 with eight writers. The song with the most writers nominated in this category is \"Peaches\", which had 11 co-writers nominated for the 2022 ceremony.\nThirty-two of the winning songs have also won the award for Record of the Year.\n\nProcess\nFrom 1995 to 2018, members of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences nominated their choices for song of the year. A list of the top twenty records was given to the Nominations Review Committee, a specially selected group of anonymous members, who then selected the top five records to gain a nomination in the category in a special ballot. The rest of the members then vote a winner from the five nominees. In 2018, it was announced the number of nominated tracks would be increased to eight. In 2021, it was announced that the Nomination Review Committees would be disbanded, and the final nominees for song of the year would be decided by votes from members. Starting in 2022, the number of nominees in the category increased to 10. However, the decision to expand the number of nominees in this category was made 24 hours before the nominees were announced after an early version of the nominations list had already been circulated. This allowed \"Kiss Me More\" by Doja Cat featuring SZA and \"Right on Time\" by Brandi Carlile to be nominated as they were the songs that received the most votes besides the other eight nominees. As of the 2024 ceremony, the number of nominees has been reduced back to eight.\n\nRecipients\nAn asterisk (*) indicates this recording also won Record of the Year.\n\n1960s\n1970s\n1980s\n1990s\n2000s\n2010s\n2020s\n^[I] Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.\n^[II] The performing artist is only listed but does not receive the award.\n\nSongwriters with multiple awards\nTwo awards\nAdele\nBono\nBrody Brown\nAdam Clayton\nD'Mile (consecutive)\nThe Edge\nBillie Eilish\nJames Horner\nWill Jennings\nHenry Mancini\nBruno Mars\nJohnny Mercer\nLarry Mullen Jr.\nFinneas O' Connell\n\nSongwriters with multiple nominations\n2 nominations\n\nSee also\nGrammy Award for Record of the Year\nGrammy Award for Best Country Song\nGrammy Award for Best R&B Song\nGrammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media\nGrammy Award for Best Rock Song\nGrammy Award for Best Rap Song\nGrammy Award for Best Gospel Song\nGrammy Award for Best Gospel Performance/Song\nGrammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Song\nGrammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song\nGrammy Award for Best American Roots Song\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial site",
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"paragraph_text": "Amy Jade Winehouse (14 September 1983 – 23 July 2011) was a British singer and songwriter known for her deep, expressive contralto vocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres, including soul, rhythm and blues, reggae, and jazz.\nWinehouse was a member of the National Youth Jazz Orchestra in her youth, signing to Simon Fuller's 19 Management in 2002 and soon recording a number of songs before signing a publishing deal with EMI. She also formed a working relationship with producer Salaam Remi through these record publishers. Winehouse's debut album, Frank, was released in 2003. Many of the album's songs were influenced by jazz and, apart from two covers, were co-written by Winehouse. Frank was a critical and commercial success in the UK, and beyond, and was nominated for the UK's Mercury Prize. The song \"Stronger Than Me\" won her the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.\nWinehouse released her follow-up album, Back to Black, in 2006. The album went on to become a huge international success and one of the best-selling albums of all time, as well as one of the best-selling albums in UK history. At the 2007 Brit Awards, it was nominated for British Album of the Year and Winehouse received the award for British Female Solo Artist. The song \"Rehab\" won her a second Ivor Novello Award. At the 50th Grammy Awards in 2008, she won five awards, tying the then record for the most wins by a female artist in a single night and becoming the first British woman to win five Grammys. These included three of the General Field \"Big Four\" Grammy Awards: Best New Artist, Record of the Year and Song of the Year (for \"Rehab\"), as well as Best Pop Vocal Album.\nWinehouse struggled throughout her life with substance abuse, mental illness and addiction. She died, at her Camden Square home in London, of alcohol poisoning on 23 July 2011, at the age of 27. Her brother believed that bulimia was also a factor. After her death, Back to Black briefly became the UK's best-selling album of the 21st century. VH1 ranked Winehouse 26th on their list of the 100 Greatest Women in Music. Her life and career was dramatised in a 2024 biopic, Back to Black, directed by Sam Taylor-Johnson.\n\nEarly life\nAmy Jade Winehouse was born on 14 September 1983 at Chase Farm Hospital in Gordon Hill, Enfield, to Jewish parents. Her father, Mitchell \"Mitch\" Winehouse, was a window panel installer and taxi driver; her mother, Janis Winehouse (née Seaton), was a pharmacist. Her mother was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 2003. Winehouse's great-great-grandfather Harris Winehouse emigrated from Minsk, Belarus, to London in 1891. She had an older brother, Alex (born 1979). The family lived in London's Southgate area, where she attended Osidge Primary School and then secondary at Ashmole School. Winehouse attended a Jewish Sunday school while she was a child. During an interview following her rise to fame, she expressed her disapproval towards the school by saying that she used to beg her father to permit her not to go and that she learned nothing about being Jewish by going anyway. In the same interview, Winehouse said she only went to a synagogue once a year on Yom Kippur \"out of respect\".\nMany of Winehouse's maternal uncles were professional jazz musicians. Amy's paternal grandmother, Cynthia, had been a singer and had dated the English jazz saxophonist Ronnie Scott. She and Amy's parents influenced Amy's interest in jazz. Her father, Mitch, often sang Frank Sinatra songs to her, and whenever she was chastised at school, she would sing \"Fly Me to the Moon\" before going up to the headmistress to be told off. Winehouse's parents separated when she was nine, and she lived with her mother in Whetstone, London and stayed with her father and his girlfriend in Hatfield Heath, Essex on weekends.\nIn 1992, her grandmother Cynthia suggested that Amy attend the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School, where she went on Saturdays to further her vocal education and to learn to tap dance. She attended the school for four years and founded a short-lived rap group called Sweet 'n' Sour, with Juliette Ashby, her childhood friend, before seeking full-time training at Sylvia Young Theatre School. Several years later it was reported that Winehouse had been expelled at 14 for \"not applying herself\" and also for piercing her nose, however these claims were denied by Sylvia Young: \"She changed schools at 15 ... I've heard it said she was expelled; she wasn't. I'd never have expelled Amy.\" Mitch Winehouse also denied the claims. An English teacher at the Sylvia Young Theatre School remembered Amy as a gifted writer, predicting that she would become a novelist or journalist. She attended the Mount School, Mill Hill and the BRIT School in Selhurst, Croydon, dropping out at age 16.\nAfter toying around with her brother Alex's guitar, Winehouse bought her own guitar when she was 14 and began writing music shortly afterwards. Soon after, she began working for a living as an entertainment journalist for the World Entertainment News Network and also singing with local group the Bolsha Band. In July 2000, she became the featured female vocalist with the National Youth Jazz Orchestra. At home she learned from and practised singing songs by Frank Sinatra, Dinah Washington, Sarah Vaughan and Minnie Ripperton—singers who she said \"will get under the song\" and remake it as their own rather than sing it straight as written. Winehouse's best friend, soul singer Tyler James, sent her demo tape to an A&R person.\n\nCareer\n2002–2005: Career beginnings and Frank\nWinehouse was signed to Simon Fuller's 19 Management in 2002 and was initially paid £250 a week against future earnings. While being developed by the management company, Winehouse was kept as a recording industry secret, although she was a regular jazz standards singer at the Cobden Club. Her future A&R representative at Island, Darcus Beese, heard of her by chance when the manager of the Lewinson Brothers showed him some productions of his clients, which featured Winehouse as key vocalist. When he asked who the singer was, the manager told him he was not allowed to say. Having decided that he wanted to sign her, it took several months of asking around for Beese to eventually discover who the singer was. However, by that time Winehouse had already recorded a number of songs, signed a publishing deal with EMI, and formed a working relationship with producer Salaam Remi.\nBeese introduced Winehouse to his boss, Island head Nick Gatfield, who shared his enthusiasm in signing the young artist. Winehouse was signed to Island while rival interest in her had started to build with representatives of EMI and Virgin Records starting to make moves. Beese told HitQuarters that he felt the excitement over an artist who was an atypical pop star for the time was due to a backlash against reality TV music shows, whose audiences starved for fresh, genuine young talent.\nWinehouse's debut album, Frank, was released on 20 October 2003. Produced mainly by Salaam Remi, many of the songs were influenced by jazz and, apart from two covers, Winehouse co-wrote every song. The album received wide critical acclaim with compliments given to the \"cool, critical gaze\" in its lyrics. Winehouse's voice was compared with those of Sarah Vaughan and Macy Gray, among others.\nThe album entered the upper reaches of the UK Albums Chart in 2004 when it was nominated for the Brit Awards in the categories of British Female Solo Artist and British Urban Act. It went on to achieve platinum sales. Later in 2004, she and Remi won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song, for their first single together, \"Stronger Than Me.\" The album was also shortlisted for the 2004 Mercury Music Prize. In the same year, she performed at the Glastonbury Festival (on the Jazz World stage), the V Festival and the Montreal International Jazz Festival. After the release of the album, Winehouse commented that she was \"only 80 percent behind [the] album\" because Island Records had overruled her preferences for the songs and mixes to be included. The further singles from the album were \"Take the Box,\" \"In My Bed\"/\"You Sent Me Flying\" and \"Pumps\"/\"Help Yourself.\"\n\n2006–2008: Back to Black and international success\nAfter the release of her first jazz-influenced album, Winehouse's focus shifted to the girl groups of the 1950s and 1960s. Winehouse hired New York singer Sharon Jones's longtime band, the Dap-Kings, to back her up in the studio and on tour. Mitch Winehouse relates in Amy, My Daughter how fascinating watching her process was: her perfectionism in the studio and how she would put what she had sung on a CD and play it in his taxi outside to know how most people would hear her music. In May 2006, Winehouse's demo tracks such as \"You Know I'm No Good\" and \"Rehab\" appeared on Mark Ronson's New York radio show on East Village Radio. These were some of the first new songs played on the radio after the release of \"Pumps\" and both were slated to appear on her second album. The 11-track album, completed in five months, was produced entirely by Salaam Remi and Ronson, with the production credits being split between them. Ronson said in a 2010 interview that he liked working with Winehouse because she was blunt when she did not like his work. She in turn thought that when they first met, he was a sound engineer and that she was expecting an older man with a beard.\nPromotion of Back to Black soon began and, in early October 2006 Winehouse's official website was relaunched with a new layout and clips of previously unreleased songs. Back to Black was released in the UK on 30 October 2006. It went to number one on the UK Albums Chart for two weeks in January 2007, dropping then climbing back for several weeks in February. In the US, it entered at number seven on the Billboard 200. It was the best-selling album in the UK of 2007, selling 1.85 million copies over the course of the year. The first single released from the album was the Ronson-produced \"Rehab\". The song reached the top ten in the UK and the US. Time magazine named \"Rehab\" the Best Song of 2007. Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence, saying, \"What she is is mouthy, funny, sultry, and quite possibly crazy\" and \"It's impossible not to be seduced by her originality. Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off, and you've got the best song of 2007.\" The album's second single and lead single in the US, \"You Know I'm No Good,\" was released in January 2007 with a remix featuring rap vocals by Ghostface Killah. It ultimately reached number 18 on the UK singles chart. The title track, \"Back to Black,\" was released in the UK in April 2007 and peaked at number 25, but was more successful across mainland Europe. \"Tears Dry on Their Own,\" \"Love Is a Losing Game\" were also released as singles, but failed to achieve the same level of success.\n\nA deluxe edition of Back to Black was also released on 5 November 2007 in the UK. The bonus disc features B-sides, rare, and live tracks, as well as \"Valerie\". Winehouse's debut DVD I Told You I Was Trouble: Live in London was released the same day in the UK and 13 November in the US. It includes a live set recorded at London's Shepherd's Bush Empire and a 50-minute documentary charting the singer's career over the previous four years. Frank was released in the United States on 20 November 2007 to positive reviews. The album debuted at number 61 on the Billboard 200 chart. In addition to her own album, she collaborated with other artists on singles. Winehouse was a vocalist on the song \"Valerie\" on Ronson's solo album Version. The song peaked at number two in the UK, upon its October single release. \"Valerie\" was nominated for a 2008 Brit Award for British Single of the Year. Her work with ex-Sugababe Mutya Buena, \"B Boy Baby,\" was released on 17 December 2007. It served as the fourth single from Buena's debut album, Real Girl. Winehouse was also in talks of working with Missy Elliott for her album Block Party.\nWinehouse promoted the release of Back to Black with headline performances in late 2006, including a Little Noise Sessions charity concert at the Union Chapel in Islington, London. On 31 December 2006, Winehouse appeared on Jools Holland's Annual Hootenanny and performed a cover of Marvin Gaye's \"I Heard It Through the Grapevine\" along with Paul Weller and Holland's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra. She also performed Toots and the Maytals' \"Monkey Man\". At his request, actor Bruce Willis introduced Winehouse before her performance of \"Rehab\" at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards in Universal City, California, on 3 June 2007. During the summer of 2007, she performed at various festivals, including Glastonbury Festival and Lollapalooza in Chicago.\nThe rest of her tour, however, did not go as well. In November 2007, the opening night of a 17-date tour was marred by booing and walkouts at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham. A critic for the Birmingham Mail said it was \"one of the saddest nights of my life ... I saw a supremely talented artist reduced to tears, stumbling around the stage and, unforgivably, swearing at the audience.\" Other concerts ended similarly, with, for example, fans at her Hammersmith Apollo performance in London saying that she \"looked highly intoxicated throughout,\" until she announced on 27 November 2007, that her performances and public appearances were cancelled for the remainder of the year, citing her doctor's advice to take a complete rest. A statement issued by concert promoter Live Nation blamed \"the rigours involved in touring and the intense emotional strain that Amy has been under in recent weeks\" for the decision. Mitch Winehouse wrote about her nervousness before public performances in his 2012 book, Amy, My Daughter. On 13 January 2008, Back to Black held the number-one position on the Billboard Pan European charts for the third consecutive week.\n\nOn 10 February 2008, Winehouse received five Grammy Awards, winning in the following categories: Record of the Year, Song of the Year, Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the single \"Rehab\", and Best Pop Vocal Album. The singer also earned a Grammy as Best New Artist, earning her an entry in the 2009 edition of the Guinness Book of Records for Most Grammy Awards won by a British Female Act. Additionally, Back to Black was nominated for Album of the Year. Ronson's work with her won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, in the non-classical category. She ended her acceptance speech for Record of the Year with, \"This is for London because Camden Town ain't burning down,\" in reference to the 2008 Camden Market fire. Performing \"You Know I'm No Good\" and \"Rehab\" via satellite from London's Riverside Studios at 3 a.m. UK time, she couldn't be at the ceremony in Los Angeles as her visa approval had not been processed in time.\nAfter the Grammys, the album's sales increased, catapulting Back to Black to number two on the US Billboard 200, after it initially peaked in the seventh position. On 20 February 2008, Winehouse performed at the 2008 Brit Awards at Earls Court in London, performing \"Valerie\" with Mark Ronson, followed by \"Love Is a Losing Game\". She urged the crowd to \"make some noise for my Blake.\" A special deluxe edition of Back to Black topped the UK album charts on 2 March 2008. Meanwhile, the original edition of the album was ranked at number 30 in its 68th week on the charts, while Frank charted at number 35.\nIn Paris, she performed what was described as a \"well-executed 40-minute\" set at the opening of a Fendi boutique in early March. By 12 March, the album had sold a total of 2,467,575 copies—318,350 copies had been sold in the previous 10 weeks—putting the album on the UK's top-10 best-selling albums of the 21st century for the first time. On 7 April, Back to Black was in the top position of the pan-European charts for the sixth consecutive and thirteenth aggregate week. Amy Winehouse – The Girl Done Good: A Documentary Review, a 78-minute DVD, was released on 14 April 2008. The documentary features interviews with those who knew her at a young age, people who helped her achieve success, jazz music experts, and music and pop culture specialists.\nAt the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards in May, Winehouse became the first-ever artist to receive two nominations for the top award: Best Song Musically & Lyrically. She won the award for \"Love Is a Losing Game\" and was nominated for \"You Know I'm No Good\". \"Rehab\", a Novello winner for best contemporary song in 2006, also received a 2008 nomination for best-selling British song. Winehouse was also nominated for a 2008 MTV Europe Music Award in the Act of the Year category.\nAlthough her father, manager and various members of her touring team reportedly tried to dissuade her, Winehouse performed at the Rock in Rio Lisboa festival in Portugal in May 2008. Although the set was plagued by a late arrival and problems with her voice, the crowd warmed to her. In addition to her own material she performed two Specials covers. Winehouse performed at Nelson Mandela's 90th Birthday Party concert at London's Hyde Park on 27 June 2008, and the next day at the Glastonbury Festival. On 12 July, at the Oxegen Festival in Ireland she performed a well-received 50-minute set which was followed the next day by a 14-song set at T in the Park.\nOn 16 August she played at the Staffordshire leg of the V Festival, and the following day played the Chelmsford leg of the festival. Organisers said that Winehouse attracted the biggest crowds of the festival. Audience reaction was reported as mixed. On 6 September, Winehouse was Bestival's Saturday headliner, where she started 40 minutes late and was on stage for 35 minutes, before her performance was terminated because of a curfew.\nA clip of Winehouse's music was included in the \"Roots and Influences\" area that looked at connections between different artists at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Annex NYC, which opened in December 2008. One thread started with Billie Holiday, continued with Aretha Franklin and Mary J. Blige, and then finished with Winehouse.\nBack to Black was the world's seventh-biggest-selling album of 2008. The album's sales meant that the market performance of Universal Music Group's recorded music division did not drop to levels experienced by the overall music market.\n\n2009–2011: Final projects before death\nIn a 2009 poll of U.S. residents conducted for VisitBritain by Harris Interactive, one-fifth of the participants indicated they had listened to Winehouse's music during the previous year. She performed with Rhythms del Mundo on their cover of the Sam Cooke song \"Cupid\" for an Artists Project Earth benefit album released in July that year.\n\nWinehouse and Ronson contributed a cover of Lesley Gore's \"It's My Party\" to the Quincy Jones tribute album Q Soul Bossa Nostra, released in November 2010. She had agreed to form a group with Questlove of the Roots, but her problems obtaining a visa delayed their working together. Salaam Remi had already created some material with Winehouse as part of the project. According to The Times, Universal Music pressed her for new material in 2008, but as of 2 September that year she had not been near a recording studio. In late October, Winehouse's spokesman was quoted as saying that Winehouse had not been given a deadline to complete her third album, for which she was learning to play drums.\nIn May 2009, Winehouse returned to performing at a jazz festival in Saint Lucia amid torrential downpours and technical difficulties. During her set, it was reported she was unsteady on her feet and had trouble remembering lyrics. She apologised to the crowd for being \"bored\" and ended the set in the middle of a song. During her stay in Saint Lucia, however, she worked on new music with Remi. On 23 August that year, Winehouse sang with the Specials at the V Festival on their songs \"You're Wondering Now\" and \"Ghost Town\".\nIsland claimed that a new album would be due for release in 2010. Island co-president Darcus Beese said, \"I've heard a couple of song demos that have absolutely floored me.\" In July 2010, Winehouse was quoted as saying her next album would be released no later than January 2011, saying: \"It's going to be very much the same as my second album, where there's a lot of jukebox stuff and songs that are... just jukebox, really.\" Ronson, however, said at that time that he had not started to record the album. She performed \"Valerie\" with Ronson at a movie premiere but forgot some of the song's lyrics. In October, Winehouse performed a four-song set to promote her fashion line. In December 2010, she played a 40-minute concert at a Russian oligarch's party in Moscow, with the tycoon hand-selecting the songs.\n\nIn January 2011, Winehouse played five dates in Brazil, with opening acts of Janelle Monáe and Mayer Hawthorne. While performing in Florianópolis, Winehouse forgot the lyrics of her songs several times and had to be aided by the public and her band. During the concert, she only drank from a water bottle, but even so, in two occasions, she left the stage in the midst of the show for a period of circa 5 minutes. Upon her return, the crowd showed strong compassion for her and praised Winehouse for continuing the performance. The following month she cut a performance in Dubai short following booing from the audience. Winehouse was reported to be tired, distracted and \"tipsy\" during the performance.\nOn 18 June 2011, Winehouse started her twelve-leg European tour in Belgrade. Local media described her performance as a scandal and disaster; she was booed off the stage due to her apparently being too drunk to perform. Serbian defence minister Dragan Šutanovac called Winehouse's performances \"a huge shame and a disappointment\". It was reported that she was unable to remember the city she was in, the lyrics of her songs or the names of the members of her band. The local press also claimed that Winehouse was forced to perform by her bodyguards, who did not allow her to leave the stage when she tried to do so. She then pulled out of performances in Istanbul and Athens, which had been scheduled for the following week. On 21 June, it was announced that she had cancelled all shows of her tour and would be given \"as long as it takes\" to sort herself out.\nWinehouse's last public appearance took place at Camden's Roundhouse on 20 July 2011, when she made a surprise appearance on stage to support her goddaughter Dionne Bromfield, who was singing \"Mama Said\" with the Wanted. Winehouse died three days later. Her last recording was a duet with American singer Tony Bennett for his album Duets II, released on 20 September 2011. Their single from the album, \"Body and Soul\", was released on 14 September 2011 on MTV and VH1 to commemorate what would have been her 28th birthday.\n\nOther ventures\nActivism and philanthropy\nThroughout her life Winehouse donated her money, music and time to numerous charities and causes, particularly those concerned with children. She joined a campaign to stop a block of flats being built beside the George Tavern, a famous London East End music venue. Campaign supporters feared the residential development would end the spot's lucrative sideline as a film and photo location, on which it relies to survive. As part of a breast cancer awareness campaign, Winehouse appeared in a revealing photograph for the April 2008 issue of Easy Living magazine. In 2009, she appeared on a CD called Classics alongside musicians such as the Rolling Stones, the Killers and many Cuban musicians to raise awareness of climate change.\nWinehouse loaned a vintage dress used in her video for \"Tears Dry on Their Own\" as well as a DVD to the British Music Experience, a new museum dedicated to the history of British pop music. The museum, located at the O2 Arena in London, opened on 9 March 2009. In March 2011, Winehouse donated over £20,000 worth of clothes to a local charity shop in London.\nA Caribbean man, Julian Jean DeBaptiste, revealed that Winehouse had paid for his urgent surgery costing £4,000 during her stay in Saint Lucia in 2009. \"I had surgery on 1 July 2009... it cost a fortune and Amy paid for the whole thing. I tried to thank her but she just hugged me and told me not to say anything. Her generosity gave me my life back.\"\n\nBusiness\nWinehouse had an estimated £10m fortune, tying her for tenth place in the 2008 The Sunday Times listing of the wealth of musicians under age 30. The following year her fortune had dropped to an estimated £5m. Her finances are run by Mitch and Janis Winehouse. It was reported she earned about £1m singing at two private parties during Paris Fashion Week as well as another £1m to perform at a Moscow Art Gallery for Russian oligarch Roman Abramovich.\nIn January 2009, Winehouse announced that she was launching her own record label. The first act on her Lioness Records is Winehouse's 13-year-old goddaughter Dionne Bromfield. Her first album, featuring covers of classic soul records, was released on 12 October 2009. Winehouse is the backing singer on several tracks on the album and she performed backing vocals for Bromfield on the BBC's television programme Strictly Come Dancing on 10 October.\nWinehouse and her family are the subject of a 2009 documentary shot by Daphne Barak titled Saving Amy. Winehouse entered into a joint venture in 2009 with EMI to launch a range of wrapping paper and gift cards containing song lyrics from her album Back to Black. On 8 January 2010, a television documentary, My Daughter Amy, aired on Channel 4. Saving Amy was released as a paperback book in January 2010.\nWinehouse was a notable fan of the brand Fred Perry. She collaborated on a 17-piece fashion collection with the label, which was released for sale in October 2010. According to Fred Perry's marketing director \"We had three major design meetings where she was closely involved in product style selection and the application of fabric, colour and styling details,\" and gave \"crucial input on proportion, colour and fit\". The collection consists of \"vintage-inspired looks including Capri pants, a bowling dress, a trench coat, pencil skirts, a longline argyle sweater and a pink-and-black checkerboard-printed collared shirt.\" At the behest of her family, three forthcoming collections up to and including autumn/winter 2012 that she had designed prior to her death were released. Following Winehouse's death, Fred Perry has donated 20% of the net revenue from the Amy Winehouse collection to the charity set up in Winehouse's name, the Amy Winehouse Foundation.\n\nMedia image\nWinehouse's greatest love was 1960s girl groups. Her hairdresser, Alex Foden, borrowed her distinctive beehive hairdo (a weave) from the Ronettes and she borrowed her Cleopatra makeup from the same group. Her imitation was so successful, as The Village Voice reports: \"Ronnie Spector—who, it could be argued, all but invented Winehouse's style in the first place when she took the stage at the Brooklyn Fox Theater with her fellow Ronettes more than 40 years ago—was so taken aback at a picture of Winehouse in the New York Post that she exclaimed, \"I don't know her, I never met her, and when I saw that pic, I thought, 'That's me!' But then I found out, no, it's Amy! I didn't have on my glasses.\"\nThe New York Times style reporter, Guy Trebay, discussed the multiplicity of influences on Winehouse's style after her death. Trebay noted, \"her stylish husband, Blake Fielder-Civil, may have influenced her look.\" Additionally, Trebay observed:\n\nShe was a 5-foot-3 almanac of visual reference, most famously to Ronnie Spector of the Ronettes, but also to the white British soul singer Mari Wilson, less famous for her sound than her beehive; to the punk god Johnny Thunders...; to the fierce council-house chicks... (see: Dior and Chanel runways, 2007 and 2008) ... to a lineage of bad girls, extending from Cleopatra to Louise Brooks's Lulu and including Salt-n-Pepa, to irresistible man traps that always seemed to come to the same unfortunate end.\nFormer Rolling Stone editor Joe Levy, who had put her on the magazine's cover, broke her look down this way:\n\nJust as her best music drew on sampling – assembling sonic licks and stylistic fragments borrowed from Motown, Stax, punk and early hip-hop – her personal style was also a knowing collage. There was a certain moment in the '90s when, if you were headed downtown and turned left, every girl looked like Bettie Page. But they did not do what Winehouse did, mixing Bettie Page with Brigitte Bardot and adding that little bit of Ronnie Spector.\nWinehouse's use of bold red lipstick, thick eyebrows and heavy eyeliner came from Latinas she saw in Miami, on her trip there to work with Salaam Remi on Back to Black. Her look was repeatedly denigrated by the British press. At the same time that the NME Awards nominated Winehouse in the categories of \"Best Solo Artist\" and \"Best Music DVD\" in 2008, they awarded her \"Worst Dressed Performer\". Winehouse was also ranked number two on Richard Blackwell's 48th annual \"Ten Worst Dressed Women\" list, behind Victoria Beckham.\n\nControversies\nWinehouse's dichotomous public image of critical and commercial success versus personal turmoil prompted significant media comment. The New Statesman called Winehouse \"a filthy-mouthed, down-to-earth diva\", while Newsweek called her \"a perfect storm of sex kitten, raw talent and poor impulse control\". Karen Heller with The Philadelphia Inquirer summarised the maelstrom this way:\n\nShe's only 24 with six Grammy nominations, crashing headfirst into success and despair, with a codependent husband in jail, exhibitionist parents with questionable judgement, and the paparazzi documenting her emotional and physical distress. Meanwhile, a haute designer Karl Lagerfeld appropriates her dishevelled style and eating issues to market to the elite while proclaiming her the new Bardot.\nBy 2008, her drug problems threatened her career. As Nick Gatfield, the president of Island Records, toyed with the idea of releasing Winehouse \"to deal with her problems\", he said, \"It's a reflection of her status [in the US] that when you flick through the TV coverage [of the Grammys] it's her image they use.\" Post-Grammys, some questioned whether Winehouse should have been honoured with the awards given her recent personal and drug problems, including Natalie Cole, who introduced Winehouse at the ceremony and who herself battled substance-abuse problems while winning a Grammy for Best New Artist in 1975.\nWinehouse was prevented from travelling to and performing at the Grammy Awards ceremony in the US due to failing a drug test, and the executive director of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Antonio Maria Costa, said that the alleged drug habits of Winehouse and other celebrities sent a bad message \"to others who are vulnerable to addiction\" and undermine the efforts of other celebrities trying to raise awareness of problems in Africa, now that more cocaine used in Europe passes through that continent. Winehouse's spokesperson noted that \"Amy has never given a quote about drugs or flaunted it in any way. She's had some problems and is trying to get better. The U.N. should get its own house in order.\"\nIn January 2008, her record label stated it believed the extensive media coverage she had received increased record sales. In an April 2008 poll conducted by Sky News, Winehouse was named the second-greatest \"ultimate heroine\" by the UK population at large, topping the voting for that category of those polled under 25 years old. Psychologist Donna Dawson commented that the results demonstrated that women like Winehouse who had \"a certain sense of vulnerability or have had to fight against some adversity in their lives\" received recognition.\nIn July 2008, BBC Radio Scotland's head, Jeff Zycinski, stated that the BBC, and media in general, were complicit in undermining celebrities, including Winehouse. He said that public interest in the singer's lifestyle did not make her lifestyle newsworthy. Rod McKenzie, editor of the BBC Radio One programme Newsbeat, replied: \"If you play [Amy Winehouse's] music to a certain demographic, those same people want to know what's happening in her private life. If you don't cover it, you're insulting young licence fee payers.\" In The Scotsman, British singer and songwriter Lily Allen was quoted to have said – \"I know Amy Winehouse very well. And she is very different to what people portray her as being. Yes, she does get out of her mind on drugs sometimes, but she is also a very clever, intelligent, witty, funny person who can hold it together. You just don't see that side.\"\n\nPersonal life\nWinehouse was raised Jewish and expressed pride in being Jewish, although she was not religious. During one interview, Winehouse said: \"[B]eing Jewish to me is about being together as a real family. It's not about lighting candles and saying a bracha.\" Winehouse also frequently performed with a Star of David medallion.\nIn 2013, in memory of Winehouse, the Jewish Museum London ran an exhibition titled \"Amy Winehouse: A Family Portrait\". The museum researched her paternal great-great-grandfather's arrival from Minsk in 1890, and how the family finally settled in London, starting out in working-class jobs before gradually moving to middle-class jobs.\nWinehouse had 14 known tattoos, including \"Daddy's Girl\" on her left arm for her father and a pin-up girl with the name \"Cynthia\" on her right arm in memory of her Jewish grandmother. In 2011, there were reports that Winehouse was in the process of adopting a 10-year-old girl from St. Lucia named Dannika Augustine. According to Dannika and her family, Amy had formed a strong bond with the poverty-stricken girl during her lengthy stays on the Caribbean island. Dannika referred to Amy as her mother and said they had a close, loving relationship. Her grandmother, Marjorie Lambert, confirmed that Amy had expressed a strong desire to adopt Dannika and was even willing to move to St. Lucia to be her full-time mother. However, Winehouse's representative denied these claims, stating that the adoption story was not true.\n\nRelationships\nWinehouse dated chef-musician Alex Clare in 2006, while on a break from her on–off boyfriend and future husband, Blake Fielder-Civil. She and Clare lived together briefly, and in a pattern that Fielder-Civil would later repeat, Clare sold his story to the News of the World, which published it under the headline \"Bondage Crazed Amy Just Can't Beehive in Bed.\"\nFielder-Civil, a former video production assistant, had dropped out of Bourne Grammar School and, aged 16, moved to London from his native Lincolnshire. He married Winehouse on 18 May 2007, in Miami Beach, Florida. In a June 2007 interview, Winehouse admitted she could sometimes be violent toward him after she had been drinking, saying: \"If he says one thing I don't like, then I'll chin him.\" In August 2007, they were photographed, bloodied and bruised, in the streets of London after an alleged fight, although she contended her injuries were self-inflicted. Winehouse's parents and in-laws publicly reported their numerous concerns, the latter citing fears that the two might commit suicide. Fielder-Civil's father encouraged fans to boycott Winehouse's music, and Mitch Winehouse said this would not help. Fielder-Civil was quoted in a British tabloid as saying he introduced Winehouse to crack cocaine and heroin. During a visit with Mitch Winehouse at the prison in July 2008, Fielder-Civil reportedly said that he and Winehouse would cut themselves to ease the pain of withdrawal.\nFrom 21 July 2008 to 25 February 2009, Fielder-Civil was imprisoned following his guilty plea on charges of trying to pervert the course of justice and of grievous bodily harm with intent. The incident, in July 2007, involved his assault of a pub landlord that broke the victim's cheekbone, and also saw Winehouse briefly arrested in connection with it. According to the prosecution, the landlord accepted £200,000 as part of a deal to \"effectively throw the [court] case and not turn up\", and he testified that the money belonged to Winehouse, but she pulled out of a meeting with the men involved in the plot, to attend an awards ceremony. Mitch Winehouse, as manager of his daughter's money, has denied the payoff came from her.\nWhen Winehouse was spotted with aspiring actor Josh Bowman on holiday in Saint Lucia, in early January 2009, she said she was \"in love again, and I don't need drugs.\" She commented that her \"whole marriage was based on doing drugs\" and that \"for the time being I've just forgotten I'm even married.\" On 12 January, Winehouse's spokesman confirmed that \"papers have been received\" for what Fielder-Civil's solicitor said were divorce proceedings based on a claim of adultery. In March, Winehouse was quoted in a magazine as saying, \"I still love Blake and I want him to move into my new house with me—that was my plan all along ... I won't let him divorce me. He's the male version of me and we're perfect for each other.\" Nonetheless, an uncontested divorce was granted on 16 July 2009 and became final on 28 August 2009. Fielder-Civil received no money in the settlement.\nWinehouse was in a relationship with a British writer and film director Reg Traviss, from early 2010 until her death. According to media reports and a biography written by Winehouse's father, Traviss and Winehouse had planned to marry and intended to have children.\nIn July 2008, when Rolling Stone reporter Claire Hoffman asked Winehouse if she was in a relationship with Pete Doherty, she replied: \"We're just good friends\", and added: \"I asked Pete to do a concept EP, and he made this face, he looked at me like I'd pooed on the floor. He wouldn't do it. We're just really close\". However, after Winehouse's death, Doherty said that he and Winehouse had been lovers at one point.\n\nSubstance abuse and mental illness\nWinehouse's troubles with substance abuse were the subject of much media attention over the years. In 2005, she went through a period of drinking, heavy drug use, and weight loss. People who saw her during the end of that year and early 2006 reported a rebound that coincided with the writing of Back to Black. Her family believes that the mid-2006 death of her grandmother, who was a stabilising influence, set her off into addiction. In August 2007, Winehouse cancelled a number of shows in the UK and Europe, citing exhaustion and ill health. She was hospitalised during this period for what was reported as an overdose of heroin, ecstasy, cocaine, ketamine and alcohol. In various interviews, she admitted to having problems with self-harm, depression, and eating disorders.\nWinehouse told the Los Angeles Times that the drugs were to blame for her hospitalisation and that \"I really thought that it was over for me then.\" Soon afterwards, Winehouse's father commented that when he had made public statements regarding her problems he was using the media because it seemed the only way to get through to her. In an interview with The Album Chart Show on British television, Winehouse said she was manic depressive and not alcoholic, adding that that sounded like \"an alcoholic in denial\". A US reporter writes that Winehouse was a \"victim of mental illness in a society that doesn't understand or respond to mental illness with great effectiveness.\" According to Forensic physician Dr Jason Payne-James, Winehouse may have suffered from borderline personality disorder (BPD). He explained she shows some symptoms for disorder such as extreme reactions to trauma like abandonment (when described as a symptom \"frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment\"), impulsive or reckless behaviours like substance use disorders, binge eating, recurrent suicidal ideation, self-cutting or self-harm, rapidly shifting intense emotional dysregulation, chronic feelings of emptiness or boredom, unstable and chaotic interpersonal relationships, often characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation, also known as \"splitting\", inappropriate, intense anger that can be difficult to control. Before her death Winehouse had been examined by a psychiatrist and psychologist and doctors recommended that she undergo dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT). DBT is based upon the biosocial theory of mental illness and is the first therapy that has been experimentally demonstrated to be generally effective in treating borderline personality disorder.\nIn December 2007, Winehouse's spokesman reported that the singer was in a physician-supervised programme and was channelling her difficulties by writing a lot of music. In January 2008, the British tabloid The Sun posted a video Winehouse, apparently smoking crack cocaine and speaking of having taken ecstasy and Valium. The event took place on Friday 18 January, in the early hours of the morning. Later that morning, Winehouse attended a remand hearing for her husband Blake Fielder-Civil, who was then awaiting trial on charges of perverting the course of justice. Shortly after the alleged crack cocaine incident, Winehouse's father moved in with her, to keep her under '24-hour watch'. At this time, Island Records, her record label, announced the abandonment of plans for an American promotion campaign on her behalf. On 23 January 2008, the video was passed on to the Metropolitan Police, who questioned her on 5 February. No charges were brought. In late January, Winehouse reportedly entered a rehabilitation facility for a two-week treatment program. On 26 March, Winehouse's spokesman said she was \"doing well\". Her record company reportedly believed that her recovery remained fragile. By late April 2008, her erratic behaviour—including an allegation of assault—caused fear that her drug rehabilitation efforts had been unsuccessful. Winehouse's father and manager then sought to have her detained under the Mental Health Act of 1983. Her dishevelled appearance during and after a scheduled club night in September 2008 prompted new rumours of a relapse. Photographers were quoted as saying she appeared to have cuts on her arms and legs.\nAccording to her physician, Winehouse quit using illegal substances in 2008. In an October 2010 interview, speaking of her decision to quit drugs, Winehouse said, \"I literally woke up one day and was like, 'I don't want to do this any more.'\" However, alcohol emerged as a problem, with Winehouse abstaining for a few weeks and then lapsing into alcohol abuse. Her physician said that Winehouse was treated with Librium for alcohol withdrawal and anxiety and underwent psychological and psychiatric evaluations in 2010, but refused psychological therapy.\n\nViolence and legal difficulties\nIn 2006, Winehouse admitted to punching a female fan in the face for criticising her having taken Blake Fielder-Civil as a husband. She then attacked her own spouse as he attempted to calm her down, kneeing him in the crotch. In October 2007, Winehouse and Fielder-Civil were arrested in Bergen, Norway, for possession of seven grams of cannabis. The couple were later released and fined 3850 kroner (around £350). Winehouse first appealed the fines, but later dropped the appeal.\nOn 26 April 2008, Winehouse was cautioned after she admitted to police she slapped a 38-year-old man in the face, a \"common assault\" offence, her first of two. She voluntarily turned herself in and was held overnight. Police said, at her arrival she was \"in no fit state\" to be interviewed. Ten days later, Winehouse was arrested on suspicion of possessing drugs after a video of her apparently smoking crack cocaine was passed to the police in January, but was released on bail a few hours later because they could not confirm, from the video, what she was smoking. The Crown Prosecution Service considered charging her, but cleared her when it could not establish that the substance in the video was a controlled drug. Some members of Parliament criticised the decision not to bring charges. Two London residents were subsequently convicted of conspiracy to supply cocaine and ecstasy to Winehouse, leading to a two-year prison sentence for one, and a two-year community order.\nOn 5 March 2009, Winehouse was arrested and charged with common assault following a claim by dancer Sherene Flash that Winehouse hit her in the eye at the September 2008 Prince's Trust charity ball. Winehouse's spokesperson announced the cancellation of the singer's US Coachella Festival appearance in light of the new legal issue, and Winehouse pleaded not guilty in court on 17 March. At her trial on 23–24 July she was charged with \"deliberate and unjustifiable violence\" while appearing to be under the influence of alcohol or another substance. She testified that she did not punch Flash, but tried to push her away because she was scared of her; she cited her worry that Flash would sell her story to a tabloid, Flash's height advantage, and Flash's \"rude\" behaviour. On 24 July Winehouse was found not guilty, citing that all but two of the witnesses were intoxicated at the time, and that medical evidence did not show \"the sort of injury that often occurs when there is a forceful punch to the eye.\"\nOn 19 December 2009, Winehouse was arrested for a third time on charges of common assault and public order offence after assaulting the front-of-house manager of the Milton Keynes Theatre when he asked her to move to a different seat after noisy participation in the pantomime playing, and advised her not to drink more than she already had. Winehouse pleaded guilty, and was given a conditional discharge.\n\nPaparazzi\nWith the paparazzi taking photographs of her wherever they could, Winehouse obtained an injunction against a leading paparazzi agency, Big Pictures, under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997; the resultant court order issued by the High Court in 2009 banned them from following her. Photographers were also banned from following her within 100 metres of her London home and photographing Winehouse in her home or the homes of her friends and relatives. According to a newspaper report, sources close to the singer said legal action was taken out of concern for the safety of Winehouse and those close to her.\n\nRespiratory and other health problems\nOn 23 June 2008, Winehouse's publicist corrected earlier misstatements by Mitch Winehouse that his daughter had early-stage emphysema, saying that she instead had signs of what could lead to early-stage emphysema. Mitch Winehouse had also stated that his daughter's lungs were operating at 70 percent capacity and that she had an irregular heartbeat. He said that these problems had been caused by her chain smoking crack cocaine. The singer's father also reported that doctors had warned Winehouse that, if she continued smoking crack cocaine, she would have to wear an oxygen mask and would eventually die. In a radio interview, Mitch Winehouse said the singer was responding \"fabulously\" to treatment, which included being covered with nicotine patches. British Lung Foundation spokesman Keith Prowse noted that this type of condition could be managed with treatment. Prowse also said the condition was not normal for a person her age but \"heavy smoking and inhaling other substances like drugs can age the lungs prematurely.\" Norman H. Edelman of the American Lung Association explained that if she stopped smoking, her lung functions would decline at the rate of a normal person, but continued smoking would lead to a more rapid decline in lung function.\nWinehouse was released from the London Clinic 24 hours after returning from a temporary leave to perform at Nelson Mandela's 90th birthday celebration and at a concert in Glastonbury, and continued receiving treatment as an outpatient. In July 2008, Winehouse stated that she had been diagnosed with \"some areas of emphysema\" and said she was getting herself together by \"eating loads of healthy food, sleeping loads, playing my guitar, making music and writing letters to my husband every day.\" She also kept a vertical tanning bed in her flat. Winehouse began precautionary testing on her lungs and chest on 25 October 2008 at the London Clinic for what was reported as a chest infection, leaving and returning at will. She returned to the hospital on 23 November 2008 due to a reported reaction to her medication.\n\nDeath\nWinehouse's bodyguard said that he had arrived at her residence three days before her death and felt she had been somewhat intoxicated. Two days after, her mother likewise admitted she had acted \"out of it.\" This was the same day Winehouse had visited her doctor for one of her routine check-ups due to her fragile state, although no abnormalities were noted: \"The doctor was happy with her condition. When he left on Friday night he had no concerns. Less than 24 hours later she was found dead.\" After the check-up, Winehouse had called her doctor to confess her feelings regarding her codependency, stating: \"I don't want to die\", alongside how she had attempted sobriety, but could not achieve it. These were Winehouse's last recorded words, while her bodyguard's final conversation with her included the quote: \"If I could, I would give it back just to walk down the street with no hassle.\"\nHer bodyguard continued to observe her drinking moderately over the next few days since his arrival, and later said she had been \"laughing, listening to music and watching TV at 2 a.m. the day of her death\". Another source claims she was watching old re-runs of past performances and reminiscing. At 10 a.m. BST on 23 July 2011, he observed her lying on her bed and tried (unsuccessfully) to rouse her. This did not raise much suspicion because she usually slept late after a night out. According to the bodyguard, shortly after 3 p.m., he checked on her again and observed her lying in the same position as before, leading to a further check, in which he concluded that she was not breathing and had no pulse; he said he called emergency services. At 3:54 p.m., two ambulances reached Winehouse's home in Camden, London. Winehouse was pronounced dead at the scene. Shortly afterwards, the Metropolitan Police confirmed that she had died. Her death at age 27 prompted media comparisons to other musician deaths at the same age, collectively named the 27 Club.\nAfter her death was announced, media and camera crews appeared near Winehouse's residence. Forensic investigators entered the flat as police cordoned off the street outside; they recovered one small and two large bottles of vodka from her room. After her death, the singer broke her second Guinness World Record: for the most songs by a woman to simultaneously appear on the UK singles chart, with eight. Winehouse's record label, Universal Republic, released a statement that read in part: \"We are deeply saddened at the sudden loss of such a gifted musician, artist and performer.\"\nWith initially little verified information regarding the causes of Winehouse's death, there was considerable speculation on the subject. Various reports speculated on a fatal Class A drug, such as ecstasy overdose, or a lethal cocktail. Winehouse's father Mitch denied these claims, stating: \"Three years ago, Amy conquered her drug dependency. She was the happiest she has been for years.\" By the following month, August 2011, speculation about substance abuse being a factor in Winehouse's death had been disproven by an official toxicology report released to the public which showed that no illegal substances had been identified in Winehouse's system. The coroner's report was released in October 2011, and it stated that Winehouse's blood alcohol content was 416 mg per 100 ml (0.416%) at the time of her death, more than five times the legal drink-drive limit. According to the coroner, the \"unintended consequence\" of so much drink was her \"sudden and unexpected death\", as it reached a 'death by misadventure' verdict. Another inquest was ordered when it was ruled that the first coroner was 'not qualified' for the role\". The second inquest, delivered in January 2013, matched the conclusions of the first inquest, with coroner Dr. Shirley Radcliffe finding that \"She (Winehouse) voluntarily consumed alcohol, a deliberate act that took an unexpected turn in that it caused her death.\" The second inquest reached the verdict of misadventure due to alcohol poisoning, stated in an interview with The Guardian.\n\nOn 17 December 2012, British authorities reopened the probe into Winehouse's death. On 8 January 2013, a second inquest confirmed that Winehouse died of an accidental alcohol overdose. In a June 2013 interview, Alex Winehouse shared his belief that his sister's eating disorder, and the consequent physical weakness, was the primary cause of her death:\n\nShe suffered from bulimia very badly. That's not, like, a revelation – you knew just by looking at her... She would have died eventually, the way she was going, but what really killed her was the bulimia... I think that it left her weaker and more susceptible. Had she not had an eating disorder, she would have been physically stronger.Winehouse's funeral was held on 26 July 2011 at Edgwarebury Lane Cemetery in North London, it was a private ceremony attended by family and friends. Her mother and father, Janis and Mitch Winehouse, close friends Nick Grimshaw and Kelly Osbourne, producer Mark Ronson, goddaughter Dionne Bromfield and her boyfriend Reg Traviss were among those in attendance at the private service led by Rabbi Frank Hellner. Her father delivered the eulogy, saying \"Goodnight, my angel, sleep tight. Mummy and Daddy love you ever so much.\" Carole King's \"So Far Away\" closed the service with mourners singing along as it was one of Winehouse's favourite songs. She was later cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. The family planned to sit a two-day shiva. On 16 September 2012, Winehouse's ashes were buried alongside those of her grandmother Cynthia Levy at Edgwarebury Lane Cemetery.\n\nLegacy\nAchievements and critical appraisal\nAt the time of her death, Winehouse had sold over 1.75 million singles and over 3.98 million albums in the United Kingdom. Meanwhile, she had sold about 3.4 million tracks and 2.7 million albums in the United States as of the same date. Among the awards and recognition for her debut album Frank, Winehouse earned an Ivor Novello Award from the British Academy of Songwriters for Best Contemporary Song (\"Stronger Than Me\"), a Brit Award nomination for Best British Female Solo Artist, and an inclusion in Robert Dimery's 2006 book, 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. Her second studio album, Back to Black, produced numerous nominations, including two Brit Awards (Best British Album, and won her Best British Female Solo Artist), six Grammy Awards (including five wins), four Ivor Novello Awards, four MTV Europe Music Awards, three MTV Video Music Awards, three World Music Awards, and it was nominated for the Mercury Prize (Album of the Year) and a MOBO Awards (Best UK Female). During her career, Winehouse received 23 awards from 60 nominations.\nWinehouse was known for her deep, expressive contralto vocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres, including soul, (sometimes labelled as blue-eyed soul and neo soul), rhythm and blues, and jazz. The BBC's Garry Mulholland called Winehouse \"the pre-eminent vocal talent of her generation\". According to AllMusic's Cyril Cordor, she was one of the UK's premier singers during the 2000s. \"Fans and critics alike embraced her rugged charm, brash sense of humor, and distinctively soulful and jazzy vocals\". In The Guardian, Caroline Sullivan later wrote that \"her idolisation of Dinah Washington and the Ronettes distinguished her from almost all newly minted pop singers of the early 2000s, and her exceptionally-susceptible-to-heartbreak voice did the rest\".\nSoon after Winehouse's death, a number of prominent critics assessed the singer's legacy. Maura Johnston from The Village Voice said, \"When she was on, Winehouse had few peers—she wasn't an octave-jumper like other big divas of the moment, but her contralto had a snap to it that enriched even the simplest syllables with a full spectrum of emotion\". Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker proclaimed, \"Nobody can match Winehouse's unique transitions or her utterly weird phrasings. She sounded like an original sixties soul star, developed when the landscape had no rules. But now untrammelled traditionalism is in the lead and her beautiful footnote has been cut short. American soul—through visionaries like Erykah Badu and Janelle Monáe and Jill Scott—had moved on. But Winehouse was a fine shepherd of the past.\"\nOn 13 February 2012, Winehouse was ranked 26th on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Music list. In March 2017, singer-songwriter Bob Dylan said he was enjoying listening to Winehouse's last record (Back to Black), and called her \"the last real individualist around\". In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Winehouse at number 83 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.\n\nInfluence\nAdele has credited Winehouse's success in making her and fellow British singer Duffy's journey to the United States \"a bit smoother.\" Lady Gaga credited Winehouse with paving the way for her rise to the top of the charts, explaining that Winehouse made it easier for unconventional women to have mainstream pop success. Raphael Saadiq, Anthony Hamilton and John Legend said \"Amy Winehouse was produced by people who wanted to create a marketing coup. The positive side is that it reacquainted an audience with this music and played an introductory role for others. This reinvigorated the genre by overcoming the vintage aspect.\" Other artists that have credited Winehouse as an influence or for paving the way for them include Bruno Mars, Tove Lo, Jessie J, Emeli Sandé, Victoria Justice, Paloma Faith, Lana Del Rey, Sam Smith, Florence Welch, Halsey, Alessia Cara, Estelle, Daya, Jorja Smith, Lauren Jauregui and Billie Eilish.\nAfter the release of Back to Black, record companies sought out female artists with a similar sound and fearless and experimental female musicians in general. Adele and Duffy were the second wave of artists with a sound similar to Winehouse's. A third wave of female musicians that has emerged since the album was released are led by V V Brown, Florence and the Machine, La Roux and Little Boots. In March 2011, the New York Daily News ran an article attributing the continuing wave of British female artists that have been successful in the United States to Winehouse and her absence. Spin magazine music editor Charles Aaron was quoted as saying \"Amy Winehouse was the Nirvana moment for all these women,\" \"They can all be traced back to her in terms of attitude, musical styles or fashion.\" According to Keith Caulfield, chart manager for Billboard, \"Because of Amy, or the lack thereof, the marketplace was able to get singers like Adele, Estelle and Duffy,\" \"Now those ladies have brought on the new ones, like Eliza Doolittle, Rumer and Ellie.\"\n\nAmy Winehouse Foundation\nAfter the singer's death by alcohol intoxication in July 2011, the Amy Winehouse Foundation was set up by Winehouse's family and launched on 14 September 2011 (which would have been Winehouse's 28th birthday). Its aim is to help vulnerable or disadvantaged young people, and it works with other charitable organisations to provide frontline support. Its central office is in North London, but it also has an office in New York (operating under the name 'The Amy Winehouse Foundation US'). Jon Snow is a patron for the charity, with Barbara Windsor also before she died in 2020, and ambassadors include Jess Glynne, Patsy Palmer, Jessie Wallace, Keira Chaplin and Mica Paris. In October 2015 Mark Ronson became a patron. Amy's brother Alex works full-time for the foundation, having given up his career as an online music journalist.\nThe charity itself works to prevent the effects of drug and alcohol misuse on young people and it also aims to support, inform and inspire vulnerable and disadvantaged young people to help them reach their full potential. On 12 March 2013, with the help of ex-addict Russell Brand, the Foundation launched the Amy Winehouse Foundation Resilience Programme For Schools across the UK which aims to provide effective education around drugs, alcohol and dealing with emotional issues.\n\nTributes\nArtworks and exhibits\nLondon's Mall Galleries opened an exhibition in May 2008 that included a sculpture of Winehouse, titled Excess. The piece, created by Guy Portelli, had a miniature of the singer lying on top of a cracked champagne bottle, with a pool of spilled liquid underneath. The body was covered with what appeared to be tiny pills, while one outstretched hand held a glass. Another piece, a print titled Celebrity 1 by artist Charlotte Suckling, was shown in the same exhibition.\nWinehouse was immortalised at the world-famous London Madame Tussauds on 23 July 2008. Winehouse herself had expressed surprise at plans to make a waxwork of her, stating that she believed a person 'had to be dead' before a waxwork was made of them. Winehouse did not make herself available for sittings for the Madame Tussauds waxwork, which was instead done from photos. A sculpture by Marco Perego, titled The Only Good Rock Star Is a Dead Rock Star, that depicts Winehouse lying in a pool of blood with an apple and a bullet hole in her head after being shot by American novelist and Beat poet William S. Burroughs (in a recreation of the accidental killing of his wife Joan Vollmer), went on on display in New York's Half Gallery on 14 November 2008 with a sale price of US$100,000. Perego said of the sculpture: \"Rock stars are the sacrificial animals of society.\" Winehouse was not supportive of Peregro's work, with her spokesperson stating: \"It's a funny kind of tribute. The artist seems in thrall to a tabloid persona that is not the real Amy. People often use her image to sell their work.\"\nInitial reports after her death stated that Winehouse had left a will, which had been altered after her divorce from Blake Fielder-Civil. However it transpired that Winehouse had not left a will; her estate, worth around £4 million, was inherited by her parents. Winehouse's parents set up the Amy Winehouse Foundation to prevent harm from drug misuse among young people, with her brother Alex as an employee.\n\nIn 2012, Winehouse was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Sir Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork – the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover – to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life that he most admires.\nOn 14 September 2014 (which would have been Winehouse's 31st birthday), a statue of her by sculptor Scott Eaton was unveiled at Stables Market in Camden Town, North London. Fans and relatives gathered for the unveiling in Camden's Stable Market. London-based Eaton, who sculpted the piece after being introduced to Winehouse's father Mitch, said the statue was meant to capture her \"attitude and strength, but also give subtle hints of insecurity.\" Her father Mitch said of the statue: \"Now Amy will oversee the comings and goings of her home town forever... Amy was in love with Camden and it is the place her fans from all over the world associate her with.\"\nAn exhibit of Winehouse's personal items, co-curated by her brother and sister-in-law, titled Amy Winehouse: A Family Portrait, was on display at the Jewish Museum London from 3 July 2013 until 15 September 2013, and later exhibited in San Francisco, 23 July 2015 to 1 November 2015. Display items, such as books and music, were featured together with captions written by Winehouse's brother.\nIn 2018, the artist Dan Llywelyn Hall's portrait of the singer, Amy's Glance, was exhibited at the London Art Fair.\nIn March 2020, Winehouse's name on a stone was unveiled on the new Music Walk of Fame in Camden, with her parents Mitch and Janis in attendance at the ceremony.\n\nIn 2020, an exhibition titled Beyond Black – The Style of Amy Winehouse opened at the Grammy Museum in Los Angeles. The exhibit mainly focused on Winehouse's style and fashion, displaying outfits such as her iconic dresses, shoes, hair accessories, makeup bag as well as Winehouse's personal belongings including her Grammy awards from 2008, handwritten lyrics, records and unseen home videos. The exhibition went on display in the U.S. from 17 January 2020 until 13 April 2020. A follow-up exhibition Amy: Beyond the Stage opened on 26 November 2021 until 10 April 2022 at the Design Museum in Kensington, London which also presented some of Winehouse's personal belongings and focus on her fashion sense, as well as paying homage to her musical career. Also in November 2021, various of Winehouse's personal items and famous dresses would later be auctioned at Julien's Auctions in Los Angeles and made more than £3m, 30% going to the Amy Winehouse Foundation.\nMany musical artists have since paid tribute to Winehouse including Nicki Minaj, M.I.A., Lady Gaga, Kelly Osbourne, Rihanna, George Michael, Adele, Dita Von Teese, Courtney Love, and the rock band Green Day, who wrote a song in her tribute titled \"Amy\". In her 2012 album Banga, singer Patti Smith released \"This Is the Girl\", written as an homage to Winehouse. Mark Ronson dedicated his UK number-one album Uptown Special to Winehouse, stating: \"I'm always thinking of you and inspired by you.\"\n\nFilms and memoirs\nIn late 2011, there were reports that Winehouse's former boyfriend, Reg Traviss, was developing a film about her. Winehouse's father Mitch Winehouse, who owns the copyright to his daughter's music, said he would not authorise the use of her music for the film.\nWinehouse's parents have each written memoirs about their daughter and donated the proceeds from both books to the Amy Winehouse Foundation. In the introduction to Mitch Winehouse's biography, titled Amy: My Daughter (2012), he explained: \"Apart from being her father, I was also her friend, confidant and adviser—not that she always took my advice, but she always heard me out.\" Her mother Janis published Loving Amy: A Mother's Story, in 2014.\nA documentary film, Amy (2015), directed by Asif Kapadia and produced by James Gay-Rees, was released on 3 July 2015. The film covers Winehouse's life, her relationships, her struggles with substance abuse both before and after her career blossomed, and which eventually caused her death. The film received its première at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival on 16 May and has been reviewed as \"a tragic masterpiece\", \"brilliant\", \"heartbreaking\" and \"unmissable\". The soundtrack of the same name was released on 30 October 2015, along with the DVD that includes music featured in the documentary by film composer Antônio Pinto and classic and some unreleased tracks by Winehouse. The film was highly acclaimed and received various accolades, including the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 2016 Oscars, Best Music Film at the 2016 Grammy Awards, the BAFTA for Best Documentary, the MTV Movie Award for Best Documentary, in addition to a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best British Film.\nOn 9 October 2017, it was announced by Winehouse's father Mitch that a West End/Broadway musical on Amy is in the works. Mitch Winehouse revealed the news at the Amy Winehouse Foundation Gala event in London.\nIn 2018, a documentary film based on Winehouse's album Back to Black, Amy Winehouse – Back to Black, was released. It contains new interviews as well as archival footage. It was made by Eagle Vision and produced by Gil Cang. Released on DVD on 2 November 2018, the film features interviews by producers Ronson & Remi, who worked half and half on the album, along with the Dap Kings, Remi's music team, Ronnie Spector from the Ronettes and close ones to Winehouse, including Nick Shymansky, Juliette Ashby and Dionne Bromfield. The film is accompanied by An Intimate Evening in London, footage of a show Winehouse gave at Riverside Studios, London in 2008. In February 2019, Salaam Remi released a compilation album including the song \"Find My Love\" which is a posthumous collaboration between Winehouse and rapper Nas.\nAs the years passed since her death, talk began to grow of a film biopic of Amy Winehouse's life. In October 2018, it was announced that Winehouse's estate had signed a multi-million pound deal to make a film biopic about her life and career. In August 2021 it was reported that a film based on Daphne Barak's 2010 book, Saving Amy, which chronicles the late singer's final years, had been greenlighted by Halcyon Studios. However, in September 2021, Amy's father and estate executor, Mitch, stated that was “100% not allowed.”\nIn July 2021, a new documentary titled Reclaiming Amy aired on BBC Two to mark the 10th anniversary of Winehouse's death. The film was primarily based on the perspective and narrated by her mother Janis Winehouse-Collins and included intimate stories of those who were close to Winehouse until the end of her life, including close friends Naomi Parry (Winehouse's stylist), Catriona Gourlay and Chantelle Dusette.\nIn July 2022, it was reported that a feature film biopic, entitled Back To Black (2024) was to be produced by StudioCanal UK, distributed by Focus Features and directed by Sam Taylor-Johnson—who previously made a biopic of The Beatles star John Lennon, Nowhere Boy (2009)—and directed Fifty Shades of Grey (2015). The script was written by Matt Greenhalgh and it was to be made with the full cooperation of Amy's father Mitch, and her estate. In January 2023, it was revealed that British actress Marisa Abela would play the leading role of Winehouse and filming commenced later that month in London. In January 2024, a trailer for Back to Black was released along with a debut release date of April 12 in the UK.\nThe film was moderately successful at the box office, with a worldwide total of $51.1 million. The film attracted mixed reviews, with criticism for a selective depiction of Winehouse's life, including the complete omission of Reg Traviss, and over-sympathetic depictions of Mitch Winehouse, and Blake Fielder-Civil, but praise for the acting. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 34% of 175 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 4.8/10. The website's consensus reads: \"Back to Black's sympathetic approach to its subject's story is an overdue antidote to the tabloid treatment she often received in life, even if the end results are disappointingly pedestrian.\"\n\nDiscography\nFrank (2003)\nBack to Black (2006)\n\nSee also\nList of deaths through alcohol\n\nReferences\nSources\nWinehouse, Mitch (2012). Amy, My Daughter. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-219139-7.\n\nFurther reading\nWinehouse, Janis (2014). Loving Amy: A Mother's Story. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4735-0816-3.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nAmy Winehouse at AllMusic \nAmy Winehouse at Curlie\nAmy Winehouse collected news and commentary at The Guardian \nAmy Winehouse collected news and commentary at The New York Times \nAmy Winehouse Foundation - Charity Commission for England and Wales",
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"paragraph_text": "Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela ( man-DEH-lə; Xhosa: [xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla]; born Rolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid activist and politician who served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.\nA Xhosa, Mandela was born into the Thembu royal family in Mvezo, South Africa. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its Youth League in 1944. After the National Party's white-only government established apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant uMkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 that led a sabotage campaign against the apartheid government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and, following the Rivonia Trial, was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state.\nMandela served 27 years in prison, split between Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation.\nMandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the far left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Globally regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Thembu clan name, Madiba, and described as the \"Father of the Nation\".\n\nEarly life\nChildhood: 1918–1934\nMandela was born on 18 July 1918, in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then part of South Africa's Cape Province. He was given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning \"troublemaker\", and in later years became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was ruler of the Thembu Kingdom in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province. One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called \"Left-Hand House\", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.\nNelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands. A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.\n\nMandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Xhosa custom and taboo. He grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys. Both his parents were illiterate, but his mother, being a devout Christian, sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of \"Nelson\" by his teacher. When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment that Mandela believed to be lung disease. Feeling \"cut adrift\", he later said that he inherited his father's \"proud rebelliousness\" and \"stubborn sense of fairness\".\nMandela's mother took him to the \"Great Place\" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their children. As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography. He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi. Nevertheless, at the time he considered the European colonizers not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa. Aged 16, he, his cousin Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the ulwaluko circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name Dalibunga.\n\nClarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940\nIntending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, Mandela began his secondary education in 1933 at Clarkebury Methodist High School in Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his \"stuck up\" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. He completed his Junior Certificate in two years, and in 1937 he moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice. The headmaster emphasised the superiority of European culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of Sotho, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho. Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a prefect.\nIn 1939, with Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a BA degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution of approximately 150 students in Alice, Eastern Cape. He studied English, anthropology, politics, \"native administration\", and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department. Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K. D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come. He took up ballroom dancing, performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln, and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association. Although he had friends who held connections to the African National Congress (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the British Empire, Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement, and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out. At the end of his first year he became involved in a students' representative council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.\n\nArriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943\nReturning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941. Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his \"first sight of South African capitalism in action\", but was fired when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a runaway. He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu. The latter secured Mandela a job as an articled clerk at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a liberal Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause. At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and Communist Party—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend. Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians, and Coloureds mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as class warfare. To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.\nEarning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him. Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter. To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland. In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.\n\nEarly revolutionary activity\nLaw studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949\nMandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo and Ruth First. Becoming increasingly politicised, Mandela marched in August 1943 in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises. Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an ANC member affiliated with the \"Africanist\" branch of African nationalism, which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination. Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC president Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.\n\nAt Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946. Their first child, Madiba \"Thembi\" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of meningitis nine months later. Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.\nIn July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African. In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.\nIn the South African general election in 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new apartheid legislation. Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo and Godfrey Pitje. Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had \"guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path.\" Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.\n\nDefiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954\nMandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950, and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL. In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian and communist activists to call a May Day general strike in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups. At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.\nThereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid. Influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of national liberation, his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, eventually embracing the Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism. Commenting on communism, he later stated that he \"found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal.\" In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist, although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.\nIn 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic. At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison. These events established Mandela as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa. With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law. In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC president J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.\n\nIn July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu and Yusuf Dadoo—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of \"statutory communism\", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years. In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out. In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's \"No Easy Walk to Freedom\" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.\nMandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved black people, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their clientele dwindled. As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the black community. Although a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.\n\nCongress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961\nAfter taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule. On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerrilla warfare. With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown, which was forcibly closed down by police. The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as \"an inspiration to the people of South Africa\".\nFollowing the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local Xhosa chiefs, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town. In March 1956, he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it. Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care. During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, whom he married in Bizana in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. Together they had two children: Zenani, born in February 1959, and Zindziswa (1960–2020).\n\nIn December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive and accused of \"high treason\" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail. The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was \"sufficient reason\" for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.\nIn April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as \"immature\" and \"naïve\". Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.\nResponding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison. Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960. Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic. On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of \"high treason\", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.\n\nMK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62\nDisguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the \"Black Pimpernel\" in the press—a reference to Emma Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police. Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo. He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.\nInspired by the actions of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and Che Guevara as well as from the military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing. Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution. Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.\n\nOperating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary. Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.\nThe ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Leaving South Africa in secret via Bechuanaland, on his way Mandela visited Tanganyika and met with its president, Julius Nyerere. Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference. After the symposium, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and in April 1962 he went to Morocco where asked El Khatib to meet the king to ask him to give him £5,000. The next day he got the £5,000 along with some weapons and training to Mandela's soldier, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian president William Tubman and Guinean president Ahmed Sékou Touré. He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and prominent politicians. Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.\n\nImprisonment\nArrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964\nOn 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist Cecil Williams near Howick. Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence. In later years, Donald Rickard, a former American diplomat, revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency, which feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location. Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase \"the ANC's moral opposition to racism\" while supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London International Programmes. His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang \"Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika\".\n\nOn 11 July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those that they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar. Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.\nAlthough four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour \"I Am Prepared to Die\" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's \"History Will Absolve Me\"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship. The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the death sentence to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to life imprisonment.\n\nRobben Island: 1964–1982\nIn 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight. At night, he worked on his LLB degree, which he was obtaining from the University of London through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings. He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.\n\nThe political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle. ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man \"High Organ\" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group, named Ulundi, that represented all political prisoners (including Eddie Daniels) on the island, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. Initiating the \"University of Robben Island\", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.\nThough attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam. He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause. Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison. In September 1970, he met British Labour Party politician Denis Healey. South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other. His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral. His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort and remained unable to see him.\nFrom 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised. In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.\n\nBy 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years. Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.\nBy the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but, following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island. Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists. Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980, the slogan \"Free Mandela!\" was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release. Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its Cold War allies US president Ronald Reagan and British prime minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.\n\nPollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988\nIn April 1982, Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town, along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island. Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden; he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now being permitted 52 letters a year. He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms implemented by South African president P. W. Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.\n\nThe early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation. Although considering Mandela a dangerous \"arch-Marxist\", Botha offered him, in February 1985, a release from prison if he \"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon\". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, \"What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts.\"\nIn 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor. He was met by an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC. Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.\nMandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including a tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the \"Mandela United Football Club\", which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.\n\nVictor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990\nRecovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell, Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison, near Paarl, in December 1988. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree. While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.\nIn 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he retained the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk. In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial. Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release. Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.\nLeaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world. Driven to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as \"a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid\". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that \"there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle\", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections. Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium.\n\nEnd of apartheid and elections\nEarly negotiations: 1990–91\nMandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium. Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President François Mitterrand in France, Pope John Paul II in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President George H. W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African American community. In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired. He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, and Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.\nIn May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists. He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1,600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected. At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and wanted to build a task force for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.\nMandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home. Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but, in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton. Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in \"black-on-black\" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a \"third force\" within the state intelligence services fuelling the \"slaughter of the people\" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the Sebokeng massacre. In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.\n\nCODESA talks: 1991–92\nThe Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, Mandela took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the \"head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime\". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved. CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule. Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent \"state terrorism\". Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.\n\nFollowing the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off; de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism. The duo agreed on an interim constitution based on a liberal democratic model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and Mandela's for unitary government.\nThe democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB)—attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre. Following the murder of ANC activist Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke. In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the United States, independently meeting President Bill Clinton, and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway. Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and he played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.\n\nGeneral election: 1994\nWith the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans. The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was \"a better life for all\", although it was not explained how this development would be funded. With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.\nConcerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House massacre—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.\n\nPresidency of South Africa: 1994–1999\nThe newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds. Mandela headed a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of Deputy President. Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details. Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed \"Genadendal\", meaning \"Valley of Mercy\" in Afrikaans. Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.\nAged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo American. He also met with Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his R 552,000 annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.\nIn December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist Richard Stengel. In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995. By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.\n\nNational reconciliation\nPresiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in \"the Rainbow Nation\". Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC, he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs. The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were far younger. Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised de Klerk for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.\nMandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including lawyer Percy Yutar and Hendrik Verwoerd's widow, Betsie Schoombie, also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel Theron. Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that \"courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace.\" He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the final against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, \"Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans.\" Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant black people. Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the black majority.\nMandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings and assassinations before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful. Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it \"had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future\".\n\nDomestic programmes\nMandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation. In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's mixed economy but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of market economics and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a neo-liberal policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it. In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the \"Washington consensus\" advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.\nUnder Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.\n\nThe Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding Armscor to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes. Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.\nCritics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with. Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates, and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade. Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.\nFurther problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes and the impact of positive discrimination toward black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a brain drain, and Mandela criticised those who left. At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of illegal migrants from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as \"brothers and sisters\".\n\nForeign affairs\nMandela expressed the view that \"South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations\". Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the \"narrow, chauvinistic interests\" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to Taiwan, who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, he cut recognition of Taiwan in November 1996, and he paid an official visit to Beijing in May 1999.\n\nMandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor. He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba and Libya and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi. Castro visited South Africa in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones, and stated that \"the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies.\" Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the United States and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.\nMandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an \"African Renaissance\", and he was greatly concerned with issues on the continent. He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations. In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire. He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in the Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence. In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, troops were ordered into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election had prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence, with the approval of Mandela and Mbeki.\n\nWithdrawing from politics\nThe new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals. The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationals, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Inkatha remained part of the coalition, and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed \"Acting President\", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president, he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures. During a 1997 visit to London, he said that \"the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki\" and that he was \"shifting everything to him\".\nMandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless. Mandela and the Executive supported Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.\nMandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was \"in love with a remarkable lady\", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year. The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries. Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired. Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.\n\nPost-presidency and final years\nContinued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004\nRetiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years, it remained unfinished and was only published posthumously in 2017. Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving a daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS. Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as \"a war\" that had killed more than \"all previous wars\"; affiliating himself with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals. Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001.\nIn 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS. Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son Makgatho's death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.\nPublicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a war in Iraq, describing it as \"a tragedy\" and lambasting US president George W. Bush and British prime minister Tony Blair (whom he referred to as an \"American foreign minister\") for undermining the UN, saying, \"All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil\". He attacked the United States more generally, asserting that \"If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America\", citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush. Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as \"psychological persecution\".\n\n\"Retiring from retirement\": 2004–2013\nIn June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was \"retiring from retirement\" and retreating from public life, remarking, \"Don't call me, I will call you.\" Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.\nHe retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the United States to speak before the Brookings Institution and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with US senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met the then-senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down \"with residual respect and a modicum of dignity.\" That year, Mandela, Machel and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.\n\nMandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008; a tribute concert was held in Hyde Park, London. Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.\nIn 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be \"few better gifts for us\" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause. Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants. In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.\n\nIllness and death: 2011–2013\nIn February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before being re-admitted for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition. The Archbishop of Cape Town Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel, while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable.\nAfter suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 local time at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family. Zuma publicly announced his death on television, proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu. Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events. It was later revealed that 300 million rand (about 20 million dollars) originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral. The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences, while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.\n\nPolitical ideology\nMandela identified as both an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joining the ANC, and as a socialist. He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist. According to biographer Tom Lodge, \"for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends.\"\nThe historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a \"liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist\", while political analyst Raymond Suttner cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a \"hybrid socio-political make-up\". Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like Nkrumah—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time, he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists. In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant Afrikaner nationalism in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.\nHis political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through \"legal revolution\". Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation. When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table. He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa. This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of Gandhism, with which some commentators have sought to associate him.\n\nDemocracy\nAlthough he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s. He held a conviction that \"inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech\" were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights. Suttner argued that there were \"two modes of leadership\" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.\nAccording to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. He was an admirer of British-style parliamentary democracy, stating that \"I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration.\" In this he has been described as being committed to \"the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation\", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin. Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as \"democracy in its purest form\".\n\nSocialism and Marxism\nMandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society, with Sampson describing him as being \"openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money\". Mandela was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial, and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists, and in his autobiography, where he outlined that the cooperation with the SACP was pragmatic, asking rhetorically, \"who is to say that we were not using them?\" According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, \"sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not.\" Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela \"embraced communism and communists\" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the Marxist–Leninist ideology by 1960.\nEllis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party (SACP) during the late 1950s and early 1960s, something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee. His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries. Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance. \nThe 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a social democratic economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.\n\nPersonality and personal life\nMandela was widely considered a charismatic leader, described by biographer Mary Benson as \"a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people\". He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner. His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his \"charismatic power\". While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the \"African gentleman\", having \"the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech\" associated with such a position. In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became \"one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected visually a brave new African world of modernity and freedom\". Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured Batik shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as \"Madiba shirts\".\nFor political scientists Betty Glad and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an \"exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader\". His official biographer, Anthony Sampson, commented that he was a \"master of imagery and performance\", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites. His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases. He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words. Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed \"his personal commitment, charm and humour\".\nMandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people. Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed. Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour, he was known for being both stubborn and loyal, and at times exhibited a quick temper. He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents. A self-described Anglophile, he claimed to have lived by the \"trappings of British style and manners\". Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants. He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities. In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. He was fond of Indian cuisine, and had a lifelong interest in archaeology and boxing.\n\nHe was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life. On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian Dion Forster described him as a Christian humanist, although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of Ubuntu than on Christian theology. According to Sampson, Mandela never had \"a strong religious faith\" however, while Elleke Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was \"never robust\".\nMandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to manhood. He was heterosexual, and biographer Fatima Meer said that he was \"easily tempted\" by women. Another biographer, Martin Meredith, characterised him as being \"by nature a romantic\", highlighting that he had relationships with various women. Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren. He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren. His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944; they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his alleged adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality. Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958. They divorced in March 1996. Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.\n\nReception and legacy\nBy the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both \"the father of the nation\" and \"the founding father of democracy\". Outside of South Africa, he was a \"global icon\", with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as \"one of the most revered figures of our time\". One biographer considered him \"a modern democratic hero\". Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms, in contrast to his own statement that \"I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances.\" He is often cited alongside Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders. Boehmer described him as \"a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy\" and \"a universal symbol of social justice\".\nMandela's international fame emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous political prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality. In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as \"the embodiment of the struggle for liberation\" in South Africa. Meredith stated that in becoming \"a potent symbol of resistance\" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained \"mythical status\" internationally. Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become \"so powerful that it blurs the realities\", converting Mandela into \"a secular saint\". Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was widely thought of as \"a golden age of hope and harmony\", with much nostalgia being expressed for it. His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma. Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation, coming to be viewed as \"a moral authority\" with a great \"concern for truth\". Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.\nMandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician, having detractors on both the right and the radical left. During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence. According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was \"a typical terrorist organisation\". The US government's State and Defense departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008. On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them Frank B. Wilderson III—accused him of selling out for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency. According to Barnard, \"there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy\", and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country. His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.\n\nOrders, decorations, monuments, and honours\nOver the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements. Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize, and the Libyan Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In 1990, India awarded him the Bharat Ratna, and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their Nishan-e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. He was appointed to the Order of Isabella the Catholic and the Order of Canada, and was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John and granted him membership in the Order of Merit.\nIn 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the Freedom of the City, and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison. On the Day of Reconciliation 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings. In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as \"Mandela Day\", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement. In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners as \"the Mandela Rules\" to honour his legacy. Subsequently, the years 2019 to 2028 were also designated the United Nations Nelson Mandela Decade of Peace.\n\nBiographies and popular media\nThe first biography of Mandela was based on brief interviews with him that the author, Mary Benson, had conducted in the 1960s. Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela. The first was Fatima Meer's Higher Than Hope, which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family. The second was Anthony Sampson's Mandela, published in 1999. Other biographies included Martin Meredith's Mandela, first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's Mandela, brought out in 2006.\nSince the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them \"photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more\", items that have been characterised as \"Mandela kitsch\". In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as The Specials' \"Free Nelson Mandela\", Hugh Masekela's \"Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)\", and Johnny Clegg's \"Asimbonanga (Mandela)\", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.\nMandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions. Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom, the 2017 miniseries Madiba and the 1996 documentary Mandela, have focused on covering his adult life in entirety or until his inaugural as president. Others, such as the 2009 feature film Invictus and the 2010 documentary The 16th Man, have focused on specific events in his life. Lukhele has argued that in Invictus and other films, \"the America film industry\" has played a significant part in \"the crafting of Mandela's global image\".\n\nSee also\nList of peace activists\nMandela effect\n\nReferences\nFootnotes\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nNelson Mandela Centre of Memory\nNelson Mandela Children's Fund\nNelson Mandela Foundation (archived)\nMandela Rhodes Foundation\nThe Elders\nNelson Mandela Museum\nNelson Mandela Day (archived)\nNelson Mandela's family tree\nNelson Mandela at Curlie\nNelson Mandela at IMDb\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nNelson Mandela on Nobelprize.org",
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] | A certain singer won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year in 2008 and in the same year, sang at a prominent person's 90th Birthday Party concert in London. How many vowels are in the given first name of the person who the birthday party was for? | [] | 4 | [] | true |
786 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the elements, is an ordered arrangement of the chemical elements into rows (\"periods\") and columns (\"groups\"). It is an icon of chemistry and is widely used in physics and other sciences. It is a depiction of the periodic law, which states that when the elements are arranged in order of their atomic numbers an approximate recurrence of their properties is evident. The table is divided into four roughly rectangular areas called blocks. Elements in the same group tend to show similar chemical characteristics.\nVertical, horizontal and diagonal trends characterize the periodic table. Metallic character increases going down a group and from right to left across a period. Nonmetallic character increases going from the bottom left of the periodic table to the top right.\nThe first periodic table to become generally accepted was that of the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869; he formulated the periodic law as a dependence of chemical properties on atomic mass. As not all elements were then known, there were gaps in his periodic table, and Mendeleev successfully used the periodic law to predict some properties of some of the missing elements. The periodic law was recognized as a fundamental discovery in the late 19th century. It was explained early in the 20th century, with the discovery of atomic numbers and associated pioneering work in quantum mechanics, both ideas serving to illuminate the internal structure of the atom. A recognisably modern form of the table was reached in 1945 with Glenn T. Seaborg's discovery that the actinides were in fact f-block rather than d-block elements. The periodic table and law are now a central and indispensable part of modern chemistry.\nThe periodic table continues to evolve with the progress of science. In nature, only elements up to atomic number 94 exist; to go further, it was necessary to synthesize new elements in the laboratory. By 2010, the first 118 elements were known, thereby completing the first seven rows of the table; however, chemical characterization is still needed for the heaviest elements to confirm that their properties match their positions. New discoveries will extend the table beyond these seven rows, though it is not yet known how many more elements are possible; moreover, theoretical calculations suggest that this unknown region will not follow the patterns of the known part of the table. Some scientific discussion also continues regarding whether some elements are correctly positioned in today's table. Many alternative representations of the periodic law exist, and there is some discussion as to whether there is an optimal form of the periodic table.\n\nStructure\nEach chemical element has a unique atomic number (Z— for \"Zahl\", German for \"number\") representing the number of protons in its nucleus. Each distinct atomic number therefore corresponds to a class of atom: these classes are called the chemical elements. The chemical elements are what the periodic table classifies and organizes. Hydrogen is the element with atomic number 1; helium, atomic number 2; lithium, atomic number 3; and so on. Each of these names can be further abbreviated by a one- or two-letter chemical symbol; those for hydrogen, helium, and lithium are respectively H, He, and Li. Neutrons do not affect the atom's chemical identity, but do affect its weight. Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes of the same chemical element. Naturally occurring elements usually occur as mixes of different isotopes; since each isotope usually occurs with a characteristic abundance, naturally occurring elements have well-defined atomic weights, defined as the average mass of a naturally occurring atom of that element.\nAll elements have multiple isotopes, variants with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but about one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutrons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. When atomic mass is shown, it is usually the weighted average of naturally occurring isotopes; but if no isotopes occur naturally in significant quantities, the mass of the most stable isotope usually appears, often in parentheses.\nIn the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number. A new row (period) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the same number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are in the same column because they all have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties generally fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have similar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical properties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.\nToday, 118 elements are known, the first 94 of which are known to occur naturally on Earth at present. The remaining 24, americium to oganesson (95–118), occur only when synthesized in laboratories. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are primordial and 11 occur only in decay chains of primordial elements. A few of the latter are so rare that they were not discovered in nature, but were synthesized in the laboratory before it was determined that they do exist in nature after all: technetium (element 43), promethium (element 61), astatine (element 85), neptunium (element 93), and plutonium (element 94). No element heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form, nor has astatine; francium (element 87) has been only photographed in the form of light emitted from microscopic quantities (300,000 atoms). Of the 94 natural elements, eighty have a stable isotope and one more (bismuth) has an almost-stable isotope (with a half-life of 2.01×1019 years, over a billion times the age of the universe). Two more, thorium and uranium, have isotopes undergoing radioactive decay with a half-life comparable to the age of the Earth. The stable elements plus bismuth, thorium, and uranium make up the 83 primordial elements that survived from the Earth's formation. The remaining eleven natural elements decay quickly enough that their continued trace occurrence rests primarily on being constantly regenerated as intermediate products of the decay of thorium and uranium. All 24 known artificial elements are radioactive.\n\nGroup names and numbers\nUnder an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases). The f-block groups are ignored in this numbering. Groups can also be named by their first element, e.g. the \"scandium group\" for group 3. Previously, groups were known by Roman numerals. In the United States, the Roman numerals were followed by either an \"A\" if the group was in the s- or p-block, or a \"B\" if the group was in the d-block. The Roman numerals used correspond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 elements were group IVB, and the group 14 elements were group IVA). In Europe, the lettering was similar, except that \"A\" was used for groups 1 through 7, and \"B\" was used for groups 11 through 17. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) naming system (1–18) was put into use, and the old group names (I–VIII) were deprecated.\n\nPresentation forms\nFor reasons of space, the periodic table is commonly presented with the f-block elements cut out and positioned as a distinct part below the main body. This reduces the number of element columns from 32 to 18.\nBoth forms represent the same periodic table. The form with the f-block included in the main body is sometimes called the 32-column or long form; the form with the f-block cut out the 18-column or medium-long form. The 32-column form has the advantage of showing all elements in their correct sequence, but it has the disadvantage of requiring more space. The form chosen is an editorial choice, and does not imply any change of scientific claim or statement. For example, when discussing the composition of group 3, the options can be shown equally (unprejudiced) in both forms.\nPeriodic tables usually at least show the elements' symbols; many also provide supplementary information about the elements, either via colour-coding or as data in the cells. The above table shows the names and atomic numbers of the elements, and also their blocks, natural occurrences and standard atomic weights. For the short-lived elements without standard atomic weights, the mass number of the most stable known isotope is used instead. Other tables may include properties such as state of matter, melting and boiling points, densities, as well as provide different classifications of the elements.\n\nElectron configurations\nThe periodic table is a graphic description of the periodic law, which states that the properties and atomic structures of the chemical elements are a periodic function of their atomic number. Elements are placed in the periodic table according to their electron configurations, the periodic recurrences of which explain the trends in properties across the periodic table.\nAn electron can be thought of as inhabiting an atomic orbital, which characterizes the probability it can be found in any particular region around the atom. Their energies are quantised, which is to say that they can only take discrete values. Furthermore, electrons obey the Pauli exclusion principle: different electrons must always be in different states. This allows classification of the possible states an electron can take in various energy levels known as shells, divided into individual subshells, which each contain one or more orbitals. Each orbital can contain up to two electrons: they are distinguished by a quantity known as spin, conventionally labelled \"up\" or \"down\". In a cold atom (one in its ground state), electrons arrange themselves in such a way that the total energy they have is minimized by occupying the lowest-energy orbitals available. Only the outermost electrons (so-called valence electrons) have enough energy to break free of the nucleus and participate in chemical reactions with other atoms. The others are called core electrons.\n\nElements are known with up to the first seven shells occupied. The first shell contains only one orbital, a spherical s orbital. As it is in the first shell, this is called the 1s orbital. This can hold up to two electrons. The second shell similarly contains a 2s orbital, and it also contains three dumbbell-shaped 2p orbitals, and can thus fill up to eight electrons (2×1 + 2×3 = 8). The third shell contains one 3s orbital, three 3p orbitals, and five 3d orbitals, and thus has a capacity of 2×1 + 2×3 + 2×5 = 18. The fourth shell contains one 4s orbital, three 4p orbitals, five 4d orbitals, and seven 4f orbitals, thus leading to a capacity of 2×1 + 2×3 + 2×5 + 2×7 = 32. Higher shells contain more types of orbitals that continue the pattern, but such types of orbitals are not filled in the ground states of known elements. The subshell types are characterized by the quantum numbers. Four numbers describe an orbital in an atom completely: the principal quantum number n, the azimuthal quantum number ℓ (the orbital type), the orbital magnetic quantum number mℓ, and the spin magnetic quantum number ms.\n\nOrder of subshell filling\nThe sequence in which the subshells are filled is given in most cases by the Aufbau principle, also known as the Madelung or Klechkovsky rule (after Erwin Madelung and Vsevolod Klechkovsky respectively). This rule was first observed empirically by Madelung, and Klechkovsky and later authors gave it theoretical justification. The shells overlap in energies, and the Madelung rule specifies the sequence of filling according to:\n\n1s ≪ 2s < 2p ≪ 3s < 3p ≪ 4s < 3d < 4p ≪ 5s < 4d < 5p ≪ 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p ≪ 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p ≪ ...\nHere the sign ≪ means \"much less than\" as opposed to < meaning just \"less than\". Phrased differently, electrons enter orbitals in order of increasing n + ℓ, and if two orbitals are available with the same value of n + ℓ, the one with lower n is occupied first. In general, orbitals with the same value of n + ℓ are similar in energy, but in the case of the s-orbitals (with ℓ = 0), quantum effects raise their energy to approach that of the next n + ℓ group. Hence the periodic table is usually drawn to begin each row (often called a period) with the filling of a new s-orbital, which corresponds to the beginning of a new shell. Thus, with the exception of the first row, each period length appears twice:\n\n2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32, ...\nThe overlaps get quite close at the point where the d-orbitals enter the picture, and the order can shift slightly with atomic number and atomic charge.\nStarting from the simplest atom, this lets us build up the periodic table one at a time in order of atomic number, by considering the cases of single atoms. In hydrogen, there is only one electron, which must go in the lowest-energy orbital 1s. This electron configuration is written 1s1, where the superscript indicates the number of electrons in the subshell. Helium adds a second electron, which also goes into 1s, completely filling the first shell and giving the configuration 1s2.\nStarting from the third element, lithium, the first shell is full, so its third electron occupies a 2s orbital, giving a 1s2 2s1 configuration. The 2s electron is lithium's only valence electron, as the 1s subshell is now too tightly bound to the nucleus to participate in chemical bonding to other atoms: such a shell is called a \"core shell\". The 1s subshell is a core shell for all elements from lithium onward. The 2s subshell is completed by the next element beryllium (1s2 2s2). The following elements then proceed to fill the 2p subshell. Boron (1s2 2s2 2p1) puts its new electron in a 2p orbital; carbon (1s2 2s2 2p2) fills a second 2p orbital; and with nitrogen (1s2 2s2 2p3) all three 2p orbitals become singly occupied. This is consistent with Hund's rule, which states that atoms usually prefer to singly occupy each orbital of the same type before filling them with the second electron. Oxygen (1s2 2s2 2p4), fluorine (1s2 2s2 2p5), and neon (1s2 2s2 2p6) then complete the already singly filled 2p orbitals; the last of these fills the second shell completely.\nStarting from element 11, sodium, the second shell is full, making the second shell a core shell for this and all heavier elements. The eleventh electron begins the filling of the third shell by occupying a 3s orbital, giving a configuration of 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 for sodium. This configuration is abbreviated [Ne] 3s1, where [Ne] represents neon's configuration. Magnesium ([Ne] 3s2) finishes this 3s orbital, and the following six elements aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and argon fill the three 3p orbitals ([Ne] 3s2 3p1 through [Ne] 3s2 3p6). This creates an analogous series in which the outer shell structures of sodium through argon are analogous to those of lithium through neon, and is the basis for the periodicity of chemical properties that the periodic table illustrates: at regular but changing intervals of atomic numbers, the properties of the chemical elements approximately repeat.\nThe first eighteen elements can thus be arranged as the start of a periodic table. Elements in the same column have the same number of valence electrons and have analogous valence electron configurations: these columns are called groups. The single exception is helium, which has two valence electrons like beryllium and magnesium, but is typically placed in the column of neon and argon to emphasise that its outer shell is full. (Some contemporary authors question even this single exception, preferring to consistently follow the valence configurations and place helium over beryllium.) There are eight columns in this periodic table fragment, corresponding to at most eight outer-shell electrons. A period begins when a new shell starts filling. Finally, the colouring illustrates the blocks: the elements in the s-block (coloured red) are filling s-orbitals, while those in the p-block (coloured yellow) are filling p-orbitals.\n\nStarting the next row, for potassium and calcium the 4s subshell is the lowest in energy, and therefore they fill it. Potassium adds one electron to the 4s shell ([Ar] 4s1), and calcium then completes it ([Ar] 4s2). However, starting from scandium ([Ar] 3d1 4s2) the 3d subshell becomes the next highest in energy. The 4s and 3d subshells have approximately the same energy and they compete for filling the electrons, and so the occupation is not quite consistently filling the 3d orbitals one at a time. The precise energy ordering of 3d and 4s changes along the row, and also changes depending on how many electrons are removed from the atom. For example, due to the repulsion between the 3d electrons and the 4s ones, at chromium the 4s energy level becomes slightly higher than 3d, and so it becomes more profitable for a chromium atom to have a [Ar] 3d5 4s1 configuration than an [Ar] 3d4 4s2 one. A similar anomaly occurs at copper, whose atom has a [Ar] 3d10 4s1 configuration rather than the expected [Ar] 3d9 4s2. These are violations of the Madelung rule. Such anomalies, however, do not have any chemical significance: most chemistry is not about isolated gaseous atoms, and the various configurations are so close in energy to each other that the presence of a nearby atom can shift the balance. Therefore, the periodic table ignores them and considers only idealized configurations.\nAt zinc ([Ar] 3d10 4s2), the 3d orbitals are completely filled with a total of ten electrons. Next come the 4p orbitals, completing the row, which are filled progressively by gallium ([Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p1) through krypton ([Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6), in a manner analogous to the previous p-block elements. From gallium onwards, the 3d orbitals form part of the electronic core, and no longer participate in chemistry. The s- and p-block elements, which fill their outer shells, are called main-group elements; the d-block elements (coloured blue below), which fill an inner shell, are called transition elements (or transition metals, since they are all metals).\nThe next eighteen elements fill the 5s orbitals (rubidium and strontium), then 4d (yttrium through cadmium, again with a few anomalies along the way), and then 5p (indium through xenon). Again, from indium onward the 4d orbitals are in the core. Hence the fifth row has the same structure as the fourth.\n\nThe sixth row of the table likewise starts with two s-block elements: caesium and barium. After this, the first f-block elements (coloured green below) begin to appear, starting with lanthanum. These are sometimes termed inner transition elements. As there are now not only 4f but also 5d and 6s subshells at similar energies, competition occurs once again with many irregular configurations; this resulted in some dispute about where exactly the f-block is supposed to begin, but most who study the matter agree that it starts at lanthanum in accordance with the Aufbau principle. Even though lanthanum does not itself fill the 4f subshell as a single atom, because of repulsion between electrons, its 4f orbitals are low enough in energy to participate in chemistry. At ytterbium, the seven 4f orbitals are completely filled with fourteen electrons; thereafter, a series of ten transition elements (lutetium through mercury) follows, and finally six main-group elements (thallium through radon) complete the period. From lutetium onwards the 4f orbitals are in the core, and from thallium onwards so are the 5d orbitals.\nThe seventh row is analogous to the sixth row: 7s fills (francium and radium), then 5f (actinium to nobelium), then 6d (lawrencium to copernicium), and finally 7p (nihonium to oganesson). Starting from lawrencium the 5f orbitals are in the core, and probably the 6d orbitals join the core starting from nihonium. Again there are a few anomalies along the way: for example, as single atoms neither actinium nor thorium actually fills the 5f subshell, and lawrencium does not fill the 6d shell, but all these subshells can still become filled in chemical environments. For a very long time, the seventh row was incomplete as most of its elements do not occur in nature. The missing elements beyond uranium started to be synthesized in the laboratory in 1940, when neptunium was made. (However, the first element to be discovered by synthesis rather than in nature was technetium in 1937.) The row was completed with the synthesis of tennessine in 2010 (the last element oganesson had already been made in 2002), and the last elements in this seventh row were given names in 2016.\n\nThis completes the modern periodic table, with all seven rows completely filled to capacity.\n\nElectron configuration table\nThe following table shows the electron configuration of a neutral gas-phase atom of each element. Different configurations can be favoured in different chemical environments. The main-group elements have entirely regular electron configurations; the transition and inner transition elements show twenty irregularities due to the aforementioned competition between subshells close in energy level. For the last ten elements (109–118), experimental data is lacking and therefore calculated configurations have been shown instead. Completely filled subshells have been greyed out.\n\nVariations\nPeriod 1\nAlthough the modern periodic table is standard today, the placement of the period 1 elements hydrogen and helium remains an open issue under discussion, and some variation can be found. Following their respective s1 and s2 electron configurations, hydrogen would be placed in group 1, and helium would be placed in group 2. The group 1 placement of hydrogen is common, but helium is almost always placed in group 18 with the other noble gases. The debate has to do with conflicting understandings of the extent to which chemical or electronic properties should decide periodic table placement.\nLike the group 1 metals, hydrogen has one electron in its outermost shell and typically loses its only electron in chemical reactions. Hydrogen has some metal-like chemical properties, being able to displace some metals from their salts. But it forms a diatomic nonmetallic gas at standard conditions, unlike the alkali metals which are reactive solid metals. This and hydrogen's formation of hydrides, in which it gains an electron, brings it close to the properties of the halogens which do the same (though it is rarer for hydrogen to form H− than H+). Moreover, the lightest two halogens (fluorine and chlorine) are gaseous like hydrogen at standard conditions. Some properties of hydrogen are not a good fit for either group: hydrogen is neither highly oxidizing nor highly reducing and is not reactive with water. Hydrogen thus has properties corresponding to both those of the alkali metals and the halogens, but matches neither group perfectly, and is thus difficult to place by its chemistry. Therefore, while the electronic placement of hydrogen in group 1 predominates, some rarer arrangements show either hydrogen in group 17, duplicate hydrogen in both groups 1 and 17, or float it separately from all groups. This last option has nonetheless been criticized by the chemist and philosopher of science Eric Scerri on the grounds that it appears to imply that hydrogen is above the periodic law altogether, unlike all the other elements.\t\nHelium is the only element that routinely occupies a position in the periodic table that is not consistent with its electronic structure. It has two electrons in its outermost shell, whereas the other noble gases have eight; and it is an s-block element, whereas all other noble gases are p-block elements. However it is unreactive at standard conditions, and has a full outer shell: these properties are like the noble gases in group 18, but not at all like the reactive alkaline earth metals of group 2. For these reasons helium is nearly universally placed in group 18 which its properties best match; a proposal to move helium to group 2 was rejected by IUPAC in 1988 for these reasons. Nonetheless, helium is still occasionally placed in group 2 today, and some of its physical and chemical properties are closer to the group 2 elements and support the electronic placement. Solid helium crystallises in a hexagonal close-packed structure, which matches beryllium and magnesium in group 2, but not the other noble gases in group 18. Recent theoretical developments in noble gas chemistry, in which helium is expected to show slightly less inertness than neon and to form (HeO)(LiF)2 with a structure similar to the analogous beryllium compound (but with no expected neon analogue), have resulted in more chemists advocating a placement of helium in group 2. This relates to the electronic argument, as the reason for neon's greater inertness is repulsion from its filled p-shell that helium lacks, though realistically it is unlikely that helium-containing molecules will be stable outside extreme low-temperature conditions (around 10 K).\nThe first-row anomaly in the periodic table has additionally been cited to support moving helium to group 2. It arises because the first orbital of any type is unusually small, since unlike its higher analogues, it does not experience interelectronic repulsion from a smaller orbital of the same type. This makes the first row of elements in each block unusually small, and such elements tend to exhibit characteristic kinds of anomalies for their group. Some chemists arguing for the repositioning of helium have pointed out that helium exhibits these anomalies if it is placed in group 2, but not if it is placed in group 18: on the other hand, neon, which would be the first group 18 element if helium was removed from that spot, does exhibit those anomalies. The relationship between helium and beryllium is then argued to resemble that between hydrogen and lithium, a placement which is much more commonly accepted. For example, because of this trend in the sizes of orbitals, a large difference in atomic radii between the first and second members of each main group is seen in groups 1 and 13–17: it exists between neon and argon, and between helium and beryllium, but not between helium and neon. This similarly affects the noble gases' boiling points and solubilities in water, where helium is too close to neon, and the large difference characteristic between the first two elements of a group appears only between neon and argon. Moving helium to group 2 makes this trend consistent in groups 2 and 18 as well, by making helium the first group 2 element and neon the first group 18 element: both exhibit the characteristic properties of a kainosymmetric first element of a group. The group 18 placement of helium nonetheless remains near-universal due to its extreme inertness. Additionally, tables that float both hydrogen and helium outside all groups may rarely be encountered.\n\nGroup 3\nIn many periodic tables, the f-block is shifted one element to the right, so that lanthanum and actinium become d-block elements in group 3, and Ce–Lu and Th–Lr form the f-block. Thus the d-block is split into two very uneven portions. This is a holdover from early mistaken measurements of electron configurations; modern measurements are more consistent with the form with lutetium and lawrencium in group 3, and with La–Yb and Ac–No as the f-block.\nThe 4f shell is completely filled at ytterbium, and for that reason Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz in 1948 considered it incorrect to group lutetium as an f-block element. They did not yet take the step of removing lanthanum from the d-block as well, but Jun Kondō realized in 1963 that lanthanum's low-temperature superconductivity implied the activity of its 4f shell. In 1965, David C. Hamilton linked this observation to its position in the periodic table, and argued that the f-block should be composed of the elements La–Yb and Ac–No. Since then, physical, chemical, and electronic evidence has supported this assignment. The issue was brought to wide attention by William B. Jensen in 1982, and the reassignment of lutetium and lawrencium to group 3 was supported by IUPAC reports dating from 1988 (when the 1–18 group numbers were recommended) and 2021. The variation nonetheless still exists because most textbook writers are not aware of the issue.\nA third form can sometimes be encountered in which the spaces below yttrium in group 3 are left empty, such as the table appearing on the IUPAC web site, but this creates an inconsistency with quantum mechanics by making the f-block 15 elements wide (La–Lu and Ac–Lr) even though only 14 electrons can fit in an f-subshell. There is moreover some confusion in the literature on which elements are then implied to be in group 3. While the 2021 IUPAC report noted that 15-element-wide f-blocks are supported by some practitioners of a specialized branch of relativistic quantum mechanics focusing on the properties of superheavy elements, the project's opinion was that such interest-dependent concerns should not have any bearing on how the periodic table is presented to \"the general chemical and scientific community\". Other authors focusing on superheavy elements since clarified that the \"15th entry of the f-block represents the first slot of the d-block which is left vacant to indicate the place of the f-block inserts\", which would imply that this form still has lutetium and lawrencium (the 15th entries in question) as d-block elements in group 3. Indeed, when IUPAC publications expand the table to 32 columns, they make this clear and place lutetium and lawrencium under yttrium in group 3.\nSeveral arguments in favour of Sc-Y-La-Ac can be encountered in the literature, but they have been challenged as being logically inconsistent. For example, it has been argued that lanthanum and actinium cannot be f-block elements because as individual gas-phase atoms, they have not begun to fill the f-subshells. But the same is true of thorium which is never disputed as an f-block element, and this argument overlooks the problem on the other end: that the f-shells complete filling at ytterbium and nobelium, matching the Sc-Y-Lu-Lr form, and not at lutetium and lawrencium as the Sc-Y-La-Ac form would have it. Not only are such exceptional configurations in the minority, but they have also in any case never been considered as relevant for positioning any other elements on the periodic table: in gaseous atoms, the d-shells complete their filling at copper, palladium, and gold, but it is universally accepted by chemists that these configurations are exceptional and that the d-block really ends in accordance with the Madelung rule at zinc, cadmium, and mercury. The relevant fact for placement is that lanthanum and actinium (like thorium) have valence f-orbitals that can become occupied in chemical environments, whereas lutetium and lawrencium do not: their f-shells are in the core, and cannot be used for chemical reactions. Thus the relationship between yttrium and lanthanum is only a secondary relationship between elements with the same number of valence electrons but different kinds of valence orbitals, such as that between chromium and uranium; whereas the relationship between yttrium and lutetium is primary, sharing both valence electron count and valence orbital type.\n\nPeriodic trends\nAs chemical reactions involve the valence electrons, elements with similar outer electron configurations may be expected to react similarly and form compounds with similar proportions of elements in them. Such elements are placed in the same group, and thus there tend to be clear similarities and trends in chemical behaviour as one proceeds down a group. As analogous configurations occur at regular intervals, the properties of the elements thus exhibit periodic recurrences, hence the name of the periodic table and the periodic law. These periodic recurrences were noticed well before the underlying theory that explains them was developed.\n\nAtomic radius\nHistorically, the physical size of atoms was unknown until the early 20th century. The first calculated estimate of the atomic radius of hydrogen was published by physicist Arthur Haas in 1910 to within an order of magnitude (a factor of 10) of the accepted value, the Bohr radius (~0.529 Å). In his model, Haas used a single-electron configuration based on the classical atomic model proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904, often called the plum-pudding model.\nAtomic radii (the size of atoms) are dependent on the sizes of their outermost orbitals. They generally decrease going left to right along the main-group elements, because the nuclear charge increases but the outer electrons are still in the same shell. However, going down a column, the radii generally increase, because the outermost electrons are in higher shells that are thus further away from the nucleus. The first row of each block is abnormally small, due to an effect called kainosymmetry or primogenic repulsion: the 1s, 2p, 3d, and 4f subshells have no inner analogues. For example, the 2p orbitals do not experience strong repulsion from the 1s and 2s orbitals, which have quite different angular charge distributions, and hence are not very large; but the 3p orbitals experience strong repulsion from the 2p orbitals, which have similar angular charge distributions. Thus higher s-, p-, d-, and f-subshells experience strong repulsion from their inner analogues, which have approximately the same angular distribution of charge, and must expand to avoid this. This makes significant differences arise between the small 2p elements, which prefer multiple bonding, and the larger 3p and higher p-elements, which do not. Similar anomalies arise for the 1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, and the hypothetical 5g elements: the degree of this first-row anomaly is highest for the s-block, is moderate for the p-block, and is less pronounced for the d- and f-blocks.\nIn the transition elements, an inner shell is filling, but the size of the atom is still determined by the outer electrons. The increasing nuclear charge across the series and the increased number of inner electrons for shielding somewhat compensate each other, so the decrease in radius is smaller. The 4p and 5d atoms, coming immediately after new types of transition series are first introduced, are smaller than would have been expected, because the added core 3d and 4f subshells provide only incomplete shielding of the nuclear charge for the outer electrons. Hence for example gallium atoms are slightly smaller than aluminium atoms. Together with kainosymmetry, this results in an even-odd difference between the periods (except in the s-block) that is sometimes known as secondary periodicity: elements in even periods have smaller atomic radii and prefer to lose fewer electrons, while elements in odd periods (except the first) differ in the opposite direction. Thus for example many properties in the p-block show a zigzag rather than a smooth trend along the group. For example, phosphorus and antimony in odd periods of group 15 readily reach the +5 oxidation state, whereas nitrogen, arsenic, and bismuth in even periods prefer to stay at +3. A similar situation holds for the d-block, with lutetium through tungsten atoms being slightly smaller than yttrium through molybdenum atoms respectively.\n\nThallium and lead atoms are about the same size as indium and tin atoms respectively, but from bismuth to radon the 6p atoms are larger than the analogous 5p atoms. This happens because when atomic nuclei become highly charged, special relativity becomes needed to gauge the effect of the nucleus on the electron cloud. These relativistic effects result in heavy elements increasingly having differing properties compared to their lighter homologues in the periodic table. Spin–orbit interaction splits the p-subshell: one p-orbital is relativistically stabilized and shrunken (it fills in thallium and lead), but the other two (filling in bismuth through radon) are relativistically destabilized and expanded. Relativistic effects also explain why gold is golden and mercury is a liquid at room temperature. They are expected to become very strong in the late seventh period, potentially leading to a collapse of periodicity. Electron configurations are only clearly known until element 108 (hassium), and experimental chemistry beyond 108 has only been done for 112 (copernicium), 113 (nihonium), and 114 (flerovium), so the chemical characterization of the heaviest elements remains a topic of current research.\nThe trend that atomic radii decrease from left to right is also present in ionic radii, though it is more difficult to examine because the most common ions of consecutive elements normally differ in charge. Ions with the same electron configuration decrease in size as their atomic number rises, due to increased attraction from the more positively charged nucleus: thus for example ionic radii decrease in the series Se2−, Br−, Rb+, Sr2+, Y3+, Zr4+, Nb5+, Mo6+, Tc7+. Ions of the same element get smaller as more electrons are removed, because the attraction from the nucleus begins to outweigh the repulsion between electrons that causes electron clouds to expand: thus for example ionic radii decrease in the series V2+, V3+, V4+, V5+.\n\nIonisation energy\nThe first ionisation energy of an atom is the energy required to remove an electron from it. This varies with the atomic radius: ionisation energy increases left to right and down to up, because electrons that are closer to the nucleus are held more tightly and are more difficult to remove. Ionisation energy thus is minimized at the first element of each period – hydrogen and the alkali metals – and then generally rises until it reaches the noble gas at the right edge of the period. There are some exceptions to this trend, such as oxygen, where the electron being removed is paired and thus interelectronic repulsion makes it easier to remove than expected.\nIn the transition series, the outer electrons are preferentially lost even though the inner orbitals are filling. For example, in the 3d series, the 4s electrons are lost first even though the 3d orbitals are being filled. The shielding effect of adding an extra 3d electron approximately compensates the rise in nuclear charge, and therefore the ionisation energies stay mostly constant, though there is a small increase especially at the end of each transition series.\nAs metal atoms tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, ionisation energy is generally correlated with chemical reactivity, although there are other factors involved as well.\n\nElectron affinity\nThe opposite property to ionisation energy is the electron affinity, which is the energy released when adding an electron to the atom. A passing electron will be more readily attracted to an atom if it feels the pull of the nucleus more strongly, and especially if there is an available partially filled outer orbital that can accommodate it. Therefore, electron affinity tends to increase down to up and left to right. The exception is the last column, the noble gases, which have a full shell and have no room for another electron. This gives the halogens in the next-to-last column the highest electron affinities.\nSome atoms, like the noble gases, have no electron affinity: they cannot form stable gas-phase anions. (They can form metastable resonances if the incoming electron arrives with enough kinetic energy, but these inevitably and rapidly autodetach: for example, the lifetime of the most long-lived He− level is about 359 microseconds.) The noble gases, having high ionisation energies and no electron affinity, have little inclination towards gaining or losing electrons and are generally unreactive.\nSome exceptions to the trends occur: oxygen and fluorine have lower electron affinities than their heavier homologues sulfur and chlorine, because they are small atoms and hence the newly added electron would experience significant repulsion from the already present ones. For the nonmetallic elements, electron affinity likewise somewhat correlates with reactivity, but not perfectly since other factors are involved. For example, fluorine has a lower electron affinity than chlorine (because of extreme interelectronic repulsion for the very small fluorine atom), but is more reactive.\n\nValence and oxidation states\nThe valence of an element can be defined either as the number of hydrogen atoms that can combine with it to form a simple binary hydride, or as twice the number of oxygen atoms that can combine with it to form a simple binary oxide (that is, not a peroxide or a superoxide). The valences of the main-group elements are directly related to the group number: the hydrides in the main groups 1–2 and 13–17 follow the formulae MH, MH2, MH3, MH4, MH3, MH2, and finally MH. The highest oxides instead increase in valence, following the formulae M2O, MO, M2O3, MO2, M2O5, MO3, M2O7. Today the notion of valence has been extended by that of the oxidation state, which is the formal charge left on an element when all other elements in a compound have been removed as their ions.\nThe electron configuration suggests a ready explanation from the number of electrons available for bonding; indeed, the number of valence electrons starts at 1 in group 1, and then increases towards the right side of the periodic table, only resetting at 3 whenever each new block starts. Thus in period 6, Cs–Ba have 1–2 valence electrons; La–Yb have 3–16; Lu–Hg have 3–12; and Tl–Rn have 3–8. However, towards the right side of the d- and f-blocks, the theoretical maximum corresponding to using all valence electrons is not achievable at all; the same situation affects oxygen, fluorine, and the light noble gases up to krypton.\n\nA full explanation requires considering the energy that would be released in forming compounds with different valences rather than simply considering electron configurations alone. For example, magnesium forms Mg2+ rather than Mg+ cations when dissolved in water, because the latter would spontaneously disproportionate into Mg0 and Mg2+ cations. This is because the enthalpy of hydration (surrounding the cation with water molecules) increases in magnitude with the charge and radius of the ion. In Mg+, the outermost orbital (which determines ionic radius) is still 3s, so the hydration enthalpy is small and insufficient to compensate the energy required to remove the electron; but ionizing again to Mg2+ uncovers the core 2p subshell, making the hydration enthalpy large enough to allow magnesium(II) compounds to form. For similar reasons, the common oxidation states of the heavier p-block elements (where the ns electrons become lower in energy than the np) tend to vary by steps of 2, because that is necessary to uncover an inner subshell and decrease the ionic radius (e.g. Tl+ uncovers 6s, and Tl3+ uncovers 5d, so once thallium loses two electrons it tends to lose the third one as well). Analogous arguments based on orbital hybridization can be used for the less electronegative p-block elements.\n\nFor transition metals, common oxidation states are nearly always at least +2 for similar reasons (uncovering the next subshell); this holds even for the metals with anomalous dx+1s1 or dx+2s0 configurations (except for silver), because repulsion between d-electrons means that the movement of the second electron from the s- to the d-subshell does not appreciably change its ionisation energy. Because ionizing the transition metals further does not uncover any new inner subshells, their oxidation states tend to vary by steps of 1 instead. The lanthanides and late actinides generally show a stable +3 oxidation state, removing the outer s-electrons and then (usually) one electron from the (n−2)f-orbitals, that are similar in energy to ns. The common and maximum oxidation states of the d- and f-block elements tend to depend on the ionisation energies. As the energy difference between the (n−1)d and ns orbitals rises along each transition series, it becomes less energetically favourable to ionize further electrons. Thus, the early transition metal groups tend to prefer higher oxidation states, but the +2 oxidation state becomes more stable for the late transition metal groups. The highest formal oxidation state thus increases from +3 at the beginning of each d-block row, to +7 or +8 in the middle (e.g. OsO4), and then decrease to +2 at the end. The lanthanides and late actinides usually have high fourth ionisation energies and hence rarely surpass the +3 oxidation state, whereas early actinides have low fourth ionisation energies and so for example neptunium and plutonium can reach +7. The very last actinides go further than the lanthanides towards low oxidation states: mendelevium is more easily reduced to the +2 state than thulium or even europium (the lanthanide with the most stable +2 state, on account of its half-filled f-shell), and nobelium outright favours +2 over +3, in contrast to ytterbium.\nAs elements in the same group share the same valence configurations, they usually exhibit similar chemical behaviour. For example, the alkali metals in the first group all have one valence electron, and form a very homogeneous class of elements: they are all soft and reactive metals. However, there are many factors involved, and groups can often be rather heterogeneous. For instance, hydrogen also has one valence electron and is in the same group as the alkali metals, but its chemical behaviour is quite different. The stable elements of group 14 comprise a nonmetal (carbon), two semiconductors (silicon and germanium), and two metals (tin and lead); they are nonetheless united by having four valence electrons. This often leads to similarities in maximum and minimum oxidation states (e.g. sulfur and selenium in group 16 both have maximum oxidation state +6, as in SO3 and SeO3, and minimum oxidation state −2, as in sulfides and selenides); but not always (e.g. oxygen is not known to form oxidation state +6, despite being in the same group as sulfur and selenium).\n\nElectronegativity\nAnother important property of elements is their electronegativity. Atoms can form covalent bonds to each other by sharing electrons in pairs, creating an overlap of valence orbitals. The degree to which each atom attracts the shared electron pair depends on the atom's electronegativity – the tendency of an atom towards gaining or losing electrons. The more electronegative atom will tend to attract the electron pair more, and the less electronegative (or more electropositive) one will attract it less. In extreme cases, the electron can be thought of as having been passed completely from the more electropositive atom to the more electronegative one, though this is a simplification. The bond then binds two ions, one positive (having given up the electron) and one negative (having accepted it), and is termed an ionic bond.\nElectronegativity depends on how strongly the nucleus can attract an electron pair, and so it exhibits a similar variation to the other properties already discussed: electronegativity tends to fall going up to down, and rise going left to right. The alkali and alkaline earth metals are among the most electropositive elements, while the chalcogens, halogens, and noble gases are among the most electronegative ones.\nElectronegativity is generally measured on the Pauling scale, on which the most electronegative reactive atom (fluorine) is given electronegativity 4.0, and the least electronegative atom (caesium) is given electronegativity 0.79. In fact neon is the most electronegative element, but the Pauling scale cannot measure its electronegativity because it does not form covalent bonds with most elements.\nAn element's electronegativity varies with the identity and number of the atoms it is bonded to, as well as how many electrons it has already lost: an atom becomes more electronegative when it has lost more electrons. This sometimes makes a large difference: lead in the +2 oxidation state has electronegativity 1.87 on the Pauling scale, while lead in the +4 oxidation state has electronegativity 2.33.\n\nMetallicity\nA simple substance is a substance formed from atoms of one chemical element. The simple substances of the more electronegative atoms tend to share electrons (form covalent bonds) with each other. They form either small molecules (like hydrogen or oxygen, whose atoms bond in pairs) or giant structures stretching indefinitely (like carbon or silicon). The noble gases simply stay as single atoms, as they already have a full shell. Substances composed of discrete molecules or single atoms are held together by weaker attractive forces between the molecules, such as the London dispersion force: as electrons move within the molecules, they create momentary imbalances of electrical charge, which induce similar imbalances on nearby molecules and create synchronized movements of electrons across many neighbouring molecules.\n\nThe more electropositive atoms, however, tend to instead lose electrons, creating a \"sea\" of electrons engulfing cations. The outer orbitals of one atom overlap to share electrons with all its neighbours, creating a giant structure of molecular orbitals extending over all the atoms. This negatively charged \"sea\" pulls on all the ions and keeps them together in a metallic bond. Elements forming such bonds are often called metals; those which do not are often called nonmetals. Some elements can form multiple simple substances with different structures: these are called allotropes. For example, diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon.\nThe metallicity of an element can be predicted from electronic properties. When atomic orbitals overlap during metallic or covalent bonding, they create both bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals of equal capacity, with the antibonding orbitals of higher energy. Net bonding character occurs when there are more electrons in the bonding orbitals than there are in the antibonding orbitals. Metallic bonding is thus possible when the number of electrons delocalized by each atom is less than twice the number of orbitals contributing to the overlap. This is the situation for elements in groups 1 through 13; they also have too few valence electrons to form giant covalent structures where all atoms take equivalent positions, and so almost all of them metallise. The exceptions are hydrogen and boron, which have too high an ionisation energy. Hydrogen thus forms a covalent H2 molecule, and boron forms a giant covalent structure based on icosahedral B12 clusters. In a metal, the bonding and antibonding orbitals have overlapping energies, creating a single band that electrons can freely flow through, allowing for electrical conduction.\n\nIn group 14, both metallic and covalent bonding become possible. In a diamond crystal, covalent bonds between carbon atoms are strong, because they have a small atomic radius and thus the nucleus has more of a hold on the electrons. Therefore, the bonding orbitals that result are much lower in energy than the antibonding orbitals, and there is no overlap, so electrical conduction becomes impossible: carbon is a nonmetal. However, covalent bonding becomes weaker for larger atoms and the energy gap between the bonding and antibonding orbitals decreases. Therefore, silicon and germanium have smaller band gaps and are semiconductors at ambient conditions: electrons can cross the gap when thermally excited. (Boron is also a semiconductor at ambient conditions.) The band gap disappears in tin, so that tin and lead become metals. As the temperature rises, all nonmetals develop some semiconducting properties, to a greater or lesser extent depending on the size of the band gap. Thus metals and nonmetals may be distinguished by the temperature dependence of their electrical conductivity: a metal's conductivity lowers as temperature rises (because thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to flow freely), whereas a nonmetal's conductivity rises (as more electrons may be excited to cross the gap).\nElements in groups 15 through 17 have too many electrons to form giant covalent molecules that stretch in all three dimensions. For the lighter elements, the bonds in small diatomic molecules are so strong that a condensed phase is disfavoured: thus nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), white phosphorus and yellow arsenic (P4 and As4), sulfur and red selenium (S8 and Se8), and the stable halogens (F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2) readily form covalent molecules with few atoms. The heavier ones tend to form long chains (e.g. red phosphorus, grey selenium, tellurium) or layered structures (e.g. carbon as graphite, black phosphorus, grey arsenic, antimony, bismuth) that only extend in one or two rather than three dimensions. Both kinds of structures can be found as allotropes of phosphorus, arsenic, and selenium, although the long-chained allotropes are more stable in all three. As these structures do not use all their orbitals for bonding, they end up with bonding, nonbonding, and antibonding bands in order of increasing energy. Similarly to group 14, the band gaps shrink for the heavier elements and free movement of electrons between the chains or layers becomes possible. Thus for example black phosphorus, black arsenic, grey selenium, tellurium, and iodine are semiconductors; grey arsenic, antimony, and bismuth are semimetals (exhibiting quasi-metallic conduction, with a very small band overlap); and polonium and probably astatine are true metals. Finally, the natural group 18 elements all stay as individual atoms.\nThe dividing line between metals and nonmetals is roughly diagonal from top left to bottom right, with the transition series appearing to the left of this diagonal (as they have many available orbitals for overlap). This is expected, as metallicity tends to be correlated with electropositivity and the willingness to lose electrons, which increases right to left and up to down. Thus the metals greatly outnumber the nonmetals. Elements near the borderline are difficult to classify: they tend to have properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals, and may have some properties characteristic of both. They are often termed semimetals or metalloids. The term \"semimetal\" used in this sense should not be confused with its strict physical sense having to do with band structure: bismuth is physically a semimetal, but is generally considered a metal by chemists.\nThe following table considers the most stable allotropes at standard conditions. The elements coloured yellow form simple substances that are well-characterised by metallic bonding. Elements coloured light blue form giant network covalent structures, whereas those coloured dark blue form small covalently bonded molecules that are held together by weaker van der Waals forces. The noble gases are coloured in violet: their molecules are single atoms and no covalent bonding occurs. Greyed-out cells are for elements which have not been prepared in sufficient quantities for their most stable allotropes to have been characterized in this way. Theoretical considerations and current experimental evidence suggest that all of those elements would metallise if they could form condensed phases, except perhaps for oganesson.\n\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nGenerally, metals are shiny and dense. They usually have high melting and boiling points due to the strength of the metallic bond, and are often malleable and ductile (easily stretched and shaped) because the atoms can move relative to each other without breaking the metallic bond. They conduct electricity because their electrons are free to move in all three dimensions. Similarly, they conduct heat, which is transferred by the electrons as extra kinetic energy: they move faster. These properties persist in the liquid state, as although the crystal structure is destroyed on melting, the atoms still touch and the metallic bond persists, though it is weakened. Metals tend to be reactive towards nonmetals. Some exceptions can be found to these generalizations: for example, beryllium, chromium, manganese, antimony, bismuth, and uranium are brittle (not an exhaustive list); chromium is extremely hard; gallium, rubidium, caesium, and mercury are liquid at or close to room temperature; and noble metals such as gold are chemically very inert.\nNonmetals exhibit different properties. Those forming giant covalent crystals exhibit high melting and boiling points, as it takes considerable energy to overcome the strong covalent bonds. Those forming discrete molecules are held together mostly by dispersion forces, which are more easily overcome; thus they tend to have lower melting and boiling points, and many are liquids or gases at room temperature. Nonmetals are often dull-looking. They tend to be reactive towards metals, except for the noble gases, which are inert towards most substances. They are brittle when solid as their atoms are held tightly in place. They are less dense and conduct electricity poorly, because there are no mobile electrons. Near the borderline, band gaps are small and thus many elements in that region are semiconductors, such as silicon, germanium, and tellurium. Selenium has both a semiconducting grey allotrope and an insulating red allotrope; arsenic has a metallic grey allotrope, a semiconducting black allotrope, and an insulating yellow allotrope (though the last is unstable at ambient conditions). Again there are exceptions; for example, diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of all known materials, greater than any metal.\nIt is common to designate a class of metalloids straddling the boundary between metals and nonmetals, as elements in that region are intermediate in both physical and chemical properties. However, no consensus exists in the literature for precisely which elements should be so designated. When such a category is used, silicon, germanium, arsenic, and tellurium are almost always included, and boron and antimony usually are; but most sources include other elements as well, without agreement on which extra elements should be added, and some others subtract from this list instead. For example, unlike all the other elements generally considered metalloids or nonmetals, antimony's only stable form has metallic conductivity. Moreover, the element resembles bismuth and, more generally, the other p-block metals in its physical and chemical behaviour. On this basis some authors have argued that it is better classified as a metal than as a metalloid. On the other hand, selenium has some semiconducting properties in its most stable form (though it also has insulating allotropes) and it has been argued that it should be considered a metalloid – though this situation also holds for phosphorus, which is a much rarer inclusion among the metalloids.\n\nFurther manifestations of periodicity\nThere are some other relationships throughout the periodic table between elements that are not in the same group, such as the diagonal relationships between elements that are diagonally adjacent (e.g. lithium and magnesium). Some similarities can also be found between the main groups and the transition metal groups, or between the early actinides and early transition metals, when the elements have the same number of valence electrons. Thus uranium somewhat resembles chromium and tungsten in group 6, as all three have six valence electrons. Relationships between elements with the same number of valence electrons but different types of valence orbital have been called secondary or isodonor relationships: they usually have the same maximum oxidation states, but not the same minimum oxidation states. For example, chlorine and manganese both have +7 as their maximum oxidation state (e.g. Cl2O7 and Mn2O7), but their respective minimum oxidation states are −1 (e.g. HCl) and −3 (K2[Mn(CO)4]). Elements with the same number of valence vacancies but different numbers of valence electrons are related by a tertiary or isoacceptor relationship: they usually have similar minimum but not maximum oxidation states. For example, hydrogen and chlorine both have −1 as their minimum oxidation state (in hydrides and chlorides), but hydrogen's maximum oxidation state is +1 (e.g. H2O) while chlorine's is +7.\nMany other physical properties of the elements exhibit periodic variation in accordance with the periodic law, such as melting points, boiling points, heats of fusion, heats of vaporization, atomisation energy, and so on. Similar periodic variations appear for the compounds of the elements, which can be observed by comparing hydrides, oxides, sulfides, halides, and so on. Chemical properties are more difficult to describe quantitatively, but likewise exhibit their own periodicities. Examples include the variation in the acidic and basic properties of the elements and their compounds, the stabilities of compounds, and methods of isolating the elements. Periodicity is and has been used very widely to predict the properties of unknown new elements and new compounds, and is central to modern chemistry.\n\nClassification of elements\nMany terms have been used in the literature to describe sets of elements that behave similarly. The group names alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, triel, tetrel, pnictogen, chalcogen, halogen, and noble gas are acknowledged by IUPAC; the other groups can be referred to by their number, or by their first element (e.g., group 6 is the chromium group). Some divide the p-block elements from groups 13 to 16 by metallicity, although there is neither an IUPAC definition nor a precise consensus on exactly which elements should be considered metals, nonmetals, or semi-metals (sometimes called metalloids). Neither is there a consensus on what the metals succeeding the transition metals ought to be called, with post-transition metal and poor metal being among the possibilities having been used. Some advanced monographs exclude the elements of group 12 from the transition metals on the grounds of their sometimes quite different chemical properties, but this is not a universal practice and IUPAC does not presently mention it as allowable in its Principles of Chemical Nomenclature.\nThe lanthanides are considered to be the elements La–Lu, which are all very similar to each other: historically they included only Ce–Lu, but lanthanum became included by common usage. The rare earth elements (or rare earth metals) add scandium and yttrium to the lanthanides. Analogously, the actinides are considered to be the elements Ac–Lr (historically Th–Lr), although variation of properties in this set is much greater than within the lanthanides. IUPAC recommends the names lanthanoids and actinoids to avoid ambiguity, as the -ide suffix typically denotes a negative ion; however lanthanides and actinides remain common. With the increasing recognition of lutetium and lawrencium as d-block elements, some authors began to define the lanthanides as La–Yb and the actinides as Ac–No, matching the f-block. The transactinides or superheavy elements are the short-lived elements beyond the actinides, starting at lawrencium or rutherfordium (depending on where the actinides are taken to end).\nMany more categorizations exist and are used according to certain disciplines. In astrophysics, a metal is defined as any element with atomic number greater than 2, i.e. anything except hydrogen and helium. The term \"semimetal\" has a different definition in physics than it does in chemistry: bismuth is a semimetal by physical definitions, but chemists generally consider it a metal. A few terms are widely used, but without any very formal definition, such as \"heavy metal\", which has been given such a wide range of definitions that it has been criticized as \"effectively meaningless\".\nThe scope of terms varies significantly between authors. For example, according to IUPAC, the noble gases extend to include the whole group, including the very radioactive superheavy element oganesson. However, among those who specialize in the superheavy elements, this is not often done: in this case \"noble gas\" is typically taken to imply the unreactive behaviour of the lighter elements of the group. Since calculations generally predict that oganesson should not be particularly inert due to relativistic effects, and may not even be a gas at room temperature if it could be produced in bulk, its status as a noble gas is often questioned in this context. Furthermore, national variations are sometimes encountered: in Japan, alkaline earth metals often do not include beryllium and magnesium as their behaviour is different from the heavier group 2 metals.\n\nHistory\nEarly history\nIn 1817, German physicist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner began to formulate one of the earliest attempts to classify the elements. In 1829, he found that he could form some of the elements into groups of three, with the members of each group having related properties. He termed these groups triads. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine formed a triad; as did calcium, strontium, and barium; lithium, sodium, and potassium; and sulfur, selenium, and tellurium. Today, all these triads form part of modern-day groups: the halogens, alkaline earth metals, alkali metals, and chalcogens. Various chemists continued his work and were able to identify more and more relationships between small groups of elements. However, they could not build one scheme that encompassed them all.\n\nJohn Newlands published a letter in the Chemical News in February 1863 on the periodicity among the chemical elements. In 1864 Newlands published an article in the Chemical News showing that if the elements are arranged in the order of their atomic weights, those having consecutive numbers frequently either belong to the same group or occupy similar positions in different groups, and he pointed out that each eighth element starting from a given one is in this arrangement a kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music (The Law of Octaves). However, Newlands's formulation only worked well for the main-group elements, and encountered serious problems with the others.\nGerman chemist Lothar Meyer noted the sequences of similar chemical and physical properties repeated at periodic intervals. According to him, if the atomic weights were plotted as ordinates (i.e. vertically) and the atomic volumes as abscissas (i.e. horizontally)—the curve obtained a series of maximums and minimums—the most electropositive elements would appear at the peaks of the curve in the order of their atomic weights. In 1864, a book of his was published; it contained an early version of the periodic table containing 28 elements, and classified elements into six families by their valence—for the first time, elements had been grouped according to their valence. Works on organizing the elements by atomic weight had until then been stymied by inaccurate measurements of the atomic weights. In 1868, he revised his table, but this revision was published as a draft only after his death.\n\nMendeleev\nThe definitive breakthrough came from the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev. Although other chemists (including Meyer) had found some other versions of the periodic system at about the same time, Mendeleev was the most dedicated to developing and defending his system, and it was his system that most affected the scientific community. On 17 February 1869 (1 March 1869 in the Gregorian calendar), Mendeleev began arranging the elements and comparing them by their atomic weights. He began with a few elements, and over the course of the day his system grew until it encompassed most of the known elements. After he found a consistent arrangement, his printed table appeared in May 1869 in the journal of the Russian Chemical Society. When elements did not appear to fit in the system, he boldly predicted that either valencies or atomic weights had been measured incorrectly, or that there was a missing element yet to be discovered. In 1871, Mendeleev published a long article, including an updated form of his table, that made his predictions for unknown elements explicit. Mendeleev predicted the properties of three of these unknown elements in detail: as they would be missing heavier homologues of boron, aluminium, and silicon, he named them eka-boron, eka-aluminium, and eka-silicon (\"eka\" being Sanskrit for \"one\").: 45 \n\nIn 1875, the French chemist Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, working without knowledge of Mendeleev's prediction, discovered a new element in a sample of the mineral sphalerite, and named it gallium. He isolated the element and began determining its properties. Mendeleev, reading de Boisbaudran's publication, sent a letter claiming that gallium was his predicted eka-aluminium. Although Lecoq de Boisbaudran was initially sceptical, and suspected that Mendeleev was trying to take credit for his discovery, he later admitted that Mendeleev was correct. In 1879, the Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson discovered a new element, which he named scandium: it turned out to be eka-boron. Eka-silicon was found in 1886 by German chemist Clemens Winkler, who named it germanium. The properties of gallium, scandium, and germanium matched what Mendeleev had predicted. In 1889, Mendeleev noted at the Faraday Lecture to the Royal Institution in London that he had not expected to live long enough \"to mention their discovery to the Chemical Society of Great Britain as a confirmation of the exactitude and generality of the periodic law\". Even the discovery of the noble gases at the close of the 19th century, which Mendeleev had not predicted, fitted neatly into his scheme as an eighth main group.\nMendeleev nevertheless had some trouble fitting the known lanthanides into his scheme, as they did not exhibit the periodic change in valencies that the other elements did. After much investigation, the Czech chemist Bohuslav Brauner suggested in 1902 that the lanthanides could all be placed together in one group on the periodic table. He named this the \"asteroid hypothesis\" as an astronomical analogy: just as there is an asteroid belt instead of a single planet between Mars and Jupiter, so the place below yttrium was thought to be occupied by all the lanthanides instead of just one element.\n\nAtomic number\nAfter the internal structure of the atom was probed, amateur Dutch physicist Antonius van den Broek proposed in 1913 that the nuclear charge determined the placement of elements in the periodic table. The New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford coined the word \"atomic number\" for this nuclear charge. In van den Broek's published article he illustrated the first electronic periodic table showing the elements arranged according to the number of their electrons. Rutherford confirmed in his 1914 paper that Bohr had accepted the view of van den Broek.\n\nThe same year, English physicist Henry Moseley using X-ray spectroscopy confirmed van den Broek's proposal experimentally. Moseley determined the value of the nuclear charge of each element from aluminium to gold and showed that Mendeleev's ordering actually places the elements in sequential order by nuclear charge. Nuclear charge is identical to proton count and determines the value of the atomic number (Z) of each element. Using atomic number gives a definitive, integer-based sequence for the elements. Moseley's research immediately resolved discrepancies between atomic weight and chemical properties; these were cases such as tellurium and iodine, where atomic number increases but atomic weight decreases. Although Moseley was soon killed in World War I, the Swedish physicist Manne Siegbahn continued his work up to uranium, and established that it was the element with the highest atomic number then known (92). Based on Moseley and Siegbahn's research, it was also known which atomic numbers corresponded to missing elements yet to be found: 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, and 87. (Element 75 had in fact already been found by Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa in 1908 and named nipponium, but he mistakenly assigned it as element 43 instead of 75 and so his discovery was not generally recognized until later. The contemporarily accepted discovery of element 75 came in 1925, when Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg independently rediscovered it and gave it its present name, rhenium.)\nThe dawn of atomic physics also clarified the situation of isotopes. In the decay chains of the primordial radioactive elements thorium and uranium, it soon became evident that there were many apparent new elements that had different atomic weights but exactly the same chemical properties. In 1913, Frederick Soddy coined the term \"isotope\" to describe this situation, and considered isotopes to merely be different forms of the same chemical element. This furthermore clarified discrepancies such as tellurium and iodine: tellurium's natural isotopic composition is weighted towards heavier isotopes than iodine's, but tellurium has a lower atomic number.\n\nElectron shells\nThe Danish physicist Niels Bohr applied Max Planck's idea of quantization to the atom. He concluded that the energy levels of electrons were quantised: only a discrete set of stable energy states were allowed. Bohr then attempted to understand periodicity through electron configurations, surmising in 1913 that the inner electrons should be responsible for the chemical properties of the element. In 1913, he produced the first electronic periodic table based on a quantum atom.\nBohr called his electron shells \"rings\" in 1913: atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model. Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing, \"We see, further, that a ring of n electrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge ne unless n < 8.\" For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: \"rings of electrons will only join if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8.\" However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons: \"on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neon N = 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur.\" His proposed electron configurations for the atoms (shown to the right) mostly do not accord with those now known. They were improved further after the work of Arnold Sommerfeld and Edmund Stoner discovered more quantum numbers.\n\nThe first one to systematically expand and correct the chemical potentials of Bohr's atomic theory was Walther Kossel in 1914 and in 1916. Kossel explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell. In Kossel's paper, he writes: \"This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged. As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.\"\nIn a 1919 paper, Irving Langmuir postulated the existence of \"cells\" which we now call orbitals, which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers\" which we now call shells. He made an exception for the first shell to only contain two electrons. The chemist Charles Rugeley Bury suggested in 1921 that eight and eighteen electrons in a shell form stable configurations. Bury proposed that the electron configurations in transitional elements depended upon the valence electrons in their outer shell. He introduced the word transition to describe the elements now known as transition metals or transition elements. Bohr's theory was vindicated by the discovery of element 72: Georges Urbain claimed to have discovered it as the rare earth element celtium, but Bury and Bohr had predicted that element 72 could not be a rare earth element and had to be a homologue of zirconium. Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy searched for the element in zirconium ores and found element 72, which they named hafnium after Bohr's hometown of Copenhagen (Hafnia in Latin). Urbain's celtium proved to be simply purified lutetium (element 71). Hafnium and rhenium thus became the last stable elements to be discovered.\nPrompted by Bohr, Wolfgang Pauli took up the problem of electron configurations in 1923. Pauli extended Bohr's scheme to use four quantum numbers, and formulated his exclusion principle which stated that no two electrons could have the same four quantum numbers. This explained the lengths of the periods in the periodic table (2, 8, 18, and 32), which corresponded to the number of electrons that each shell could occupy. In 1925, Friedrich Hund arrived at configurations close to the modern ones. As a result of these advances, periodicity became based on the number of chemically active or valence electrons rather than by the valences of the elements. The Aufbau principle that describes the electron configurations of the elements was first empirically observed by Erwin Madelung in 1926, though the first to publish it was Vladimir Karapetoff in 1930. In 1961, Vsevolod Klechkovsky derived the first part of the Madelung rule (that orbitals fill in order of increasing n + ℓ) from the Thomas–Fermi model; the complete rule was derived from a similar potential in 1971 by Yury N. Demkov and Valentin N. Ostrovsky.\n\nThe quantum theory clarified the transition metals and lanthanides as forming their own separate groups, transitional between the main groups, although some chemists had already proposed tables showing them this way before then: the English chemist Henry Bassett did so in 1892, the Danish chemist Julius Thomsen in 1895, and the Swiss chemist Alfred Werner in 1905. Bohr used Thomsen's form in his 1922 Nobel Lecture; Werner's form is very similar to the modern 32-column form. In particular, this supplanted Brauner's asteroidal hypothesis.\nThe exact position of the lanthanides, and thus the composition of group 3, remained under dispute for decades longer because their electron configurations were initially measured incorrectly. On chemical grounds Bassett, Werner, and Bury grouped scandium and yttrium with lutetium rather than lanthanum (the former two left an empty space below yttrium as lutetium had not yet been discovered). Hund assumed in 1927 that all the lanthanide atoms had configuration [Xe]4f0−145d16s2, on account of their prevailing trivalency. It is now known that the relationship between chemistry and electron configuration is more complicated than that. Early spectroscopic evidence seemed to confirm these configurations, and thus the periodic table was structured to have group 3 as scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and actinium, with fourteen f-elements breaking up the d-block between lanthanum and hafnium. But it was later discovered that this is only true for four of the fifteen lanthanides (lanthanum, cerium, gadolinium, and lutetium), and that the other lanthanide atoms do not have a d-electron. In particular, ytterbium completes the 4f shell and thus Soviet physicists Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz noted in 1948 that lutetium is correctly regarded as a d-block rather than an f-block element; that bulk lanthanum is an f-metal was first suggested by Jun Kondō in 1963, on the grounds of its low-temperature superconductivity. This clarified the importance of looking at low-lying excited states of atoms that can play a role in chemical environments when classifying elements by block and positioning them on the table. Many authors subsequently rediscovered this correction based on physical, chemical, and electronic concerns and applied it to all the relevant elements, thus making group 3 contain scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrencium and having lanthanum through ytterbium and actinium through nobelium as the f-block rows: this corrected version achieves consistency with the Madelung rule and vindicates Bassett, Werner, and Bury's initial chemical placement.\nIn 1988, IUPAC released a report supporting this composition of group 3, a decision that was reaffirmed in 2021. Variation can still be found in textbooks on the composition of group 3, and some argumentation against this format is still published today, but chemists and physicists who have considered the matter largely agree on group 3 containing scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrencium and challenge the counterarguments as being inconsistent.\n\nSynthetic elements\nBy 1936, the pool of missing elements from hydrogen to uranium had shrunk to four: elements 43, 61, 85, and 87 remained missing. Element 43 eventually became the first element to be synthesized artificially via nuclear reactions rather than discovered in nature. It was discovered in 1937 by Italian chemists Emilio Segrè and Carlo Perrier, who named their discovery technetium, after the Greek word for \"artificial\". Elements 61 (promethium) and 85 (astatine) were likewise produced artificially in 1945 and 1940 respectively; element 87 (francium) became the last element to be discovered in nature, by French chemist Marguerite Perey in 1939. The elements beyond uranium were likewise discovered artificially, starting with Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson's 1940 discovery of neptunium (via bombardment of uranium with neutrons). Glenn T. Seaborg and his team at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) continued discovering transuranium elements, starting with plutonium in 1941, and discovered that contrary to previous thinking, the elements from actinium onwards were congeners of the lanthanides rather than transition metals. Bassett (1892), Werner (1905), and the French engineer Charles Janet (1928) had previously suggested this, but their ideas did not then receive general acceptance. Seaborg thus called them the actinides. Elements up to 101 (named mendelevium in honour of Mendeleev) were synthesized up to 1955, either through neutron or alpha-particle irradiation, or in nuclear explosions in the cases of 99 (einsteinium) and 100 (fermium).\nA significant controversy arose with elements 102 through 106 in the 1960s and 1970s, as competition arose between the LBNL team (now led by Albert Ghiorso) and a team of Soviet scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) led by Georgy Flyorov. Each team claimed discovery, and in some cases each proposed their own name for the element, creating an element naming controversy that lasted decades. These elements were made by bombardment of actinides with light ions. IUPAC at first adopted a hands-off approach, preferring to wait and see if a consensus would be forthcoming. But as it was also the height of the Cold War, it became clear that this would not happen. As such, IUPAC and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) created a Transfermium Working Group (TWG, fermium being element 100) in 1985 to set out criteria for discovery, which were published in 1991. After some further controversy, these elements received their final names in 1997, including seaborgium (106) in honour of Seaborg.\n\nThe TWG's criteria were used to arbitrate later element discovery claims from LBNL and JINR, as well as from research institutes in Germany (GSI) and Japan (Riken). Currently, consideration of discovery claims is performed by a IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party. After priority was assigned, the elements were officially added to the periodic table, and the discoverers were invited to propose their names. By 2016, this had occurred for all elements up to 118, therefore completing the periodic table's first seven rows. The discoveries of elements beyond 106 were made possible by techniques devised by Yuri Oganessian at the JINR: cold fusion (bombardment of lead and bismuth by heavy ions) made possible the 1981–2004 discoveries of elements 107 through 112 at GSI and 113 at Riken, and he led the JINR team (in collaboration with American scientists) to discover elements 114 through 118 using hot fusion (bombardment of actinides by calcium ions) in 1998–2010. The heaviest known element, oganesson (118), is named in Oganessian's honour. Element 114 is named flerovium in honour of his predecessor and mentor Flyorov.\nIn celebration of the periodic table's 150th anniversary, the United Nations declared the year 2019 as the International Year of the Periodic Table, celebrating \"one of the most significant achievements in science\". The discovery criteria set down by the TWG were updated in 2020 in response to experimental and theoretical progress that had not been foreseen in 1991. Today, the periodic table is among the most recognisable icons of chemistry. IUPAC is involved today with many processes relating to the periodic table: the recognition and naming of new elements, recommending group numbers and collective names, and the updating of atomic weights.\n\nFuture extension beyond the seventh period\nThe most recently named elements – nihonium (113), moscovium (115), tennessine (117), and oganesson (118) – completed the seventh row of the periodic table. Future elements would have to begin an eighth row. These elements may be referred to either by their atomic numbers (e.g. \"element 164\"), or by the IUPAC systematic element names adopted in 1978, which directly relate to the atomic numbers (e.g. \"unhexquadium\" for element 164, derived from Latin unus \"one\", Greek hexa \"six\", Latin quadra \"four\", and the traditional -ium suffix for metallic elements). All attempts to synthesize such elements have failed so far. An attempt to make element 119 has been ongoing since 2018 at the Riken research institute in Japan. The LBNL in the United States, the JINR in Russia, and the Heavy Ion Research Facility in Lanzhou (HIRFL) in China also plan to make their own attempts at synthesizing the first few period 8 elements.\nIf the eighth period followed the pattern set by the earlier periods, then it would contain fifty elements, filling the 8s, 5g, 6f, 7d, and finally 8p subshells in that order. But by this point, relativistic effects should result in significant deviations from the Madelung rule. Various different models have been suggested for the configurations of eighth-period elements, as well as how to show the results in a periodic table. All agree that the eighth period should begin like the previous ones with two 8s elements, 119 and 120. However, after that the massive energetic overlaps between the 5g, 6f, 7d, and 8p subshells means that they all begin to fill together, and it is not clear how to separate out specific 5g and 6f series. Elements 121 through 156 thus do not fit well as chemical analogues of any previous group in the earlier parts of the table, although they have sometimes been placed as 5g, 6f, and other series to formally reflect their electron configurations. Eric Scerri has raised the question of whether an extended periodic table should take into account the failure of the Madelung rule in this region, or if such exceptions should be ignored. The shell structure may also be fairly formal at this point: already the electron distribution in an oganesson atom is expected to be rather uniform, with no discernible shell structure.\nThe situation from elements 157 to 172 should return to normalcy and be more reminiscent of the earlier rows. The heavy p-shells are split by the spin–orbit interaction: one p-orbital (p1/2) is more stabilized, and the other two (p3/2) are destabilized. (Such shifts in the quantum numbers happen for all types of shells, but it makes the biggest difference to the order for the p-shells.) It is likely that by element 157, the filled 8s and 8p1/2 shells with four electrons in total have sunk into the core. Beyond the core, the next orbitals are 7d and 9s at similar energies, followed by 9p1/2 and 8p3/2 at similar energies, and then a large gap. Thus, the 9s and 9p1/2 orbitals in essence replace the 8s and 8p1/2 ones, making elements 157–172 probably chemically analogous to groups 3–18: for example, element 164 would appear two places below lead in group 14 under the usual pattern, but is calculated to be very analogous to palladium in group 10 instead. Thus, it takes fifty-four elements rather than fifty to reach the next noble element after 118. However, while these conclusions about elements 157 through 172's chemistry are generally agreed by models, there is disagreement on whether the periodic table should be drawn to reflect chemical analogies, or if it should reflect likely formal electron configurations, which should be quite different from earlier periods and are not agreed between sources. Discussion about the format of the eighth row thus continues.\nBeyond element 172, calculation is complicated by the 1s electron energy level becoming imaginary. Such a situation does have physical interpretation, and does not in itself pose an electronic limit to the periodic table, but the correct way to incorporate such states into multi-electron calculations is still an open problem. This would need to be solved to continue calculating the periodic table's structure beyond this point.\nNuclear stability will likely prove a decisive factor constraining the number of possible elements. It depends on the balance between the electric repulsion between protons and the strong force binding protons and neutrons together. Protons and neutrons are arranged in shells, just like electrons, and so a closed shell can significantly increase stability: the known superheavy nuclei exist because of such a shell closure, probably at around 114–126 protons and 184 neutrons. They are probably close to a predicted island of stability, where superheavy nuclides should be more long-lived than expected: predictions for the longest-lived nuclides on the island range from microseconds to millions of years. It should nonetheless be noted that these are essentially extrapolations into an unknown part of the chart of nuclides, and systematic model uncertainties need to be taken into account.\nAs the closed shells are passed, the stabilizing effect should vanish: thus, superheavy nuclides with more than 184 neutrons are expected to have much shorter lifetimes, spontaneously fissioning within 10−15 seconds. If this is so, then it would not make sense to consider them chemical elements: IUPAC defines an element to exist only if the nucleus lives longer than 10−14 seconds, the time needed for it to gather an electron cloud. Nonetheless, theoretical estimates of half-lives are very model-dependent, ranging over many orders of magnitude. The extreme repulsion between protons is predicted to result in exotic nuclear topologies, with bubbles, rings, and tori expected: this further complicates extrapolation. It is not clear if any further-out shell closures exist, due to an expected smearing out of distinct nuclear shells (as is already expected for the electron shells at oganesson). Furthermore, even if later shell closures exist, it is not clear if they would allow such heavy elements to exist. As such, it may be that the periodic table practically ends around element 120, as elements become too short-lived to observe, and then too short-lived to have chemistry; the era of discovering new elements would thus be close to its end. If another proton shell closure beyond 126 does exist, then it probably occurs around 164; thus the region where periodicity fails more or less matches the region of instability between the shell closures.\nAlternatively, quark matter may become stable at high mass numbers, in which the nucleus is composed of freely flowing up and down quarks instead of binding them into protons and neutrons; this would create a continent of stability instead of an island. Other effects may come into play: for example, in very heavy elements the 1s electrons are likely to spend a significant amount of time so close to the nucleus that they are actually inside it, which would make them vulnerable to electron capture.\nEven if eighth-row elements can exist, producing them is likely to be difficult, and it should become even more difficult as atomic number rises. Although the 8s elements 119 and 120 are expected to be reachable with present means, the elements beyond that are expected to require new technology, if they can be produced at all. Experimentally characterizing these elements chemically would also pose a great challenge.\n\nAlternative periodic tables\nThe periodic law may be represented in multiple ways, of which the standard periodic table is only one. Within 100 years of the appearance of Mendeleev's table in 1869, Edward G. Mazurs had collected an estimated 700 different published versions of the periodic table. Many forms retain the rectangular structure, including Charles Janet's left-step periodic table (pictured below), and the modernised form of Mendeleev's original 8-column layout that is still common in Russia. Other periodic table formats have been shaped much more exotically, such as spirals (Otto Theodor Benfey's pictured to the right), circles and triangles.\nAlternative periodic tables are often developed to highlight or emphasize chemical or physical properties of the elements that are not as apparent in traditional periodic tables, with different ones skewed more towards emphasizing chemistry or physics at either end. The standard form, which remains by far the most common, is somewhere in the middle.\nThe many different forms of the periodic table have prompted the questions of whether there is an optimal or definitive form of the periodic table, and if so, what it might be. There are no current consensus answers to either question. Janet's left-step table is being increasingly discussed as a candidate for being the optimal or most fundamental form; Scerri has written in support of it, as it clarifies helium's nature as an s-block element, increases regularity by having all period lengths repeated, faithfully follows Madelung's rule by making each period correspond to one value of n + ℓ, and regularises atomic number triads and the first-row anomaly trend. While he notes that its placement of helium atop the alkaline earth metals can be seen a disadvantage from a chemical perspective, he counters this by appealing to the first-row anomaly, pointing out that the periodic table \"fundamentally reduces to quantum mechanics\", and that it is concerned with \"abstract elements\" and hence atomic properties rather than macroscopic properties.\n\nSee also\nNucleosynthesis\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nPeriodic Table featured topic page on Science History Institute Digital Collections featuring select visual representations of the periodic table of the elements, with an emphasis on alternative layouts including circular, cylindrical, pyramidal, spiral, and triangular forms.\nIUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements\nDynamic periodic table, with interactive layouts\nEric Scerri, leading philosopher of science specializing in the history and philosophy of the periodic table\nThe Internet Database of Periodic Tables\nPeriodic table of endangered elements\nPeriodic table of samples\nPeriodic table of videos Archived 3 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine\nWebElements\nThe Periodic Graphics of Elements",
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"paragraph_text": "Dog walking is the act of a person walking with a dog, typically from the dog's residence and then returning. Leashes are commonly used for this. Both owners and pets receive many benefits, including exercise and companionship.\n\nDescription\nDogs are restrained by a collar around their neck or a harness, or by simply following their guardian with familiarity and verbal control. Commonly, the dog is walked by the guardian or another family member, but there are also professional dog walkers.\nDog owners can also go hiking with their dogs. Many trails mandate that the dogs are on leash, in view of the dogs' safety and the safety of other hikers.\n\nHealth benefits\nA study by Michigan State University showed that people who walk their dogs are 34% more likely to meet expected goals of exercise, with a recommended level of 150 minutes of activity such as dog walking per week. Matthew Reeves, the co-author of the study said, \"There is no magic bullet in getting people to reach those benchmarks but walking a dog has a measurable impact.\"\nResearch conducted by the University of Western Australia has suggested that a higher rate of dog walking within a community tends to cause more interpersonal relationships within that community. The research suggested that people in the community would acknowledge and greet other people in the street, and exchange favors with neighbors, which could possibly encourage more exercise in the community, by giving pets and owners a chance at a healthier lifestyle.\n\nProfessional dog walkers\nProfessional dog walkers, both individuals and businesses, are paid by dog owners to walk their dogs for them. Some dog walkers will take many dogs for a walk at once, while others will only take a single dog. The length of a walk might vary by breed or owner's request, ranging from short walks intended to last no longer than the time it takes for the dog to relieve itself of waste, to longer walks with a specific amount of time set by the owner.\n\"The length of walks should take into account the dog's age and health status. Long walks (over 1 hour) should not be undertaken by dogs under 12 months of age for smaller breeds, up to 18 months for large breeds, to protect their bones and joints while they are still growing.\" Also growing in popularity is \"dog running\". Dog runners are professionals who run with dogs, rather than walking with them. In some jurisdictions, dog walking businesses must be licensed and have employees trained in animal first aid. Professional dog walking services can be obtained locally or through online referral services. Obtaining a position as a professional dog walker has become more demanding, with applicants having to go through extensive training. However, whether or not licensing or training is required, all dog walkers who walk other people's dogs must be aware of best practices such as using a fixed-length leash and weather considerations.\nIn the United States, the first professional dog walker is believed to have been Jim Buck, who in 1960 launched his dog walking service in New York City.\n\nContested dog walks\nMuch research outlines the benefits of dog walking for the dog and human alike, promoting mental and physical well-being and sociability. However, dogs that display aggression undermines these benefits, “extracting a considerable social and emotional toll for people”.\n\nSee also\nPet sitting\nPet taxi\nDog daycare\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n Media related to Dog walking at Wikimedia Commons",
"title": "Dog_walking"
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"paragraph_text": "A leash (also called a lead, lead line or tether) is a rope or similar material used to control an animal by attaching it to a collar, harness, or halter. In British English, a leash is generally for a larger (possibly dangerous or aggressive) animal, with lead being more commonly used when walking a dog.\n\nTypes of leashes\nLeashes take many forms; for example:\n\nA simple metal chain.\nVery short tab leashes; a clip attached to a loop handle or to a short piece of leather with a knot or similar short handle. Allows very close, tight control of a dog in certain competition or training situations.\nShort, soft, braided leather leash with a loop handle and a clip to attach to the collar, usually about 4 feet in length, commonly used during obedience training. The softness enables the trainer to fold the leash into a shorter length and the braiding allows a firmer grip.\nNylon webbing leash, also known as a tracking/training leash in the UK, usually 4 to 6 feet, with a loop handle and clip, most commonly used for walking dogs casually.\nExtended-length webbing leashes, 12 to 30 feet or more, also known as a tracking/training leash in the UK, usually with a loop handle and a clip, primarily for training at a distance or during tracking sessions.\nSlip-leash, usually with a loop handle and an adjustable, slipping loop at the other end that goes around the dog's neck. Often used in work or competitions—such as dog agility—where the leash must be quickly removed and replaced.\nRetractable, a hook on a thin rope that retracts automatically into a large plastic handle, allowing the dog to wander 15 or 25 feet away while keeping the leash taut (in theory preventing it from tangling around obstacles or the dog's legs) but still allowing the handler to reel in the dog for closer control.\nThere are also bicycle dog leashes, especially designed for people who enjoy taking their pet on a ride with the bike. The leash is an aluminum tube with a plastic coated cable which runs down through the tube. It extends out of the tube end a couple of feet to allow for ease of movement for the dog. One end connects to the bike and the other to the dog's collar. This keeps them safely away from the bike. While bicycle leashes might be suitable for some dogs, they aren't a good idea for all breeds. There are numerous safety considerations before attempting to bike with a dog.\nCat leashes and harnesses are also available on the market and are convenient for people who are not comfortable letting their pet free.\n\nLeash laws in the United States\nMany cities have passed legislation that requires dogs to be on leash in public areas; in some areas, cats are also required to be restrained (under control) on a leash, in a kennel, or in a cat-proof yard or house.\nPurposes of a leash include: preventing animals from frightening or biting people or other animals, defecating and urinating in inappropriate places, endangering traffic, digging up lawns, causing other damage, getting lost, and getting away from owners. Leashes also provide a clear method of communication and ensure control during training of dogs.\n\nIn the United States, leash laws are different within each state. While some states do not have statewide leash laws and give localities power to make leash law, there are some other states in which leash laws apply statewide.\nStates that do not have statewide leash laws are Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming.\nIn Connecticut, dogs are not permitted to run at large except in the situation of hunting. Still, if the dog has vicious propensities and the owner still allows it to run at large and a person is bitten, the owner can be fined for up to $1,000 and is also liable for 6 months of prison unless the victim has abused the dog and provoked the harmful behavior.\nIn Delaware, dogs are not allowed to run at large unless in situations when the owner is present and has control over the pet. An exception is for farm dogs. Also, during the night dogs must be kept in an enclosure from which they cannot escape, firmly secured with a collar or chain or other device, so they cannot stray from the premises, or are under the reasonable control of the owner or custodian. If an owner does not respect these laws and if the dog bites someone, the owner is subject to civil liability and for fines of up to $1,500.\nDogs in the District of Columbia must be kept on a leash as well. They are also not permitted on school grounds when school is in session or on any public recreation area without a leash.\nIndiana is one of the states that has a restraint statute, which means that dogs must be restrained at all times. Otherwise, if the dog bites a person when not restrained the owner is subject to civil liability and criminal penalties.\nDogs are allowed to run at large during the night in Kentucky only if they are accompanied by and under control of their owner.\nAccording to the leash laws of Louisiana, dogs are prohibited to run at large at all times of the day. The same law applies in Maine, where the only exception is for hunting dogs.\nMissouri legislation requires that dogs are kept in leashes that are no longer than 10 feet when they are in state parks or on historic sites. Also, dogs that have rabies are not permitted to run at large.\nIn Nebraska, dogs may run at large only in counties where the population does not reach 80,000.\nNew Hampshire legislation does not allow dogs to run at large unless they are accompanied by their owner or custodian or when dogs are used for training or are trained for hunting, herding or exhibitions.\nIllinois legislation prohibits owners from walking their dogs when they are not in a leash.\nDogs in New York must be restrained or confined at all times of the day. However, certain NYC parks allow dogs off leash at certain hours.\nAccording to the North Carolina law, dogs are allowed to run at large during the night only if they are accompanied by their owner or a person who has received the owner's permission to do so.\nOhio law requires one to \"keep the dog under the reasonable control of some person,\" but does not require a leash except for \"any female dog … at any time the dog is in heat.\" There are additional provisions for \"dangerous dogs\" that have injured a person or killed another dog.\nSome Oregon counties and cities have leash ordinances that can be used to hold dog owners responsible for injuries resulting from their animal attacking or biting a person while running at large. These ordinances expand upon Oregon law, under which dog owners have limited responsibility for injuries caused by their dogs unless the owner was aware that the animal is abnormally dangerous.\nPennsylvania legislation states that dogs must be confined or firmly secured or reasonably controlled by a person, within the property of the owner.\nTennessee law prohibits dogs to run at large except in cases in which dogs are engaged in legal hunting or herding.\nWest Virginia and Wisconsin are states that do not have a law that requires dogs to be leashed. Still, they do have laws that hold dog owners and keepers liable for all damages caused by dogs that are permitted to run at large.\nDifferent law applies to dangerous dogs and female dogs as in different states they are prohibited to run at large at all times. Also, in states such as Connecticut and Louisiana, guide dogs must also be leashed.\n\nDog leashes\nDog leashes are used to walk the dog in public places. Having the dog wear a leash is a way of protecting the dog and other persons (e.g., if the dog runs away and bites someone). The length is one of the important aspects of the leash. The length of the leash must be chosen according to the size of the dog and it is important because it allows a good control. Leashes should not be either too long or too short. Too-long leashes do not provide good control of the pet whereas too-short leashes are uncomfortable for both the dog and the owner. The perfect leash can restrain the dog but at the same time is not viewed as a punishment for the pet.\nHigh quality dog leashes have a good quality metal clip and they can be made of leather, nylon or even chain. The metal clip must securely fasten to a metal ring on the collar in order to maintain good control of the dog. The material of which the leash is made of is not of great importance as long as the leash does not show evidence of wear or fraying. Therefore, leashes should be periodically checked to ensure they are maintained in proper condition.\nAn important aspect of dog leashes is their sturdiness. Although rope leashes are quite cheap, they are vulnerable to chewing and fraying and are not amongst the most recommended types of leashes. Nylon leashes are recommended; this material provides a bit of elasticity which is meant to result in more comfort for the dog. On the other hand, nylon leashes can cause chafe or can cut into the skin of the dog.\nLeather leashes are often preferred over the nylon ones because of the resistance of the material and because it becomes more flexible with age and it is softer. Leather is however more prone to be chewed when compared to nylon.\nThe retractable dog leash is one of the most dangerous leashes for the dogs because they allow them to go as far as they want. Retractable leashes are usually made of nylon and the retractable device is made of plastic or a stronger composite. Although these leashes can be convenient for both the dog and the owner as it allows some control, they make it difficult to keep a dog under control which can result in persons or other dogs being attacked. Aggressive dogs should not be walked with such a leash, and puppies should be kept closely to ensure their protection from various dangers such as cars. Dogs with a tendency to bolt without warning should be walked with caution, as a retractable lead can allow the dog to accelerate to significant speed before being stopped, presenting the possibility of injury to both dog and owner.\nSome leashes are made of reflective materials and are suitable for walking the dog at night. They are convenient because they make the dog and the owner much more visible in the traffic, reducing the likelihood of accidents.\n\nCat leashes\nCat leashes are used with the purpose of preventing the cat getting lost. Unlike dogs, cats rarely attack persons on the street, so cat leashes are mainly a safety measure to protect the pet itself. Very often the collars are replaced with harnesses, because they avoid the dangers of collars which include escaping and running away or choking. Cats are more likely to not be willing to be walked in a harness than dogs are, and are considered to need up to months to be able to adjust to wearing a harness.\nCat leashes come in a variety of colors, designs and models and are made of different materials. There are cat leashes made of leather, nylon and rope. Whereas the leather leash is one of the best qualities because of the characteristics of the material, it is also one of the most expensive and not very comfortable for the cat at the same time. Nylon cat leashes and harnesses are, however, more elastic, and thus more comfortable and also provide more control.\n\nLeashes for large animals\nLeashes are used on large animals—such as bovids, camelids, and equids—to lead them so that they will be forced to follow and come to a desired area—as well as to tether them to a specific area, such as to a fencepost or tree trunk, so that they will remain stationary and not run away. Oftentimes, leashes are used to tether such animals when they require separation, examination, or work to be done to them, such as grooming and tacking up.\n\nNotes\nDog leashes date back a very long time, both in art and written record, as a Proto-cuneiform tablet, Jemdet Nasr period, c. 3100–2900 BC features a \"figure guiding two dogs on a leash and hunting or herding boars in a reed marsh\".\nAmong hunters, a collection of three hares (\"a brace and a half\" or tierce) or three creatures of any kind, especially greyhounds, foxes, and deer, is called \"a leash\".\nChild leashes, attached to child harnesses, ensure that young children do not wander far away from their guardians. The metal clip is attached to the harness that the child wears, while the other end containing the loop is held by the guardian.\n\nSee also\nChild harness\nCoiling\nCreance\nFiador (tack)\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Leash"
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] | Which element of the periodic table is a homonym of a synonym of a tool commonly used in dog walking? | [] | Lead | [] | true |
469 | [
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"paragraph_text": "South Korea competed as Republic of Korea at the 2006 Winter Olympics, while North Korea competed as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. At the opening ceremony, the athletes of both North and South Korea entered the stadium together behind the Korean Unification Flag.\n\nMedalists\nIn terms of medal count, South Korea is the only Asian country in the top ten.\nTen of the eleven medals were won in short track speed skating. Short track speedskaters Jin Sun-yu and Ahn Hyun-soo were the second and third people to win three gold medals each in Turin. Ahn also won a bronze.\n\nAlpine skiing\nBiathlon\nCross-country skiing\nDistance\n\nSprint\n\nFreestyle skiing\nLuge\nShort track speed skating\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nSkeleton\nSki jumping\nSpeed skating\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nReferences\n\nYahoo! Sports – 2006 Winter Olympics – South Korea at the Wayback Machine (archive index)",
"title": "South_Korea_at_the_2006_Winter_Olympics"
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"paragraph_text": "South Korea, as Republic of Korea, competed at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, United States.\n\nMedalists\nAlpine skiing\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nBiathlon\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nCross-country skiing\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nFigure skating\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nMixed\n\nLuge\nMen\n\nShort track speed skating\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nSkeleton\nMen\n\nSki jumping\nMen\n\nSpeed skating\nMen\n\nWomen\n\nReferences\nOfficial Olympic Reports Archived 2007-06-12 at the Wayback Machine\nInternational Olympic Committee results database",
"title": "South_Korea_at_the_2002_Winter_Olympics"
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] | Which South Korean Cross-country skier had the highest rank at the Olympics in the Men's 15 km, among South Korean skiers only, between 2002 and 2006? | [] | Park Byeong-ju | [] | true |
513 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She had been queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime and was the monarch of 15 realms at her death. Her reign of 70 years and 214 days is the longest of any British monarch and the second-longest of any sovereign state.\nElizabeth was born in Mayfair, London, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King George V. She was the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). Her father acceded to the throne in 1936 upon the abdication of his brother Edward VIII, making the ten-year-old Princess Elizabeth the heir presumptive. She was educated privately at home and began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In November 1947, she married Philip Mountbatten, a former prince of Greece and Denmark. Their marriage lasted 73 years until his death in 2021. They had four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward.\nWhen her father died in February 1952, Elizabeth, then 25 years old, became queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (known today as Sri Lanka), as well as head of the Commonwealth. Elizabeth reigned as a constitutional monarch through major political changes such as the Troubles in Northern Ireland, devolution in the United Kingdom, the decolonisation of Africa, and the United Kingdom's accession to the European Communities as well as its subsequent withdrawal. The number of her realms varied over time as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. As queen, Elizabeth was served by more than 170 prime ministers across her realms. Her many historic visits and meetings included state visits to China in 1986, to Russia in 1994, and to the Republic of Ireland in 2011, and meetings with five popes and fourteen US presidents.\nSignificant events included her coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of her Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum jubilees. Although there was occasional republican sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the breakdowns of her children's marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992, and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana—support for the monarchy and her personal popularity in the United Kingdom remained consistently high. Elizabeth died aged 96 at Balmoral Castle, and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III.\n\nEarly life\nElizabeth was born on 21 April 1926, the first child of Prince Albert, Duke of York (later King George VI), and his wife, Elizabeth, Duchess of York (later Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). Her father was the second son of King George V and Queen Mary, and her mother was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and Kinghorne. She was delivered at 02:40 (GMT) by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfather's London home, 17 Bruton Street in Mayfair. The Anglican Archbishop of York, Cosmo Gordon Lang, baptised her in the private chapel of Buckingham Palace on 29 May, and she was named Elizabeth after her mother; Alexandra after her paternal great-grandmother, who had died six months earlier; and Mary after her paternal grandmother. She was called \"Lilibet\" by her close family, based on what she called herself at first. She was cherished by her grandfather George V, whom she affectionately called \"Grandpa England\", and her regular visits during his serious illness in 1929 were credited in the popular press and by later biographers with raising his spirits and aiding his recovery.\n\nElizabeth's only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature, and music. Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility. Others echoed such observations: Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as \"a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant.\" Her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as \"a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved\". Elizabeth's early life was spent primarily at the Yorks' residences at 145 Piccadilly (their town house in London) and Royal Lodge in Windsor.\n\nHeir presumptive\nDuring her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the British throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as Edward was still young and likely to marry and have children of his own, who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second in line to the throne, after her father. Later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, taking the regnal name George VI. Since Elizabeth had no brothers, she became heir presumptive. If her parents had subsequently had a son, he would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession, which was determined by the male-preference primogeniture in effect at the time.\nElizabeth received private tuition in constitutional history from Henry Marten, Vice-Provost of Eton College, and learned French from a succession of native-speaking governesses. A Girl Guides company, the 1st Buckingham Palace Company, was formed specifically so she could socialise with girls her age. Later, she was enrolled as a Sea Ranger.\nIn 1939, Elizabeth's parents toured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when they had toured Australia and New Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain since her father thought she was too young to undertake public tours. She \"looked tearful\" as her parents departed. They corresponded regularly, and she and her parents made the first royal transatlantic telephone call on 18 May.\n\nSecond World War\nIn September 1939, Britain entered the Second World War. Lord Hailsham suggested that Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret should be evacuated to Canada to avoid the frequent aerial bombings of London by the Luftwaffe. This was rejected by their mother, who declared, \"The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave.\" The princesses stayed at Balmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved to Sandringham House, Norfolk. From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving to Windsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years. At Windsor, the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which bought yarn to knit into military garments. In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during the BBC's Children's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities. She stated: \"We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers, and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our own share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well.\"\nIn 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to the Grenadier Guards, of which she had been appointed colonel the previous year. As she approached her 18th birthday, Parliament changed the law so that she could act as one of five counsellors of state in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944. In February 1945, she was appointed an honorary second subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with the service number 230873. She trained as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander (female equivalent of captain at the time) five months later.\n\nAt the end of the war in Europe, on Victory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and Margaret mingled incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of London. In 1985, Elizabeth recalled in a rare interview, \"... we asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking down Whitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief.\"\nDuring the war, plans were drawn to quell Welsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable of Caernarfon Castle or a patron of Urdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for several reasons, including fear of associating Elizabeth with conscientious objectors in the Urdd at a time when Britain was at war. Welsh politicians suggested she be made Princess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home Secretary Herbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of a Prince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent. In 1946, she was inducted into the Gorsedd of Bards at the National Eisteddfod of Wales.\nElizabeth went on her first overseas tour in 1947, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, in a broadcast to the British Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge:\n\nI declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong. But I shall not have strength to carry out this resolution alone unless you join in it with me, as I now invite you to do: I know that your support will be unfailingly given. God help me to make good my vow, and God bless all of you who are willing to share in it.\n\nMarriage\nElizabeth met her future husband, Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, in 1934 and again in 1937. They were second cousins once removed through King Christian IX of Denmark and third cousins through Queen Victoria. After meeting for the third time at the Royal Naval College in Dartmouth in July 1939, Elizabeth—though only 13 years old—said she fell in love with Philip, who was 18, and they began to exchange letters. She was 21 when their engagement was officially announced on 9 July 1947.\nThe engagement attracted some controversy. Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though a British subject who had served in the Royal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen with Nazi links. Marion Crawford wrote, \"Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin.\" Later biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother had reservations about the union initially and teased Philip as \"the Hun\". In later life, however, she told the biographer Tim Heald that Philip was \"an English gentleman\".\n\nBefore the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Anglicanism, and adopted the style Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, taking the surname of his mother's British family. Shortly before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh and granted the style His Royal Highness. Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 at Westminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world. Elizabeth required ration coupons to buy the material for her gown (which was designed by Norman Hartnell) because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war. In post-war Britain, it was not acceptable for Philip's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding. Neither was an invitation extended to the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII.\nElizabeth gave birth to her first child, Prince Charles, in November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issued letters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled as their father was no longer a royal prince. A second child, Princess Anne, was born in August 1950.\nFollowing their wedding, the couple leased Windlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949, when they took up residence at Clarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, Philip was stationed in the British Crown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in the hamlet of Gwardamanġa, at Villa Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncle Lord Mountbatten. Their two children remained in Britain.\n\nReign\nAccession and coronation\nAs George VI's health declined during 1951, Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she visited Canada and Harry S. Truman in Washington, DC, in October 1951, her private secretary Martin Charteris carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour. In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of the British colony of Kenya. On 6 February, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of Elizabeth's father. Philip broke the news to the new queen. She chose to retain Elizabeth as her regnal name, and was therefore called Elizabeth II. The numeral offended some Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in Scotland. She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms, and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom. Elizabeth and Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.\nWith Elizabeth's accession, it seemed possible that the royal house would take her husband's name, in line with the custom for married women of the time. Lord Mountbatten advocated for House of Mountbatten, and Philip suggested House of Edinburgh, after his ducal title. The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of the House of Windsor. Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that the royal house would continue to be Windsor. Philip complained, \"I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children.\" In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.\nAmid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior with two sons from his previous marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait for a year; in the words of her private secretary, \"the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out.\" Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession. Margaret decided to abandon her plans with Townsend. In 1960, she married Antony Armstrong-Jones, who was created Earl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; Margaret did not remarry.\nDespite Queen Mary's death on 24 March 1953, the coronation went ahead as planned on 2 June, as Mary had requested. The coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey was televised for the first time, with the exception of the anointing and communion. On Elizabeth's instruction, her coronation gown was embroidered with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries.\n\nEarly reign\nFrom Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations. By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established. In 1953, Elizabeth and Philip embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km) by land, sea and air. She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations. During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her. Throughout her reign, she made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelled head of state.\nIn 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted, and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union. In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said that Elizabeth was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.\n\nThe governing Conservative Party had no formal mechanism for choosing a leader, meaning that it fell to Elizabeth to decide whom to commission to form a government following Eden's resignation. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the lord president of the council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the lord chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Churchill, and the chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in Elizabeth appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.\nThe Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the first major personal criticism of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he owned and edited, Lord Altrincham accused her of being \"out of touch\". Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments. Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised Elizabeth to appoint Alec Douglas-Home as the prime minister, advice she followed. Elizabeth again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister. In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving the Queen of her involvement.\n\nIn 1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session. Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada. In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran. On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins. Harold Macmillan wrote, \"The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen.\" Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination. No assassination attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; her \"calmness and courage in the face of the violence\" was noted.\nElizabeth gave birth to her third child, Prince Andrew, in February 1960; this was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857. Her fourth child, Prince Edward, was born in March 1964.\n\nPolitical reforms and crises\nThe 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing \"loyalty and devotion\" to Elizabeth. Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade. As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.\nIn 1966, the Queen was criticised for waiting eight days before visiting the village of Aberfan, where a mining disaster killed 116 children and 28 adults. Martin Charteris said that the delay, made on his advice, was a mistake that she later regretted.\nElizabeth toured Yugoslavia in October 1972, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist country. She was received at the airport by President Josip Broz Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in Belgrade.\nIn February 1974, British prime minister Edward Heath advised Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain. The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered, Heath resigned, and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.\nA year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals. As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the governor-general. The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.\n\nIn 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed Elizabeth's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband, Lord Snowdon. In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena, though privately she thought they had \"blood on their hands\". The following year brought two blows: the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy and the assassination of Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.\nAccording to Paul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s, Elizabeth was worried the Crown \"had little meaning for\" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime minister. Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau \"rather disappointing\". Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office. In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth \"better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats\". She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.\n\nPerils and dissent\nDuring the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth from close range as she rode down The Mall, London, on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three. Elizabeth's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised. That October, Elizabeth was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade but missed. Lewis was arrested, but instead of being charged with attempted murder or treason was sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital with the intention of assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana and their son Prince William.\n\nFrom April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son Andrew served with British forces in the Falklands War, for which she reportedly felt anxiety and pride. On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard. After hosting US president Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.\nIntense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, pioneered by The Sun tabloid. As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: \"Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards.\" Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: \"The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not.\" It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth secretary-general Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation. Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents. Thatcher's biographer John Campbell claimed \"the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making\". Reports of acrimony between them were exaggerated, and Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major. Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984 and 1993, said Elizabeth was a \"behind the scenes force\" in ending apartheid.\nIn 1986, Elizabeth paid a six-day state visit to the People's Republic of China, becoming the first British monarch to visit the country. The tour included the Forbidden City, the Great Wall of China, and the Terracotta Warriors. At a state banquet, Elizabeth joked about the first British emissary to China being lost at sea with Queen Elizabeth I's letter to the Wanli Emperor, and remarked, \"fortunately postal services have improved since 1602\". Elizabeth's visit also signified the acceptance of both countries that sovereignty over Hong Kong would be transferred from the United Kingdom to China in 1997.\nBy the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had become the target of satire. The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed. In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau. The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of Governor-General Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.\n\nTurbulent years\nIn the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, Elizabeth became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress in May 1991.\n\nIn November 1992, in a speech to mark the Ruby Jubilee of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis (a Latin phrase, meaning \"horrible year\"). Republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of Elizabeth's private wealth—contradicted by the Palace—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family. In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, separated from his wife, Sarah; her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips in April; angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at Elizabeth during a state visit to Germany in October; and a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences, in November. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny. In an unusually personal speech, Elizabeth said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it might be done with \"a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding\". Two days later, John Major announced plans to reform the royal finances, drawn up the previous year, including Elizabeth paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list. In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated. At the end of the year, Elizabeth sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity. Elizabeth's solicitors had taken successful action against The Sun five years earlier for breach of copyright after it published a photograph of her daughter-in-law the Duchess of York and her granddaughter Princess Beatrice.\nIn January 1994, Elizabeth broke the scaphoid bone in her left wrist as the horse she was riding at Sandringham tripped and fell. In October 1994, she became the first reigning British monarch to set foot on Russian soil. In October 1995, she was tricked into a hoax call by Montreal radio host Pierre Brassard impersonating Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien. Elizabeth, who believed that she was speaking to Chrétien, said she supported Canadian unity and would try to influence Quebec's referendum on proposals to break away from Canada.\nIn the year that followed, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued. In consultation with her husband and John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury (George Carey) and her private secretary (Robert Fellowes), Elizabeth wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, suggesting that a divorce would be advisable.\nIn August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. Elizabeth was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons, Princes William and Harry, wanted to attend church, so Elizabeth and Philip took them that morning. Afterwards, for five days, the royal couple shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private, but the royal family's silence and seclusion, and the failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace, caused public dismay. Pressured by the hostile reaction, Elizabeth agreed to return to London and address the nation in a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral. In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings \"as a grandmother\" for the two princes. As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.\nIn October 1997, Elizabeth and Philip made a state visit to India, which included a controversial visit to the site of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre to pay her respects. Protesters chanted \"Killer Queen, go back\", and there were demands for her to apologise for the action of British troops 78 years earlier. At the memorial in the park, she and Philip laid a wreath and stood for a 30‑second moment of silence. As a result, much of the fury among the public softened, and the protests were called off. That November, the royal couple held a reception at Banqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary. Elizabeth made a speech and praised Philip for his role as consort, referring to him as \"my strength and stay\".\nIn 1999, as part of the process of devolution in the United Kingdom, Elizabeth formally opened newly established legislatures for Wales and Scotland: the National Assembly for Wales at Cardiff in May, and the Scottish Parliament at Edinburgh in July.\n\nDawn of the new millennium\nOn the eve of the new millennium, Elizabeth and Philip boarded a vessel from Southwark, bound for the Millennium Dome. Before passing under Tower Bridge, she lit the National Millennium Beacon in the Pool of London using a laser torch. Shortly before midnight, she officially opened the Dome. During the singing of Auld Lang Syne, Elizabeth held hands with Philip and British prime minister Tony Blair. Following the 9/11 attacks in the United States, Elizabeth, breaking with tradition, ordered the American national anthem to be played during the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace to express her solidarity with the country.\nIn 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee, the 50th anniversary of her accession. Her sister and mother died in February and March, respectively, and the media speculated on whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure. Princess Margaret's death shook Elizabeth; her funeral was one of the rare occasions where Elizabeth openly cried. Elizabeth again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, beginning in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet \"memorable\" after a power cut plunged King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness. As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. One million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London, and the enthusiasm shown for Elizabeth by the public was greater than many journalists had anticipated.\n\nIn 2003, Elizabeth sued the Daily Mirror for breach of confidence and obtained an injunction which prevented the outlet from publishing information gathered by a reporter who posed as a footman at Buckingham Palace. The newspaper also paid £25,000 towards her legal costs. Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.\nIn May 2007, citing unnamed sources, The Daily Telegraph reported that Elizabeth was \"exasperated and frustrated\" by the policies of Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair. She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland. She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007. On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, Elizabeth attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.\nElizabeth addressed the UN General Assembly for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth. The UN secretary-general, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her as \"an anchor for our age\". During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for British victims of the 9/11 attacks. Elizabeth's 11-day visit to Australia in October 2011 was her 16th visit to the country since 1954. By invitation of the Irish president, Mary McAleese, she made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011.\n\nDiamond Jubilee and milestones\nThe 2012 Diamond Jubilee marked 60 years since Elizabeth's accession, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. She and Philip undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while their children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf. On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world. On 18 December, the Queen became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.\nElizabeth, who opened the Montreal Summer Olympics in 1976, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two countries. For the London Olympics, she portrayed herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond. On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA award for her patronage of the film industry and was called \"the most memorable Bond girl yet\" at a special presentation at Windsor Castle.\n\nIn March 2013, the Queen stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis. A week later, she signed the new Charter of the Commonwealth. That year, because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, she chose not to attend the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by Prince Charles. On 20 April 2018, the Commonwealth heads of government announced that Charles would succeed her as Head of the Commonwealth, which the Queen stated as her \"sincere wish\". She underwent cataract surgery in May 2018. In March 2019, she gave up driving on public roads, largely as a consequence of a car accident involving her husband two months earlier.\nOn 21 December 2007, Elizabeth surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-lived British monarch, and she became the longest-reigning British monarch and longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015. She became the oldest living monarch after the death of King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia on 23 January 2015. She later became the longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state following the death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016, and the oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe on 21 November 2017. On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to commemorate a sapphire jubilee, and on 20 November that year, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum wedding anniversary. Philip had retired from his official duties as the Queen's consort in August 2017.\n\nPandemic and widowhood\nOn 19 March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic hit the United Kingdom, Elizabeth moved to Windsor Castle and sequestered there as a precaution. Public engagements were cancelled and Windsor Castle followed a strict sanitary protocol nicknamed \"HMS Bubble\".\n\nOn 5 April, in a televised broadcast watched by an estimated 24 million viewers in the United Kingdom, Elizabeth asked people to \"take comfort that while we may have more still to endure, better days will return: we will be with our friends again; we will be with our families again; we will meet again.\" On 8 May, the 75th anniversary of VE Day, in a television broadcast at 9 pm—the exact time at which her father had broadcast to the nation on the same day in 1945—she asked people to \"never give up, never despair\". In 2021, she received her first and second COVID-19 vaccinations in January and April respectively.\nPrince Philip died on 9 April 2021, after 73 years of marriage, making Elizabeth the first British monarch to reign as a widow or widower since Queen Victoria. She was reportedly at her husband's bedside when he died, and remarked in private that his death had \"left a huge void\". Due to the COVID-19 restrictions in place in England at the time, Elizabeth sat alone at Philip's funeral service, which evoked sympathy from people around the world. In her Christmas broadcast that year, which was ultimately her last, she paid a personal tribute to her \"beloved Philip\", saying, \"That mischievous, inquiring twinkle was as bright at the end as when I first set eyes on him.\"\nDespite the pandemic, Elizabeth attended the 2021 State Opening of Parliament in May, the 47th G7 summit in June, and hosted US president Joe Biden at Windsor Castle. Biden was the 14th US president that the Queen had met. In October 2021, Elizabeth cancelled a planned trip to Northern Ireland and stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital for \"preliminary investigations\". On Christmas Day 2021, while she was staying at Windsor Castle, 19-year-old Jaswant Singh Chail broke into the gardens using a rope ladder and carrying a crossbow with the aim of assassinating Elizabeth in revenge for the Amritsar massacre. Before he could enter any buildings, he was arrested and detained under the Mental Health Act. In 2023, he pleaded guilty to attempting to injure or alarm the sovereign.\n\nPlatinum Jubilee and beyond\nElizabeth's Platinum Jubilee celebrations began on 6 February 2022, marking 70 years since her accession. In her accession day message, she renewed her commitment to a lifetime of public service, which she had originally made in 1947.\nLater that month, Elizabeth fell ill with COVID-19 along with several family members, but she only exhibited \"mild cold-like symptoms\" and recovered by the end of the month. She was present at the service of thanksgiving for her husband at Westminster Abbey on 29 March, but was unable to attend both the annual Commonwealth Day service that month and the Royal Maundy service in April, because of \"episodic mobility problems\". In May, she missed the State Opening of Parliament for the first time in 59 years. (She did not attend the state openings in 1959 and 1963 as she was pregnant with Prince Andrew and Prince Edward, respectively.)\nThe Queen was largely confined to balcony appearances during the public jubilee celebrations, and she missed the National Service of Thanksgiving on 3 June. On 13 June, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in history (among those whose exact dates of reign are known), with 70 years and 127 days on the throne—surpassing King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand. On 6 September, she appointed her 15th British prime minister, Liz Truss, at Balmoral Castle in Scotland. This was the only occasion on which Elizabeth received a new prime minister at a location other than Buckingham Palace. No other British monarch appointed as many prime ministers. The Queen's last public message was issued on 7 September, in which she expressed her sympathy for those affected by the Saskatchewan stabbings.\nElizabeth did not plan to abdicate, though she took on fewer public engagements in her later years and Prince Charles performed more of her duties. She told Canadian governor-general Adrienne Clarkson in a meeting in 2002 that she would never abdicate, saying, \"It is not our tradition. Although, I suppose if I became completely gaga, one would have to do something.\" In June 2022, Elizabeth met the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, who \"came away thinking there is someone who has no fear of death, has hope in the future, knows the rock on which she stands and that gives her strength.\"\n\nDeath\nOn 8 September 2022, Buckingham Palace stated, \"Following further evaluation this morning, the Queen's doctors are concerned for Her Majesty's health and have recommended she remain under medical supervision. The Queen remains comfortable and at Balmoral.\" Her immediate family rushed to Balmoral. She died peacefully at 15:10 BST at the age of 96. Her death was announced to the public at 18:30, setting in motion Operation London Bridge and, because she died in Scotland, Operation Unicorn. Elizabeth was the first monarch to die in Scotland since James V in 1542. Her death certificate recorded her cause of death as \"old age\". According to her former prime minister Boris Johnson and the biographer Gyles Brandreth, she was suffering from a form of bone marrow cancer, which Brandreth wrote was multiple myeloma.\nOn 12 September, Elizabeth's coffin was carried up the Royal Mile in a procession to St Giles' Cathedral, where the Crown of Scotland was placed on it. Her coffin lay at rest at the cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by the Royal Company of Archers, during which around 33,000 people filed past it. On 13 September, the coffin was flown to RAF Northolt in west London to be met by Liz Truss, before continuing its journey by road to Buckingham Palace. On 14 September, her coffin was taken in a military procession to Westminster Hall, where Elizabeth's body lay in state for four days. The coffin was guarded by members of both the Sovereign's Bodyguard and the Household Division. An estimated 250,000 members of the public filed past the coffin, as did politicians and other public figures. On 16 September, Elizabeth's children held a vigil around her coffin, and the next day her eight grandchildren did the same.\n\nElizabeth's state funeral was held at Westminster Abbey on 19 September, which marked the first time a monarch's funeral service was held at the Abbey since George II in 1760. More than a million people lined the streets of central London, and the day was declared a holiday in several Commonwealth countries. In Windsor, a final procession involving 1,000 military personnel took place, which 97,000 people witnessed. Elizabeth's fell pony and two royal corgis stood at the side of the procession. After a committal service at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, Elizabeth's body was interred with her husband Philip's in the King George VI Memorial Chapel later the same day, in a private ceremony attended by her closest family members.\n\nLegacy\nBeliefs, activities, and interests\nElizabeth rarely gave interviews, and little was known of her political opinions, which she did not express explicitly in public. It is against convention to ask or reveal the monarch's views. When Times journalist Paul Routledge asked her about the miners' strike of 1984–85 during a royal tour of the newspaper's offices, she replied that it was \"all about one man\" (a reference to Arthur Scargill), with which Routledge disagreed. Routledge was widely criticised in the media for asking the question and claimed that he was unaware of the protocols. After the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Prime Minister David Cameron was overheard saying that Elizabeth was pleased with the outcome. She had arguably issued a public coded statement about the referendum by telling one woman outside Balmoral Kirk that she hoped people would think \"very carefully\" about the outcome. It emerged later that Cameron had specifically requested that she register her concern.\nElizabeth had a deep sense of religious and civic duty, and took her Coronation Oath seriously. Aside from her official religious role as supreme governor of the established Church of England, she worshipped with that church and with the national Church of Scotland. She demonstrated support for inter-faith relations and met with leaders of other churches and religions, including five popes: Pius XII, John XXIII, John Paul II, Benedict XVI and Francis. A personal note about her faith often featured in her annual Christmas Message broadcast to the Commonwealth. In 2000, she said:\n\nTo many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.\nElizabeth was patron of more than 600 organisations and charities. The Charities Aid Foundation estimated that Elizabeth helped raise over £1.4 billion for her patronages during her reign. Her main leisure interests included equestrianism and dogs, especially her Pembroke Welsh Corgis. Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 with Dookie, the first of many royal corgis. Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life were occasionally witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepared a meal together and washed the dishes afterwards.\n\nMedia depiction and public opinion\nIn the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous \"fairytale Queen\". After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a \"new Elizabethan age\". Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a \"priggish schoolgirl\" was an extremely rare criticism. In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentary Royal Family and by televising Prince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales. Elizabeth also instituted other new practices; her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970. Her wardrobe developed a recognisable, signature style driven more by function than fashion. In public, she took to wearing mostly solid-colour overcoats and decorative hats, allowing her to be seen easily in a crowd. By the end of her reign, nearly one third of Britons had seen or met Elizabeth in person.\nAt Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic; but, in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny. Her popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public. Although support for republicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republican ideology was still a minority viewpoint, and Elizabeth herself had high approval ratings. Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself, and the conduct of Elizabeth's wider family, rather than her own behaviour and actions. Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, although Elizabeth's personal popularity—as well as general support for the monarchy—rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.\n\nIn November 1999, a referendum in Australia on the future of the Australian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state. Many republicans credited Elizabeth's personal popularity with the survival of the monarchy in Australia. In 2010, Prime Minister Julia Gillard noted that there was a \"deep affection\" for Elizabeth in Australia and that another referendum on the monarchy should wait until after her reign. Gillard's successor, Malcolm Turnbull, who led the republican campaign in 1999, similarly believed that Australians would not vote to become a republic in her lifetime. \"She's been an extraordinary head of state\", Turnbull said in 2021, \"and I think frankly, in Australia, there are more Elizabethans than there are monarchists.\" Similarly, referendums in both Tuvalu in 2008 and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 saw voters reject proposals to become republics.\nPolls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for the monarchy, and in 2012, Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee year, her approval ratings hit 90 per cent. Her family came under scrutiny again in the last few years of her life due to her son Andrew's association with convicted sex offenders Jeffrey Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell, his lawsuit with Virginia Giuffre amidst accusations of sexual impropriety, and her grandson Harry and his wife Meghan's exit from the working royal family and subsequent move to the United States. Polling in Great Britain during the Platinum Jubilee, however, showed support for maintaining the monarchy and Elizabeth's personal popularity remained strong. As of 2021 she remained the third most admired woman in the world according to the annual Gallup poll, her 52 appearances on the list meaning she had been in the top ten more than any other woman in the poll's history.\nElizabeth was portrayed in a variety of media by many notable artists, including painters Pietro Annigoni, Peter Blake, Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy, Terence Cuneo, Lucian Freud, Rolf Harris, Damien Hirst, Juliet Pannett and Tai-Shan Schierenberg. Notable photographers of Elizabeth included Cecil Beaton, Yousuf Karsh, Anwar Hussein, Annie Leibovitz, Lord Lichfield, Terry O'Neill, John Swannell and Dorothy Wilding. The first official portrait photograph of Elizabeth was taken by Marcus Adams in 1926.\n\nTitles, styles, honours, and arms\nTitles and styles\nElizabeth held many titles and honorary military positions throughout the Commonwealth, was sovereign of many orders in her own countries and received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms, she had a distinct title that follows a similar formula: Queen of Saint Lucia and of Her other Realms and Territories in Saint Lucia, Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories in Australia, etc. She was also styled Defender of the Faith.\n\nArms\nFrom 21 April 1944 until her accession, Elizabeth's arms consisted of a lozenge bearing the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom differenced with a label of three points argent, the centre point bearing a Tudor rose and the first and third a cross of Saint George. Upon her accession, she inherited the various arms her father held as sovereign, with a subsequently modified representation of the crown. Elizabeth also possessed royal standards and personal flags for use in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, and elsewhere.\n\nIssue\nAncestry\nSee also\nFinances of the British royal family\nHousehold of Elizabeth II\nList of things named after Elizabeth II\nList of jubilees of Elizabeth II\nList of special addresses made by Elizabeth II\nRoyal eponyms in Canada\nList of covers of Time magazine (1920s, 1940s, 1950s, 2010s)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nQueen Elizabeth II at the Royal Family website\nQueen Elizabeth II at the website of the Government of Canada\nQueen Elizabeth II at the website of the Royal Collection Trust\nObituary at BBC News Online\nPortraits of Queen Elizabeth II at the National Portrait Gallery, London \nQueen Elizabeth II at IMDb \nAppearances on C-SPAN",
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"paragraph_text": "Gaius Julius Caesar (12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and subsequently became dictator from 49 BC until his assassination in 44 BC. He played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.\nIn 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, an informal political alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass political power were opposed by many in the Senate, among them Cato the Younger with the private support of Cicero. Caesar rose to become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a bridge across the river Rhine. These achievements and the support of his veteran army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome. In 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Senate's authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an army. This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of near-unchallenged power and influence in 45 BC.\nAfter assuming control of government, Caesar began a programme of social and governmental reform, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land reforms to support his veterans and initiated an enormous building programme. In early 44 BC, he was proclaimed \"dictator for life\" (dictator perpetuo). Fearful of his power and domination of the state, a group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. A new series of civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in the last civil war of the Roman Republic. Octavian set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began.\nCaesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical writings of Sallust. Later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest military commanders in history. His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a synonym for \"Emperor\"; the title \"Caesar\" was used throughout the Roman Empire, giving rise to modern descendants such as Kaiser and Tsar. He has frequently appeared in literary and artistic works.\n\nEarly life and career\nGaius Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia on 12 July 100 BC. The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome from Alba Longa during the seventh century BC after the third king of Rome, Tullus Hostilius, took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus, the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus, this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness. There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section; such operations entailed the death of the mother, but Caesar's mother lived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth.\nDespite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to have had the cognomen Caesar was a praetor in 208 BC during the Second Punic War. The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC. Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He married Aurelia, a member of the politically influential Aurelii Cottae, producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage and his sister's marriage (the dictator's aunt) with the extremely influential Gaius Marius, he also served on the Saturninian land commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC.\n\nLife under Sulla and military service\nCaesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination of Lucius Cornelius Cinna and instead chose retirement. During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named as flamen Dialis (a priest of Jupiter) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar. In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly. After Sulla's victory in the civil war (82 BC), Cinna's acta were annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on the proscription lists, though scholars are mixed. Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among the Vestal Virgins were able to intercede on his behalf. They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw \"in [Caesar] many Mariuses\" is apocryphal.\n\nCaesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia, Marcus Minucius Thermus. While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king, Nicomedes IV, though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch. He then served at the Siege of Mytilene where he won the civic crown for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff of Publius Servilius Vatia in Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately. He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consul Lepidus' revolt that year but this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age.\nAfterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella in 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia. Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecuting Gaius Antonius Hybrida (later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf. After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetorician Apollonius Molon. While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fifty talents and responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery per Velleius Paterculus. His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War over the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces.\n\nEntrance to politics\nWhile absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into the pontifices in place of his deceased relative Gaius Aurelius Cotta. The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career. Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of the military tribunes for 71 BC. There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even though the war on Spartacus was on-going – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned. These advocacies were common and uncontroversial. The next year, 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus were consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles.\nFor his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve under Gaius Antistius Vetus in Hispania Ulterior. His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius died and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child, Julia. He gave eulogies for both at public funerals. During Julia's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of his aunt's husband Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – including Quintus Lutatius Catulus – who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common. Contra Plutarch, Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism. Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughter Pompeia.\n\nAedileship and election as pontifex maximus\nFor much of this period, Caesar was one of Pompey's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported the lex Gabinia in 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported the lex Manilia in 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commander Lucullus to Pompey.\n\nFour years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served as curule aedile and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support. He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, over Jugurtha and the Cimbri. According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night. It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue of pietas – and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate.\nIn 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post of pontifex maximus, who was the head of the College of Pontiffs and the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before the tribes, Caesar faced two influential senators: Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Isauricus. Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent. Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating; that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory. If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy.\nMany sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribune Publius Servilius Rullus, however, there are no ancient sources so attesting. Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial of Gaius Rabirius by one of the plebeian tribunes – Titus Labienus – for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with a senatus consultum ultimum some forty years earlier. The most famous event of the year was the Catilinarian conspiracy. While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy, the chance that he was a participant is extremely small.\n\nPraetorship\nCaesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy. Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property. Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of the lex Sempronia de capite civis, and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention by Cato, however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution.\n\nDuring his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuilt Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition. He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribune Metellus Nepos to transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of the comitia tributa in the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato and Quintus Minucius Thermus, the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility – which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority. He also was engaged in the Bona Dea affair, where Publius Clodius Pulcher sneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be \"above suspicion\" – but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way.\n\nAfter his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior pro consule. Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off. He campaigned against the Callaeci and Lusitani and seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts. Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailed imperator. When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside the pomerium (Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy. Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship.\n\nFirst consulship and the Gallic Wars\nCaesar stood for the consulship of 59 BC along with two other candidates. His political position at the time was strong: he had supporters among the families which had supported Marius or Cinna; his connection with the Sullan aristocracy was good; his support of Pompey had won him support in turn. His support for reconciliation in continuing aftershocks of the civil war was popular in all parts of society. With the support of Crassus, who supported Caesar's joint ticket with one Lucius Lucceius, Caesar won. Lucceius, however, did not and the voters returned Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus instead, one of Caesar's long-standing personal and political enemies.\n\nFirst consulship\nAfter the elections, Caesar reconciled Pompey and Crassus, two political foes, in a three-way alliance misleadingly termed the \"First Triumvirate\" in modern times. Caesar was still at work in December of 60 BC attempting to find allies for his consulship and the alliance was finalised only some time around its start. Pompey and Crassus joined in pursuit of two respective goals: the ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement and the bailing out of tax farmers in Asia, many of whom were Crassus' clients. All three sought the extended patronage of land grants, with Pompey especially seeking the promised land grants for his veterans.\nCaesar's first act was to publish the minutes of the Senate and the assemblies, signalling the Senate's accountability to the public. He then brought in the Senate a bill – crafted to avoid objections to previous land reform proposals and any indications of radicalism – to purchase property from willing sellers to distribute to Pompey's veterans and the urban poor. It would be administered by a board of twenty (with Caesar excluded), and financed by Pompey's plunder and territorial gains. Referring it to the Senate in hope that it would take up the matter to show its beneficence for the people, there was little opposition and the obstructionism that occurred was largely unprincipled, firmly opposing it not on grounds of public interest but rather opposition to Caesar's political advancement. Unable to overcome Cato's filibustering, he moved the bill before the people and, at a public meeting, Caesar's co-consul Bibulus threatened a permanent veto for the entire year. This clearly violated the people's well-established legislative sovereignty and triggered a riot in which Bibulus' fasces were broken, symbolising popular rejection of his magistracy. The bill was then voted through. Bibulus attempted to induce the Senate to nullify it on grounds it was passed by violence and contrary to the auspices but the Senate refused.\nCaesar also brought and passed a one-third write-down of tax farmers' arrears for Crassus and ratification of Pompey's eastern settlements. Both bills were passed with little or no debate in the Senate. Caesar then moved to extend his agrarian bill to Campania some time in May; this may be when Bibulus withdrew to his house. Pompey, shortly thereafter, also wed Caesar's daughter Julia to seal their alliance. An ally of Caesar's, plebeian tribune Publius Vatinius moved the lex Vatinia assigning the provinces of Illyricum and Cisalpine Gaul to Caesar for five years. Suetonius' claim that the Senate had assigned to Caesar the silvae callesque (\"woods and tracks\") is likely an exaggeration: fear of Gallic invasion had grown in 60 BC and it is more likely that the consuls had been assigned to Italy, a defensive posture that Caesarian partisans dismissed as \"mere 'forest tracks'\". The Senate was also persuaded to assign to Caesar Transalpine Gaul as well, subject to annual renewal, most likely to control his ability to make war on the far side of the Alps.\nSome time in the year, perhaps after the passing of the bill distributing the Campanian land and after these political defeats, Bibulus withdrew to his house. There, he issued edicts in absentia, purporting unprecedentedly to cancel all days on which Caesar or his allies could hold votes for religious reasons. Cato too attempted symbolic gestures against Caesar, which allowed him and his allies to \"feign victimisation\"; these tactics were successful in building revulsion to Caesar and his allies through the year. This opposition caused serious political difficulties to Caesar and his allies, belying the common depiction of triumviral political supremacy. Later in the year, however, Caesar – with the support of his opponents – brought and passed the lex Julia de repetundis to crack down on provincial corruption. When his consulship ended, Caesar's legislation was challenged by two of the new praetors but discussion in the Senate stalled and was regardless dropped. He stayed near the city until some time around mid-March.\n\nCampaigns in Gaul\nDuring the Gallic Wars, Caesar wrote his Commentaries thereon, which were acknowledged even in his time as a Latin literary masterwork. Meant to document Caesar's campaigns in his own words and maintain support in Rome for his military operations and career, he produced some ten volumes covering operations in Gaul from 58 to 52 BC. Each was likely produced in the year following the events described and was likely aimed at the general, or at least literate, population in Rome; the account is naturally partial to Caesar – his defeats are excused and victories highlighted – but it is almost the sole source for events in Gaul in this period.\nGaul in 58 BC was in the midst of some instability. Tribes had raided into Transalpine Gaul and there was an on-going struggle between two tribes in central Gaul which collaterally involved Roman alliances and politics. The divisions within the Gauls – they were no unified bloc – would be exploited in the coming years. The first engagement was in April 58 BC when Caesar prevented the migrating Helvetii from moving through Roman territory, allegedly because he feared they would unseat a Roman ally. Building a wall, he stopped their movement near Geneva and – after raising two legions – defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte before forcing them to return to their original homes. He was drawn further north responding to requests from Gallic tribes, including the Aedui, for aid against Ariovistus – king of the Suebi and a declared friend of Rome by the Senate during Caesar's own consulship – and he defeated them at the Battle of Vosges. Wintering in northeastern Gaul near the Belgae in the winter of 58–57, Caesar's forward military position triggered an uprising to remove his troops; able to eke out a victory at the Battle of the Sabis, Caesar spent much of 56 BC suppressing the Belgae and dispersing his troops to campaign across much of Gaul, including against the Veneti in what is now Brittany. At this point, almost all of Gaul – except its central regions – fell under Roman subjugation.\n\nSeeking to buttress his military reputation, he engaged Germans attempting to cross the Rhine, which marked it as a Roman frontier; displaying Roman engineering prowess, he here built a bridge across the Rhine in a feat of engineering meant to show Rome's ability to project power. Ostensibly seeking to interdict British aid to his Gallic enemies, he led expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC, perhaps seeking further conquests or otherwise wanting to impress readers in Rome; Britain at the time was to the Romans an \"island of mystery\" and \"a land of wonder\". He, however, withdrew from the island in the face of winter uprisings in Gaul led by the Eburones and Belgae starting in late 54 BC which ambushed and virtually annihilated a legion and five cohorts. Caesar was, however, able to lure the rebels into unfavourable terrain and routed them in battle. The next year, a greater challenge emerged with the uprising of most of central Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Averni. Caesar was initially defeated at Gergovia before besieging Vercingetorix at Alesia. After becoming himself besieged, Caesar won a major victory which forced Vercingetorix's surrender; Caesar then spent much of his time into 51 BC suppressing any remaining resistance.\n\nPolitics, Gaul, and Rome\nIn the initial years from the end of Caesar's consulship in 59 BC, the three so-called triumvirs sought to maintain the goodwill of the extremely popular Publius Clodius Pulcher, who was plebeian tribune in 58 BC and in that year successfully sent Cicero into exile. When Clodius took an anti-Pompeian stance later that year, he unsettled Pompey's eastern arrangements, started attacking the validity of Caesar's consular legislation, and by August 58 forced Pompey into seclusion. Caesar and Pompey responded by successfully backing the election of magistrates to recall Cicero from exile on the condition that Cicero would refrain from criticism or obstruction of the allies.\nPolitics in Rome fell into violent street clashes between Clodius and two tribunes who were friends of Cicero. With Cicero now supporting Caesar and Pompey, Caesar sent news of Gaul to Rome and claimed total victory and pacification. The Senate at Cicero's motion voted him an unprecedented fifteen days of thanksgiving. Such reports were necessary for Caesar, especially in light of senatorial opponents, to prevent the Senate from reassigning his command in Transalpine Gaul, even if his position in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum was guaranteed by the lex Vatinia until 54 BC. His success was evidently recognised when the Senate voted state funds for some of Caesar's legions, which until this time Caesar had paid for personally.\nThe three allies' relations broke down in 57 BC: one of Pompey's allies challenged Caesar's land reform bill and the allies had a poor showing in the elections that year. With a real threat to Caesar's command and acta brewing in 56 BC under the aegis of the unfriendly consuls, Caesar needed his allies' political support. Pompey and Crassus too wanted military commands. Their combined interests led to a renewal of the alliance; drawing in the support of Appius Claudius Pulcher and his younger brother Clodius for the consulship of 54 BC, they planned second consulships with following governorships in 55 BC for both Pompey and Crassus. Caesar, for his part, would receive a five-year extension of command.\nCicero was induced to oppose reassignment of Caesar's provinces and to defend a number of the allies' clients; his gloomy predictions of a triumviral set of consuls-designate for years on end proved an exaggeration when, only by desperate tactics, bribery, intimidation and violence were Pompey and Crassus elected consuls for 55 BC. During their consulship, Pompey and Crassus passed – with some tribunician support – the lex Pompeia Licinia extending Caesar's command and the lex Trebonia giving them respective commands in Spain and Syria, though Pompey never left for the province and remained politically active at Rome. The opposition again unified against their heavy-handed political tactics – though not against Caesar's activities in Gaul – and defeated the allies in the elections of that year.\nThe ambush and destruction in Gaul of a legion and five cohorts in the winter of 55–54 BC produced substantial concern in Rome about Caesar's command and competence, evidenced by the highly defensive narrative in Caesar's Commentaries. The death of Caesar's daughter and Pompey's wife Julia in childbirth c. late August 54 did not create a rift between Caesar and Pompey. At the start of 53 BC, Caesar sought and received reinforcements by recruitment and a private deal with Pompey before two years of largely unsuccessful campaigning against Gallic insurgents. In the same year, Crassus's campaign ended in disaster at the Battle of Carrhae, culminating in his death at the hands of the Parthians. When in 52 BC Pompey started the year with a sole consulship to restore order to the city, Caesar was in Gaul suppressing insurgencies; after news of his victory at Alesia, with the support of Pompey he received twenty days of thanksgiving and, pursuant to the \"Law of the Ten Tribunes\", the right to stand for the consulship in absentia.\n\nCivil war\nFrom the period 52 to 49 BC, trust between Caesar and Pompey disintegrated. In 51 BC, the consul Marcellus proposed recalling Caesar, arguing that his provincia (here meaning \"task\") in Gaul – due to his victory against Vercingetorix in 52 – was complete; it evidently was incomplete as Caesar was that year fighting the Bellovaci and regardless the proposal was vetoed. That year, it seemed that the conservatives around Cato in the Senate would seek to enlist Pompey to force Caesar to return from Gaul without honours or a second consulship. Cato, Bibulus, and their allies, however, were successful in winning Pompey over to take a hard line against Caesar's continued command.\nAs 50 BC progressed, fears of civil war grew; both Caesar and his opponents started building up troops in southern Gaul and northern Italy, respectively. In the autumn, Cicero and others sought disarmament by both Caesar and Pompey, and on 1 December 50 BC this was formally proposed in the Senate. It received overwhelming support – 370 to 22 – but was not passed when one of the consuls dissolved the meeting. That year, when a rumour came to Rome that Caesar was marching into Italy, both consuls instructed Pompey to defend Italy, a charge he accepted as a last resort. At the start of 49 BC, Caesar's renewed offer that he and Pompey disarm was read to the Senate and was rejected by the hardliners. A later compromise given privately to Pompey was also rejected at their insistence. On 7 January, his supportive tribunes were driven from Rome; the Senate then declared Caesar an enemy and it issued its senatus consultum ultimum.\nThere is scholarly disagreement as to the specific reasons why Caesar marched on Rome. A very popular theory is that Caesar was forced to choose – when denied the immunity of his proconsular tenure – between prosecution, conviction, and exile or civil war in defence of his position. Whether Caesar actually would have been prosecuted and convicted is debated. Some scholars believe the possibility of successful prosecution was extremely unlikely. Caesar's main objectives were to secure a second consulship – first mooted in 52 as colleague to Pompey's sole consulship – and a triumph. He feared that his opponents – then holding both consulships for 50 BC – would reject his candidacy or refuse to ratify an election he won. This also was the core of his war justification: that Pompey and his allies were planning, by force if necessary (indicated in the expulsion of the tribunes), to suppress the liberty of the Roman people to elect Caesar and honour his accomplishments.\n\nItaly, Spain, and Greece\nAround 10 or 11 January 49 BC, in response to the Senate's \"final decree\", Caesar crossed the Rubicon – the river defining the northern boundary of Italy – with a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, \"let the die be cast\". Pompey and many senators fled south, believing that Caesar was marching quickly for Rome. Caesar, after capturing communication routes to Rome, paused and opened negotiations, but they fell apart amid mutual distrust. Caesar responded by advancing south, seeking to capture Pompey to force a conference.\nPompey withdrew to Brundisium and was able to escape to Greece, abandoning Italy in face of Caesar's superior forces and evading Caesar's pursuit. Caesar stayed near Rome for about two weeks – during his stay his forceful seizure of the treasury over tribunician veto put the lie to his pro-tribunician war justifications – and left Lepidus in charge of Italy while he attacked Pompey's Spanish provinces. He defeated two of Pompey's legates at the Battle of Ilerda before forcing surrender of the third; his legates moved into Sicily and into Africa, though the African expedition failed. Returning to Rome in the autumn, Caesar had Lepidus, as praetor, bring a law appointing Caesar dictator to conduct the elections; he, along with Publius Servilius Isauricus, won the following elections and would serve as consuls for 48 BC. Resigning the dictatorship after eleven days, Caesar then left Italy for Greece to stop Pompey's preparations, arriving in force in early 48 BC.\nCaesar besieged Pompey at Dyrrhachium, but Pompey was able to break out and force Caesar's forces to flee. Following Pompey southeast into Greece and to save one of his legates, he engaged and decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus on 9 August 48 BC. Pompey then fled for Egypt; Cato fled for Africa; others, like Cicero and Marcus Junius Brutus, begged for Caesar's pardon.\n\nAlexandrine war and Asia Minor\nPompey was killed when he arrived in Alexandria, the capital of Egypt. Caesar arrived three days later on 2 October 48 BC. Prevented from leaving the city by Etesian winds, Caesar decided to arbitrate an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Cleopatra, his sister, wife, and co-regent queen. In late October 48 BC, Caesar was appointed in absentia to a year-long dictatorship, after news of his victory at Pharsalus arrived to Rome. While in Alexandria, he started an affair with Cleopatra and withstood a siege by Ptolemy and his other sister Arsinoe until March 47 BC. Reinforced by eastern client allies under Mithridates of Pergamum, he then defeated Ptolemy at the Battle of the Nile and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated the victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile. He stayed in Egypt with Cleopatra until June or July that year, though the relevant commentaries attributed to him give no such impression. Some time in late June, Cleopatra gave birth to a child by Caesar, called Caesarion.\nWhen Caesar landed at Antioch, he learnt that during his time in Egypt, the king of what is now Crimea, Pharnaces, had attempted to seize what had been his father's kingdom, Pontus, across the Black Sea in northern Anatolia. His invasion had swept aside Caesar's legates and the local client kings, but Caesar engaged him at Zela and defeated him immediately, leading Caesar to write veni, vidi, vici (\"I came, I saw, I conquered\"), downplaying Pompey's previous Pontic victories. He then left quickly for Italy.\n\nItaly, Africa, and Spain\nCaesar's absence from Italy put Mark Antony, as magister equitum, in charge. His rule was unpopular: Publius Cornelius Dolabella, serving as plebeian tribune in 47 BC, agitated for debt relief and after that agitation got out of hand the Senate moved for Antony to restore order. Delayed by a mutiny in southern Italy, he returned and suppressed the riots by force, killing many and delivering a similar blow to his popularity. Cato had marched to Africa and there Metellus Scipio was in charge of the remaining republicans; they allied with Juba of Numidia; what used to be Pompey's fleet also raided the central Mediterranean islands. Caesar's governor in Spain, moreover, was sufficiently unpopular that the province revolted and switched to the republican side.\nCaesar demoted Antony on his return and pacified the mutineers without violence before overseeing the election of the rest of the magistrates for 47 BC – no elections had yet been held – and also for those of 46 BC. Caesar would serve with Lepidus as consul in 46; he borrowed money for the war, confiscated and sold the property of his enemies at fair prices, and then left for Africa on 25 December 47 BC. Caesar's landing in Africa was marked with some difficulties establishing a beachhead and logistically. He was defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC and thereafter took a rather cautious approach. After inducing some desertions from the republicans, Caesar ended up surrounded at Thapsus. His troops attacked prematurely on 6 April 46 BC, starting a battle; they then won it and massacred the republican forces without quarter. Marching on Utica, where Cato commanded, Caesar arrived to find that Cato had killed himself rather than receive Caesar's clemency. Many of the remaining anti-Caesarian leaders, including Metellus Scipio and Juba, also committed suicide shortly thereafter. Labienus and two of Pompey's sons, however, had moved to the Spanish provinces in revolt. Caesar started a process of annexing parts of Numidia and then returned to Italy via Sardinia in June 46 BC.\nCaesar stayed in Italy to celebrate four triumphs in late September, supposedly over four foreign enemies: Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces (Asia), and Juba (Africa). He led Vercingetorix, Cleopatra's younger sister Arsinoe, and Juba's son before his chariot; Vercingetorix was executed. According to Appian, in some of the triumphs, Caesar paraded pictures and models of his victories over fellow Romans in the civil wars, to popular dismay. The soldiers were each given 24,000 sesterces (a lifetime's worth of pay); further games and celebrations were put on for the plebs. Near the end of the year, Caesar heard bad news from Spain and, with an army, left for the peninsula, leaving Lepidus in charge as magister equitum.\nAt a bloody battle at Munda on 17 March 45 BC, Caesar narrowly found victory; his enemies were treated as rebels and he had them massacred. Labienus died on the field. While one of Pompey's sons, Sextus, escaped, the war was effectively over. Caesar remained in the province until June before setting out for Rome, arriving in October of the same year, and celebrated an unseemly triumph over fellow Romans. By this point he had started preparations for war on the Parthians to avenge Crassus' death at Carrhae in 53 BC, with wide-ranging objectives that would take him into Dacia for three or more years. It was set to start on 18 March 44 BC.\n\nDictatorship and assassination\nDictatorships and honours\nPrior to Caesar's assumption of the title dictator perpetuo in February 44 BC, he had been appointed dictator some four times since his first dictatorship in 49 BC. After occupying Rome, he engineered this first appointment, largely to hold elections; after 11 days he resigned. The other dictatorships lasted for longer periods, up to a year, and by April 46 BC he was given a new dictatorship annually. The task he was assigned revived that of Sulla's dictatorship: rei publicae constituendae. These appointments, however, were not the source of legal power themselves; in the eyes of the literary sources, they were instead honours and titles which reflected Caesar's dominant position in the state, secured not by extraordinary magistracy or legal powers, but by personal status as victor over other Romans. \nThrough the period after Pharsalus, the Senate showered Caesar with honours, including the title praefectus moribus (lit. 'prefect of morals') which historically was associated with the censorial power to revise the Senate rolls. He was also granted power over war and peace, usurping a power traditionally held by the comitia centuriata. These powers attached to Caesar personally. Similarly extraordinary were a number of symbolic honours which saw Caesar's portrait placed on coins in Rome – the first for a living Roman – with special rights to wear royal dress, sit atop a golden chair in the Senate, and have his statues erected in public temples. The month Quintilis, in which he was born, was renamed Julius (now July). These were symbols of divine monarchy and, later, objects of resentment.\nThe decisions on the normal operation of the state – justice, legislation, administration, and public works – were concentrated into Caesar's person without regard for or even notice given to the traditional institutions of the republic. Caesar's domination over public affairs and his competitive instinct to preclude all others alienated the political class and led eventually to the conspiracy against his life.\n\nLegislation\nCaesar, as far as is attested in evidence, did not intend to restructure Roman society. Ernst Badian, writing in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, noted that although Caesar did implement a series of reforms, they did not touch on the core of the republican system: he \"had no plans for basic social and constitutional reform\" and that \"the extraordinary honours heaped upon him... merely grafted him as an ill-fitting head on to the body of the traditional structure\".\nThe most important of Caesar's reforms was to the calendar, which saw the abolition of the traditional republican lunisolar calendar and its replacement with a solar calendar now called the Julian calendar. He also increased the number of magistrates and senators (from 600 to 900) to better administer the empire and reward his supporters with offices. Colonies also were founded outside Italy – notably on the sites of Carthage and Corinth, which had both been destroyed during Rome's 2nd century BC conquests – to discharge Italy's population into the provinces and reduce unrest. The royal power of naming patricians was revived to benefit the families of his men and the permanent courts jury pools were also altered to remove the tribuni aerarii, leaving only the equestrians and senators.\nHe also took further administrative actions to stabilise his rule and that of the state. Caesar reduced the size of the grain dole from 320,000 down to around 150,000 by tightening the qualifications; special bonuses were offered to families with many children to stall depopulation. Plans were drawn for the conduct of a census. Citizenship was extended to a number of communities in Cisalpine Gaul and to Cádiz. During the civil wars, Caesar had also instituted a novel debt repayment programme (no debts would be forgiven but they could be paid in kind), remitted rents up to a certain amount, and thrown games distributing food. Many of his enemies during the civil wars were pardoned – Caesar's clemency was exalted in his propaganda and temple works – with the intent to cultivate gratitude and draw a contrast between himself and the vengeful dictatorship of Sulla.\nThe building programmes, started prior to his expedition to Spain, continued, with the construction of the Forum of Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix therein. Other public works, including an expansion of Ostia's port and a canal through the Corinthian Isthmus, were also planned. Very busy with this work, the heavy-handedness with which he ignored the Senate, magistrates, and those who came to visit him also alienated many in Rome.\nThe collegia, civic associations restored by Clodius in 58 BC, were again abolished. His actions to reward his supporters saw him allow his subordinates illegal triumphal processions and resign the consulship so that allies could take it up for the rest of the year. On the last day of 45 BC, when one of the succeeding consuls died, Caesar had an ally elected as replacement for a single day. Corruption on the part of his partisans was also overlooked to ensure their support; provincial cities and client kingdoms were extorted for favours to pay his bills.\n\nConspiracy and death\nAttempts in January 44 BC to call Caesar rex (lit. 'king') – a title associated with arbitrary oppression against citizens – were shut down by two tribunes before a supportive crowd. Caesar, claiming that the two tribunes infringed on his honour by doing so, had them deposed from office and ejected from the Senate. The incident both undermined Caesar's original arguments for pursuing the civil war (protecting the tribunes) and angered a public which still revered the tribunes as protectors of popular freedom. Shortly before 15 February 44 BC, he assumed the dictatorship for life, putting an end to any hopes that his powers would be merely temporary. Transforming his dictatorship, even with a decadal appointment, into one for life clearly showed to all contemporaries that Caesar had no intention to restore a free republic and that no free republic could be restored so long as he was in power.\nJust days after his assumption of the life dictatorship, he publicly rejected a diadem from Antony at celebrations for the Lupercalia. Interpretations of the episode vary: he may have been rejecting the diadem publicly only because the crowd was insufficiently supportive; he could have done it performatively to signal he was no monarch; alternatively, Antony could have acted on his own initiative. By this point, however, rumour was rife that Caesar – already wearing the dress of a monarch – sought a formal crown and the episode did little to reassure.\nThe plan to assassinate Caesar had started by the summer of 45 BC. An attempt to recruit Antony was made around that time, though he declined and gave Caesar no warning. By February 44 BC, there were some sixty conspirators. It is clear that by this time, the victorious Caesarian coalition from the civil war had broken apart. While most of the conspirators were former Pompeians, they were joined by a substantial number of Caesarians. Among their leaders were Gaius Trebonius (consul in 45), Decimus Brutus (consul designate for 42), as well as Cassius and Brutus (both praetors in 44 BC). Trebonius and Decimus had joined Caesar during the war while Brutus and Cassius had joined Pompey; other Caesarians involved included Servius Sulpicius Galba, Lucius Minucius Basilus, Lucius Tullius Cimber, and Gaius Servilius Casca. Many of the conspirators would have been candidates in the consular elections for 43 to 41 BC, likely dismayed by Caesar's sham elections in early 44 BC that produced advance results for the years 43–41 BC. Those electoral results came from the grace of the dictator and not that of the people; for the republican elite this was no substitute for actual popular support. Nor is it likely that the subordination of the normal magistrates to Caesar's masters of horse (Latin: magistri equitum) was appreciated.\nBrutus, who claimed descent from the Lucius Junius Brutus who had driven out the kings and the Gaius Servilius Ahala who had freed Rome from incipient tyranny, was the main leader of the conspiracy. By late autumn 45 BC, graffiti and some public comments at Rome were condemning Caesar as a tyrant and insinuating the need for a Brutus to remove the dictator. The ancient sources, excepting Nicolaus of Damascus, are unanimous that this reflected a genuine turn in public opinion against Caesar. Popular indignation at Caesar was likely rooted in his debt policies (too friendly to lenders), use of lethal force to suppress protests for debt relief, his reduction in the grain dole, his abolition of the collegia restored by Clodius, his abolition of the poorest panel of jurors in the permanent courts, and his abolition of open elections which deprived the people of their ancient right of decision. A popular turn against Caesar is also observed with reports that the two deposed tribunes were written-in on ballots at Caesar's advance consular elections in place of Caesar's candidates. Whether there was a tradition of tyrannicide at Rome is unclear: Cicero wrote in private as if the duty to kill tyrants was already given; he, however, made no public speeches to that effect and there is little evidence that the public accepted the logic of preventive tyrannicide. The philosophical tradition of the Platonic Old Academy was also a factor driving Brutus to action due to its emphasis on a duty to free the state from tyranny. \nWhile some news of the conspiracy did leak, Caesar refused to take precautions and rejected escort by a bodyguard. The date decided upon by the conspirators was 15 March, the Ides of March, three days before Caesar intended to leave for his Parthian campaign. News of his imminent departure forced the conspirators to move up their plans; the Senate meeting on the 15th would be the last before his departure. They had decided that a Senate meeting was the best place to frame the killing as political, rejecting the alternatives at games, elections, or on the road. That only the conspirators would be armed at the Senate meeting, per Dio, also would have been an advantage. The day, 15 March, was also symbolically important as it was the day on which consuls took office until the mid-2nd century BC.\n\nVarious stories purport that Caesar was on the cusp of not attending or otherwise being warned about the plot. Approached on his golden chair at the foot of the statue of Pompey, the conspirators attacked him with daggers. Whether he fell in silence, per Suetonius, or after reply to Brutus' appearance – kai su teknon? (\"you too, child?\") – is variantly recorded. He was stabbed at least twenty-three times and died at once.\n\nAftermath of the assassination\nThe assassins seized the Capitoline hill after killing the dictator. They then summoned a public meeting in the Forum where they were coldly received by the population. They were also unable to fully secure the city, as Lepidus – Caesar's lieutenant in the dictatorship – moved troops from the Tiber Island into the city proper. Antony, the consul who escaped the assassination, urged an illogical compromise position in the Senate: Caesar was not declared a tyrant and the conspirators were not punished. Caesar's funeral was then approved. At the funeral, Antony inflamed the public against the assassins, which triggered mob violence that lasted for some months before the assassins were forced to flee the capital and Antony then finally acted to suppress it by force. \nIn 44 BC, there was a seven-day cometary outburst that the Romans believe to represent the deification of Caeser, giving it the name Caesar's Comet. On the site of his cremation, the Temple of Caesar was begun by the triumvirs in 42 BC at the east side of the main square of the Roman Forum. Only its altar now remains. The terms of the will were also read to the public: it gave a generous donative to the plebs at large and left as principal heir one Gaius Octavius, Caesar's great-nephew then at Apollonia, and adopted him in the will.\nResumption of the pre-existing republic proved impossible as various actors appealed in the aftermath of Caesar's death to liberty or to vengeance to mobilise huge armies that led to a series of civil wars. The first war was between Antony in 43 BC and the Senate (including senators of both Caesarian and Pompeian persuasion) which resulted in Octavian – Caesar's heir – exploiting the chaos to seize the consulship and join with Antony and Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate. After purging their political enemies in a series of proscriptions, the triumvirs secured the deification of Caesar – the Senate declared on 1 January 42 BC that Caesar would be placed among the Roman gods – and marched on the east where a second war saw the triumvirs defeat the tyrannicides in battle, resulting in a final death of the republican cause and a three-way division of much of the Roman world. By 31 BC, Caesar's heir had taken sole control of the empire, ejecting his triumviral rivals after two decades of civil war. Pretending to restore the republic, his masked autocracy was acceptable to the war-weary Romans and marked the establishment of a new Roman monarchy.\n\nPersonal life\nHealth and physical appearance\nBased on remarks by Plutarch, Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s BC. Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a tapeworm.\nCaesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures.\nA line from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one ear: \"Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf.\" No classical source mentions hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear, Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to hear the defence.\nFrancesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral manifestations – headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility – and syncopal episodes were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in his Natural History that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease.\nSuetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as \"tall of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black eyes\". He adds that the balding Caesar was sensitive to teasing on the subject, and therefore had a combover. Suetonius reports that Caesar was thus especially pleased to be granted the honor of wearing a wreath at all times.\n\nName and family\nThe name Gaius Julius Caesar\nUsing the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in Latin inscriptions to save space.)\nIn Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser ([kaɪ̯zɐ]) or Dutch keizer ([kɛizɛr]).\nIn Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong [ae̯] first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel [ɛː]. Then, the plosive /k/ before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like [ˈtʃeːsar] in Italian and [ˈtseːzar] in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages, the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, [ˈseːsar]) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which the modern English pronunciation is derived.\nCaesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse \"Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's\". The title became, from the late first millennium, Kaiser in German and (through Old Church Slavic cěsarĭ) Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose reign ended in 1946, but is still alive in 2023. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. As a term for the highest ruler, the word Caesar constitutes one of the earliest, best attested and most widespread Latin loanwords in the Germanic languages, being found in the text corpora of Old High German (keisar), Old Saxon (kēsur), Old English (cāsere), Old Norse (keisari), Old Dutch (keisere) and (through Greek) Gothic (kaisar).\n\nPosterity\nWives\nFirst marriage to Cornelia, from 84 BC until her death in 69 BC\nSecond marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal\nThird marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until Caesar's death\n\nChildren\nJulia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC\nCaesarion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus.\nPosthumously adopted: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became Emperor Augustus.\nSuspected children\nSome ancient sources refer to the possibility of the tyrannicide, Marcus Junius Brutus, being one of Julius Caesar's illegitimate children. Caesar, at the time Brutus was born, was 15. Most ancient historians were sceptical of this and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\".\n\nGrandchildren\nGrandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.\n\nLovers\nCleopatra, mother of Caesarion\nServilia, mother of Brutus\nEunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes\n\nRumors of passive homosexuality\nRoman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, \"Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar.\" According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others – mainly Caesar's enemies – he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the \"Queen of Bithynia\", by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even under oath on one occasion. This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents.\nCatullus wrote a poem suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, but later apologised.\nMark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as Augustus.\n\nLiterary works\nDuring his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his \"Anticato\", a document attacking Cato in response to Cicero's eulogy. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.\n\nMemoirs\nThe Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years.\nThe Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.\nOther works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt:\n\nDe Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;\nDe Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and\nDe Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula.\nThese narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of \"dispatches from the front\". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings. As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students.\n\nLegacy\nHistoriography\nThe texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind. Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read. The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition.\nMany rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV re-translated the first one afterwards.\nThe remains of Caesar's altar are a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death.\n\nPolitics\nJulius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism. The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.\n\nDepictions\nBattle record\nChronology\nSee also\nCaesar cipher\nCaesareum of Alexandria\nEt tu, Brute?\nGiulio Cesare – 1724 opera by Handel\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nPrimary sources\nOwn writings\nAncient historians' writings\nSecondary sources\nExternal links\n\nC. Iulius (131) C. f. C. n. Fab. Caesar in the Digital Prosopography of the Roman Republic.\n Works by or about Gaius Julius Caesar at Wikisource\n Works related to Julius Caesar at Wikisource\nOnline books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries about Caesar\nOnline books, and library resources in your library and in other libraries by Caesar\nGuide to online resources",
"title": "Julius_Caesar"
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] | What lasted longer: the reign of Queen Elizabeth II or the life of Julius Caesar? | [] | The reign of Queen Elizabeth II | [] | true |
291 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Marilyn Diptych (1962) is a silkscreen painting by American pop artist Andy Warhol depicting Marilyn Monroe. The monumental work is one of the artist's most noted of the movie star. \nThe painting consists of 50 images. Each image of the actress is taken from the single publicity photograph from the film Niagara (1953). The underlying publicity photograph that Warhol used as a basis for his many paintings and prints of Marilyn, and the Marilyn Diptych, was owned and distributed by her movie studio. Marilyn Diptych was completed just weeks after Marilyn Monroe's death in August 1962. \nSilk-screening was the technique used to create this painting. The twenty-five images on the left are painted in color, the right side is black and white.\nThe Marilyn Diptych is in the collection of the Tate.\n\nAnalysis\nIt has been suggested that the relation between the left side of the canvas and the right side of the canvas is evocative of the relation between the celebrity's life and death. The work has received praise from writers such as American academic and cultural critic Camille Paglia, who wrote in 2012's Glittering Images lauding how it shows the \"multiplicity of meanings\" in Monroe's life and legacy.\nIn a December 2, 2004, article in The Guardian, the painting was named the third most influential piece of modern art in a survey of 500 artists, critics, and others. The artwork was also ranked ninth in the past 1,000 years by Kathleen Davenport, Director, Rice University Art Gallery, Houston.\n\nAppropriation and fair use\nWarhol is regarded as an artist known for the appropriation of images and he often made use of publicity photographs and publicly available photographs and motifs not owned by him, which often brought him into conflict with the owners of the source material. An example of this is Warhol's Marilyn series including the Marilyn Diptych, which resulted in a settlement with the owner of the Marilyn Monroe publicity photograph which he used as the source material for the paintings. Warhol and his estate have settled many copyright disputes including with regard to his famous flowers paintings and paintings of Jackie Kennedy, as discussed in detail in \"Andy The Appropriator: The Copyright Battles You Won't Hear About at The Whitney's Warhol Exhibit\" from The Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts: \"Although some of Warhol’s work was commissioned by individuals or companies, much of it was appropriated from other artists, photographers, and brands. Two of his most famous pieces, Marilyn Diptych and the collection of Campbell’s soup cans, are examples of his habit of appropriation. For the Marilyn series, Warhol took a promotional photograph of Marilyn Monroe and transferred it onto silkscreen print using different colors. He did not own the promotional photograph that he used and he did not have permission to use it. The resulting work was transformative enough that a strong fair use argument could be made today, but Warhol’s appropriation is undeniable. Similarly, Warhol used the Campbell’s Soup logo without permission from the company for dozens of silkscreen prints. Eventually, Campbell’s Soup tacitly approved of his use because of the free marketing they were receiving, but Warhol’s use of their logo without initial permission was still appropriation.\"\n\nSee also\nGold Marilyn Monroe, another 1962 work by Warhol featuring Monroe\nDiptych\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nAnalysis of Andy Warhol's Marilyn Monroe Series (1967), including Maryiln Diptych (1962)",
"title": "Marilyn_Diptych"
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"paragraph_text": "Niagara is a 1953 American noir thriller film directed by Henry Hathaway, produced by Charles Brackett, and written by Brackett, Richard L. Breen and Walter Reisch. The film stars Marilyn Monroe, Joseph Cotten, Jean Peters, and Max Showalter (credited as Casey Adams). It was one of 20th Century Fox's biggest box-office hits that year.\nUnlike other films noir of the time, which were typically black-and-white, Niagara was filmed in \"three-strip\" Technicolor (one of the last films to be made at Fox in that format, as a few months later Fox began converting to CinemaScope, which had compatibility problems with three-strip but not with Eastmancolor).\nMonroe was given top billing in Niagara, which elevated her to star status. Her next two films, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) and How to Marry a Millionaire (1953), were even bigger successes.\n\nPlot\nRay and Polly Cutler, a couple on a delayed honeymoon, arrive at Niagara Falls. Ray goes to call his boss, Mr. Kettering, whom he expected to find waiting for him. However, it appears that Mr. Kettering and his wife have not arrived yet. Meanwhile, Polly finds their reserved cabin occupied by another couple, George and Rose Loomis. When Mr. Qua, the cabin owner, asks Rose to check out, Rose tells them that George is asleep and had been recently been discharged from an Army mental hospital after his service in the Korean War and that she doesn't want to wake him, as he is not quite himself. The Cutlers politely accept another cabin without a view of the Falls, and the two couples become acquainted.\nGeorge and Rose have a troubled and volatile marriage. She is younger and seductively attractive. He is jealous, depressed and irritable. While touring the Falls the following day, Polly sees Rose passionately kissing another man, her lover Ted Patrick.\nThat evening, Rose joins an impromptu outdoor party and requests that a record of her favorite song, \"Kiss\", be played. George storms out of their cabin and breaks the record, suspecting the song has a secret meaning for Rose. Seeing that George has cut his hand with the record, Polly visits his room to apply mercurochrome and bandages. George confides that he was a sheep rancher whose luck turned for the worse after he married Rose, whom he met when she was a barmaid.\n\nThe next day, Rose lures George into following her to the dark tourist tunnel underneath the Falls, where Ted is waiting to kill him. To let Rose know that George is dead, Ted will request the Rainbow Tower Carillon play \"Kiss.\" When she hears the song being played on the carillon bells, Rose assumes that George is dead. However, it is George who has killed Ted, thrown his body into the Falls, and collected Ted's shoes at the exit instead of his own. This leads the police to believe that George is the victim. The body is retrieved and the police bring Rose to identify George's body. When the cover is lifted from the face and she recognizes the dead man, she collapses before saying anything and is admitted to the hospital.\nMr. Qua moves the Cutlers' belongings to the Loomises' cabin. George comes to the cabin seeking revenge on Rose but finds Polly sleeping there instead. She wakes and sees him before he runs away. She tells the police, who launch a dragnet. During the Cutlers' second visit to the Falls, George finds Polly alone for a moment. Trying to escape, she slips, but he saves her from falling over the edge into the waterfall torrent. He explains to her that he killed Ted in self-defense and begs her to \"let me stay dead.\" Polly leaves without answering. Later that day, she tells the police detective that she believes George is alive. George has the carillon play \"Kiss\" again to panic Rose, who flees the hospital, intending to cross the border back to the United States. Finding George waiting at the border for her, she flees and tries to hide in the carillon bell tower. In a fit of anger, George catches her and strangles her beneath the silent bells. He tries to flee but realizes that he is locked in the building. Realizing what he has done, he sits down next to Rose's body and remorsefully tells her that he loved her. After a trash man unlocks the door, George flees the tower and heads for the Falls.\n\nThe Cutlers go fishing with the Ketterings in a launch on a section of the Niagara River above the Falls. When the speedboat moors in Chippawa for gasoline and other supplies, George steals it to try and cross the Canada–United States border, but Polly returns to the boat before he can depart. Seeing George's hat on the table, Polly realizes he is on board. She tries to stop him from leaving, but he shoves her away, and she falls to the ground. Before George can remove Polly from the boat, the boatman sees him on board, so George has no choice but to depart with Polly on board. Polly tells him to give himself up to the police as he killed Ted in self-defense, but he tells her he cannot because he has killed Rose. Polly is horrified. After the boatman reports the stolen boat, the police set out in pursuit.\nHowever, the boat runs out of gas and drifts towards the Falls. The police are unable to help as the boat is too close to the edge. As they near the edge, George scuttles the boat to try and ground it, to no avail. However, this slows it down enough for him to get Polly onto a large rock before he goes over the Falls to his death. A devastated Polly is rescued from the rock by a U.S. Coast Guard helicopter. She and Ray are reunited and leave the Falls together.\n\nCast\nProduction\nWalter Reisch said producer Charles Brackett wanted to make a film set around Niagara Falls and Reisch suggested it be a murder mystery. Reisch said, \"Anybody hearing the name Niagara thinks of honeymoon couples and of some sentimental story of a girl walking out on her husband on their wedding night and their getting together again. It would be foolish to start up with Sonja Henie tricks here or Esther Williams-type swimming extravaganzas. I would like to make it a mystery story, with a real murder in it.\"\n\nReisch said he came up with the story but wrote the script with Richard Breen and Brackett.\nHead of Fox Darryl F. Zanuck wanted to cast Monroe in the film. According to Reisch, \"we thought that was a nice idea, until there came a second telephone call that he wanted her to be the villainess, not the girl... My God! Here was the prettiest girl in the whole United States of America! But he insisted it was a great idea, so we finally did it. We didn't know whether she would like it, but she had no objection, whatsoever—on the contrary.\"\nPeters replaced Anne Baxter in the role of Polly. Shooting of Niagara took place from early June to mid-July 1952. Peters' character was initially the leading role, but the film eventually became a vehicle for Monroe, who was by that time more successful.\nReisch says there are \"major sequences missing\" from the final film. \"After he'd seen it, Zanuck simply couldn't accept the fact that the police at Niagara Falls were of Canadian extraction. We had British actors playing Canadian police commissioners and detectives and various cops, and he just abhorred it. He wouldn't let us go back to the stages to finish it or to repair it—no, he just took it out! The American audience, he said, does not know, does not understand, that the Niagara Falls are bisected by the border . . . and we should have used Americans. And [director Henry] Hathaway, who didn't like the idea either, sided with him. So there are big holes in the story.\"\nHenry Hathaway said the film would have been better had his original choice James Mason played the lead male role. He says Mason was going to play the role but his daughter was sick of seeing him die in movies so the actor turned the role down. \"Cotten's a good actor but doesn't have the smouldering edge that Mason has; he's a little flat,\" said Hathaway.\n\"Kiss\" was composed by Lionel Newman, with lyrics by Haven Gillespie—both of whom are uncredited—and performed by Monroe.\n\nReception\nCritical response\nUpon the film's release, A. W. of The New York Times praised the film, if not the acting, writing, \"Obviously ignoring the idea that there are Seven Wonders of the World, Twentieth Century-Fox has discovered two more and enhanced them with Technicolor in Niagara... For the producers are making full use of both the grandeur of the Falls and its adjacent areas as well as the grandeur that is Marilyn Monroe... Perhaps Miss Monroe is not the perfect actress at this point. But neither the director nor the gentlemen who handled the cameras appeared to be concerned with this. They have caught every possible curve both in the intimacy of the boudoir and in equally revealing tight dresses. And they have illustrated pretty concretely that she can be seductive—even when she walks. As has been noted, Niagara may not be the place to visit under these circumstances but the falls and Miss Monroe are something to see.\"\n\nAlso in 1953, a reviewer at Variety wrote, \"Niagara is a morbid, clichéd expedition into lust and murder. The atmosphere throughout is strained and taxes the nerves with a feeling of impending disaster. Focal point of all this is Marilyn Monroe, who's vacationing at the Falls with hubby Joseph Cotten.... The camera lingers on Monroe's sensuous lips, roves over her slip-clad figure and accurately etches the outlines of her derrière as she weaves down a street to a rendezvous with her lover. As a contrast to the beauty of the female form is another kind of nature's beauty—that of the Falls. The natural phenomena have been magnificently photographed on location.\"\nLater critics have also praised the film. In 2001, Robert Weston wrote, \"Niagara is a good movie for noir fans who crave something a little different. Be warned, the film was shot in glorious Technicolor, not black and white, but still boasts an ample share of shadows and style.... Undoubtedly, the best reason to see Niagara is just as trailer promised: for the scenery. There's some terrific location work that showcases the breathtaking aspects of the Falls before the city evolved into a tawdry Canadian answer to Atlantic City; and of course, there's a gal named Marilyn Monroe, burgeoning at her humble beginnings.\"\nOn the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 78% based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10.\n\nNoir themes\nA major theme is that of sex and its destructiveness. Rose is a femme fatale, seductively dressed in tight clothes revealing her sensual figure. Her relationship (combining the sexual, hypocritical, and scornful) with George is contrasted with the more normal relationship of the Cutlers, which also has sexual elements hinted at by the film. Ray Cutler does not fail to notice Rose's sexual charms, but his and Polly's reactions to their interactions with George and Rose demonstrate the conventionality of their attitudes.\n\nLegacy\nIn the weeks after Monroe's death in August 1962, Andy Warhol used a publicity photo from Niagara as the basis for his silkscreen painting Marilyn Diptych.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nNiagara at IMDb \nNiagara at AllMovie \nNiagara at Rotten Tomatoes \nNiagara at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films \nNiagara at the TCM Movie Database \nNiagara film trailer on YouTube",
"title": "Niagara_(1953_film)"
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] | Andy Warhol made the painting Marilyn Diptych from a publicity photo of Marilyn Monroe for a film. What was the name of Monroe's character in that film? | [] | Rose Loomis | [] | true |
549 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The FGM-148 Javelin, or Advanced Anti-Tank Weapon System-Medium (AAWS-M), is an American-made man-portable anti-tank system in service since 1996 and continuously upgraded. It replaced the M47 Dragon anti-tank missile in US service. Its fire-and-forget design features automatic infrared guidance, allowing the user to seek cover immediately after launch, in contrast to wire-guided systems like the system used by the Dragon, which require a user to guide the weapon throughout the engagement. The Javelin's high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead can defeat modern tanks by top-down attack, hitting them from above, where their armor is thinnest, and is useful against fortifications in a direct attack flight. The Javelin uses a tandem charge warhead to circumvent an enemy tank's explosive reactive armor (ERA), which would normally render HEAT warheads ineffective.\nAs of 2019, according to claims by the manufacturer, the Javelin had been used in around five thousand successful engagements. By August 2021, fifty thousand missiles had been delivered to customers.\nThe weapon made its combat debut in Iraq in 2003 and rose to prominence in the Russo-Ukrainian War, where it saw extensive usage by Ukrainian forces during the early stages of the 2022 Russian invasion.\n\nOverview\nJavelin is a fire-and-forget missile with lock-on before launch and automatic self-guidance. The system employs a top attack flight profile against armored vehicles, attacking the usually thinner top armor, but can also make a direct attack, for use against buildings, targets too close for top attack, targets under obstructions, and helicopters.\nIt can reach a peak altitude of 150 m (490 ft) in top attack mode and 60 m (200 ft) in direct attack mode. Initial versions had a range of 2,000 m (6,600 ft), later increased to 2,500 m (8,200 ft). It is equipped with an imaging infrared seeker. The tandem warhead is fitted with two shaped charges: a precursor warhead to detonate any explosive reactive armor and a primary warhead to penetrate base armor.\nIn what is known as a \"soft launch arrangement,\" the missile is ejected from the launcher to a safe distance from the operator before the main rocket motors ignite. This makes it harder to identify the launcher, though backblast from the launch tube still poses a hazard to nearby personnel. The firing team may move as soon as the \"fire-and-forget\" missile has been launched or immediately prepare to fire on their next target.\nThe missile system is sometimes carried by two soldiers consisting of a gunner and an ammunition bearer, although one soldier can fire it. While the gunner aims and fires the missile, the ammunition bearer scans for prospective targets, watches for threats like enemy vehicles or troops and ensures that personnel and obstacles are clear of the missile's launch backblast.\n\nDevelopment\nIn 1983, the United States Army introduced its AAWS-M (Advanced Anti-Tank Weapon System—Medium) requirement. In 1985, the AAWS-M was approved for development. In August 1986, the proof-of-principle (POP) phase of development began, with a US$30 million contract awarded for technical proof demonstrators: Ford Aerospace (laser-beam riding), Hughes Aircraft Missile System Group (imaging infrared combined with a fiber-optic cable link) and Texas Instruments (imaging infrared). In late 1988, the POP phase ended. In June 1989, the full-scale development contract was awarded to a joint venture of Texas Instruments and Martin Marietta, now Raytheon and Lockheed Martin. The AAWS-M received the designation of FGM-148.\n\nIn April 1991, the first test-flight of the Javelin succeeded, and in March 1993, the first test-firing from the launcher succeeded. In 1994, low levels of production were authorized, and the first Javelins were deployed with US Army units in 1996.\n\nTest and evaluation\nThe General Accounting Office (GAO), since renamed Government Accountability Office, published a report questioning the adequacy of Javelin testing. The report, titled \"Army Acquisition—Javelin Is Not Ready for Multiyear Procurement\", opposed entering into full-rate production in 1997 and expressed the need for further operational testing due to the many redesigns undergone.\nIn 1995, Secretary of Defense William Perry had set forth five new operational test initiatives: 1) involving operational testers early in development; 2) use of modeling and simulation; 3) integrating development and operational testing; 4) combining testing and training; and 5) applying concepts to demos and acquisitions. The late-phase development of the Javelin retroactively benefited from the then-new operational test initiatives set forth by the Secretary of Defense, as well as a further test conducted as a consequence of the Army's response to the GAO report. Before the Milestone III decision, and before it was fielded to the 3rd Battalion of the 75th Ranger Regiment at Fort Benning (and later Special Forces, airborne, air assault, and light infantry units), the Javelin was subjected to limited parts of the five operational test and evaluation initiatives, as well as a portability operational test program, an additional test phase of the so-called Product Verification Test, which included live firings with the full-rate configuration weapon.\nThe Institute for Defense Analyses and the Defense Department's Director of Operational Test and Evaluation became involved in three development test activities, including 1) reviewing initial operational test and evaluation plans; 2) monitoring initial operational test and evaluation; and 3) structuring follow-on test and evaluation activities. The results of these efforts detected problems, training included, and corrected significant problems, leading to modified test plans, savings in test costs, and GAO satisfaction.\n\nQualification testing\nThe Javelin Environmental Test System (JETS) is a mobile test set for Javelin All-Up-Round (AUR) and the Command Launch Unit (CLU). It can be configured to functionally test the AUR or the CLU individually or both units in a mated tactical mode. This mobile unit may be repositioned at the various environmental testing facilities. The mobile system is used for all phases of Javelin qualification testing. There is a non-mobile JETS used for stand-alone CLU testing. This system is equipped with an environmental chamber and is primarily used for Product Verification Testing (PRVT). Capabilities include: Javelin CLU testing; Javelin AUR testing; Javelin Mated Mode testing; Javelin testing in various environmental conditions; and CLU PRVT.\nThe all-up-round test sets include: extreme temperature testing; missile tracker testing (track rate error, tracking sensitivity); seeker/focal plane array testing (cool-down time, dead/defective pixels, seeker identification); pneumatic leakage; continuity measurements; ready time; and guidance sections (guidance commands, fin movement).\n\nComponents\nThe system consists of three main components: the Command Launch Unit, the Launch Tube Assembly and the missile itself. Each missile contains 250 microprocessors.\n\nCommand launch unit\nThe gunner carries a reusable command launch unit (CLU, pronounced \"clue\"), which is the targeting component of the two-part system. The CLU has three views, which are used to find, target, and fire the missile and may be used separately from the missile as a portable thermal sight. Infantry personnel are no longer required to stay in constant contact with armored personnel carriers and tanks with thermal sights. This makes them more flexible and able to perceive threats they would not otherwise be able to detect. In 2006, a contract was awarded to Toyon Research Corporation to begin development of an upgrade to the CLU, enabling the transmission of target image and GPS location data to other units.\n\nDay field of view\nThe first view is a 4× magnification day view. It is mainly used to scan areas in visible light during daylight operation. It is also used to scan immediately before sunrise and after sunset, when it is difficult to focus the thermal image due to the natural rapid heating or cooling of the environment.\n\nWide field of view\nThe second view is the 4× magnification night view, a wide field of view (WFOV) which shows the gunner a thermal representation of the area viewed. This is the primary view used, due to its ability to detect infrared radiation and find both troops and vehicles otherwise too well hidden to detect. The screen shows a \"green scale\" view which can be adjusted in both contrast and brightness. The inside of the CLU is cooled by a small refrigeration unit attached to the sight. This greatly increases the sensitivity of the thermal imaging capability, since the temperature inside the sight is much lower than that of the objects it detects.\nDue to the sensitivity this causes, the gunner is able to \"focus\" the CLU to show a detailed image of the area being viewed, by showing temperature differences of only a few degrees. The gunner operates this view with the use of two hand stations similar to the control stick found in modern cockpits. It is from this view that the gunner focuses the image and determines the area that gives the best heat signature on which to lock the missile.\n\nNarrow field of view\nThe third field of view is a 12× thermal sight, used to better identify the target vehicle. Once the CLU has been focused in WFOV, the gunner may switch to a narrow field of view (NFOV) for target recognition before activating the seeker FOV.\nOnce the best target area is chosen, the gunner presses one of the two triggers and is automatically switched to the fourth view, the seeker FOV, which is a 9x magnification thermal view. This process is similar to the automatic zoom feature on most modern cameras. This view is available along with the previously mentioned views, all of which may be accessed with the press of a button. However, it is not as commonly-used as a high magnification view, because it takes longer to scan a wide area.\nThis view allows the gunner to further aim the missile and set the guidance system housed inside it. It is when in this view that information is passed from the CLU, through the connection electronics of the Launch Tube Assembly, and into the missile's guidance system. If the gunner decides not to fire the missile immediately, they can cycle back to the other views without firing. When the gunner is satisfied with the target picture, a second trigger is pulled to establish a \"lock\". The missile launches after a short delay.\n\nLightweight CLU\nThe US Army developed a new CLU as an improvement over the Block I version. The new CLU is 70% smaller, 40% lighter and has a 50% battery life increase. Features of the lightweight CLU are: a long-wave infrared (IR) thermographic camera; a high-definition display with improved resolution; integrated handgrips; a five megapixel color camera; a laser point that can be seen visibly or through IR; a far target locator using GPS, a laser rangefinder, a heading sensor, and modernized electronics. The LWCLU has demonstrated the ability to fire a FIM-92 Stinger anti-aircraft missile, using its superior optics to identify and destroy small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).\n\nThe Javelin Joint Venture received its first low-rate production contract for the LWCLU in June 2022. 200 units will be delivered before full-rate production is expected to initiate in 2023, which will increase the production rate to 600 per year. First delivery is slated for 2025.\n\nLaunch Tube Assembly\nBoth the gunner and the ammunition bearer carry the Launch Tube Assembly, a disposable tube that houses the missile and protects the missile from harsh environments. The tube has built-in electronics and a locking hinge system that makes attachment and detachment of the missile to and from the Command Launch Unit a quick and simple process.\n\nMissile\nWarhead\nThe Javelin missile's tandem warhead is a high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) type. This round utilizes an explosive shaped charge to create a stream of superplastically deformed metal, formed from trumpet-shaped metallic liners. The result is a narrow high velocity particle stream that can penetrate armor.\nThe Javelin counters the advent of explosive reactive armor (ERA). ERA boxes or tiles lying over a vehicle's main armor explode when struck by a warhead. This explosion does not harm the vehicle's main armor, but causes steel panels to fly across the path of a HEAT round's narrow particle stream, disrupting its focus and leaving it unable to cut through the main armor. The Javelin uses two shaped-charge warheads in tandem. The weak, smaller diameter HEAT precursor charge detonates the ERA, clearing the way for the much larger diameter HEAT warhead, which then penetrates the target's primary armor.\nA two-layered molybdenum liner is used for the precursor, and a copper liner for the main warhead.\nTo protect the main charge from the explosive blast, shock, and debris caused by the impact of the missile's nose and the detonation of the precursor charge, a blast shield is used between the two charges. This was the first composite material blast shield and the first that had a hole through the middle to provide a jet that is less diffuse.\nA newer main charge liner produces a higher velocity jet. While making the warhead smaller, this change makes it more effective, leaving more room for propellant for the main rocket motor, increasing the missile's range.\nElectronic arming and fusing, called Electronic Safe Arming and Fire (ESAF), is present on the Javelin. The ESAF system enables the firing and arming process to proceed, while imposing a series of safety checks on the missile. ESAF cues the launch motor after the trigger is pulled. When the missile reaches a key acceleration point, indicating that it has cleared the launch tube, the ESAF initiates a second arming signal to fire the flight motor. After another check on missile conditions (target lock check), ESAF initiates final arming to enable the warheads for detonation upon target impact. When the missile strikes the target, ESAF enables the tandem warhead function, to provide appropriate time between the detonation of the precursor charge and the detonation of the main charge.\nThough the Javelin's tandem HEAT warhead has proven efficient at destroying tanks, most threats it was employed against in Iraq and Afghanistan were weapon crews and teams, buildings, and lightly armored and unarmored vehicles. To make the Javelin more useful in these scenarios, the Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center developed a multi-purpose warhead (MPWH) for the FGM-148F. While it is still lethal against tanks, the new warhead has a naturally fragmenting steel warhead case, that doubles the effectiveness against personnel due to enhanced fragmentation. The MPWH does not add weight or cost and has a lighter composite missile mid-body to enable drop-in replacement to existing Javelin tubes. The Javelin F-model was planned to begin deliveries in early 2020. The improved missile design, along with new lighter CLU with an improved target tracker, entered production in May 2020.\n\nPropulsion\nMost rocket launchers require a large clear area behind the gunner to prevent injury from backblast. To address this shortcoming without increasing recoil to an unacceptable level, the Javelin system uses a soft launch mechanism. A small launch motor using conventional rocket propellant ejects the missile from the launcher, but stops burning before the missile clears the tube. The flight motor is ignited after a delay to allow sufficient clearance from the operator.\nTo save weight, the two motors are integrated with a burst disc between them. It is designed to tolerate the pressure of the launch motor from one side, but to easily rupture from the other when the flight motor ignites. The motors use a common nozzle. The flight motor's exhaust flows through the expended launch motor. Because the launch motor casing remains in place, an unusual ring-shaped igniter is used to start it. A normal igniter would be blown out of the back of the missile when the flight motor ignited and could injure the operator.\nSince the launch motor uses a standard NATO propellant, the presence of lead beta-resorcylate as a burn rate modifier causes an amount of lead and lead oxide to be present in the exhaust. Gunners are asked to hold their breath after firing for their safety.\nIn the event that the launch motor malfunctions and the launch tube is overpressurized—for example, if the rocket gets stuck—the Javelin missile includes a pressure release system to prevent the launcher from exploding. The launch motor is held in place by a set of shear pins, which fracture if the pressure rises too high. They allow the motor to be pushed out of the back of the tube.\n\nSeeker\nAs a fire-and-forget missile, after launch the missile has to be able to track and destroy its target without assistance from the gunner. This is done by coupling an onboard imaging IR system, separate from CLU imaging system, with an onboard tracking system.\nThe gunner uses the CLU's IR system to find and identify the target, then switches to the missile's independent IR system to set a track box around the target and establish a lock. The gunner places brackets around the image for locking.\nThe seeker stays focused on the target's image, continuing to track it as the target moves or the missile's flight path alters, or attack angles change. The seeker consists of three main components: focal plane array image sensor, cooling and calibration, and stabilization.\n\nFocal plane array (FPA)\nThe seeker assembly is encased in a dome that is transparent to long-wave infrared radiation. The IR radiation passes through the dome and then through lenses that focus the energy. The IR energy is reflected by mirrors on to the FPA. The seeker is a two-dimensional staring FPA of 64×64 MerCad (HgCdTe) detector elements. The FPA processes the signals from the detectors and relays a signal to the missile's tracker.\nThe staring array is a photo-voltaic device where the incident photons stimulate electrons and are stored, pixel by pixel, in readout integrated circuits attached at the rear of the detector. These electrons are converted to voltages that are multiplexed out of the ROIC on a frame-by-frame basis.\n\nCooling/calibration\nTo function effectively, the FPA must be cooled and calibrated. In other applications, a CLU's IR detectors are cooled using a Dewar flask and a closed-cycle Stirling engine, but there is insufficient space in the missile for a similar solution. Prior to launch, a cooler mounted on the outside of the launch tube activates the electrical systems in the missile, and supplies cold gas from a Joule-Thomson expander to the missile detector assembly, while the missile is still in the launch tube. When the missile is fired, this external connection is broken and coolant gas is supplied internally by an onboard argon gas bottle. The gas is held in a small bottle at high pressure and contains enough coolant for the duration of the flight of approximately 19 seconds.\nThe seeker is calibrated using a chopper wheel. This device is a fan of six blades: five black blades with low IR emissivity and one semi-reflective blade. These blades spin in front of the seeker optics in a synchronized fashion such that the FPA is continually provided with points of reference in addition to viewing the scene. These reference points allow the FPA to reduce noise introduced by response variations in the detector elements.\n\nStabilization\nThe platform on which the seeker is mounted must be stabilized with respect to the motion of the missile body, and the seeker must be moved to stay aligned with the target. The stabilization system must cope with rapid acceleration, up/down and lateral movements. This is done by a gimbal system, accelerometers, spinning-mass gyros (or MEMS), and motors to drive changes in position of the platform. The system is basically an autopilot. Information from the gyros is fed to the guidance electronics, which drive a torque motor attached to the seeker platform to keep the seeker aligned with the target. The wires that connect the seeker with the rest of the missile are carefully designed to avoid inducing motion or drag on the seeker platform.\n\nTracker\nThe tracker is key to guidance/control for an eventual hit. The signals from each of the 4,096 detector elements (64×64 pixel array) in the seeker are passed to the FPA readout integrated circuits which reads then creates a video frame that is sent to the tracker system for processing. By comparing the individual frames, the tracker determines the need to correct so as to keep the missile on target. The tracker must be able to determine which portion of the image represents the target.\nThe target is initially defined by the gunner, who places a configurable frame around it. The tracker then uses algorithms to compare that region of the frame based on image, geometric, and movement data to the new image frames being sent from the seeker, similar to pattern recognition algorithms. At the end of each frame, the reference is updated. The tracker is able to keep track of the target even though the seeker's point of view can change radically in the course of flight.\nThe missile is equipped with four movable tail fins and eight fixed wings at mid-body. To guide the missile, the tracker locates the target in the current frame and compares this position with the aim point. If this position is off center, the tracker computes a correction and passes it to the guidance system, which makes the appropriate adjustments to the four movable tail fins. This is an autopilot. To guide the missile, the system has sensors that check that the fins are positioned as requested. If not, the deviation is sent back to the controller for further adjustment. This is a closed-loop controller.\nThere are three stages in the flight managed by the tracker: 1) an initial phase just after launch; 2) a mid-flight phase that lasts for most of the flight; and 3) a terminal phase in which the tracker selects the most effective point of impact. With guidance algorithms, the autopilot uses data from the seeker and tracker, to determine when to transition the missile from one phase of flight to another. Depending on whether the missile is in top attack or direct attack mode, the profile of the flight can change significantly. \nThe top attack mode requires the missile to climb sharply after launch and cruise at high altitude, then dive on the top of the target (curveball). In direct attack mode (fastball), the missile cruises at a lower altitude directly at the target. The flight path takes into account the range to the target, calculated by the guidance unit.\n\nTraining\nA great familiarity of each control and swift operation needs to be achieved before the unit can be deployed efficiently. American troops are trained on the system at the Infantry School in Fort Benning, Georgia, for two weeks. The soldiers are taught basic care and maintenance, operation and abilities, assembly and disassembly, and the positions it can be fired from. Soldiers are taught to distinguish between a variety of vehicle types, even when only a rough outline is visible.\nThe soldiers must accomplish several timed drills with set standards, before being qualified to operate the system in both training and wartime situations. There are smaller training programs set up on most army bases that instruct soldiers on the proper use of the system. At these courses, the training program might be changed in small ways. This is most commonly only minor requirements left out due to budget, the number of soldiers vs. simulation equipment, and available time and resources. Both types of training courses have required proficiency levels that must be met before the soldier can operate the system in training exercises or wartime missions.\n\nCombat history\nThe Javelin was used by the US Army, the US Marine Corps and the Australian Special Forces in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, on Iraqi Type 69 and Lion of Babylon tanks. During the Battle of Debecka Pass, a platoon of US Army Special Forces operators equipped with Javelins destroyed two T-55 tanks, eight armored personnel carriers, and four troop transport trucks.\n\nDuring the War in Afghanistan, the Javelin was used effectively in counter-insurgency (COIN) operations. Initially, soldiers perceived the weapon as unsuitable for COIN due to its destructive power, but trained gunners were able to make precision shots against enemy positions with little collateral damage. The Javelin filled a niche in US weapons systems against DShK heavy machine guns and B-10 recoilless rifles—weapons like the AT4 and the M203 grenade launcher were powerful enough, but the ~300 m range was insufficient. Conversely, while medium and heavy machine guns and automatic grenade launchers had the range, they lacked the power, and heavy mortars, which had both a good range and more than enough power, were not accurate enough.\nThe Javelin had enough range, power, and accuracy for dismounted infantry to counter standoff engagement tactics employed by enemy weapons. With good locks, the missile is most effective against vehicles, caves, fortified positions, and individual personnel. If enemy forces were inside a cave, a Javelin fired into the mouth of the cave would destroy it from the inside, which was not possible from the outside using heavy mortars. The psychological effect of the sound of a Javelin firing, sometimes caused insurgents to disengage and flee their position. Even when not firing, the Javelin's CLU was commonly used as a man-portable surveillance system.\nIn February 2016, during the al-Shaddadi offensive of the Syrian Civil War, a Javelin was used to blow up an attacking suicide car bomb.\nIn 2016, claims were posted on social media that the Syrian Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG) may have received Javelin missiles. By June 2018, it was still unconfirmed if the YPG were fielding Javelin missiles, although US Special Forces units were seen operating them in support of Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) advances during the Deir ez-Zor campaign in the Middle Euphrates River Valley.\nIn June 2019, forces of the Libyan Government of National Accord captured four Javelins from the forces of the Libyan National Army. These missiles had been provided by the UAE.\nDuring the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, NATO provided thousands of Javelins to Ukraine, where they proved highly effective. Javelins have been responsible for a part of the hundreds of Russian armored vehicles that Ukraine has destroyed, captured or damaged. An image dubbed \"Saint Javelin\", which shows the Virgin Mary holding a Javelin launcher in the style of an Eastern Orthodox church painting, gained social media attention, and soon became a symbol of the Ukrainian resistance against the Russian invasion. The Pentagon claimed that of the first 112 Javelins fired by the Ukrainians since the start of the war, 100 missiles had hit their target.\nAn unknown number of Javelin launch tube assemblies were captured by the Russian armed forces during the conflict. It is unclear if any of the captured launchers contained live rounds, or were simply tubes discarded after being used. Iran reportedly received an example of the Javelin missile from Russia, along with other Western munitions captured in Ukraine, as part of a larger deal for Shahed and Mohajer drones.\nIn April 2022 commentary from the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), concerns were raised over the US stock of Javelin missiles. According to CSIS, the US had used close to one-third of its Javelin missiles. 7,000 had been supplied, with the United States buying Javelins at the rate of about 1,000 a year. The maximum production rate is 6,480 a year, but it would likely take a year or more to reach that level. Orders take 32 months to deliver. The report concluded that it would take about three or four years to replace the missiles that had been sent to Ukraine. The missile production rate could be increased greatly with a national procurement effort. \nIn May 2022, Lockheed Martin CEO James Taiclet stated that Lockheed would nearly double the production of Javelins to 4,000 a year. Ukrainian officials estimated that up to 500 missiles per day were being used in the early days of the war. In August 2022, the US committed to sending an additional 1,000 Javelin missiles to Ukraine.\n\nVariants\nThe Javelin Weapon System has been incrementally upgraded, resulting in a number of variants and production blocks.\n\nFGM-148A: Initial small batch in 1996.\nFGM-148B: Unclear. Likely the Enhanced Producibility Program (EPP) design introduced before the Javelin's Milestone III.\nFGM-148C: 1999, probably the Javelin Enhanced Tandem Integration (JETI) modification. DoD claims \"enhancements that alter the missile dome\". Described as \"Block 0\" by Janes.\nFGM-148D: Export version.\n\"Block 1\": 2006. Faster and more lethal missiles, a new \"Block I CLU\" providing increased ID range and surveillance time. Janes claims this is the same as FGM-148E.\nFGM-148E: Replaced electronic components in the control actuator section of the missile, for cost and weight savings. Developed as \"Spiral 1\" in 2013–14. Production started in 2017.\nFGM-148F: Fitted with a multi-purpose warhead (MPWH). Developed as \"Spiral 2\". Production started in May 2020.\nFGM-148G: To be developed from project \"Spiral 3\". Will develop a new launch tube assembly and battery unit, and will replace the current gas-cooled seeker with an uncooled seeker in the guidance section of the missile. Production missiles will be designated FGM-148G.\nThe LWCLU does not yet have a variant designation.\n\nOperators\nCurrent operators\nAustralia: 92 launchers.\n Bahrain: 13 launchers.\n Croatia:\n Czech Republic: Purchased 3 launchers and 12 missiles for its special forces, for use in Afghanistan. An additional order totaling US$10.21 million was placed in December 2015 for 50 missiles and 3 launchers.\n Estonia: 80 CLU, with option for additional 40, and 350 missiles purchased from the United States. In service from 2016.\n France: 76 launchers and 260 missiles for use in Afghanistan. Was replacing MILAN anti-tank missile, no follow-on order in favor of the Missile Moyenne Portée (MMP).\n Georgia: 72 CLUs and 410 missiles received in 2018, and the delivery of another 46 CLUs and 82 missiles approved in 2021. The first Foreign Military Sale to the Georgian military consisting of 410 missiles, and 72 CLUs, includes 2 Javelin Block 1 CLUs to be used as spares was approved for US$75 million. In 2021, 46 CLUs and 82 missiles were ordered, for US$30 million.\n Indonesia: 25 launchers and 189 missiles of Javelin Block 1 variant, in a US$60 million deal.\n Ireland: Irish Army, It replaced the MILAN anti-tank missile.\n Jordan: 30 launchers and 116 missiles were received in 2004. 162 CLUs, 18 Fly-to-Buy Missiles, 1,808 Javelin Anti-Tank Guided Missiles and other support equipment was ordered in 2009. The estimated cost is $388 million. Jordan placed another order of $133.9 million in 2017.\n Libya: Used by the Libyan National Army\n Lithuania: Total: 144 CLU and 871 missiles purchased from the United States. In 2001, 40 launchers and 200 missiles. The first European country to receive this launcher and missile system in 2001. In December 2015 DSCA approved for a possible Foreign Military Sale to Lithuania for another 220 missiles and 74 CLUs for $55 million, plus 30 CLU and 350 missiles in 2026.\n New Zealand: 24 launchers and 390 missiles, in batches of 120, then 270.\n Norway: 100 launchers and 526 missiles. Delivered from 2006, in use from 2009. In 2017 Norwegian authorities started the process of finding a replacement anti-tank weapon, in order to counter new types of heavy tanks equipped with active protection systems capable of defeating missiles like the Javelin.\n Oman: 30 launchers.\n Poland: 110 launchers, 680 missiles.\n Qatar: In March 2013, Qatar requested the sale of 500 Javelin missiles and 50 command launch units. The deal was signed in March 2014.\n\n Saudi Arabia: 20 launchers and 150 missiles.\n Taiwan: In 2002, Taiwan bought 360 missiles and 40 launcher units for $39 million. The contract included training devices, logistics support, associated equipment and training. In 2008, the United States issued a congressional notification for the sale of a further 20 launchers and 182 more missiles.\n Turkey\n Ukraine: Over 8,000 Javelin anti-armor systems.\n United Arab Emirates\n United Kingdom: The UK Ministry of Defence purchased 850 Javelin units and 9,000 missiles for the Light Forces Anti-Tank Guided Weapon System (LFATGWS) requirement. Javelin entered UK service in 2005, replacing the MILAN and Swingfire systems.\n United States: Although not officially reported, budget records indicate that the US had 20,000 to 25,000 Javelin units on hand in 2021, prior to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.\n\nFuture\nAlbania: In May 2022, Lockheed Martin received orders from several international customers including Norway, Albania, Latvia and Thailand. The purchase was confirmed a few days later by the Ministry of Defence, Niko Peleshi for yet an undisclosed number and contract value of the system.\n Latvia: In May 2022, Lockheed Martin received orders from several international customers including Norway, Albania, Latvia and Thailand.\n Thailand: In July 2021, the US State Department announced a possible Foreign Military Sale to Thailand, of 300 Javelin FGM-148 Missiles and 50 Javelin Command Launch Units (CLU), worth $83.5 million.\n Brazil: In August 2022, the State Department approved a possible Foreign Military Sale to the Government of Brazil of Javelin Missiles and related equipment for an estimated cost of up to $74 million. The Government of Brazil has requested up to 222 Javelin missiles, FGM-148, and 33 Javelin Command Launch Units (CLU).\n Romania: In December 2023, the US State Department approved a potential $80 million sale of Javelin missiles and related equipment to Romania. Romania requested to buy 263 Javelin FGM-148F missiles and 26 Javelin Light Weight Command Launch Units.\n Bulgaria: Bulgaria is buying 420 Javelin missiles for its Stryker Dragoon vehicles for $101 million.\n Kosovo: In January 2024, the State Department approved a purchase of 246 Javelin FGM-148F anti-tank missiles and 6 testing missiles and 24 Command Launch Units (CLU), worth $75 million.\n Morocco: In March 2024, the US State Department approved a potential $260 million sale of Javelin missiles and related equipment to Morocco. The deal includes 612 FGM-148F missiles and 200 Lightweight Command Launch Units (LWCLUs).\n\nFailed bids\nIndia: In 2010, India considered purchasing some systems off-the-shelf, with a larger number to be license manufactured locally through \"transfer of technology\" (ToT). The United States was reluctant to provide a full ToT. Eventually, the plan to purchase Javelins was \"shelved\". In October 2014, India chose to buy the Israeli Spike missile system.\n\nSee also\nList of anti-tank missiles\nEscadrone Pegasus, a low-cost alternative for the anti-tank mission\nSaint Javelin\nComparable fire-and-forget systems\n\nAkeron MP, by MBDA France (France)\nAT-1K Raybolt, by Hanwha Vision and LIG Nex1 (South Korea)\nHJ-12, by Norinco (China)\nMPATGM, by DRDO (India)\nOMTAS – (Turkey)\nKaraok (Turkey)\nSpike, by Rafael Defense (Israel)\nType 01 LMAT, by Kawasaki Heavy Industries (Japan)\nComparable beam riding systems\n\nSkif or Stuhna-P, by Luch Design Bureau (Ukraine), not fire-and-forget capable\n9M133 Kornet, by KBP Instrument Design Bureau (Russia). The Kornet EM version have fire-and-forget capable\nComparable shorter range fire-and-forget systems\n\nAlcotán-100 – (Spain)\nNLAW – (Sweden, United Kingdom)\nFGM-172 SRAW – (United States)\nRelated development\n\nAGM-176 Griffin, shared components by Raytheon\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nJavelin, Lockheed Martin (archived from the original on 2008-01-20)\nDesignation Systems\nFAS article on Javelin\nJavelin tank killer",
"title": "FGM-148_Javelin"
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"paragraph_text": "The 9K38 Igla (Russian: Игла́, \"needle\", NATO reporting name SA-18 Grouse) is a Soviet/Russian man-portable infrared homing surface-to-air missile (SAM) system. A simplified, earlier version is known as the 9K310 Igla-1 (NATO: SA-16 Gimlet), and the latest variant is the 9K338 Igla-S (SA-24 Grinch).\nThe Igla-1 entered service in 1981, the Igla in 1983, and the Igla-S in 2004. The Igla has been supplemented by the 9K333 Verba since 2014.\n\nHistory\nThe development of the Igla short-range man-portable air defense system (MANPADS) began in the Kolomna OKB in 1972. Contrary to what is commonly reported, the Igla is not an improved version of the earlier Strela family (Strela-2 and Strela-3), but an all-new project. The main goals were to create a missile with better resistance to countermeasures and wider engagement envelope than the earlier Strela series MANPADS systems.\nTechnical difficulties in the development quickly made it obvious that the development would take far longer than anticipated, however, and in 1978 the program split in two: while the development of the full-capability Igla would continue, a simplified version (Igla-1) with a simpler IR seeker based on that of the earlier Strela-3 would be developed to enter service earlier than the full-capability version could be finished.\n\nIgla-1\nThe 9K310 Igla-1 system and its 9M313 missile were accepted into service in the Soviet Army on 11 March 1981. The main differences from the Strela-3 included an optional Identification Friend or Foe system to prevent firing on friendly aircraft, an automatic lead and super elevation to simplify shooting and reduce minimum firing range, a slightly larger rocket, reduced drag and better guidance system extend maximum range and improve performance against fast and maneuverable targets, an improved lethality on target achieved by a combination of delayed impact fuzing, terminal maneuver to hit the fuselage rather than jet nozzle, an additional charge to set off the remaining rocket fuel (if any) on impact, an improved resistance to infrared countermeasures (both decoy flares and ALQ-144 series jamming emitters), and slightly improved seeker sensitivity.\nThe seeker has two detectors – a cooled MWIR InSb detector for detection of the target and uncooled PbS SWIR detector for detection of IR decoys (flares). The built-in logic determines whether the detected object is a target or a decoy. The latest version (Igla-S) is reported to have additional detectors around the main seeker to provide further resistance against pulsed IRCM devices commonly used on helicopters.\nThe 9M313 missile features a drag-reducing aerospike mounted on a tripod (Igla's 9M39 missile has an aerospike attached directly to the seeker dome, resembling a needle, which is perhaps not coincidentally the translation of its codename, Russian: игла), which reduces a shock wave, thus providing less dome heating and greater range. The name Igla is derived from these devices.\nLike many other MANPADS, Igla-1 and Igla feature so-called rolling airframe missiles. These missiles roll in flight (900–1,200 rpm) so steering the missile requires just a single pair of control surfaces, unlike roll-stabilized missiles, which require separate control surfaces for pitch and yaw. Both 9M313 and 9M39 missiles contain a gas generator, which drives a small gas turbine to provide electrical power, and the pistons, which move the canards used to steer the missile in a bang-bang mode. In addition to that, two exhaust tubes of the gas generator are placed perpendicular to the steering canards to provide maneuverability immediately after launch when the missile airspeed is too low for canards to be effective. Later versions of Igla are reported to use proportional control to drive the canards, which enables greater precision and less oscillation of the flight path.\nAccording to the manufacturer, South African tests have shown the Igla's superiority over the contemporary (1982 service entry) but smaller and lighter American FIM-92A Stinger missile. According to Kolomna OKB, the Igla-1 has a Pk (probability of kill) of 0.30 to 0.48 against unprotected targets which is reduced to 0.24 in the presence of decoy flares and jamming. In another report, the manufacturer claimed a Pk of 0.59 against an approaching and 0.44 against receding F-4 Phantom II fighter not employing infrared countermeasures or evasive maneuvers.\n\nIgla\nThe full-capability 9K38 Igla with its 9M39 missile was finally accepted into service in the Soviet Army in 1983. The main improvements over the Igla-1 included much improved resistance against flares and jamming, a more sensitive seeker, expanding forward-hemisphere engagement, capability to include a tandem charge against armored targets,capability to engage straight-approaching fighters (all-aspect capability) under favourable circumstances, a slightly longer range, a higher-impulse, shorter-burning rocket with higher peak velocity (but approximately same time of flight to maximum range).\nThe naval variant of 9K38 Igla has the NATO reporting name SA-N-10 Grouse.\nThe Igla–1M missile consists of a Ground Power Supply Source (GPSS), Launching Tube, Launching Mechanism & Missile (9M313–1).\nThere is also a two-barrel 9K38 missile launcher called Dzhigit.\n\n9K338 Igla-S (SA-24 Grinch)\nThe newest variant, which is a substantially improved variant with longer range, more sensitive seeker, improved resistance to latest countermeasures, and a heavier warhead. Manufacturer reports hit probability of 0.8–0.9. State tests were completed in December 2001 and the system entered service in 2002. Series produced by the Degtyarev plant since 1 December 2004.\n\nReplacement\nSince 2014 the Igla is being replaced in Russian service by the new 9K333 Verba (Willow) MANPADS. The Verba's primary feature is its multispectral optical seeker, using three sensors as opposed to the Igla-S' two. Cross-checking sensors against one another better discriminates between relevant targets and decoys, and decreases the chance of disruption from countermeasures, including lasers that attempt to blind missiles.\n\nOperational history\nIndia\nOperation Trishul Shakti (1992)\nFrom 28 July 1992 to 2 August 1992 the Indian Army mounted Operation Trishul Shakti to protect the Bahadur post in Chulung when it was attacked by a large Pakistani assault team. On 1 August 1992, Pakistani helicopters were attacked by an Indian Igla missile and Brig. Masood Navid Anwari (PA 10117) then Force Commander Northern Areas and other accompanying troops were killed. This led to a loss of momentum on the Pakistani side and the assault stalled.\n\nIraq\nDesert Storm (1991)\nThe first combat use of the Igla-1E was during the Gulf War Operation GRANBY. On 17 January 1991, a Panavia Tornado bomber of the Royal Air Force was shot down by an Iraqi MANPADS that may have been an Igla-1E (or Strela-3) after an unsuccessful bombing mission. The crew, Flt Lts J G Peters and A J Nichol, were both captured and held as prisoners of war (POWs) until the cessation of hostilities.\nIn addition, an Igla-1E shot down an American F-16 on 27 February 1991. The pilot was captured.\nIt is uncertain if an AC-130H lost was hit by a 'Strela' missile or a more recent Igla since Iraq had SA-7, SA-14 and SA-16 missiles at the time, according to the SIPRI database.\n\nFrom 2003\nAmong the Coalition force losses to MANPADS during the Iraq War some were reported as losses to Igla-1E (SA-16) missiles.\n\nRwanda\nIgla-1E missiles were used in the 1994 shoot down of a Rwandan government flight, killing the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi and sparking the Rwandan genocide.\n\nCenepa War\nDuring the Cenepa War between Ecuador and Peru, both the Ecuadorian Army and the Peruvian Army (which had 90 functioning firing units) utilized Igla-1E missiles against aircraft and helicopters.\nA Peruvian Air Force Mi-25 attack helicopter was shot down on 7 February 1995 around Base del Sur, killing the three crewmen, while an Ecuadorian Air Force A-37 Dragonfly was hit but managed to land on 11 February. Hits on additional Ecuadorian aircraft were claimed but could not be confirmed.\n\nBosnia\nOn 16 April 1994 during the Siege of Goražde, while attempting to bomb a Serbian tank an RAF Sea Harrier was shot down by an Igla fired by the Army of Republika Srpska. The pilot ejected and was rescued by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.\nDuring Operation Deliberate Force, on 30 August 1995; a French Mirage 2000D was shot down over Pale by an Igla fired by air defence units of the Army of Republika Srpska. The pilots, Lt. Jose-Manuel Souvignet (pilot) and Capt. Frederic Chiffot (back-seater), were captured and freed in December 1995.\n\nYugoslavia\nDuring Operation Allied Force, two A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft were hit by Igla-1E missiles. On 2 May 1999, one A-10 was hit over Kosovo and was forced to make an emergency landing at Skopje Airport in north Macedonia due to damage. The following day, an A-10 was hit beneath the cockpit, however serious damage was avoided due to the warhead failing to detonate.\n\nChechnya\nThe 2002 Khankala Mi-26 crash occurred on 19 August 2002 when a team of Chechen separatists brought down a Russian Mil Mi-26 helicopter in a minefield with an Igla; this resulted in the death of 127 Russian soldiers in the greatest loss of life in the history of helicopter aviation. It was also the most deadly aviation disaster ever suffered by the Russian armed forces, as well as their worst loss of life in a single day since 1999.\n\nEgypt\nOn 26 January 2014, the militant group Ansar Bait al-Maqdis shot down an Egyptian Mi-17 over the northern Sinai peninsula using a suspected Igla-1E or Igla. How the group came to obtain the weapon is currently unknown.\n\nLibya\nDuring the 2011 military intervention in Libya, Libyan loyalist forces engaged coalition aircraft with a certain number of Igla-S. Three Igla-S were fired against British Apache attack helicopters of the 656 Squadron Army Air Corps operating from the amphibious assault ship HMS Ocean. According to the squadron commander at the time, they were all dodged by insistent use of decoy flares by the gunships who in exchange successfully engaged the shooters.\nOn 23 March 2015, a Libya Dawn-operated MiG-23UB was shot down with an Igla-S (reportedly a truck-mounted Strelets variant) while bombing Al Watiya airbase (near Zintan), controlled by forces from the internationally recognized House of Representatives. Both pilots were killed.\n\nPlot against Air Force One\nOn 12 August 2003, as a result of a sting operation arranged as a result of cooperation between the American, British and Russian intelligence agencies, Hemant Lakhani, a British national, was intercepted attempting to bring what he had thought was an older-generation Igla into the United States. He is said to have intended the missile to be used in an attack on Air Force One, the American presidential plane, or on a commercial US airliner, and is understood to have planned to buy 50 more of these weapons.\nAfter the FSB detected the dealer in Russia, he was approached by US undercover agents posing as terrorists wanting to shoot down a commercial plane. He was then provided with an inert Igla by undercover Russian agents, and arrested in Newark, New Jersey, when making the delivery to the undercover US agent. An Indian citizen residing in Malaysia, Moinuddeen Ahmed Hameed and an American Yehuda Abraham who allegedly provided money to buy the missile were also arrested. Yehuda Abraham is president and CEO of Ambuy Gem Corp. Lakhani was convicted by jury in April 2005, and was sentenced to 47 years in prison.\n\nSyria\nVideo has surfaced showing rebels using an Igla-1E on a Syrian government helicopter. Such weapons were believed to have been looted from a Syrian army base in Aleppo in February 2013. In 2014, a member of the rebel group Harakat Hazm was filmed aiming an Igla-1E into the air on the same day that the group was filmed operating BGM-71 TOW missiles. Whether these weapons were raided from regime stockpiles or supplied via overseas is unknown. However, Russia reportly denied Syrian demand for Iglas in 2005 and 2007, fearing these weapons to be used by Hezbollah.\n\nUkraine\nOn 14 June 2014, Russian separatist forces near Luhansk International Airport in Eastern Ukraine shot down an IL-76 of the Ukrainian Airforce probably using an Igla MANPADS, killing all 49 Ukrainian service personnel on board.\nThe Igla saw extensive use by Ukrainian forces during the early stages of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.\nOn March 22, 2022, the Ukrainian 80th Air Assault Brigade claimed to have shot down a Russian cruise missile over the Mykolaiv Oblast with an Igla system.\nOn April 17, 2022, Ukrainian forces reported shooting down a Ka-52 attack helicopter with an Igla MANPADS.\nOn April 21, 2022, Ukrainian forces located in the Kharkiv Oblast reportedly shot down a Russian Su-34 aircraft with an Igla system.\nOn May 22, 2022, Ukrainian paratroopers from Lviv downed a Russian Su-25 attack aircraft with an Igla system.\nOn June 18, 2022, Ukraine's 72nd Separate Mechanized Brigade downed a Russian Sukhoi Su-25 attack aircraft with an Igla system.\nOn October 10, 2022, Ukrainian soldiers claimed to have shot down a Russian \ncruise missile with a 9K38 Igla. \n\nOn June 28, 2024, the National Guard of Ukraine claimed to have shot down a Russian Su-25 fighter jet over Donetsk Oblast using an Igla missile.\n\nNagorno Karabakh\nOn 12 November 2014, Azerbaijani forces shot down an Armenian Army Mi-24 of a formation of two which were flying near the Azerbaijani border. All three on board died when the helicopter was hit by an Igla-S MANPADS fired by Azerbaijani soldiers while flying at low altitude, and crashed.\n\nTurkey\nOn 13 May 2016, PKK militants shot down a Turkish Army Bell AH-1W SuperCobra attack helicopter using 9K38 Igla (SA-18 Grouse) version of this missile system. The missile severed the tail section from the rest of the helicopter, causing it to fragment in midair and crash, killing the two pilots on board. The Turkish government first claimed that it fell due to technical failure before it became clear that it was shot down. The PKK later released video footage of the rocket being fired and striking the helicopter.\n\nVariants\nIgla-1 is a simplified early production version. It is known in the West as SA-16 Gimlet. It had a maximum range of 5000 m and could reach targets at a maximum altitude of 2500 m.\nIgla-1E is an export version. It has been exported to a number of countries.\nIgla (SA-18 Grouse) is a standard production version. It was adopted in 1983. Currently it is in service with more than 30 countries, including Russia.\nIgla-D, version developed specially for the Soviet airborne troops. Its launch tube can be disassembled and carried in two separate sections in order to reduce dimensions.\nIgla-M is a naval version for the naval boats. Its Western designation is SA-N-10 Grouse.\nIgla-V is an air-to-air version, used on helicopters.\nIgla-N is a version with much larger and more powerful warhead.\n Igla-S, sometimes referred as Igla-Super. It is an improved variant in the Igla, which entered service with Russian Army in 2004. It is known in the West as SA-24 Grinch.\n\nComparison chart to other MANPADS\nOperators\nIgla and Igla-1 SAMs have been exported from the former Soviet Union to over 30 countries, including Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cuba, East Germany, Egypt, Hamas, Ecuador, Eritrea, Finland, Hungary, India, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, North Korea, North Macedonia, Peru, Poland, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam and Zimbabwe. Several guerrilla and terrorist organizations are also known to have Iglas. Alleged Operatives of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam a terrorist organization fighting for a homeland for Tamils in the island of Sri Lanka were arrested in August 2006 by undercover agents of the FBI posing as arms dealers, while trying to purchase the Igla. In 2003 the unit cost was approximately US$60,000–80,000.\nLarge numbers have been sold to the government of Venezuela, raising United States concerns that they may end up in the hands of Colombian guerrillas. Photo evidence of the truck mounted twin version in service with the Libyan Army emerged in March 2011. 482 Igla-S missiles were imported from Russia in 2004. Some were unaccounted at the end of the civil war and they could have ended up in Iranian inventory. Israeli officials say Igla-S systems were looted from Libyan warehouses in 2011 and transported by Iranians through Sudan and turned over to militants in Gaza and Lebanon.\n\nIgla-1 (SA-16)\nCurrent operators\nFormer operators\nFinland: known as ItO 86; former operator.\n East Germany: Received around 1988–1989, passed on to successor states.\n Soviet Union: Passed on to successor states.\n UNITA\n Islamic Courts Union\n Tamil Eelam- Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam\n\nEvaluation-only operators\nPoland: It was planned to implement the production of the 9K310 Igla-1E at the Mesko plant. Due to the political changes and the lack of transfer of some documentation by the Soviet side, it was decided to develop its own systems of a portable anti-aircraft missile launcher called Grom and later Piorun.\n\nIgla (SA-18)\nCurrent operators\nFormer operators\nFinland: Known as ItO-86M; former operator\n Soviet Union: Passed on to successor states\n Hizbul Islam\n\nEvaluation-only operators\nTurkey: Bought 40 launchers for evaluation by ASELSAN SAM launch system.\n\nIgla-S (SA-24)\nCurrent operators\nArmenia: 200 missiles. Received more as of 2018.\n Azerbaijan: 300 launchers with 1,500 missiles.\n Bahrain: Reported usage.: 318 \n Brazil: 384 \n Egypt: Reported usage.: 321 \n India: A contract to supply and license produce the system was signed in November 2023. First batch of 24 launchers and 100 missiles delivered in April 2024.\n Iran: Reported usage.: 325 \n Iraq: 329 \n Jordan: 334 \n Libya: 341 \n Myanmar\n Islamic State Sinai Province\n Qatar\n Russia: Used by ground units, marine units, and airborne units.: 186, 190, 192 \n Slovenia: 132 \n Sudan mounted on Toyota Pickups\n Syria: 355 \n Syrian rebels: Photo evidence of SA-24 MANPADS (man-portable) in the possession of Syrian rebels was first reported on 13 November 2012. \"As far as I know, this is the first SA-24 Manpads ever photographed outside of state control\", said one expert.\n Thailand: 295 \n Venezuela: 419 \n Vietnam: locally assembled and confirmed to be localized (named as Project KC-I), a model designated as TL-01 is suspected to be an indigenous derivative of the Igla-S.\n\nPotential operators\nArgentina: Russia offered the Igla-S to the Argentine Military as part of a bigger deal to modernize Argentina Air Defence.\n\nFailed bids\nFinland: Newer models were offered to the Finnish Army to replace older models in service, but American FIM-92 Stinger was selected instead.\n\nOther uses\nThe GLL-8 (Gll-VK) Igla is a recent Russian scramjet project conducted by TsIAM.\n\nSee also\nList of Russian weaponry\nAnza – (Pakistan)\nMisagh-2 – (Iran)\nRBS 70 – (Sweden)\nStarstreak – (United Kingdom)\nMistral – (France)\n\nReferences\nInternational Institute for Strategic Studies (February 2021). The Military Balance 2021. Vol. 121. Routledge. ISBN 9781032012278.\n\nExternal links\n\nGibka 3M-47 naval turret mount, air defense missile system (Navy recognition)\nSA-18 Igla 9K38 man-portable air defence missile system on armyrecognition.com",
"title": "9K38_Igla"
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"paragraph_text": "The FIM-92 Stinger is an American man-portable air-defense system (MANPADS) that operates as an infrared homing surface-to-air missile (SAM). It can be adapted to fire from a wide variety of ground vehicles, and from helicopters and drones as the Air-to-Air Stinger (ATAS). It entered service in 1981 and is used by the militaries of the United States and 29 other countries. It is principally manufactured by Raytheon Missiles & Defense and is produced under license by Airbus Defence and Space in Germany and by Roketsan in Turkey.\n\nDescription\nThe FIM-92 Stinger is a passive surface-to-air missile that can be shoulder-fired by a single operator (although standard military procedure calls for two operators – team chief and gunner). The Stinger was intended to supplant the FIM-43 Redeye system, the principal difference being that, unlike the Redeye, the Stinger can acquire the target from head-on, giving much more time to acquire and destroy the target. The FIM-92B missile can also be fired from the M1097 Avenger and the M6 Linebacker. The missile is also capable of being deployed from a Humvee Stinger rack and can be used by airborne troops. A helicopter launched version exists and is called Air-to-Air Stinger (ATAS).\nThe missile is 5.0 ft (1.52 m) long and 2.8 in (70 mm) in diameter, with 3.9 in (100 mm) fins. The missile itself weighs 22 lb (10.1 kg), while the missile with its launch tube and integral sight, fitted with a gripstock and identification friend or foe (IFF) antenna, weighs approximately 34 lb (15.2 kg). It has a targeting range of up to 15,700 feet (4,800 m) and can engage low-altitude enemy threats at up to 12,500 feet (3,800 m).\nThe Stinger is launched by a small ejection motor that pushes it a safe distance from the operator before engaging the main two-stage solid-fuel sustainer, which accelerates it to a maximum speed of Mach 2.54 (1,930 mph; 864 m/s). The warhead contains 2.25 lb (1.02 kg) of HTA-3 (a mix of HMX, TNT, and aluminium powder) explosive with an impact fuze and a self-destruct timer that functions 17 seconds after launch.\n\nTo fire the missile, a BCU (Battery Coolant Unit) is inserted into the gripstock. This device consists of a supply of high-pressure gaseous argon, which is injected into the seeker to cryogenically cool it to operating temperature, and a thermal battery, which provides power for target acquisition: a single BCU provides power and coolant for roughly 45 seconds, after which another must be inserted if the missile has not been fired. The BCUs are somewhat sensitive to abuse and have a limited shelf life due to argon leakage. The IFF system receives power from a rechargeable battery, which is part of the IFF interrogator box, which plugs into the base of the gripstock's pistol grip. Guidance to the target is initially through proportional navigation, then switches to another mode that directs the missile towards the target airframe instead of its exhaust plume.\nThere are three main variants in use: the Stinger Basic, Stinger-Passive Optical Seeker Technique (POST), and Stinger-Reprogrammable Microprocessor (RMP). These correspond to the FIM-92A, FIM-92B, and FIM-92C and later variants respectively.\nThe POST and RMP variants have a dual-detector seeker: IR and UV. This allows it to distinguish targets from countermeasures much better than the Redeye and FIM-92A, which have IR-only. While modern flares can have an IR signature that is closely matched to the launching aircraft's engine exhaust, there is a readily distinguishable difference in UV signature between flares and jet engines. The Stinger-RMP is so-called because of its ability to load a new set of software via ROM chip inserted in the grip at the depot. If this download to the missile fails during power-up, basic functionality runs off the onboard ROM. The four-processor RMP has 4 KB of RAM for each processor. Since the downloaded code runs from RAM, there is little space to spare, particularly for processors dedicated to seeker input processing and target analysis.\n\nHistory\nThe missile began as a program by General Dynamics to produce an improved variant of their 1967 FIM-43 Redeye. Production of the Redeye ran from 1969 to 1982, with a total production of around 85,000 missiles. The program was accepted for further development as Redeye II by the U.S. Army in 1971 and designated FIM-92; the Stinger appellation was chosen in 1972. Because of technical difficulties that dogged testing, the first shoulder launch was not until mid-1975. Production of the FIM-92A began in 1978. An improved Stinger with a new seeker, the FIM-92B, was produced from 1983 alongside the FIM-92A. Production of both the A and B types ended in 1987 with around 16,000 missiles produced.\nThe replacement FIM-92C began development in 1984, and production began in 1987. The first examples were delivered to frontline units in 1989. C-type missiles were fitted with a reprogrammable microprocessor, allowing for incremental firmware updates. Later missiles designated D received improvements to improve their ability to defeat countermeasures, and later upgrades to the D were designated G.\nThe FIM-92E or Stinger RMP Block I was developed from 1992 and delivered from 1995 (certain sources state that the FIM-92D is also part of the Block I development). The main changes were again in the sensor and the software, improving the missile's performance against low-signature targets. A software upgrade in 2001 was designated FIM-92F. The development of the Stinger RMP Block II began in 1996 using a new focal plane array sensor to improve the missile's effectiveness in \"high clutter\" environments and increase the engagement range to about 25,000 feet (7,600 m). Production was scheduled for 2004, but was cancelled due to budget cuts.\nSince 1984 the Stinger has been issued to many U.S. Navy warships for point defense, particularly in Middle Eastern waters, with a three-man team that can perform other duties when not conducting Stinger training or maintenance. Until it was decommissioned in September 1993, the U.S. Navy had at least one Stinger Gunnery Detachment attached to Beachmaster Unit Two in Little Creek Virginia. The sailors of this detachment would deploy to carrier battlegroups in teams of two to four sailors per ship as requested by Battle Group Commanders.\n\nReplacement\nThe original Stinger's reprogrammable microprocessor has become obsolete in 2023, and a service life extension will keep the Block I in service until 2030. With the arsenal declining from obsolescence, on 10 November 2020 the U.S. Army issued a request for information for a replacement MANPADS. The new system will be compatible with the Stinger Vehicle Universal Launcher used on the IM-SHORAD and be able to defeat fixed and rotary-wing aircraft, as well as Group 2 and 3 UAS as well as or better than the Stinger. A contract for up to 8,000 missiles is planned to be awarded by 2026. The request for information to interested firms only went out in April 2022, and RTX and Lockheed Martin were selected to competitively develop the Stinger replacement in September 2023.\nAccording to Reuters, the U.S. government has signed a contract for 1,468 Stingers worth a total of $687 million, to replenish stock sent to Ukraine. Raytheon Chief Executive Greg Hayes said on 26 April 2022: \"Some of the components are no longer commercially available, and so we're going to have to go out and redesign some of the electronics in the missile of the seeker head. That's going to take us a little bit of time\".\nIn January 2023, the U.S. Army said it expected to increase Stinger production to 60 missiles per month by 2025, an increase of 50% from the current rate. The Dual Detector Assembly (DDA) will be redesigned because a previous DDA part is no longer being made. The old DDA will continue to be used in production up until stocks are exhausted, which is expected by 2026 when deliveries of Stingers with the new component are expected to begin.\n\nVariants\nAir-to-Air Stinger (ATAS): Used as short range air-to-air missile. The system is mainly designed for attack helicopters.\nFIM-92A: Stinger Basic: The basic model.\nFIM-92B: Stinger POST: In this version, the infrared seeker head was replaced by a combined IR/UV seeker that utilized rosette scanning. This resulted in achieving significantly higher resistance to enemy countermeasures (flares) and natural disturbances. Production ran from 1981 to 1987; a total of 600 missiles were produced.\nFIM-92C: Stinger RMP: The resistance to interference was increased again by adding more powerful digital computer components. Moreover, the software of the missile could now be reconfigured in a short time in order to respond quickly and efficiently to new types of countermeasures. Until 1991, some 20,000 units were produced for the U.S. Army alone.\nFIM-92D: Various modifications were continued with this version in order to increase the resistance to interference.\nFIM-92E: Stinger—RMP Block I: By adding a new rollover sensor and revised control software, the flight behavior was significantly improved. Additionally, the performance against small targets such as drones, cruise missiles and light reconnaissance helicopters was improved. The first deliveries began in 1995. Almost the entire stock of U.S. Stinger missiles was replaced by this version.\nFIM-92F: A further improvement of the E version and the current production version.\nFIM-92G: An unspecified upgrade for the D variant.\nFIM-92H: Indicates a D variant that has been upgraded to the E standard.\nStinger—RMP Block II: This variant was a planned developed based on the E version. The improvements included an imaging infrared seeker head from the AIM-9X. With this modification, the detection distance and the resistance to jamming was to be greatly increased. Changes to the airframe would furthermore enable a significant increase in range. Although the missile reached the testing phase, the program was dropped in 2002 for budgetary reasons.\nFIM-92J: Block I missile upgrade to replace aging components to extend service life an additional 10 years. Upgrades include a proximity fuze warhead section, equipped with a target detection device to increase effectiveness against unmanned aerial vehicles, a new flight motor and gas generator cartridge, as well as new designs for the o-rings and integral desiccant cartridge.\nFIM-92K: Variant of FIM-92J designed to use a vehicle datalink rather than the missile's own seeker for targeting.\nADSM: Air Defense Suppression Missile: Cancelled experiment variant fitted with a passive radar seeker, designed to be used against radar wave transmitters. The program began in FY 1983 and a final report was issued 3 December 1986.\n\nService\nFalklands War\nThe Stinger's combat debut occurred during the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) fought between the United Kingdom and Argentina. At the onset of the conflict soldiers of the British Army's Special Air Service (SAS) had been clandestinely equipped with six missiles, although they had received little instruction in their use. The sole SAS trooper who had received training on the system, and was due to train other troops, was killed in a helicopter crash on 19 May.\nNonetheless, on 21 May 1982 an SAS soldier engaged and shot down an Argentine Pucará ground attack aircraft with a Stinger. On 30 May, at about 11:00 a.m., an Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopter was brought down by another missile, also fired by the SAS, in the vicinity of Mount Kent. Six Argentine National Gendarmerie Special Forces troops were killed and eight more wounded.\nThe main MANPADS used by both sides during the Falklands War was the Blowpipe missile.\n\nSoviet War in Afghanistan\nIn late 1985, several groups, such as Free the Eagle, began arguing the CIA was not doing enough to support the Mujahideen in the Soviet–Afghan War. Michael Pillsbury, Vincent Cannistraro, and others put enormous bureaucratic pressure on the CIA to provide the Stinger to the rebels. The idea was controversial because up to that point, the CIA had been operating with the pretense that the United States was not involved in the war directly, for various reasons. All weapons supplied up to that point were non-U.S. sourced weapons, including Kalashnikov style assault rifles made in China and Egypt.\nThe final say-so came down to President General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq of Pakistan, through whom the CIA had to pass all of its funding and weapons to the Mujahideen. President Zia constantly had to gauge how much he could \"make the pot boil\" in Afghanistan without provoking a Soviet invasion of his own country. According to George Crile III, U.S. Representative Charlie Wilson's relationship with Zia was instrumental in the final go-ahead for the Stinger introduction.\nWilson and his associates at first viewed the Stinger as \"just adding another component to the lethal mix we were building.\" Their increasingly successful Afghanistan strategy, formed largely by Michael G. Vickers, was based on a broad mix of weapons, tactics, and logistics, not a 'silver bullet solution' of a single weapon. Furthermore, the previous attempts to provide MANPADs to the Mujahideen, namely the SA-7 and Blowpipe, hadn't worked very well.\nEngineer Ghaffar, of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's Hezb-i-Islami, brought down the first Hind gunship with a Stinger on 25 September 1986 near Jalalabad. As part of Operation Cyclone, the CIA eventually supplied nearly 500 Stingers (some sources claim 1,500–2,000) to the Mujahideen in Afghanistan, and 250 launchers.\nThe impact of the Stinger on the outcome of the war is contested, particularly in the translation between the impact on the tactical battlefield to the strategic level withdrawal, and the influence the first had on the second. Dr. Robert F. Baumann (of the Staff College at Fort Leavenworth) described its impact on \"Soviet tactical operations\" as \"unmistakable\". This opinion was shared by Yossef Bodansky. Soviet, and later, Russian, accounts give little significance to the Stinger for strategically ending the war.\nAccording to the 1993 U.S. Air Defense Artillery Yearbook, the Mujahideen gunners used the supplied Stingers to score approximately 269 total aircraft kills in about 340 engagements, a 79% kill probability. If this report is accurate, Stingers would be responsible for over half of the 451 Soviet aircraft losses in Afghanistan. But these statistics are based on Mujahideen self-reporting, which is of unknown reliability. Selig Harrison rejects such figures, quoting a Russian general who claims the United States \"greatly exaggerated\" Soviet and Afghan aircraft losses during the war. According to Soviet figures, in 1987–1988, only 35 aircraft and 63 helicopters were destroyed by all causes. The Pakistan Army fired 28 Stingers at enemy aircraft with no kill. According to Soviet figures, by 25 December 1987, only 38 aircraft (airplanes, helicopters) were lost and 14 more were damaged by MANPADS (Blowpipe or Stinger), or 10.2% kill probability.\nAccording to Crile, who includes information from Alexander Prokhanov, the Stinger was a \"turning point\". Milt Bearden saw it as a \"force multiplier\" and morale booster. Representative Charlie Wilson, the politician behind Operation Cyclone, described the first Stinger Mi-24 shootdowns in 1986 as one of the three crucial moments of his experience in the war, saying \"we never really won a set-piece battle before September 26, and then we never lost one afterwards.\" He was given the first spent Stinger tube as a gift and kept it on his office wall. That launch tube is now on exhibit at the U.S. Army Air Defense Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, Oklahoma.\nOther military analysts tend to be dismissive of the impact of the Stinger. According to Alan J. Kuperman, the Stingers did make an impact at first but within a few months flares, beacons, and exhaust baffles were installed to disorient the missiles, along with night operation and terrain-hugging tactics to prevent the rebels from getting a clear shot. By 1988, Kuperman states, the Mujahideen had all but stopped firing them. Another source (Jonathan Steele) states that Stingers forced Soviet helicopters and ground attack planes to bomb from higher altitudes with less accuracy, but did not bring down many more aircraft than Chinese heavy machine guns and other less sophisticated anti-aircraft weaponry.\nThe last Stingers were supplied in 1988 after increasing reports of fighters selling them to Iran and thawing relations with Moscow. After the 1989 Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, the U.S. attempted to buy back the Stinger missiles, with a $55 million program launched in 1990 to buy back around 300 missiles (US$183,300 each). The U.S. government collected most of the Stingers it had delivered, but by 1996 around 600 were unaccounted for and some found their way into Croatia, Iran, Sri Lanka, Qatar, and North Korea. According to the CIA, already in August 1988 the U.S. had demanded from Qatar the return of Stinger missiles. Wilson later told CBS he \"lived in terror\" that a civilian airliner would be shot down by a Stinger, but he did not have misgivings about having provided Stingers to defeat the Soviets.\nThe story of the Stingers in Afghanistan was popularly told in the media by Western sources primarily, notably in Charlie Wilson's War by George Crile, and Ghost Wars by Steve Coll.\n\nAngolan civil war\nThe Reagan administration provided 310 Stingers to Jonas Savimbi's UNITA movement in Angola between 1986 and 1989. As in Afghanistan, efforts to recover missiles after the end of hostilities proved incomplete. The battery of a Stinger lasts for four or five years, so any battery supplied in the 1980s would now be inoperative but during the Syrian Civil War, insurgents showed how easily they switched to different batteries, including common car batteries, as power sources for several MANPADS models.\n\nLibyan invasion of Chad\nThe French army used 15 firing positions and 30 missiles purchased in 1983 for operations in Chad. The 35th Parachute Artillery Regiment made an unsuccessful fire during a Libyan bombardment on 10 September 1987 and shot down a Hercules transport aircraft on 7 July 1988.\nThe Chadian government received Stinger missiles from the United States, when Libya invaded the northern part of the African country.\nOn 8 October 1987, a Libyan Su-22MK was shot down by a FIM-92A fired by Chadian forces. The pilot, Capt. Diya al-Din, ejected and was captured. He was later granted political asylum by the French government. During the recovery operation, a Libyan MiG-23MS was shot down by a FIM-92A.\n\nTajik civil war\nTajik Islamist opposition forces operating from Afghanistan during the 1992–97 Tajik civil war encountered a heavy air campaign launched by Russia and Uzbekistan to prop up the government in Dushanbe that included border and cross-border raids. During one of these operations, a Sukhoi Su-24M was shot down on 3 May 1993 with a Stinger fired by the opposition. Both Russian pilots were rescued.\n\nChechen War\nRussian officials claimed several times that the Chechen militia and insurgents possessed US-made Stinger missiles. They attributed a few of their aerial losses to the American MANPADS. The presence of such missiles was confirmed by photo evidence, and were said to originate from Afghan smuggling routes that passed through Georgia.\nIt is believed one Sukhoi Su-24 was shot down by a Stinger missile during the Second Chechen War.\n\nSri Lankan civil war\nThe Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam also managed to acquire one or several Stingers, possibly from former Mujahideen stocks, and used at least one to down a Sri Lanka Air Force Mi-24 on 10 November 1997.\n\nUnited States\nIn 2000, the U.S. inventory contained 13,400 missiles. The total cost of the program is $7,281,000,000.\nIt is rumored that the United States Secret Service has Stinger missiles to defend the President, a notion that has never been dispelled; however, U.S. Secret Service plans favor moving the President to a safer place in the event of an attack rather than shooting down the plane, lest the missile (or the wreckage of the target aircraft) hit innocents.\nDuring the 1980s, the Stinger was used to support different US-aligned guerrilla forces, notably the Afghan Mujahidins, the Chad government against the Libyan invasion and the Angolan UNITA. The Nicaraguan contras were not provided with Stingers due to the lack of fixed wing aircraft of the Sandinista government, as such the previous generation FIM-43 Redeye was considered adequate.\n\nSyrian civil war\nIn the Syrian civil war, Turkey reportedly helped to transport a limited amount of FIM-92 Stingers to the Free Syrian Army.\nOn 27 February 2020, during the northwestern offensive launched in December 2019 by the Syrian regime (backed by Russia, Iran and Hezbollah), Russian and Syrian aircraft (variously reportedly as Russian Su-34s and Syrian Su-22) attacked a Turkish military convoy near Idlib, killing 36 Turkish soldiers. That day, video footage emerged of alleged Turkish soldiers (backing Syrian opposition fighters) firing what apparently looks like a Roketsan-made Stinger against either Russian or Syrian aircraft (or possibly against both).\n\nRusso-Ukrainian War\nIn February 2022, several countries announced that they were providing Stinger missiles to Ukrainian forces defending against the Russian invasion.\nGermany announced that it would provide 500 missiles.\nDenmark said that it will provide parts for 300 missiles, to be assembled in the United States.\nThe Netherlands stated they would supply 200 units.\nItaly,\nLatvia,\nLithuania,\nand the United States each stated that they would provide undisclosed amounts.\nBy 7 March, the U.S. reported that it and its NATO allies had together sent more than 2,000 Stinger missiles to Ukraine. In late April 2022, Raytheon Technologies CEO Greg Hayes told investors that the company was experiencing supply chain issues and would not be able to ramp up production of Stinger missiles until 2023. This delay was in part due to the fact the Stinger was scheduled to be replaced in the 2020s and thus contained obsolete components, which have to be redesigned for modern procurement. As of 11 May 2024, the U.S. had sent a quarter of its aging Stinger missile stockpile to Ukraine.\nOn 20 August 2022, Russia supplied a single Stinger to Iran, for them to attempt reverse engineering the modern version of it.\n\nOperators\nCountries\nAlbania: In May 2022, Minister Niko Peleshi announced the purchase of Javelin and Stinger missiles\n Afghanistan: used by Afghan Mujahideen.\n Angola\n Australia: formerly used by SASR in Afghanistan.\n Bahrain: 318 \n Bosnia and Herzegovina\n Chad: limited use.\n Chile\n Colombia\n Croatia\n Denmark: 85 \n Egypt: 321 \n Finland\n France\n Georgia\n Germany: 96 \n Greece: 98 \n India\n Iran\n Iraq\n Kurdistan\n Israel: 332 \n Italy: Used by the Army and Marines.: 105–106 \n Japan\n Kuwait: 336 \n Latvia: Used by the Air Force.: 108 \n Lithuania: Used by the Air Force.: 111 \n Morocco: Part of a $4.25 billion AH-64E deal\n Netherlands: Used by the Army and Marines.: 117 \n North Korea\n Norway\n Pakistan: 350 in service with the Pakistan Army.\n Portugal: In 2021 Portuguese Army acquired new missiles and sights.\n Qatar: Used by the Air Force.: 350 \n Saudi Arabia: 352 \n Slovenia\n South Korea\n Switzerland: 140 \n Taiwan: Republic of China Navy, Republic of China Marine Corps, Republic of China Army\n Turkey: Stingers made under license by Roketsan. 4,800+ Stinger missiles were supplied under \"Stinger Air Defense Guided Missile System European Common Production Program\". Additional 1,000 Stinger needs were identified in July 2000 and the deliveries were completed in 2003.\n Ukraine: Lithuania and Latvia have transferred unknown quantities of Stinger missiles from their inventory to Ukraine after receiving an approval from the U.S. State Department. The Netherlands will supply Ukraine with 200 Stinger missiles. Germany will supply 500 Stingers. On 16 March 2022, the U.S. announced that an additional 800 Stinger missiles would be transferred, following an earlier transfer of over 600 missiles. Italy sent an undisclosed number of Stinger missiles since spring 2022.\n United Kingdom\n United States\n\nOrganizations\nUNITA\n\nSee also\n9K38 Igla – (Soviet Union)\n9K333 Verba – (Russia)\nRBS 70 – (Sweden)\nAIM-92 Stinger – (United States)\nAnza – (Pakistan)\nFN-6 – (China)\nGrom – (Poland)\nMisagh-2 – (Iran)\nMistral – (France)\nPiorun – (Poland)\nQaem – (Iran)\nQW-1 Vanguard – (China)\nType 91 surface-to-air missile – (Japan)\nSungur MANPAD\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nO'Halloran, James C.; Christopher F. Foss, eds. (2005). Jane's Land-Based Air Defence 2005–2006. Couldson, Surrey, UK: Jane's Information Group. ISBN 0710626975.\n\nExternal links\n\nRaytheon (General Dynamics) FIM-92 Stinger – Designation Systems\nDefense Update: Stinger VSHORAD Missile\nStinger missiles in Syrian Civil War on YouTube\nFIM-92A Stinger Weapons System: RMP & Basic at the Federation of American Scientists Military Analysis Network",
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] | Out of the following man-portable launchers, which entered service with their respective military last? A) FGM-148 Javelin B) 9K38 Igla C) FIM-92 Stinger. | [] | A) FGM-148 Javelin | [] | true |
451 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Novake (pronounced [nɔˈʋaːkɛ]) is a village on the left bank of the Dravinja River in the Municipality of Poljčane in northeastern Slovenia. The area belongs to the traditional region of Styria. It is now included with the rest of the municipality in the Drava Statistical Region.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nNovake on Geopedia",
"title": "Novake,_Polj%C4%8Dane"
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"paragraph_text": "There are at least 108 mountains on Earth with elevations of 7,200 m (23,600 ft; 4.5 mi) or greater above sea level. Of these, 14 are more than 8,000 m (26,000 ft; 5.0 mi). The vast majority of these mountains are located on the edge of the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate in China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.\n\nThe dividing line between a mountain with multiple peaks and separate mountains is not always clear (see also Highest unclimbed mountain). A popular and intuitive way to distinguish mountains from subsidiary peaks is by their height above the highest saddle connecting it to a higher summit, a measure called topographic prominence or re-ascent (the higher summit is called the \"parent peak\"). A common definition of a mountain is a summit with 300 m (980 ft) prominence. Alternatively, a relative prominence (prominence/height) is used (usually 7–8%) to reflect that in higher mountain ranges everything is on a larger scale. The table below lists the highest 100 summits with at least 500 m (1,640 ft) prominence, approximating a 7% relative prominence. A drawback of a prominence-based list is that it may exclude well-known or spectacular mountains that are connected via a high ridge to a taller summit, such as Eiger, Nuptse or Annapurna IV. A few such peaks and mountains with nearly sufficient prominence are included in this list, and given a rank of \"S\".\nIt is very unlikely that all given heights are correct to the nearest metre; indeed, the sea level is often problematic to define when a mountain is remote from the sea. Different sources often differ by many metres, and the heights given below may well differ from those elsewhere in this encyclopedia. As an extreme example, Ulugh Muztagh on the north Tibetan Plateau is often listed as 7,723 m (25,338 ft) to 7,754 m (25,440 ft), but appears to be only 6,973 m (22,877 ft) to 6,987 m (22,923 ft). Some mountains differ by more than 100 m (330 ft) on different maps, while even very thorough current measurements of Mount Everest range from 8,840 m (29,003 ft) to 8,849 m (29,032 ft). These discrepancies serve to emphasize the uncertainties in the listed heights.\nThough some parts of the world, especially the most mountainous parts, have never been thoroughly mapped, it is unlikely that any mountains this high have been overlooked, because synthetic aperture radar can and has been used to measure elevations of most otherwise inaccessible places. Still, heights or prominences may be revised, so that the order of the list may change and even new mountains could enter the list over time. To be safe, the list has been extended to include all 7,200 m (23,622 ft) peaks.\nThe highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but Denali, Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea (4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. Mount Lamlam on Guam is periodically claimed to be among the world's highest mountains because it is adjacent to the Mariana Trench; the most extreme claim is that, measured from Challenger Deep 313 kilometres (194 mi) away, Mount Lamlam is 11,530 metres (37,820 ft) tall. Ojos del Salado has the greatest rise on Earth: 13,420 m (44,029 ft) vertically to the summit from the bottom of the Atacama Trench, which is about 560 km (350 mi) away, although most of this rise is not part of the mountain.\nThe highest mountains are also not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa (4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 5,200 km2 or 2,000 sq mi) and volume (about 42,000 km3 or 10,000 cu mi), although, due to the intergrade of lava from Kilauea, Hualalai and Mauna Kea, the volume can only be estimated based on surface area and height of the edifice. Mount Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (635 km2 or 245 sq mi) and volume (4,793 km3 or 1,150 cu mi). Mount Logan is the largest non-volcanic mountain in base area (311 km2 or 120 sq mi).\nThe highest mountains above sea level are also not those with peaks farthest from the centre of the Earth, because the figure of the Earth is not spherical. Sea level closer to the equator is several kilometres farther from the centre of the Earth. The summit of Chimborazo, Ecuador's tallest mountain, is usually considered to be the farthest point from the Earth's centre, although the southern summit of Peru's tallest mountain, Huascarán, is another contender. Both have elevations above sea level more than 2 km (1.2 mi) less than that of Everest.\n\nGeographical distribution\nAlmost all mountains in the list are located in the Himalaya and Karakoram ranges to the south and west of the Tibetan plateau. All peaks 7,000 m (23,000 ft) or higher are located in East, Central or South Asia in a rectangle edged by Noshaq (7,492 m or 24,580 ft) on the Afghanistan–Pakistan border in the west, Jengish Chokusu (Tuōmù'ěr Fēng, 7,439 m or 24,406 ft) on the Kyrgyzstan–Xinjiang border to the north, Gongga Shan (Minya Konka, 7,556 m or 24,790 ft) in Sichuan to the east, and Kabru (7,412 m or 24,318 ft) on the Sikkim–Nepal border to the south.\nAs of December 2018, the highest peaks on four of the mountains—Gangkhar Puensum, Labuche Kang III, Karjiang, and Tongshanjiabu, all located in Bhutan or China—have not been ascended. The most recent peak to have its first ever ascent is Saser Kangri II East, in India, on 24 August 2011.\nThe highest mountain outside of Asia is Aconcagua (6,961 m or 22,838 ft), the 189th highest in the world.\n\nList of world's highest peaks\nGallery\nSee also\nList of elevation extremes by country\nList of mountain peaks by prominence\nList of mountain peaks of Uttarakhand\nList of mountain ranges of the world\nList of mountains by elevation\nList of mountains on Mars by height\nList of past presumed highest mountains\nList of tallest mountains in the Solar System\nList of the highest major summits of North America\nList of unclimbed mountains of Nepal\nList of volcanoes by elevation\nLists of mountains\nOlympus Mons, the tallest mountain on any planet in the Solar System\nRheasilvia crater's central peak, the tallest mountain in the Solar System\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nExternal links\nSummitPost.org (currently with detailed description of 30 of the top 100 peaks)\nProminence lists (including all mountains in the world with >1,450m prominence)\nAlpine Club Himalayan index (Especially informative for history of ascents and location of obscure peaks)\nDiscussion of frequently misquoted elevations\nBlankontheMap site on mountains of Northern Kashmir\nDigital elevation data, including all the above peaks and many more worldwide\nHispar area: expedition reports and maps\nList of highest mountains down to 6750 metres\nGoogle Earth Community (Google Earth KMZ file of Wikipedia list of highest mountains)\nList of worlds highest mountains in Nepal",
"title": "List_of_highest_mountains_on_Earth"
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] | How many times taller is the 7th highest mountain the world than Novake, Poljčane in Slovenia? Round your answer to one decimal place. | [] | 31.5 | [] | true |
401 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Resident Evil: Revelations 2 is an episodic survival horror video game developed and published by Capcom as part of the Resident Evil series. The game is a follow-up to Resident Evil: Revelations and Resident Evil 5. It marks the return of Claire Redfield as the protagonist, and the first time Barry Burton is a playable story character in the main series. It is also the first Resident Evil game to not feature Alyson Court as the long time voice of Claire Redfield. The first installment was released in February 2015.\nThe plot is set between the events of Resident Evil 5 and 6, in 2011. The story begins when Claire and her co-workers, including Barry Burton's daughter Moira Burton, are at a party in the headquarters of the NGO TerraSave, when they are attacked by unknown assailants and taken away to a deserted island in the Baltic Sea.\nThe game was released for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation Vita in 2015 and for Nintendo Switch in 2017 along with the port of the first Revelations. The reviews were mixed to positive and the setting, story, characters and the co-op gameplay were praised, but the graphics and some technical issues were criticized. As of August 2022, the title reached a combined 4.4 million units sold (including the Switch collection), surpassing its predecessor.\n\nGameplay\nResident Evil: Revelations 2 is set between the events of Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6. Claire Redfield is the main protagonist and Barry Burton's daughter, Moira, plays a supporting role. In December 2014, a new trailer revealed Barry as another playable protagonist and he is joined by Natalia Korda, a little girl with supernatural abilities. The official cinematic trailer was released in December 2014. Resident Evil: Revelations 2 is a survival horror game which supports cooperative gameplay. When played in single player mode, the player must switch characters to solve puzzles and do certain actions. The game has stealth elements as only two of the four playable characters use guns. The other two are more vulnerable, preferring to use melee weapons such as crowbars and bricks; they can also find hidden items with a flashlight or special senses.\nThe game features a Raid Mode, which returns from the first Revelations game with new features, more missions and new playable characters. About 200 missions and 15 characters are featured, which span the entire game series, and there are also new scenarios and enemies from Resident Evil 5, Resident Evil 6 and Resident Evil: Revelations. In this mode, players can customize their skills and weapons, as well as buy new ones. Some enemies in Raid Mode have special abilities like extra speed or strength. This mode can be played either solo, online or through split-screen local co-op.\n\nPlot\nThe storyline is composed of four episodes divided into a past scenario with Claire Redfield and Moira Burton and a present scenario with Barry Burton.\n\nEpisode 1 - Penal Colony\nClaire Redfield and Moira Burton, daughter of Barry Burton, work for biohazard prevention agency TerraSave. While attending an office party, they and several other TerraSave members are captured by armed mercenaries. Claire and Moira are taken to a facility on Sejm Island, where they are attacked by the \"Afflicted\", mutated humans driven insane by torturous experiments. An unknown woman calling herself the \"Overseer\" watches via cameras and tells them the bracelets on their wrists record fear, as the pair try to find safety. Upon reaching a radio tower, they call for help.\nResponding to Moira's distress call, Barry tracks her to the island. He immediately meets Natalia Korda, a strange little girl with the ability to sense monsters before they become a threat. She accompanies him on the way to the radio tower, navigating through hordes of Uroboros-infected mutants. Upon reaching the tower, Barry realizes the distress call was actually made six months ago. After suffering a severe headache, Natalia claims that Moira is dead.\n\nEpisode 2 - Contemplation\nClaire and Moira meet up with their co-workers, Gabriel Chavez and Pedro Fernandez, at the \"Wossek\", a derelict pub located in an abandoned fishing village. The Overseer explains that they have become her new test subjects for T-Phobos, a virus that responds to fear, for process of elimination. Gabe leads Claire to a broken helicopter he intends to repair in order to escape the island, but they are soon ambushed by a horde of Afflicted, separating Claire, Moira, and Pedro from Gabe and the helicopter; Pedro succumbs to fear and is transformed into a monster. Claire and Moira fend off both Pedro and the Afflicted until their boss, Neil Fisher, arrives to help them escape. They decide to make their way to the Overseer's tower, but are once again ambushed and Neil stays behind to lure the monsters away. Claire and Moira catch up to Natalia, who has been roaming the island alone, and they befriend her. Gabe fixes the helicopter and attempts to escape, but the Overseer remotely sabotages the controls, killing him. As Claire and Moira are distracted by the crash, Natalia is kidnapped and taken to the Overseer, who intends to transfer her consciousness into the little girl.\nSix months later, Natalia takes Barry to the Overseer's tower, the last place she saw Moira alive. Along the way, Barry learns Natalia is an orphan whose parents died in the Terragrigia incident, the trauma having left her immune to fear. Inside the tower, they find a portrait depicting Albert Wesker and a woman who Natalia identifies as Alex Wesker. The two are then ambushed by the Overseer, a grotesque hunchbacked figure who neutralizes Barry and is revealed to be Alex herself.\n\nEpisode 3 - Judgment\nClaire and Moira follow a note supposedly left by Neil to meet him at a nearby factory, only to walk into a series of traps they narrowly survive. After passing through the sewers, the pair gain access to the Overseer's tower, where they witness a meeting between Neil and Alex Wesker. It is revealed that Neil, a former member of the FBC, was behind his employees' abduction to aid Alex in exchange for a sample of the Uroboros Virus, intending to use it to restore the FBC. Alex injects Neil with Uroboros instead, causing him to mutate into a hulking monstrosity. Claire and Moira are forced to kill him.\nSix months later, Barry and Natalia escape from a mutated Alex and work their way from the sewer back to the surface. As they go, Barry tells Natalia about a tragic event concerning his two daughters; Moira accidentally shot her younger sister Polly when they were playing with one of Barry's guns. Although the fault was his, Barry blamed Moira for the accident, causing a huge strain on their relationship. Polly survived, but Moira developed a fear of guns as a result of the incident. Afterwards, Barry and Natalia travel through a dilapidated mine infested with monsters. Alex ambushes them on the other side and throws Barry into a ravine, but when she tries to kill Natalia, the little girl fearlessly stares back into her eyes, causing Alex to withdraw in terror.\n\nEpisode 4 - Metamorphosis\nAfter Neil's demise, Claire and Moira make their way up to the Monument to confront Alex, and the duo learn of her intentions to conquer fear and escape death. She shoots herself in the head, triggering a self-destruct sequence that causes Claire and Moira to flee. Unbeknownst to them, Alex experiences fear in her last living moments and begins to mutate. As they descend the crumbling tower, Moira sacrifices herself so that Claire can escape; she is rescued shortly afterwards. She regretfully tells Barry that she could not save Moira, but Barry refuses to accept his daughter's death and continues to search for her.\nSix months later, Barry and Natalia pass through several toxic mine tunnels before reaching Alex's research facility, disguised as a mansion. They make their way through as Alex taunts Natalia through the girl's bracelet. When the duo confront her, Alex injects herself with an Uroboros sample and mutates a second time to fight Barry and Natalia. After feigning her own death, Alex suddenly springs to life and incapacitates Barry. She grabs Natalia and once again attempts to kill her. At this point, the story proceeds to one of two endings.\n\nEndings\nIn the canon ending, where Moira overcomes her fear of guns by shooting Neil, Moira survives the tower's destruction and arrives in time to save Natalia by temporarily repelling Alex with gunshots. Barry, Moira, and Natalia escape the area before being cornered by Alex. Claire arrives in a helicopter to rescue the trio and they manage to take down Alex with a rocket launcher. As they leave the island, Barry reconciles with Moira and expresses his intention to adopt Natalia into the Burton family.\nIn an epilogue, Claire is heading towards Barry's home while being informed that her brother is in China, to which she responds, \"tell Piers to take care of him.\" At the Burtons' home, Natalia is surrounded by newspapers covering the events of Resident Evil 6. As she finishes reading Franz Kafka's The Zürau Aphorisms, she smiles ominously, hinting that Alex's consciousness may still reside within her.\nIn the bad ending, if Claire manages to kill Neil, Moira dies after being crushed by falling debris during the tower's destruction. Alex squeezes Natalia to death, only to re-awaken as Dark Natalia (imbued with Alex's consciousness) and easily destroy her former, mutated body. She then mocks Barry, who cannot bring himself to shoot the little girl he has become attached to. Alex walks away, leaving him in despair.\n\nBonus episodes\n\"Little Miss\"\nIn this extra episode, set just before Natalia meets Barry, Natalia wakes up in a dream-like state, being greeted by Lottie, her favorite teddy bear. She then goes on a search for Lottie throughout the island infested by \"Revenants\" and \"Glasps\". Joining her is \"Dark Natalia\", a manifestation of Alex's mind whose ability to sense the monsters' presence allows Natalia to sneak past them through a dark, fog-covered atmosphere. They find various postcards from Lottie scattered around and eventually find her near the seashore, but this turns out to be an attempt by Dark Natalia to take over Natalia's body. Dark Natalia tells Natalia that she will eventually be subverted, and Natalia snaps out of her lucid dream as Barry's boat approaches the island.\n\n\"The Struggle\"\nDuring the six-month gap between Claire's escape and Barry's arrival, Moira struggles to survive with the aid of an old Russian man named Evgeny Rebic, whom Moira had met once before at an underground sewer control room; Evgeny rescued her before the Overseer's tower collapsed. Despite their contentious relationship, food is very scarce, and the pair have to overcome many dangers together in order to survive. After defeating hordes of mutated monsters, they manage to find a letter from Evgeny's daughter. Upon learning of his daughter's fate, Evgeny loses his will to live and locks himself in his home to succumb to his illness, while encouraging Moira to escape the island without him. A heartbroken Moira ultimately decides to move on, and arrives in time to save her father and Natalia from Alex.\n\nDevelopment\nCapcom announced that the team responsible for Resident Evil: Revelations would be responsible for the sequel and a playable version of the game would be seen at Capcom's 2014 Tokyo Game Show booth. It was stated not only would Chris Redfield and Jill Valentine not be part of Revelations 2, but the game would also not be tied to Revelations. However, the Revelations title would be used as its own series of games, existing to fill in gaps in the mythology of the Resident Evil series and expand upon lore for the main title series. During Tokyo Game Show, Michiteru Okabe explained further that the main Resident Evil series will remain more action-oriented, keeping it aimed at a wider audience to try and interest more people in the Resident Evil world. However, Revelations as a series will be fan-driven, intending to revel in the older horror style. With the side series, they hope to aim at their long-time fans and keep them supplied with something similar to the horror experience they fell in love with. During Tokyo Game Show it was announced that Yūdai Yamaguchi, a director and writer known for his mix of horror and \"goofy gore\" with manga-based inspiration, was brought on to the Revelations 2 team as cutscene director.\nDai Satō, scenario writer for Resident Evil: Revelations, returned for this game. The character of Claire Redfield, who last appeared in Resident Evil – Code: Veronica (2001), was brought back for Revelations 2, due to both fan demand and because Satō was \"a big fan of her personally\". Alyson Court did not return to voice Claire, who was instead portrayed by an unknown woman (credited in-game as James Baker). According to Okabe, the reason for replacing Court was because they felt that her voice was too young for the older and mature Claire and could have caused confusion for players between the voices of Claire and the younger Moira Burton.\n\nThe Czech novelist and story writer Franz Kafka was a major inspiration behind the game's plot, the idea influenced by Satō. Since the first Revelations used passages from Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy, the team felt that would be a common element for the Revelations series, providing a deeper meaning for the themes explored throughout the story. Furthermore, Satō hoped it would allow players feel more immersed since a real writer became part of the setting. The titles of the game's four episodes are allusions to some of Kafka's works; referring to In the Penal Colony, Contemplation, The Judgment and The Metamorphosis, respectively.\nFamiliar relationships was a significant theme for the game, approaching more personal elements for the story. Barry Burton's family has a great focus throughout the game's plot; Barry acts as a father figure for Natalia, who became an orphan due to the \"Terragrigia Panic\" explored in the first Revelations. On the other hand, Claire can be seen as an older sister figure for Moira, who has a strained relationship with her father. The concept of sanity is also of great importance for the setting of the story, as exemplified by the wristbands the characters wear that display their level of fear, some song titles on the soundtrack (Insanity or Despair), and the name of the main enemies of the game, the Afflicted (humans driven crazy by torture and experiments).\nSongwriter Kota Suzuki returned as the game's composer after working on other titles of the franchise such as Resident Evil: The Mercenaries 3D, Resident Evil 5, Resident Evil 6, and Resident Evil: Revelations. According to him, for this soundtrack they decided to focus on the \"duality of sound\". Speaking about the concept of the sound design for Revelations 2 and his collaboration with Nima Fakhrara, he explained: \"[Nima Fakhara's] productions possessed that particular element of darkness that worked perfectly with our[s]. After many brainstorming sessions, we decided to use ‘iron’ and ‘water’ as our concepts in creating new instruments. And, after recording, we edited and mixed the sound with other tracks to create a truly unique sound\".\n\nRelease\nCapcom released the game on February 25, 2015, in a weekly episodic format for PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows, Xbox 360, and Xbox One. Once the final episode was released, a complete version was launched. Japanese rock band Dir En Grey was featured in some of the material promotion for the game. A full video of the song, Revelation of Mankind, featuring scenes of the band and the game was released in the middle of 2015. That music was also part of their last album, Arche. Sony Computer Entertainment published the PlayStation Vita version of the game. The port was developed by Frima Studio and released on August 18, 2015. The first episode of the game, Penal Colony, was made free to download for PlayStation 4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One on November 18, 2015. After that, a collection was made for the Nintendo Switch containing both Revelations games, which launched at the end of November 2017.\n\nReception\nReviews for the game have been mixed to positive. There was praise for the setting, story, characters and the co-op gameplay, but the graphics and some technical issues were largely criticized. According to Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer, the game has crazy plot twists, laughable dialogue, and campy moments, all of which come together in a satisfying way. She also praised the characters, as well as their unique story arcs and development throughout the game. The chaotic moments and the boss battles were also well received. On the other hand, Wallace complained about the dated puzzles and backtracking in Barry's campaign, saying that \"these places lose their mystery a second time around\".\nPolygon commented that \"Revelations 2 finds a focus that recent entries have sorely lacked\", praised the game for including strong female characters, since three of the four main playable characters are female. Kollar was especially fond of newcomer Moira Burton, considering her a memorable and interesting character. However, he criticized the lack of horror, generic level design and the graphics. Destructoid's reviewer, Chris Carter, described the atmosphere of the first episode as well done, praising the creepy bloody dungeons and the dark forests of the island, they also speak well about the action and the fun co-op gameplay.\nGamesRadar+ gave the game a score of 4 of 5 and spoke positively about the collaboration and teamwork, saying that both character teams are complementary and make the game a fantastic cooperative experience. However, they found the Claire/Moira campaign to have an unsatisfying ending. IGN considered the game to lack the scares for which the series is famous for, while also criticizing the graphics and considering that the game provides an unmemorable experience. They nevertheless praised the elements of action-adventure, the co-op gameplay, the implementation of traditional puzzles and the interesting plot, which in the words of the reviewer, Lucy O'Brien, \"kept me hooked right up until its finale\". She also praised the bonus Raid mode.\nMany reviewers felt the third episode was the best one. Peter Brown from GameSpot considered the reason for this was the plot development and the presence of interesting puzzles, which were lacking in the first two episodes. IGN also had similar opinions, considering the balance between the action sequences and the puzzle solving to be exquisite.\n\nSales and accolades\nAccording to Capcom, due to the variety of manners of selling, Resident Evil: Revelations 2 had a strong beginning and quickly become a million seller for the company. In Japan, in the first week of the release of the complete version, the game reached the second (PS3) and fourth position (PS4), selling 73,373 and 42,358 respectively. The PlayStation 4 hardware that week had a higher-than-normal sales, thanks to the releases of Resident Evil Revelations 2 and Final Fantasy Type-0 HD. In Brazil, the full game version became the 9th best selling game on the PS4 during the month of April 2015. As a download content, the complete season reached the 6th position on the same platform. After that, in the same year, specifically in November, the second episode alone, Contemplation, was the 8th best-selling download content for PlayStation 3. A month later, the PS Vita version reached the 5th position.\nAs of March 2020, the original release has reached 2.6 million units sold and, with that, Revelations 2 has possibly surpassed its predecessor and became the 26th best seller of the company. Furthermore, in the beginning of 2016, the title was selected by the readers of the Japanese game magazine Famitsu as the 9th most memorable game of the Xbox One.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "Resident_Evil:_Revelations_2"
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"paragraph_text": "Franz Kafka (3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a novelist and writer from Prague. He wrote in German and is widely regarded as a major figure of 20th-century literature. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic. It typically features isolated protagonists facing bizarre or surrealistic predicaments and incomprehensible socio-bureaucratic powers. It has been interpreted as exploring themes of alienation, existential anxiety, guilt, and absurdity. His best known works include the novella The Metamorphosis and novels The Trial and The Castle. The term Kafkaesque has entered English to describe absurd situations like those depicted in his writing.\nKafka was born into a middle-class German- and Yiddish-speaking Czech Jewish family in Prague, the capital of the Kingdom of Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (today the capital of Czechia, also known as the Czech Republic). He trained as a lawyer, and after completing his legal education was employed full-time, for a year handling cases for the indigent in the city's Provincial and Criminal Courts by an insurance company, then working for nine months for an Italian insurance company, and finally, starting in 1908, spending 14 years with the Austrian Imperial and Royal Workmen's Accident Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia and its successor under the Czechoslovak Republic, rising to the position of chief legal secretary.\nBeing employed full-time forced Kafka to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and formal relationship. He became engaged to several women but never married. He died in obscurity in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis.\nKafka was a prolific writer, spending most of his free time writing, often late into the night. He burned an estimated 90 percent of his total work due to his persistent struggles with self-doubt. Much of the remaining 10 percent is lost or otherwise unpublished. Few of Kafka's works were published during his lifetime; although the story collections Contemplation and A Country Doctor, and individual stories, such as his novella The Metamorphosis, were published in literary magazines, they received little attention.\nIn his will, Kafka instructed his close friend and literary executor Max Brod to destroy his unfinished works, including his novels The Trial, The Castle, and Amerika, but Brod ignored these instructions and had much of his work published. Kafka's writings became famous in German-speaking countries after World War II, influencing German literature, and its influence spread elsewhere in the world in the 1960s. It has also influenced artists, composers, and philosophers.\n\nLife\nEarly life\nKafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His family were German-speaking middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka (1854–1931), was the fourth child of Jakob Kafka, a shochet or ritual slaughterer in Osek, a Czech village with a large Jewish population located near Strakonice in southern Bohemia. Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague. After working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fashion retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw (kavka in Czech, pronounced and colloquially written as kafka) as his business logo. Kafka's mother, Julie (1856–1934), was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a prosperous retail merchant in Poděbrady, and was better educated than her husband.\nKafka's parents, from traditional Jewish society, spoke German replete with influences from their native Yiddish; their children, raised in an acculturated environment, spoke Standard German. Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest. Franz's two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven; his three sisters were Gabriele (\"Elli\") (1889–1942), Valerie (\"Valli\") (1890–1942) and Ottilie (\"Ottla\") (1892–1943). All three were murdered in the Holocaust of World War II. Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in occupied Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her; it is assumed she did not survive the war. Ottilie was Kafka's favourite sister.\nHermann is described by Kafka scholar and translator Stanley Corngold as a \"huge, selfish, overbearing businessman\" and by Franz Kafka as \"a true Kafka in strength, health, appetite, loudness of voice, eloquence, self-satisfaction, worldly dominance, endurance, presence of mind, knowledge of human nature, a certain way of doing things on a grand scale, of course with all the defects and weaknesses that go with all these advantages and into which your temperament and sometimes your hot temper drive you\". On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business. Consequently, Kafka's childhood was somewhat lonely, and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. Kafka's troubled relationship with his father is evident in his Brief an den Vater (Letter to His Father) of more than 100 pages, in which he complains of being profoundly affected by his father's authoritarian and demanding character; his mother, in contrast, was quiet and shy. The dominating figure of Kafka's father had a significant influence on Kafka's writing.\nThe Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. Franz's room was often cold. In November 1913, the family moved into a bigger apartment, although Ellie and Valli had married and moved out of the first apartment. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, the sisters did not know where their husbands were in the military and moved back in with the family in this larger apartment. Both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Valli's former apartment, quiet by contrast, and lived by himself for the first time.\n\nEducation\nFrom 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the German boys' elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt (meat market), now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his bar mitzvah celebration at the age of 13. Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year.\nAfter leaving elementary school in 1893, Kafka was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state gymnasium, Altstädter Deutsches Gymnasium, an academic secondary school at Old Town Square, within the Kinský Palace. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and wrote in Czech. He studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades. Although Kafka received compliments for his Czech, he never considered himself fluent in the language, though he spoke German with a Czech accent. He completed his Matura exams in 1901.\nAdmitted to the Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universität of Prague in 1901, Kafka began studying chemistry but switched to law after two weeks. Although this field did not excite him, it offered a range of career possibilities which pleased his father. In addition, law required a longer course of study, giving Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history. He also joined a student club, Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten (Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students), which organised literary events, readings and other activities. Among Kafka's friends were the journalist Felix Weltsch, who studied philosophy, the actor Yitzchak Lowy who came from an orthodox Hasidic Warsaw family, and the writers Ludwig Winder, Oskar Baum and Franz Werfel.\nAt the end of his first year of studies, Kafka met Max Brod, a fellow law student who became a close friend for life. Years later, Brod coined the term Der enge Prager Kreis (\"The Close Prague Circle\") to describe the group of writers, which included Kafka, Felix Weltsch and Brod himself. Brod soon noticed that, although Kafka was shy and seldom spoke, what he said was usually profound. Kafka was an avid reader throughout his life; together he and Brod read Plato's Protagoras in the original Greek, on Brod's initiative, and Flaubert's L'éducation sentimentale and La Tentation de St. Antoine (The Temptation of Saint Anthony) in French, at his own suggestion. Kafka considered Fyodor Dostoevsky, Gustave Flaubert, Nikolai Gogol, Franz Grillparzer, and Heinrich von Kleist to be his \"true blood brothers\". Besides these, he took an interest in Czech literature and was also very fond of the works of Goethe. Kafka was awarded the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 June 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as a law clerk for the civil and criminal courts.\n\nEmployment\nOn 1 November 1907, Kafka was employed at the Assicurazioni Generali, an insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year. His correspondence during that period indicates that he was unhappy with a work schedule—from 08:00 until 18:00—that made it extremely difficult to concentrate on writing, which was assuming increasing importance to him. On 15 July 1908, he resigned. Two weeks later, he found employment more amenable to writing when he joined the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia (Úrazová pojišťovna dělnická pro Čechy v Praze). The job involved investigating and assessing compensation for personal injury to industrial workers; accidents such as lost fingers or limbs were commonplace, owing to poor work safety policies at the time. It was especially true of factories fitted with machine lathes, drills, planing machines and rotary saws, which were rarely fitted with safety guards.\nHis father often referred to his son's job as an insurance officer as a Brotberuf, literally \"bread job\", a job done only to pay the bills; Kafka often claimed to despise it. Kafka was rapidly promoted and his duties included processing and investigating compensation claims, writing reports, and handling appeals from businessmen who thought their firms had been placed in too high a risk category, which cost them more in insurance premiums. He would compile and compose the annual report on the insurance institute for the several years he worked there. The reports were well received by his superiors. Kafka usually got off work at 2 p.m., so that he had time to spend on his literary work, to which he was committed. Kafka's father also expected him to help out at and take over the family fancy goods store. In his later years, Kafka's illness often prevented him from working at the insurance bureau and at his writing.\nIn late 1911, Elli's husband Karl Hermann and Kafka became partners in the first asbestos factory in Prague, known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann & Co., having used dowry money from Hermann Kafka. Kafka showed a positive attitude at first, dedicating much of his free time to the business, but he later resented the encroachment of this work on his writing time. During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre. After seeing a Yiddish theatre troupe perform in October 1911, for the next six months Kafka \"immersed himself in Yiddish language and in Yiddish literature\". This interest also served as a starting point for his growing exploration of Judaism. It was at about this time that Kafka became a vegetarian. Around 1915, Kafka received his draft notice for military service in World War I, but his employers at the insurance institute arranged for a deferment because his work was considered essential government service. He later attempted to join the military but was prevented from doing so by medical problems associated with tuberculosis, with which he was diagnosed in 1917. In 1918, the Worker's Accident Insurance Institute put Kafka on a pension due to his illness, for which there was no cure at the time, and he spent most of the rest of his life in sanatoriums.\n\nPrivate life\nKafka never married. According to Brod, Kafka was \"tortured\" by sexual desire, and Kafka's biographer Reiner Stach states that his life was full of \"incessant womanising\" and that he was filled with a fear of \"sexual failure\". Kafka visited brothels for most of his adult life and was interested in pornography. In addition, he had close relationships with several women during his lifetime. On 13 August 1912, Kafka met Felice Bauer, a relative of Brod's, who worked in Berlin as a representative of a dictaphone company. A week after the meeting at Brod's home, Kafka wrote in his diary:\n\nMiss FB. When I arrived at Brod's on 13 August, she was sitting at the table. I was not at all curious about who she was, but rather took her for granted at once. Bony, empty face that wore its emptiness openly. Bare throat. A blouse thrown on. Looked very domestic in her dress although, as it turned out, she by no means was. (I alienate myself from her a little by inspecting her so closely ...) Almost broken nose. Blonde, somewhat straight, unattractive hair, strong chin. As I was taking my seat I looked at her closely for the first time, by the time I was seated I already had an unshakeable opinion.\nShortly after this meeting, Kafka wrote the story \"Das Urteil\" (\"The Judgment\") in only one night and in a productive period worked on Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared) and Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis). Kafka and Felice Bauer communicated mostly through letters over the next five years, met occasionally, and were engaged twice. Kafka's extant letters to Bauer were published as Briefe an Felice (Letters to Felice); her letters did not survive. After he had written to Bauer's father asking to marry her, Kafka wrote in his diary:\n\nMy job is unbearable to me because it conflicts with my only desire and my only calling, which is literature.... I am nothing but literature and can and want to be nothing else ... Nervous states of the worst sort control me without pause ... A marriage could not change me, just as my job cannot change me.\nAccording to the biographers Stach and James Hawes, Kafka became engaged a third time around 1920, to Julie Wohryzek, a poor and uneducated hotel chambermaid. Kafka's father objected to Julie because of her Zionist beliefs. Although Kafka and Julie rented a flat and set a wedding date, the marriage never took place. During this time, Kafka began a draft of Letter to His Father. Before the date of the intended marriage, he took up with yet another woman. While he needed women and sex in his life, he had low self-confidence, felt sex was dirty, and was cripplingly shy—especially about his body.\nStach and Brod state that during the time that Kafka knew Felice Bauer, he had an affair with a friend of hers, Margarethe \"Grete\" Bloch, a Jewish woman from Berlin. Brod says that Bloch gave birth to Kafka's son, although Kafka never knew about the child. The boy, whose name is not known, was born in 1914 or 1915 and died in Munich in 1921. However, Kafka's biographer Peter-André Alt says that, while Bloch had a son, Kafka was not the father, as the pair were never intimate. Stach points out that there is a great deal of contradictory evidence around the claim that Kafka was the father.\nKafka was diagnosed with tuberculosis in August 1917 and moved for a few months to the Bohemian village of Zürau (Siřem in Czech), where his sister Ottla worked on the farm of her brother-in-law Karl Hermann. He felt comfortable there and later described this time as perhaps the best period of his life, probably because he had no responsibilities. He kept diaries and made notes in exercise books (Oktavhefte). From those notes, Kafka extracted 109 numbered pieces of text on single pieces of paper (Zettel); these were later published as Die Zürauer Aphorismen oder Betrachtungen über Sünde, Hoffnung, Leid und den wahren Weg (The Zürau Aphorisms or Reflections on Sin, Hope, Suffering, and the True Way).\nIn 1920, Kafka began an intense relationship with Milena Jesenská, a Czech journalist and writer who was non-Jewish and who was married, but when she met Kafka, her marriage was a \"sham\". His letters to her were later published as Briefe an Milena. During a vacation in July 1923 to Graal-Müritz on the Baltic Sea, Kafka met Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family. Kafka, hoping to escape the influence of his family to concentrate on his writing, moved briefly to Berlin (September 1923-March 1924) and lived with Diamant. She became his lover and sparked his interest in the Talmud. He worked on four stories, including Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist), which were published shortly after his death.\n\nSiblings\nKafka's parents had six children; Kafka was the eldest. His two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy; his three sisters, Gabriele (\"Elli\") (September 22, 1889 – fall of 1942), Valerie (\"Valli\") (1890–1942) and Ottilie (\"Ottla\") (1892–1943), are believed to have been murdered in the Holocaust of the Second World War. Ottilie was Kafka's favourite sister.\nGabriele was Kafka's eldest sister. She was known as Elli or Ellie; her married name is variously rendered as Hermann or Hermannová. She attended a German girls' school in Prague's Řeznická Street and later a private girls' secondary school. She married Karl Hermann (1883–1939), a salesman, in 1910. The couple had a son, Felix (1911–1940), and two daughters, Gertrude (Gerti) Kaufmann (1912–1972), and Hanna Seidner (1920–1941). After her marriage to Hermann, she became closer to her brother, whose letters showed an active interest in the upbringing and education of her children. He accompanied her on a 1915 trip to Hungary to visit Hermann, who was stationed there, and spent a summer with her and her children in Müritz the year before he died.\nWith the outbreak of the Great Depression in 1929, the Hermann family business experienced financial difficulties and eventually went bankrupt. Karl Hermann died February 27, 1939, and Elli was supported financially by her sisters. On October 21, 1941, she was deported together with her daughter Hanna to the Łódź Ghetto, where she lived temporarily with her sister Valli and Valli's husband in the spring of 1942. She was probably killed in the Kulmhof extermination camp in the fall of 1942. Of Elli's three children, only her daughter Gerti survived the Second World War. A memorial plaque commemorates the three sisters at the family grave in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague.\n\nPersonality\nKafka had a lifelong suspicion that people found him mentally and physically repulsive. However, many of those who met him found him to possess obvious intelligence and a sense of humour; they also found him handsome, although of austere appearance. Kafka was thought to be \"very self-analytic\". Brod compared Kafka to Heinrich von Kleist, noting that both writers had the ability to describe a situation realistically with precise details. Brod thought Kafka was one of the most entertaining people he had met; Kafka enjoyed sharing his humour with his friends but also helped them in difficult situations with good advice. According to Brod, he was a passionate reciter, able to phrase his speech as though it were music. Brod felt that two of Kafka's most distinguishing traits were \"absolute truthfulness\" (absolute Wahrhaftigkeit) and \"precise conscientiousness\" (präzise Gewissenhaftigkeit). He explored inconspicuous details in depth and with such precision and love that unforeseen things surfaced that seemed strange but absolutely true (nichts als wahr).\nKafka's letters and unexpurgated diaries reveal repressed homoerotic desires, including an infatuation with novelist Franz Werfel and fascination with the work of Hans Blüher on male bonding. Saul Friedländer argues that this mental struggle may have informed the themes of alienation and psychological brutality in his writing.\nAlthough Kafka showed little interest in exercise as a child, he later developed a passion for games and physical activity and was an accomplished rider, swimmer, and rower. On weekends, he and his friends embarked on long hikes, often planned by Kafka himself. His other interests included alternative medicine, modern education systems such as Montessori, and technological novelties such as airplanes and film. Writing was vitally important to Kafka; he considered it a \"form of prayer\". He was highly sensitive to noise and preferred absolute quiet when writing.\nPérez-Álvarez has claimed that Kafka had symptomatology consistent with schizoid personality disorder. His style, it is claimed, not only in Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis) but in other writings, appears to show low- to medium-level schizoid traits, which Pérez-Álvarez claims to have influenced much of his work. His anguish can be seen in this diary entry from 21 June 1913:\n\nand in Zürau Aphorism number 50:\n\nAlessia Coralli and Antonio Perciaccante of San Giovanni di Dio Hospital have posited that Kafka may have had borderline personality disorder with co-occurring psychophysiological insomnia. Joan Lachkar interpreted Die Verwandlung as \"a vivid depiction of the borderline personality\" and described the story as \"model for Kafka's own abandonment fears, anxiety, depression, and parasitic dependency needs. Kafka illuminated the borderline's general confusion of normal and healthy desires, wishes, and needs with something ugly and disdainful\".\nThough Kafka never married, he held marriage and children in high esteem. He had several girlfriends and lovers during his life. He may have suffered from an eating disorder. Doctor Manfred M. Fichter of the Psychiatric Clinic, University of Munich, presented \"evidence for the hypothesis that the writer Franz Kafka had suffered from an atypical anorexia nervosa\", and that Kafka was not just lonely and depressed but also \"occasionally suicidal\". In his 1995 book Franz Kafka, the Jewish Patient, Sander Gilman investigated \"why a Jew might have been considered 'hypochondriacal' or 'homosexual' and how Kafka incorporates aspects of these ways of understanding the Jewish male into his own self-image and writing\". Kafka considered suicide at least once, in late 1912.\n\nPolitical views\nBefore World War I, Kafka attended several meetings of the Klub mladých, a Czech anarchist, anti-militarist, and anti-clerical organization. Hugo Bergmann, who attended the same elementary and high schools as Kafka, fell out with Kafka during their last academic year (1900–1901) because \"[Kafka's] socialism and my Zionism were much too strident\". Bergmann said: \"Franz became a socialist, I became a Zionist in 1898. The synthesis of Zionism and socialism did not yet exist.\" Bergmann claims that Kafka wore a red carnation to school to show his support for socialism. In one diary entry, Kafka made reference to the influential anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin: \"Don't forget Kropotkin!\"\nDuring the communist era, the legacy of Kafka's work for Eastern Bloc socialism was hotly debated. Opinions ranged from the notion that he satirised the bureaucratic bungling of a crumbling Austro-Hungarian Empire, to the belief that he embodied the rise of socialism. A further key point was Marx's theory of alienation. While the orthodox position was that Kafka's depictions of alienation were no longer relevant for a society that had supposedly eliminated alienation, a 1963 conference held in Liblice, Czechoslovakia, on the eightieth anniversary of his birth, reassessed the importance of Kafka's portrayal of bureaucracy. Whether Kafka was a political writer is still an issue of debate.\n\nJudaism and Zionism\nKafka grew up in Prague as a German-speaking Jew. He was deeply fascinated by the Jews of Eastern Europe, who he thought possessed an intensity of spiritual life that was absent from Jews in the West. His diary contains many references to Yiddish writers. Yet he was at times alienated from Judaism and Jewish life. On 8 January 1914, he wrote in his diary:\n\nIn his adolescent years, Kafka declared himself an atheist.\nHawes suggests that Kafka, though very aware of his own Jewishness, did not incorporate it into his work, which, according to Hawes, lacks Jewish characters, scenes or themes. In the opinion of literary critic Harold Bloom, although Kafka was uneasy with his Jewish heritage, he was the quintessential Jewish writer. Lothar Kahn is likewise unequivocal: \"The presence of Jewishness in Kafka's oeuvre is no longer subject to doubt\". Pavel Eisner, one of Kafka's first translators, interprets Der Process (The Trial) as the embodiment of the \"triple dimension of Jewish existence in Prague ... his protagonist Josef K. is (symbolically) arrested by a German (Rabensteiner), a Czech (Kullich), and a Jew (Kaminer). He stands for the 'guiltless guilt' that imbues the Jew in the modern world, although there is no evidence that he himself is a Jew\".\nIn his essay Sadness in Palestine?!, Dan Miron explores Kafka's connection to Zionism: \"It seems that those who claim that there was such a connection and that Zionism played a central role in his life and literary work, and those who deny the connection altogether or dismiss its importance, are both wrong. The truth lies in some very elusive place between these two simplistic poles.\" Kafka considered moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later with Dora Diamant. He studied Hebrew while living in Berlin, hiring a friend of Brod's from Palestine, Pua Bat-Tovim, to tutor him and attending Rabbi Julius Grünthal and Rabbi Julius Guttmann's classes in the Berlin Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums (College for the Study of Judaism), where he also studied Talmud.\nLivia Rothkirchen calls Kafka the \"symbolic figure of his era\". His contemporaries included numerous Jewish, Czech, and German writers who were sensitive to Jewish, Czech, and German culture. According to Rothkirchen, \"This situation lent their writings a broad cosmopolitan outlook and a quality of exaltation bordering on transcendental metaphysical contemplation. An illustrious example is Franz Kafka\".\nTowards the end of his life Kafka sent a postcard to his friend Hugo Bergmann in Tel Aviv, announcing his intention to emigrate to Palestine. Bergmann refused to host Kafka because he had young children and was afraid that Kafka would infect them with tuberculosis.\n\nDeath\nKafka's laryngeal tuberculosis worsened and in March 1924 he returned from Berlin to Prague, where members of his family, principally his sister Ottla and Dora Diamant, took care of him. He went to Hugo Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling just outside Vienna for treatment on 10 April, and died there on 3 June 1924. The cause of death seemed to be starvation: the condition of Kafka's throat made eating too painful for him, and since parenteral nutrition had not yet been developed, there was no way to feed him. Kafka was editing \"A Hunger Artist\" on his deathbed, a story whose composition he had begun before his throat closed to the point that he could not take any nourishment. His body was brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-Žižkov. Kafka was virtually unknown during his own lifetime, but he did not consider fame important. He rose to fame rapidly after his death, particularly after World War II. The Kafka tombstone was designed by architect Leopold Ehrmann.\n\nWorks\nAll of Kafka's published works, except some letters he wrote in Czech to Milena Jesenská, were written in German. What little was published during his lifetime attracted scant public attention.\nKafka finished none of his full-length novels and burned around 90 percent of his work, much of it during the period he lived in Berlin with Diamant, who helped him burn the drafts. In his early years as a writer he was influenced by von Kleist, whose work he described in a letter to Bauer as frightening and whom he considered closer than his own family.\nKafka drew and sketched extensively. Until May 2021, only about 40 of his drawings were known. In 2022, Yale University Press published Franz Kafka: The Drawings.\n\nStories\nKafka's earliest published works were eight stories that appeared in 1908 in the first issue of the literary journal Hyperion under the title Betrachtung (Contemplation). He wrote the story \"Beschreibung eines Kampfes\" (\"Description of a Struggle\") in 1904; in 1905 he showed it to Brod, who advised him to continue writing and convinced him to submit it to Hyperion. Kafka published a fragment in 1908 and two sections in the spring of 1909, all in Munich.\nIn a creative outburst on the night of 22 September 1912, Kafka wrote the story \"Das Urteil\" (\"The Judgment\", literally: \"The Verdict\") and dedicated it to Felice Bauer. Brod noted the similarity in names of the main character and his fictional fiancée, Georg Bendemann and Frieda Brandenfeld, to Franz Kafka and Felice Bauer. The story is often considered Kafka's breakthrough work. It deals with the troubled relationship of a son and his dominant father, facing a new situation after the son's engagement. Kafka later described writing it as \"a complete opening of body and soul\", a story that \"evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime\". The story was first published in Leipzig in 1912 and dedicated \"to Miss Felice Bauer\", and in subsequent editions \"for F.\"\nIn 1912, Kafka wrote Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis, or The Transformation), published in 1915 in Leipzig. The story begins with a travelling salesman waking to find himself transformed into an ungeheures Ungeziefer, a monstrous vermin, Ungeziefer being a general term for unwanted and unclean pests, especially insects. Critics regard the work as one of the seminal works of fiction of the 20th century. The story \"In der Strafkolonie\" (\"In the Penal Colony\"), dealing with an elaborate torture and execution device, was written in October 1914, revised in 1918, and published in Leipzig during October 1919. The story \"Ein Hungerkünstler\" (\"A Hunger Artist\"), published in the periodical Die neue Rundschau in 1924, describes a victimized protagonist who experiences a decline in the appreciation of his strange craft of starving himself for extended periods. His last story, \"Josefine, die Sängerin oder Das Volk der Mäuse\" (\"Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk\"), also deals with the relationship between an artist and his audience.\n\nNovels\nKafka began his first novel in 1912; its first chapter is the story \"Der Heizer\" (\"The Stoker\"). He called the work, which remained unfinished, Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared or The Missing Person), but when Brod published it after Kafka's death he named it Amerika. The inspiration for the novel was the time Kafka spent in the audience of Yiddish theatre the previous year, bringing him to a new awareness of his heritage, which led to the thought that an innate appreciation for one's heritage lives deep within each person. More explicitly humorous and slightly more realistic than most of Kafka's works, the novel shares the motif of an oppressive and intangible system putting the protagonist repeatedly in bizarre situations. It uses many details of experiences from his relatives who had emigrated to America and is the only work for which Kafka considered an optimistic ending.\nIn 1914 Kafka began the novel Der Process (The Trial), the story of a man arrested and prosecuted by a remote, inaccessible authority, with the nature of his crime revealed neither to him nor to the reader. He did not complete the novel, although he finished the final chapter. According to Nobel Prize winning author Elias Canetti, Felice is central to the plot of Der Process and Kafka said it was \"her story\". Canetti titled his book on Kafka's letters to Felice Kafka's Other Trial, in recognition of the relationship between the letters and the novel. Michiko Kakutani notes in a review for The New York Times that Kafka's letters have the \"earmarks of his fiction: the same nervous attention to minute particulars; the same paranoid awareness of shifting balances of power; the same atmosphere of emotional suffocation—combined, surprisingly enough, with moments of boyish ardour and delight.\"\nAccording to his diary, Kafka was already planning his novel Das Schloss (The Castle), by 11 June 1914; however, he did not begin writing it until 27 January 1922. The protagonist is the Landvermesser (land surveyor) named K., who struggles for unknown reasons to gain access to the mysterious authorities of a castle who govern the village. Kafka's intent was that the castle's authorities notify K. on his deathbed that his \"legal claim to live in the village was not valid, yet, taking certain auxiliary circumstances into account, he was to be permitted to live and work there\". Dark and at times surreal, the novel is focused on alienation, bureaucracy, the seemingly endless frustrations of man's attempts to stand against the system, and the futile and hopeless pursuit of an unattainable goal. Hartmut M. Rastalsky noted in his thesis: \"Like dreams, his texts combine precise 'realistic' detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness.\"\n\nPublishing history\nKafka's stories were initially published in literary periodicals. His first eight were printed in 1908 in the first issue of the bi-monthly Hyperion. Franz Blei published two dialogues in 1909 which became part of \"Beschreibung eines Kampfes\" (\"Description of a Struggle\"). A fragment of the story \"Die Aeroplane in Brescia\" (\"The Aeroplanes at Brescia\"), written on a trip to Italy with Brod, appeared in the daily Bohemia on 28 September 1909. On 27 March 1910, several stories that later became part of the book Betrachtung were published in the Easter edition of Bohemia. In Leipzig during 1913, Brod and publisher Kurt Wolff included \"Das Urteil. Eine Geschichte von Franz Kafka.\" (\"The Judgment. A Story by Franz Kafka.\") in their literary yearbook for the art poetry Arkadia. In the same year, Wolff published \"Der Heizer\" (\"The Stoker\") in the Jüngste Tag series, where it enjoyed three printings. The story \"Vor dem Gesetz\" (\"Before the Law\") was published in the 1915 New Year's edition of the independent Jewish weekly Selbstwehr; it was reprinted in 1919 as part of the story collection Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor) and became part of the novel Der Process. Other stories were published in various publications, including Martin Buber's Der Jude, the paper Prager Tagblatt, and the periodicals Die neue Rundschau, Genius, and Prager Presse.\nKafka's first published book, Betrachtung (Contemplation, or Meditation), was a collection of 18 stories written between 1904 and 1912. On a summer trip to Weimar, Brod initiated a meeting between Kafka and Kurt Wolff; Wolff published Betrachtung in the Rowohlt Verlag at the end of 1912 (with the year given as 1913). Kafka dedicated it to Brod, \"Für M.B.\", and added in the personal copy given to his friend \"So wie es hier schon gedruckt ist, für meinen liebsten Max—Franz K.\" (\"As it is already printed here, for my dearest Max\").\nKafka's novella Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis) was first printed in the October 1915 issue of Die Weißen Blätter, a monthly edition of expressionist literature, edited by René Schickele. Another story collection, Ein Landarzt (A Country Doctor), was published by Kurt Wolff in 1919, dedicated to Kafka's father. Kafka prepared a final collection of four stories for print, Ein Hungerkünstler (A Hunger Artist), which appeared in 1924 after his death, in Verlag Die Schmiede. On 20 April 1924, the Berliner Börsen-Courier published Kafka's essay on Adalbert Stifter.\n\nMax Brod\nKafka left his work, both published and unpublished, to his friend and literary executor Max Brod with explicit instructions that it should be destroyed on Kafka's death; Kafka wrote: \"Dearest Max, my last request: Everything I leave behind me ... in the way of diaries, manuscripts, letters (my own and others'), sketches, and so on, [is] to be burned unread.\" Brod ignored this request and published the novels and collected works between 1925 and 1935. Brod defended his action by claiming that he had told Kafka, \"I shall not carry out your wishes\", and that \"Franz should have appointed another executor if he had been absolutely determined that his instructions should stand\".\nBrod took many of Kafka's papers, which remain unpublished, with him in suitcases to Palestine when he fled there in 1939. Kafka's last lover, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping 20 notebooks and 35 letters. These were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933, but scholars continue to search for them.\nAs Brod published the bulk of the writings in his possession, Kafka's work began to attract wider attention and critical acclaim. Brod found it difficult to arrange Kafka's notebooks in chronological order. One problem was that Kafka often began writing in different parts of the book; sometimes in the middle, sometimes working backwards from the end. Brod finished many of Kafka's incomplete works for publication. For example, Kafka left Der Process with unnumbered and incomplete chapters and Das Schloss with incomplete sentences and ambiguous content; Brod rearranged chapters, copy-edited the text, and changed the punctuation. Der Process appeared in 1925 in Verlag Die Schmiede. Kurt Wolff published two other novels, Das Schloss in 1926 and Amerika in 1927. In 1931, Brod edited a collection of prose and unpublished stories as The Great Wall of China, including the titular short story \"The Great Wall of China\". The book appeared in the Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag. Brod's sets are usually called the \"Definitive Editions\".\n\nModern editions\nIn 1961 Malcolm Pasley acquired for the Oxford Bodleian Library most of Kafka's original handwritten works. The text for Der Process was later purchased through auction and is stored at the German Literary Archives in Marbach am Neckar, Germany. Subsequently, Pasley headed a team (including Gerhard Neumann, Jost Schillemeit and Jürgen Born) which reconstructed the German novels; S. Fischer Verlag republished them. Pasley was the editor for Das Schloss, published in 1982, and Der Process (The Trial), published in 1990. Jost Schillemeit was the editor of Der Verschollene (Amerika) published in 1983. These are called the \"Critical Editions\" or the \"Fischer Editions\".\nIn 2023, the first unexpurgated edition of Kafka's diaries was published in English, \"more than three decades after this complete text appeared in German. The sole previous English edition, with Brod's edits, was issued in the late 1940s\". The new edition revealed that Brod had expunged homoerotic references, and negative comments about Eastern European Jews.\n\nUnpublished papers\nWhen Brod died in 1968, he left Kafka's unpublished papers, which are believed to number in the thousands, to his secretary Esther Hoffe. She released or sold some, but left most to her daughters, Eva and Ruth, who also refused to release the papers. A court battle began in 2008 between the sisters and the National Library of Israel, which claimed these works became the property of the nation of Israel when Brod emigrated to British Palestine in 1939. Esther Hoffe sold the original manuscript of Der Process for US$2 million in 1988 to the German Literary Archive Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach am Neckar. A ruling by a Tel Aviv family court in 2010 held that the papers must be released and a few were, including a previously unknown story, but the legal battle continued. The Hoffes claim the papers are their personal property, while the National Library of Israel argues they are \"cultural assets belonging to the Jewish people\". The National Library also suggests that Brod bequeathed the papers to them in his will. The Tel Aviv Family Court ruled in October 2012, six months after Ruth's death, that the papers were the property of the National Library. The Israeli Supreme Court upheld the decision in December 2016.\n\nCritical response\nCritical interpretations\nThe poet W. H. Auden called Kafka \"the Dante of the twentieth century\"; the novelist Vladimir Nabokov placed him among the greatest writers of the 20th century. Gabriel García Márquez noted the reading of Kafka's The Metamorphosis showed him \"that it was possible to write in a different way\". A prominent theme of Kafka's work, first established in the short story \"Das Urteil\", is father–son conflict: the guilt induced in the son is resolved through suffering and atonement. Other prominent themes and archetypes include alienation, physical and psychological brutality, characters on a terrifying quest, and mystical transformation.\nKafka's style has been compared to that of Kleist as early as 1916, in a review of \"Die Verwandlung\" and \"Der Heizer\" by Oscar Walzel in Berliner Beiträge. The nature of Kafka's prose allows for varied interpretations and critics have placed his writing into a variety of literary schools. Marxists, for example, have sharply disagreed over how to interpret Kafka's works. Some accused him of distorting reality whereas others claimed he was critiquing capitalism. The hopelessness and absurdity common to his works are seen as emblematic of existentialism. Some of Kafka's books are influenced by the expressionist movement, though the majority of his literary output was associated with the experimental modernist genre. Kafka also touches on the theme of human conflict with bureaucracy. William Burrows claims that such work is centred on the concepts of struggle, pain, solitude, and the need for relationships. Others, such as Thomas Mann, see Kafka's work as allegorical: a quest, metaphysical in nature, for God.\nAccording to Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the themes of alienation and persecution, although present in Kafka's work, have been overemphasised by critics. They argue that Kafka's work is more deliberate and subversive—and more joyful—than may first appear. They point out that reading Kafka while focusing on the futility of his characters' struggles reveals Kafka's humour; he is not necessarily commenting on his own problems, but rather pointing out how people tend to invent problems. In his work, Kafka often creates malevolent, absurd worlds. Kafka read drafts of his works to his friends, typically concentrating on his humorous prose. The writer Milan Kundera suggests that Kafka's surrealist humour may have been an inversion of Dostoevsky's presentation of characters who are punished for a crime. In Kafka's work, a character is punished although a crime has not been committed. Kundera believes that Kafka's inspirations for his characteristic situations came both from growing up in a patriarchal family and from living in a totalitarian state.\nAttempts have been made to identify the influence of Kafka's legal background and the role of law in his fiction. Most interpretations identify aspects of law and legality as important in his work, in which the legal system is often oppressive. The law in Kafka's works, rather than being representative of any particular legal or political entity, is usually interpreted to represent a collection of anonymous, incomprehensible forces. These are hidden from the individual but control the lives of the people, who are innocent victims of systems beyond their control. Critics who support this absurdist interpretation cite instances where Kafka describes himself in conflict with an absurd universe, such as the following entry from his diary:\n\nEnclosed in my own four walls, I found myself as an immigrant imprisoned in a foreign country;... I saw my family as strange aliens whose foreign customs, rites, and very language defied comprehension;... though I did not want it, they forced me to participate in their bizarre rituals;... I could not resist.\nHowever, James Hawes argues many of Kafka's descriptions of the legal proceedings in Der Process—metaphysical, absurd, bewildering and nightmarish as they might appear—are based on accurate and informed descriptions of German and Austrian criminal proceedings of the time, which were inquisitorial rather than adversarial. Although he worked in insurance, as a trained lawyer Kafka was \"keenly aware of the legal debates of his day\". In an early 21st-century publication that uses Kafka's office writings as its point of departure, Pothik Ghosh states that with Kafka, law \"has no meaning outside its fact of being a pure force of domination and determination\".\n\nTranslations\nThe first instance of Kafka being translated into English was in 1925, when William A. Drake published \"A Report for an Academy\" in the New York Herald Tribune. Eugene Jolas translated Kafka's \"The Judgment\" for the modernist journal transition in 1928. In 1930, Edwin and Willa Muir translated the first German edition of Das Schloss. This was published as The Castle by Secker & Warburg in England and Alfred A. Knopf in the United States. A 1941 edition, including a homage by Thomas Mann, spurred a surge in Kafka's popularity in the United States during the late 1940s. The Muirs translated all shorter works that Kafka had seen fit to print; they were published by Schocken Books in 1948 as The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces, including additionally The First Long Train Journey, written by Kafka and Brod, Kafka's \"A Novel about Youth\", a review of Felix Sternheim's Die Geschichte des jungen Oswald, his essay on Kleist's \"Anecdotes\", his review of the literary magazine Hyperion, and an epilogue by Brod.\nLater editions, notably those of 1954 (Dearest Father: Stories and Other Writings), included text, translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser, that had been deleted by earlier publishers. Known as \"Definitive Editions\", they include translations of The Trial, Definitive, The Castle, Definitive, and other writings. These translations are generally accepted to have a number of biases and are considered to be dated in interpretation. Published in 1961 by Schocken Books, Parables and Paradoxes presented in a bilingual edition by Nahum N. Glatzer selected writings, drawn from notebooks, diaries, letters, short fictional works and the novel Der Process.\nNew translations were completed and published based on the recompiled German text of Pasley and Schillemeit—The Castle, Critical by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 1998), The Trial, Critical by Breon Mitchell (Schocken Books, 1998), and The Man Who Disappeared (Amerika) by Michael Hofmann (Penguin Books, 1996) and Amerika: The Missing Person by Mark Harman (Schocken Books, 2008).\n\nTranslation problems to English\nKafka often made extensive use of a characteristic particular to German, which permits long sentences that sometimes can span an entire page. Kafka's sentences then deliver an unexpected impact just before the full stop—this being the finalizing meaning and focus. This is due to the construction of subordinate clauses in German, which require that the verb be at the end of the sentence. Such constructions are difficult to duplicate in English, so it is up to the translator to provide the reader with the same (or at least equivalent) effect as the original text. German's more flexible word order and syntactical differences provide for multiple ways in which the same German writing can be translated into English. An example is the first sentence of Kafka's The Metamorphosis, which is crucial to the setting and understanding of the entire story:\n\nThe sentence above also exemplifies an instance of another difficult problem facing translators: dealing with the author's intentional use of ambiguous idioms and words that have several meanings, which results in phrasing that is difficult to translate precisely. English translators often render the word Ungeziefer as 'insect'; in Middle German, however, Ungeziefer literally means 'an animal unclean for sacrifice'; in today's German, it means 'vermin'. It is sometimes used colloquially to mean 'bug'—a very general term, unlike the scientific 'insect'. Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor, the protagonist of the story, as any specific thing but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation. Another example of this can be found in the final sentence of \"Das Urteil\" (\"The Judgement\"), with Kafka's use of the German noun Verkehr. Literally, Verkehr means 'intercourse' and, as in English, can have either a sexual or a non-sexual meaning. The word is additionally used to mean 'transport' or 'traffic'; therefore the sentence can also be translated as: \"At that moment an unending stream of traffic crossed over the bridge.\" The double meaning of Verkehr is given added weight by Kafka's confession to Brod that when he wrote that final line he was thinking of \"a violent ejaculation\".\n\nLegacy\nLiterary and cultural influence\nUnlike many famous writers, Kafka is rarely quoted by others. Instead, he is noted more for his visions and perspective. Kafka had a strong influence on Gabriel García Márquez, Milan Kundera and the novel The Palace of Dreams by Ismail Kadare. Shimon Sandbank, a professor, literary critic, and writer, also identifies Kafka as having influenced Jorge Luis Borges, Albert Camus, Eugène Ionesco, J. M. Coetzee and Jean-Paul Sartre. A Financial Times literary critic credits Kafka with influencing José Saramago, and Al Silverman, a writer and editor, states that J. D. Salinger loved to read Kafka's works. The Romanian writer Mircea Cărtărescu said \"Kafka is the author I love the most and who means, for me, the gate to literature\"; he also described Kafka as \"the saint of literature\".\nKafka has been cited as an influence on the Swedish writer Stig Dagerman, and the Japanese writer Haruki Murakami, who paid homage to Kafka in his novel Kafka on the Shore with the namesake protagonist.\n\nIn 1999 a committee of 99 authors, scholars, and literary critics ranked Der Process and Das Schloss the second and ninth most significant German-language novels of the 20th century. Harold Bloom said \"when he is most himself, Kafka gives us a continuous inventiveness and originality that rivals Dante and truly challenges Proust and Joyce as that of the dominant Western author of our century\". Sandbank argues that despite Kafka's pervasiveness, his enigmatic style has yet to be emulated. Neil Christian Pages, a professor of German Studies and Comparative Literature at Binghamton University who specialises in Kafka's works, says Kafka's influence transcends literature and literary scholarship; it impacts visual arts, music, and popular culture. Harry Steinhauer, a professor of German and Jewish literature, says that Kafka \"has made a more powerful impact on literate society than any other writer of the twentieth century\". Brod said that the 20th century will one day be known as the \"century of Kafka\".\nMichel-André Bossy writes that Kafka created a rigidly inflexible and sterile bureaucratic universe. Kafka wrote in an aloof manner full of legal and scientific terms. Yet his serious universe also had insightful humour, all highlighting the \"irrationality at the roots of a supposedly rational world\". His characters are trapped, confused, full of guilt, frustrated, and lacking understanding of their surreal world. Much post-Kafka fiction, especially science fiction, follows the themes and precepts of Kafka's universe. This can be seen in the works of authors such as George Orwell and Ray Bradbury.\nThe following are examples of works across a range of dramatic, literary, and musical genres that demonstrate the extent of Kafka's cultural influence:\n\n\"Kafkaesque\"\nThe term \"Kafkaesque\" is used to describe concepts and situations reminiscent of Kafka's work, particularly Der Process (The Trial) and Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis). Examples include instances in which bureaucracies overpower people, often in a surreal, nightmarish milieu that evokes feelings of senselessness, disorientation, and helplessness. Characters in a Kafkaesque setting often lack a clear course of action to escape a labyrinthine situation. Kafkaesque elements often appear in existential works, but the term has transcended the literary realm to apply to real-life occurrences and situations that are incomprehensibly complex, bizarre, or illogical.\nNumerous films and television works have been described as Kafkaesque, and the style is particularly prominent in dystopian science fiction. Works in this genre that have been thus described include Patrick Bokanowski's film The Angel (1982), Terry Gilliam's film Brazil (1985), and Alex Proyas' science fiction film noir, Dark City (1998). Films from other genres which have been similarly described include Roman Polanski's The Tenant (1976), Joseph Losey’s Monsieur Klein (1976) and the Coen brothers' Barton Fink (1991). The television series The Prisoner and The Twilight Zone are also frequently described as Kafkaesque.\nHowever, with common usage, the term has become so ubiquitous that Kafka scholars note it is often misused. More accurately then, according to author Ben Marcus, paraphrased in \"What it Means to be Kafkaesque\" by Joe Fassler in The Atlantic, \"Kafka's quintessential qualities are affecting use of language, a setting that straddles fantasy and reality, and a sense of striving even in the face of bleakness—hopelessly and full of hope.\"\n\nCommemorations\n3412 Kafka is an asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 6 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 10 January 1983 by American astronomers Randolph Kirk and Donald Rudy at Palomar Observatory in California, United States, and named after Kafka by them.\nThe Franz Kafka Museum in Prague is dedicated to Kafka and his work. A major component of the museum is an exhibit, The City of K. Franz Kafka and Prague, which was first shown in Barcelona in 1999, moved to the Jewish Museum in New York City, and finally established in Prague in Malá Strana (Lesser Town), along the Moldau, in 2005. The museum aims with this exhibit to immerse the visitor into the world in which Kafka lived and about which he wrote.\nThe Franz Kafka Prize, established in 2001, is an annual literary award of the Franz Kafka Society and the City of Prague. It recognizes the merits of literature as \"humanistic character and contribution to cultural, national, language and religious tolerance, its existential, timeless character, its generally human validity, and its ability to hand over a testimony about our times\". The selection committee and recipients come from all over the world, but are limited to living authors who have had at least one work published in Czech. The recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette at a presentation in Prague's Old Town Hall, on the Czech State Holiday in late October.\nSan Diego State University operates the Kafka Project, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCitations\nSources\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nLiterature by and about Franz Kafka in the German National Library catalogue\nWorks by Franz Kafka at Project Gutenberg\nFranz Kafka at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database\nWorks by or about Franz Kafka at the Internet Archive\nFranz Kafka at IMDb \nWorks by Franz Kafka at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nOxford Kafka Research Centre – information on ongoing international Kafka research\nTranslated excerpts from Kafka's Diaries 1910–1923\nThe Album of Franz Kafka, Franz Kafka receives a tribute in this album of \"recomposed photographs\".\nJourneys of Franz Kafka Photographs of places where Kafka lived and worked\nFranz Kafka: Manuscripts, drawings and personal letters BBC\nSpolečnost Franze Kafky a nakladatelství Franze Kafky Archived 30 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine Franz Kafka Society and Publishing House in Prague\nWhat makes something \"Kafkaesque\"? A Ted talk on Kafka, his works and his legacy, by Noah Tavlin\nFranz Kafka's papers and the Bodleian Libraries\nKafka: Making of an Icon, Exhibition at the Bodleian Libraries, Oxford from 30 May - 27 October 2024\n\"New Centenary Exhibition Explores Kafka’s Life, Work and Influence\", 1 April 2024, finebooksmagazine.com. \"Kafka: Making of an Icon ... After the exhibition’s run at the Weston Library, Bodleian Libraries, Oxford, from May 30 until October 27, [2024,] it will move to the Morgan Library in New York running November 22 through April 13, 2025\". Review: Hutchinson, Ben, \"The author as adjective\", The Times Literary Supplement, 13 June 2024. Review: Williams, James, \"The endless mystique of Franz Kafka\", Apollo, July/August 2024\nUpcoming exhibit \"Franz Kafka\" at the Morgan Library & Museum in Manhattan from 22 November 2024 through 13 April 2025",
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"paragraph_text": "\"I Think I'm Go Go\" is a 1980 song by the British new wave band Squeeze, released on their third album Argybargy. The lyrics were written by Chris Difford and the music was written by Glenn Tilbrook.\n\nBackground\nChris Difford said about the lyrics, \"This was a song about touring, which could be a very strange experiences. It would get to the stage where I'd think 'I don't know where I am, I don't know which county I am in, what time we're onstage, or who I'm sleeping with.' 'I think I'm go go' was the turn of phrase in the band at the time.\" Difford continued, \"This song was very popular in America. The first verse is about being in Amsterdam because a lot of our early gigs were in Holland. Glenn's dad lived out there and he used to arrange gigs for us. It was always good fun playing there. The second verse is about New York and mentions liquor stores, rodeos and PIX, which was an American radio station. The last verse is about London.\"\nGlenn Tilbrook said of the song, \"This was a step forward in our imaginations. It was influenced lyrically by the fact we have been whopped around the head and rendered bewildered by the amount of traveling we'd been doing. We all found it bewildering, but I had the sense that Chris probably felt this more so than the rest of us.\" Tilbrook also said, \"It's very Beatles-like and also has a similar sound to our song, 'The Knack'. There's a direct through line from 'The Knack' to 'I Think I'm Go Go', with that sense of other-worldness. The use of strings added to that feeling. I wanted to contrast real strings with synth strings and change the feel between the verses. This meant the listener got a sense of being jolted out of one mood or another.\"\n\nCritical opinion\nAllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that \"the group stretches into some spacy territory on \"I Think I'm Go Go[.]\"\n\n\n== References ==",
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"paragraph_text": "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (or simply E.T.) is a 1982 American science fiction film produced and directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Melissa Mathison. It tells the story of Elliott, a boy who befriends an extraterrestrial, dubbed E.T., who is left behind on Earth. Along with his friends and family, Elliott must find a way to help E.T. find his way home. The film stars Dee Wallace, Henry Thomas, Peter Coyote, Robert MacNaughton and Drew Barrymore.\nThe film's concept was based on an imaginary friend that Spielberg created after his parents' divorce. In 1980, Spielberg met Mathison and developed a new story from the unrealized project Night Skies. In less than two months, Mathison wrote the first draft of the script, titled E.T. and Me, which went through two rewrites. The project was rejected by Columbia Pictures, who doubted its commercial potential. Universal Pictures eventually purchased the script for $1 million. Filming took place from September to December 1981 on a budget of $10.5 million. Unlike most films, E.T. was shot in rough chronological order to facilitate convincing emotional performances from the young cast. The animatronics for the film were designed by Carlo Rambaldi.\nE.T. premiered as the closing film of the Cannes Film Festival on May 26, 1982, and was released in the United States on June 11, 1982. The film was a smash hit at the box office, surpassing Star Wars to become the highest-grossing film of all time, a record it held for eleven years until Spielberg's own Jurassic Park surpassed it in 1993. E.T. was near–universally acclaimed by critics, and is regarded as one of the greatest films of all time. It received nine nominations at the 55th Academy Awards, winning Best Original Score, Best Visual Effects, Best Sound, and Best Sound Editing in addition to being nominated for Best Picture and Best Director. It also won five Saturn Awards and two Golden Globe Awards. The film was re-released in 1985 and again in 2002 to celebrate its 20th anniversary, with altered shots, visual effects, and additional scenes. It was also re-released in IMAX on August 12, 2022, to celebrate its 40th anniversary. In 1994, the film was added to the United States National Film Registry of the Library of Congress, who deemed it \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.\"\n\nPlot\nA race of diminutive aliens visit Earth at night to gather plant specimens in a California forest. One alien, fascinated by the distant lights of a San Fernando Valley neighborhood, separates from the group, before U.S. government agents arrive and chase the startled creature. The aliens are forced to depart before the agents can find them, leaving their lone member behind. While the agents search the forest, the creature takes shelter in a shed belonging to the family of ten-year-old Elliott Taylor. Initially scared by the creature, who runs away, Elliott spends the following day leaving a trail of Reese's Pieces to lure it back to his home, where he hides it in his room.\nThe following morning, Elliott feigns illness to stay off school and play with the creature, whom he dubs E.T. Elliott eventually introduces E.T. to his older brother, Michael, and seven-year-old sister Gertie, who agree to keep it hidden from their hardworking, single mother, Mary. When the children ask about his origins, E.T. displays telekinetic abilities by levitating several balls to represent his planetary system, and later demonstrates other extraordinary abilities by reviving a dead chrysanthemum and instantly healing a cut on Elliott's finger. As Elliott bonds with the creature, he begins to feel E.T.'s thoughts and emotions, being startled simultaneously with E.T. when the creature accidentally opens an umbrella in a different room.\nAt school, Elliott becomes intoxicated because, at home, E.T. is drinking beer and watching television. Sensing E.T.'s desire to be rescued, Elliott impulsively frees the frogs about to be vivisected in his biology class, inspiring the other children to follow his lead, and romantically kisses a girl he likes because E.T. is watching John Wayne kiss Maureen O'Hara in The Quiet Man (1952); Elliott is sent to the principal's office for his disruptive behavior. Inspired by a Buck Rogers comic strip, depicting the character calling for help with a communication device, E.T. decides to build a makeshift device to \"phone home\", using various parts around the Taylor home. E.T. also learns to speak English, and requests the children's help to build the device. They agree to help find the missing components, unaware that the agents have become suspicious they are harboring the alien.\nOn Halloween, the children disguise E.T. as a ghost and Elliott sneaks it to the forest, where they set up the device to call its people. Elliott begs E.T. to stay on Earth with him, before falling asleep and waking alone in the forest the following morning. He returns home to his worried family, while Michael searches for E.T., finding it pale and weakened, lying by a culvert. He takes E.T. home, where Elliott is also growing weaker, and reveal the creature to Mary just before government agents invade and quarantine the house. The lead agent, Keys, asks for Elliott's help to save E.T., stating that meeting aliens was his childhood dream and he considers E.T's arrival a genuine miracle. However, as the psychic bond between Elliott and E.T. fades, E.T. dies while Elliott returns back to normal. Left alone with the deceased alien, Elliott expresses his love to E.T. and its heart begins to glow and it is revived and restored to health. E.T. tells Elliott that its people are returning.\nElliott and Michael flee with E.T. on their bikes, flanked by Michael's friends who help them evade the pursuing authorities. Heading towards a roadblock, E.T. levitates the boys to safety and lands them in the forest. E.T.'s ship arrives, and it says goodbye to Michael and Gertie, who gives E.T. the chrysanthemum it previously revived. Elliott tearfully asks E.T. to stay, but it places its glowing finger on Elliott's head, affirming it will always be with him. The children, Mary, and Keys observe as E.T. boards the ship, which blasts off into space, leaving a rainbow in the sky.\n\nCast\nDee Wallace as Mary Taylor, a single mother to Elliott, Michael and Gertie\nHenry Thomas as Elliott Taylor, a 10-year-old boy who befriends E.T.\nPeter Coyote as Keys, a government agent bent on capturing E.T.\nRobert MacNaughton as Michael Taylor, Elliott and Gertie's older brother\nDrew Barrymore as Gertie Taylor, Elliott and Michael's younger sister\nK.C. Martel as Greg\nSean Frye as Steve\nC. Thomas Howell as Tyler\nErika Eleniak as Pretty Girl\nDavid O'Dell as Schoolboy\nRichard Swingler as Science Teacher\nFrank Toth as Policeman\nRobert Barton as Ultra Sound Man\nMichael Darrell as Van Man\nPat Welsh as E.T. (voice; uncredited)\n\nProduction\nDevelopment\nAfter his parents' divorce in 1960, Spielberg filled the void with an imaginary alien companion that he later recalled as \"a friend who could be the brother [he] never had and a father that [he] didn't feel [he] had anymore\". In 1978, he announced that he would shoot a film entitled Growing Up, which he would film in four weeks. However, the project was set aside due to delays on 1941, but the concept of making a small autobiographical film about childhood would stay with him. He also thought about a follow-up to Close Encounters of the Third Kind, and began to develop a darker project he had planned with John Sayles called Night Skies, in which malevolent aliens terrorize a family.\nFilming Raiders of the Lost Ark in Tunisia caused a sense of loneliness in Spielberg, far from his family and friends, and made memories of his childhood creation resurface. He told screenwriter Melissa Mathison about Night Skies, and developed a subplot from the failed project in which Buddy, the only friendly alien, befriends an autistic child. Buddy's abandonment on Earth in the script's final scene inspired the concept of E.T. Mathison wrote a first draft titled E.T. and Me in eight weeks, which Spielberg considered perfect. The script went through two more drafts, one by Matthew Robbins which deleted an \"Eddie Haskell\"–esque friend of Elliott's, named Lance. Robbins helped create the chase sequence and he suggested the scene where E.T. got drunk.\nIn mid-1981, while Raiders of the Lost Ark was being promoted, Columbia Pictures met with Spielberg to discuss the script, after having to develop Night Skies with the director as the intended sequel to Close Encounters of the Third Kind. However, Marvin Atonowsky, the head of Columbia Pictures' marketing and research development, concluded that it had limited commercial potential, believing that it would appeal to mostly young children. John Veitch, president of Columbia's worldwide productions, also felt that the script was not good or scary enough to be financially viable. On the advice of Atonowsky and Veitch, Columbia CEO Frank Price, who had already funneled nearly $1 million into the film’s development (mostly on creature designer Rick Baker’s alien models), was now calling it \"a wimpy Walt Disney movie\". He informed Spielberg that the project was officially being put into turnaround; Spielberg took the project to Sid Sheinberg, president of MCA, then the parent company of Universal Pictures. Spielberg told Sheinberg to acquire the E.T. script from Columbia Pictures, which he did for $1 million and struck a deal with Price in which Columbia would retain 5% of the film's net profits. Veitch later recalled that \"I think [in 1982] we made more on that picture than we did on any of our films.\"\n\nPre-production\nCarlo Rambaldi, who designed the aliens for Close Encounters of the Third Kind, was hired to design the animatronics for E.T. Rambaldi's own painting Women of Delta led him to give the creature a unique, extendable neck. Its face was inspired by those of Carl Sandburg, Albert Einstein and Ernest Hemingway. Producer Kathleen Kennedy visited the Jules Stein Eye Institute to study real and glass eyes. She hired Institute staffers to create E.T.'s eyes, which she felt were particularly important in engaging the audience. Four heads were created for filming, one as the main animatronic and the others for facial expressions, as well as a costume. A team of puppeteers controlled E.T.'s face with animatronics. Two little people, Tamara De Treaux and Pat Bilon, as well as 12-year-old Matthew DeMeritt, who was born without legs, took turns wearing the costume, depending on what scene was being filmed. DeMeritt actually walked on his hands and played all scenes where E.T. walked awkwardly or fell over. The head was placed above that of the actors, and the actors could see through slits in its chest. Caprice Roth, a professional mime, filled prosthetics to play E.T.'s hands. The puppet was created in three months at the cost of $1.5 million. Spielberg declared that it was \"something that only a mother could love\".\nMars, Incorporated refused to allow M&M's to be used in the film, believing that E.T. would frighten children. The Hershey Company was asked if Reese's Pieces could be used, and it agreed. This product placement resulted in a large increase in Reese's Pieces sales. Science and technology educator Henry Feinberg created E.T.'s communicator device.\n\nCasting\nHaving worked with Cary Guffey on Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Spielberg felt confident in working with a cast composed mostly of child actors. For the role of Elliott, he auditioned hundreds of boys, including Keith Coogan; before Jack Fisk suggested Henry Thomas for the role because Henry had played the part of Harry in the film Raggedy Man, which Fisk had directed. Thomas, who auditioned in an Indiana Jones costume, did not perform well in the formal testing, but got the filmmakers' attention in an improvised scene. Thoughts of his dead dog inspired his convincing tears. Robert MacNaughton auditioned eight times to play Michael, sometimes with boys auditioning for Elliott. Spielberg felt that Drew Barrymore had the right imagination for the mischievous Gertie after she impressed him with a story that she led a punk rock band. To capture her character's frightened reaction to E.T., Spielberg had the crew members dress up as clowns to scare her during the scenes where she had to scream. He enjoyed working with the children, and he later said that the experience made him feel ready to be a father. Ralph Macchio was considered for the role of Tyler, before it went to his eventual The Outsiders co-star C. Thomas Howell.\nThe major voice work of E.T. for the film was performed by Pat Welsh. She smoked two packs of cigarettes a day, which gave her voice a quality that sound effects creator Ben Burtt liked. She spent nine-and-a-half hours recording her part, and was paid $380 by Burtt for her services. He also recorded 16 other people and various animals to create E.T.'s \"voice\". These included Spielberg, actress Debra Winger, his sleeping wife sick with a cold, a burp from his University of Southern California film professor, raccoons, otters, and horses.\nDoctors working at the USC Medical Center were recruited to play the ones who try to save E.T. after government agents take over Elliott's house. Spielberg felt that actors in the roles, performing lines of technical medical dialogue, would come across as unnatural. During post-production, he decided to cut a scene featuring Harrison Ford as the principal at Elliott's school. It featured his character reprimanding Elliott for his behavior in biology class and warning of the dangers of underage drinking. He is then taken aback as Elliott's chair rises from the floor, while E.T. is levitating his \"phone\" equipment up the stairs with Gertie. Ford's face is never seen. The footage of this scene was included on the film's 1996 LaserDisc release as a bonus feature. It was not included on the DVD and Blu-ray releases that followed.\n\nFilming\nPrincipal photography began in neighborhoods in Los Angeles County and in the San Fernando Valley on September 8, 1981. The project was filmed under the cover name A Boy's Life, as Spielberg did not want anyone to discover and plagiarize the plot. The actors had to read the script behind closed doors, and everyone on set had to wear an ID card. The shoot began with two days at Culver City High School, and the crew spent the next 11 days moving between locations at Northridge and Tujunga. The next 42 days were spent at Laird International Studios in Culver City for the interiors of Elliott's home. The crew shot at a redwood forest near Crescent City in Northern California for the production's last six days. The exterior Halloween scene and the \"flying bicycle\" chase scenes were filmed in Porter Ranch.\nSpielberg shot the film in roughly chronological order to achieve convincing emotional performances from his cast; it was also done to help the child actors with the workload. Spielberg calculated that the film would hit home harder if the children were really saying goodbye to E.T. at the end. In the scene in which Michael first encounters E.T., his appearance caused MacNaughton to jump back and knock down the shelves behind him. The chronological shoot gave the young actors an emotional experience as they bonded with E.T., making the quarantine sequences more moving. Spielberg ensured that the puppeteers were kept away from the set to maintain the illusion of a real alien. For the first time in his career, Spielberg did not storyboard most of the film, in order to facilitate spontaneity in the performances. The film was shot so adults, except for Dee Wallace, are never seen from the waist up in its first half, as a tribute to the cartoons of Tex Avery. According to Spielberg, the scene in which E.T. disguises himself as a stuffed toy in Elliott's closet was suggested by fellow director Robert Zemeckis after he read a draft of the screenplay that Spielberg had sent him. In between takes, the young actors spent time doing activities such as riding bicycles around the sound stages, playing Dungeons & Dragons, the game that Elliott, Michael, Steve, Tyler and Greg play in a scene early in the film, and attending school lessons. The shoot was completed in 61 days, four ahead of schedule.\nIn a 2022 interview, Sean Frye, who played Steve, revealed how the visual effect close-up shots for the climax of the \"flying bicycle\" chase scene were filmed and reflected on the experience, saying: \"We were on these rigs ... They're pulling the trees backwards, past us on tracks, so it looks like we're going through and up and through and over to create this illusion that we're going forward when we're going nowhere. Then the pushing and pulling of the things so that the bike is up and down, and we can get the 'Whoaaaa' effects. That was great.\" BMX riders Robert Cardoza, Greg Maes, and David Lee served as stunt doubles for the scene.\n\nMusic\nSpielberg's regular collaborator John Williams described the challenge of creating a score that would generate sympathy for such an odd-looking creature. As with their previous collaborations, Spielberg liked every theme Williams composed and had it included. Spielberg loved the music for the final chase so much that he edited the sequence to suit it. Williams took a modernist approach, especially with his use of polytonality, which refers to the sound of two different keys played simultaneously. The Lydian mode can also be used in a polytonal way. Williams combined polytonality and the Lydian mode to express a mystic, dreamlike and heroic quality. His theme, emphasizing coloristic instruments such as the harp, piano, celesta, and other keyboards, as well as percussion, suggests E.T.'s childlike nature and his \"machine\". The soundtrack album was first released on June 11, 1982, the same day as the film. An audiobook companion album featuring Williams's score, produced by Quincy Jones and narrated by Michael Jackson, was released on November 15, 1982, exactly two weeks prior to Jackson's acclaimed sixth studio album Thriller.\n\nThemes\nSpielberg drew the story of the film from his parents' divorce. Gary Arnold of The Washington Post called it \"essentially a spiritual autobiography, a portrait of the filmmaker as a typical suburban kid set apart by an uncommonly fervent, mystical imagination.\" References to Spielberg's childhood occur throughout: Elliott fakes illness by holding a thermometer to the bulb in his lamp while covering his face with a heating pad, a trick frequently employed by the young Spielberg. Michael picking on Elliott echoes Spielberg's teasing of his younger sisters, and Michael's evolution from tormentor to protector reflects how Spielberg had to take care of his sisters after their father left.\nCritics have focused on the parallels between the lives of E.T. and Elliott, who is \"alienated\" by the loss of his father. Pauline Kael noted that \"Elliot (his name begins with an 'E' and ends with a T.') is a dutiful, too sober boy who never takes off his invisible thinking cap; the telepathic communication he develops with E.T. eases his cautious, locked-up worries, and he begins to act on his impulses.\" A. O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that while E.T. \"is the more obvious and desperate foundling,\" Elliott \"suffers in his own way from the want of a home.\" At the film's heart is the theme of growing up. Some critics have suggested that Spielberg's portrayal of suburbia is very dark, contrary to popular belief. According to A.O. Scott, \"the suburban milieu, with its unsupervised children and unhappy parents, its broken toys and brand-name junk food, could have come out of a Raymond Carver story.\" Charles Taylor of Salon.com wrote that \"Spielberg's movies, despite the way they're often characterized, are not Hollywood idealizations of families and the suburbs. The homes here bear what the cultural critic Karal Ann Marling called 'the marks of hard use'.\" Relatedly, scholarship has emerged on the film regarding its subversion of the nuclear family dynamic, in which Elliott is growing up with a physically absent father and an emotionally absent mother; this aspect of the movie offers an exploration of upbringing within a nontraditional family structure.\nOther critics found religious parallels between E.T. and Jesus. Andrew Nigels described E.T.'s story as \"crucifixion by military science\" and \"resurrection by love and faith.\" According to Spielberg biographer Joseph McBride, Universal Pictures appealed directly to the Christian market, with a poster reminiscent of Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam (more specifically the \"fingers touching\" detail) and a logo reading \"Peace\". Spielberg answered that he did not intend the film to be a religious parable, joking, \"If I ever went to my mother and said, 'Mom, I've made this movie that's a Christian parable,' what do you think she'd say? She has a Kosher restaurant on Pico and Doheny in Los Angeles.\"\nSeveral writers have seen the movie as a modern fairy tale. Critic Henry Sheehan described the film as a retelling of Peter Pan from the perspective of a Lost Boy (Elliott): E.T. cannot survive physically on Earth, as Pan could not survive emotionally in Neverland; government scientists take the place of Neverland's pirates. Furthering the parallels, there is a scene in the film where Mary reads Peter Pan to Gertie. Vincent Canby of The New York Times similarly observed that the film \"freely recycles elements from\" Peter Pan and The Wizard of Oz. Kael writes that \"from the opening in the dense, vernal woodland that adjoins Elliot's suburb (it's where we first E.T.'s frightened sounds), the film has the soft, mysterious inexorability of the classic tale of enchantment. The little shed in the back of the house where Elliott tosses in a ball and E.T. sends it back is part of a dreamscape.\"\nProducer Kathleen Kennedy noted that an important theme of the film is tolerance, which would be central to future Spielberg films such as Schindler's List. Having been a loner as a teenager, Spielberg described it as \"a minority story\". Spielberg's characteristic theme of communication is partnered with the ideal of mutual understanding; he has suggested that the story's central alien-human friendship is an analogy for how real-world adversaries can learn to overcome their differences.\n\nReception\nRelease and sales\nE.T. was previewed in Houston, Texas, and premiered at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival's closing gala on May 26, 1982, and was released in the United States on June 11, 1982. It opened at number one at the US box office with a gross of $11 million, and stayed at the top of the box office for six weeks; it then fluctuated between the first and second positions until October, before returning to the top spot for the final time in December during a brief holiday season re-release. In its second weekend, it recorded the highest-grossing second weekend of all time, surpassing the record of $10,765,687 set by Superman II in 1981. In its fourth weekend, it recorded the highest-grossing weekend of all time, surpassing the record of $16,706,592 set earlier that year by Rocky III. It had a record eight weekends with a gross of over $10 million, a feat not matched until Home Alone (1990), and set a record for being at number one for 16 weeks in total.\nThe film began its international rollout in Australia on November 26, 1982, and grossed $839,992 in its first 10 days from nine theatres, setting five weekly house records and 43 daily records. In South Africa, it opened in late November and grossed $724,340 in eight days from 14 screens, setting 13 weekly highs. In France, it opened on December 1, and had 930,000 admission in its first five days on 250 screens, setting an all-time record in Paris for most daily admissions (Saturday, December 4). In Japan, it opened on December 4, and grossed $1,757,527 in two days from 35 theatres in 11 cities, setting 10 house records on Saturday and 14 on Sunday. In the United Kingdom, it opened on December 9 after a charity performance in London and grossed a record £1 million in its opening weekend. The film added another 138 screens in Japan on December 11, with advance sales of 1.3 million tickets. It later opened in the Philippines in January 1983. In Finland, Norway, and Sweden, the film had minimum age ratings of 8, 12, and 11, respectively, while Denmark had no minimum age limit. There were Swedish people who were opposed to the age limit.\nIn 1983, E.T. surpassed Star Wars to become the highest-grossing film of all time; by the end of its theatrical run, it had grossed $359 million in the United States and Canada and $619 million worldwide. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 120 million tickets in its initial U.S. theatrical run. Spielberg earned $500,000 a day from his share of the profits, while The Hershey Company's profits rose 65% due to the film's prominent placement of Reese's Pieces. The \"Official E.T. Fan Club\" offered photographs, a newsletter that let readers \"relive the film's unforgettable moments [and] favorite scenes\", and a vinyl record with \"phone home\" and other sound clips.\nThe film was also a merchandising success, with dolls selling 15 million units by September 1982 and becoming the best-selling toy that Christmas season. E.T. went on to generate over $1 billion in merchandise sales by 1998. Following the success of the film, Kuwahara, the company that created the BMX bikes featured in the film, began producing red and white \"E.T.\" models in three price and quality levels. Kuwahara reissued the E.T. model in 2002, as part of the film's 20th anniversary, and again in 2022 as part of the film's 40th anniversary.\n\nThe film was re-released in 1985 and 2002, earning another $60 million and $68 million respectively, for a worldwide total of $792 million with $435 million from the United States and Canada. It held the global record until it was surpassed by Jurassic Park, another Spielberg film, in 1993, although it managed to hold on to the United States and Canada record for a further four years, until the release of the Special Edition of Star Wars.\nIt was re-released in IMAX on August 12, 2022, in the United States and Canada, to commemorate the film's 40th anniversary, alongside an IMAX and RealD 3D reissue of another Spielberg film Jaws scheduled for September 2. Jim Orr, Universal's president of distribution remarked \"No filmmaker, it's fair to say, has had a greater or more enduring impact on American cinema or has created more indelible cinematic memories for tens of billions of people worldwide. We couldn't think of a more perfect way to celebrate the anniversary of E.T. and the first Universal-Spielberg summer blockbuster, Jaws, than to allow audiences to experience these films in a way they've never been able to before.\" The IMAX release grossed $490,000 on its first day from 389 theaters, for a three-day total of $1.07 million and a $438 million running total.\n\nHome media\nE.T. was eventually released on VHS and LaserDisc on October 27, 1988. The videos were priced with a recommended retail price of $24.95, the lowest initial price at the time for a major movie compared to the normal price of $89.95. To combat piracy, the tapeguards and tape hubs on the videocassettes were colored green, and the tape itself was affixed with a small, holographic sticker of the 1963 Universal logo (much like the holograms on a credit card), and encoded with Macrovision. The film doubled the record pre-orders of Cinderella released the same month and went on to sell over 15 million VHS units in the United States, and grossed over $250 million in video sales revenue. The VHS cassette was also rented over six million times during its first two weeks in 1988, a record it held until the VHS release of Batman the following year. Conservative Christians who were still angry about Universal's release of The Last Temptation of Christ earlier in the year called for a boycott of this release. Initial orders internationally exceeded $30 million despite the film often being sold at full price, setting records in the United Kingdom with over 81,000 units and Australia with 35,500 units. It initially shipped 152,000 units in Japan and 87,000 in Germany. In 1991, Sears began selling E.T. videocassettes exclusively at their stores as part of a holiday promotion. It was reissued on VHS and LaserDisc again in 1996, with the latter including a 90-minute documentary produced and directed by Laurent Bouzereau; it included interviews with Spielberg, producer Kathleen Kennedy, composer John Williams, and other cast and crew members, as well as two theatrical trailers, an isolated music score, deleted scenes, and still galleries. The VHS included a 10-minute version of the same documentary from the LaserDisc. Both 1996 home video releases of the film were also THX certfied as well. The 2012 release of E.T. on DVD and Blu-ray grossed $24.4 million in sales revenue as of 2017 in the United States.\n\nCritical response\nRoger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and wrote, \"It works as science fiction, it's sometimes as scary as a monster movie, and at the end, when the lights go up, there's not a dry eye in the house.\" He later added it to his canon of \"Great Movies\", structuring the essay as a letter to his grandchildren about watching it with them. Of the scene with the flying bicycles, he writes: \"I remember when I saw the movie at Cannes: Even the audience there, people who had seen thousands of movies, let out a whoop at that moment.\" Michael Sragow of Rolling Stone called Spielberg \"a space age Jean Renoir. ... for the first time, [he] has put his breathtaking technical skills at the service of his deepest feelings\". Derek Malcolm of The Guardian wrote that \"E.T. is a superlative piece of popular cinema [...] a dream of childhood, brilliantly orchestrated to involve not only children but anyone able to remember being one\". Leonard Maltin included it in his list of \"100 Must-See Films of the 20th Century\" as one of only two movies from the 1980s. Political commentator George Will was one of few to pan the film, feeling it spread subversive notions about childhood and science.\nThe film holds a 99% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 145 reviews, and an average rating of 9.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"Playing as both an exciting sci-fi adventure and a remarkable portrait of childhood, Steven Spielberg's touching tale of a homesick alien remains a piece of movie magic for young and old.\" On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 92/100 based on 30 reviews. In addition to the film's wide acclaim, President Ronald Reagan and First Lady Nancy Reagan were moved by it after a screening at the White House on June 27, 1982. Princess Diana was in tears after watching it. On September 17, 1982, it was screened at the United Nations, and Spielberg received a UN Peace Medal. CinemaScore reported that audiences polled during the opening weekend gave the film a rare \"A+\" grade, the first film to earn that grade.\n\nAccolades\nThe film was nominated for nine Oscars at the 55th Academy Awards, including Best Picture. Gandhi won that award, but its director, Richard Attenborough, said, \"I was certain that not only would E.T. win, but that it should win. It was inventive, powerful, wonderful. I make more mundane movies.\" E.T. won four Academy Awards: Best Original Score, Best Sound (Robert Knudson, Robert Glass, Don Digirolamo, and Gene Cantamessa), Best Sound Effects Editing (Charles L. Campbell and Ben Burtt), and Best Visual Effects (Carlo Rambaldi, Dennis Muren, and Kenneth F. Smith). At the 40th Golden Globe Awards, the film won Best Picture in the Drama category and Best Original Score; it was also nominated for Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best New Male Star for Henry Thomas. The Los Angeles Film Critics Association awarded the film Best Picture, Best Director, and a \"New Generation Award\" for Melissa Mathison. The film won Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film, Best Writing, Best Special Effects, Best Music, and Best Poster Art, while Henry Thomas, Robert McNaughton, and Drew Barrymore won Young Artist Awards. In addition to his Academy, Golden Globe and Saturn, composer John Williams won two Grammy Awards and a BAFTA for the score. The film's audiobook album also won the Grammy Award for Best Recording for Children at the 26th Annual Grammy Awards in 1984.\n\nLegacy\nIn American Film Institute polls, the film has been voted the 24th greatest film of all time, the 44th most heart-pounding, and the sixth most inspiring. Other AFI polls rated it as having the 14th greatest music score and as the third greatest science-fiction one. The line \"E.T. phone home\" was ranked 15th on AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes list, and 48th on Premiere's top movie quote list. In 2005, it topped a Channel 4 poll in the UK of the 100 greatest family films, and was listed by Time as one of the 100 best movies ever made.\nIn 2003, Entertainment Weekly called the film the eighth most \"tear-jerking\"; in 2007, in a survey of both films and television series, the magazine declared it the seventh greatest work of science-fiction media in the past 25 years. The Times also named it as their ninth favorite alien in a film, calling it \"one of the best-loved non-humans in popular culture\". It is among the top ten in the BFI list of the 50 films you should see by the age of 14. In 1994, it was selected for preservation in the U.S. National Film Registry as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". In 2011, ABC aired Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, revealing the results of a poll of fans conducted by ABC and People magazine: It was selected as the fifth best film of all time and the second best science fiction film. On October 22, 2012, Madame Tussauds unveiled wax likenesses of E.T. at six of its international locations.\nA species of sponge, Advhena magnifica, was given the common name \"E.T. sponge\" due to its resemblance of the creature.\nIn 2023, actress Rita Moreno, who starred in Spielberg's 2021 film adaptation of the musical West Side Story, named E.T. as one of her top five favorite films, saying \"Number one, it has superb child actors, which can really only happen because of Steven Spielberg. He is just great with children because he’s like a child himself. It’s a very interesting phenomenon.\"\n\n20th anniversary version\nAn extended version of the film, dubbed the \"Special Edition\" (currently out of circulation), including altered dialogue and visual effects, premiered at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles on March 16, 2002; it was released on home media six days later. Certain shots of E.T. had bothered Spielberg since 1982, as he did not have enough time to perfect the animatronics. Computer-generated imagery (CGI), provided by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), was used to modify several shots, including ones of E.T. running in the opening sequence and being spotted in the cornfield. The spaceship's design was also altered to include more lights. The first flying sequence where Elliott and E.T. fly on their bicycle through the forest now had the cape of Elliott's Halloween costume flap in the wind as it appeared to have originally been intended to be, a change done to have the sequence, particularly the iconic shot of them flying past the Moon, match the film's poster and the logo of Spielberg's production company Amblin Entertainment.\nScenes shot for but not included in the original version were introduced. These included E.T. taking a bath and Gertie telling Mary that Elliott went to the forest on Halloween. Mary's dialogue, during the offscreen argument with Michael about his Halloween costume, was altered to replace the word \"terrorist\" with \"hippie\" in response to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Spielberg did not add the scene featuring Harrison Ford, feeling that would reshape the film too drastically. He became more sensitive about the scene where gun-wielding federal agents confront Elliott and his escaping friends and had them digitally replaced with walkie-talkies. Spielberg later admitted that he regretted editing out the guns from the film, stating that the film should be left untouched to represent the culture of its time.\nAt the premiere, John Williams conducted a live performance of the score. The new release grossed $68 million in total, with $35 million coming from Canada and the United States. The changes to it, particularly the escape scene, were criticized as political correctness. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wondered \"Remember those guns the feds carried? Thanks to the miracle of digital, they're now brandishing walkie-talkies. ... Is this what two decades have done to free speech?\" Chris Hewitt of Empire wrote, \"The changes are surprisingly low-key ... while ILM's CGI E.T. is used sparingly as a complement to Carlo Rambaldi's extraordinary puppet.\" South Park ridiculed many of the changes in the 2002 episode \"Free Hat\".\nThe two-disc DVD release which followed on October 22, 2002, contained the original theatrical and 20th Anniversary extended versions of the film. The features on disc one included deleted scenes, an introduction with Steven Spielberg, a \"Reunion\" featurette and a \"Look Back\" featurette. Disc two included a 24-minute documentary about the 20th Anniversary edition changes, a 20th Anniversary premiere featurette, John Williams' performance at the 2002 premiere, a Space Exploration game, a trailer, cast and filmmaker bios, production notes, and the still galleries ported from the 1996 LaserDisc set. The two-disc edition, as well as a three-disc collector's edition containing a \"making of\" book, a certificate of authenticity, a film cell, and special features that were unavailable on the two-disc edition, were placed in moratorium on December 31, 2002. Later, it was re-released on DVD as a single-disc re-issue in 2005, featuring only the 20th Anniversary version.\nIn a June 2011, interview, Spielberg said\n\n[In the future,] ... There's going to be no more digital enhancements or digital additions to anything based on any film I direct. ... When people ask me which E.T. they should look at, I always tell them to look at the original 1982 E.T. If you notice, when we did put out E.T. we put out two E.T.s. We put out the digitally enhanced version with the additional scenes and for no extra money, in the same package, we put out the original '82 version. I always tell people to go back to the '82 version.\nFor the film's 30th anniversary release on Blu-ray in 2012 and for its 35th anniversary release on Ultra HD Blu-ray in 2017, as well as its corresponding digital releases, only the original theatrical edition was released, with the 20th anniversary edition now out of circulation.\n\nOther portrayals\nAtari, Inc. produced a video game based on the film for the Atari 2600 and hired Howard Scott Warshaw to program the game. The game was rushed in five weeks to release within the 1982 holiday season. Released in Christmas 1982, the game was critically panned, with nearly every aspect of the game facing heavy criticism. It has since been considered to be one of the worst video games ever made. It was also a commercial failure. It has been cited as a major contributing factor to the video game industry crash of 1983, and has been frequently referenced and mocked in popular culture as a cautionary tale about the dangers of rushed game development and studio interference. In what was initially deemed an urban legend, reports from 1983 stated that as a result of overproduction and returns, millions of unsold cartridges were secretly buried in an Alamogordo, New Mexico landfill and covered with a layer of concrete. In April 2014, diggers hired to investigate the claim confirmed that the Alamogordo landfill contained many E.T. cartridges, among other games.\nWilliam Kotzwinkle, author of the film's novelization, wrote a sequel, E.T.: The Book of the Green Planet, which was published in 1985. In the novel, E.T. returns home to the planet Brodo Asogi, but is subsequently demoted and sent into exile. He attempts to return to Earth by effectively breaking all of Brodo Asogi's laws.\nE.T. Adventure, a theme park ride based on the film and drawing inspiration from The Book of the Green Planet, debuted at Universal Studios Florida on June 7, 1990. The $40 million attraction features the title character saying goodbye to visitors by name, along with his home planet. In 1998, E.T. was licensed to appear in television public service announcements produced by the Progressive Corporation. The announcements featured his voice reminding drivers to \"buckle up\" their seat belts. Traffic signs depicting a stylized E.T. wearing one were installed on selected roads around the United States. The following year, British Telecommunications launched the \"Stay in Touch\" campaign, with him as the star of various advertisements. The campaign's slogan was \"B.T. has E.T.\", with \"E.T.\" also taken to mean \"extra technology\".\nAt Spielberg's suggestion, George Lucas included members of E.T.'s species as background characters in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. E.T. was one of the franchises featured in the 2015 crossover game Lego Dimensions. E.T. appears as one of the playable characters, and a world based on the film where players can receive side quests from the characters is available. During E.T.'s trailer in the sketch for the series known as Meet that Hero!, Supergirl explains his backstory and how they have many things in common, including being aliens that crashed down to Earth and how they both have superpowers that they use to help other people. In 2017, video game developer Zen Studios released a pinball adaptation as part of the Universal Classics add-on pack for the virtual pinball game Pinball FX 3. It features 3-D animated figures of Elliot, E.T. and his spacecraft.\n\nSequels\nCancelled sequel\nIn July 1982, during the film's first theatrical run, Spielberg and Mathison wrote a treatment for a sequel to be titled E.T. II: Nocturnal Fears, which would have shown Elliott and his friends getting kidnapped by evil aliens, and attempting to contact E.T. for help. Spielberg decided against pursuing it, feeling it \"would do nothing but rob the original of its virginity. E.T. is not about going back to the planet\". In 2022, Henry Thomas said that he hopes a feature-length sequel never gets made, but added \"I guarantee you, there are a few men in a very big room now salivating and using their Abacus and slide rules to come up with some really, really big numbers.\"\n\nShort film sequel\nOn November 28, 2019, during NBC's broadcast of the 93rd Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, Xfinity released a four-minute commercial directed by Lance Acord, calling it a \"short film sequel\" to the original film, titled A Holiday Reunion. The commercial stars Henry Thomas, reprising his role as Elliott, now an adult with a family of his own. Julianne Hoyak played his wife, Grace, while Zebastin Borjeau and Alivia Drews played their children, Elliott Jr. and Maggie. The story follows E.T. as he returns to Earth for the holiday season, and focuses on the importance of bringing family together. References and nods to the original film are featured, such as a photo of the Taylors' family dog Harvey on the kitchen fridge and a replica of the makeshift Speak & Spell communication device.\nThe commercial utilizes a practical puppet for E.T. himself. In an interview with Deadline, Acord said that he went this route in order to elicit more realistic performances from the actors, the same way Spielberg did on the original film. John Williams' score from the original film is mixed into the commercial. Spielberg was consulted by Comcast (parent company of NBCUniversal, which itself owns Universal Pictures) before production on the commercial began.\nPeter Intermaggio, SVP for Marketing Communications for Comcast remarked on the making of the commercial: \"Our goal is to show how Xfinity and Sky technology connects family, friends and loved ones, which is so important during the holidays ... The classic friendship between E.T. and Elliott resonates around the world.\" Before the commercial was released, Thomas assured that viewers would \"get everything they want out of a sequel without the messy bits that could destroy the beauty of the original and the special place it has in people's minds and hearts ... Looking at the storyboards, I could see exactly why Steven was really behind it, because the integrity of the story isn't lost in this retelling.\"\nThe full commercial also played on Syfy and theatrically during cinema pre-shows through January 5, 2020, and a two–minute version was edited for Comcast's British subsidiary, Sky UK.\n\nSee also\nList of films set around Halloween\nThe Alien (unproduced film)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial at IMDb\nE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial at AllMovie\nE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial at Box Office Mojo\nE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial at Rotten Tomatoes\nE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial at the TCM Movie Database\nE.T. the Extra-Terrestrial at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films\nE.T. The Extra-Terrestrial essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 ISBN 0826429777, pages 774–775 America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry",
"title": "E.T._the_Extra-Terrestrial"
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] | How many years elapsed between the release of the song "I Think I'm Go Go" by the band Squeeze and the theatrical premier of E.T. the movie? | [] | 2 | [] | true |
419 | [
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"paragraph_text": "BTS (Korean: 방탄소년단; RR: Bangtan Sonyeondan; lit. Bulletproof Boy Scouts), also known as the Bangtan Boys, is a South Korean boy band formed in 2010. The band consists of Jin, Suga, J-Hope, RM, Jimin, V, and Jungkook, who co-write or co-produce much of their material. Originally a hip hop group, they expanded their musical style to incorporate a wide range of genres, while their lyrics have focused on subjects including mental health, the troubles of school-age youth and coming of age, loss, the journey towards self-love, individualism, and the consequences of fame and recognition. Their discography and adjacent work has also referenced literature, philosophy and psychology, and includes an alternate universe storyline.\nBTS debuted in 2013 under Big Hit Entertainment with the single album 2 Cool 4 Skool. BTS released their first Korean and Japanese-language studio albums, Dark & Wild and Wake Up respectively, in 2014. The group's second Korean studio album, Wings (2016), was their first to sell one million copies in South Korea. By 2017, BTS had crossed into the global music market and led the Korean Wave into the United States, becoming the first Korean ensemble to receive a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for their single \"Mic Drop\", as well as the first act from South Korea to top the Billboard 200 with their studio album Love Yourself: Tear (2018). In 2020, BTS became the fastest group since the Beatles to chart four US number-one albums in less than two years, with Love Yourself: Answer (2018) becoming the first Korean album certified Platinum by the RIAA; in the same year, they also became the first all-South Korean act to reach number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Billboard Global 200 with their Grammy-nominated single \"Dynamite\". Follow-up releases \"Savage Love\", \"Life Goes On\", \"Butter\", and \"Permission to Dance\" made them the fastest act to earn four US number-one singles since Justin Timberlake in 2006.\nAs of 2023, BTS is the best-selling musical act in South Korean history according to the Circle Chart, having sold in excess of 40 million albums. Their studio album Map of the Soul: 7 (2020) is the fourth best-selling album of all time in South Korea, as well as the first in the country to surpass both four and five million registered sales. They are the first non-English-speaking and Asian act to sell out concerts at Wembley Stadium and the Rose Bowl (Love Yourself World Tour, 2019), and were named the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry's (IFPI) Global Recording Artist of the Year for both 2020 and 2021. The group's accolades include multiple American Music Awards, Billboard Music Awards, Golden Disc Awards, and nominations for five Grammy Awards. Outside of music, they have addressed three sessions of the United Nations General Assembly and partnered with UNICEF in 2017 to establish the Love Myself anti-violence campaign. Featured on Time's international cover as \"Next Generation Leaders\" and dubbed the \"Princes of Pop\", BTS has also appeared on Time's lists of the 25 most influential people on the internet (2017–2019) and the 100 most influential people in the world (2019), and in 2018 became the youngest recipients of the South Korean Order of Cultural Merit for their contributions in spreading the Korean culture and language.\nOn June 14, 2022, the group announced a scheduled pause in group activities to enable the members to complete their 18 months of mandatory South Korean military service, with a reunion planned for 2025. Jin, the eldest member, enlisted on December 13, 2022; the others followed in 2023.\n\nName\nBTS stands for the Korean phrase Bangtan Sonyeondan (Korean: 방탄소년단; Hanja: 防彈少年團), which translates literally to 'Bulletproof Boy Scouts'. According to member J-Hope, the name signifies the group's desire \"to block out stereotypes, criticisms, and expectations that aim on adolescents like bullets\". In Japan, they are known as Bōdan Shōnendan (防弾少年団). In July 2017, BTS announced that their name would also stand for \"Beyond the Scene\" as part of their new brand identity. This extended the meaning of their name to encompass the idea of growth \"from a boy to an adult who opens the doors that are facing forward\".\n\nHistory\n2010–2014: Formation and early years\nBTS was formed in 2010, after Big Hit Entertainment CEO Bang Si-hyuk wanted to form a hip hop group around RM (Kim Nam-joon), an underground rapper well known on the music scene in Seoul. At the time, physical album sales were on the decline and digital revenues were not yet high enough to compensate. Seeing a need for diversified income streams, Bang decided to form an idol group instead, because of the potential for live concert performances and passionate support from fans of such groups. Many trainees refused to become part of an idol group, but J-Hope, RM, and Suga remained. Bang chose to vary from the usual, highly regimented idol groups and create one where the members would be individuals rather than an ensemble and free to express themselves. Auditions were held in 2010 with plans to launch the following year. The band members lived together, practicing up to 15 hours a day, and first performed before a small crowd of industry insiders in 2013.\n\nBTS's representation by Big Hit, rather than one of the three agencies that dominated K-pop at the time, allowed the individual members leeway to express their individuality and have input into the music. On June 12, 2013, BTS released their debut single album 2 Cool 4 Skool, along with the lead single \"No More Dream\", neither of which sold particularly well at the time. On June 13, 2013, BTS made their stage debut on M Countdown with the single, \"No More Dream\". Nevertheless, according to Kathy Sprinkel in her book on BTS, that single was \"spotlighting young people's anxiety in the face of lofty parental expectations, sent shock waves through the K-pop ranks. Here was a musical act that wasn't pulling any punches. More specifically, they had a point of view, and they weren't afraid to take on topics that are considered taboo in South Korean society and elsewhere.\" The album reached the top five on South Korea's Gaon Music Chart. In 2 Cool 4 Skool, BTS employed an old-school hip-hop sound from the 1990s. The album's release was followed by appearances on Korean music shows, which caught the attention of reviewers and viewers.\nIn September 2013, BTS released the second entry in their \"school trilogy\": the EP, O!RUL8,2?. The album was released alongside the single \"N.O.\" Similarly to 2 Cool 4 Skool, the new release had a theme of students feeling under pressure and needing to sacrifice their dreams and aspirations. According to scholar Kyung Hyun Kim, many of BTS's earlier works such as \"N.O.\" and \"No More Dreams\" were \"expressions of rebellion against the establishment that tapped into Korean teenagers' frustrations with the country's educational system\" and, he stated, helped them build a fan base among young people in North America and Europe. That same month, BTS starred in their own variety show, SBS MTV's Rookie King Channel Bangtan, in which members parodied variety shows such as VJ Special Forces and MasterChef Korea. At the end of the year, BTS was recognized with several New Artist of the Year awards in South Korea.\n\n2014–2017\nSkool Luv Affair and first concert tour\nThe last entry in BTS \"school trilogy\", the Skool Luv Affair EP, was released in February 2014. The release topped the Gaon Album Chart, and appeared on Billboard's World Albums Chart for the first time, peaking at number three. The EP was supported by two singles: \"Boy in Luv\" and \"Just One Day\". Following Skool Luv Affair's release, BTS played at their first fan meeting in Seoul, selecting the name A.R.M.Y. for the fan club. In July 2014, BTS hosted a concert in West Hollywood, their first show in the United States, and in August, they appeared at KCON in Los Angeles.\nIn August 2014, BTS released the album Dark & Wild, which reached number two in South Korea. It was supported by two singles: \"Danger\" and \"War of Hormone\". The group embarked on their first concert tour, 2014 BTS Live Trilogy Episode II: The Red Bullet, which lasted from October to December 2014. The band launched their first Japanese studio album, Wake Up, in December 2014; the release peaked at number three on the Oricon Albums Chart. After the album's release, BTS held their 1st Japan Tour 2015 Wake Up: Open Your Eyes in February 2015. The Red Bullet Tour that had begun on October 17, 2014, in South Korea was resumed on June 6, 2015, in Malaysia and toured Australia, North America and Latin America before ending in Hong Kong that August. In all, the entire tour attracted 80,000 spectators at 18 cities in 13 countries.\n\nMainstream breakthrough and commercial success\nBTS experimented with other styles of music besides hip-hop in The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Pt. 1, released in 2015. BTS wanted to express the beauty and anxiousness of youth and settled on the title of \"花樣年華\" (Korean: 화양연화; RR: Hwayangyeonhwa), loosely interpreted to define \"youth\" metaphorically as \"the most beautiful moment in life\". The album served as an introduction to their youth trilogy, a triptych of albums dedicated to the struggles of young people. The single \"I Need U\" was a top-five hit in South Korea and garnered the group a win on SBS MTV's The Show. The second single \"Dope (Korean: 쩔어; RR: Jjeoreo; lit. It's awesome)\" reached number three on Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart and its music video was viewed over 100 million times on YouTube. The group began the world tour extension of their Red Bullet Tour in June, titled 2015 Live Trilogy Episode II: The Red Bullet, visiting cities throughout Asia, Oceania, North America, and Latin America. \"For You\", in Japanese, was released together with Japanese versions of \"War of Hormone\" and \"Let Me Know\" on June 17, 2015, and immediately topped Oricon's daily chart.\n\nIn November, BTS commenced their third concert tour, 2015 BTS LIVE \"The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: On Stage\", beginning with three sold-out shows in Seoul. The tour marked the debut of their fourth EP, The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 2, and was later extended to Japan. Thematically, the EP focused more on the serious and speculative aspects of youth, touching on the pursuit of success, loneliness, affection for their origins, and the suffering of the younger generation due to unfavorable conditions in current society. The album topped the weekly Gaon Album and Billboard World Albums charts. It also marked their first appearance on the Billboard 200 chart, making it for one week at number 171, and eight of the tracks appeared on Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart.\nTheir compilation album and the finale to their \"youth trilogy\", The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever was released on May 2, 2016. With 300,000 presold copies, it included three new singles: \"Epilogue: Young Forever\", \"Fire\", and \"Save Me\", which debuted in the top three spots on the Billboard World Digital Charts. The album topped the Gaon Album Chart in South Korea for two consecutive weeks and reached number 107 on the Billboard 200. The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever won Album of the Year at the 2016 Melon Music Awards. BTS embarked on their Asia tour extension, 2016 BTS LIVE \"The Most Beautiful Moment in Life On Stage: Epilogue\" from May to August 2016. Tickets for the 14 shows in 10 Asian cities sold out, some in as little as five seconds.\n\nIn September 2016, BTS released their second Japanese studio album Youth. The album sold 44,547 copies on the first day of its release, and charted 1st in the Oricon Daily Album Chart. The album was eventually certified Gold with sales of roughly over 100,000 in Japan. It was followed one month later in October, by their next studio album Wings, which combined the themes of youth presented in their previous \"youth trilogy\" with temptation and adversity. The album and its tracks, including the single \"Blood Sweat & Tears\" immediately rose to the top on eight music charts, including the Gaon Music Chart, and led the iTunes album charts in 23 countries. Wings opened at number 26 on the Billboard 200, with 16,000 album-equivalent units in the US for the week of its release, the best week ever there for a K-pop album. It became the best-selling album in Gaon Album Chart history.\n\nYou Never Walk Alone and Love Yourself: Her\nIn February 2017, BTS released the repackaged edition of Wings entitled You Never Walk Alone. The 700,000 pre-orders of it (an increase from the 500,000 pre-orders of Wings) helped break the record for most albums sold in a month in South Korea, as it reached 1.49 million copies by the end of its first month. The lead single was \"Spring Day\" and it won Best Song of the Year at the 2017 Melon Music Awards. BTS's second world tour, 2017 BTS Live Trilogy Episode III: The Wings Tour, began in February. On the tour, BTS played arenas in the US, such as New Jersey's Prudential Center and California's Honda Center. Tickets for the North American leg sold out within hours and two shows were added. After completing the North American leg, BTS attended the 24th Billboard Music Awards in May and won Top Social Artist, the first K-pop group to win a Billboard award. BTS fans cast over 300 million votes for the band and broke a six-year winning streak held by Justin Bieber, a performer with 100 million Twitter followers. This caused the international media to focus on the ability of BTS's fandom to propel the group to such a victory.\n\nBTS released a remake of Seo Taiji's \"Come Back Home\" (1995) in July 2017, giving it new lyrics but maintaining the theme of urging societal change. Later that year, BTS embarked on their \"Love Yourself\" album series, with theme of the enlightenment of self-love through the \"起承轉結\" (Korean: 기승전결; RR: Giseungjeongyeol) narrative sequence of \"beginning, development, turn, and conclusion.\" BTS released its first part, their fifth EP, Love Yourself: Her, on September 18. RM considered \"DNA\", the lead single from that album, as \"taking BTS to new ground. We tried to apply new grammar and perspectives.\" He said of the album, \"I believe it's going to be the starting point of a second chapter of our career; the beginning of our Chapter Two.\" Sonically, the EP served as \"a dual exploration of the group's electro-pop and hip-hop leanings\".\n\nLove Yourself: Her debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200. The album had 1,664,041 sales in May 2017 to lead the Gaon Chart, and was the first in 16 years to exceed 1.2 million copies sold since g.o.d's fourth album Chapter 4 (2001). \"DNA\" was released simultaneously with the EP, and its music video accumulated 21 million views in its first 24 hours. It became BTS's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100, charting at number 85, making them the first K-pop boy band to reach that chart. The single rose to number 67 the following week and became the highest-charting song on the Hot 100 for any K-pop group. A remix of \"Mic Drop\" from the album, featuring Desiigner, was released as a single and peaked at number 28, the first time a K-pop group had cracked the top forty. Both singles attained Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in early 2018. \"Mic Drop\" achieved Platinum status in the US later that year.\nIn November 2017, BTS became the first K-pop group to perform at the American Music Awards. BTS won Artist of the Year at the 19th Mnet Asian Music Awards in December, winning for the second consecutive year. They released \"DNA\" and \"Mic Drop\" together with a new song \"Crystal Snow\" as a single album in Japan on December 6, 2017, though the songs were made digitally available elsewhere. It topped the Oricon Chart for the week of its release. It was the only album by a foreign artist to be certified Double Platinum in Japan in 2017.\nLater that month, they made their Japanese television prime time music show debut on Music Station Super Live, and ended the year by performing on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve.\nIn 2017, BTS partnered with UNICEF on the \"Love Myself\" campaign, intended to help end violence, abuse, and bullying, and to promote self-esteem and well-being among young people. Both Big Hit and the group pledged money to promote the campaign, and BTS sold special \"Love Myself\" merchandise and set up dedicated booths at concert venues. The campaign was renewed in 2021, with UNICEF deeming it to have been successful.\n\n2018–2020\nLove Yourself album series\nBTS won major awards at the Golden Disc and Seoul Music Awards in January 2018. In March, the group premiered an eight-episode documentary titled Burn the Stage that offered a behind-the-scenes look at their 2017 Wings Tour, exclusively on YouTube Premium. Their third Japanese studio album, Face Yourself, was released on April 4, 2018, and quickly reached the top 5 of the U.S. iTunes Albums chart. A nine-minute short film, titled Euphoria: Theme of \"Love Yourself: Wonder\" and featuring the song \"Euphoria\", followed the next day as a prelude to the group's third Korean-language studio album, Love Yourself: Tear. BTS promoted Tear's May 18, 2018, release with an appearance at the 25th Billboard Music Awards two days later, where they made their initial BBMA performance with their single, \"Fake Love\". The group also won Top Social Artist for a second consecutive time. The album coincided with the \"轉\" or \"turn\" of the series, touching on the tortuous enlightenment of loving without being loved, the pains and sorrows of separation, and providing encouragement to those without dreams.\n\nLove Yourself: Tear debuted at number one its first week on the Billboard 200, becoming BTS's first number-one album in the US and the first K-pop album to top the US albums chart. It also became BTS's first top-10 release in Britain, reaching number eight on the UK Albums Chart. \"Fake Love\" became BTS's top-10 single on the Hot 100, the first time a song sung mostly in a language other than English had debuted in the top 10. BTS released their compilation album Love Yourself: Answer in August 2018. The album was supported by the single \"Idol\" and its alternative digital release featuring Nicki Minaj.\nLove Yourself: Answer sold over 1.9 million copies on the Gaon Album Chart in August 2018. The album became BTS's second number-one on the Billboard 200 and led to their highest US sales week in the country to that point with 185,000 album equivalent units. In November 2018, Love Yourself: Answer became the first Korean language album to be certified Gold by the RIAA. \"Idol\" and Love Yourself: Answer both received Platinum certifications in the US, with sales of more than 1 million.\n\nIn conjunction with Love Yourself: Answer's release in August 2018, BTS commenced their world tour, BTS World Tour: Love Yourself, with two concerts in the Seoul Olympic Stadium, which sold out in a matter of seconds, as did others of the 22 shows in 12 countries. In October, BTS released their collaboration with Steve Aoki \"Waste It on Me\", their first all-English language feature. For the final stop of the North American leg, the group performed at Citi Field in New York City, marking the first time a Korean act performed at a US stadium. According to StubHub, BTS was the second best-selling concert act outside the US, behind only Ed Sheeran. That October, BTS renewed their contract with Big Hit Entertainment through 2026.\nIn early November 2018, a popular Japanese music show cancelled BTS's performance, citing a T-shirt a member wore the year before, bearing a photograph of a mushroom cloud following the bombing of Nagasaki. In the same month, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC) stated that BTS owed an apology for that shirt, and for clothing and flags with Nazi symbolism. Big Hit Entertainment issued an apology, explaining that the images were not intended to be hurtful to the victims of Nazism or atomic bombings and that the group and management would take steps to prevent future mistakes. They also stated the flags were meant to be a commentary on the Korean school system. The apology was accepted by SWC and the Korean Atomic Bomb Victim Association. John Lie, in his scholarly article on BTS, opined that the Nazi incident showed that the group is not tightly controlled, as are other K-pop ensembles, whose every move seems scripted, and that the members have opinions and are not afraid to express them.\nAt the 20th Mnet Asian Music Awards, BTS won Artist of the Year and ranked number eight on Billboard's year-end Top Artist Chart and were also the number two act of the year in the Duo/Group ranking, only behind Imagine Dragons. They were also listed as one of the 50 most influential people by Bloomberg for their \"willingness to address social issues, mental health, and politics, despite being in a genre often painted as bubble gum pop\".\n\nMap of the Soul: Persona, stadium world tour and BTS World\nIn February 2019, BTS, for the first time, were presenters at the Grammy Awards. In April, Time named them one of the Time 100, the most influential people of 2019. Their EP, Map of the Soul: Persona, was released on April 12 with the single \"Boy with Luv\" (Korean: 작은 것들을 위한 시; RR: Jageun geotdeureul wihan si), featuring American singer Halsey. The EP's release was followed by a performance on Saturday Night Live, the first K-pop act to appear there. Map of the Soul: Persona became the first Korean-language album to reach the number one position in both the UK and Australia, and the group's third album to top the Billboard 200 in less than a year. Map of the Soul: Persona became the best-selling album ever in South Korea in terms of physical copies sold, with more than 3.2 million sales in less than a month. \"Boy with Luv\" debuted at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 2019, the highest placement ever for a K-pop song.\n\nFollowing their two wins at the 26th Billboard Music Awards in May, including for Top Duo/Group, BTS embarked on their world tour stadium extension, Love Yourself: Speak Yourself. Due to the demand, BTS added more shows after tickets for the first dates sold out within two hours. In the lead up to the release of their mobile game BTS World, in June 2019 BTS released \"Dream Glow\" featuring Charli XCX, \"A Brand New Day\" with Zara Larsson, and \"All Night\" with Juice Wrld. The group released the song \"Heartbeat\" with a music video from the game's official soundtrack, titled BTS World: Original Soundtrack. The soundtrack was certified Double Platinum by Gaon. On July 3, 2019, pre-orders for the single \"Lights\" crossed one million copies, marking the first time a foreign artist had accomplished this in Japan since Celine Dion in 1995. \"Lights\" debuted at number 81 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 for the chart issue date of July 8, 2019, and reached number one the following week. On August 8, 2019, \"Lights\" received Million certification from the RIAJ, denoting shipments of one million copies.\nLove Yourself: Her and Love Yourself: Tear both crossed 2 million copies in August. All three albums of the Love Yourself series have sold more than 2 million copies each in South Korea. Love Yourself: Tear gained silver certification by the BPI for sales in the UK, becoming their third album to do so following Love Yourself: Answer and Map of the Soul: Persona. For the final stop of their record-breaking Love Yourself: Speak Yourself World Tour, the group played Seoul's Olympic Stadium. BTS was the third top-grossing touring musical act of 2019. That same month, they released a remix version of the song \"Make It Right\" featuring Lauv. In November, BTS won three times at the 2019 American Music Awards, for Best Tour, Favorite Duo or Group – Pop/Rock, and Favorite Social Artist (the second consecutive year).\nIn December, they attended both the 2019 Melon Music Awards and the 2019 Mnet Asian Music Awards. In each case, they became the first group to sweep the four major awards. At the 34th Golden Disc Awards, BTS became the first artists in history to win grand prizes in both the physical and digital categories in a single year. Map of the Soul: Persona was named the second best-selling physical album of 2019 in the US by Nielsen Music behind Taylor Swift's Lover and was ranked sixth overall on the chart of Top 10 Albums (Total Sales) in the US. BTS wrapped 2019 as the fourth-highest-ranked group on Billboard's Top Billboard 200 Artists–Duo/Group ranking, behind Queen, Imagine Dragons and the Beatles. Map of the Soul: Persona was named as the third best-selling album of 2019 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), making BTS the first Korean artist to be listed on the Global Top 10 Album Chart in consecutive years. The IFPI named BTS as one of the best-selling artists of 2019 for a second consecutive year, making them the first non-English speaking act to achieve this.\n\nMap of the Soul: 7, \"Dynamite\" and Be\nIn January 2020, BTS released \"Black Swan\" along with a choreography art film performed by MN Dance Company of Slovenia as the first single from their album Map of the Soul: 7. Album distributor Dreamus reported that stock pre-orders of the album reached a record-breaking 4.02 million. Later that month, BTS performed at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards, making BTS the first Korean act to perform at the Grammys. Map of the Soul: 7 was released on February 21 to favorable reviews. The album was supported by the single \"On\" and an alternative digital release of it featuring Australian singer Sia. According to Gaon Chart, Map of the Soul: 7 sold over 4.1 million copies in nine days after its release, surpassing Map of the Soul: Persona to become the best-selling album in South Korean history and the first album to be certified quadruple million. The album debuted atop the US Billboard 200, making BTS the fastest group to earn four number one albums since the Beatles in 1966–1968. \"On\" debuted at number four on the Billboard Hot 100, giving BTS its first top-five hit, and the most Hot 100 top-10 entries of any Korean act, with three. BTS planned to support the Map of the Soul album series with a concert series, Map of the Soul Tour, beginning in April, but this was indefinitely postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.\nIn April 2020, BTS became the first K-pop artist to sell more than 20 million albums cumulatively, making them the best-selling artist in South Korean history. That month, amid the pandemic restrictions, BTS held a two-day online streaming concert event titled Bang Bang Con, where the group shared footage of past concerts on their YouTube channel. On June 7, BTS headlined YouTube's Dear Class of 2020 online graduation event, performing \"Boy with Luv\", \"Spring Day\", and \"Mikrokosmos\". Their commencement speeches highlighted their own graduations and offered \"messages of hope and inspiration for the class of 2020 in both Korean and English\". On June 14, BTS held an online live concert, Bang Bang Con: The Live, as part of the seventh anniversary of their debut. It garnered peak viewership of 756,000 live viewers in 107 countries and territories, setting the record for the largest audience for a paid virtual concert. On June 19, BTS released the Japanese single, \"Stay Gold\", from their fourth Japanese album, Map of the Soul: 7 – The Journey, which was released worldwide on July 14. It surpassed 564,000 copies in its first week, breaking the record for highest first week album sales by male foreign artists in Japan.\nBTS released their first English-language single, \"Dynamite\", on August 21. \"Dynamite\" debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, earning BTS their first chart topper and making them the first all-South Korean act to earn a number one single in the US. The single also topped Billboard's new Global 200 for the week ending September 24, as well as Global Excluding US charts, becoming the first single to top both simultaneously. \"Dynamite\" peaked at number five on the US Mainstream Top 40 and on the. Billboard Pop Singles chart, becoming their first Top 10 on each and the former the highest-charting entry by a Korean act. On August 31, BTS made their MTV Video Music Awards (VMAs) debut with the first live performance of \"Dynamite\" and won four awards: Best Group, Best Choreography, Best Pop Video, and Best K-pop (the last three for their music video for \"On\"). On October 14, they performed the single at the 2020 Billboard Music Awards and won the Top Social Artist award for a fourth consecutive year.\nOn October 2, 2020, BTS released a remix of Jawsh 685 and Jason Derulo's single \"Savage Love (Laxed – Siren Beat)\". It topped the Hot 100. On October 10 and 11, BTS hosted a two-day virtual pay-per-view concert at KSPO Dome in Seoul, called Map of the Soul ON:E, which drew 993,000 viewers from 191 countries and territories. On November 20, BTS released their fifth Korean studio album Be, led by the single \"Life Goes On\". \"Life Goes On\" debuted at number one on the Hot 100, BTS's third consecutive US number-one single in three months and the first song performed primarily in Korean to top the chart.\nOn November 24, 2020, BTS became the first Korean pop artists recognized by the Recording Academy when \"Dynamite\" received a nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards. The group won the Special International Music Award at the 62nd Japan Record Awards. Kim, in his book on the influence of Korean popular culture, suggested that 2020, the worst year in many people's lives, was a noteworthy one for Korean culture, with Parasite winning the Academy Award for Best Picture and BTS posting three number-one hits on the Billboard Global 200.\n\n2021–present\n\"Butter\", \"Permission to Dance\" and Proof\nOn March 4, 2021, the IFPI named BTS its Global Recording Artist of the Year for 2020, the first Asian and first non-English speaking act to top the ranking. BTS occupied three spots in the Global Album Sales Chart of 2020, with Map of the Soul: 7 at number one, Be (Deluxe Edition) at number two, and Map of the Soul: 7–The Journey at number eight. On the newly launched Global Album All Format Chart, Map of the Soul: 7 claimed first place and Be (Deluxe Edition) claimed fourth. On March 14, 2021, BTS performed \"Dynamite\" at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, becoming the first Korean nominee to perform, though they did not win the award. On April 1, BTS released \"Film Out\", the first single from their then-upcoming Japanese compilation album, BTS, the Best. BTS held a two-day online streaming event on their YouTube channel beginning April 17, titled Bang Bang Con 21, and aired three of their previous in-person concerts.\nOn May 21, BTS released their second English-language single, \"Butter\". It debuted at number one on the Hot 100—their fourth number one in nine months—making them the quickest act to achieve four chart-toppers since Justin Timberlake in 2006, and the fastest group since the Jackson 5 in 1970. Their next English-language single, \"Permission to Dance\", was released on July 9. It became BTS's eighth number-one on the Digital Songs chart, extending their record as the group with the most number-one entries on the ranking. On September 24, 2021, the band released the single \"My Universe\" with Coldplay. The single debuted at number one on the Hot 100, making it the first collaboration between two groups to debut at number one. The band held an online concert, titled Permission to Dance on Stage, on October 24, 2021, in Seoul. On November 23, \"Butter\" earned a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards. Between November 27 and December 2, BTS held their first live performances before an in-person audience since before the pandemic. The band played four sold-out shows at SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles as a continuation of their Permission to Dance on Stage concert series.\nOn January 15, 2022, a fictional webtoon based on BTS, titled 7Fates: Chakho, was released. The comic surpassed 15 million views globally in its first two days of availability and became the highest-viewed title ever launched by Webtoon. The band held three limited-capacity concerts at Seoul Olympic Stadium on March 10, 12 and 13—the largest music gatherings approved by the South Korean government since the pandemic restrictions were imposed—with a total audience of 45,000 people. On April 3, BTS performed \"Butter\" at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, though the song did not win the award for which it was nominated. On April 8, the band earned seven nominations at the 2022 Billboard Music Awards and won three, making them the most-nominated and the most-awarded group in the show's history.\nOn June 10, 2022, BTS released their three-CD anthology album Proof. On June 14, during their ninth anniversary celebrations, the band announced a temporary suspension of group activities to focus on solo projects and other endeavors. Hybe Corporation, which owns Big Hit, clarified in subsequent statements that BTS was neither disbanding nor going on hiatus, but would be actively furthering their individual careers with the label's full support while still participating in group activities, including the filming of Run BTS. The incident caused Hybe Corporation's stock to decline rapidly, resulting in a decrease in market value of US$1.7 billion. On August 24, Billboard magazine reported that BTS would be performing in Busan on October 15 in a benefit concert in support of the city's efforts to have a World Exposition in 2030, participating under the banner Yet to Come.\n\nMilitary service and contract renewal\nIn spite of the announcement of the October 2022 benefit concert, Hybe Corporation's stock prices dropped to below its original IPO amid continuing market speculation about the implications of the upcoming mandatory military enlistment of the band's members. Under South Korean laws, all able-bodied males must complete between 18 and 21 months of military service, usually by age 28. Bloomberg News reported the concert as a success but also indicated that there were no further concert dates scheduled. It was estimated that if the band members completed their service, Hybe Corporation would lose nearly US$10 billion over ten years, with the loss to the South Korean economy at nearly US$39 billion.\nIn October 2022, Big Hit confirmed that Jin, the band's oldest member, aged 29, had withdrawn his enlistment deferral request. The other members planned to enlist later, with the group planning to reunite in 2025 following discharge. At the end of October 2022, BTS earned five nominations for the 2022 MAMA Awards, with the band members receiving eight further nominations as solo artists. On November 15, BTS earned three nominations at the 65th Annual Grammy Awards, including a nomination for Best Music Video for \"Yet to Come\". \"My Universe\" was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, making BTS the only act to be nominated three years in a row in this category since its introduction in 2011. The band was also nominated for Album of the Year as featured artists on Coldplay's Music of the Spheres. Jin enlisted as an active duty soldier on December 13. On February 26, 2023, Big Hit announced that J-Hope had requested cancellation of the postponement of his military service.\nFollowing their scheduled separation, the band's BTS 'Yet to Come' in Busan concert film was released on February 1, 2023. During a trip to Spain, RM told EFE that BTS \"will come together again when we finish our military service, and we will look for new synergies between us to enter a second phase.\" Hybe chairman Bang Si-hyuk stated on March 15, 2023, that their comeback might not occur in 2025 since it was hard to target a specific date, and that they had not discussed their contract renewal yet. J-Hope enlisted as an active duty soldier on April 18. On May 12, BTS released a soundtrack \"The Planet\" for the South Korean animated series Bastions. To commemorate their tenth anniversary, the group released the song \"Take Two\" on June 9.\nOn September 20, 2023, Hybe confirmed through a press release that BTS would renew their exclusive contracts. The members will sign these agreements sequentially, considering their military service, after a board resolution with Big Hit Music, solidifying their commitment to future projects starting from 2025 onwards. Hybe expressed their anticipation for supporting BTS' group endeavors and pledged unwavering support to enhance their worldwide influence, ensuring the group's continuity even after completing their military service. On September 22, 2023, Suga enlisted as a social worker. RM and V enlisted on December 11, 2023, followed by Jimin and Jungkook on December 12. On June 12, 2024, Jin became the first BTS member to complete his mandatory military service and was officially discharged.\n\nArtistry\nInfluences\nBTS have cited Seo Taiji and Boys, Nas, Eminem, Kanye West, Drake, Post Malone, Charlie Puth, and Danger as musical inspirations. They have also cited Queen as an influence, saying they \"grew up watching videos of Live Aid\". During their concert at Wembley Stadium in London, Jin paid tribute to Queen by leading the crowd in a version of Freddie Mercury's \"ay-oh\" chant. \"Hip Hop Phile\" which was released when BTS's hip-hop concept was at its height, pays homage to the artists who influenced them, including the South Korean group Epik High, Jay-Z, Biggie, CL Smooth, and others.\nTheir 2016 album Wings was inspired by Hermann Hesse's coming of age novel, Demian. Their song \"Blood Sweat & Tears\" quotes Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and its music video features visual references to Herbert James Draper's The Lament for Icarus, Pieter Bruegel's Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, and Bruegel's The Fall of the Rebel Angels. Among the literary and other sources that have inspired their works are those by Haruki Murakami, Ursula K. Le Guin, Carl Jung, George Orwell and Nietzsche. The Love Yourself series was influenced by Erich Fromm's The Art of Loving, and their 2018 song \"Magic Shop\" from Love Yourself: Tear was inspired by James R. Doty's memoir Into the Magic Shop.\n\nMusical style\nSince their inception, BTS have emphasized hip hop as their musical base, largely due to the influence of RM and Suga's background as underground rappers; during early visits to the US, the group received mentoring from American rappers. Bang Si-hyuk previously acknowledged that K-pop as a whole draws from black music, and author Crystal S. Anderson stated, \"BTS's rising popularity in the US represents the continuation of the ways that K-pop functions as part of a global R&B tradition.\" T.K. Park and Youngdae Kim of Vulture deemed the track \"Outro: Her\" from Love Yourself: Her as the best example of the group's understanding of old-school hip hop, with raps inspired by Chuck D and Tupac and jazzy chords from the 1990s to create a classic hip hop sound.\n\nThe release of \"Blood Sweat & Tears\" in 2016 accelerated BTS's transition from a hip hop to a pop group. Park and Kim noted that the song draws from dancehall, reggaeton, and moombahton but opts for a \"baroque mysticism\" rather than the \"partylike atmosphere of its influences\". The group also began incorporating traditional Korean elements into their music. For example, their single \"Idol\" (2018) features an adlib from Pansori, a Korean form of operatic storytelling, and vocal imitations of the sounds of Korean janggu drums.\nWhile BTS maintains roots in hip hop, their sound has diversified. They first experimented with R&B, rock and jazz hip hop on Dark & Wild in 2014; EDM in their The Most Beautiful Moment in Life album series; moombahton and tropical house on Wings and You Never Walk Alone; future bass and Latin pop in their Love Yourself album series; slow-dance ballads, emo rap, Afro pop, funk, trap, pop rock, and hip pop in their Map of the Soul album series; and disco in their single \"Dynamite\". The band members have explored different genres on solo tracks, such as neo soul on V's \"Stigma\" and flowing R&B on Jimin's \"Lie\".\n\nLyrical themes\nSince their formation, BTS have believed that telling their own stories is the best way for the younger generation to relate to their music. Writing many of their own lyrics, the group discusses universal life experiences such as sadness and loneliness in their work and turn them into something lighter and more manageable. RM stated that BTS tries to avoid a preaching or reprimanding tone in their songs \"because that's not the way that we want to spread our message ... We're born with different lives, but you cannot choose some things. So we thought that love, the real meaning of it, starts with loving ourselves and accepting some ironies and some destinies that we have from the very start.\" When asked if it is difficult to write about things like mental health, Suga responded,We feel that people who have the platform to talk about those things really should talk more, because they say depression is something where you go to the hospital and you're diagnosed, but you can't really know until the doctor talks to you ... More and more, I think artists or celebrities who have a voice should talk about these problems and bring it up to the surface.\nThemes explored in BTS's discography range from exploring \"the troubles and anxieties of school-age youth\" to \"themes like love, friendship, loss, death, and more.\" Early BTS songs, such as \"No More Dream\" and \"N.O\" from their school trilogy, were described by Tamar Herman as motivated by personal experiences with South Korea's rigid approach to education and called for change to the educational system and societal expectations. The members' experiences with South Korean youth culture also inspired the songs \"Dope\" and \"Silver Spoon\" (Korean: 뱁새; RR: Baepsae) from their youth trilogy. These songs reference generational disparity and millennials giving up romantic relationships, marriage, children, proper employment, homes, and social life in the face of economic difficulties and societal ills while facing condemnation from the media and older generations. The group's label dubbed The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever, the conclusion to their youth trilogy, \"a special album that marks the conclusion of the epic journey of the series, containing the last stories told by young people who, despite an uncertain and insecure reality (The Most Beautiful Moment in Life Pt. 1) continue to surge forward (The Most Beautiful Moment in Life Pt. 2).\" Wings focused on mental health, criticisms of the K-pop \"idol\" scene, and delivering a female empowerment message. The Love Yourself series introduced new themes regarding youth culture in South Korea, including the excitement of love, pain of farewell, and enlightenment of self-love. According to Kathy Sprinkel, BTS's 2020 \"quarantine album\" Be \"chronicles the group's coming to terms with a suddenly new reality and offers support for their listeners going through the same upheaval and uncertainty\".\nBTS's lyrics have also addressed topics outside youth culture. The song \"Am I Wrong\" from Wings questioned societal apathy towards changing the status quo; the lyric \"We're all dogs and pigs / we become dogs because we're angry\" appeared to reference South Korean Ministry of Education official Na Hyang-wook, who advocated a caste system for the country and who reportedly described average people as \"dogs and pigs\". BTS released the song amid the 2016 South Korean political scandal that resulted in the impeachment of president Park Geun-hye. RM and Suga's personal struggles with mental health have inspired some of their music. \"Not Today\" from 2017's You Never Walk Alone is an anti-establishment anthem, urging \"all the underdogs in the world\" to keep fighting, and \"Spring Day\" honored the victims of the Sewol Ferry tragedy. Journalist Jeff Benjamin praised BTS in Fuse for \"speak[ing] honestly about topics they deem important, even in a conservative society\". Former South Korean president Moon Jae-in said: \"Each of the seven members sings in a way that is true to himself and the life he wants to live. Their melody and lyrics transcend regional borders, language, culture, and institutions.\"\n\nImpact\nOn April 29, 2019, Time magazine named BTS one of the 100 most influential people of the year, labeling them the \"Princes of Pop\". Billboard executive Silvio Pietroluongo compared the group's influence to that of the Beatles. MRC Data executive Helena Kosinski noted that \"although BTS weren't the first to open the doors to K-Pop worldwide, they were the first to become mainstream. They don't just appeal to young people but also to the 50s and 60s age demographic.\" The first non-English speaking artist to make the Global Artist Chart in 2018, BTS was the second best-selling artists worldwide across multiple media platforms, second only to Drake. In 2020, BTS became the first non-western and non-English speaking artist to be named IFPI's Global Recording Artist of the Year. In South Korea, BTS accounted for 41.9 percent of album sales in the first half of 2019, up from their market share of 25.3 percent the previous year.\nIn 2022, Youna Kim described BTS as having spearheaded the Korean Wave, representing the global expansion of Korean culture as effectively as Psy did in the previous decade and with the strength of influence that the Academy Award-winning South Korean film Parasite had in 2020. South Korea's central bank, the Bank of Korea, found in 2021 that BTS, including a \"ripple effect\" that included increased tourism to South Korea; increased interest in Korean culture, movies, and study of the Korean language; and added approximately US$5 billion per year to South Korea's economy, a growth of about 0.5 percent. A 2018 study showed that, on average, 800,000 foreigners per year had visited South Korea over the past four years for BTS-related reasons.\nWriters identified BTS as leaders even among other highly influential K-pop groups such as Girls' Generation, Super Junior, Exo, Twice, and Blackpink and note that BTS's success shows the importance of a strong, active fan base in the age of social media, where fan campaigning can be as important as musical quality to a song's success. The group has also distinguished themselves at the forefront of the business side of the K-pop industry by pursuing less restrictive contracts with their management company to maximize their artistic originality and creativity. With this newer approach to career management, BTS created closer ties to the South Korean youth and encourage individuality and authenticity among their audience.\n\nDiplomacy\nIn his 1990 essay Soft Power, political scientist Joseph Nye developed the concept of a second type of power different from traditional authoritarianism. Nye wrote, \"This second aspect of power – which occurs when one country gets other countries to want what it wants – might be called co-optive or soft power in contrast with the hard or command power of ordering others to do what it wants.\" Researchers such as Maud Quessard have applied the concept of soft power to BTS and their influence on entertainment diplomacy and international relations. Youna Kim and Maud Quessard all read the currency of soft power as including culture, political values, and foreign policy, which applies to BTS's ability to be co-optive in their approach to spreading their message of harmony, acceptance, and addressing life's setbacks via their broad appeal on the international stage.\n\nBTS was invited to address the United Nations General Assembly in New York in September 2018. That same year they performed in Paris before an audience of 400, including President Moon Jae-in and other officials, at the 2018 Korea-France Friendship Concert, a summit celebrating the friendly relations between France and South Korea. That year, BTS became the youngest recipients of the Order of Cultural Merit. Despite cultural medals traditionally being given to recipients with over 15 years of achievement, Moon recognized the group, five years into their career, for their contributions in spreading Korean culture and language worldwide. In September 2019, BTS were mentioned by Moon while announcing strategies for the content industries, for having pioneered innovative business models through direct communication with fans. In 2020, BTS received the James A. Van Fleet Award in recognition of their outstanding contributions to the promotion of US-Korea relations, the youngest honorees to receive the award. In July 2021, they were appointed Special Presidential Envoy for Future Generations and Culture by President Moon. In their role as envoys, they help to \"raise awareness on global agendas, such as sustainable development, to our future generations and to strengthen the nation's diplomatic power across the world\" and appear at international events such as the 76th United Nations General Assembly. On May 31, 2022, BTS visited US President Joe Biden at the White House to discuss the recent rise in anti-Asian hate crimes and discrimination.\n\nFandom\nAccording to Kyung Hyun Kim, BTS's rise was facilitated by a great increase in music video programming and consumption on YouTube and the coming of an idol empire, including merchandising of nonmusical products, games, and fantasy fiction, as well as an expansion of online music fandom. The group has a large, highly organized, online community of fans known as ARMY (Adorable Representative M.C. for Youth), which translates the group's lyrics and social media posts into other languages and matches charitable contributions of BTS's members. As of 2020, some 40 million ARMY members subscribe to the band's YouTube channel, with more than 30 million following the official BTS Twitter and Instagram accounts. The fan community helps generate BTS's number-one chart rankings via coordinated campaigns on streaming platforms, as well as pushes to feature BTS's music on radio stations and television. Some ARMY members may even surpass the group itself in influence among BTS fans.\n\nBTS interacted and engaged with their followers from their earliest days via social media, as well as via BTS Universe, an alternate storyline involving the members told through music videos, mobile games, books, short films, and more that gives fans room to theorize. Kim suggested that ARMY are drawn to BTS since the members are seen as underdogs, originating from the Korean countryside and a relatively minor Korean entertainment company, which allows young fans to identify with them. BTS's lyrics speak to social values, and fans respond by trying to improve the world. As a result, the fandom regularly embraces activism on charitable causes and socio-political issues such as refugee crises, racial discrimination, children's rights, climate change, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Feedback from ARMY to BTS affects the group's actions and lyrics; BTS has eliminated certain Korean words that sound like American racial slurs from their songs and ended collaboration with a Japanese producer when Korean ARMY members deemed his views extreme.\nPer South Korean author Jiyoung Lee, the relationship between BTS and ARMY is \"a mutual exchange between artists and their fans\" that is about more than merely \"ensuring the band's primacy\", but also \"extending the band's message of positivity into the world\". Lee opines that BTS and ARMY are \"a symbol of change in zeitgeist, not just of generational change\". The band members themselves agree and have long acknowledged their fans' role in their success. According to Sarah Keith, \"BTS embody a moment of generational transformation. ARMY represents a 'coming of age' for the young, in which cultural production and influence are global and meaningful, and where the youth are politically and socially engaged.\"\n\nOther ventures\nEndorsements\nBTS partnered with Puma beginning in 2015, initially as Puma Korea's brand ambassadors before expanding to global ambassadors in 2018, and promoting the remix of Puma's \"Turin\" and \"Sportstyle\" line worldwide. In 2019, BTS signed with Fila to endorse its sportswear. BTS has also served as global brand ambassadors for LG Electronics' smartphones, and Hyundai Motors' 2019 flagship SUV the \"Palisade\" and hydrogen fuel cell electric SUV, the \"Nexo\". BTS became global ambassadors of the electric street racing series Formula E to promote how electric vehicles can help combat climate change. In 2020, BTS partnered with Samsung Electronics, releasing a limited BTS-themed version of the Galaxy S20+ and Galaxy Buds+. As the first male pop group ever to collaborate with Dior, BTS sported ensembles from Kim Jones' Pre-Fall 2019 collection at their concert at Stade de France. The band became global brand ambassadors for Louis Vuitton in April 2021.\n\nPhilanthropy\nBTS are known for their philanthropic endeavors. Several members of the band have been inducted into prestigious donation clubs, such as the UNICEF Honors Club and the Green Noble Club, in acknowledgement of the size and frequency of their donations. They have also received awards for their donations, with one member receiving a Patron of the Arts Award for donations to the arts, and BTS as a whole receiving a UNICEF Inspire Award for their Love Myself campaign. They often donate privately, with their patronage later being made public by the organizations they support and the media. The band's efforts have motivated their fans to also engage in various charitable and humanitarian activities, and on occasion even match their donations.\n\nAccolades\nBTS have received numerous awards throughout their career. They have consecutively won the Billboard Music Award for Top Social Artist since 2017; are the only K-pop group to win Top Duo/Group, at the 2019 Billboard Music Awards; and are the most-awarded group in BBMA history as of 2022, with 12 wins overall. BTS are also the only K-pop group to win Favorite Duo or Group – Pop/Rock and Favorite Social Artist at the American Music Awards, and became the first Asian act in the show's history to win Artist of the Year in 2021. They are the first Korean pop act to receive a Grammy Award nomination, and the first Korean artist to be nominated for a Brit Award. With 30 awards overall, including a record four consecutive wins for Artist of the Year (Asia), BTS are the most-awarded foreign artist in the history of the Japan Gold Disc Awards. They have also received a total of 50 trophies at the MAMA Awards.\n\nMembers\nJin (진) – vocalist\nSuga (슈가) – rapper\nJ-Hope (제이홉) – rapper\nRM (알앰) – leader, rapper\nJimin (지민) – vocalist\nV (뷔) – vocalist\nJungkook (정국) – vocalist\n\nDiscography\nFilmography\nFilms\n\nBurn the Stage: The Movie (2018)\nLove Yourself in Seoul (2019)\nBring the Soul: The Movie (2019)\nBreak the Silence: The Movie (2020)\nBTS: Permission to Dance on Stage – LA (2022)\nBTS: Yet to Come in Cinemas (2023)\nOnline shows\n\nRun BTS (2015–present)\nBTS In the Soop (2020–2021)\n\nBibliography\nBeyond the Story (2023)\n\nConcert tours\nThe Red Bullet Tour (2014–2015)\nWake Up: Open Your Eyes Japan Tour (2015)\nThe Most Beautiful Moment in Life On Stage Tour (2015–2016)\nThe Wings Tour (2017)\nLove Yourself World Tour (2018–2019)\nMap of the Soul Tour (2020; cancelled)\nPermission to Dance on Stage (2021–2022)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nAnderson, Crystal S. (2020). Soul in Seoul: African American Popular Music and K-pop. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-3009-8.\nHunt, Robert; McKelvey, Fenwick (2019). \"Algorithmic Regulation in Media and Cultural Policy: A Framework to Evaluate Barriers to Accountability\". Journal of Information Policy. 9: 307–335. doi:10.5325/jinfopoli.9.2019.0307. JSTOR 10.5325/jinfopoli.9.2019.0307. S2CID 213521720.\nJin, Dal Yong (2022). \"Transnational Cultural Power of BTS: Digital Fan Activism in the Social Media Era\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nJu, Hyunshik. \"Premediating a Narrative of Growth: BTS, Digital Media, and Fan Culture\". Popular Entertainment Studies: 19–33. ISSN 1837-9303. Archived from the original on March 21, 2022. Retrieved June 7, 2022.\nKeith, Sarah (2022). \"BTS as Cultural Ambassadors\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 152–167. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nKim, Kyung Hyun (2021). Hegemonic Mimicry: Korean Popular Culture of the Twenty-first Century. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-1-4780-1358-7.\nKim, Kyung Hyun (2022). \"BTS and the World Music Industry\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 107–117. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nKim, Youna (2022). \"Introduction: Popular Culture and Soft Power in the Social Media Age\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 1–38. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nKim, Young-dae (2019a). BTS–The Review: A Comprehensive Look at the Music of BTS. Translated by H.J. Chung. RH Korea. ISBN 978-8-925-56582-8.\nLie, John (2022). \"BTS, the Highest Stage of K-Pop\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 118–128. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nQuessard, Maud (2020). \"Entertainment Diplomacy\". In Balzacq, Thierry; Charillon, Frédéric; Ramel, Frédéric (eds.). Global Diplomacy: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 279–296. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28786-3_21. ISBN 978-3-03028-785-6. S2CID 211355635.\nShapiro, Marc (2018). Burn the Stage: The Rise of BTS and Korean Boy Bands. Riverdale Avenue Books. ISBN 978-1-62601-490-9.\nSprinkel, Katy (2021). BTS: One. Triumph Books. ISBN 978-1-64125-643-8.\n\nFurther reading\nSuk-Young Kim, ed. (2023). \"Part V: The Band That Surprised the World\". The Cambridge Companion to K-Pop. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-94478-6.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website",
"title": "BTS"
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"paragraph_text": "Kim Seok-jin (Korean: 김석진; born December 4, 1992), known professionally as Jin (진), is a South Korean singer, songwriter, and member of the South Korean boy band BTS. Jin has co-written and released three solo tracks with BTS: \"Awake\" in 2016, \"Epiphany\" in 2018, and \"Moon\" in 2020, all of which have charted on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart. In 2019, Jin released his first independent song, the digital track \"Tonight\". He made his official debut as a solo artist in October 2022, with the release of the single \"The Astronaut\".\nApart from singing, Jin appeared as a host on multiple South Korean music programs from 2016 to 2018. In 2018, he was awarded the fifth-class Hwagwan Order of Cultural Merit by the President of South Korea along with his bandmates for his contributions to Korean culture.\n\nEarly life and education\nKim Seok-jin was born on December 4, 1992, in Anyang, Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. His family consists of his mother, father, and elder brother. He is of the Gwangsan Kim clan. In 2007, he traveled to Australia for a study camp in order to learn English.\nJin originally wanted to be a journalist but decided to pursue acting after watching Kim Nam-gil in Queen Seondeok. While in junior high school, he was scouted by South Korean K-pop agency SM Entertainment off the street, but rejected the offer at the time. Initially intending to be an actor, Jin attended Konkuk University and graduated with a degree in Film Studies on February 22, 2017. He later enrolled in graduate school at Hanyang Cyber University to pursue studies in areas other than music.\n\nCareer\n2013–present: BTS\nJin was scouted by Big Hit Entertainment for his looks while walking down the street—he was studying acting at the time and had no background in music—and subsequently auditioned as an actor for the company before becoming an idol trainee. On June 13, 2013, he made his debut as one of the four vocalists in BTS. Under the band's name, Jin has performed three solo songs: \"Awake\", \"Epiphany\", and \"Moon\". \"Awake\", which he co-produced, was released in 2016, as part of BTS' second Korean studio album Wings. The song peaked at number 31 on the Gaon Digital Chart and number six on the Billboard World Digital Song Sales chart in the United States. He shared a Christmas version of \"Awake\" for free on SoundCloud that December.\n\"Epiphany\" was released as a trailer for BTS' then upcoming compilation album, Love Yourself: Answer, on August 9, 2018. Described as a \"building pop-rock melody\" by Billboard, the song's lyrics discussed self-acceptance and self-love. The full version of the song was eventually released as a track on Answer, peaking at number 30 on the Gaon Digital Chart and number four on the US World Digital Song Sales chart. In October, Jin was awarded the fifth-class Hwagwan Order of Cultural Merit by South Korean president Moon Jae-in alongside his bandmates.\n\"Moon\" was released in 2020, as part of BTS' fourth Korean studio album Map of the Soul: 7. Variety writer Jae-Ha Kim described the track as a power pop song addressed to the band's fans. \"Moon\" peaked at number one on the Gaon Digital Chart and number two on the World Digital Song Sales chart.\nIn July 2021, Jin was appointed Special Presidential Envoy for Future Generations and Culture by President Moon Jae-in, alongside his bandmates, to help \"lead the global agenda for future generations\" and \"expand South Korea's diplomatic efforts and global standing\" in the international community.\n\n2015–present: Solo activities\nIn 2016, Jin collaborated with bandmate V on the single \"It's Definitely You\", released as part of the Hwarang: The Poet Warrior Youth original soundtrack, and later received a co-nomination for Best OST at the 2017 Melon Music Awards. In June 2018, Jin featured on an alternate version of \"So Far Away\", a song from bandmate Suga's debut mixtape Agust D (2016), alongside bandmate Jungkook, which was released during the band's fifth anniversary celebrations. Jin's solo covers include \"Mom\" by Ra.D, \"I Love You\" by Mate, and \"In Front Of The Post Office In Autumn\", originally by Yoon Do-hyun in 1994. They were released on SoundCloud on May 7, 2015, December 3, 2015, and June 7, 2018, respectively. He has also made several appearances as a co-host for Korean music award shows, such as Music Bank and Inkigayo.\n\nOn June 4, 2019, Jin released his first independent song \"Tonight\" via SoundCloud as part of BTS' sixth anniversary celebrations. The acoustic ballad was composed by Jin and Big Hit record producers Slow Rabbit and Hiss Noise. Written by Jin and bandmate RM, the song's lyrics are inspired by Jin's relationship with his pets. The track was met with a generally positive reception, with praise for Jin's vocals and the song's calming atmosphere.\nJin released his second independent song \"Abyss\" via SoundCloud and YouTube on December 3, 2020. An acoustic ballad inspired by his feelings of anxiety, doubt, and burnout, Jin co-wrote and co-composed the track with RM and record producers Bumzu and Pdogg. In a post to the official BTS blog, Jin spoke about his insecurities regarding music and how those darker emotions drove him to write and release the song.\nIn October 2021, Jin sang the main theme for the TvN drama series Jirisan. Titled \"Yours\", the single's release was accompanied by a music video featuring footage from the show. On December 4, Jin released the short trot-style song \"Super Tuna\" via SoundCloud as a gift to fans in celebration of his 29th birthday. It quickly went viral after an accompanying performance video was posted on the BTS YouTube channel that same day. The video ranked first on YouTube's World Popular Music Video for eight consecutive days and trended in 56 countries, including Korea, Peru, and Singapore. A subsequent dance challenge arose on TikTok, with videos using the sound receiving over 141.8 million cumulative views in 10 days.\nJin collaborated with Nexon in August 2022 as a special game developer for MapleStory. The project was chronicled in the form of a two-episode mini web series, Office Warrior Kim Seok Jin, published to MapleStory Korea's YouTube channel. On October 21, \"Tonight\", \"Abyss\", and \"Super Tuna\" were made available on streaming services worldwide as official singles under Jin's name. All three songs subsequently simultaneously occupied the top three of the November 5 issue of the World Digital Song Sales chart, making Jin the third solo artist in the history of the chart to do so. Jin released his debut solo single \"The Astronaut\", which he co-wrote with the British rock band Coldplay, and an accompanying music video on October 28. He performed the song live with the band later that same day in Buenos Aires, Argentina during their Music of the Spheres World Tour; the show was broadcast live to cinemas worldwide in over 70 countries. The single earned Jin his first solo entry on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 51 and his third number one on the World chart. The following month, South Korean food manufacturing company Ottogi announced Jin as the new advertising model for its Jin Ramen instant noodles brand; a commercial featuring Jin was released on November 11.\nFollowing his discharge from the military in June 2024, Jin hosted a fan event at Jamsil Arena in honor of BTS' 11th anniversary, then served as a torchbearer for the South Korean delegation at the Summer Olympics in Paris. He was later appointed the first global brand ambassador for the French jewellery and watch brand Fred, with a global ambassadorship for the Italian fashion house Gucci following that.\n\nArtistry\nJin is a tenor and plays the guitar. In the 2019 novel BTS: The Review, members of the Grammy panel praised Jin's stable breath control and strong falsetto, calling it a \"silver voice\". Journalist Choi Song-hye of Aju News noted that BTS' singles such as \"Spring Day\" and \"Fake Love\" displayed Jin's vocal stability, while the B-side \"Jamais Vu\" showcased his emotional range. Hong Hye-min of The Korea Times described Jin's voice as \"tender, sorrowful, [and] free-spirited\" and considered it to be the \"standout element\" on the solo ballad \"Epiphany\". Critic Park Hee-a, discussing \"Epiphany\", stated that Jin \"sings the most sentimental emotions\" of the solo tracks on Love Yourself: Answer (2018). In a review of \"Fake Love\", Park said that Jin's belting \"prove[d] [the song's] effectiveness\".\n\nPublic image\nPhilanthropy\nIn December 2018, Jin donated food, blankets, and dishes for the Korean Animal Welfare Association to celebrate his birthday. He also donated 321 kilograms of food to the Korea Animal Rights Advocates (KARA), another Korean animal welfare non-profit organization.\nSince May 2018, Jin has been a monthly donor to UNICEF Korea, requesting that his donations be kept private at the time. They were eventually publicized following his induction into the UNICEF Honors Club in May 2019 for donating over ₩100 million (about US$84,000).\n\nInfluence\nIn 2019, Jin was ranked as the overall 13th most popular idol and sixth among girls aged 13–19 in South Korea, via data collected by analytics company Gallup Korea.\n\nPersonal life\nAs of 2018, Jin lives in Hannam-dong, Seoul, South Korea. Additionally, he and his older brother opened a Japanese-style restaurant in Seoul called Ossu Seiromushi in 2018.\n\nHealth\nIn March 2022, Jin injured his left hand and underwent surgery to correct it, following which he abstained from certain performances during BTS' Permission to Dance on Stage concerts in Las Vegas, withdrew from some group events, and sang while seated for most of the band's performance at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards.\n\nMilitary service\nOn October 17, 2022, Big Hit announced that following the release of \"The Astronaut\" and the completion of its subsequent promotional activities at the end of that month, Jin would begin the enlistment process and carry out his mandatory military service. The singer was previously granted an automatic postponement in 2021 until the end of 2022, following revisions made to the Military Service Act in December 2020. On November 4, 2022, Jin filed paperwork with the Military Manpower Administration (MMA) requesting a termination of the postponement in order to proceed with his conscription. He enlisted as an active duty soldier on December 13 at the Yeoncheon army base in the North Gyeonggi Province. Following the completion of his basic training with the 5th Infantry Division in January 2023, Jin was appointed as an assistant training instructor with the same division. He was formally discharged on June 12, 2024, becoming the first member of BTS to complete their military obligations.\n\nDiscography\nSingles\nOther charted songs\nOther songs\nWriting credits\nAll song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.\n\nFilmography\nMusic videos\nJin also appeared in the short film \"#7 Awake\", released in 2016 in promotion of BTS' fourth studio album Wings.\n\nTelevision\nWeb shows\nFilms\nAwards and nominations\nNotes\nReferences\n\n\n== External links ==",
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"paragraph_text": "The Gwangsan Kim clan (Korean: 광산 김씨; Hanja: 光山 金氏) is a Korean clan with its bon-gwan located in Gwangsan, present-day Gwangju.\nThe members of the Gwangsan Kim clan are the descendants of Kim Hŭng-gwang (Korean: 김흥광; Hanja: 金興光), the third son of King Sinmu of Silla, the 45th monarch of the Silla.\nThe family has produced eminent Neo-Confucian scholars during the Joseon Dynasty, including Kim Jang-saeng, Kim Jip, and Kim Man-jung.\n\nJoseon Dynasty\nKim Jang-saeng (1548–1631), Joseon Neo-Confucian scholar, politician, and writer\nQueen Ingyeong (1661–1680), Joseon queen consort\nKim Jip (1574–1656), Joseon Neo-Confucian scholar, politician, and writer\nKim Man-jung (1637–1692), Korean novelist and politician\n\nKnown descendants\nMaria Kim (1891–1944), Korean independence activist\nStephen Kim Sou-hwan (1922–2009), South Korean cardinal\nKim Yong-san (1922–2011), South Korean businessman\nKim Chunsu (1922–2004), South Korean poet\nKim Yong Sop (1936–2020), South Korean historian\nKim Woo-choong (1936–2019), South Korean businessman\nKim Yong-gun (born 1946), South Korean actor\nHyginus Kim Hee-jong (born 1947), South Korean Roman Catholic bishop\nKim Jang-soo (born 1948), South Korean general and politician\nDo-ol (born Kim Yong-ok, 1948), South Korean academic\nKim Hwang-sik (born 1948), South Korean politician\nKim Kap-soo (born 1957), South Korean actor\nKim Eung-soo (born 1961), South Korean actor\nKim Seon-dong (politician, born 1963), South Korean politician\nKim Sang-joong (born 1965), South Korean actor\nKim Soo-ro (born 1970), South Korean actor\nKim Taek-soo (born 1970), South Korean table tennis player\nSuki Kim (born 1970), Korean-American journalist and writer\nKim Myung-min (born 1972), South Korean actor\nKim Tae-ho (television director) (born 1975), South Korean television director\nEugene (actress) (born Kim Yoo-jin, 1981), South Korean actress and singer\nHyun Bin (born Kim Tae-pyung, 1982), South Korean actor\nKim Ah-joong (born 1982), South Korean actress\nPaul Kim (musician, born 1988), South Korean singer-songwriter\nUee (born Kim Yu-jin, 1988), South Korean actress\nSolar (singer) (born Kim Yong-sun, 1991), South Korean singer, member of girl group Mamamoo\nJin (singer) (born Kim Seok-jin, 1992), South Korean singer, member of boy band BTS\nV (singer) (born Kim Tae-hyung, 1995), South Korean singer, member of boy band BTS\nMingyu (rapper) (born Kim Min-gyu, 1997), South Korean rapper, member of boy band Seventeen\n\nSee also\nKim Jang-saeng\nKim Jip\nQueen Ingyeong\nKim Man-jung\nKim Ik-hun\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n100.naver.com",
"title": "Gwangsan_Kim_clan"
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] | In what year was the former South Korean prime minister who is from the same clan as the oldest member of the band BTS born? | [] | 1948 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Olgivanna Lloyd Wright (born Olga Ivanovna Lazović; December 27, 1898 – March 1, 1985) was the third and final wife of architect Frank Lloyd Wright. They first met in November 1924 and married in 1928. In 1932, the couple established Wright's architectural apprentice program and Taliesin Fellowship. In 1940, Olgivanna and Frank, along with their son-in-law William Wesley Peters, co-founded the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation. Following her husband's death in 1959, Olgivanna assumed the role of President of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, a position she held until a month prior to her death in 1985.\n\nEarly life\nOlga Ivanovna (Olgivanna) Lazović was born on December 27, 1898, in Montenegro. Her parents were, Jovan Lazović, who served as Montenegro's first Chief Justice, and Milica Miljanov. Milica was the daughter of Marko Miljanov, a renowned Montenegrin writer, Voivode, and leader of the Kuči tribe. Marko Miljanov had achieved the rank of general in the Montenegrin army. Olgivanna was the youngest of five children, having two brothers and two sisters. When her father lost his sight, Olgivanna would read court documents to him.\nAt the age of nine, Olgivanna went to live with her sister Julia and her husband, Constantin Siberakov, in Russia.\n\nCareer\nIn Russia, Olgivanna met Vladimar Hinzenberg. They were married in 1917 when Olgivanna was 19.\nAfter the birth of daughter Svetlana in 1917, Olgivanna met and became a devotee of G. I. Gurdjieff. She left her husband and child to follow Gurdjieff and his group to France at the Prieuré des Basses Loges in what was known as Gurdjieff's Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man. Olgivanna spent roughly seven years working under Gurdjieff. She began her career with Gurdjieff as a student of sacred dance, which she later taught to students of her own, including Diana Huebert. In 1923, while in France, Olgivanna nursed Katherine Mansfield on her deathbed.\n\nIn August 1924, Gurdjieff suffered a car accident, disbanded the group, and encouraged Olgivanna to go to the United States to save her marriage (she and Vladimar had not lived together for years, and their daughter was in New Jersey at her brother's home). After a short while, Olgivanna felt that her marriage to Vladimar was over, so she went to Chicago. There, she persuaded her friends to allow her to teach their children the sacred dance (or \"Movements\", as they were known). While in Chicago, in late November 1924, she attended a Sunday matinee of dancer Tamara Karsavina, where she met Frank Lloyd Wright. The two sat in the box seat and began talking. According to architectural writer Walt Lockley, \"The Foundation and the Fellowship would not exist in any form if Wright had not gone to the [ballet] with a friend one Sunday afternoon in 1924 Chicago and sat near to the dark-haired Montenegrin dancer.\" Wright wrote about this chance meeting in the 1943 edition of his autobiography:In a sentence or two she criticized Karsavina from our point of view, showing unusual familiarity with dancing and dancers. No longer quite so strange, the emissary of Fate, mercy on my soul, from the other side of the known world, bowed her head to my invitation to tea at the nearby Congress. She accepted with perfect ease and without artificial hesitation.\nI was in love with her.\n\nIt was as simple as that.\nThe two quickly initiated a romantic relationship. Embroiled in scandal and controversy from the beginning of their relationship (since both were married at its start), she and her daughter came to live at Wright's Wisconsin home, Taliesin. By February 1925, Olgivanna was pregnant with their daughter, Iovanna. In April 1925, a major fire due to electrical problems destroyed Taliesin's living quarters. The end of 1925 also brought problems for the two as Wright's estranged second wife began a vindictive campaign to deny Wright the ability to divorce her, which he could not do until 1927 (Olgivanna and her first husband had divorced years before). In October 1926, Olgivanna and Wright were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Tonka Bay, Minnesota, but the charges were later dropped. Wright and Olgivanna married on August 25, 1928, in Rancho Santa Fe, California, and honeymooned in Phoenix, Arizona.\n\nThe Taliesin Fellowship\nIn 1932, the two initiated the Taliesin Fellowship, an architectural apprentice program. Former apprentice Edgar Tafel described Olgivanna's influence on the Taliesin Fellowship in his book, Apprentice to Genius: Years With Frank Lloyd Wright. Tafel wrote that \"His [Wright's] marriage to Olgivanna was a tremendous stabilizing element for him - her devotion and strength brought his genius forward again. She knew how to take care of him.\" Beyond Olgivanna's effect on Wright personally, Tafel (who was in the Fellowship from 1932 to 1941) wrote that her background with Gurdjieff had a positive effect on the organization of the Taliesin Fellowship, which regularly had dozens of men and women living with the Wrights at Taliesin in Wisconsin and his winter home, Taliesin West, in Arizona:This experience [with the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man] gave her the background to organize the operation of Taliesin and to bring another dimension to the life of the Fellowship. In this way, her experience with Gurdjieff did influence the form of the Fellowship and some of the activities envisioned from the beginning. Mrs. Wright was the force that kept the Fellowship in working order, from the very start. A remarkable woman.\nIn 1970, Olgivanna invited Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and only daughter of Joseph Stalin to Taliesin West, the winter compound of the Taliesin Fellowship. Alliluyeva and William Wesley \"Wes\" Peters married three weeks after they met. After having a daughter named Olga during a marriage that lasted 20 months, Alliluyeva came away with a less than glowing impression of the matriarch and her management of Taliesin:\n\nThis hierarchical system was appalling: the widow at the top, then the board of directors (a formality); then her own close inner circle, making all the real decisions; then working architects—the real working horses; at the bottom, students who paid high sums to be admitted, only to be sent the next day to work in the kitchen to peel potatoes ... Mrs. Wright's word was law. She had to be adored and worshipped and flattered as often as possible; flowers sent by mail and presented by hand she enjoyed and encouraged. She gave advice to the architects, guided a drama circle, a dance group and a choir, and counselling on private lives and relationships, expecting everyone to make personal confessions to her. She was a \"spiritual leader\" and self-appointed minister, preaching on Sunday mornings on matters of God and man, when everyone was supposed to be in her large living room.\n\nOlgivanna continued to run the Taliesin Fellowship after Wright's death on April 9, 1959, almost until her own death in Scottsdale, Arizona, on March 1, 1985. The last quarter-century of Wright's life (1935–59)—when he, Olgivanna and the Taliesin Fellowship spent their winters in Arizona building Taliesin West—were arguably his most productive, representing \"more than half of [Wright's] building\".\n\nLegacy\nOlgivanna planned the removal of Wright's body from its Wisconsin grave, which was then \"cremated, mixed with her ashes and used in the walls of a memorial garden to be built on the grounds of their home at Taliesin West.\" Iovanna Lloyd Wright was Olgivanna's only child with Wright. Olgivanna's only other daughter, Svetlana Hinzenberg, adopted the surname Wright. Svetlana married one of Wright's apprentices, Fellowship member Wes Peters, when she turned 18 in 1935.\n\nBibliography\nBooks by Olgivanna Lloyd Wright\nOlgivanna Lloyd Wright wrote a weekly newspaper column starting in the 1950s entitled, \"Our House\". The newspaper columns were published the Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona and The Capital Times in Madison, Wisconsin. \"Our House\" was published as a book of the same name. In addition, she wrote four other books, published by Horizon Books in the 1960s with the last one, The Struggle Within published in 1971:\n\nThe Shining Brow: Frank Lloyd Wright (1960)\nThe Roots of Life (1963)\nFrank Lloyd Wright: His Life, His Work, His Words (1966)\nThe Struggle Within (1971)\n\nBooks about Olgivanna and the Taliesin Fellowship\nThe Faraway Music by Svetlana Allilueva (also known as Distant Music.) Edition: 1st. New Delhi: Lancer International, 1984.\nThe Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship by Roger Friedland and Harold Zellman, 2006, includes especially extensive and strong documentation on Olgivanna, her relationship with Wright, including \"the strong influence the occultist Georgi Gurdjieff had on Wright and especially his wife Olgivanna\"\nFrank Lloyd Wright: A Biography by Meryle Secrest, 1992. New York: HarperCollins.\nFrom Crna Cora to Taliesin Black Mountain to Shining Brow: The Life of Olgivanna Lloyd Wright, by Maxine Fawcett-Yeske and Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer. ODO Editions, 2017. ISBN 978-1939621597\nReflections from the Shining Brow: My Years with Frank Lloyd Wright and Olgivanna Lazovich, by Kamal Amin. Fithian Press. 2004.\nA Taliesin Legacy: The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright's Apprentices (Architecture Series) by Tobias S. Guggenheimer. Wiley, 1995. \"[A]n encyclopedia study of the projects planned and/or built by these students, who eagerly embraced Wright's ethic of organic design.\" (Book Review)\nTaliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright by Earl Nisbet, 2006. (Book Review)\nFurther Teachings of Gurdjieff - Journey Through This World, by C. S. Nott, Routledge & Kegan Paul, includes a chapter Taliesin and the Frank Lloyd Wrights describing a summer spent by Nott at Taliesin, 1969, ISBN 0-7100-6225-7 (cloth), ISBN 0-7100-8938-4 (paper)\n\nVideography\nFrank Lloyd Wright – A film by Ken Burns and Lynn Novick. (1998). PBS Home Video, August 28, 2001 (153 minutes). ASIN B00005MEPO.\nPartner to Genius: A Biography of Olgivanna Lloyd Wright. PBS Home Video, VHS, May 13, 1997. ASIN B00000JKXH.\n\n\n== References ==",
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"paragraph_text": "Frank Lloyd Wright Sr. (June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect, designer, writer, and educator. He designed more than 1,000 structures over a creative period of 70 years. Wright played a key role in the architectural movements of the twentieth century, influencing architects worldwide through his works and mentoring hundreds of apprentices in his Taliesin Fellowship. Wright believed in designing in harmony with humanity and the environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was exemplified in Fallingwater (1935), which has been called \"the best all-time work of American architecture\".\nWright was a pioneer of what came to be called the Prairie School movement of architecture and also developed the concept of the Usonian home in Broadacre City, his vision for urban planning in the United States. He also designed original and innovative offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums, and other commercial projects. Wright-designed interior elements (including leaded glass windows, floors, furniture and even tableware) were integrated into these structures. He wrote several books and numerous articles and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as \"the greatest American architect of all time\". In 2019, a selection of his work became a listed World Heritage Site as The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright.\nRaised in rural Wisconsin, Wright studied civil engineering at the University of Wisconsin and then apprenticed in Chicago, briefly with Joseph Lyman Silsbee, and then with Louis Sullivan at Adler & Sullivan. Wright opened his own successful Chicago practice in 1893 and established a studio in his Oak Park, Illinois home in 1898. His fame increased and his personal life sometimes made headlines: leaving his first wife Catherine \"Kitty\" Tobin for Mamah Cheney in 1909; the murder of Mamah and her children and others at his Taliesin estate by a staff member in 1914; his tempestuous marriage with second wife Miriam Noel (m. 1923–1927); and his courtship and marriage with Olgivanna Lazović (m. 1928–1959).\n\nEarly life and education\nChildhood (1867–1885)\nWright was born on June 8, 1867, in the town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, but maintained throughout his life that he was born in 1869. In 1987 a biographer of Wright suggested that he may have been christened as \"Frank Lincoln Wright\" or \"Franklin Lincoln Wright\" but these assertions were not supported by any documentation.\nWright's father, William Cary Wright (1825–1904), was a \"gifted musician, orator, and sometime preacher who had been admitted to the bar in 1857.\" He was also a published composer. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister, but he later joined his wife's family in the Unitarian faith.\nWright's mother, Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39–1923) was a teacher and a member of the Lloyd Jones clan; her parents had emigrated from Wales to Wisconsin. One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin Lloyd Jones, an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Midwest.\nAccording to Wright's autobiography, his mother declared when she was expecting that her first child would grow up to build beautiful buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the infant's ambition.\nWright grew up in an \"unstable household, [...] constant lack of resources, [...] unrelieved poverty and anxiety\" and had a \"deeply disturbed and obviously unhappy childhood\". His father held pastorates in McGregor, Iowa (1869), Pawtucket, Rhode Island (1871), and Weymouth, Massachusetts (1874). Because the Wright family struggled financially also in Weymouth, they returned to Spring Green, where the supportive Lloyd Jones family could help William find employment. In 1877, they settled in Madison, where William gave music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant parent, he shared his love of music with his children.\nIn 1876, Anna saw an exhibit of educational blocks called the Froebel Gifts, the foundation of an innovative kindergarten curriculum. Anna, a trained teacher, was excited by the program and bought a set with which the 9-year old Wright spent much time playing. The blocks in the set were geometrically shaped and could be assembled in various combinations to form two- and three-dimensional compositions. In his autobiography, Wright described the influence of these exercises on his approach to design: \"For several years, I sat at the little kindergarten table-top... and played... with the cube, the sphere and the triangle – these smooth wooden maple blocks... All are in my fingers to this day... \"\nIn 1881, soon after Wright turned 14, his parents separated. In 1884, his father sued for a divorce from Anna on the grounds of \"... emotional cruelty and physical violence and spousal abandonment\". Wright attended Madison High School, but there is no evidence that he graduated. His father left Wisconsin after the divorce was granted in 1885. Wright said that he never saw his father again.\n\nEducation (1885–1887)\nIn 1886, at age 19, Wright was admitted to the University of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student. He worked under Allan D. Conover, a professor of civil engineering, before leaving the school without taking a degree; in 1955, the university presented Wright, then 88 years old, with an honorary doctorate of fine arts.\nWright's uncle Jenkin Lloyd Jones had commissioned the Chicago architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee to design the All Souls Church in Chicago in 1885. In 1886, the Silsbee firm was commissioned by Jones to design the Unity Chapel as his private family chapel in Wyoming, Wisconsin.\nAlthough not officially employed by Silsbee, Wright was an accomplished draftsman and \"looked after the interior [drawings and construction]\" in Wisconsin. This chapel is thus Wright's earliest known work.\nAfter the chapel was finished, Wright moved to Chicago.\n\nEarly career\nSilsbee and other early work experience (1887–1888)\nIn 1887, Wright arrived in Chicago in search of employment. As a result of the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and a population boom, new development was plentiful. Wright later recorded in his autobiography that his first impression of Chicago was as an ugly and chaotic city. Within days of his arrival, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a draftsman with Joseph Lyman Silsbee. While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: All Souls Church in Chicago for his uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts. Others working in Silsbee's office at the time included Cecil S. Corwin (1860-1941), George W. Maher (1864-1926), and George G. Elmslie (1869-1952). Corwin, who was seven years older than Wright, soon took his young colleague under his wing and the two became close friends. \nFeeling underpaid and looking to earn more, Wright briefly left Silsbee to work for architect William W. Clay (1849-1926). However, Wright soon felt overwhelmed by his new level of responsibility and returned to Silsbee, but this time with a raise in salary. Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and Revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more \"gracefully picturesque\" than the other \"brutalities\" of the period. Wright remained with Silsbee for a little less than a year, leaving to work for Adler & Sullivan around November 1887.\n\nAdler & Sullivan (1888–1893)\nWright learned that the Chicago firm of Adler & Sullivan was \"... looking for someone to make the finished drawings for the interior of the Auditorium Building\". Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan's ornamental designs and two short interviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm. Wright did not get along well with Sullivan's other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurred between them during the first years of his apprenticeship. For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for his own employees as well. In spite of this, \"Sullivan took [Wright] under his wing and gave him great design responsibility.\" As an act of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as lieber Meister (German for \"dear master\"). He also formed a bond with office foreman Paul Mueller. Wright later engaged Mueller in the construction of several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923.\nBy 1890, Wright had an office next to Sullivan's that he shared with friend and draftsman George Elmslie, who had been hired by Sullivan at Wright's request. Wright had risen to head draftsman and handled all residential design work in the office. As a general rule, the firm of Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but would oblige when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects. Wright was occupied by the firm's major commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours at his home studio. He later claimed total responsibility for the design of these houses, but a careful inspection of their architectural style (and accounts from historian Robert Twombly) suggests that Sullivan dictated the overall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projects from Sullivan's sketches. During this time, Wright was assigned to work on the Sullivan's bungalow (1890) and the James A. Charnley bungalow (1890) in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House, James A. Charnley House (both 1891), and the Albert Sullivan House (1892), all in Chicago.\nDespite Sullivan's loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantly short on funds. Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely due to his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxuries he designed into his house. To supplement his income and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissions for at least nine houses. These \"bootlegged\" houses, as he later called them, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionable Queen Anne and Colonial Revival styles. Nevertheless, unlike the prevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simple geometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontal windows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans, which would become hallmarks of his later work. Eight of these early houses remain today, including the Thomas Gale, Robert Parker, George Blossom, and Walter Gale houses.\nAs with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, he designed his bootleg houses on his own time. Sullivan knew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably a Frank Lloyd Wright design. This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan's townhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood. Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the composition and balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright's involvement. Since Wright's five-year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan's firm. Several stories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two different versions of the occurrence. In An Autobiography, Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were a breach of his contract. When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any further outside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his five years. Wright could not bear the new hostility from his master and thought that the situation was unjust. He \"... threw down [his] pencil and walked out of the Adler & Sullivan office never to return\". Dankmar Adler, who was more sympathetic to Wright's actions, later sent him the deed. However, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices (as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House. Tafel also recounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of their forbidden nature. Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for 12 years.\n\nTransition and experimentation (1893–1900)\nAfter leaving Adler & Sullivan, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan-designed Schiller Building on Randolph Street in Chicago. Wright chose to locate his office in the building because the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan. Cecil Corwin followed Wright and set up his architecture practice in the same office, but the two worked independently and did not consider themselves partners.\nIn 1896, Wright moved from the Schiller Building to the nearby and newly completed Steinway Hall building. The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins. These young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what became known as the Prairie School. They were joined by Perkins' apprentice Marion Mahony, who in 1895 transferred to Wright's team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor renderings. Mahony, the third woman to be licensed as an architect in Illinois and one of the first licensed female architects in the U.S., also designed furniture, leaded glass windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright's houses. Between 1894 and the early 1910s, several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright's future employees launched their careers in the offices of Steinway Hall.\nWright's projects during this period followed two basic models. His first independent commission, the Winslow House, combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis on simple geometry and horizontal lines. The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971), Heller House (1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897) and Husser House (1899, demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode. For his more conservative clients, Wright designed more traditional dwellings. These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style Bagley House (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and Queen Anne style Charles E. Roberts House (1896). While Wright could not afford to turn down clients over disagreements in taste, even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasional Sullivan-inspired details.\nSoon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wright to meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham. Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House and other examples of Wright's work; he offered to finance a four-year education at the École des Beaux-Arts and two years in Rome. To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham's firm upon his return. In spite of guaranteed success and support of his family, Wright declined the offer. Burnham, who had directed the classical design of the World's Columbian Exposition and was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright was making a foolish mistake. Yet for Wright, the classical education of the École lacked creativity and was altogether at odds with his vision of modern American architecture.\nWright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 to bring his work and family lives closer. This move made further sense as the majority of the architect's projects at that time were in Oak Park or neighboring River Forest. The birth of three more children prompted Wright to sacrifice his original home studio space for additional bedrooms and necessitated his design and construction of an expansive studio addition to the north of the main house. The space, which included a hanging balcony within the two-story drafting room, was one of Wright's first experiments with innovative structure. The studio embodied Wright's developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which his next 10 years of architectural creations would emerge.\n\nPrairie Style houses (1900–1914)\nBy 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd Wright wrote:\n\nWilliam Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur, Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts, and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except Albert, he didn't have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for which my father gets the full glory, headaches, and recognition today!\n\nBetween 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses, which have since been identified as the onset of the \"Prairie Style\". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright's early designs and the Prairie creations. Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the first mature examples of the new style. At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house widespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were in response to an invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern house design. \"A Home in a Prairie Town\" and \"A Small House with Lots of Room in it\" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901 issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans was ever constructed, Wright received increased requests for similar designs in following years. Wright came to Buffalo and designed homes for three of the company's executives: the Darwin D. Martin House (1904), the William R. Heath House 1905), and the Walter V. Davidson House (1908). Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the Prairie Style are the Frederick Robie House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its extended cantilevered roof lines supported by a 110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. With this and other buildings, included in the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio (1910), Wright's work became known to European architects and had a profound influence on them after World War I.\nWright's residential designs of this era were known as \"prairie houses\" because the designs complemented the land around Chicago. Prairie Style houses often have a combination of these features: one or two stories with one-story projections, an open floor plan, low-pitched roofs with broad, overhanging eaves, strong horizontal lines, ribbons of windows (often casements), a prominent central chimney, built-in stylized cabinetry, and a wide use of natural materials – especially stone and wood.\nBy 1909, Wright had begun to reject the upper-middle-class Prairie Style single-family house model, shifting his focus to a more democratic architecture. Wright went to Europe in 1909 with a portfolio of his work and presented it to Berlin publisher Ernst Wasmuth. Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, published in 1911, was the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. The work contained more than 100 lithographs of Wright's designs and is commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio.\n\nNotable public works (1900–1917)\nWright designed the house of Cornell University's chapter of Alpha Delta Phi literary society (1900), the Hillside Home School II (built for his aunts) in Spring Green, Wisconsin (1901) and the Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, Illinois. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation after their church burned down, working on the building from 1905 to 1909. Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, and became an architect of space.\nSome other early notable public buildings and projects in this era: the Larkin Administration Building (1905); the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, 1911); the Midway Gardens (Chicago, Illinois, 1913); the Banff National Park Pavilion (Alberta, Canada, 1914).\n\nDesigning in Japan (1917–1922)\nWhile working in Japan, Wright left an impressive architectural heritage. The Imperial Hotel, completed in 1923, is the most important. Thanks to its solid foundations and steel construction, the hotel survived the Great Kanto Earthquake almost unscathed. The hotel was damaged during the bombing of Tokyo and by the subsequent US military occupation of it after World War II. As land in the center of Tokyo increased in value the hotel was deemed obsolete and was demolished in 1968, but the lobby was saved and later re-constructed at the Meiji Mura architecture museum in Nagoya in 1976.\nJiyu Gakuen was founded as a girls' school in 1921. The construction of the main building began in 1921 under Wright's direction and, after his departure, was continued by Endo. The school building, like the Imperial Hotel, is covered with Ōya stones.\nThe Yodoko Guesthouse (designed in 1918 and completed in 1924) was built as the summer villa for Tadzaemon Yamamura.\nFrank Lloyd Wright's architecture had a strong influence on young Japanese architects. The Japanese architects Wright commissioned to carry out his designs were Arata Endo, Takehiko Okami, Taue Sasaki and Kameshiro Tsuchiura. Endo supervised the completion of the Imperial Hotel after Wright's departure in 1922 and also supervised the construction of the Jiyu Gakuen Girls' School and the Yodokō Guest House. Tsuchiura went on to create so-called \"light\" buildings, which had similarities to Wright's later work.\n\nTextile concrete block system\nIn the early 1920s, Wright designed a \"textile\" concrete block system. The system of precast blocks, reinforced by an internal system of bars, enabled \"fabrication as infinite in color, texture, and variety as in that rug.\" Wright first used his textile block system on the Millard House in Pasadena, California, in 1923. Typically Wrightian is the joining of the structure to its site by a series of terraces that reach out into and reorder the landscape, making it an integral part of the architect's vision. With the Ennis House and the Samuel Freeman House (both 1923), Wright had further opportunities to test the limits of the textile block system, including limited use in the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in 1927. The Ennis house is often used in films, television, and print media to represent the future. Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman, and Ennis Houses. Architectural historian Thomas Hines has suggested that Lloyd's contribution to these projects is often overlooked.\nAfter World War II, Wright updated the concrete block system, calling it the Usonian Automatic system, resulting in the construction of several notable homes. As he explained in The Natural House (1954), \"The original blocks are made on the site by ramming concrete into wood or metal wrap-around forms, with one outside face (which may be pattered), and one rear or inside face, generally coffered, for lightness.\"\n\nMidlife problems\nFamily turmoil\nIn 1903, while Wright was designing a house for Edwin Cheney (a neighbor in Oak Park), he became enamored with Cheney's wife, Mamah Borthwick Cheney. Mamah was a modern woman with interests outside the home. She was an early feminist, and Wright viewed her as his intellectual equal. Their relationship became the talk of the town; they often could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park. In 1909, Wright and Mamah Cheney met up in Europe, leaving their spouses and children behind. Wright remained in Europe for almost a year, first in Florence, Italy (where he lived with his eldest son Lloyd) and, later, in Fiesole, Italy, where he lived with Mamah. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted Mamah a divorce, although Frank's wife Catherine refused to grant him one. After Wright returned to the United States in October 1910, he persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called Taliesin, by May 1911. The recurring theme of Taliesin also came from his mother's side: Taliesin was a Welsh poet, magician, and priest. The family motto, \"Y Gwir yn Erbyn y Byd\" (\"The Truth Against the World\"), was taken from the Welsh poet Iolo Morganwg, who also had a son named Taliesin. The motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and chief bard of the Eisteddfod in Wales.\n\nTragedy at Taliesin\nOn August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, Julian Carlton, a servant, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and then murdered seven people with an axe as the fire burned. The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha Cheney; a gardener (David Lindblom); a draftsman (Emil Brodelle); a workman (Thomas Brunker); and another workman's son (Ernest Weston). Two people survived, one of whom, William Weston, helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. Carlton swallowed hydrochloric acid following the attack in an attempt to kill himself. He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgeville jail. Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack.\n\nDivorces\nIn 1922, Kitty Wright finally granted Wright a divorce. Under the terms of the divorce, Wright was required to wait one year before he could marry his then-mistress, Maude \"Miriam\" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon after Olgivanna became pregnant. Their daughter, Iovanna, was born on December 3, 1925.\nOn April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin. Crossed wires from a newly installed telephone system were deemed to be responsible for the blaze, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright estimated to be worth $250,000 to $500,000 ($4,343,000 to $8,687,000 in 2023). Wright rebuilt the living quarters, naming the home \"Taliesin III\".\nIn 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In October 1926, Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and were arrested in Tonka Bay, Minnesota. The charges were later dropped.\nThe divorce of Wright and Miriam Noel was finalized in 1927. Wright was again required to wait for one year before remarrying. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928.\n\nLater career\nTaliesin Fellowship\nIn 1932, Wright and his wife Olgivanna put out a call for students to come to Taliesin to study and work under Wright while they learned architecture and spiritual development. Olgivanna Wright had been a student of G. I. Gurdjieff who had previously established a similar school. Twenty-three came to live and work that year, including John (Jack) H. Howe, who would become Wright's chief draftsman. A total of 625 people joined The Fellowship in Wright's lifetime. The Fellowship was a source of workers for Wright's later projects, including: Fallingwater; The Johnson Wax Headquarters; and The Guggenheim Museum in New York City.\nConsiderable controversy exists over the living conditions and education of the fellows. Wright was reputedly a difficult person to work with. One apprentice wrote: \"He is devoid of consideration and has a blind spot regarding others' qualities. Yet I believe, that a year in his studio would be worth any sacrifice.\" The Fellowship evolved into The School of Architecture at Taliesin which was an accredited school until it closed under acrimonious circumstances in 2020. Taking on the name \"The School of Architecture\" in June 2020, the school moved to the Cosanti Foundation, which it had worked with in the past.\n\nUsonian Houses\nWright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. He proposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932 and unveiled a 12-square-foot (1.1 m2) model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. Concurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type of dwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House. Although an early version of the form can be seen in the Malcolm Willey House (1934) in Minneapolis, the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and Katherine Jacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house's radiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including walls composed of a \"sandwich\" of wood siding, plywood cores and building paper – a significant change from typically framed walls. Usonian houses commonly featured flat roofs and were usually constructed without basements or attics, all features that Wright had been promoting since the early 20th century.\nUsonian houses were Wright's response to the transformation of domestic life that occurred in the early 20th century when servants had become less prominent or completely absent from most American households. By developing homes with progressively more open plans, Wright allotted the woman of the house a \"workspace\", as he often called the kitchen, where she could keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas had a fireplace as a point of focus. Bedrooms, typically isolated and relatively small, encouraged the family to gather in the main living areas. The conception of spaces instead of rooms was a development of the Prairie ideal. The built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts movement's principles that influenced Wright's early work. Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a new model for independent living and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost. His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that influenced countless postwar developers. Many features of modern American homes date back to Wright: open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified construction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in construction.\n\nSignificant later works\nFallingwater, one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed 1937), was built for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann, Sr., at Mill Run, Pennsylvania. Constructed over a 30-foot waterfall, it was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings. The house was intended to be more of a family getaway, rather than a live-in home. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000 (equivalent to $3,285,000 in 2023), including the architect's fee of $8,000 (equivalent to $170,000 in 2023). It was one of Wright's most expensive pieces. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002, post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed.\nTaliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, Arizona, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937 to his death in 1959. It is now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation.\n\nThe design and construction of the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied Wright from 1943 until 1959 and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building's unique central geometry allows visitors to experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp.\n\nThe only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existing vertically oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C. Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior, one of only 20 such properties in Oklahoma.\nMonona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior, with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The \"as-built\" design was carried out by Wright's apprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy until the structure was completed.\nFlorida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. It is the world's largest single-site collection of Frank Lloyd Wright architecture.\n\nPersonal style and concepts\nDesign elements\nHis Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets, and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks, and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax Headquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting). In 1897, Wright received a patent for \"Prism Glass Tiles\" that were used in storefronts to direct light toward the interior. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. According to Wright's organic theory, all components of the building should appear unified, as though they belong together. Nothing should be attached to it without considering the effect on the whole. To unify the house to its site, Wright often used large expanses of glass to blur the boundary between the indoors and outdoors. Glass allowed for interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One of Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join solid walls. By using this large amount of glass, Wright sought to achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career. Wright also designed some of his own clothing.\n\nInfluences and collaborations\nWright, an individualist, did not affiliate with the American Institute of Architects during his career; he called the organization \"a harbor of refuge for the incompetent\" and \"a form of refined gangsterism\". When an associate referred to him as \"an old amateur\" Wright confirmed, \"I am the oldest.\" Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five major influences:\n\nLouis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his lieber Meister (dear master)\nNature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life\nMusic (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven)\nJapanese art, prints and buildings\nFroebel gifts\nWright was given a set of Froebel gifts at about age nine, and in his autobiography he cited them indirectly in explaining that he learned the geometry of architecture in kindergarten play: For several years I sat at the little kindergarten table-top ruled by lines about four inches apart each way making four-inch squares; and, among other things, played upon these 'unit-lines' with the square (cube), the circle (sphere) and the triangle (tetrahedron or tripod)—these were smooth maple-wood blocks. All are in my fingers to this day.: 359 Wright later wrote, \"The virtue of all this lay in the awakening of the child-mind to rhythmic structures in Nature… I soon became susceptible to constructive pattern evolving in everything I saw.\": 25 : 205 \nHe routinely claimed the work of architects and architectural designers who were his employees as his own designs, and believed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators, and subordinates. As with any architect, though, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In his Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects, including William Eugene Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin, and Walter Burley Griffin. The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond worked for Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan and opened his own practice. Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel and his own work is often credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright. In the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb, William Bernoudy, and Paolo Soleri.\n\nJapanese art\nWright was a passionate Japanophile — he once proclaimed Japan to be \"the most romantic, artistic, nature-inspired country on earth.\" He was particularly interested in ukiyo-e woodblock prints, to which he claimed he was \"enslaved.\" Wright spent much of his free time selling, collecting, and appreciating these prints. He held parties and other events centered around them, proclaiming their pedagogical value to his guests and students. Before arriving in Japan, his impressions of the nation were based almost entirely on them.\nWright found particular inspiration in the formal aspects of Japanese art. He described ukiyo-e prints as \"organic,\" because of their understated qualities, their harmony, and their ability to be appreciated on a purely aesthetic level. Additionally, he cherished their free-form compositions, where elements of the scene would frequently breach in front of one another, and their lack of extraneous detail, which he called a \"gospel of elimination.\" His interpretation of chashitsu (tea ceremony venues), mediated by the ideas of Okakura Kakuzō, was that of an architecture which emphasized openness, the \"vacant space between the roof and walls.\" Wright applied these principles on a large scale, and they became trademarks of his practice.\nWright's floor plans exhibit strong similarities to their presumed Japanese forebears. The open living spaces of his early homes were likely appropriated from the World's Columbian Exposition's Ho-O-Den Pavilion, whose sliding-screen dividers were removed in preparation for the event. Likewise, Unity Temple follows a gongen-zukuri layout, characteristic of Shinto shrines and likely inspired by his 1905 visit to the Rinnō-ji temple complex, and the shape of many of his cantilevered towers, including the Johnson Research Tower, may have been inspired by Japanese pagodas. Wright's ornamental flourishes, as seen in his leaded glass windows and lively architectural drawings, demonstrate a technical indebtedness to ukiyo-e. One modern commentator, discussing the Robie House, suggests that such elements combined allow Wright's architecture to exhibit iki, a particularly Japanese aesthetic value marked by a subdued stylishness.\nHis ideas about the art of Japan appear to have drawn greatly from the activities of Ernest Fenollosa, whose work he likely first encountered between 1890 and 1893. Many of Fenollosa's ideas are quite similar to those of Wright: these include his view of architecture as a \"mother art,\" his condemnation of the West's \"separation of construction and decoration,\" and his identification of an \"organic wholeness\" within ukiyo-e prints. Also like Wright, Fenollosa perceived a \"degeneracy\" in Western architecture, with particular emphasis on Renaissance architecture; Wright himself admitted that Japanese prints helped to \"vulgarize\" the Renaissance for him. Wright's art criticism treatise, The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, may be read as a straightforward expansion upon Fenollosa's ideas.\nThough Wright always acknowledged his indebtedness to Japanese art and architecture, he took offense to claims that he copied or adapted it. In his view, Japanese art simply validated his personal principles especially well, and as such it was not a source of special inspiration. Responding to a claim by Charles Robert Ashbee that he was \"trying to adapt Japanese forms to the United States,\" Wright said that such borrowing was \"against [his] very religion.\" Nonetheless, his insistence did not stop others from observing the same throughout his life.\n\nArt collecting and dealing\nWright was also an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily ukiyo-e. He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients: he designed a home, then provided the art to fill it. For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect. He also kept a personal collection, which he used as a teaching aid with his apprentices in what were called \"print parties\"; to better suit his taste, he sometimes modified these personal prints using colored pencils and crayons. Wright owned prints from masters such as Okumura Masanobu, Torii Kiyomasu I, Katsukawa Shunshō, Utagawa Toyoharu, Utagawa Kunisada, Katsushika Hokusai, and Utagawa Hiroshige; he was especially fond of Hiroshige, whom he considered \"the greatest artist in the world.\"\nWright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize the world's first retrospective exhibition on Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago, a job which strengthened his reputation as an expert in Japanese art. Wright continued buying prints in his return trips to Japan and for many years he was a major presence in the art world, selling a great number of works both to prominent private collectors and to museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In sum, Wright spent over five hundred thousand dollars on prints between 1905 and 1923. He penned a book on Japanese art, The Japanese Print: An Interpretation, in 1912.\nIn 1920, many of the prints Wright sold had been found to exhibit signs of retouching, including pinholes and unoriginal pigments. These retouched prints were likely made in retribution by some of his Japanese dealers, who were disgruntled by the architect's under-the-table sales. In an attempt to clear his name, Wright took one of his dealers, Kyūgo Hayashi, to court over the issue; Hayashi was subsequently sentenced to one year in prison, and barred from selling prints for an extended period of time.\nThough Wright protested his innocence, and provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, the incident marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer. He was forced to sell off much of his art collection to pay off outstanding debts: in 1928, the Bank of Wisconsin claimed Taliesin and sold thousands of his prints — for only one dollar a piece — to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck. Nonetheless, Wright continued to collect and deal in prints until his death in 1959, using them as bartering chips and collateral for loans; he often relied upon his art business to remain financially solvent. He once claimed that Taliesin I and II were \"practically built\" by his prints.\nThe extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades. In 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered \"a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller — 'F. L. Wright'\" — and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz. These discoveries and subsequent research led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer.\n\nCommunity planning\nFrank Lloyd Wright's commissions and theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scale of community planning or urban design.\nHis thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled the \"Quadruple Block Plan\". This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets. The houses, which used the same design as published in \"A Home in a Prairie Town\" from the Ladies' Home Journal, were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized, Wright published the design in the Wasmuth Portfolio in 1910.\nThe more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc. This view of decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his community planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all services and facilities could coexist \"factories side by side with farm and home\".\nNotable community planning designs:\n\n1900–03 – Quadruple Block Plan, 24 homes in Oak Park, Illinois (unbuilt);\n1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony, town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, Montana;\n1913 – Chicago Land Development competition, suburban Chicago quarter section;\n1934–59 – Broadacre City, theoretical decentralized city plan, exhibits of large-scale model;\n1938 – Suntop Homes, also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from Federal Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing, a low-cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban development;\n1942 – Cooperative Homesteads, commissioned by a group of auto workers, teachers and other professionals, 160-acre farm co-op was to be the pioneer of rammed earth and earth berm construction (unbuilt);\n1945 – Usonia Homes, 47 homes (three designed by Wright) in Pleasantville, New York;\n1949 – Parkwyn Village, a plat in Kalamazoo, Michigan, developed by Wright containing mostly Usonian houses by other architects with four by Wright. The community was planned to be on circular lots but was re-platted and squared off.\n1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, with five houses (four designed by Wright) in Charleston Township, Michigan; The Acres remains the sole example of a planned community that has not had its circular lots squared off or been sub-divided.\n\nLegacy\nDeath\nOn April 4, 1959, Wright was hospitalized for abdominal pains and was operated upon. Wright seemed to be recovering but he died quietly on April 9 at the age of 91 years. The New York Times then reported he was 89.\nAfter his death, Wright's legacy was engulfed in turmoil for years. His third wife Olgivanna's dying wish had been that she, Wright, and her daughter by her first marriage would all be cremated and interred together in a memorial garden being built at Taliesin West. According to his own wishes, Wright's body had lain in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel, within view of Taliesin in Wisconsin. Although Olgivanna had taken no legal steps to move Wright's remains (and against the wishes of other family members and the Wisconsin legislature), his remains were removed from his grave in 1985 by members of the Taliesin Fellowship. They were cremated and sent to Scottsdale where they were later interred as per Olgivanna's instructions. The original grave site in Wisconsin is now empty but is still marked with Wright's name.\n\nArchives\nAfter Wright's death, most of his archives were stored at the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation in Taliesin (in Wisconsin), and Taliesin West (in Arizona). These collections included more than 23,000 architectural drawings, some 44,000 photographs, 600 manuscripts, and more than 300,000 pieces of office and personal correspondence. It also contained about 40 large-scale architectural models, most of which were constructed for MoMA's retrospective of Wright in 1940. In 2012, to guarantee a high level of conservation and access, as well as to transfer the considerable financial burden of maintaining the archive, the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation partnered with the Museum of Modern Art and the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library of Columbia University to move the archive's content to New York. Wright's furniture and art collection remains with the foundation, which will also have a role in monitoring the archive. These three parties established an advisory group to oversee exhibitions, symposiums, events, and publications.\nPhotographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson and Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The architect's personal archives are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona. The Frank Lloyd Wright archives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuing through Wright's life, and other ephemera. The Getty Research Center, Los Angeles, also has copies of Wright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection. Wright's correspondence is indexed in An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence, ed. by Professor Anthony Alofsin, which is available at larger libraries.\n\nDestroyed Wright buildings\nWright designed over 400 built structures of which about 300 survived as of 2023. At least five have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August 1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone, Japan, destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. In January 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was destroyed by fire. In 2018 the Arch Oboler complex in Malibu, California was gutted in the Woolsey Fire.\nMany other notable Wright buildings were intentionally demolished: Midway Gardens (built 1913, demolished 1929), the Larkin Administration Building (built 1903, demolished 1950), the Francis Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (Chicago, built 1895, demolished 1971 and 1974, respectively), the Geneva Inn (Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, built 1911, demolished 1970), and the Banff National Park Pavilion (built 1914, demolished 1934). The Imperial Hotel (built 1923) survived the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, but was demolished in 1968 due to urban developmental pressures. The Hoffman Auto Showroom in New York City (built 1954) was demolished in 2013.\n\nUnbuilt and posthumously built\nSeveral of Wright's projects were either built after his death, or remain unbuilt. These include:\n\nCrystal Heights, a large mixed-use development in Washington, D.C., 1940 (unbuilt)\nThe Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt)\nMarin County Civic Center, a municipal complex in San Rafael, California; groundbreaking occurred just one year after Wright's death\nMonona Terrace, convention center in Madison, Wisconsin; designed 1938–1959, built in 1997\nClubhouse at the Nakoma Golf Resort, Plumas County, California; designed in 1923, opened in 2000\nPassive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii; designed in 1954, built in 1995\n\nRecognition\nLater in his life (and after his death in 1959), Wright was accorded significant honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received a Gold Medal award from The Royal Institute of British Architects in 1941. The American Institute of Architects awarded him the AIA Gold Medal in 1949. That medal was a symbolic \"burying the hatchet\" between Wright and the AIA. In a radio interview, he commented, \"Well, the AIA I never joined, and they know why. When they gave me the gold medal in Houston, I told them frankly why. Feeling that the architecture profession is all that's the matter with architecture, why should I join them?\" He was awarded the Franklin Institute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953. He received honorary degrees from several universities (including his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin), and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national academies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named \"The Building of the 20th century\" in an unscientific \"Top-Ten\" poll taken by members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list, Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects including Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe; he was the only architect who had more than one building on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum, the Frederick C. Robie House, and the Johnson Wax Building.\nIn 1992, the Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin, commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, by composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals, including a June 2013 revival at Fallingwater, in Bull Run, Pennsylvania, by Opera Theater of Pittsburgh. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater.\nIn 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp.\n\"So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright\" is a song written by Paul Simon. Art Garfunkel has stated that the origin of the song came from his request that Simon write a song about the famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright. Simon himself stated that he knew nothing about Wright, but proceeded to write the song anyway.\nIn 1957, Arizona made plans to construct a new capitol building. Believing that the submitted plans for the new capitol were tombs to the past, Frank Lloyd Wright offered Oasis as an alternative to the people of Arizona. In 2004, one of the spires included in his design was erected in Scottsdale.\nThe city of Scottsdale, Arizona renamed a portion of Bell Road, a major east–west thoroughfare in the Phoenix metropolitan area, in honor of Frank Lloyd Wright.\nEight of Wright's buildings – Fallingwater, the Guggenheim Museum, the Hollyhock House, the Jacobs House, the Robie House, Taliesin, Taliesin West, and the Unity Temple – were inscribed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites under the title The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright in July 2019. UNESCO stated that these buildings were \"innovative solutions to the needs for housing, worship, work or leisure\" and \"had a strong impact on the development of modern architecture in Europe\".\n\nFamily\nFrank Lloyd Wright was married three times, fathering four sons and three daughters. He also adopted Svetlana Milanoff, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright.\nHis wives/partners were:\n\nCatherine \"Kitty\" (Tobin) Wright (1871–1959); social worker, socialite (married in June 1889; divorced November 1922)\nMartha Bouton \"Mamah\" Borthwick (June 19, 1869 – August 15, 1914) was an American translator who had a romantic relationship with architect Frank Lloyd Wright (1909–1914), which ended when she was murdered after a male servant set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an axe as they fled the burning structure.\nMaude \"Miriam\" (Noel) Wright (1869–1930), artist (married in November 1923; divorced August 1927)\nOlga Ivanovna \"Olgivanna\" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897–1985), dancer and writer (married in August 1928)\nHis children with Catherine were:\n\nFrank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as Lloyd Wright (1890–1978), became a notable architect in Los Angeles. Lloyd's son, Eric Lloyd Wright (1929–2023), was an architect in Malibu, California, specializing in residences, but also designed civic and commercial buildings.\nJohn Lloyd Wright (1892–1972), invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced architecture extensively in the San Diego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Wright Ingraham (1922–2013), was an architect in Colorado Springs, Colorado. She was the mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the Pratt Institute.\nCatherine Wright Baxter (1894–1979) was a homemaker and the mother of Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter. Anne Baxter is the mother of Melissa Galt, an interior designer in Scottsdale, Arizona.\nDavid Samuel Wright (1895–1997) was a building-products representative for whom Wright designed the David & Gladys Wright House, which was rescued from demolition and given to the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture.\nFrances Wright Caroe (1898–1959) was an arts administrator.\nRobert Llewellyn Wright (1903–1986) was an attorney for whom Wright designed a house in Bethesda, Maryland.\nHis children with Olgivanna were:\n\nSvetlana Peters (1917–1946, adopted daughter of Olgivanna) was a musician who died in an automobile accident with her son Daniel. After Svetlana's death her other son, Brandoch Peters (1942– ), was raised by Frank and Olgivanna. Svetlana's widower, William Wesley Peters, was later briefly married to Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and only daughter of Joseph Stalin. William Wesley Peters served as chairman of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation from 1985 to 1991.\nIovanna Lloyd Wright (1925–2015) was an artist and musician.\n\nSelected works\nBooks\nAusgeführte Bauten und Entwürfe von Frank Lloyd Wright (Wasmuth Portfolio) (1910)\nAn Organic Architecture: The Architecture of Democracy (1939)\nIn the Cause of Architecture: Essays by Frank Lloyd Wright for Architectural Record 1908–1952 (1987)\nVisions of Wright: Photographs by Farrell Grehan, Introduction by Terence Riley ISBN 0-8212-2470-0 (1997)\n\nBuildings\nFrank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 1889–1909\nWinslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894\nFrank Thomas House, Oak Park, Illinois, 1901\nWard Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener's Cottage and Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901\nDana–Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902\nLarkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903 (demolished, 1950)\nDarwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905\nUnity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904\nDr. G.C. Stockman House, Mason City, Iowa, 1908\nEdward E. Boynton House, Rochester, New York, 1908\nFrederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909\nPark Inn Hotel, the last standing Wright designed hotel, Mason City, Iowa, 1910\nTaliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911 & 1925\nMidway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 (demolished, 1929)\nHollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles, 1919–1921\nEnnis House, Los Angeles, 1923\nImperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 (demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya, Japan, 1976)\nWesthope (Richard Lloyd Jones Residence, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1929\nMalcolm Willey House 1934, Minneapolis, Minnesota\nFallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Mill Run, Pennsylvania, 1935–1937\nJohnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936\nFirst Jacobs House, Madison, Wisconsin, 1936–1937\nUsonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s\nTaliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937\nWingspread, Herbert F. Johnson Residence in Wind Point, Wisconsin, 1937\nPope–Leighey House, Alexandria, Virginia, 1941\nChild of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida, 1941–1958, site of the largest collection of the architect's work\nFirst Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, 1947\nV. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, 1948\nKenneth and Phyllis Laurent House, Rockford, Illinois, only home Wright designed to be handicapped accessible, 1951\nPrice Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956\nBeth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954\nAnnunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, 1956–1961\nKentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956\nMarshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960\nMarin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, 1957–1966\nR. W. Lindholm Service Station, Cloquet, Minnesota, 1958\nSolomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1956–1959\nGammage Memorial Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964\n\nSee also\nRichard Bock\nFrank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy\nFrank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District\nGeorge Mann Niedecken\nList of Frank Lloyd Wright works\nList of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location\nJaroslav Joseph Polivka\nRoman brick\nThe 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright (UNESCO World Heritage site)\nCategory:Frank Lloyd Wright buildings\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nWright's philosophy\nHoffmann, Donald. Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-486-28364-X\nKienitz, John Fabian. \"Fifty-two years of Frank Lloyd Wright's progressivism, 1893–1945\". Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 29, no. 1 (September 1945):61–71.\nLaseau, Paul and Tice, James. Frank Lloyd Wright: Between Principle and Form, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. ISBN 0-442-23478-3\nMcCarter, Robert (ed.). Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1991. ISBN 1-878271-26-1\nMeehan, Patrick, ed. Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture. New York: Wiley, 1987. ISBN 0-471-84509-4\nRosenbaum, Alvin. Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America. Washington, DC: Preservation Press, 1993. ISBN 0-89133-201-4\nSergeant, John. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses: The Case for Organic Architecture. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1984. ISBN 0-8230-7178-2\nWright, Frank Lloyd (1947). Heywood, Robert B. (ed.). The Works of the Mind: The Architect. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 752682744.\nWright, Frank Lloyd. \"In the Cause of Architecture\", Architectural Record, March 1908. Reprinted in Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1: 1894–1930. New York: Rizzoli, 1992. ISBN 0-8478-1546-3\nWright, Frank Lloyd. The Natural House. New York: Horizon Press, 1954.\n\nBiographies\nAlofsin, Anthony (1993). Frank Lloyd Wright: the Lost Years, 1910–1922: A Study of Influence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226013664.\nAlofsin, Anthony (2019). Wright and New York: The Making of America's Architect. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-23885-3.\nFarr, Finis (1961). Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Scribner.\nFriedland, Roger; Zellman, Harold (2006). The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship. New York: Regan Books. ISBN 0-06-039388-2.\nGill, Brendan (1987). Many Masks: A Life of Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13232-5.\nHoag, Edwin; Hoag, Joy (1977). Masters of Modern Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe, and Walter Gropius. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill Company. ISBN 0-672-52365-5.\nHuxtable, Ada Louise (2004). Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Lipper/Viking. ISBN 0-670-03342-1.\nNisbet, Earl (2006). Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright. Petaluma, CA: Meridian Press. ISBN 0-9778951-0-6.\nRussell, Virginia L. (2001). \"You Dear Old Prima Donna: The Letters of Frank Lloyd Wright and Jens Jensen\". Landscape Journal. 20 (2): 141–155.\nSeckel, Harry (1938). \"Frank Lloyd Wright\". The North American Review. 246 (1): 48–64.\nSecrest, Meryle (1992). Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-56436-7.\nTreiber, Daniel (2008). Frank Lloyd Wright (Second ed.). Basel: Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-7643-8697-9.\nTwombly, Robert C. (1979). Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-03400-2.\nWright, Frank Lloyd (1943). Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce.\nWright, Iovanna Lloyd (1962). Architecture: Man in Possession of His Earth. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.\nWright, John Lloyd. My Father Who Is On Earth. New York: G.P. Putnam's sons, 1946. ISBN 0-8093-1749-4\nThe Life of Frank Lloyd Wright – Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation\nFrank Lloyd Wright – American Architect\n\nSurveys of Wright's work\nClearly, Richard; Levine, Neil; Marefat, Mina; Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks; Siry, Joseph M.; Stipe, Margo (2009). Frank Lloyd Wright: From Within Outward. New York: Skira Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-3263-7.\nBetsky, Aaron; Shapiro, Gideon Fink; Pielage, Andrew (2021). 50 Lessons to Learn from Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-6536-9.\nAguar, Charles; Aguar, Berdeana (2002). Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-140953-X.\nBlake, Peter (1964). Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture and Space. Baltimore: Penguin Books.\nFell, Derek (2009). The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Frances Lincoln. ISBN 978-0-7112-2967-9.\nHeinz, Thomas A. Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide. Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1999. ISBN 0-8101-2244-8\nHildebrand, Grant. The Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991. ISBN 0-295-97005-7\nLarkin, David and Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer. Frank Lloyd Wright: The Masterworks. New York: Rizzoli, 1993. ISBN 0-8478-1715-6\nLevine, Neil. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-691-03371-4\nLind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs. San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995. ISBN 0-87654-468-5\nMcCarter, Robert. Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Phaidon Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7148-3148-4\nPfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959: Building for Democracy. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2004. ISBN 3-8228-2757-6\nPfeiffer, Bruce Brooks and Peter Gössel (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: The Complete Works. Los Angeles: Taschen, 2009. ISBN 978-3-8228-5770-0\nRiley, Terence and Peter Reed (eds.). Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect. New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1994. ISBN 0-87070-642-X\nSmith, Kathryn. Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Master Architect. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998. ISBN 0-7892-0287-5\nStorrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. ISBN 0-226-77620-4\nStorrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. ISBN 0-226-77621-2\n\nSelected books about specific Wright projects\nLind, Carla. Frank Lloyd Wright's Usonian Houses. San Francisco: Promegranate Artbooks, 1994. ISBN 1-56640-998-5\nToker, Franklin. Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House. New York: Alford A. Knopf, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4026-4\nWhiting, Henry, II. At Nature's Edge: Frank Lloyd Wright's Artist Studio. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-87480-877-3\n\nThe women in his life\nBoyle, T. Coraghessan (2009). The women: a novel. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02041-6. OCLC 233548516.\n\nExternal links\n\nFrank Lloyd Wright at archINFORM\nFrank Lloyd Wright Foundation official website\nGuide to the Photographs of Frank Lloyd Wright 1950 May 16\nTaliesin Preservation, stewards of Wright's home Taliesin\nThe Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation Archives Archived December 21, 2018, at the Wayback Machine at Columbia University\nFrank Lloyd Wright documents at the Wisconsin Historical Society\nFrank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy\nFrank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House\nFrank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture\nFrank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program\nFrank Lloyd Wright – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources\nFrank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932\nFrank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey\nFrank Lloyd Wright – Famous Interior Designers Archived April 17, 2019, at the Wayback Machine\nComplete list of Wright buildings by location Archived April 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine\nSullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture\nAudio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright from The New York Review of Books\nFrank Lloyd Wright and Quebec\nFrank Lloyd Wright Archived January 19, 2013, at the Wayback Machine interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview recorded September 1 & 28, 1957\nInteractive Map of Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings, created in the Harvard WorldMap Platform\nMap of the Frank Lloyd Wright works – Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space Archived November 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine\nFay Jones and Frank Lloyd Wright: Organic Architecture Comes to Arkansas digital exhibit, University of Arkansas Libraries\nFrank Lloyd Wright's Personal Manuscripts and Letters\nPassive Solar Hemi-Cycle Home in Hawaii, designed in 1954, built in 1995; only Wright home in Hawaii. Interactive Tour.\nTaylor A. Woolley Papers at University of Utah Digital Library, Marriott Library Special Collections\nWright's Tokaido – FLW's annotated Hiroshige album – documentary at hiroshige.org.uk",
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"paragraph_text": "ASU Gammage (formerly known as Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium) is a multipurpose performing arts center at 1200 South Forest Avenue at East Apache Boulevard in Tempe, Arizona, within the main campus of Arizona State University (ASU). The auditorium, which bears the name of former ASU President Grady Gammage, is considered to be one of the last public commissions of American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. It was built from 1962 to 1964.\nASU Gammage stands as one of the largest exhibitors of performing arts among university venues in the world, featuring a wide range of genres and events.\nASU Gammage was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.\n\nHistory\nThe process that led to construction of the auditorium began in 1957 when incumbent university President Grady Gammage desired a unique facility for the ASU campus. In 1956, a collapsed roof rendered the school’s combination auditorium/gymnasium unusable. Gammage recruited his friend Frank Lloyd Wright to design the new building. He would, with various budget related alterations, base its design on a circular opera house that he had conceptualized for the city of Baghdad sometime prior upon the invitation of Iraqi King Faisal II. Plans for that opera house were abandoned after Faisal’s assassination in the 14 July Revolution. Wright is also said to be responsible for siting the auditorium, selecting an athletic field at 1200 South Forest Avenue which had formerly held on-campus G.I. housing units. \nWright and Gammage both died in 1959, leaving Wright's protégé William Wesley Peters to undertake completion of the auditorium. Spearheaded by the Robert E. McKee Company, construction of the facility commenced in 1962 and was completed twenty-five months later, officially opening on September 18, 1964, in time to host The Philadelphia Orchestra conducted by Eugene Ormandy.\n\nThe auditorium was used for the funeral of Arizona Senator and 1964 Republican presidential nominee Barry Goldwater on June 3, 1998.\nOn October 13, 2004, the auditorium was the site of the third and closing debate between George W. Bush and John Kerry in the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election.\n\nStructure\nThe structure measures 300 feet (91 m) long by 250 feet (76 m) wide by 80 feet (24 m) high. Fifty concrete columns support the round roof with its pattern of interlocking circles. Twin \"flying buttress\" pedestrian ramps extending 200 feet (61 m) from the north and east sides of the structure connect the building to the parking lot. The auditorium seats 3,017 people on its main floor, grand tier and balcony. The stage can be adapted for opera, theatricals, musicals, concerts, and lectures.\n\nPerformance and other spaces\nAuditorium\nThe auditorium has a maximum seating capacity of 3,017. It is wheelchair accessible and has an infrared system for 100 hearing-impaired people (in addition to signers).\nStage\n\nType: proscenium\nPlaying space dimensions: 64'x33' or 64'x40'\nProscenium opening: 64'x30'\nHeight grid/ceiling: 78'\nFloor type: Canadian hard rock maple\nRigging system type: 58 double purchase, 40 hydraulic (98 lines total)\nBackstage\n\nLoading dock\nDoor dimensions: 10'x11'6\nDressing rooms: 9\nMaximum capacity: 54\nDeck\nPermanent installations: traps in stage, orchestra shell, hydraulic orchestra pit, electricity in pit, music stands, pianos\nPit\n\nDimensions: 76'x9'\nNumber of stands: 85\nChairs for pit: 90\nElectrics/Sound\n\nBuilding electrics current: 9 panels-3-600/3-200/2-100/1-100 = 2700 total\nLighting board: computer memory\nLighting equipment: 32-8x13, 22-10x12, 55-6x9, 30 8\" Fresnels, 12 Par Cans, 12 Mini Strips\n\nSee also\nList of Frank Lloyd Wright works\nBroadway Across America\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nBibliography\n\nStorrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. University of Chicago Press, 2006, ISBN 0-226-77621-2 (S.432)\n\nExternal links\n\nASU Gammage\nPage with photos of the Gammage Auditorium\nGammage Auditorium on waymarking.com\nGammage Auditorium on peterbeers.net\nLion King at ASU Gammage\nPhotos on Arcaid",
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] | Who was the building named after on South Forest Avenue, which was built around 1959-1964 and designed by the architect married to Olga Lazovic? | [] | Grady Gammage | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Softball is a popular variation of baseball, the difference being that it is played with a larger ball, on a smaller field, and with only underhand pitches (where the ball is released while the hand is primarily below the ball) permitted. Softball is played competitively at club levels, the college level, and the professional level. The game was first created in 1887 in Chicago by George Hancock.\nThere are two rule sets for softball generally: slow-pitch softball and fastpitch. Slow-pitch softball is commonly played recreationally, while women's fastpitch softball was a Summer Olympic sport and can be played professionally. Softball was not included in the 2024 Summer Olympics but will return for the 2028 Summer Olympics.\nDepending on the variety being played and the age and gender of the players, the particulars of the field and equipment will also vary. While distances between bases of 60 feet are standard across varieties, the pitcher's plate ranges from 35 to 43 feet away from home plate, and the home run fence can be 220 to 300 feet away from home plate. The ball itself is typically 11 or 12 inches (28 or 30 centimetres) in circumference, though this also depends on specifics of the competition. Softball rules vary in certain aspects from those of baseball. The game moves at a faster pace than traditional baseball due to the field being smaller and the bases and the fielders being closer to home plate. Softball is pitched underhand from flat ground, whereas baseball is pitched overhand on what they call a 'mound'. A baseball mound is typically a pile of dirt with a rectangular pitching rubber on top, where the pitcher will then throw overhand and downward to the batter.\n\nHistory\nThe earliest known softball game was played in Chicago, Illinois, on Thanksgiving Day, 1887. It took place at the Farragut Boat Club at a gathering to hear the outcome of the Yale University and Harvard University football game. When the score was announced and bets were settled, a Yale alumnus threw a boxing glove at a Harvard supporter. The Harvard fan grabbed a stick and swung at the rolled-up glove. George Hancock, a reporter there, called out \"Play ball!\" and the game began, with the boxing glove tightened into a ball, a broom handle serving as a bat. This first contest ended with a score of 41–40. The ball, being soft, was fielded barehanded.\nHancock is credited as the game's inventor for his development of a 17-inch ball and an undersized bat in the next week. The Farragut Club soon set rules for the game, which spread quickly to outsiders. Envisioned as a way for baseball players to maintain their skills during the winter, the sport was called \"Indoor Baseball\". Under the name of \"Indoor-Outdoor,\" the game moved outside in the next year, and the first rules were published in 1889.\n\nIn 1895 Lewis Rober Sr. of Minneapolis organized outdoor games as exercise for firefighters; this game was known as kitten ball (after the first team to play it), lemon ball, or diamond ball. Rober's version of the game used a ball 12 inches (30 cm) in circumference, rather than the 16-inch (41 cm) ball used by the Farragut club, and eventually the Minneapolis ball prevailed, although the dimensions of the Minneapolis diamond were passed over in favor of the dimensions of the Chicago one. Rober may not have been familiar with the Farragut Club rules. Fire Station No. 19 in Minneapolis, Rober's post from 1896 to 1906, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in part for its association with the sport's development. The first softball league outside the United States was organized in Toronto, Ontario, in 1897.\nThe name \"softball\" dates back to 1926. The name was coined by Walter Hakanson of the YMCA at a meeting of the National Recreation Congress. (In addition to \"indoor baseball\", \"kitten ball\", and \"diamond ball\", names for the game included \"mush ball\", and \"pumpkin ball\".) The name softball had spread across the United States by 1930. By the 1930s, similar sports with different rules and names were being played all over the United States and Canada. A tournament held in 1933 at the Chicago World's Fair spurred interest in the game. By 1936, the Joint Rules Committee on Softball had standardized the rules and naming throughout the United States.\nSixteen-inch softball, also sometimes referred to as \"mush ball\" or \"super-slow pitch\" and is a direct descendant of Hancock's original game. Defensive players are not allowed to wear fielding gloves. Sixteen-inch softball is played extensively in Chicago, where devotees such as newspaper columnist Mike Royko consider it the \"real\" game, and New Orleans. In New Orleans, sixteen-inch softball is called \"Cabbage Ball\" or \"batter ball\" and is a popular team sport in area elementary and high schools.\nThe first cork-centered softball was created in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, by Emil \"Pops\" Kenesky.\nBy the 1940s, fast pitch began to dominate the game. Although slow pitch was present at the 1933 World's Fair, the main course of action taken was to lengthen the pitching distance. Slow pitch achieved formal recognition in 1953 when it was added to the program of the Amateur Softball Association, and within a decade had surpassed fast pitch in popularity.\nThe first British women's softball league was established in 1953.\nThe National Softball Hall of Fame and Museum was opened in Oklahoma City, United States, in 1957.\nIn 1991, women's fast pitch softball was selected to debut at the 1996 Summer Olympics. The 1996 Olympics also marked a key era in the introduction of technology in softball. The IOC funded a landmark bio-mechanical study on pitching during the games.\nIn 2002, sixteen-inch slow pitch was written out of the International Softball Federation (ISF) official rules, although it is still played extensively in the United States under The Amateur Softball Association of America, or ASA rules.\nThe 117th meeting of the International Olympic Committee, held in Singapore in July 2005, voted to drop softball and baseball as Olympic sports for the 2012 Summer Olympics. They were reinstated for the 2020 Summer Olympics held in 2021.\nOther sanctioning bodies of softball are AAU, NSA, PONY, Babe Ruth League, ASA, ISC, USSSA and Triple Crown.\n\nOverview\nFastpitch softball is played between two teams on a large field, with nine players (in 10u and above; 8u and below is usually played with ten players on a field at once) from one team on the field at a time. Slow-pitch softball is played with ten fielders but can be played with nine if needed.\nThe softball field is usually composed of a dirt or brick dust infield that contains the shape and running areas of a diamond and a grass outfield. However, the field can consist of other solid and dry surfaces such as artificial turf or asphalt. There are four bases on the infield: First base, second base, third base, and home plate. The bases are arranged in a square and are typically 60 feet (18 m) apart. Near the center of this square is the pitcher's circle, and within the circle is the \"rubber\", a small flat rectangular plate a foot and a half in length. The rubber distance from the plate in fastpitch can be as short as 35 feet for 10u players up to 43 feet for ages 14 and older. In slow pitch softball, the rubber distance can be 43, 46 or 50 feet depending on age level and the league one is playing in.\nThe object of the game is to score more runs (points) than the other team by batting (hitting) a ball into play and running around the bases, touching each one in succession. The ball is a sphere of light material, covered with leather or synthetic material. It is 11 to 12 inches (28–30 cm) (or, rarely, 16 in or 41 cm) in circumference. The game is officiated by one or more neutral umpires. Players and umpires are generally free to ask for a brief stoppage at any time when the ball is not in play (called a time out), or immediately following a play once its outcome is clear.\nThe game is played in usually seven innings. Each inning is divided into a top half, in which the away team bats and tries to score runs, while the home team occupies the field and tries to record three outs; then a bottom half, when the teams' roles are reversed. Some leagues play with a reduced number of innings or with a time limit, rather than the traditional seven innings.\nTo start play, the offense sends a batter to home plate. The batting order must be fixed at the start of the game, and players may not bat out of turn. The defense's pitcher stands atop the rubber and pitches the ball towards home plate using an underhand motion. In fast pitch, the pitcher is allowed to take one step back prior to releasing the ball during the forward movement. The batter attempts to hit the pitched ball with a bat, a long, round, smooth stick made of wood, metal or composite. If the pitcher throws three strikes against a batter, then the batter is out and the next batter in the order comes up to bat. A strike is recorded any time a batter swings at and misses a pitch or when a batter hits a ball foul (out of play). A strike is also recorded any time the batter does not swing at a pitch that crosses home plate within an area known as the strike zone. In fast pitch, to be within the strike zone, the pitch must cross over home plate, and as it crosses it must be above the knees and slightly below the shoulders (roughly the armpit or the shirt logo). The strike zone therefore varies from batter to batter. In slow pitch, the ball must land on a carpet or marked area behind the plate, therefore standardizing the strike zone. A pitch outside the strike zone is a ball. If the batter reaches four balls, the batter is awarded the first base in what is known as a \"walk\". The umpire behind home plate is the sole arbiter of balls and strikes. A foul ball may or may not result in a strikeout dependent upon what association and local league rules. However, bunting a foul ball does result in a strikeout. In some associations and leagues, bunting is not allowed and results in an out. Also, if a player has two strikes, swinging and partially hitting the ball can result in an out if the catcher manages to catch the tipped ball.\nThe batter attempts to swing the bat and hit the ball fair (into the field of play). After a successful hit the batter becomes a base runner (or runner) and must run to first base. The defense attempts to field the ball and may throw the ball freely between players, so one player can field the ball while another moves to a position to put out the runner. The defense can tag the runner, by touching the runner with the ball while the runner is not on a base. The defense can also touch first base while in possession of the ball; in this case it is sufficient to beat the batter to first base and an actual tag of the batter is unnecessary. A runner is said to be \"thrown out\" when the play involves two or more defensive players. Runners generally cannot be put out when touching a base, but only one runner may occupy a base at any time and runners may not pass each other. When a ball is batted into play, runners generally must attempt to advance if there are no open bases behind them; for example, a runner on first base must run to second base if the batter puts the ball in play. In such a situation, the defense can throw to the base that the lead runner is attempting to take (a force out), and the defense can then also throw to the previous base. This can result in a multiple-out play: a double play is two outs, while a triple play, a very rare occurrence, is three outs. Runners with an open base behind them are not forced to advance and do so at their own risk; the defense must tag such runners directly to put them out rather than tagging the base.\nA ball hit in the air and caught before hitting the ground, in fair or foul territory, puts the batter out. A fly ball is a ball hit high and deep, a pop fly is a ball hit high but short, and a line drive is a ball hit close to the horizontal. After the catch, runners must return to their original bases; if the defense throws the ball to that base before the runner returns, the runner is out as well, resulting in a double play. A runner who remains on the base until the ball is touched, or returns to the base (tags up) after the catch, may try to advance to the next base, at the risk of being tagged out between bases. As in baseball, the infield fly rule applies in some game situations to prevent the defense from recording multiple force outs by deliberately dropping an easy catch.\nOffensive strategy is mostly just to hit the ball skillfully to let the batter reach base and advance other runners around the bases to score runs. The count of balls and strikes indicates how aggressive the batter should be. The offense may try to sacrifice, with the batter deliberately making an out in order to advance runners. Defensive strategy is more complex, as particular situations (number of outs and positions of base-runners) and particular batters call for different positioning of fielders and different tactical decisions. The defense may decide to allow a run if it can achieve one or multiple outs.\n\nPlaying field\nThe playing field is divided into fair territory and foul territory. Fair territory is further divided into the infield, and the outfield.\nThe field is defined by foul lines that meet at a right angle at home plate. The minimum length of the baselines varies classification of play (see below for official measurements). A fence running between the baselines defines the limits of the field; distance from home plate to the fence varies by field. The widest part of the field is the distance between the foul poles, which are erected where the foul lines meet the fence and are about 310 to 420 feet (94 to 128 m) apart depending on the length of the foul lines.\nHome plate is one corner of a diamond with bases at each corner. The bases are cushions 15 inches (38 cm) square, of canvas or a similar material, and not more than 5 inches (13 cm) thick. The bases are usually securely fastened to the ground. The bases are numbered counterclockwise as first base, second base, and third base. Often, but not always, outside first base (that is, in foul territory) and adjacent and connected to it, there is a contrast-colored \"double base\" or \"safety base\" intended to prevent collisions between the first baseman and the runner. The runner runs for the foul portion of the double base after hitting the ball while the fielding team tries to throw the ball to the fair portion before the runner reaches the safety base. However, not all softball diamonds have these safety bases and they are much more common in women's softball than in men's. The double base is required in the U-18 Women's Softball World Cup.\nThe infield consists of the diamond and the adjacent space in which the infielders (see below) normally play. The outfield is the remaining space between the baselines and between the outfield fence and the infield. The infield is usually \"skinned\" (dirt), while the outfield has grass in regulation competitions.\nNear the center of the diamond is the pitching plate, or colloquially \"rubber\". In fastpitch, a circle 16 feet (4.9 meters) in diameter known as the pitching circle is marked around the pitching plate.\nA field is officially required to have a warning track between 15 and 12 feet (4.6 and 3.7 meters) from the outfield fence. However, if the game is being played on a field larger than required, no warning track is required before the temporary outfield fencing.\nLocated in foul territory outside both baselines are two coach's boxes. Each box is behind a line 15 feet (4.6 meters) long located 12 feet (3.7 meters) from each baseline.\n\nOfficial baseline dimensions\nPitching distances\nEquipment\nEquipment required in softball includes a ball, a bat (composite, metal or wooden), gloves, uniforms and protective gear. For example, helmets for the offensive team and a helmet, shin guards, and chest protector for the defensive catcher. Also cleats, sliding shorts, face masks and knee sliders may be worn for softball.\n\nBall\nDespite the sport's name, the ball is not actually soft, though it does have a lower density and greater coefficient of restitution than a baseball.\nThe size of the ball varies according to the variety played and age of the participants. The circumference for fastpitch for adults is 12±0.125 in (30.5±0.3 cm), with a mass between 6.25 and 7.0 oz (177 and 198 g), while children under 12 use a ball with a circumference of 11±0.125 in (27.9±0.3 cm) with a mass between 5.875 and 6.125 oz (166.6 and 173.6 g). A 12-inch circumference ball is generally used in slow pitch. (For comparison, a baseball is 9 to 9+1⁄4 inches (229–235 mm) in circumference and has a mass between 5 and 5+1⁄4 ounces (142–149 g).)\nThe ball is covered in two pieces of leather or similar synthetic covering that are roughly the shape of a figure-8 and sewn together along a continuous seam. The core of the ball may be made of long fiber kapok, a mixture of cork and rubber, a polyurethane mixture, or another approved material.\nBefore 1993, white balls were standard at all levels of play. In that year, a new, fluorescent optic yellow colored ball was first used in college softball. Yellow softballs have become the standard for all levels of play; white balls are also still allowed but are very uncommon today.\nIn Chicago, where softball was invented, it remains traditional to play a variant of slow-pitch with a ball 16 inches (41 centimeters) in circumference. The fielders do not wear gloves or mitts. A 16-inch softball when new is rough and hard, with hand and finger injuries to fielders frequent if they do not \"give\" when receiving a ball, but the ball \"breaks in\" slightly during a game and continues to soften over time with continued play. A well-broken-in ball is called a mush ball and is favored for informal \"pick-up\" games and when playing in limited space, such as a city street (because the ball does not go as far). A 16-inch ball is also used for wheelchair softball.\n\nBat\nThe bat used by the batter can be made of wood, aluminum, or composite materials such as carbon fiber. Sizes may vary but they may be no more than 34 inches (86 cm) long, 2.4 inches (6 cm) in diameter, or 38 ounces (1.1 kg) in mass. The standard barrel diameter for both slow pitch and fast pitch softball bats is 2+1⁄4 inches. Many players prefer a smaller barrel, which reduces mass and allows higher swing speed.\nAlthough there are a variety of bats used, there are several that are banned due to performance enhancement. For example, with a thinner wall, the ball recoils faster off the bat, allowing it to travel further. Many bats may be \"doctored\" or \"juiced\" by being end loaded, shaved, or painted. End loading of a cap refers to the addition of weight manually placed at the end of the barrel to distribute more weight at the tip. Shaving bats require machine use in order to remove the inner walls of the bat to improve elasticity. Lastly, illegal bats may be painted to resemble legal ones.\n\nGloves\nAll defensive players wear fielding gloves, made of leather or similar material. Gloves have webbing between the thumb and forefinger, known as the \"pocket\". Gloves used in softball are typically larger than the ones used in baseball to account for the larger ball. No glove larger than 14 in (36 cm) can be used in ASA (American Softball Association) sanctioned play.\nWhile extremely rare in recreational play, there are sometimes different size gloves for different positions on the field. Catchers and first baseman have what is called a mitt, whose pockets are larger than other gloves. These are more padded. An outfielder's glove is smaller than the catcher's, typically 12 inches to 13 inches for fast pitch softball or 12 to 15 inches for slow pitch. An infielder's glove is the smallest, typically from 11.5 inches to 13 inches. A pitcher's glove is typically 11.5 to 12.5 inches for fast pitch or 11.5 to 13 inches for slow pitch.\nNo part of the glove is allowed to be the same color as that of the ball, including that of its seams. Pitchers are also not allowed to have any white on their gloves including the seams. The umpire has discretion to determine whether any coloring on the glove interferes with or hinders the batter from seeing the ball clearly.\n\nUniform\nEach team wears a distinctive uniform. The uniform may include a cap, a shirt displaying team colors and the players' number, sliding undershorts/compression shorts (optional), socks, and pants/athletic shorts. The team is required to have all of its members wear the same uniform.\nCaps, visors, and headbands are optional for female players, and have to be the same color. Caps are mandatory for male players. A fielder who chooses to wear a helmet or face mask is not required to wear a cap.\nMany players use \"sliding shorts\", otherwise known as compression shorts in other sports. These can be outfitted with a pouch for fitting a protective cup for male players. These shorts also help to protect the upper thigh when sliding into a base. \"Sliders\" may also be worn for similar protection. These are somewhat padded shin guards that extend usually from the ankle to the knee of the wearer and wrap all the way around the leg(s). They protect the shin, calf, etc. from getting bruised or damaged while sliding into home plate and make it much more comfortable to slide into the plate. Some male players use long, baseball-style pants. However, some female players now wear a shorter version of baseball pants.\nAt the back of the uniform, an Arabic numeral from numbers 0 through 99 must be visible. Numbers such as 02 and 2 are considered identical. Also, on the back of the uniform's players' names are optional.\nAll players are required to wear shoes. They may have cleats or spikes. The spikes must extend less than 0.75 in (19 mm) away from the sole. Rounded metal spikes are illegal, as are ones made from hard plastic or other synthetic materials. High school athletes are sometimes permitted to wear metal cleats, such as in Ohio.\nMany recreational leagues prohibit the use of metal cleats or spikes to reduce the possible severity of injuries when a runner slides feet-first into a fielder. At all youth (under 15) levels, in co-ed (the official terminology for mixed teams) slow pitch, and in modified pitch, metal spikes are usually not allowed.\n\nProtective equipment\nHelmets must be worn by batters and runners. A helmet must have two ear flaps, one on each side. Helmets and cages that are damaged or altered are forbidden. In NCAA fastpitch softball, players have the option to wear a helmet with or without a face mask. Most female travel ball teams for fastpitch softball require the batter to wear a helmet with a face mask. In male fastpitch masks are generally only used for medical reasons.\nIn fastpitch, the catcher must wear a protective helmet with a facemask and throat protector, shin guards and body protector. Shin guards also protect the kneecap. In slow pitch, the catcher must wear a helmet, chest protector and mask at youth levels. At adult levels, there is no formal requirement for the catcher to wear a mask, although the official rules recommend it. A catcher may optionally wear a body protector in adult slow pitch.\nWhile mandatory for the pitcher in some slow pitch leagues, there is an option to wear a face mask on the field. It is recommended in lower age groups. It must be in proper condition and not damaged, altered, or the like. This is intended to prevent facial injuries.\n\nUmpires\nDecisions about plays are made by umpires. The number of umpires on a given game can range from a minimum of one to a maximum of seven. There is never more than one \"plate umpire\"; there can be up to three \"base umpires\", and up to a further three umpires positioned in the outfield. Most fastpitch games use a crew of two umpires (one plate umpire, one base umpire).\nOfficial umpires are often nicknamed \"blue\", because of their uniforms – in many jurisdictions, most significantly ISF, NCAA and USA Softball games, umpires wear navy blue slacks, a light powder blue shirt, and a navy baseball cap. Some umpires wear a variant of the uniform: some umpires in USA Softball wear heather gray slacks and may also wear a navy blue or powder blue shirt; umpires from the USSSA wear red shirts with grey slacks; National Softball Association (NSA) umpires wear an official NSA white-colored umpire shirt with black pants or black shorts; NSA fastpitch umpires wear the white NSA umpires shirt and heather gray slacks.\nDecisions are usually indicated by both the use of hand signals, and by vocalizing the call. Safe calls are made by signaling with flat hands facing down moving away from each other, and a verbal call of \"safe\". Out calls are made by raising the right hand in a clenched fist, with a verbal call of \"out\". Strikes are called by the plate umpire, who uses the same motion as the out call with a verbal call of \"strike\". Balls are only called verbally, with no hand gesture. The umpire also has the option of not saying anything on a ball. It is understood that when he stands up, the pitch was not a strike. Foul balls are called by extending both arms up in the air with a verbal call of \"foul ball\", while fair balls are indicated only by pointing towards fair territory with no verbal call. No signal is given for balls that are obviously foul; for closer calls that are not borderline a signal is given.\nAll decisions made by the umpire(s) are considered to be final. Only decisions where a rule might have been misinterpreted are considered to be protest able. At some tournaments there might be a rules interpreter or Tournament Chief Umpire (TCU) (also known as the Umpire In Chief, or UIC) available to pass judgment on such protests, but it is usually up to the league or association involved to decide if the protest would be upheld. Protests are never allowed on what are considered \"judgment calls\" – balls, strikes, and fouls. As of the 2021–22 academic year, a coach of an NCAA team is allowed to protest a call made by the umpire through what is called “video review” during the game. The opposing team only has until the next pitch to initiate the protest, and they are only allowed two a game.\n\nGameplay\nA softball game can last anywhere from 3 to 7 innings, or 1–2 hours depending on the league, rules, and type of softball. The teams take turns batting. Officially, which team bats first is decided by a coin toss, although a league may decide otherwise at its discretion. The most common rule is that the home team bats second. Batting second is also called \"last at-bat\". Many softball players prefer to bat second because they feel they have more control in the last inning, since they have the last at-bat.\nIn the event of a tie, extra innings are usually played until the tie is broken except in certain tournaments and championships. If the home team is leading and the road team has just finished its half of the seventh inning, the game ends because it is not necessary for the home team to bat again. In all forms of softball, the defensive team is the fielding team; the offensive team is at bat or batting and is trying to score runs.\n\nPitching\nPlay often, but not always, begins with the umpire saying, \"play ball\". After the batter is ready and all fielders (except the catcher) are in fair territory at their respective positions, the pitcher stands at the pitching plate and attempts to throw the ball past the batter to the catcher behind home plate. The throw, or pitch, must be made with an underhand motion.\nThe pitcher throws the ball in or around the \"strike zone\". However, in advanced play pitcher and catcher play a psychological game trying to get the batter to guess where the next pitch is going and if it will be a strike. In other instances, such as when an extremely powerful hitter comes up to bat and they are followed by a weaker hitter, a pitcher may deliberately walk the first batter based on the calculation that the next batter will be an easy out. The strike zone is slightly different in different forms of softball. A pitch that passes through that zone is a \"strike\". A pitch at which the batter swings is also a strike, as is any hit ball that lands in foul territory that is not caught out.\nA pitch that is not a strike and at which the batter does not swing is known as a \"ball\". The number of balls and strikes is called the \"count\". The number of balls is always given first, as 2 and 1, 2 and 2, and so on. A count of 3 and 2 is a \"full count\" since the next ball or strike will end the batter's turn at the plate unless the ball goes foul.\n\nSlow pitch\nIn most versions of slow pitch (including 16-inch) the pitch is lobbed so that the ball rises above the batter's head and lands on a small rectangular area on the ground behind the plate called \"the well\". Umpires will make calls based on where the ball lands behind the plate; a pitch landing in the well is a strike. These restrictions make it much easier to put the ball into play and extremely difficult to use pitching as a defensive strategy, as the physics of projectile motion limit how fast a ball can be thrown under such conditions and still be called a strike. In other varieties of slow pitch (sometimes known as \"modified\"), the only restriction is that the windmill cannot be used; thus the pitching arm cannot be raised above the shoulder and both the wind-up and the release must be underhand, still allowing for moderate speed and control in pitching.\n\nFastpitch\nFor fastpitch softball, the traditional pitching style is a \"windmill\" motion, extending the arm above the body and releasing the ball at about hip level at maximum speeds. Strength acquired in the underhand windmill motion is based on the open-to-close hip motion.\nPitches may reach high speeds. In women's fastpitch, depending on the age group, pitchers can throw from 30 to 65 mph (48 to 105 km/h) or more. The fastest pitch ever recorded was at 77 mph (124 km/h) by Monica Abbott on June 16, 2012. At the 1996 Summer Olympics one pitch reached 73.3 mph (118.0 km/h). Male pitching can reach speeds around 85 mph (137 km/h). To compare, MLB players average around 90 mph (140 km/h) but can reach speeds up to 100 mph (160 km/h). Although slower than baseball pitches, the shorter pitching distance in fastpitch results in batters having a comparable time to react to a pitch as in baseball.\nThrowing fastballs for speed is not always the most important factor in fastpitch softball. Pitchers can throw breaking balls that move late in their flight, fooling batters into swinging at pitches outside the strike zone or, conversely, not swinging at pitches that pass through the strike zone. These include balls that break inwards (screwball) and outwards (curveball) on right-handed batters, starting off the plate and moving into the strike zone or starting towards the strike zone and moving off the plate. There are also rise balls that break upwards, frequently starting in the strike zone and ending above it, and drop balls that break downward. Another common pitch is the change-up, an intentionally slow pitch that initially appears to be a fastball, causing the batter to swing too early and miss or foul off the pitch. Rarer is the knuckleball, which moves slowly and erratically. Pitchers use deception as a primary tactic for getting batters out as the reaction times are approximately half a second or less. At higher levels of play, pitchers aim for the inner and outer corners of the plate when throwing fastballs and breaking pitches. Pitchers also vary the location of the pitch by height to make hitting the ball even harder for the batter. Pitchers also throw knuckleballs which are generally slower and move erratically.\nA \"crow hop\" is an illegal pitch that occurs when the pitcher pushes with the pivot foot from somewhere other than the pitching plate. This often involves jumping from the pitching plate and replanting somewhere in front of the pitching plate. For an illegal pitch, the umpire extends his left arm straight out to the side and clenches his fist. This results in a ball being awarded to the batter, and any runners on base advancing to the next base. If the batter swings at the pitch that is deemed illegal and puts the ball in play, the offense is given the option to accept the results of the play or accept the penalty listed previously (exception: if the play results in the batter and any runners all advancing at least one base, the play stands and no option is given). The image to the right demonstrates a legal pitch as the push-off foot has not left the ground. The ball must be released simultaneously with the lead leg step.\n\nBatters\nThe offensive team sends one \"batter\" at a time to home plate to use the bat to try to hit the pitch forward into fair territory. The order the players bat in, known as the \"batting order\", must stay the same throughout the game. Substitutes and replacements must bat in the same position as the player they are replacing. In co-ed, male and female batters must alternate.\nThe batter stands facing the pitcher inside a \"batter's box\" (there is one on each side of the plate to compensate for either right- or left-handed batters). The bat is held with both hands, over the shoulder, and away from the pitcher (90-degree angle). The ball is usually hit with a full swinging motion in which the bat may move through more than 360 degrees. The batter usually steps forward with the front foot, the body weight shifts forward, as the batter simultaneously swings the bat. A bunt is another form of batting. There are different types, including a sacrifice bunt, or slap bunt. There is also regular slapping in which a batter takes position on the left side of the plate and usually stands in the back of the box, but it is possible form anywhere. The batter takes a step back with their leading foot as the pitcher is in the middle of the windup, crosses over with their back foot and runs toward first base while they swing. There are many different types of slapping and they all vary depending on the batter and their strengths. There are half swing slaps, fake slaps, and full swing slaps. Each type of slap has a different purpose or goal. No matter what way the batter hits the ball, they must be inside the batter's box when the bat makes contact with the ball. If the batter steps out of the box while swinging, the batter is out.\nOnce the ball is hit into fair territory, the runner must try to advance to first base or beyond. While running to first base, the batter is a \"batter-runner\". When she safely reaches first (see below) she becomes a \"base-runner\" or \"runner\".\nA batted ball hit high in the air is a \"fly ball\". A fly ball hit upward at an angle greater than 45 degrees is a \"pop fly\". A batted ball driven in the air through the infield at a height at which an infielder could play it if in the right position is a \"line drive\". A batted ball which hits the ground within the diamond is a \"ground ball\". If a batted ball hits a player or a base, it is considered to have hit the ground.\nA batter can also advance to first if hit by the pitch. If a batter is hit by the pitch it is a dead ball and she is rewarded first base. She must make an attempt to get out of the way and it is the umpire's judgmental call whether the batter attempted to move. If he feels the batter could have moved and avoided getting hit he or she will not reward the batter first base and the pitch will be recorded as a ball.\n\nGetting the batter out\nThe batter is out if: the batter accrues three strikes (a \"strikeout\"); a ball hit by the batter is caught before touching the ground (a \"flyout\"); the batter goes to a base that is already tagged (\"tagged\" or \"tag play\"); a fielder holding the ball touches a base which is the only base towards which the batter may run before the batter arrives there (a \"force out\" or \"force play\"); or in certain special circumstances. There is also a not so common occurrence when the batter has two strikes and swings at strike three. If the catcher does not catch the ball, the batter has the chance to run to first base and the catcher can throw the batter out at first base.\n\nAdvancing around the bases\nIf the player hits the ball and advances to a base without a fielding error or an out being recorded, then that is called a \"base hit\". The bases must be reached in order counterclockwise, starting with first base. After hitting the ball the batter may advance as many bases as possible. An advance to first base on the one hit is a \"single\", to second base is a \"double\", to third base is a \"triple\", and to home plate is a \"home run\". Home runs are usually scored by hitting the ball over the outfield fence, but may be scored on a hit which does not go over the fence. A home run includes any ball that bounces off a fielder and goes over the fence in fair-territory (depending upon association and local league rules) or that hits the foul pole. If a batted ball bounces off a fielder (in fair territory) and goes over the fence in foul territory, or if it goes over the fence at a location that is closer than the official distance, the batter is awarded a double instead.\nIf a runner becomes entitled to the base where another runner is standing, the latter runner must advance to the next base. For example, if a player hits the ball and there is a runner on first, the runner on first must try to advance to second because the batter-runner is entitled to first base. If the batter reaches first base without being put out, then that player can then be forced to run towards second base the next time a ball is driven into fair territory. That is because the player must vacate first base to allow the next batter to reach it, and consequently can only go to second base, where a force out may be recorded.\nRunners may advance at risk to be put out: on a hit by another player; after a fly ball has been caught, provided the player was touching a base at the time the ball was first touched or after; or (in fastpitch) automatically, when a pitch is delivered illegally.\nRunners advance without liability to be put out: when a walk advances another player to the runner's current base; or automatically in certain special circumstances described below.\nIn the recent years, the NCAA rules changed when concerning the batters feet while in the box. The rule now states that as long as any part of the batter's foot is in the box the ball will stay live. It is not until the batter's entire foot is out of the box, that the play will be declared dead and the batter called out. The SEC (college ball), however, claims that if any part of the batter's foot is out of the box when she makes contact, she is out and the play is dead.\n\nSpecial circumstances\nIf there is a \"wild throw\" (or \"overthrow\") in which the ball goes out of the designated play area, each runner is awarded two bases from the last base touched at the time of the throw. Retreating past a made base, negates the advance to that base. If a fielder intentionally carries a ball out of play, two bases are awarded from the time the ball leaves the field of play. If this is unintentional (fielder's momentum), the award is one base. If on a tag play, the fielder loses control (after establishing control) of the ball and it leaves the field of play, one base is awarded.\nIf there is a \"wild pitch\" in which the ball goes out of the designated play area, each runner is awarded one base from the base occupied at the time of the pitch.\nIn fastpitch, runners may try to steal bases by running to the next base on the pitch and reaching it before being tagged with the ball. The point at which a runner can steal a base varies. In fastpitch, the runner is allowed to begin stealing a base when the ball is released from the \"windmill\" pitching motion, but until recently, stealing was forbidden in slow pitch because a runner has the opportunity to get a larger head start while the slow pitch is making its way to the batter. As a result of rule changes initiated by the Independent Softball Association which later made its way to the Amateur Softball Association and the International Softball Federation in the 21st century, most levels of slow pitch permit stealing bases, provided the runner starts when the ball either touches the ground or crosses the plate. This rule encourages pitchers to be more responsible with the pitch and catchers to play defense, as balls which miss the catcher are now grounds to have stolen bases.\nNo matter what level of play, all baserunners must keep one foot on a base until the pitcher throws the ball or until the ball crosses the front edge of home plate (depends on association).\nIn fastpitch, if the catcher drops strike three (a \"passed ball\") with no less than two outs, the batter can attempt to run to first base if first base is unoccupied. The catcher must then attempt to throw the ball to first base ahead of the runner. If he or she cannot, the runner is safe. With two outs, the batter can attempt to run to first whether or not it is already occupied.\nDepending on the league in slow pitch only a foul ball with two strikes on the batter means the batter is out. Stealing in 16-inch softball is severely restricted, as a runner may only steal the base in front of them if it is open, and if they are thrown at, à la pickoff move or snap throw. This results in many inexperienced players being thrown or doubled off when they attempt to advance on a wild pickoff at another baserunner.\n\nScoring runs\nA \"run\" is scored when a player has touched all four bases in order, proceeding counterclockwise around them. They need not be touched on the same play; a batter may remain safely on a base while play proceeds and attempt to advance on a later play.\nA run is not scored if the last out is a force out or occurs during the same play that the runner crosses home plate. For instance, if a runner is on third base prior to a hit, and he or she crosses home plate after an out is made, either on the batter or another runner, the run is not counted.\n\nEnding the game\nThe team with the most runs after seven innings wins the game. The last (bottom) half of the seventh inning or any remaining part of the seventh inning is not played if the team batting second is leading.\nIf the game is tied, play usually continues until a decision is reached, by using the international tie-breaker rules. Starting in the top of first extra inning, the batting team starts with a baserunner on second base, which is the player who is the last available to bat (in other words, the batter who last took their position in the batter's box; regardless whether they were the last out or another runner was put out).\nIn games where one team leads by a large margin, the run ahead rule may come into play in order to reduce any potential embarrassment of weaker teams. In fastpitch and modified pitch, a margin of 15 runs after 3 innings, 10 after 4, or 7 after 5 is sufficient for the leading team to be declared the winner. In slow pitch, the margin is 20 runs after 4 innings or 15 after 5 innings. In the NCAA, the required margin after 5 innings is 8 runs. The mercy rule takes effect at the end of an inning. Thus, if the team batting first is ahead by enough runs for the rule to come into effect, the team batting second has their half of the inning to narrow the margin.\nA game may be lost due to a \"forfeit\". A score of 7–0 for the team not at fault is recorded (generally one run is awarded for each inning that would have been played). A forfeit may be called due to any of these circumstances: if a team does not show up to play; if one side refuses to continue play; if a team fails to resume play after a suspension of play ends; if a team uses tactics intended to unfairly delay or hasten the game; if a player removed from the game does not leave within one minute of being instructed to do so; if a player that cannot play enters the game and one pitch has been thrown; if a team does not have, for whatever reason, enough players to continue; or if after warning by the umpire, a player continues to intentionally break the rules of the game. This last rule is rarely enforced as players who break rules after being warned are usually removed.\nThe plate umpire may suspend play because of darkness or anything that puts players or spectators in danger. If four innings have been played and a team is in the lead, the game is recorded as it stands. If fewer than four innings have been played, the game is not considered a \"regulation\" game. Games that are not regulation or are tied when suspended are resumed from the point of suspension. If it is a championship game, it is replayed from the beginning. Team rosters may be changed.\n\nPositions\nThere are nine players out on the field at one time in fastpitch softball and ten players in slow-pitch softball. Although the pitcher and catcher have the ball the most, each person has a specific job. In the infield there is the pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, shortstop, and third baseman. In the outfield there is a left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. In slow-pitch softball there is an extra outfielder in the outfield, who is specified as a roamer or rover. Normally, the defensive team will play with four outfielders, meaning there is a left fielder, left-center fielder, right-center fielder, and right fielder. The recent trend with tournament and league slow pitch softball play is to field five infielders instead of four outfielders. The extra infielder is commonly placed behind the pitcher on either side of second base.\n\nPitcher\nThe pitcher is the individual who throws the ball from the middle of the diamond. As in baseball, fastpitch softball has a rubber used to control the pitcher's delivery. A pitcher must have both feet on the rubber at the start of their delivery but neither foot is on the rubber when the ball is released. In baseball, the rubber is on a mound of dirt as gravity is used to generate speed. In softball, the pitchers throw from within a circle and the rubber in the circle is not elevated. The circle is also used to control base runners. When the pitcher is in possession of the ball in the circle, a runner who has passed a base must either advance or return to the base. They cannot \"bait\" the pitcher to throw or they will be called out. The pitcher tries to throw the ball in the strike zone. In order to do that, they start while having the ball in their glove, they throw their arms behind their hips, they shoot forwards with their leg, which is on the same side as their glove, and leave their glove hand there and the other arm goes around the shoulder, bends the elbow, and turns their wrist toward the third baseman, and brings their arm through at the end, flicks their wrist, (which affects the ball's speed, spin and subsequent motion), and brings the arm up, with the hand by their shoulder. They follow through with their legs turning their pitching stance into a fielding stance. They try to release the ball when they go past their hips. In softball, the pitcher uses an underarm motion to pitch the ball towards the strike zone. As soon as the pitcher makes a throw, the fielders are ready to field balls that are hit in the middle of the diamond. Pitchers usually tend to be tall, very flexible and have good upper body strength. Pitchers can be righthanded or lefthanded. The softball pitcher makes a windmill motion while throwing underhand, unlike baseball pitchers who throw overhand.\n\nCatcher\nThe catcher is normally behind home plate in a squatted position (some plays may require the catcher to stand at an angle for intentional walks). At the plate the catcher is responsible for catching pitches, keeping mis pitched balls in front of the plate, calling pitches that are normally done through hand signals, picking off runners, and they are considered the leaders of the field. Catchers must know how many outs there are, the number of strikes and balls on the batter so they can relay that to their teammates. They must also know how many runners are on base and where the ball should be thrown next in the following play. Catchers are strong, need to be smart and quick on their feet, and have accurate throws so they can pick runners off at each base. Catchers should be able to have strong and muscular legs to squat for a long period of time. The gear worn by a catcher protects them from balls thrown in the dirt or wild pitches. The catcher is allowed to take off his/her mask to catch a pop fly or to watch the play.\n\nFirst baseman\nThe first baseman is the position to the left side of the diamond when facing home plate. The major role of the first baseman is to receive throws from other defensive players in order to get a force play at first base. Another role they play is to make fielding plays on all balls hit towards first base. The first baseman is usually involved in every play that occurs on the field. Individuals at first base have quick hands and good reach and are always on the lookout to catch the player off base. They are also generally taller and left-handed throwing, which gives them an extended reach. First basemen, however, can be both left- and right-handed. Just like the catcher, first basemen may wear specific first base mitts, usually having a longer web allowing them to reach the taller throws over their head.\n\nSecond baseman\nThe second baseman plays in between the first baseman and second base itself, usually closer to second base. If the ball is hit to the left side of the field, the second baseman covers second base. If the ball is hit to right field or center field, they become the cut-off for the center fielder or the right fielder depending on who the ball was hit to. If the ball is hit to the first baseman, the second baseman then is responsible for covering first. If the ball is hit to the second baseman, they either throw the ball to second if there was already a player on first, or they throw to first if there was nobody on. If there is a runner on first and the person up to bat hits the ball to the shortstop or the third baseman, the second baseman is in charge of covering second to receive the throw from the shortstop or third baseman. Then, depending on where the runner is between home and first, the second baseman makes the decision to throw the ball to first or to hold the ball. Also, in the case of a bunt, the second baseman must cover first as the first baseman runs to get the ball from the bunt, then it is often thrown back to first base.\n\nShortstop\nThe shortstop fields all balls hit to the infield between the second and third bases. This individual also helps cover second and third bases, is frequently involved in force plays and double plays, and often throws the ball to the catcher to throw out runners at home plate. On steals to second base (when the runner from first is advancing to second on the pitch) the shortstop usually covers. The shortstop does not cover second base only when a right-handed batter is up. In this case, the second baseman covers the steal. Most shortstops are very quick, agile and think fast. Shortstops may play in a restricted zone but are faced with many types of hits and interact closely with the second base, third base and home plate. Often double plays are due to quick thinking/reaction by the shortstop. When a ball is hit up the middle and the shortstop catches it, they will flip the ball to the second baseman for the best result. Shortstop also takes the cut off for the left field when the play is at second base. When the ball is hit to the right side of the outfield, the shortstop then covers second base. If there is a runner on first base and there is a hit down the line or in the gap to right field, the shortstop will then go for the cut to third. Meaning the runner that is going from first to second will most likely be advancing to third, and in that case, the shortstop will be the cut off for the throw from right field to third base. Shortstop can be one of the most difficult positions to play due to the number of balls being hit in that direction.\n\nThird baseman\nThe third baseman is the position on the right side of the diamond when you are facing home plate. They are responsible for fielding all balls hit their way including bunts. In fact, the third baseman fields more bunts than a pitcher and first baseman do. Third base is also called the \"Hot Corner\" because the ball can pop off the bat at the fielder very fast. Third baseman must have great reflexes and be very quick on their feet because not only to they need to be quick to field a bunt but also if they are unable to predict whether the batter will bunt or hit, a ball that is hit may be a line drive to the face. It also helps if they can run fast but it is not a requirement. A third baseman must have a very strong arm so that they can throw a runner out from across the diamond. Any ball that the third baseman can get, they should. They will have more momentum towards first base when fielding the ball than a shortstop. They are also closer to first base when they cut off a slower ground ball towards shortstop. Third baseman are responsible for covering third base at all times unless the ball is hit to them. In that instance, the shortstop is responsible for third base. Third baseman must be smart, have great reflexes, have a strong accurate arm, and be quick with their hands.\n\nOutfielders\nThe outfielders are players that cover the grassy area behind the infield. Outfielders are named for their positions in the field relative to home plate. Traditional outfield positions include a left fielder, a center fielder, and a right fielder. Each player has a specific job as being an outfielder.\n\nRight fielder\nThe right fielder's position is on the right side of the field, in the opening between the first and second basemen, when looking at the field from behind home plate. The right fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. The right fielder has a multitude of jobs over the course of a softball game. Generally, outfielders act as a back-up to the infielders when they make plays or if the ball is hit past the infield. Right field has a particular job of covering the area behind first base if the ball is to be thrown in that area. Right field is meant to cover this area if the ball gets past the first baseman. This will prevent base-runners from advancing to unwanted bases. Traditionally in the game of softball, the right fielder will have the strongest arm out of the two other outfielders. The right fielder must have the strongest arm because they have the furthest possibility to throw the ball. A right fielder will throw the ball to each base more than the other outfielders will because of their position in respect to the bases.\n\nCenter fielder\nThe center fielder's position is in the middle of the outfield directly behind second base when looking at the field from behind home plate. The center fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. Center fielders technically serve as the \"captains\" of the outfield. They are and should be the most vocal in effectively communicating with their outfielders. Since the outfielders are further apart from each other, it can be hard to hear each other. The center fielder covers the area behind second base if the ball is going to be thrown in that direction. By covering this area, if the ball does get past the infielder, the center fielder can prevent baserunners from advancing to unwanted bases. Within the game of softball, the center fielder is traditionally the fastest of the three outfielders. The center fielder needs to be the quickest because of the large area of field they must cover. Besides being a quick player, the center fielder must have a strong throwing arm because of the distance between the player and home plate.\n\nLeft fielder\nThe left fielder's position is on the left side of the outfield behind the third baseman when looking at the field from behind home plate. The left fielder is part of a group of two other fielders that make up the outfield. Generally, outfielders act as a back-up to the infielders when they make plays or if the ball is hit past the infield. The left fielder must field their position, but also cover the area behind third base if a ball is thrown or hit in that direction. The left fielder covers this area in the case that the ball will pass the infielders. The left fielder can then prevent the base runner from advancing to unwanted bases. Besides covering certain areas of the field, the left fielder must be the smartest of the outfielders. In the left field position, the player has full view of the field, the players, the baserunners, and the batter. The left fielder must constantly be aware of the situation on the field and know what must be done in different circumstances. More advanced levels require the left fielder to be able to field the ball during \"slap hit\" situations by playing shallow. Left fielders must also play a role in any run-down situation between third base and home plate or back up any plays that happen at third base in case of an overthrow.\n\nDesignated player\nIn fastpitch softball, it is common for teams to use a designated player in the lineup; this player, which functions like the designated hitter in baseball, hits in place of one of the position players but does not play defense.\nUnlike a designated hitter, a designated player can also become a temporary defensive substitute, and the player substituted by the designated player can return to their original position at a later point in the game. However, the only player that can be substituted as an offensive replacement (pinch runner or pinch hitter) is the defensive player the designated player originally replaced, known as the \"flex\".\nAt any time, the designated player can be substituted back into the lineup in the place of the flex player, but once taken out, the designated player cannot take the place of any other player in the lineup.\n\nShort fielder\nIn some leagues and organizations, four outfield players are utilized by each team. The extra outfielder is sometimes called the short fielder and plays somewhere behind second base, adjusting position based on the handedness or other characteristics of the batter, while the regular center fielder plays a considerably deeper position. The short fielder used as such can take away a batting strategy in softball, which is to hit soft liners over the pitcher.\nHowever, some teams prefer to use the fourth outfielder like the others, with the center field position being shared between two players known as the left-center fielder and the right-center fielder. In this case the four outfielders are spaced equidistantly and play at roughly the same depth.\n\nPitch\nIn softball, a pitch is the act of throwing a softball toward home plate to start a play. All pitches are thrown from below the waist in an underhand motion. The phases of throwing include the grip, stance, windup, stride, release and follow through.\nPitchers throw a variety of pitches, each of which has a slightly different velocity, trajectory, movement, hand position, wrist position and/or arm angle. These variations are introduced to confuse the batter in various ways, and ultimately aid the defensive team in getting the batter or baserunners out. To obtain variety, and therefore enhance defensive baseball strategy, the pitcher manipulates the grip on the ball at the point of release. Variations in the grip cause the seams to \"catch\" the air differently, thereby changing the trajectory of the ball, making it harder for the batter to hit.\nThe selection of which pitch to use can depend on a wide variety of factors including the type of hitter who is being faced; whether there are any base runners; how many outs have been made in the inning; and the current score.\n\nSignaling\nThe responsibility for selecting the type of pitch is traditionally made by the catcher by relaying hand signals to the pitcher with the fingers. In more advanced play, coaches may give signs to batters and/or runners to initiate special plays in certain situations. A catcher may signal to a position player that they will be trying to throw the runner out. A runner on base may see the pitch sign given by the catcher and hint it to the batter using hand or body motions.\n\nPitching styles\nThe International Softball Federation (ISF) recognizes three pitching styles:\n\nfastpitch\n\"modified\" fastpitch\nslow-pitch\n\nFastpitch style\nThe pitching distance can range between 35 feet for younger players and 43 feet for older players. Collegiate and international level pitchers pitch from 43 feet. Pitches can travel at speeds of more than 65 mph (105 km/h).\n\nWindmill or \"Full-windmill\"\n- The pitcher begins with her arm at the hip. Then she brings the ball in a circular motion over the head, completes the circle back down at the hip, and snaps the hand.\nFigure 8\n- The ball is not brought over the head at all but down and behind the body and back in one smooth motion tracing out a figure eight.\nIllegal forms of pitching\n\"crow-hopping\"\n\"leaping\"\n\n\"Modified\" fastpitch style\n\"Modified\" windmill\n- A \"modified\" fastpitch is identical to a \"windmill\" pitch except the arm is not brought over the head in a full windmill motion, but instead is brought behind the body (restricted back swing) and is then thrust directly forward for the release.\n\nSlow-pitch style\nThe pitching distance is 50 feet. The pitch must be lofted in such a way that it falls onto the plate in order for it to be a called strike (the ball falls into the strike-zone instead of flying through). Strikeouts are rare in slow-pitch. Pitchers strategize to pitch the ball with a high enough arc that the batter cannot hit a line-drive. The speed of the pitches ranges from 25 to 35 mph (40 to 56 km/h), resulting in plenty of reaction time.\n\nhalf windmill\n- High-arc pitching technique\n- The pitch must be thrown with an arc between 6-12 feet high. If the arc is not high enough, the umpire will call the pitch illegal.\n\nTypes of pitches\nFastballs\nThe fastball is typically the first type of pitch a player will learn. \n\nTwo-seam fastball\nFour-seam fastball\n\nBreaking balls\nDrop ball\nRiseball\nCurveball\nScrewball\nDrop-curve\nRise-curve\nBackdoor curve (the pitch starts out of the strike zone and curves back over the plate. Often, this pitch is thrown at a batters hip or hands with the intention of either moving them off the plate or inducing a foul ball)\nDrop screw\nBackdoor screw (the same as a backdoor curve except the ball spins in the opposite direction of a curveball)\nDrop curve\n\nChangeups\nThe changeup is the staple off-speed pitch, usually thrown to look like a fastball but arriving much slower to the plate. Its reduced speed coupled with its deceptive delivery is meant to confuse the batter's timing. There are a variety of grips and techniques a pitcher may use to deliver a change up such as: \n\nFlip (or \"Back-hand flip\") release\nStiff wrist release\nCircle grip changeup\nKnuckle grip changeup\n\nOther off-speed pitches\nKnuckle curveball\nFloater\n- This is a pitch used by pitchers in the slow-pitch game. To throw the floater accurately, pitcher holds the ball with just his or her fingertips and does not let them touch the laces. Then comes straight up with her hand and lets the ball go up to the 12-foot mark and come down.\nKnuckleball\n\nRecreational play\nTypes of leagues\nIt is estimated that 14.62 million Americans played at least one game of softball during the spring of 2015. It is played by men and women both recreationally and competitively.\nSoftball is especially popular as a recreational activity for adults. Leagues for such play are often characterized as either \"fun leagues\", in which the outdoor exercise and player camaraderie is more important than the final result, or \"serious leagues\". The distinction is not absolute and there can be gradations within each. Softball teams are often organized around groups of employees who play in the early evening after work in the summer. In many US cities, adult softball teams are organized by bars and clubs, hence the popular term \"beer league\" softball. The teams can be men's, women's or co-ed, and skill levels can range from novice to elite, with league composition reflecting that. These leagues are typically either slow-pitch or modified.\nCo-ed recreational leagues, where men and women play on the same team, generally have provisions to keep men from dominating the game. League rules may stipulate that there must be an equal number of men and women on the team, or that batting order alternate male and female batters. Some leagues only require three women to play but they must be present on the field at all times. Others will allow a game to proceed when a team does not have the requisite number of women available but charge the batting team with an automatic out whenever the missing woman's place in the batting order comes up.\n\nModification of rules\nOne reason for the popularity of softball is the ease of modification of its rules, thereby allowing the game to be adapted to a variety of skill levels. For example, in some slow pitch softball leagues a batter starts at bat with a count of one ball one strike. In some leagues, the number of home runs that can be hit by a team are limited. In other leagues, stealing of bases is prohibited. Some groups allow for a more defensive game by making home plate a force out for first base. This reduces scoring evenly on both sides, and allows for some margin of error.\nCo-ed leagues sometimes adopt live-play rules intended to reduce gender inequality, under the assumption that men will be generally more powerful. In most co-ed or mixed gender leagues there is something called an encroachment line. This requires the outfielders to stay behind a line till the ball is hit. If an outfielder passes in front of this line before the female batter hits a fair ball, the batter will receive a single base or the result of the play, and the base runners will advance accordingly. The line will be 180 feet from home plate. One possible rule requires male batters to \"switch hit\". Some leagues even use different balls for male and female batters. While these modified rules are common, there are questions as to their place in modern adult sports.\nSome leagues require teams to use limited flight softballs. These softballs, when hit, will not go as far as regular softballs. Other leagues limit the number of runs which can be scored in an inning. Five is a common limit.\nBy allowing these and other modifications, softball can be enjoyed by children, teenagers, and adults. Senior leagues with players over the age of 60 are not uncommon.\nAn example of a rule modification is the \"offensive pitcher\" (or \"self pitch\") often found in informal games where the emphasis is on the social rather than the competitive aspects of the game. The pitcher aids the batter by attempting to give the easiest pitch to hit. There are no walks, and a batter is normally given a fixed number of pitches to attempt to hit (usually 3 or 4). The batter is considered to strike out if the batter fails to hit the ball into fair territory after the given number of pitches. The pitcher does not act as a fielder, and a rule is often made that if a batted ball touches the pitcher, the batter is out.\nIn some leagues the number of pitches to walk or strikeout can be reduced. For instance, one strike is an out, and two balls is a walk. This is common in leagues where doubleheaders are played, or in late season leagues when reduced daylight is an issue. It results in shorter games, as players are more apt to swing, even at marginal pitches, rather than risk striking out on one pitch.\nMany leagues also include a second first base immediately adjacent to the main one. This is usually orange and the batter running through first base is supposed to run straight through it. This minimizes the chances of a collision. By the same token some leagues have an alternate home plate and rule that plays at home are always force plays. In these cases there is typically a white line drawn approximately 1/3 of the way down the baseline that is considered a point of no return. This is designed to reduce the \"Pickle\" which can put a great strain on the ankles and knees of older baserunners.\n\nIndoor play\nDespite the fact that it was originally intended to be played indoors, softball is usually played outdoors. The indoor form is sometimes called Arena Softball. Indoor softball has generally the same rules as outdoor softball. Only the wall behind the batter is considered foul territory. The other walls are considered fair. Usually, there is a small area on one of the walls in the outfield that results in a home run being awarded if the batted ball hits it. Pitching is generally a little slower because of the indoor turf, or pitched through a pitching machine at younger levels. There is no limit to the number of batters a team may have available, although only so many can bat in one inning.\nSome indoor facilities do not allow the use of metal cleats on the field, which are what players at the age of 14 and up generally use. Also, some tournaments may require a time limit for games.\n\nProfessional leagues\nWomen's Professional Fastpitch (WPF) is a professional women's softball league in the United States and was formerly the National Pro Fastpitch (NPF) and then the Women's Pro Softball League (WPSL). The WPF league launched in June 2022. In 2024, a new professional league called the Association of Fastpitch Professionals launched with 4 teams.\nThe late 1970s to early 1980s marked a brief era for men's professional softball in the United States.\n\nInternational competition\nSoftball is played in over a hundred countries around the world. The highest governing body for the sport, the International Softball Federation (ISF), has 113 member countries (excluding dependent territories). The ISF holds world championships in several categories.\nThe Amateur Softball Association is the National Governing Body of Softball for the United States pursuant to the 1976 Amateur Sports Act. Due to the popularity of the sport, there are a multitude of governing bodies such as the United States Specialty Sports Association, International Softball Congress and the National Softball Association.\nThe ISF holds the ISF Women's World Championship tournaments in several categories. The tournament in each category is held every four years—two years from 2010. The most recent tournament was XII Women's World Championship in June, 2010. All World Championships use a Page playoff system and are in fastpitch. There are also several World Cups held at 4-year intervals in different categories.\nNew Zealand became the Men's World Champions winning the world title in 2013. Prior to that, Australia won the World Championship in 2009 and New Zealand had won the previous three tournaments before that.\nIn the Junior Men's World Champions in 2012, Team Argentina won the world title.\n\nSummer Olympics\nIn the Women's Softball World Championships the United States is the most dominant team, having won three of the past four Olympic tournaments and the past seven World Championships. The current Junior Women's World Champion is the United States.\nWomen's softball debuted at the 1996 Summer Olympics and was removed from the program following the 2008 Summer Olympics. Softball and Baseball were unable to have their sport included in the program at the 2012 and 2016 Summer Olympics. In 2012 the heads of the International Softball and Baseball Federations announced their united effort to be included in the program in 2020. \"The proposal calls for men's baseball and women's softball to be played at a single venue during 7 to 10 days. Each tournament would feature eight teams. Baseball and softball would be two disciplines under a single sports banner. The proposal awaits formal endorsement from the congress of both federations. Other sports which sought to be included in the 2020 program, when only one spot is up for filling, were: karate, roller sports, squash, sports climbing, wakeboard and wushu. The IOC executive board were to decide at their May meeting which sport to recommend for inclusion. The final decision was made in a vote of the full IOC in Buenos Aires in September 2013. Softball and Baseball were re-included in the Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo 2020, which was held in 2021. The American team had entered the gold medal match with an undefeated record, facing Japan. United States was defeated 2–0 by Japan, naming Japan the Tokyo 2020 Softball Olympic Gold Medalists.\nSoftball was not included in the 2024 Summer Olympics but will return for the 2028 Summer Olympics.\nEven though the 2028 Summer Olympics will be held in LA, the softball and baseball events will be held in Oklahoma.\n\nParticipating countries and areas\nNew Zealand\nNew Zealand is the most successful nation at men's world championship softball, having won their eighth title in 2019. The New Zealand women's team have also won a number of World Championship titles in the past. The game is widely played in New Zealand and is the second most popular summer sport behind cricket.\n\nAustralia\nSoftball is played in all states and territories in Australia and at all levels of academic education. The game is widely promoted to maintain fitness, health, personal achievements and pleasure. Australia has produced several of the world's great men's softball players, including Adam Folkard and Andrew Kirkpatrick, widely considered all-time greats in men's softball. Australia has excellent softball teams which are a reflection of its coaching, education and training system.\n\nJapan\nJapan has had a long tradition of softball which is played at all levels in the country. Many high schools and colleges have sports programs which include softball. Like baseball, softball in Japan is intensely competitive. Japan's win over the United States at the 2008 Olympics reflects the advanced level of play in this East Asian country.\n\nChina\nSince the silver medal at the Atlanta Olympics, the Chinese have now made softball a priority at all levels.\n\nEurope\nSoftball is played in almost every country in Europe, mainly fastpitch. Every two years an open women's European fastpitch championship is held with over twenty nationals teams. Italy and Netherlands are the best nations, and both have an almost professional championship where athletes from the US, Australia and China play. In the men's division eight to ten national teams compete for the European championship, with the Czech Republic, the Netherlands and Denmark leading the way.\n\nUnited States\nIn America, there are more than 1,500 college softball teams spanning five different levels: NCAA Division 1, Division 2, Division 3, NAIA, and NJCAA. There are 5 professional softball teams: the Aussie Peppers, the Chicago Bandits, the Cleveland Comets, the California Commotion, and the Canadian Wild.\nCompetitive fastpitch softball for girls is growing increasingly popular. All over the US, there are thousands of teams that compete year-round at tournaments. During most of these tournaments the biggest goal is not winning the tournament, but attempting to get as many college coaches as possible to observe (a) particular player or players. Competitive teams are now beginning around eight years old, if not younger. Depending on the team they can travel all over the United States or even out of the country such as to Canada, the summer and fall for many weeks and days at a time.\nThere are many different sanctioning bodies of softball: USSSA, ASA, ISA, NSA, WSL, USFA, Triple Crown and SASL just to name a few. One of the biggest is the Amateur Softball Association (ASA). It is known as the national governing body of softball, was established in 1933 and has over 240,000 teams. The USSSA, founded in 1968 as the United States Slo-Pitch Softball Association, but renamed in 1997 to the United States Specialty Sports Association, is the only association that still has a men's major slow-pitch program alive. Currently, the USSSA program is run out of Viera, FL. The United States also has a competitive women's softball team that competes in international tournaments. They represented the US each time at the Olympics until softball was removed from the Olympics.\nThe Amateur Softball Association of America (founded 1933) is one of the largest governing bodies for the game in the United States and sponsors annual sectional and World Series championships. Other national and regional governing bodies also exist, including the USSSA. The World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC) regulates rules of play in more than 110 countries, including the United States and Canada; before the WBSC was formed in 2013, the International Softball Federation (ISF) filled this role.\nThe USA Softball Men's Fast Pitch National Team has won five World Championships (1966, 1968, 1976, 1980 and 1988) and three other medals. In the Pan-American Games, Team USA has made the finals in all seven appearances at the Games when Men's Fast Pitch was played.\n\nSee also\nWomen's Professional Fastpitch, the main professional women's softball league in the United States\nSoftball Australia, the governing body of softball in Australia\nComparison of baseball and softball\n16-inch softball\nRounders – a similar game from which baseball and softball are thought to have evolved\nStoolball – a similar game from which baseball and softball are thought to have evolved\nTee-ball – a reformed version of baseball\nBaseball5 – an international variant of softball involving only a rubber ball\nDartball – a game of darts that uses rules similar to softball and is played on a large dartboard that resembles a softball field\nSafe haven games\nMen's Professional Softball Leagues\nEddie Feigner\nPekin Lettes, the oldest member-sanctioned ASA softball team in the United States\nSoftball in Ireland\nEuropean Softball Federation\nNCAA Division I softball championship\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nASA Softball\nNCAA Softball\nSoftball History USA",
"title": "Softball"
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"paragraph_text": "A baseball field, also called a ball field or baseball diamond, is the field upon which the game of baseball is played. The term can also be used as a metonym for a baseball park. The term sandlot is sometimes used, although this usually refers to less organized venues for activities like sandlot ball.\n\nSpecifications\nUnless otherwise noted, the specifications discussed in this section refer to those described within the Official Baseball Rules, under which Major League Baseball is played.\n\nThe starting point for much of the action on the field is home plate (officially \"home base\"), a five-sided slab of white rubber. One side is 17 inches (43 cm) long, the two adjacent sides are 8.5 inches (22 cm). The remaining two sides are approximately 11 inches (30 cm) and set at a right angle. The plate is set into the ground so that its surface is level with the field. The corner of home plate where the two 11-inch sides meet at a right angle is at one corner of a 90-foot (27.43 m) square. The dimensional specifications are technically inconsistent because the angle constraints require that the front be √2 times the length of the back, which is not equal to a 17:12 ratio, but a physically built home plate will have side lengths accurate to a few hundredths of an inch. The other three corners of the square, in counterclockwise order from home plate, are called first, second, and third base. These bases are marked by canvas or rubber cushions, 18 inches (46 cm) square and 3–5 inches (7.6–12.7 cm) thick. Adjacent to each of the two parallel 8.5-inch sides is a batter's box.\nAll the bases, including home plate, lie entirely within fair territory. Thus, any batted ball that touches those bases must necessarily be ruled a fair ball. While the first and third base bags are placed so that they lie inside the 90-foot square formed by the bases, the second base bag is placed so that its center (unlike first, third and home) coincides exactly with the \"point\" of the ninety-foot square. Thus, although the \"points\" of the bases are 90 feet apart, the physical distance between each successive pair of base markers is closer to 88 feet (26.8 m).\nNear the center of the square is an artificial hill known as the pitcher's mound, atop which is a white rubber slab known as the pitcher's plate, colloquially the \"rubber\". The specifications for the pitcher's mound are described below.\nThe lines from home plate to first and third bases extend to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction and are called the foul lines. The portion of the playing field between (and including) the foul lines is fair territory; the rest is \"foul territory\". The area within the square formed by the bases is officially called the infield, though colloquially this term also includes fair territory in the vicinity of the square; fair territory outside the infield is known as the outfield. Most baseball fields are enclosed with a fence that marks the outer edge of the outfield. The fence is usually set at a distance ranging from 300 to 420 feet (90 to 130 m) from home plate. Most professional and college baseball fields have a right and left foul pole which are about 440 to 500 feet (130 to 150 m) apart. These poles are at the intersection of the foul lines and the respective ends of the outfield fence and, unless otherwise specified within the ground rules, lie in fair territory. Thus, a batted ball that passes over the outfield wall in flight and touches the foul pole is a fair ball and the batter is awarded a home run.\n\nInfield\nA baseball infield is the square area within the four 90-foot baselines (60-foot baselines in Little League Baseball for youths 12 years old and under). The four bases are integral parts of the infield; a ball that touches any part of a base is considered a fair ball.\n\nBases\nFirst base\nFirst base is the first of the four bases that must be touched by a runner in order to score a run for the batting team. The runner may continue running past first base in a straight line without being in jeopardy of being put out, so long as they make contact with first base and make no move or attempt to advance to second base.\nThe first baseman is the defensive player mainly responsible for the area near first base. A first baseman is often tall. A tall first baseman has a larger range for reaching and catching errant throws.\nIn some youth leagues and adult recreational leagues, a \"double first base\" or \"safety first base\" is used. A double first base is rectangular (rather than square), measuring 30 by 15 inches. It is normally colored white and orange (two 15 by 15 inches squares). It is placed with the white half in fair territory and the orange half in foul territory. The white half is used by the first baseman to make plays while the orange half is used by the runner. This creates a separation between the first baseman and runner, reducing the chance of injury on plays at first base.\nIn the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the first baseman is assigned the number 3.\n\nSecond base\nSecond base is the second of the four bases a runner must touch in order to score a run. Second base is mainly defended by the second baseman and the shortstop. The second baseman and shortstop ideally possess quick feet and the ability to release the ball rapidly and accurately. One player will usually cover second base while the other attempts to field the ball. Both players must communicate well to be able to make a double play. Particular agility is required of the second baseman in double play situations, which usually force the player to throw towards first base while their momentum carries them in the opposite direction.\nA runner on second base is said to be in \"scoring position\", since there is a higher likelihood of scoring a run from second base on a single. Since second base is the farthest from home plate, it is the most commonly stolen base in baseball.\nIn the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the second baseman is assigned the number 4, and the shortstop 6.\n\nThird base\nThird base is the third of the four bases a runner must touch in order to score a run. The third baseman is the defensive player mainly responsible for the area nearest third base. A third baseman ideally possesses quick reaction to batted balls and a strong arm to make the long throw to first base. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the third baseman is assigned the number 5.\nLike a runner on second base, a runner on third base is said to be in \"scoring position\", since there is a higher likelihood of scoring a run on a single or sacrifice fly provided that the third and final out is not recorded before they can reach home plate.\n\nHome base\nHome base, usually called \"home plate\", is the final base that a player must touch to score a run. Unlike the other bases, home plate is a five-sided slab of white rubber that is set at ground level.\n\nBackstop\nIn most MLB stadiums, the backstop is at least 60 feet behind home plate and is composed of a lower solid wall and upper netting that protects spectators behind home plate from wild pitches, passed balls, and foul balls.\nIn recreational fields, there is usually a tall chain-link fence that surrounds the infield and the players' bench for player safety.\n\nBaselines\nBaselines are straight lines between two adjacent bases. Physical baselines are not drawn between first and second or second and third bases; the foul lines serve to mark the baseline between home plate and first base, and between third base and home.\n\nRunning baseline\nGenerally, baserunners are not required to follow the baseline. A baserunner seeking to advance more than one base typically \"rounds\" the base, following a more circular path. However, a runner's left-right motion is constrained when the defense tries to tag him. At the moment the defense begins the attempt, the baserunner's running baseline is established as a direct line from his current position to the base he is trying for. A runner straying more than three feet (1 m) away from this baseline to avoid a tag may be called out.\n\nRunning lane\nBeginning halfway between home and first base, and ending at first base, there is a second chalk line to the right of the foul line. This second line and the part of the foul line it runs parallel to, form the running lane that defines the path in which a batter-runner must run as he is advancing to first base. Rule 6.05(k) of the Official Baseball Rules states that if a batter-runner running to first base runs outside the running lane, and \"in doing so\" interferes with the fielder taking the throw at first, then the batter-runner is automatically out. First base itself is not located in the running lane, but Rule 6.05 lets the batter-runner leave the running lane \"by means of a step, stride or slide in the immediate vicinity of first base\" to step on first base.\n\nPlaying areas near home plate\nBatter's box\nThe batter's box is the place where the batter stands when ready to receive a pitch from the pitcher. It is usually drawn in chalk on the dirt surrounding home plate, and the insides of the boxes are watered down before each game.\nThe chalk lines delineating the two foul lines are rarely extended through the batter's boxes. However, those lines exist conceptually for the purpose of judging a batted ball fair or foul. In addition, inside edges of the batter's boxes are often not laid-in with chalk. Similarly, though not marked, those lines continue to exist for the purpose of the rules pertaining to the batter's box and the batter's position relative thereto.\nThere are two batter's boxes, one on each side of home plate. The batter's boxes are 4 feet (1.22 m) wide and 6 feet (1.83 m) long. The batter's boxes are centered lengthwise at the center of home plate with the inside line of each batter's box 6 inches (15 cm) from the near edge of home plate. A right-handed batter would stand in the batter's box on the right side of home plate from the perspective of the pitcher. A left-handed batter would stand in the batter's box to their left. A batter may only occupy one batter's box at a time and may not legally leave the batter's box after the pitcher has come set or has started their windup. Should the batter wish to leave the batter's box once the pitcher has engaged the rubber, they must first ask the umpire for time-out. Time will not be granted if the pitcher has already started their pitching motion. For playing rules relating to the batter's box, see Rules 6.05 and 6.06 of the Official Baseball Rules.\n\nCatcher's box\nThe catcher's box is an area of the field behind home plate which the catcher occupies to avoid committing a balk when a pitch is thrown.\n\nPitcher's mound\nIn roughly the middle of the square, equidistant between first and third base, and a few feet closer to home plate than to second base, is a low artificial hill called the pitcher's mound. This is where the pitcher stands when throwing the pitch. Atop the mound is a white rubber slab, called the pitcher's plate or pitcher's rubber. It measures 6 inches (15 cm) front-to-back and 2 feet (61 cm) across, the front of which is exactly 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) from the rear point of home plate. This peculiar distance was set by the rule makers in 1893, not due to a clerical or surveying error as popular myth has it, but intentionally (further details under History).\nIn Major League Baseball, a regulation mound is 18 feet (5.5 m) in diameter, with the center 59 feet (18 m) from the rear point of home plate, on the line between home plate and second base. The front edge of the pitcher's plate or rubber is 18 inches (46 cm) behind the center of the mound, making the front edge's midpoint 60 feet 6 inches from the rear point of home plate. Six inches (15 cm) in front of the pitcher's rubber the mound begins to slope downward. The top of the rubber is to be no higher than ten inches (25 cm) above home plate. From 1903 through 1968, this height limit was set at 15 inches (38 cm), but in reality differed from ballpark to ballpark as the height was considered too difficult to enforce.\nA higher mound generally favors the pitcher and teams which emphasized pitching, such as the Los Angeles Dodgers, would have a slightly higher mound. With the height advantage, the pitcher gains more leverage and can put more downward velocity on the ball, making it more difficult for the batter to strike the ball squarely with the bat. After 1968, known among baseball historians as \"the year of the pitcher\", the official height of the mound was lowered from 15 inches (38 cm) to 10 inches (25 cm) in an attempt to \"increase the batting\" once again.\nA pitcher's mound is difficult for groundskeepers to maintain. Usually before every game it is watered down to keep the dust from spreading. On youth and amateur baseball fields, the mound may be much different from the rule book definition due to erosion and repair attempts. Even in the major leagues, each mound gains its own character, as pitchers are allowed to kick away pieces of dirt in their way, thereby sculpting the mound a bit to their preference.\nThe pitcher may keep a rosin bag on the rear of the mound to dry off their hands. Major League Baseball teams are also permitted cleat cleaners on the back of the mound. This may be a flat grate-style plate, or simply a hand tool such as a piece of wood used to remove mud and dirt from cleats. These items are allowed to remain on the backside of the mound at the discretion of the umpire, thus reducing the probability that they will affect a live play.\n\nGrass line\nThe grass line, where the dirt of the infield ends and the grass of the outfield begins, has no special significance to the rules of the game (except in Double-A Minor League Baseball where all infielders must be on the infield dirt when the pitch is thrown as part of an experimental rule for the 2021 season), but it can influence the outcome of a game. Dirt running paths between the bases (and, at one time and still in some parks, between the pitcher and the catcher) have existed since the beginning of the game, although they were not mentioned in the rule books until around 1950, and their specifications are flexible. In addition to providing a running path, the grass lines act as a visual aid so that players, umpires and fans may better judge distance from the center of the diamond. Occasionally the ball may take a tricky bounce off the dirt area or the edge between the dirt and the grass. Multiple World Series championships (including 1924, 1960 and 1986) have been decided or heavily influenced by erratic hops of ground balls.\nIn artificial turf stadiums, infield dirt was originally only placed in three five-sided areas around the bases and in two circles around the pitcher's and batting areas, which are referred to as \"cut outs\". In this configuration, the \"grass line\" is usually designated with a white arc. This setup first appeared at Cincinnati's Riverfront Stadium upon its opening in 1970. Among Major League Baseball fields, Rogers Centre was the last stadium to maintain this type of configuration and was reconfigured with a full dirt infield starting in the 2016 MLB season.\nIn some college baseball parks with artificial turf fields, the entire field (along with possibly the pitcher's mound) is made up of turf, with parts of the field mainly containing dirt instead merely being clay-colored turf.\n\nOutfield\nThe outfield is made from thick grass or artificial turf. It is where the outfielders play. The positions to play in the outfield are left, center, and right field (named in relation to the batter's position; thus left field is beyond third base and right field is beyond first base). Outfields vary in size and shape depending on the overall size and shape of the playing field. The outfield stretches from the infield to the outfield wall and it contains the warning track. Outfields especially vary from Little League to major league fields. Little League outfields vary more in size than Major League outfields. Outfields often differ from infields in the specific type of grass used, but most major league outfields are grass.\n\nWarning track\nThe warning track is the strip of dirt at the edges of the baseball field (especially in front of the home run fence and along the left and right sides of a field). Because the warning track's color and feel differ from the grass field, a fielder can remain focused on a fly ball near the fence and measure their proximity to the fence while attempting to catch the ball safely.\nA warning track's width is not specified in the rules. It is generally designed to give about three steps of warning to the highest-level players using the field. Typical widths run from about six feet for Little League fields to about 10–15 feet (3.0–4.6 meters) for college- or professional-level play. A warning track this wide also lets groundskeepers avoid driving maintenance vehicles on the grass.\nThe track can be composed of finely ground rock particles such as cinders, which is why announcer Bob Wolff called it the \"cinder path\" rather than the \"warning track\".\nThe idea of a warning track originated in Yankee Stadium, where an actual running track was built for use in track and field events. When ballpark designers saw how the track helped fielders, it soon became a feature of every ballpark.\nSingle-minded fielders often crash into a wall trying to make a catch despite the warning track. For this reason, outfield walls are typically padded for extra safety. Wrigley Field's brick wall is covered only by ivy, which is not especially soft. However, there are pads on the walls of the tight left and right field corners in foul ground.\nWarning-track power is a derogatory term for a batter who seems to have just enough power to hit the ball to the warning track for an out, but not enough to hit a home run. The term more generally refers to someone or something that is almost but not quite good enough for something.\n\nOutfield wall\nThe outfield wall or fence is the outer boundary of the outfield. A ball passing over the wall is dead. If it passes over the wall in fair territory, without touching the ground, it is a home run. The official rules do not specify the shape, height, or composition of the wall, or a specific mandatory distance from home plate (though Major League Baseball mandates a minimum distance of 250 feet (76 m) and recommends a minimum distance of 320 feet (98 m) at the foul poles and 400 feet (120 m) at center field). As a result, baseball fields can vary greatly along those lines. The wall has numbers affixed or painted on it that denote the distance from that point on the wall to home plate. In most modern major league ballparks, the wall is made of some hard material (e.g., concrete, plywood, sheet metal) with padding on the field side to protect players who may collide with the wall at high speed while trying to make a play. Chain link fencing may also be incorporated into the wall in areas where the wall needs to be transparent, e.g., an outfield bullpen, a spectator area behind the wall, or to protect a scoreboard incorporated into the wall. Many ballparks feature a yellow line denoting the top of the wall to aid umpires in judging whether the ball passed over the wall or if the ball is fair or foul.\n\nFoul poles\nFoul poles, if present, help umpires judge whether a fly ball hit above the fence line is foul (out of play) or fair (a home run). The poles are a vertical extension of the foul lines at the edge of the field of play. The outer edge of the foul lines and foul poles define foul territory. Both the lines and the poles are in fair territory, in contrast to American football and basketball, where the lines marking the playing boundaries are out of bounds. The minimum distance to hit a home run (along either foul line) is set by baseball rules, generally at 325 feet (99 m).\nBefore 1931 (with the exception of a couple months in 1920) the foul lines extended indefinitely; a batter was awarded a home run only if a fly ball out of the field was fair where it landed. Now, a batted ball that leaves the field in flight is judged fair or foul at the point it leaves the field. Thus, such a fly ball passing on the fair side of a foul pole, or hitting a foul pole, is a home run regardless of where the ball goes thereafter.\nFoul poles are typically much higher than the top of the outfield fence or wall, and often have a narrow screen running along the fair side of the pole. This further aids the umpires' judgment, as a ball that bounces off this screen is a home run. It can still be a difficult call, especially in ballparks with no outfield stands behind the poles to provide perspective. Wrigley Field is notorious for arguments over long, curving flies down a foul line (most notably in left field) that sail higher than the foul pole.\nAt Major League Baseball fields, foul poles are usually yellow. Those at Citi Field are orange. At Petco Park, there is no foul pole in left field; the pole's function is served by a yellow metal strip along the corner of the Western Metal Supply Co. building. Several parks featuring advertising along the length of the foul pole, with the most prominent example being the advertising from Chick-fil-A at both Citi Field and Minute Maid Park (serving as a pun, with \"fowl\" being another term for a chicken, the primary meat featured by that restaurant chain).\n\nPlayer preparation and coaching areas\nBullpen\nThe bullpen (sometimes referred to as simply \"the 'pen\") is the area where pitchers warm up before entering a game. Depending on the ballpark, it may be situated in foul territory along the baselines or just beyond the outfield fence. Relief pitchers usually wait in the bullpen when they have yet to play in a game, rather than in the dugout with the rest of the team. The starting pitcher also makes their final pregame warmups in the bullpen. Managers can call coaches in the bullpen on an in-house telephone from the dugout to tell a certain pitcher to begin their warmup tosses.\n\"Bullpen\" is also used metonymically to describe a team's collection of relief pitchers.\n\nOn-deck circles\nThere are two on-deck circles in the field, one for each team, positioned in foul ground between home plate and the respective teams' benches. The on-deck circle is where the next scheduled batter, or \"on-deck\" batter, warms up while waiting for the current batter to finish their turn. The on-deck circle is either an area composed of bare dirt; a plain circle painted onto artificial turf; or often, especially at the professional level, a mat made from artificial material, with the team or league logo painted onto it.\n\nCoach's boxes\nThe coach's boxes, located behind first and third base, are where the first and third base coaches are supposed to stand, although coaches often stand outside the box. This is permissible as long as the coach does not interfere with play and the opposing team does not object (in which case the umpire shall ensure that all coaches on both teams must abide by the boundaries of the coach's boxes). The coach's boxes are marked with chalk or paint. In the early days of baseball, the term \"coacher's box\" was used, as \"coach\" was taken to be a verb. As the term \"coach\" evolved into a noun, the name of the box also changed.\n\nHistory\nKnickerbocker Rules\nThe basic layout of the field has been little changed since the Knickerbocker Rules of the 1840s. Those rules specified the distance from home to second as 42 \"paces\". The dictionary definition of a \"pace\" at the time was 30 inches, yielding base paths of approximately 75 feet; however, if a \"pace\" of three feet was meant then the distance would have been 89 feet. It is not implausible that the early clubs simply stepped off the distance. 30 yards (90 feet) between the bases was first explicitly prescribed by the NABBP Convention of 1857. Through trial and error, 90 feet had been settled upon as the optimal distance. 100 feet would have given too much advantage to the defense, and 80 feet too much to the offense.\nThe original Knickerbocker Rules did not specify the pitching distance explicitly; the 1854 Unified Rules stated \"from Home to pitcher not less than fifteen paces\". By the time major league baseball began in the 1870s, the pitcher was compelled to pitch from within a \"box\" whose front edge was 45 feet (14 m) from the \"point\" of home plate. Although they had to release the ball before crossing the line, as with bowlers in cricket, they also had to start their delivery from within the box; they could not run in from the field as bowlers do. Furthermore, the pitcher had to throw underhand. By the 1880s, pitchers had mastered the underhand delivery—in fact, in 1880, there were two perfect games within a week of each other.\n\nModern history\nIn an attempt to \"increase the batting\", the front edge of the pitcher's box was moved back 5 feet in 1881, to 50 feet (15 m) from home plate. The size of the box was altered over the following few years. Pitchers were allowed to throw overhand starting in 1884, and that tilted the balance of power again. In 1887, the box was set at 4 feet (1.2 m) wide and 5.5 feet (1.7 m) deep, with the front edge still 50 feet from the plate. However, the pitcher was compelled to deliver the ball with their back foot at the 55.5-foot (16.9 m) line of the box, thus somewhat restricting their ability to \"power\" the ball with their overhand delivery.: 96 \nIn 1893, the box was replaced by the pitcher's plate, although \"the box\" is still used today as a slang term for the pitcher's location on the field. Exactly 5 feet was added to the point the pitcher had to toe, again \"to increase the batting\" (and hopefully to increase attendance, as fan interest had flagged somewhat), resulting in the seemingly peculiar pitching distance of 60.5 feet (18.44 m).: 230 \nSome sources suggest that the pitching distance evolved from 45 to 50 to 60.5 feet. However, the first two were the \"release point\" and the third is the \"pushoff point.\" The 1893 rule change added only 5 feet to the release point, not 10.5 feet.\nOriginally the pitcher threw from flat ground. Gradually, the raised mound was developed, somewhat returning the advantage to the pitchers. From 1893 to 1950, a stipulation was added that the mound be no more than 15 inches above the field. Before the mid-20th century, it was common for baseball fields to include a dirt pathway between the pitcher's mound and home plate. This feature is sometimes known as the \"keyhole\" due to the shape that it makes together with the mound. The keyhole was once as wide as the pitcher's box and resembled a cricket pitch. Sometimes this path extended through the batting area and all the way to the backstop. Once the rounded pitcher's mound was developed, the path became more ornamental than practical, and was gradually thinned before being largely abandoned by the 1950s. In recent years some ballparks, such as Comerica Park and Chase Field in the major leagues, have revived the feature for nostalgic reasons.\nFrom 1857 to 1867 home plate was a circular iron plate, painted or enameled white, covering \"a space equal to one square foot of surface\", i.e. with a diameter of ~13-1/2 inches. In 1868 the plate was changed to a square, 12\" on a side, originally set with the flat sides toward the pitcher and catcher; the new professional National Association rotated it 45 degrees in 1871. In 1872 the rules required it to be made of white marble or stone set flush with the ground. For the rest of the century materials varied between stone, iron and wood, but at all times it was a white twelve-inch square. The pentagonal shape and the mandatory use of rubber were developed by Robert Keating, who had pitched one game for the 1887 Baltimore Orioles; the new plate was adopted by the National League in 1900. From 1861 to 1874 the center, not the back, of the plate was situated on the intersection of the foul lines, and in 1875–76 was moved entirely into foul ground with the \"pitcher's point\" at the intersection. In 1877 it was moved forward to its modern location, wholly in fair territory.\nThere were no batters' boxes before 1874. Up until that time, the batter was required to hit with their front foot on a line passing through the center of the plate. The 1874 batters' boxes were 6 feet by 3 feet, 12 inches from the plate; the modern dimensions (6' x 4') were instituted in 1885 by the National League and the following year by the American Association\n\nMaintenance\nSee: Turf management, Sports turf, Groundskeeping#Groundskeeping equipment, Equipment manager, and Sand-based athletic fields\n\nHonors and awards\nThe Sports Turf Managers Association (STMA) presents various awards each year. Starting in 2001, its Sports Turf Manager of the Year Awards have been presented annually in the Triple-A, Double-A, Class A, and Short-Season/Rookie divisions of Minor League Baseball and are chosen from the 16 league winners. STMA also presents the Baseball Field of the Year Award, which includes Schools and Parks, College/University and Professional categories.\n\nSee also\nOfficial Rules of Major League Baseball\nThe Baseball Encyclopedia, published by Macmillan Publishers\nSoftball field\nBaseball5 field\nBatters' grounds, the cricket equivalent to bases\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nBaseball field Almanac\nBaseball Field Dimensions\nDifferences among MLB fields",
"title": "Baseball_field"
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"paragraph_text": "Joseph Paul DiMaggio (born Giuseppe Paolo DiMaggio; [dʒuˈzɛppe ˈpaːolo diˈmaddʒo]; November 25, 1914 – March 8, 1999), nicknamed \"Joltin' Joe\", \"the Yankee Clipper\" and \"Joe D.\", was an American baseball center fielder who played his entire 13-year career in Major League Baseball for the New York Yankees. Born to Italian immigrants in California, he is widely considered one of the greatest baseball players of all time and set the record for the longest hitting streak in major league baseball (56 games from May 15 – July 16, 1941).\nDiMaggio was a three-time American League (AL) Most Valuable Player Award winner and an All-Star in each of his 13 seasons. During his tenure with the Yankees, the club won ten American League pennants and nine World Series championships. His nine career World Series rings are second only to fellow Yankee Yogi Berra, who won 10.\nAt the time of his retirement after the 1951 season, he ranked fifth in career home runs (361) and sixth in career slugging percentage (.579). He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1955 and was voted the sport's greatest living player in a poll taken during baseball's centennial year of 1969. His brothers Vince (1912–1986) and Dom (1917–2009) also were major league center fielders. Outside of baseball, DiMaggio is also widely known for his marriage and life-long devotion to Marilyn Monroe.\n\nEarly life\nGiuseppe Paolo DiMaggio was born on November 25, 1914, in Martinez, California, the eighth of nine children born to Italian (Sicilian) immigrants Giuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, from Isola delle Femmine. His Italian birth name was Giuseppe Paolo DiMaggio. Rosalia named her son \"Giuseppe\" after his father in the hopes he would be her last child; \"Paolo\" was in honor of Giuseppe's favorite saint, Paul of Tarsus.\nGiuseppe was a fisherman, as were generations of DiMaggios before him. DiMaggio's brother Tom told Maury Allen that Rosalia's father wrote to her saying Giuseppe could earn a better living in California. Giuseppe and Rosalia decided that he would go to the United States for one year: if things were better, he would send for her; if not, he would return home. After being processed on Ellis Island, Giuseppe worked his way across the country, eventually settling near Rosalia's father in Pittsburg, on the east side of the San Francisco Bay Area. After four years, he had earned enough money to send for Rosalia and their daughter, who was born after he left. When Joe was a toddler, Giuseppe moved his family to the North Beach section of San Francisco.: 18 Giuseppe hoped that his five sons would become fishermen.\nDiMaggio recalled that he would do anything to get out of cleaning his father's boat, as the smell of dead fish nauseated him. Giuseppe called him \"lazy\" and \"good-for-nothing\". At age ten, he took up baseball, playing third base at the North Beach playground near his home. After attending Hancock Elementary and Francisco Middle School, DiMaggio dropped out of Galileo High School and worked odd jobs.\n\nBy 1931, DiMaggio was playing semi-pro ball. Nearing the end of the 1932 season, his brother Vince, playing for the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League (PCL), talked his manager into letting DiMaggio fill in at shortstop. He made his professional debut on October 1, 1932, playing the last three games. In less than two years, DiMaggio made the jump from the playground to the PCL, one notch below the majors.: 34 In his full rookie year, from May 27 to July 25, 1933, he hit safely in 61 consecutive games, a PCL-record, and second-longest in Minor League Baseball history. \"Baseball didn't really get into my blood until I knocked off that hitting streak,\" he said. \"Getting a daily hit became more important to me than eating, drinking, or sleeping.”\nIn 1934, DiMaggio suffered a potentially career-threatening knee injury when he tore ligaments of his right knee while stepping out of a jitney. Convinced the injury would heal, Yankees scout Bill Essick pestered his bosses to give DiMaggio another look. After he passed a physical, the team bought him for $50,000 and five players, with the Seals keeping him for the 1935 season. DiMaggio batted .398 with 154 runs batted in (RBIs) and 34 home runs. The Seals won the 1935 PCL title, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player.\n\nProfessional career\nNew York Yankees (1936–1942, 1946–1951)\nDiMaggio made his Major League debut on May 3, 1936, batting ahead of Lou Gehrig in the lineup. The Yankees had not been to the World Series since 1932, but they won the next four World Series. Over the course of his 13-year Major League career, DiMaggio led the Yankees to nine World Series championships, where he trails only Yogi Berra (10) in that category.\nDiMaggio set a franchise record for rookies in 1936 by hitting 29 home runs. DiMaggio accomplished the feat in 138 games. His record stood for over 80 years until it was shattered by Aaron Judge, who tallied 52 homers in 2017.\nIn 1937, DiMaggio built upon his rookie season by leading the majors with 46 home runs, 151 runs scored, and 418 total bases. He also hit safely in 43 of 44 games from June 27 to August 12. He finished second in American League MVP voting in a close race with Charlie Gehringer of the Detroit Tigers.\nIn 1939, DiMaggio was nicknamed \"the Yankee Clipper\" by Yankee's play-by-play announcer Arch McDonald, when he likened DiMaggio's speed and range in the outfield to the then-new Pan American airliner.: 152 That year in August, DiMaggio recorded 53 RBIs, tying Hack Wilson's 1930 record for most in a single month. He also won his first career batting title and MVP award, as well as leading the Yankees to their fourth consecutive World Series championship.\nDiMaggio was pictured with his son on the cover of the inaugural issue of SPORT magazine in September 1946.\nIn 1947, DiMaggio won his third MVP award and his sixth World Series with the Yankees. That year, Boston Red Sox owner Tom Yawkey and Yankees GM Larry MacPhail verbally agreed to trade DiMaggio for Ted Williams, but the trade was canceled when MacPhail refused to include Yogi Berra.\nIn the September 1949 issue of SPORT, Hank Greenberg said that DiMaggio covered so much ground in center field that the only way to get a hit against the Yankees was \"to hit 'em where Joe wasn't.\" DiMaggio also stole home five times in his career.\nOn February 7, 1949, DiMaggio signed a contract worth $100,000 ($1,280,000 in current dollar terms) ($70,000 plus bonuses), and became the first baseball player to break $100,000 in earnings. By 1950, he was ranked the second-best center fielder by the Sporting News, after Larry Doby. After a poor 1951 season, various injuries, and a scouting report by the Brooklyn Dodgers that was turned over to the New York Giants and leaked to the press, DiMaggio announced his retirement at age 37 on December 11, 1951. When remarking on his retirement to the Sporting News on December 19, 1951, he said:\n\nI feel like I have reached the stage where I can no longer produce for my club, my manager, and my teammates. I had a poor year, but even if I had hit .350, this would have been my last year. I was full of aches and pains and it had become a chore for me to play. When baseball is no longer fun, it's no longer a game, and so, I've played my last game.\nThrough May 2009, DiMaggio was tied with Mark McGwire for third place all-time in home runs over the first two calendar years in the major leagues (77), behind Phillies Hall of Famer Chuck Klein (83), and Milwaukee Brewers' Ryan Braun (79). Through 2011, he was one of seven major leaguers to have had at least four 30-homer, 100-RBI seasons in their first five years, along with Chuck Klein, Ted Williams, Ralph Kiner, Mark Teixeira, Albert Pujols, and Ryan Braun. DiMaggio holds the record for most seasons with more home runs than strikeouts (minimum 20 home runs), a feat he accomplished seven times, and five times consecutively from 1937 to 1941. DiMaggio could have possibly exceeded 500 home runs and 2,000 RBIs had he not served in the military during World War II, causing him to miss the 1943, 1944, and 1945 seasons.\nDiMaggio might have had better power-hitting statistics had his home park not been Yankee Stadium. In \"The House That Ruth Built\", its nearby right field favored the Babe's left-handed power. For right-handed hitters, its deep left and center fields made home runs almost impossible. Mickey Mantle recalled that he and Whitey Ford witnessed many DiMaggio blasts that would have been home runs anywhere other than Yankee Stadium (Ruth himself fell victim to that problem, as he also hit many long flyouts to center). Bill James calculated that DiMaggio lost more home runs due to his home park than any other player in history. Left-center field went as far back as 457 ft [139 m], whereas left-center rarely reaches 380 ft [116 m] in today's ballparks. Al Gionfriddo's famous catch in the 1947 World Series, which was close to the 415-foot mark [126 m] in left-center, just in front of the visitors bullpen, would have been a home run in the Yankees' current ballpark and most other ballparks at that time, except perhaps the Polo Grounds, home of the New York Giants. DiMaggio hit 148 home runs in 3,360 at-bats at home versus 213 home runs in 3,461 at-bats on the road. His slugging percentage at home was .546, and on the road, it was .610. Statistician Bill Jenkinson commented on these figures:\n\nFor example, Joe DiMaggio was acutely handicapped by playing at Yankee Stadium. Every time he batted in his home field during his entire career, he did so knowing that it was physically impossible for him to hit a home run to the half of the field directly in front of him. If you look at a baseball field from foul line to foul line, it has a 90-degree radius. From the power alley in the left-center field (430 in Joe's time) to the fence in the deep right-center field (407 ft), it is 45 degrees. And Joe DiMaggio never hit a single home run over the fences at Yankee Stadium in that 45-degree graveyard. It was just too far. Joe was plenty strong; he routinely hit balls in the 425-foot range. But that just wasn't good enough in the cavernous Yankee Stadium. Like Ruth, he benefited from a few easy homers each season due to the short foul line distances. But he lost many more than he gained by constantly hitting long flyouts toward center field. Whereas most sluggers perform better on their home fields, DiMaggio hit only 41 percent of his career home runs in the Bronx. He hit 148 homers at Yankee Stadium. If he had hit the same exact pattern of batted balls with a typical modern stadium as his home, he would have belted about 225 homers during his home-field career.\n\nDiMaggio became eligible for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1953 but he was not elected until 1955. The Hall of Fame rules on the post-retirement induction waiting period had been revised in the interim, extending the waiting period from one to five years, but DiMaggio and Ted Lyons were exempted from the rule. DiMaggio told Baseball Digest in 1963 that the Brooklyn Dodgers had offered him their managerial job in 1953, but he turned it down. After being out of baseball since his retirement as an active player, DiMaggio joined the newly relocated Oakland Athletics as a vice president in 1968 and 1969 and a coach in just the first of those two seasons. The appointment allowed him to qualify \nfor MLB's maximum pension allowance of which he had fallen two years short upon his retirement. During his only campaign as a coach, he helped improve the talents of players such as Reggie Jackson, Sal Bando, and Joe Rudi who became part of the team's nucleus which won three consecutive World Series in 1972, 1973, and 1974.\nAfter he resigned from the Athletics, DiMaggio was named the acting manager for the East team in the East-West Major League Baseball Classic which was held in honor of the late Martin Luther King Jr., raising charity money for King's causes.\n\n1941 hitting streak\nDiMaggio's most famous achievement is his MLB record-breaking 56-game hitting streak in 1941. The streak began on May 15, a couple of weeks before the death of Lou Gehrig—who had been DiMaggio's teammate from 1936 to 1939—when DiMaggio went one-for-four against Chicago White Sox pitcher Eddie Smith. Major newspapers began to write about DiMaggio's streak early on, but as he approached George Sisler's modern-era record of 41 games, it became a national phenomenon. Initially, DiMaggio showed little interest in breaking Sisler's record, saying: \"I'm not thinking a whole lot about it... I'll either break it or I won't.\" As he approached Sisler's record, DiMaggio showed more interest, saying, \"At the start, I didn't think much about it... but naturally I'd like to get the record since I am this close.\" On June 29, 1941, DiMaggio doubled in the first game of a doubleheader against the Washington Senators at Griffith Stadium to tie Sisler's record and then singled in the nightcap to extend his streak to 42.\nA Yankee Stadium crowd of 52,832 fans watched DiMaggio tie the all-time hitting streak record (44 games, Wee Willie Keeler in 1897) on July 1. The next day against the Boston Red Sox, he homered into Yankee Stadium's left-field stands to extend his streak to 45, setting a new record. DiMaggio recorded 67 hits in 179 at-bats during the first 45 games of his streak, while Keeler recorded 88 hits in 201 at-bats. DiMaggio continued hitting after breaking Keeler's record, reaching 50 straight games on July 11 against the St. Louis Browns. On July 17 at Cleveland's Municipal Stadium, DiMaggio's streak was finally snapped at 56 games, thanks in part to two backhand stops by Indians third baseman Ken Keltner. DiMaggio batted .408 during the streak with 15 home runs and 55 RBI. The day after the streak ended DiMaggio started another streak that lasted 16 games, therefore hitting safely in 72 of 73 games. The closest anyone has come to equaling DiMaggio is Pete Rose, who hit safely in 44 straight games in 1978. During the streak, DiMaggio played in seven doubleheaders. The Yankees' record during the streak was 41–13–2.\nSome consider DiMaggio's streak a uniquely outstanding and unbreakable record and a statistical near-impossibility. Nobel Prize-winning physicist and sabermetrician Edward Mills Purcell calculated that, to have the likelihood of a hitting streak of 50 games occurring in the history of baseball up to the late 1980s be greater than 50%, fifty-two .350 lifetime hitters would have to have existed instead of the actual three (Ty Cobb, Rogers Hornsby, and Shoeless Joe Jackson). His Harvard colleague Stephen Jay Gould, citing Purcell's work, called DiMaggio's 56-game achievement \"the most extraordinary thing that ever happened in American sports\". Samuel Arbesman and Steven Strogatz of Cornell University disagree. They conducted 10,000 computer simulations of Major League Baseball from 1871 to 2005, 42% of which produced streaks as long or longer, with record streaks ranging from 39 to 109 games and typical record streaks between 50 and 64 games.\n\nWorld War II\nDiMaggio enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces on February 17, 1943, rising to the rank of sergeant. He was stationed at Santa Ana, California, Hawaii, and Atlantic City, New Jersey, as a physical education instructor. He was released on a medical discharge in September 1945, due to chronic stomach ulcers. Other than being paid $21 a month, DiMaggio's service was as comfortable as a soldier's life could be. He spent most of his military career playing for baseball teams and in exhibition games against fellow Major Leaguers and minor league players, and superiors gave him special privileges due to his prewar fame. DiMaggio ate so well from an athlete-only diet that he gained 10 pounds, and while in Hawaii he and other players mostly tanned on the beach and drank. Embarrassed by his lifestyle, DiMaggio requested that he be given a combat assignment but was turned down.\n\nParents as \"enemy aliens\"\nGiuseppe and Rosalia DiMaggio, both from Isola delle Femmine, were among the thousands of German, Japanese, and Italian immigrants classified as \"enemy aliens\" by the government after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Each was required to carry photo ID booklets at all times and was not allowed to travel outside a five-mile radius from their home without a permit. Giuseppe was barred from San Francisco Bay, where he had fished for decades, and his boat was seized. Rosalia became an American citizen in 1945, followed by Giuseppe in 1946.\n\nMarriages\nDorothy Arnold\nIn January 1937, DiMaggio met actress Dorothy Arnold on the set of Manhattan Merry-Go-Round, in which he had a minor role, and she was an extra. He announced their engagement on April 25, 1939, just before the Yankees were to meet the Philadelphia Athletics. They married at Saints Peter and Paul Church, San Francisco on November 19, 1939, as 20,000 well-wishers jammed the streets. The couple's son, Joseph Paul DiMaggio Jr. (1941–1999), was born at Doctors' Hospital in Staten Island. Their marriage was troubled, as Arnold wanted DiMaggio to settle down and be a father to their son and a nearby husband to her; DiMaggio was more interested in the public eye. The couple divorced in 1944, while DiMaggio was on leave from the Yankees during World War II.\n\nMarilyn Monroe\nAccording to her autobiography My Story, co-written with Ben Hecht, American actress Marilyn Monroe originally did not want to meet DiMaggio, fearing he was a stereotypically arrogant athlete. However, they did meet in Los Angeles while on a blind date. After dating for two years, they eloped at San Francisco City Hall on January 14, 1954. Although she suffered from endometriosis, Monroe and DiMaggio each expressed to reporters their desire to start a family.\nThe union was troubled from the start by DiMaggio's jealousy, controlling attitude, and him physically abusing Monroe; as well as her busy life as an actress. A violent fight between the couple occurred immediately after Monroe filmed the skirt-blowing scene in The Seven Year Itch that was filmed on September 14, 1954, in front of Manhattan's Trans-Lux 52nd Street Theater, as DiMaggio disapproved of the scene. Then 20th Century Fox's East Coast correspondent Bill Kobrin told the Palm Springs Desert Sun that it was director Billy Wilder's idea to turn the shoot into a media circus. Monroe and DiMaggio then had a \"yelling battle\" in the theater lobby. After returning from New York City to Hollywood in October 1954, Monroe filed for divorce from DiMaggio after only nine months of marriage. However, she was devastated to leave DiMaggio, and throughout the procedures in court, she could be seen weeping openly.\nDiMaggio was also devastated, and wrote to Monroe, saying, \"I love you and want to be with you…There is nothing I would like better than to restore your confidence in me…My heart split even wider seeing you cry in front of all those people.\" He also wrote, “[I don't] know what your thoughts are about me, but I can tell you I love you sincerely — way deep in my heart, irregardless of anything.\" After the divorce, DiMaggio underwent therapy, stopped drinking alcohol, and expanded his interests beyond baseball.\nOn August 1, 1956, an International News wire photo of DiMaggio with Lee Meriwether gave rise to speculation that they were engaged, but DiMaggio biographer Richard Ben Cramer wrote that it was a rumor started by columnist Walter Winchell. Monroe biographer Donald Spoto claimed that DiMaggio was \"very close to marrying\" 1957 Miss America Marian McKnight, who won the crown with a Marilyn Monroe act, but McKnight denied it. He was also linked to Liz Renay, Cleo Moore, Rita Gam, Marlene Dietrich, and Gloria DeHaven during this period, and years later to Elizabeth Ray and Morgan Fairchild, but he never publicly confirmed any involvement with any woman.\n\nDiMaggio reentered Monroe's life as her marriage to Arthur Miller was ending. On February 10, 1961, he secured her release from Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic in Manhattan. She joined him in Florida where he was a batting coach for the Yankees. Their \"just friends\" claim did not stop remarriage rumors from flying. Reporters staked out her Manhattan apartment building. Bob Hope \"dedicated\" Best Song nominee \"The Second Time Around\" to them at the 33rd Academy Awards.\nAccording to Maury Allen's biography, DiMaggio was alarmed at how Monroe had fallen in with people he felt were detrimental to her well-being. Val Monette, the owner of a military post-exchange supply company, told Allen that DiMaggio left his employ on August 1, 1962, because he had decided to ask Monroe to remarry him.\nFour days later, on August 5, Monroe was found dead in her Brentwood, Los Angeles home after her housekeeper Eunice R. Murray telephoned Monroe's psychiatrist, Ralph Greenson. DiMaggio's son had spoken to Monroe on the phone the night of her death and said she seemed fine. Her death was deemed a probable suicide by \"Coroner to the Stars\" Thomas Noguchi. It has also been the subject of conspiracy theories.\nDevastated, DiMaggio claimed Monroe's body and arranged for her funeral at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery. He barred Hollywood's elite and members of the Kennedy family from attending the funeral, including President John F. Kennedy. He had a half-dozen red roses delivered to her crypt three times a week for 20 years. Oftentimes, he refused to talk about her publicly or otherwise exploit their relationship, and in the rare moments when he did speak to reporters, he was unable to hold back tears. He never married again.\nAccording to DiMaggio's attorney Morris Engelberg, DiMaggio's last words were \"I'll finally get to see Marilyn.\" Though DiMaggio's brother Dominic challenged Engelberg's version of Joe's final moments and his motives, Engleberg continuously denied those who questioned DiMaggio's last words, reporting that one night when he and a terminally ill DiMaggio were sitting together, DiMaggio told him, \"I don’t feel bad about dying. At least I’ll be with Marilyn again.\"\n\nAdvertising\nIn the 1970s, DiMaggio became a spokesman for Mr. Coffee, and was the face of the electric drip coffee makers for over 20 years. Vincent Marotta, the CEO of North American Systems, which manufactured Mr. Coffee at the time, recruited DiMaggio for the advertising campaign. DiMaggio's spots were successful with consumers. In a 2007 interview with The Columbus Dispatch, Marotta joked that \"millions of kids grew up thinking Joe DiMaggio was a famous appliance salesman.\" Despite the commercials, DiMaggio rarely drank coffee due to ulcers; and when he did drink coffee, he preferred Sanka instant coffee rather than coffee brewed by Mr. Coffee machines.\nIn 1972, DiMaggio became a spokesman for the Bowery Savings Bank. Except for a five-year hiatus in the 1980s, he regularly made commercials for them until 1992. In 1986, he became a spokesperson for Florida's Cross Keys Village, an active retirement community.\n\nTelevision programs\nBeginning in April 1952, DiMaggio had 10-minute programs on Channel 11 in New York City before and after each Yankees' home game. Episodes included interviews with guests and DiMaggio's comments about baseball. The team owned the program, with DiMaggio under contract to the Yankees. He also did Joe DiMaggio's Dugout on Channel 4 in New York City, a weekly filmed program unrelated to the pre-and post-game shows. It featured instructional sessions and quizzes for young people.\n\nDeath\nDiMaggio was a heavy smoker for much of his adult life. He was admitted to Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida, on October 12, 1998, for lung cancer surgery and remained there for 99 days. He returned to his home in Hollywood, Florida, on January 19, 1999, where he died on March 8 at age 84. DiMaggio's attorney, Morris Engleberg reported that his last words were, \"I'll finally get to see Marilyn,\" referencing his ex-wife Marilyn Monroe.\nDiMaggio's funeral was held on March 11, 1999, at Saints Peter and Paul Church in San Francisco, and he was interred three months later at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California. His son also died that year, on August 6, at age 57.\n\nLegacy\nAt his death, The New York Times called DiMaggio's 1941 56-game hitting streak \"perhaps the most enduring record in sports.\"\nAccording to American geneticist Mary-Claire King, in the spring of 1981 DiMaggio babysat her daughter at the San Francisco airport so King could drop her mother off to her flight to Chicago. According to King, if it were not for DiMaggio's kindness, she would have almost certainly missed her own flight that was taking her and her daughter to Washington, D.C., a trip that eventually resulted in King's getting her first major grant from the National Institutes of Health and the discovery of the breast and ovarian cancer-causing gene BRCA1.\nOn September 17, 1992, the doors were opened at Joe DiMaggio Children's Hospital at Memorial Regional Hospital in Hollywood, Florida, for which he raised over $4 million.\n\nOn April 13, 1998, DiMaggio was given the Sports Legend Award at the 13th annual American Sportscasters Association Hall of Fame Awards Dinner in New York City. Henry Kissinger, former Secretary of State and a longtime fan of DiMaggio, made the presentation to the Yankee great. The event was one of DiMaggio's last public appearances before taking ill.\nYankee Stadium's fifth monument was dedicated to DiMaggio on April 25, 1999, and the West Side Highway was officially renamed The Joe DiMaggio Highway in his honor. The Yankees wore DiMaggio's number 5 on the left sleeves of their uniforms for the 1999 season. He is ranked No. 11 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and he was elected by fans to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. In addition to his number 5 being retired by the New York Yankees, DiMaggio's number was also retired by the Florida Marlins, who retired it in honor of their first team president, Carl Barger, who died five months before the team took the field for the first time in 1993. DiMaggio had been his favorite player.\nIn 2000 after some negotiations, the heirs of Joe DiMaggio's estate, two granddaughters and their four children, welcomed the renaming of San Francisco's North Beach playground, the place where Joe DiMaggio first took up baseball as a boy, as the Joe DiMaggio North Beach Playground.\nIn 2001, Major League Baseball introduced an online daily fantasy game called \"Beat the Streak\" which required players to pick one or two MLB players to get a hit in a game that day. The goal was to pick correctly 57 times in a row to beat DiMaggio's record streak. As of August 2021, the prize money for beating the streak was $5.6 million; more than 4.5 million players had combined to make over 100 million attempts but none had reached even 52 consecutive hits in the game's history.\nIn May 2006, the adopted daughters of DiMaggio's son held an auction of DiMaggio's personal items. Highlights included the ball he hit in breaking Wee Willie Keeler's hitting-streak record ($63,250); his 2,000th career hit ball ($29,900); his 1947 Most Valuable Player Award ($281,750); the uniform worn in the 1951 World Series ($195,500); his Hall of Fame ring ($69,000); a photograph Marilyn autographed \"I love you Joe\" ($80,500); her passport ($115,000); and their marriage certificate ($23,000). Lot 758, DiMaggio's white 1991 Mercedes 420 SEL sedan, which was a gift from the New York Yankees commemorating the 50th anniversary of DiMaggio's 1941 season, sold for $18,000. The event netted a total of $4.1 million.\n\nOn August 8, 2011, the United States Postal Service announced that an image of DiMaggio would appear on a stamp for the first time. It was issued as part of the \"Major League Baseball All-Star Stamp Series,\" which came out in July 2012.\nDiMaggio insisted on being introduced as the \"Greatest Living Ballplayer\" at events, including Yankee Old-Timers Day, and he once punched Billy Crystal in the stomach for not introducing him as such.\nIn 2013, the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honored DiMaggio as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Army Air Force during World War II.\nThe Joe DiMaggio Fields in his hometown of Martinez, California, are named after him.\n\nCareer statistics\nDiMaggio played in 10 World Series, winning 9. His only loss was in the 1942 World Series. He batted .271 (54–199), with 27 runs scored, 8 home runs, and 30 RBI in 51 post-season games.\n\nIn popular culture\nAn American icon, DiMaggio's popularity during his career was such that he was referenced in film, television, literature, art, and music both during his career and decades after he retired.\n\nArt\nPierre Bellocq: Canvas of Stars mural for Gallagher's Steak House (2006)\nRobert Casilla: The Continuity of Greatness\nDevon Dikeou: Marilyn Monroe Wanted to Be Buried in Pucci installation (2008)\nHarvey Dinnerstein: The Wide Swing (1979) sold at auction for $95,000\nCurt Flood: painting of DiMaggio sold at auction for $9,500\nBart Forbes: illustration of DiMaggio for the July 1999 Boys' Life\nZenos Frudakis: bronze sculpture of DiMaggio for the Joe DiMaggio Children's Hospital\nBill Gallo: caricature of DiMaggio and Ted Williams sold at auction for $750\nRed Grooms: Joltin' Joe Takes a Swing installation (1985–1988)\nStephen Holland: Joe DiMaggio (2005)\nArmand LaMontagne: 1991 giclee of DiMaggio sold at auction for $325\nTommy McDonald: paintings of DiMaggio sold at auction for $4,000, and $2,300\nWillard Mullin: 1936 drawing of DiMaggio sold at auction for $2,600\nLeRoy Neiman: Joe DiMaggio, New York Yankees (1969), Joe DiMaggio, San Francisco Seals (1989), and The DiMaggio Cut (1998)\nBruce Stark: caricature of DiMaggio and Mickey Mantle sold at auction for $700\nMark Ulriksen: illustration of DiMaggio for the cover of the April 12, 1999 The New Yorker\n\nCartoons, comics and graphic novels\nBoobs in the Woods: Daffy yells at Porky: \"Steal home, DiMaggio! It means the game! Attaboy, DiMaggio! Hit the dirt! Slide, DiMaggio! Slide!\" Porky then breaks the Fourth wall and says: \"Why am I sliding for? I'm not DiMaggio\".\nDC Comics' 100 Bullets by Brian Azzarello and Eduardo Risso:\n\"The Counterfifth Detective\", DiMaggio is recruited by Graves for the Minutemen\n\"Idol Chatter\", the former baseball player befriended by Graves is based on DiMaggio\nHarvey Comics' Babe Ruth Sports Comics (August 1949)\nParents' Magazine's True Comics #71 (May 1948)\nRevolutionary Comics' Baseball Legends: Joe DiMaggio (July 1992)\n\nLiterature\n\"Buck Wischnewski\" is based on him in Alvah Bessie's 1966 novel The Symbol\n\"The Ex-Athlete\" is based on him in Joyce Carol Oates's 2000 novel Blonde.\n\"The Silent Season of a Hero\" by Gay Talese, is a celebrated 1966 piece for Esquire magazine\nIn Ernest Hemingway's 1952 novel, The Old Man and the Sea, Santiago is a fan of DiMaggio.\n\nMusic\nAsia: \"Joe DiMaggio's Glove\"\nBilly Bragg and Woody Guthrie: \"DiMaggio Done It Again\"\nLes Brown & His Band of Renown's \"Joltin' Joe DiMaggio\"\nKinky Friedman: \"Marilyn and Joe\"\nMike Plume: \"DiMaggio\"\nAbie Rotenberg: \"The Great Joe DiMaggio's Card\"\nSimon & Garfunkel: \"Mrs. Robinson\" (Paul Simon performed the song on Joe DiMaggio Day in Yankee Stadium, a month after DiMaggio died.) \nBilly Joel: \"We Didn't Start the Fire\"\nVulfpeck: \"1 for 1, Dimaggio\"\nBon Jovi: \"Captain Crash and the Beauty Queen from Mars\"\nMadonna: \"Vogue\"\nTim Curry: \"I Do the Rock\"\nJohn Fogerty: \"Centerfield\"\n\nMovies\n61*, played by Michael Nouri\nThe Goddess: \"Dutch Seymour\" is based on DiMaggio\nInsignificance: \"The Ballplayer\" is based on DiMaggio\nBlonde, played by Bobby Cannavale\nManhattan Merry-Go-Round (film), Joe DiMaggio played himself\n\nTV movies\nMarilyn & Me, portrayed by Sal Landi\nMarilyn: The Untold Story, portrayed by Frank Converse\nNorma Jean & Marilyn, portrayed by Peter Dobson\nThe Rat Pack, portrayed by John Diehl\nThe Secret Life of Marilyn Monroe, portrayed by Jeffrey Dean Morgan\n\nTheatre\nInsignificance (1982) by Terry Johnson: The Ballplayer is based on DiMaggio\nMarilyn: An American Fable (1983): DiMaggio is a character\nArthur and Joe (2012) by Allan Havis: DiMaggio is a character\nBronx Bombers (2013) by Eric Simonson: DiMaggio is a character\n\nTelevision\nThe Bronx Is Burning, played by Christopher McDonald\nBlonde: \"The Baseball Player\" is based on DiMaggio \nFrasier, \"Room Full of Heroes\": Martin dresses as DiMaggio, his boyhood hero\nM*A*S*H:\n\"Showtime\": Jackie Flash mentions DiMaggio during a routine\n\"Pressure Points\": Potter mentions DiMaggio while talking to Freedman\n\"Bombshells\": Hawkeye tries to convince a 20th Century-Fox Switchboard operator that he's DiMaggio's \"friend\" Ted Williams\nSeinfeld, \"The Note\": Kramer tries to convince the gang that he saw DiMaggio at Dinky Donuts\nSesame Street-The Alphabet Game (Alphabet Treasure Hunt) (Game Show), \"1988 VHS\": Big Bird, Dimples the Dog, and Gary Grouch compete on a game show hosted by Sonny Friendly. Big Bird brings back a rabbit in the round they must bring something back that starts with 'R', but the choice is not accepted as Sonny Friendly calls the rabbit a \"bunny\". The episode ends with Dimples the Dog barking, which sounds like \"roof\", to the question \"What is the top part of a house called?\" Later, a flustered Big Bird says the dog would answer \"roof\" even to the question \"Who was the best outfielder the Yankees ever had\", in which case the rabbit responds, \"DiMaggio!!!\"\n\nSee also\nList of Major League Baseball career batting average leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career hits leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career home run leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career on-base percentage leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career OPS leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career runs batted in leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career slugging percentage leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career total bases leaders\nList of Major League Baseball career triples leaders\nList of Major League Baseball players to hit for the cycle\nList of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise\n\nReferences\nWorks cited\nFurther reading\nCramer, Richard Ben (2000). Joe DiMaggio: The Hero's Life. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684853914.\nKahn, Roger (1986). Joe and Marilyn: A Memory of Love. Avon Books. ISBN 978-0380704620.\nCharyn, Jerome (2011). Joe DiMaggio: The Long Vigil. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300123289.\nKennedy, Kostya (2011). 56: Joe DiMaggio and the Last Magic Number in Sports. Sports Illustrated Books. ISBN 978-1603201773.\nO'Toole, Andrew (2015). Strangers in the Bronx: DiMaggio, Mantle, and the Changing of the Yankee Guard. Triumph Books. ISBN 978-1629370279.\nPositano, Rock; Positano, John (2017). Dinner with DiMaggio: Memories of An American Hero. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1501156847.\nMonroe, Marilyn; Hecht, Ben (1974). My Story. Stein and Day. ISBN 9780812817072.\n\nExternal links\n\nCareer statistics and player information from MLB, or ESPN, or Baseball Reference, or Fangraphs, or Baseball Reference (Minors), or Retrosheet\nOfficial website\nJoe DiMaggio at the Baseball Hall of Fame\nJoe DiMaggio at the SABR Baseball Biography Project\nJoe DiMaggio at IMDb",
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] | In feet, subtract the diameter of the pitching plate ("rubber") in softball, from the distance between the "points" of the bases in baseball, and multiply that figure by the year that Joe DiMaggio married Marilyn Monroe. | [] | 144,596. The distance between the points of bases in baseball is 90 feet, subtract the diameter of the pitching plate in softball (16 feet), to get 74, and multiply that by 1954. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\n\nPresidents\nSee also\nActing President of the United States\nFounding Fathers of the United States\nList of vice presidents of the United States\nPresident of the Continental Congress\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nExternal links\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote",
"title": "List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"
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"paragraph_text": "Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was the 31st president of the United States, serving from 1929 to 1933. He was a member of the Republican Party, and held office during the onset of the Great Depression. A wealthy mining engineer before his presidency, Hoover led the wartime Commission for Relief in Belgium and was the director of the U.S. Food Administration, followed by post-war relief of Europe. In the 1920s, he served as the U.S. Secretary of Commerce.\nBorn to a Quaker family in West Branch, Iowa, Hoover grew up in Oregon. He was one of the first graduates of the new Stanford University in 1895. Hoover took a position with a London-based mining company working in Australia and China. He rapidly became a wealthy mining engineer. In 1914, the outbreak of World War I, he organized and headed the Commission for Relief in Belgium, an international relief organization that provided food to occupied Belgium. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover to lead the Food Administration. He became famous as his country's \"food czar\". After the war, Hoover led the American Relief Administration, which provided food to the starving millions in Central and Eastern Europe, especially Russia. Hoover's wartime service made him a favorite of many progressives, and he unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination in the 1920 U.S. presidential election.\nHoover served as the secretary of commerce under Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. Hoover was an unusually active and visible Cabinet member, becoming known as \"Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments.\" He was influential in the development of air travel and radio. Hoover led the federal response to the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927. He won the Republican nomination in the 1928 presidential election and defeated Democratic candidate Al Smith in a landslide. In 1929, Hoover assumed the presidency. However, during his first year in office, the stock market crashed, signaling the onset of the Great Depression, which dominated Hoover's presidency until its end. His response to the depression was widely seen as lackluster and he scapegoated Mexican Americans for the economic crisis. Approximately 1.5-2 million Mexican Americans were forcibly \"repatriated\" to Mexico in a forced migration campaign known as the Mexican Repatriation even though a majority of them were born in the United States.\nIn the midst of the Great Depression, he was decisively defeated by Democratic nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election. Hoover's retirement was over 31 years long, one of the longest presidential retirements. He authored numerous works and became increasingly conservative in retirement. He strongly criticized Roosevelt's foreign policy and the New Deal. In the 1940s and 1950s, public opinion of Hoover improved, largely due to his service in various assignments for Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower, including chairing the influential Hoover Commission. Critical assessments of his presidency by historians and political scientists generally rank him as a significantly below-average president, although Hoover has received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official.\n\nEarly life and education\nHerbert Clark Hoover was born on August 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa. His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner of German, Swiss, and English ancestry. Hoover's mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was raised in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, before moving to Iowa in 1859. Like most other citizens of West Branch, Jesse and Hulda were Quakers. Around age two \"Bertie\", as he was called during that time, contracted a serious bout of croup, and was momentarily thought to have died until resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn. As a young child he was often referred to by his father as \"my little stick in the mud\" when he repeatedly got trapped in the mud crossing the unpaved street. Herbert's family figured prominently in the town's public prayer life, due almost entirely to mother Hulda's role in the church. As a child, Hoover consistently attended schools, but he did little reading on his own aside from the Bible. Hoover's father, noted by the local paper for his \"pleasant, sunshiny disposition\", died in 1880 at the age of 34 of a sudden heart attack. Hoover's mother died in 1884 of typhoid, leaving Hoover, his older brother, Theodore, and his younger sister, May, as orphans. Hoover lived the next 18 months with his uncle Allen Hoover at a nearby farm.\n\nIn November 1885, Hoover was sent to Newberg, Oregon, to live with his uncle John Minthorn, a Quaker physician and businessman whose own son had died the year before. The Minthorn household was considered cultured and educational, and imparted a strong work ethic. Much like West Branch, Newberg was a frontier town settled largely by Midwestern Quakers. Minthorn ensured that Hoover received an education, but Hoover disliked the many chores assigned to him and often resented Minthorn. One observer described Hoover as \"an orphan [who] seemed to be neglected in many ways\". Hoover attended Friends Pacific Academy (now George Fox University), but dropped out at the age of thirteen to become an office assistant for his uncle's real estate office (Oregon Land Company) in Salem, Oregon. Though he did not attend high school, Hoover learned bookkeeping, typing, and mathematics at a night school.\nHoover was a member of the inaugural \"Pioneer Class\" of Stanford University, entering in 1891 despite failing all the entrance exams except mathematics. During his freshman year, he switched his major from mechanical engineering to geology after working for John Casper Branner, the chairman of Stanford's geology department. During his sophomore year, to reduce his costs, Hoover co-founded the first student housing cooperative at Stanford, \"Romero Hall\". Hoover was a mediocre student, and he spent much of his time working in various part-time jobs or participating in campus activities. Though he was initially shy among fellow students, Hoover won election as student treasurer and became known for his distaste for fraternities and sororities. He served as student manager of both the baseball and football teams, and helped organize the inaugural Big Game versus the University of California. During the summers before and after his senior year, Hoover interned under economic geologist Waldemar Lindgren of the United States Geological Survey; these experiences convinced Hoover to pursue a career as a mining geologist.\n\nMining engineer\nBewick, Moreing\nWhen Hoover graduated from Stanford in 1895, the country was in the midst of the Panic of 1893 and he initially struggled to find a job. He worked in various low-level mining jobs in the Sierra Nevada Mountains until persuading prominent mining engineer Louis Janin to hire him. After working as a mine scout for a year, Hoover was hired by Bewick, Moreing & Co. (\"Bewick\"), a London-based company that operated gold mines in Western Australia. He first went to Coolgardie, then the center of the Eastern Goldfields, which was actually in Western Australia, receiving a $5,000 salary (equivalent to $183,120 in 2023). Conditions were harsh in the goldfields; Hoover described the Coolgardie and Murchison rangelands on the edge of the Great Victoria Desert as a land of \"black flies, red dust and white heat\".\nHoover traveled constantly across the Outback to evaluate and manage the company's mines. He convinced Bewick to purchase the Sons of Gwalia gold mine, which proved to be one of the most successful mines in the region. Partly due to Hoover's efforts, the company eventually controlled approximately 50 percent of gold production in Western Australia. Hoover brought in many Italian immigrants to cut costs and counter the labour movement of the Australian miners. During his time with the mining company, Hoover became opposed to measures such as a minimum wage and workers' compensation, feeling that they were unfair to owners. Hoover's work impressed his employers, and in 1898 he was promoted to junior partner. An open feud developed between Hoover and his boss, Ernest Williams, but Bewick's leaders defused the situation by offering Hoover a compelling position in China.\nUpon arriving in China, Hoover developed gold mines near Tianjin on behalf of Bewick and the Chinese-owned Chinese Engineering and Mining Company. He became deeply interested in Chinese history, but gave up on learning the language to a fluent level. He publicly warned that Chinese workers were inefficient and racially inferior. He made recommendations to improve the lot of the Chinese worker, seeking to end the practice of imposing long-term servitude contracts and to institute reforms for workers based on merit. The Boxer Rebellion broke out shortly after the Hoovers arrived in China, trapping them and numerous other foreign nationals until a multi-national military force defeated Boxer forces in the Battle of Tientsin. Fearing the imminent collapse of the Chinese government, the director of the Chinese Engineering and Mining Company agreed to establish a new Sino-British venture with Bewick. After they established effective control over the new Chinese mining company, Hoover became the operating partner in late 1901.\nIn this role, Hoover continually traveled the world on behalf of Bewick, visiting mines operated by the company on different continents. Beginning in December 1902, the company faced mounting legal and financial issues after one of the partners admitted to having fraudulently sold stock in a mine. More issues arose in 1904 after the British government formed two separate royal commissions to investigate Bewick's labor practices and financial dealings in Western Australia. After the company lost a lawsuit Hoover began looking for a way to get out of the partnership, and he sold his shares in mid-1908.\n\nSole proprietor\nAfter leaving Bewick, Moreing, Hoover worked as a London-based independent mining consultant and financier. Though he had risen to prominence as a geologist and mine operator, Hoover focused much of his attention on raising money, restructuring corporate organizations, and financing new ventures. He specialized in rejuvenating troubled mining operations, taking a share of the profits in exchange for his technical and financial expertise. Hoover thought of himself and his associates as \"engineering doctors to sick concerns\", and he earned a reputation as a \"doctor of sick mines\". He made investments on every continent and had offices in San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; and Mandalay, British Burma. By 1914, Hoover was a very wealthy man, with an estimated personal fortune of $4 million (equivalent to $121.67 million in 2023).\nHoover co-founded the Zinc Corporation to extract zinc near the Australian city of Broken Hill, New South Wales. The Zinc Corporation developed the froth flotation process to extract zinc from lead-silver ore and operated the world's first selective ore differential flotation plant. Hoover worked with the Burma Corporation, a British firm that produced silver, lead, and zinc in large quantities at the Namtu Bawdwin Mine.: 90–96, 101–102 He also helped increase copper production in Kyshtym, Russia, through the use of pyritic smelting. He also agreed to manage a separate mine in the Altai Mountains that, according to Hoover, \"developed probably the greatest and richest single body of ore known in the world\".: 102–108 \nIn his spare time, Hoover wrote. His lectures at Columbia and Stanford universities were published in 1909 as Principles of Mining, which became a standard textbook. The book reflects his move towards progressive ideals, as Hoover came to endorse eight-hour workdays and organized labor. Hoover became deeply interested in the history of science, and he was especially drawn to the De re metallica, an influential 16th century work on mining and metallurgy by Georgius Agricola. In 1912, Hoover and his wife published the first English translation of De re metallica. Hoover also joined the board of trustees at Stanford, and led a successful campaign to appoint John Branner as the university's president.\n\nMarriage and family\nDuring his senior year at Stanford, Hoover became smitten with a classmate named Lou Henry, though his financial situation precluded marriage at that time. The daughter of a banker from Monterey, California, Lou Henry decided to study geology at Stanford after attending a lecture delivered by John C. Branner. Immediately after earning a promotion in 1898, Hoover cabled Lou Henry, asking her to marry him. After she cabled back her acceptance of the proposal, Hoover briefly returned to the United States for their wedding. They would remain married until Lou Henry Hoover's death in 1944. Hoover was the first president to be a widower since Woodrow Wilson.\nThough his Quaker upbringing strongly influenced his career, Hoover rarely attended Quaker meetings during his adult life. Hoover and his wife had two children: Herbert Hoover Jr. (born in 1903) and Allan Henry Hoover (born in 1907). The Hoover family began living in London in 1902, though they frequently traveled as part of Hoover's career. After 1916, the Hoovers began living in the United States, maintaining homes in Stanford, California, and Washington, D.C.\nHoover's elder brother Theodore also studied mining engineering at Stanford, and returned there to become dean of the engineering school. In retirement, Theodore bought a large property on the remote north coast of Santa Cruz County. The Theodore J. Hoover Natural Preserve is now part of Big Basin State Park.\n\nWorld War I and aftermath\nRelief in Europe\nWorld War I broke out in August 1914, pitting Germany and its allies against France and its allies. The German Schlieffen plan was to achieve a quick victory by marching through neutral Belgium to envelop the French Army east of Paris. The maneuver failed to reach Paris but the Germans did control nearly all of Belgium for the entire war. Hoover and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe. Hoover was appointed as the committee's chairman and, with the assent of Congress and the Wilson administration, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe. Hoover later stated, \"I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life.\" By early October 1914, Hoover's organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans.\nThe German invasion of Belgium in August 1914 set off a food crisis in Belgium, which relied heavily on food imports. The Germans refused to take responsibility for feeding Belgian citizens in captured territory, and the British refused to lift their blockade of German-occupied Belgium unless the U.S. government supervised Belgian food imports as a neutral party in the war. With the cooperation of the Wilson administration and the CNSA, a Belgian relief organization, Hoover established the Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB). The CRB obtained and imported millions of tons of foodstuffs for the CNSA to distribute, and helped ensure that the German army did not appropriate the food. Private donations and government grants supplied the majority of its $11-million-a-month budget, and the CRB became a veritable independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills, and railroads.\nHoover worked 14-hour days from London, administering the distribution of over two million tons of food to nine million war victims. In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea forty times to meet with German authorities and persuade them to allow food shipments. He also convinced British Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George to allow individuals to send money to the people of Belgium, thereby lessening workload of the CRB. At the request of the French government, the CRB began delivering supplies to the people of German-occupied Northern France in 1915. American diplomat Walter Page described Hoover as \"probably the only man living who has privately (i.e., without holding office) negotiated understandings with the British, French, German, Dutch, and Belgian governments\".\n\nU.S. Food Administration\nWar upon Germany was declared in April 1917, and American food was essential to Allied victory. With the U.S. mobilizing for war, President Wilson appointed Hoover to head the U.S. Food Administration, which was charged with ensuring the nation's food needs during the war. Hoover had hoped to join the administration in some capacity since at least 1916, and he obtained the position after lobbying several members of Congress and Wilson's confidant, Edward M. House. Earning the appellation of \"food czar\", Hoover recruited a volunteer force of hundreds of thousands of women and deployed propaganda in movie theaters, schools, and churches. He carefully selected men to assist in the agency leadership—Alonzo E. Taylor (technical abilities), Robert Taft (political associations), Gifford Pinchot (agricultural influence), and Julius Barnes (business acumen).\nWorld War I had created a global food crisis that dramatically increased food prices and caused food riots and starvation in the countries at war. Hoover's chief goal as food czar was to provide supplies to the Allied Powers, but he also sought to stabilize domestic prices and to prevent domestic shortages. Under the broad powers granted by the Food and Fuel Control Act, the Food Administration supervised food production throughout the United States, and the administration made use of its authority to buy, import, store, and sell food. Determined to avoid rationing, Hoover established set days for people to avoid eating specified foods and save them for soldiers' rations: meatless Mondays, wheatless Wednesdays, and \"when in doubt, eat potatoes\". These policies were dubbed \"Hooverizing\" by government publicists, in spite of Hoover's continual orders that publicity should not mention him by name. The Food Administration shipped 23 million metric tons of food to the Allied Powers, preventing their collapse and earning Hoover great acclaim. As head of the Food Administration, Hoover gained a following in the United States, especially among progressives who saw in Hoover an expert administrator and symbol of efficiency. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society during his tenure.\n\nPost-war relief in Europe\nWorld War I came to an end in November 1918, but Europe continued to face a critical food situation; Hoover estimated that as many as 400 million people faced the possibility of starvation. The United States Food Administration became the American Relief Administration (ARA), and Hoover was charged with providing food to Central and Eastern Europe. In addition to providing relief, the ARA rebuilt infrastructure in an effort to rejuvenate the economy of Europe. Throughout the Paris Peace Conference, Hoover served as a close adviser to President Wilson, and he largely shared Wilson's goals of establishing the League of Nations, settling borders on the basis of self-determination, and refraining from inflicting a harsh punishment on the defeated Central Powers. The following year, the famed British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote in The Economic Consequences of the Peace that if Hoover's realism, \"knowledge, magnanimity and disinterestedness\" had found wider play in the councils of Paris, the world would have had \"the Good Peace\". After U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in mid-1919, Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. He also established the European Children's Fund, which provided relief to fifteen million children across fourteen countries.\nDespite the opposition of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other Republicans, Hoover provided aid to the defeated German nation after the war, as well as relief to famine-stricken Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Hoover condemned the Bolsheviks but warned President Wilson against an intervention in the Russian Civil War, as he viewed the White Russian forces as little better than the Bolsheviks and feared the possibility of a protracted U.S. involvement. The Russian famine of 1921–22 claimed six million people, but the intervention of the ARA likely saved millions of lives. When asked if he was not helping Bolshevism by providing relief, Hoover stated, \"twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!\" Reflecting the gratitude of many Europeans, in July 1922, Soviet author Maxim Gorky told Hoover that \"your help will enter history as a unique, gigantic achievement, worthy of the greatest glory, which will long remain in the memory of millions of Russians whom you have saved from death\".\nIn 1919, Hoover established the Hoover War Collection at Stanford University. He donated all the files of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, the U.S. Food Administration, and the American Relief Administration, and pledged $50,000 as an endowment (equivalent to $878,695 in 2023). Scholars were sent to Europe to collect pamphlets, society publications, government documents, newspapers, posters, proclamations, and other ephemeral materials related to the war and the revolutions that followed it. The collection was renamed the Hoover War Library in 1922 and is now known as the Hoover Institution Library and Archives. During the post-war period, Hoover also served as the president of the Federated American Engineering Societies.\n\n1920 election\nHoover had been little known among the American public before 1914, but his service in the Wilson administration established him as a contender in the 1920 presidential election. Hoover's wartime push for higher taxes, criticism of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's actions during the First Red Scare, and his advocacy for measures such as the minimum wage, forty-eight-hour workweek, and elimination of child labor made him appealing to progressives of both parties. Despite his service in the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson, Hoover had never been closely affiliated with either the Democrats or the Republicans. He initially sought to avoid committing to any party in the 1920 election, hoping that either of the two major parties would draft him for president at their national conventions. In March 1920, he changed strategy and declared himself a Republican; he was motivated in large part by the belief that the Democrats had little chance of winning. Despite his national renown, Hoover's service in the Wilson administration had alienated farmers and the conservative Old Guard of the GOP, and his presidential candidacy fizzled out after his defeat in the California primary by favorite son Hiram Johnson. At the 1920 Republican National Convention, Warren G. Harding emerged as a compromise candidate after the convention became deadlocked between supporters of Johnson, Leonard Wood, and Frank Orren Lowden. Hoover backed Harding's successful campaign in the general election, and he began laying the groundwork for a future presidential run by building a base of strong supporters in the Republican Party.\n\nSecretary of Commerce (1921–1928)\nAfter his election as president in 1920, Harding rewarded Hoover for his support, offering to appoint him as either Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Commerce. Secretary of Commerce was considered a minor Cabinet post, with limited and vaguely defined responsibilities, but Hoover decided to accept the position. Hoover's progressive stances, continuing support for the League of Nations, and recent conversion to the Republican Party aroused opposition to his appointment from many Senate Republicans. To overcome this opposition, Harding paired Hoover's nomination with that of conservative favorite Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury, and the nominations of both Hoover and Mellon were confirmed by the Senate. Hoover would serve as Secretary of Commerce from 1921 to 1929, serving under Harding and, after Harding's death in 1923, President Calvin Coolidge. While some of the most prominent members of the Harding administration, including Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty and Secretary of Interior Albert B. Fall, were implicated in major scandals, Hoover emerged largely unscathed from investigations into the Harding administration.\nHoover envisioned the Commerce Department as the hub of the nation's growth and stability. His experience mobilizing the war-time economy convinced him that the federal government could promote efficiency by eliminating waste, increasing production, encouraging the adoption of data-based practices, investing in infrastructure, and conserving natural resources. Contemporaries described Hoover's approach as a \"third alternative\" between \"unrestrained capitalism\" and socialism, which was becoming increasingly popular in Europe. Hoover sought to foster a balance among labor, capital, and the government, and for this, he has been variously labeled a corporatist or an associationalist. A high priority was economic diplomacy, including promoting the growth of exports, as well as protection against monopolistic practices of foreign governments, especially regarding rubber and coffee.\nHoover demanded, and received, authority to coordinate economic affairs throughout the government. He created many sub-departments and committees, overseeing and regulating everything from manufacturing statistics to air travel. In some instances, he \"seized\" control of responsibilities from other Cabinet departments when he deemed that they were not carrying out their responsibilities well; some began referring to him as the \"Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments\". In response to the Depression of 1920–21, he convinced Harding to assemble a presidential commission on unemployment, which encouraged local governments to engage in countercyclical infrastructure spending. He endorsed much of Mellon's tax reduction program but favored a more progressive tax system and opposed the treasury secretary's efforts to eliminate the estate tax.\n\nRadio regulation and air travel\nBetween 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million, and Hoover's tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced radio use in the United States. In the early and mid-1920s, Hoover's radio conferences played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of radio broadcasting. Hoover also helped pass the Radio Act of 1927, which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed \"non-useful\" to the public. Hoover's attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners.\nHoover was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by indirect government subsidies. He encouraged the development of emergency landing fields, required all runways to be equipped with lights and radio beams, and encouraged farmers to make use of planes for crop dusting. He also established the federal government's power to inspect planes and license pilots, setting a precedent for the later Federal Aviation Administration.\nAs Commerce Secretary, Hoover hosted national conferences on street traffic collectively known as the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety. Hoover's chief objective was to address the growing casualty toll of traffic accidents, but the scope of the conferences grew and soon embraced motor vehicle standards, rules of the road, and urban traffic control. He left the invited interest groups to negotiate agreements among themselves, which were then presented for adoption by states and localities. Because automotive trade associations were the best organized, many of the positions taken by the conferences reflected their interests. The conferences issued a model Uniform Vehicle Code for adoption by the states and a Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance for adoption by cities. Both were widely influential, promoting greater uniformity between jurisdictions and tending to promote the automobile's priority in city streets.\n\nHoover's image building\nPhillips Payson O'Brien argues that Hoover had a Britain problem. He had spent so many years living in Britain and Australia, as an employee of British companies, there was a risk that he would be labeled a British tool. There were three solutions, all of which he tried in close collaboration with the media, which greatly admired him. First came the image of the dispassionate scientist, emotionally uninvolved but always committed to finding and implementing the best possible solution. The second solution was to gain the reputation of a humanitarian, deeply concerned with the world's troubles, such as famine in Belgium, as well as specific American problems which he had solved as food commissioner during the world war. The third solution to was to fall back on that old tactic of twisting the British tail. He employed that solution in 1925–1926 in the worldwide rubber crisis. The American auto industry consumed 70% of the world's output, but British investors controlled much of the supply. Their plan was to drastically cut back on output from British Malaya, which had the effect of tripling rubber prices. Hoover energetically gave a series of speeches and interviews denouncing the monopolistic practice and demanding that it be ended. The American State Department wanted no such crisis and compromised the issue in 1926. By then Hoover had solved his image problem, and during his 1928 campaign he successfully squelched attacks that alleged he was too close to British interests.\n\nOther initiatives\nWith the goal of encouraging wise business investments, Hoover made the Commerce Department a clearinghouse of information. He recruited numerous academics from various fields and tasked them with publishing reports on different aspects of the economy, including steel production and films. To eliminate waste, he encouraged standardization of products like automobile tires and baby bottle nipples. Other efforts at eliminating waste included reducing labor losses from trade disputes and seasonal fluctuations, reducing industrial losses from accident and injury, and reducing the amount of crude oil spilled during extraction and shipping. He promoted international trade by opening overseas offices to advise businessmen. Hoover was especially eager to promote Hollywood films overseas. His \"Own Your Own Home\" campaign was a collaboration to promote ownership of single-family dwellings, with groups such as the Better Houses in America movement, the Architects' Small House Service Bureau, and the Home Modernizing Bureau. He worked with bankers and the savings and loan industry to promote the new long-term home mortgage, which dramatically stimulated home construction. Other accomplishments included winning the agreement of U.S. Steel to adopt an eight-hour workday, and the fostering of the Colorado River Compact, a water rights compact among Southwestern states.\n\nMississippi flood\nThe Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke the banks and levees of the lower Mississippi River in early 1927, resulting in the flooding of millions of acres and leaving 1.5 million people displaced from their homes. Although disaster response did not fall under the duties of the Commerce Department, the governors of six states along the Mississippi River specifically asked President Coolidge to appoint Hoover to coordinate the response to the flood. Believing that disaster response was not the domain of the federal government, Coolidge initially refused to become involved, but he eventually acceded to political pressure and appointed Hoover to chair a special committee to help the region. Hoover established over one hundred tent cities and a fleet of more than six hundred vessels and raised $17 million (equivalent to $298.18 million in 2023). In large part due to his leadership during the flood crisis, by 1928, Hoover had begun to overshadow President Coolidge himself. Though Hoover received wide acclaim for his role in the crisis, he ordered the suppression of reports of mistreatment of African Americans in refugee camps. He did so with the cooperation of black American leader Robert Russa Moton, who was promised unprecedented influence once Hoover became president.\n\nPresidential election of 1928\nHoover quietly gathered support for a future presidential bid throughout the 1920s, but he carefully avoided alienating Coolidge, who possibly could have run for another term in the 1928 presidential election. Along with the rest of the nation, he was surprised when Coolidge announced in August 1927 that he would not seek another term. With the impending retirement of Coolidge, Hoover immediately emerged as the front-runner for the 1928 Republican nomination, and he quickly put together a strong campaign team led by Hubert Work, Will H. Hays, and Reed Smoot. Coolidge was unwilling to anoint Hoover as his successor; on one occasion he remarked that, \"for six years that man has given me unsolicited advice—all of it bad\". Despite his lukewarm feelings towards Hoover, Coolidge had no desire to split the party by publicly opposing the popular Commerce Secretary's candidacy.\nMany wary Republican leaders cast about for an alternative candidate, such as Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon or former secretary of state Charles Evans Hughes. However, Hughes and Mellon declined to run, and other potential contenders like Frank Orren Lowden and Vice President Charles G. Dawes failed to garner widespread support. Hoover won the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the 1928 Republican National Convention. Convention delegates considered re-nominating Vice President Charles Dawes to be Hoover's running mate, but Coolidge, who hated Dawes, remarked that this would be \"a personal affront\" to him. The convention instead selected Senator Charles Curtis of Kansas. Hoover accepted the nomination at Stanford Stadium, telling a huge crowd that he would continue the policies of the Harding and Coolidge administrations. The Democrats nominated New York governor Al Smith, who became the first Catholic major party nominee for president.\n\nHoover submitted his resignation as Commerce Secretary on July 7, but Coolidge kept him on until August 21 to wind up pending business. Hoover centered his campaign around the Republican record of peace and prosperity, as well as his own reputation as a successful engineer and public official. Averse to giving political speeches, Hoover largely stayed out of the fray and left the campaigning to Curtis and other Republicans. Smith was more charismatic and gregarious than Hoover, but his campaign was damaged by anti-Catholicism and his overt opposition to Prohibition. Hoover had never been a strong proponent of Prohibition, but he accepted the Republican Party's plank in favor of it and issued an ambivalent statement calling Prohibition \"a great social and economic experiment, noble in motive and far-reaching in purpose\". In the South, Hoover and the national party pursued a \"lily-white\" strategy, removing black Republicans from leadership positions in an attempt to curry favor with white Southerners.\nHoover maintained polling leads throughout the 1928 campaign, and he decisively defeated Smith on election day, taking 58 percent of the popular vote and 444 of the 531 electoral votes. Historians agree that Hoover's national reputation and the booming economy, combined with deep splits in the Democratic Party over religion and Prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory. Hoover's appeal to Southern white voters succeeded in cracking the \"Solid South\", and he won five Southern states. Hoover's victory was positively received by newspapers; one wrote that Hoover would \"drive so forcefully at the tasks now before the nation that the end of his eight years as president will find us looking back on an era of prodigious achievement\".\nHoover's detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 United States census which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations. The 1920 census was the first and only decennial census where the results were not used to reapportion Congress, which ultimately influenced the 1928 Electoral College and impacted the presidential election.\n\nPresidency (1929–1933)\nHoover saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed \"volunteerism\". He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance. The first major bill that he signed, the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, established the Federal Farm Board in order to stabilize farm prices. Hoover made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions started by Hoover, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying the entirety of American society. He appointed a Cabinet consisting largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives, including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon. Lou Henry Hoover was an activist First Lady. She typified the new woman of the post–World War I era: intelligent, robust, and aware of multiple female possibilities.\n\nGreat Depression\nOn taking office, Hoover said that \"given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation\". Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many shared Hoover's optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on Hoover's accession. This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including a persistent farm crisis, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles, and growing income inequality. Most dangerous of all to the economy was excessive speculation that had raised stock prices far beyond their value. Some regulators and bankers had warned Coolidge and Hoover that a failure to curb speculation would lead to \"one of the greatest financial catastrophes that this country has ever seen,\" but both presidents were reluctant to become involved with the workings of the Federal Reserve System, which regulated banks.\nIn late October 1929, the stock market crashed, and the worldwide economy began to spiral downward into the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression remain a matter of debate, but Hoover viewed a lack of confidence in the financial system as the fundamental economic problem facing the nation. He sought to avoid direct federal intervention, believing that the best way to bolster the economy was through the strengthening of businesses such as banks and railroads. He also feared that allowing individuals on the \"dole\" would permanently weaken the country. Instead, Hoover strongly believed that local governments and private giving should address the needs of individuals.\n\nEarly policies\nThough he attempted to put a positive spin on Black Tuesday, Hoover moved quickly to address the stock market collapse. In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21. Hoover also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, and the Federal Reserve announced that it would cut interest rates. In early 1930, Hoover acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus. At the same time, Hoover opposed congressional proposals to provide federal relief to the unemployed, as he believed that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments and philanthropic organizations.\nHoover had taken office hoping to raise agricultural tariffs in order to help farmers reeling from the farm crisis of the 1920s, but his attempt to raise agricultural tariffs became connected with a bill that broadly raised tariffs. Hoover refused to become closely involved in the congressional debate over the tariff, and Congress produced a tariff bill that raised rates for many goods. Despite the widespread unpopularity of the bill, Hoover felt that he could not reject the main legislative accomplishment of the Republican-controlled 71st Congress. Over the objection of many economists, Hoover signed the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act into law in June 1930. Canada, France, and other nations retaliated by raising tariffs, resulting in a contraction of international trade and a worsening of the economy. Progressive Republicans such as Senator William E. Borah of Idaho were outraged when Hoover signed the tariff act, and Hoover's relations with that wing of the party never recovered.\n\nLater policies\nBy the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21. A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931. While other countries left the gold standard, Hoover refused to abandon it; he derided any other monetary system as \"collectivism\". Hoover viewed the weak European economy as a major cause of economic troubles in the United States. In response to the collapse of the German economy, Hoover marshaled congressional support behind a one-year moratorium on European war debts. The Hoover Moratorium was warmly received in Europe and the United States, but Germany remained on the brink of defaulting on its loans. As the worldwide economy worsened, democratic governments fell; in Germany, Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler assumed power and dismantled the Weimar Republic.\nBy mid-1931, the unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns. A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, Hoover allowed his opponents in the Democratic Party to define him as cold, incompetent, reactionary, and out-of-touch. Hoover's opponents developed defamatory epithets to discredit him, such as \"Hooverville\" (the shanty towns and homeless encampments), \"Hoover leather\" (cardboard used to cover holes in the soles of shoes), and \"Hoover blanket\" (old newspaper used to cover oneself from the cold). While Hoover continued to resist direct federal relief efforts, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York launched the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to provide aid to the unemployed. Democrats positioned the program as a kinder alternative to Hoover's alleged apathy towards the unemployed, despite Hoover's belief that such programs were the responsibility of state and local governments.\nThe economy continued to worsen, with unemployment rates nearing 23 percent in early 1932, and Hoover finally heeded calls for more direct federal intervention. In January 1932, he convinced Congress to authorize the establishment of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), which would provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads, and local governments. The RFC saved numerous businesses from failure, but it failed to stimulate commercial lending as much as Hoover had hoped, partly because it was run by conservative bankers unwilling to make riskier loans. The same month the RFC was established, Hoover signed the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, establishing 12 district banks overseen by a Federal Home Loan Bank Board in a manner similar to the Federal Reserve System. He also helped arrange passage of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1932, emergency banking legislation designed to expand banking credit by expanding the collateral on which Federal Reserve banks were authorized to lend. As these measures failed to stem the economic crisis, Hoover signed the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, a $2 billion public works bill, in July 1932.\n\nBudget policy\nAfter a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931. Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the Revenue Act of 1932. The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the tax cut reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s. Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top estate tax rate, cut personal income tax exemptions, eliminated the corporate income tax exemption, and raised corporate tax rates. Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.\n\nCivil rights and Mexican Repatriation\nHoover seldom mentioned civil rights while he was president. He believed that African Americans and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative. Hoover appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge combined, but many African American leaders condemned various aspects of the Hoover administration, including Hoover's unwillingness to push for a federal anti-lynching law. Hoover also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South. Though Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African American leaders were outraged. Hoover further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge John J. Parker to the Supreme Court; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate due to opposition from the NAACP and organized labor. Many black voters switched to the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, and African Americans would later become an important part of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal coalition.\nAs part of his efforts to limit unemployment, Hoover sought to cut immigration to the United States, and in 1930 he promulgated an executive order requiring individuals to have employment before migrating to the United States. The Hoover Administration began a campaign to prosecute illegal immigrants in the United States, which most strongly affected Mexican Americans, especially those living in Southern California. Many of the deportations were overseen by state and local authorities who acted on the encouragement of the Hoover Administration. During the 1930s, approximately one million Mexican Americans were forcibly \"repatriated\" to Mexico; approximately sixty percent of those deported were birthright citizens. According to legal professor Kevin R. Johnson, the repatriation campaign meets the modern legal standards of ethnic cleansing, as it involved the forced removal of a racial minority by government actors.\nHoover reorganized the Bureau of Indian Affairs to limit exploitation of Native Americans.\n\nProhibition\nOn taking office, Hoover urged Americans to obey the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, which had established Prohibition across the United States. To make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition, he created the Wickersham Commission. Hoover had hoped that the commission's public report would buttress his stance in favor of Prohibition, but the report criticized the enforcement of the Volstead Act and noted the growing public opposition to Prohibition. After the Wickersham Report was published in 1931, Hoover rejected the advice of some of his closest allies and refused to endorse any revision of the Volstead Act or the Eighteenth Amendment, as he feared doing so would undermine his support among Prohibition advocates. As public opinion increasingly turned against Prohibition, more and more people flouted the law, and a grassroots movement began working in earnest for Prohibition's repeal. In January 1933, a constitutional amendment repealing the Eighteenth Amendment was approved by Congress and submitted to the states for ratification. By December 1933, it had been ratified by the requisite number of states to become the Twenty-first Amendment.\n\nForeign relations\nAccording to Leuchtenburg, Hoover was \"the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to the rest of the world\". Nevertheless, during Hoover's term, the world order established in the immediate aftermath of World War I began to crumble. As president, Hoover largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in Latin America's internal affairs. In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum, a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America. Hoover did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in the Dominican Republic, and he sent warships to El Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution. Notwithstanding those actions, he wound down the Banana Wars, ending the occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the occupation of Haiti.\nHoover placed a priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift money from the military to domestic needs. Hoover and Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson focused on extending the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, which sought to prevent a naval arms race. As a result of Hoover's efforts, the United States and other major naval powers signed the 1930 London Naval Treaty. The treaty represented the first time that the naval powers had agreed to cap their tonnage of auxiliary vessels, as previous agreements had only affected capital ships.\nAt the 1932 World Disarmament Conference, Hoover urged further cutbacks in armaments and the outlawing of tanks and bombers, but his proposals were not adopted.\nIn 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, defeating the Republic of China's National Revolutionary Army and establishing Manchukuo, a puppet state. The Hoover administration deplored the invasion, but also sought to avoid antagonizing the Japanese, fearing that taking too strong a stand would weaken the moderate forces in the Japanese government and alienate a potential ally against the Soviet Union, which he saw as a much greater threat. In response to the Japanese invasion, Hoover and Secretary of State Stimson outlined the Stimson Doctrine, which held that the United States would not recognize territories gained by force.\n\nBonus Army\nThousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924; the terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945. Although offered money by Congress to return home, some members of the \"Bonus Army\" remained. Washington police attempted to disperse the demonstrators, but they were outnumbered and unsuccessful. Shots were fired by the police in a futile attempt to attain order, and two protesters were killed while many officers were injured. Hoover sent U.S. Army forces led by General Douglas MacArthur to the protests. MacArthur, believing he was fighting a Communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. Though Hoover had not ordered MacArthur's clearing out of the protesters, he endorsed it after the fact. The incident proved embarrassing for the Hoover administration and hurt his bid for re-election.\n\n1932 re-election campaign\nBy mid-1931 few observers thought that Hoover had much hope of winning a second term in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis. The Republican expectations were so bleak that Hoover faced no serious opposition for re-nomination at the 1932 Republican National Convention. Coolidge and other prominent Republicans all passed on the opportunity to challenge Hoover. Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot of the 1932 Democratic National Convention, defeating the 1928 Democratic nominee, Al Smith. The Democrats attacked Hoover as the cause of the Great Depression, and for being indifferent to the suffering of millions. As Governor of New York, Roosevelt had called on the New York legislature to provide aid for the needy, establishing Roosevelt's reputation for being more favorable toward government interventionism during the economic crisis. The Democratic Party, including Al Smith and other national leaders, coalesced behind Roosevelt, while progressive Republicans like George Norris and Robert La Follette Jr. deserted Hoover. Prohibition was increasingly unpopular and wets offered the argument that states and localities needed the tax money. Hoover proposed a new constitutional amendment that was vague on particulars. Roosevelt's platform promised repeal of the 18th Amendment.\n\nHoover originally planned to make only one or two major speeches and to leave the rest of the campaigning to proxies, as sitting presidents had traditionally done. However, encouraged by Republican pleas and outraged by Democratic claims, Hoover entered the public fray. In his nine major radio addresses Hoover primarily defended his administration and his philosophy of government, urging voters to hold to the \"foundations of experience\" and reject the notion that government interventionism could save the country from the Depression. In his campaign trips around the country, Hoover was faced with perhaps the most hostile crowds ever seen by a sitting president. Besides having his train and motorcades pelted with eggs and rotten fruit, he was often heckled while speaking, and on several occasions, the Secret Service halted attempts to hurt Hoover, including capturing one man nearing Hoover carrying sticks of dynamite, and another already having removed several spikes from the rails in front of the president's train. Hoover's attempts to vindicate his administration fell on deaf ears, as much of the public blamed his administration for the depression. In the electoral vote, Hoover lost 59–472, carrying six states. Hoover won 39.6 percent of the popular vote, a plunge of 18.6 percentage points from his result in the 1928 election.\n\nPost-presidency (1933–1964)\nRoosevelt administration\nOpposition to New Deal\nHoover departed from Washington in March 1933, bitter at his election loss and continuing unpopularity. As Coolidge, Harding, Wilson, and Taft had all died during the 1920s or early 1930s and Roosevelt died in office, Hoover was the sole living former president from 1933 to 1953. He and his wife lived in Palo Alto until her death in 1944, at which point Hoover began to live permanently at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City. During the 1930s, Hoover increasingly self-identified as a conservative. He closely followed national events after leaving public office, becoming a constant critic of Franklin Roosevelt. In response to continued attacks on his character and presidency, Hoover wrote more than two dozen books, including The Challenge to Liberty (1934), which harshly criticized Roosevelt's New Deal. Hoover described the New Deal's National Recovery Administration and Agricultural Adjustment Administration as \"fascistic\", and he called the 1933 Banking Act a \"move to gigantic socialism\".\nOnly 58 when he left office, Hoover held out hope for another term as president throughout the 1930s. At the 1936 Republican National Convention, Hoover's speech attacking the New Deal was well received, but the nomination went to Kansas governor Alf Landon. In the general election, Hoover delivered numerous well-publicized speeches on behalf of Landon, but Landon was defeated by Roosevelt. Though Hoover was eager to oppose Roosevelt at every turn, Senator Arthur Vandenberg and other Republicans urged the still-unpopular Hoover to remain out of the fray during the debate over Roosevelt's proposed Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. At the 1940 Republican National Convention, he again hoped for the presidential nomination, but it went to the internationalist Wendell Willkie, who lost to Roosevelt in the general election. Hoover remained the latest president to run for re-election after leaving office until 2022 when Donald Trump, following his win in 2016 and loss in 2020, announced his bid for 2024 presidential election.\n\nWorld War II\nDuring a 1938 trip to Europe, Hoover met with Adolf Hitler and stayed at Hermann Göring's hunting lodge. He expressed dismay at the persecution of Jews in Germany and believed that Hitler was mad, but did not present a threat to the U.S. Instead, Hoover believed that Roosevelt posed the biggest threat to peace, holding that Roosevelt's policies provoked Japan and discouraged France and the United Kingdom from reaching an \"accommodation\" with Germany. After the September 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany, Hoover opposed U.S. involvement in World War II, including the Lend-Lease policy. He was active in the isolationist America First Committee. He rejected Roosevelt's offers to help coordinate relief in Europe, but, with the help of old friends from the CRB, helped establish the Commission for Polish Relief. After the beginning of the occupation of Belgium in 1940, Hoover provided aid for Belgian civilians, though this aid was described as unnecessary by German broadcasts.\nIn December 1939, sympathetic Americans led by Hoover formed the Finnish Relief Fund to donate money to aid Finnish civilians and refugees after the Soviet Union had started the Winter War by attacking Finland, which had outraged Americans. By the end of January, it had already sent more than two million dollars to the Finns.\nDuring a radio broadcast on June 29, 1941, one week after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, Hoover disparaged any \"tacit alliance\" between the U.S. and the USSR, stating, \"if we join the war and Stalin wins, we have aided him to impose more communism on Europe and the world... War alongside Stalin to impose freedom is more than a travesty. It is a tragedy.\" Much to his frustration, Hoover was not called upon to serve after the United States entered World War II due to his differences with Roosevelt and his continuing unpopularity. He did not pursue the presidential nomination at the 1944 Republican National Convention, and, at the request of Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey, refrained from campaigning during the general election. In 1945, Hoover advised President Harry S. Truman to drop the United States' demand for the unconditional surrender of Japan because of the high projected casualties of the planned invasion of Japan, although Hoover was unaware of the Manhattan Project and the atomic bomb.\nIn 1943, Hoover expressed his support for Zionism. He advocated population transfers of Palestinians to Iraq.\n\nPost-World War II\nFollowing World War II, Hoover befriended President Truman despite their ideological differences. Because of Hoover's experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 Truman selected the former president to tour Allied-occupied Germany and Rome, Italy to ascertain the food needs of the occupied nations. After touring Germany, Hoover produced a number of reports critical of U.S. occupation policy. He stated in one report that \"there is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state.' It cannot be done unless we exterminate or move 25,000,000 people out of it.\" On Hoover's initiative, a school meals program in the American and British occupation zones of Germany was begun on April 14, 1947; the program served 3,500,000 children.\n\nEven more important, in 1947 Truman appointed Hoover to lead the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government a new high level study. Truman accepted some of the recommendations of the \"Hoover Commission\" for eliminating waste, fraud, and inefficiency, consolidating agencies, and strengthening White House control of policy. Though Hoover had opposed Roosevelt's concentration of power in the 1930s, he believed that a stronger presidency was required with the advent of the Atomic Age. During the 1948 presidential election, Hoover supported Republican nominee Thomas Dewey's unsuccessful campaign against Truman, but he remained on good terms with Truman. Hoover favored the United Nations in principle, but he opposed granting membership to the Soviet Union and other Communist states. He viewed the Soviet Union to be as morally repugnant as Nazi Germany and supported the efforts of Richard Nixon and others to expose Communists in the United States.\n\nIn 1949, New York governor Thomas E. Dewey offered Hoover the Senate seat vacated by Robert F. Wagner. It was a matter of being senator for only two months and he declined. \nHoover backed conservative leader Robert A. Taft at the 1952 Republican National Convention, but the party's presidential nomination instead went to Dwight D. Eisenhower, who went on to win the 1952 election. Though Eisenhower appointed Hoover to another presidential commission, Hoover disliked Eisenhower, faulting the latter's failure to roll back the New Deal. Hoover's public work helped to rehabilitate his reputation, as did his use of self-deprecating humor; he occasionally remarked that \"I am the only person of distinction who's ever had a depression named after him.\" In 1958, Congress passed the Former Presidents Act, offering a $25,000 yearly pension (equivalent to $264,014 in 2023) to each former president. Hoover took the pension even though he did not need the money, possibly to avoid embarrassing Truman, whose allegedly precarious financial status played a role in the law's enactment. In the early 1960s, President John F. Kennedy offered Hoover various positions; Hoover declined the offers but defended The Kennedy administration after the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuban Missile Crisis and was personally distraught by Kennedy's assassination in 1963.\n\nHoover wrote several books during his retirement, including The Ordeal of Woodrow Wilson, in which he strongly defended Wilson's actions at the Paris Peace Conference. In 1944, he began working on Freedom Betrayed, which he often referred to as his \"magnum opus\". In Freedom Betrayed, Hoover strongly critiques Roosevelt's foreign policy, especially Roosevelt's decision to recognize the Soviet Union in order to provide aid to that country during World War II. The book was published in 2012 after being edited by historian George H. Nash.\n\nDeath\nHoover faced three major illnesses during the last two years of his life, including an August 1962 operation in which a growth on his large intestine was removed. He died in New York City on October 20, 1964, following massive internal bleeding. Though Hoover's last spoken words are unknown, his last-known written words were a get-well message to his friend former President Harry S. Truman, six days before his death, after he heard that Truman had sustained injuries from slipping in a bathroom: \"Bathtubs are a menace to ex-presidents for as you may recall a bathtub rose up and fractured my vertebrae when I was in Venezuela on your world famine mission in 1946. My warmest sympathy and best wishes for your recovery.\" Two months earlier, on August 10, Hoover reached the age of 90, only the second U.S. president (after John Adams) to do so. When asked how he felt on reaching the milestone, Hoover replied, \"Too old.\" At the time of his death, Hoover had been out of office for over 31 years (11,553 days all together). This was the longest retirement in presidential history until Jimmy Carter broke that record in September 2012.\n\nHoover was honored with a state funeral in which he lay in state in the United States Capitol rotunda. President Lyndon Johnson and First Lady Lady Bird Johnson attended, along with former presidents Truman and Eisenhower. Then, on October 25, he was buried in West Branch, Iowa, near his presidential library and birthplace on the grounds of the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site. Afterwards, Hoover's wife, Lou Henry Hoover, who had been buried in Palo Alto, California, following her death in 1944, was re-interred beside him. Hoover was the last surviving member of the Harding and Coolidge cabinets. John Nance Garner (the speaker of the House during the second half of Hoover's term) was the only person in Hoover's United States presidential line of succession he did not outlive.\n\nLegacy\nHistorical reputation\nHoover was extremely unpopular when he left office after the 1932 election, and his historical reputation would not begin to recover until the 1970s. According to Professor David E. Hamilton, historians have credited Hoover for his genuine belief in voluntarism and cooperation, as well as the innovation of some of his programs. However, Hamilton also notes that Hoover was politically inept and failed to recognize the severity of the Great Depression. Nicholas Lemann writes that Hoover has been remembered \"as the man who was too rigidly conservative to react adeptly to the Depression, as the hapless foil to the great Franklin Roosevelt, and as the politician who managed to turn a Republican country into a Democratic one\". Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked Hoover in the bottom third of presidents. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Hoover as the 36th best president. A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians also ranked Hoover as the 36th best president.\nAlthough Hoover is generally regarded as having had a failed presidency, he has also received praise for his actions as a humanitarian and public official. Biographer Glen Jeansonne writes that Hoover was \"one of the most extraordinary Americans of modern times,\" adding that Hoover \"led a life that was a prototypical Horatio Alger story, except that Horatio Alger stories stop at the pinnacle of success\". Biographer Kenneth Whyte writes that, \"the question of where Hoover belongs in the American political tradition remains a loaded one to this day. While he clearly played important roles in the development of both the progressive and conservative traditions, neither side will embrace him for fear of contamination with the other.\"\nHistorian Richard Pipes, on his actions leading the American Relief Administration, said of him: \"Many statesmen occupy a prominent place in history for having sent millions to their death; Herbert Hoover, maligned for his performance as President, and soon forgotten in Russia, has the rare distinction of having saved millions.\"\n\nViews of race\nAlthough racist remarks and humor were common at the time, Hoover never indulged in them while president, and deliberate discrimination was anathema to him. Like many of his peers, Hoover considered white people to be inherently superior to black people, considering the \"mixture of bloods disadvantageous\". He did think education and work would improve black people's standing, hence his support for the Tuskegee Institute. His wife Lou Henry Hoover broke the color bar as first lady by inviting Jessie De Priest, wife of the first black congressman elected in several decades, to a traditional tea for the wives of congressmen, as well as later inviting the Tuskegee Institute choir (then under the direction of William Dawson).\nAlthough he thought of himself as a friend to black people and an advocate for their progress, many of his black contemporaries had a different view. W. E. B. Du Bois described him as an \"undemocratic racist who saw blacks as a species of 'sub-men'\". Some historians trace the disaffection of African-Americans with the Republican party to his time in office especially due to his attempt to remove African-Americans from leadership in the Republican party in the South.\nHoover's time in China shaped his views of Asian people and Asian-Americans. He erroneously wrote that \"no world-startling mechanical invention\" had come from China, claiming this was due to Chinese people not possessing the same mechanical instincts as Europeans. This may have influenced his decision to reduce immigration through restrictions on visas.\n\nMemorials\nThe Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum is located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site. The library is one of thirteen presidential libraries run by the National Archives and Records Administration. The Hoover–Minthorn House, where Hoover lived from 1885 to 1891, is located in Newberg, Oregon. His Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he donated to the government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah National Park. The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in 1919 in Stanford, California, is now the official residence of the president of Stanford University, and a National Historic Landmark. Also located at Stanford is the Hoover Institution, a think tank and research institution started by Hoover.\nHoover has been memorialized in the names of several things, including the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River and numerous elementary, middle, and high schools across the United States. Two minor planets, 932 Hooveria and 1363 Herberta, are named in his honor. The Polish capital of Warsaw has a square named after Hoover, and the historic townsite of Gwalia, Western Australia contains the Hoover House Bed and Breakfast, where Hoover resided while managing and visiting the mine during the first decade of the twentieth century. A medicine ball game known as Hooverball is named for Hoover; it was invented by White House physician Admiral Joel T. Boone to help Hoover keep fit while serving as president.\n\nOther honors\nHoover was inducted into the National Mining Hall of Fame in 1988 (inaugural class). His wife was inducted into the hall in 1990.\nHoover was inducted into the Australian Prospectors and Miners' Hall of Fame in the category Directors and Management.\nHoover was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Charles University in Prague and University of Helsinki in March 1938. The ceremonial sword is today on display in the lobby of the Hoover tower.\n\nSee also\nProgressive Era\nRoaring Twenties\n\nExplanatory notes\nReferences\nCitations\nWorks cited\nFurther reading\nBiographical\nScholarly studies\nPrimary sources\nExternal links\nWorks by Herbert Hoover at Project Gutenberg\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nHerbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum Archived May 28, 2020, at the Wayback Machine\nHerbert Hoover National Historic Site, National Park Service\nHerbert Hoover: The Man and His Work (1920) by Vernon Lyman Kellogg\nHerbert Hoover collected news and commentary at The New York Times\nHerbert Hoover at IMDb \nWorks by Herbert Hoover at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nWorks by or about Herbert Hoover at the Internet Archive",
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"paragraph_text": "A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear bomb), producing a nuclear explosion. Both bomb types release large quantities of energy from relatively small amounts of matter.\nThe first test of a fission (\"atomic\") bomb released an amount of energy approximately equal to 20,000 tons of TNT (84 TJ). The first thermonuclear (\"hydrogen\") bomb test released energy approximately equal to 10 million tons of TNT (42 PJ). Nuclear bombs have had yields between 10 tons TNT (the W54) and 50 megatons for the Tsar Bomba (see TNT equivalent). A thermonuclear weapon weighing as little as 600 pounds (270 kg) can release energy equal to more than 1.2 megatonnes of TNT (5.0 PJ).\nA nuclear device no larger than a conventional bomb can devastate an entire city by blast, fire, and radiation. Since they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation of nuclear weapons is a focus of international relations policy. Nuclear weapons have been deployed twice in war, both by the United States against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 during World War II.\n\nTesting and deployment\nNuclear weapons have only twice been used in warfare, both times by the United States against Japan at the end of World War II. On August 6, 1945, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) detonated a uranium gun-type fission bomb nicknamed \"Little Boy\" over the Japanese city of Hiroshima; three days later, on August 9, the USAAF detonated a plutonium implosion-type fission bomb nicknamed \"Fat Man\" over the Japanese city of Nagasaki. These bombings caused injuries that resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel. The ethics of these bombings and their role in Japan's surrender are to this day, still subjects of debate.\nSince the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated over 2,000 times for testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them. The only countries known to have detonated nuclear weapons—and acknowledge possessing them—are (chronologically by date of first test) the United States, the Soviet Union (succeeded as a nuclear power by Russia), the United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea. Israel is believed to possess nuclear weapons, though, in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Belarus are nuclear weapons sharing states. South Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons.\nThe Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aims to reduce the spread of nuclear weapons, but there are different views of its effectiveness.\n\nTypes\nThere are two basic types of nuclear weapons: those that derive the majority of their energy from nuclear fission reactions alone, and those that use fission reactions to begin nuclear fusion reactions that produce a large amount of the total energy output.\n\nFission weapons\nAll existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as atomic bombs or atom bombs (abbreviated as A-bombs). This has long been noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom, just as it does with fusion weapons.\nIn fission weapons, a mass of fissile material (enriched uranium or plutonium) is forced into supercriticality—allowing an exponential growth of nuclear chain reactions—either by shooting one piece of sub-critical material into another (the \"gun\" method) or by compression of a sub-critical sphere or cylinder of fissile material using chemically fueled explosive lenses. The latter approach, the \"implosion\" method, is more sophisticated and more efficient (smaller, less massive, and requiring less of the expensive fissile fuel) than the former.\nA major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons (500 kilotons) of TNT (4.2 to 2.1×106 GJ).\nAll fission reactions generate fission products, the remains of the split atomic nuclei. Many fission products are either highly radioactive (but short-lived) or moderately radioactive (but long-lived), and as such, they are a serious form of radioactive contamination. Fission products are the principal radioactive component of nuclear fallout. Another source of radioactivity is the burst of free neutrons produced by the weapon. When they collide with other nuclei in the surrounding material, the neutrons transmute those nuclei into other isotopes, altering their stability and making them radioactive.\nThe most commonly used fissile materials for nuclear weapons applications have been uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Less commonly used has been uranium-233. Neptunium-237 and some isotopes of americium may be usable for nuclear explosives as well, but it is not clear that this has ever been implemented, and their plausible use in nuclear weapons is a matter of dispute.\n\nFusion weapons\nThe other basic type of nuclear weapon produces a large proportion of its energy in nuclear fusion reactions. Such fusion weapons are generally referred to as thermonuclear weapons or more colloquially as hydrogen bombs (abbreviated as H-bombs), as they rely on fusion reactions between isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium). All such weapons derive a significant portion of their energy from fission reactions used to \"trigger\" fusion reactions, and fusion reactions can themselves trigger additional fission reactions.\nOnly six countries—the United States, Russia, the United Kingdom, China, France, and India—have conducted thermonuclear weapon tests. Whether India has detonated a \"true\" multi-staged thermonuclear weapon is controversial. North Korea claims to have tested a fusion weapon as of January 2016, though this claim is disputed. Thermonuclear weapons are considered much more difficult to successfully design and execute than primitive fission weapons. Almost all of the nuclear weapons deployed today use the thermonuclear design because it results in an explosion hundreds of times stronger than that of a fission bomb of similar weight.\nThermonuclear bombs work by using the energy of a fission bomb to compress and heat fusion fuel. In the Teller-Ulam design, which accounts for all multi-megaton yield hydrogen bombs, this is accomplished by placing a fission bomb and fusion fuel (tritium, deuterium, or lithium deuteride) in proximity within a special, radiation-reflecting container. When the fission bomb is detonated, gamma rays and X-rays emitted first compress the fusion fuel, then heat it to thermonuclear temperatures. The ensuing fusion reaction creates enormous numbers of high-speed neutrons, which can then induce fission in materials not normally prone to it, such as depleted uranium. Each of these components is known as a \"stage\", with the fission bomb as the \"primary\" and the fusion capsule as the \"secondary\". In large, megaton-range hydrogen bombs, about half of the yield comes from the final fissioning of depleted uranium.\nVirtually all thermonuclear weapons deployed today use the \"two-stage\" design described to the right, but it is possible to add additional fusion stages—each stage igniting a larger amount of fusion fuel in the next stage. This technique can be used to construct thermonuclear weapons of arbitrarily large yield. This is in contrast to fission bombs, which are limited in their explosive power due to criticality danger (premature nuclear chain reaction caused by too-large amounts of pre-assembled fissile fuel). The largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba of the USSR, which released an energy equivalent of over 50 megatons of TNT (210 PJ), was a three-stage weapon. Most thermonuclear weapons are considerably smaller than this, due to practical constraints from missile warhead space and weight requirements. In the early 1950s the Livermore Laboratory in the United States had plans for the testing of two massive bombs, Gnomon and Sundial, 1 gigaton of TNT and 10 gigatons of TNT respectively.\n\nFusion reactions do not create fission products, and thus contribute far less to the creation of nuclear fallout than fission reactions, but because all thermonuclear weapons contain at least one fission stage, and many high-yield thermonuclear devices have a final fission stage, thermonuclear weapons can generate at least as much nuclear fallout as fission-only weapons. Furthermore, high yield thermonuclear explosions (most dangerously ground bursts) have the force to lift radioactive debris upwards past the tropopause into the stratosphere, where the calm non-turbulent winds permit the debris to travel great distances from the burst, eventually settling and unpredictably contaminating areas far removed from the target of the explosion.\n\nOther types\nThere are other types of nuclear weapons as well. For example, a boosted fission weapon is a fission bomb that increases its explosive yield through a small number of fusion reactions, but it is not a fusion bomb. In the boosted bomb, the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions serve primarily to increase the efficiency of the fission bomb. There are two types of boosted fission bomb: internally boosted, in which a deuterium-tritium mixture is injected into the bomb core, and externally boosted, in which concentric shells of lithium-deuteride and depleted uranium are layered on the outside of the fission bomb core. The external method of boosting enabled the USSR to field the first partially thermonuclear weapons, but it is now obsolete because it demands a spherical bomb geometry, which was adequate during the 1950s arms race when bomber aircraft were the only available delivery vehicles.\nThe detonation of any nuclear weapon is accompanied by a blast of neutron radiation. Surrounding a nuclear weapon with suitable materials (such as cobalt or gold) creates a weapon known as a salted bomb. This device can produce exceptionally large quantities of long-lived radioactive contamination. It has been conjectured that such a device could serve as a \"doomsday weapon\" because such a large quantity of radioactivities with half-lives of decades, lifted into the stratosphere where winds would distribute it around the globe, would make all life on the planet extinct.\nIn connection with the Strategic Defense Initiative, research into the nuclear pumped laser was conducted under the DOD program Project Excalibur but this did not result in a working weapon. The concept involves the tapping of the energy of an exploding nuclear bomb to power a single-shot laser that is directed at a distant target.\nDuring the Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear test in 1962, an unexpected effect was produced which is called a nuclear electromagnetic pulse. This is an intense flash of electromagnetic energy produced by a rain of high-energy electrons which in turn are produced by a nuclear bomb's gamma rays. This flash of energy can permanently destroy or disrupt electronic equipment if insufficiently shielded. It has been proposed to use this effect to disable an enemy's military and civilian infrastructure as an adjunct to other nuclear or conventional military operations. By itself it could as well be useful to terrorists for crippling a nation's economic electronics-based infrastructure. Because the effect is most effectively produced by high altitude nuclear detonations (by military weapons delivered by air, though ground bursts also produce EMP effects over a localized area), it can produce damage to electronics over a wide, even continental, geographical area.\nResearch has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required the development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, \"...made a substantial investment\" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, \"The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon\", and that, \"No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment\".\nNuclear isomers provide a possible pathway to fissionless fusion bombs. These are naturally occurring isotopes (178m2Hf being a prominent example) which exist in an elevated energy state. Mechanisms to release this energy as bursts of gamma radiation (as in the hafnium controversy) have been proposed as possible triggers for conventional thermonuclear reactions.\nAntimatter, which consists of particles resembling ordinary matter particles in most of their properties but having opposite electric charge, has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it is feasible beyond the military domain. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. A fourth generation nuclear weapon design is related to, and relies upon, the same principle as antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion.\nMost variation in nuclear weapon design is for the purpose of achieving different yields for different situations, and in manipulating design elements to attempt to minimize weapon size, radiation hardness or requirements for special materials, especially fissile fuel or tritium.\n\nTactical nuclear weapons\nSome nuclear weapons are designed for special purposes; most of these are for non-strategic (decisively war-winning) purposes and are referred to as tactical nuclear weapons.\nThe neutron bomb purportedly conceived by Sam Cohen is a thermonuclear weapon that yields a relatively small explosion but a relatively large amount of neutron radiation. Such a weapon could, according to tacticians, be used to cause massive biological casualties while leaving inanimate infrastructure mostly intact and creating minimal fallout. Because high energy neutrons are capable of penetrating dense matter, such as tank armor, neutron warheads were procured in the 1980s (though not deployed in Europe) for use as tactical payloads for US Army artillery shells (200 mm W79 and 155 mm W82) and short range missile forces. Soviet authorities announced similar intentions for neutron warhead deployment in Europe; indeed, they claimed to have originally invented the neutron bomb, but their deployment on USSR tactical nuclear forces is unverifiable.\nA type of nuclear explosive most suitable for use by ground special forces was the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, or SADM, sometimes popularly known as a suitcase nuke. This is a nuclear bomb that is man-portable, or at least truck-portable, and though of a relatively small yield (one or two kilotons) is sufficient to destroy important tactical targets such as bridges, dams, tunnels, important military or commercial installations, etc. either behind enemy lines or pre-emptively on friendly territory soon to be overtaken by invading enemy forces. These weapons require plutonium fuel and are particularly \"dirty\". They also demand especially stringent security precautions in their storage and deployment.\nSmall \"tactical\" nuclear weapons were deployed for use as antiaircraft weapons. Examples include the USAF AIR-2 Genie, the AIM-26 Falcon and US Army Nike Hercules. Missile interceptors such as the Sprint and the Spartan also used small nuclear warheads (optimized to produce neutron or X-ray flux) but were for use against enemy strategic warheads.\nOther small, or tactical, nuclear weapons were deployed by naval forces for use primarily as antisubmarine weapons. These included nuclear depth bombs or nuclear armed torpedoes. Nuclear mines for use on land or at sea are also possibilities.\n\nWeapons delivery\nThe system used to deliver a nuclear weapon to its target is an important factor affecting both nuclear weapon design and nuclear strategy. The design, development, and maintenance of delivery systems are among the most expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program; they account, for example, for 57% of the financial resources spent by the United States on nuclear weapons projects since 1940.\nThe simplest method for delivering a nuclear weapon is a gravity bomb dropped from aircraft; this was the method used by the United States against Japan in 1945. This method places few restrictions on the size of the weapon. It does, however, limit attack range, response time to an impending attack, and the number of weapons that a country can field at the same time. With miniaturization, nuclear bombs can be delivered by both strategic bombers and tactical fighter-bombers. This method is the primary means of nuclear weapons delivery; the majority of U.S. nuclear warheads, for example, are free-fall gravity bombs, namely the B61, which is being improved upon to this day.\n\nPreferable from a strategic point of view is a nuclear weapon mounted on a missile, which can use a ballistic trajectory to deliver the warhead over the horizon. Although even short-range missiles allow for a faster and less vulnerable attack, the development of long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) has given some nations the ability to plausibly deliver missiles anywhere on the globe with a high likelihood of success.\nMore advanced systems, such as multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), can launch multiple warheads at different targets from one missile, reducing the chance of a successful missile defense. Today, missiles are most common among systems designed for delivery of nuclear weapons. Making a warhead small enough to fit onto a missile, though, can be difficult.\nTactical weapons have involved the most variety of delivery types, including not only gravity bombs and missiles but also artillery shells, land mines, and nuclear depth charges and torpedoes for anti-submarine warfare. An atomic mortar has been tested by the United States. Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (somewhat misleadingly referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty of combining sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.\n\nNuclear strategy\nNuclear warfare strategy is a set of policies that deal with preventing or fighting a nuclear war. The policy of trying to prevent an attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike capability (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists considered the sorts of policies that might prevent a nuclear attack, and they developed game theory models that could lead to stable deterrence conditions.\n\nDifferent forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see above) allow for different types of nuclear strategies. The goals of any strategy are generally to make it difficult for an enemy to launch a pre-emptive strike against the weapon system and difficult to defend against the delivery of the weapon during a potential conflict. This can mean keeping weapon locations hidden, such as deploying them on submarines or land mobile transporter erector launchers whose locations are difficult to track, or it can mean protecting weapons by burying them in hardened missile silo bunkers. Other components of nuclear strategies included using missile defenses to destroy the missiles before they land or implementing civil defense measures using early-warning systems to evacuate citizens to safe areas before an attack.\nWeapons designed to threaten large populations or to deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. Nuclear weapons for use on a battlefield in military situations are called tactical weapons.\nCritics of nuclear war strategy often suggest that a nuclear war between two nations would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is to deter war because any nuclear war would escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.\nCritics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. According to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996, the use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, but the court did not reach an opinion as to whether or not the threat or use would be lawful in specific extreme circumstances such as if the survival of the state were at stake.\n\nAnother deterrence position is that nuclear proliferation can be desirable. In this case, it is argued that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons deter all-out war between states, and they succeeded in doing this during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gen. Pierre Marie Gallois of France, an adviser to Charles de Gaulle, argued in books like The Balance of Terror: Strategy for the Nuclear Age (1961) that mere possession of a nuclear arsenal was enough to ensure deterrence, and thus concluded that the spread of nuclear weapons could increase international stability. Some prominent neo-realist scholars, such as Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer, have argued, along the lines of Gallois, that some forms of nuclear proliferation would decrease the likelihood of total war, especially in troubled regions of the world where there exists a single nuclear-weapon state. Aside from the public opinion that opposes proliferation in any form, there are two schools of thought on the matter: those, like Mearsheimer, who favored selective proliferation, and Waltz, who was somewhat more non-interventionist. Interest in proliferation and the stability-instability paradox that it generates continues to this day, with ongoing debate about indigenous Japanese and South Korean nuclear deterrent against North Korea.\nThe threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process. The prospect of mutually assured destruction might not deter an enemy who expects to die in the confrontation. Further, if the initial act is from a stateless terrorist instead of a sovereign nation, there might not be a nation or specific target to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the September 11, 2001, attacks, that this complication calls for a new nuclear strategy, one that is distinct from that which gave relative stability during the Cold War. Since 1996, the United States has had a policy of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at terrorists armed with weapons of mass destruction.\n\nRobert Gallucci argues that although traditional deterrence is not an effective approach toward terrorist groups bent on causing a nuclear catastrophe, Gallucci believes that \"the United States should instead consider a policy of expanded deterrence, which focuses not solely on the would-be nuclear terrorists but on those states that may deliberately transfer or inadvertently leak nuclear weapons and materials to them. By threatening retaliation against those states, the United States may be able to deter that which it cannot physically prevent.\".\nGraham Allison makes a similar case, arguing that the key to expanded deterrence is coming up with ways of tracing nuclear material to the country that forged the fissile material. \"After a nuclear bomb detonates, nuclear forensics cops would collect debris samples and send them to a laboratory for radiological analysis. By identifying unique attributes of the fissile material, including its impurities and contaminants, one could trace the path back to its origin.\" The process is analogous to identifying a criminal by fingerprints. \"The goal would be twofold: first, to deter leaders of nuclear states from selling weapons to terrorists by holding them accountable for any use of their weapons; second, to give leaders every incentive to tightly secure their nuclear weapons and materials.\"\nAccording to the Pentagon's June 2019 \"Doctrine for Joint Nuclear Operations\" of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs website Publication, \"Integration of nuclear weapons employment with conventional and special operations forces is essential to the success of any mission or operation.\"\n\nGovernance, control, and law\nBecause they are weapons of mass destruction, the proliferation and possible use of nuclear weapons are important issues in international relations and diplomacy. In most countries, the use of nuclear force can only be authorized by the head of government or head of state. Despite controls and regulations governing nuclear weapons, there is an inherent danger of \"accidents, mistakes, false alarms, blackmail, theft, and sabotage\".\nIn the late 1940s, lack of mutual trust prevented the United States and the Soviet Union from making progress on arms control agreements. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9, 1955, by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including Albert Einstein, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist Cyrus S. Eaton offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, held in July 1957.\nBy the 1960s, steps were taken to limit both the proliferation of nuclear weapons to other countries and the environmental effects of nuclear testing. The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) restricted all nuclear testing to underground nuclear testing, to prevent contamination from nuclear fallout, whereas the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968) attempted to place restrictions on the types of activities signatories could participate in, with the goal of allowing the transference of non-military nuclear technology to member countries without fear of proliferation.\n\nIn 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United Nations to encourage development of peaceful applications of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. In 1996, many nations signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, which prohibits all testing of nuclear weapons. A testing ban imposes a significant hindrance to nuclear arms development by any complying country. The Treaty requires the ratification by 44 specific states before it can go into force; as of 2012, the ratification of eight of these states is still required.\nAdditional treaties and agreements have governed nuclear weapons stockpiles between the countries with the two largest stockpiles, the United States and the Soviet Union, and later between the United States and Russia. These include treaties such as SALT II (never ratified), START I (expired), INF, START II (never in effect), SORT, and New START, as well as non-binding agreements such as SALT I and the Presidential Nuclear Initiatives of 1991. Even when they did not enter into force, these agreements helped limit and later reduce the numbers and types of nuclear weapons between the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia.\n\nNuclear weapons have also been opposed by agreements between countries. Many nations have been declared Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones, areas where nuclear weapons production and deployment are prohibited, through the use of treaties. The Treaty of Tlatelolco (1967) prohibited any production or deployment of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Treaty of Pelindaba (1964) prohibits nuclear weapons in many African countries. As recently as 2006 a Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone was established among the former Soviet republics of Central Asia prohibiting nuclear weapons. \nIn 1996, the International Court of Justice, the highest court of the United Nations, issued an Advisory Opinion concerned with the \"Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons\". The court ruled that the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons would violate various articles of international law, including the Geneva Conventions, the Hague Conventions, the UN Charter, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Given the unique, destructive characteristics of nuclear weapons, the International Committee of the Red Cross calls on States to ensure that these weapons are never used, irrespective of whether they consider them lawful or not.\nAdditionally, there have been other, specific actions meant to discourage countries from developing nuclear arms. In the wake of the tests by India and Pakistan in 1998, economic sanctions were (temporarily) levied against both countries, though neither were signatories with the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. One of the stated casus belli for the initiation of the 2003 Iraq War was an accusation by the United States that Iraq was actively pursuing nuclear arms (though this was soon discovered not to be the case as the program had been discontinued). In 1981, Israel had bombed a nuclear reactor being constructed in Osirak, Iraq, in what it called an attempt to halt Iraq's previous nuclear arms ambitions; in 2007, Israel bombed another reactor being constructed in Syria.\nIn 2013, Mark Diesendorf said that governments of France, India, North Korea, Pakistan, UK, and South Africa have used nuclear power or research reactors to assist nuclear weapons development or to contribute to their supplies of nuclear explosives from military reactors. In 2017, 122 countries mainly in the Global South voted in favor of adopting the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which eventually entered into force in 2021.\nThe Doomsday Clock measures the likelihood of a human-made global catastrophe and is published annually by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. The two years with the highest likelihood had previously been 1953, when the Clock was set to two minutes until midnight after the U.S. and the Soviet Union began testing hydrogen bombs, and 2018, following the failure of world leaders to address tensions relating to nuclear weapons and climate change issues. In 2023, following the escalation of nuclear threats during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the doomsday clock was set to 90 seconds, the highest likelihood of global catastrophe since the existence of the Doomsday Clock.\nAs of 2024, Russia has intensified nuclear threats in Ukraine and is reportedly planning to place nuclear weapons in orbit, breaching the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. China is significantly expanding its nuclear arsenal, with projections of over 1,000 warheads by 2030 and up to 1,500 by 2035. North Korea is progressing in intercontinental ballistic missile tests and has a mutual-defense treaty with Russia, exchanging artillery for possible missile technology. Iran is currently viewed as a nuclear \"threshold\" state.\n\nDisarmament\nNuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are eliminated.\nBeginning with the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty and continuing through the 1996 Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, there have been many treaties to limit or reduce nuclear weapons testing and stockpiles. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty has as one of its explicit conditions that all signatories must \"pursue negotiations in good faith\" towards the long-term goal of \"complete disarmament\". The nuclear-weapon states have largely treated that aspect of the agreement as \"decorative\" and without force.\nOnly one country—South Africa—has ever fully renounced nuclear weapons they had independently developed. The former Soviet republics of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine returned Soviet nuclear arms stationed in their countries to Russia after the collapse of the USSR.\nProponents of nuclear disarmament say that it would lessen the probability of nuclear war, especially accidentally. Critics of nuclear disarmament say that it would undermine the present nuclear peace and deterrence and would lead to increased global instability. Various American elder statesmen, who were in office during the Cold War period, have been advocating the elimination of nuclear weapons. These officials include Henry Kissinger, George Shultz, Sam Nunn, and William Perry. In January 2010, Lawrence M. Krauss stated that \"no issue carries more importance to the long-term health and security of humanity than the effort to reduce, and perhaps one day, rid the world of nuclear weapons\".\n\nIn January 1986, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev publicly proposed a three-stage program for abolishing the world's nuclear weapons by the end of the 20th century. In the years after the end of the Cold War, there have been numerous campaigns to urge the abolition of nuclear weapons, such as that organized by the Global Zero movement, and the goal of a \"world without nuclear weapons\" was advocated by United States President Barack Obama in an April 2009 speech in Prague. A CNN poll from April 2010 indicated that the American public was nearly evenly split on the issue.\nSome analysts have argued that nuclear weapons have made the world relatively safer, with peace through deterrence and through the stability–instability paradox, including in south Asia. Kenneth Waltz has argued that nuclear weapons have helped keep an uneasy peace, and further nuclear weapon proliferation might even help avoid the large scale conventional wars that were so common before their invention at the end of World War II. But former Secretary Henry Kissinger says there is a new danger, which cannot be addressed by deterrence: \"The classical notion of deterrence was that there was some consequences before which aggressors and evildoers would recoil. In a world of suicide bombers, that calculation doesn't operate in any comparable way\". George Shultz has said, \"If you think of the people who are doing suicide attacks, and people like that get a nuclear weapon, they are almost by definition not deterrable\".\nAs of early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.\n\nUnited Nations\nThe UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) is a department of the United Nations Secretariat established in January 1998 as part of the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan's plan to reform the UN as presented in his report to the General Assembly in July 1997.\nIts goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and the strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons, especially land mines and small arms, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts.\n\nControversy\nEthics\nEven before the first nuclear weapons had been developed, scientists involved with the Manhattan Project were divided over the use of the weapon. The role of the two atomic bombings of the country in Japan's surrender and the U.S.'s ethical justification for them has been the subject of scholarly and popular debate for decades. The question of whether nations should have nuclear weapons, or test them, has been continually and nearly universally controversial.\n\nNotable nuclear weapons accidents\nAugust 21, 1945: While conducting experiments on a plutonium-gallium core at Los Alamos National Laboratory, physicist Harry Daghlian received a lethal dose of radiation when an error caused it to enter prompt criticality. He died 25 days later, on September 15, 1945, from radiation poisoning.\nMay 21, 1946: While conducting further experiments on the same core at Los Alamos National Laboratory, physicist Louis Slotin accidentally caused the core to become briefly supercritical. He received a lethal dose of gamma and neutron radiation, and died nine days later on May 30, 1946. After the death of Daghlian and Slotin, the mass became known as the \"demon core\". It was ultimately used to construct a bomb for use on the Nevada Test Range.\nFebruary 13, 1950: a Convair B-36B crashed in northern British Columbia after jettisoning a Mark IV atomic bomb. This was the first such nuclear weapon loss in history. The accident was designated a \"Broken Arrow\"—an accident involving a nuclear weapon, but which does not present a risk of war. Experts believe that up to 50 nuclear weapons were lost during the Cold War.\nMay 22, 1957: a 42,000-pound (19,000 kg) Mark-17 hydrogen bomb accidentally fell from a bomber near Albuquerque, New Mexico. The detonation of the device's conventional explosives destroyed it on impact and formed a crater 25 feet (7.6 m) in diameter on land owned by the University of New Mexico. According to a researcher at the Natural Resources Defense Council, it was one of the most powerful bombs made to date.\nJune 7, 1960: the 1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident destroyed a Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the BOMARC Missile Accident Site in New Jersey.\nJanuary 24, 1961: the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash occurred near Goldsboro, North Carolina. A Boeing B-52 Stratofortress carrying two Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.\n1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash, where a Skyhawk attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea. The pilot, the aircraft, and the B43 nuclear bomb were never recovered. It was not until 1989 that the Pentagon revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.\nJanuary 17, 1966: the 1966 Palomares B-52 crash occurred when a B-52G bomber of the USAF collided with a KC-135 tanker during mid-air refuelling off the coast of Spain. The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard. Of the four Mk28 type hydrogen bombs the B-52G carried, three were found on land near Almería, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer (490-acre) (0.78 square mile) area by radioactive plutonium. The fourth, which fell into the Mediterranean Sea, was recovered intact after a 21⁄2-month-long search.\nJanuary 21, 1968: the 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash involved a United States Air Force (USAF) B-52 bomber. The aircraft was carrying four hydrogen bombs when a cabin fire forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. Six crew members ejected safely, but one who did not have an ejection seat was killed while trying to bail out. The bomber crashed onto sea ice in Greenland, causing the nuclear payload to rupture and disperse, which resulted in widespread radioactive contamination. One of the bombs remains lost.\nSeptember 18–19, 1980: the Damascus Accident occurred in Damascus, Arkansas, where a Titan Missile equipped with a nuclear warhead exploded. The accident was caused by a maintenance man who dropped a socket from a socket wrench down an 80-foot (24 m) shaft, puncturing a fuel tank on the rocket. Leaking fuel resulted in a hypergolic fuel explosion, jettisoning the W-53 warhead beyond the launch site.\n\nNuclear testing and fallout\nOver 500 atmospheric nuclear weapons tests were conducted at various sites around the world from 1945 to 1980. Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb test at the Pacific Proving Grounds contaminated the crew and catch of the Japanese fishing boat Lucky Dragon. One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later, and the fear of contaminated tuna led to a temporary boycotting of the popular staple in Japan. The incident caused widespread concern around the world, especially regarding the effects of nuclear fallout and atmospheric nuclear testing, and \"provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries\".\nAs public awareness and concern mounted over the possible health hazards associated with exposure to the nuclear fallout, various studies were done to assess the extent of the hazard. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/ National Cancer Institute study claims that fallout from atmospheric nuclear tests would lead to perhaps 11,000 excess deaths among people alive during atmospheric testing in the United States from all forms of cancer, including leukemia, from 1951 to well into the 21st century.\nAs of March 2009, the U.S. is the only nation that compensates nuclear test victims. Since the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act of 1990, more than $1.38 billion in compensation has been approved. The money is going to people who took part in the tests, notably at the Nevada Test Site, and to others exposed to the radiation.\nIn addition, leakage of byproducts of nuclear weapon production into groundwater has been an ongoing issue, particularly at the Hanford site.\n\nEffects of nuclear explosions\nEffects of nuclear explosions on human health\nSome scientists estimate that a nuclear war with 100 Hiroshima-size nuclear explosions on cities could cost the lives of tens of millions of people from long-term climatic effects alone. The climatology hypothesis is that if each city firestorms, a great deal of soot could be thrown up into the atmosphere which could blanket the earth, cutting out sunlight for years on end, causing the disruption of food chains, in what is termed a nuclear winter.\nPeople near the Hiroshima explosion and who managed to survive the explosion subsequently suffered a variety of horrible medical effects. Some of these effects are still present to this day:\n\nInitial stage—the first 1–9 weeks, in which are the greatest number of deaths, with 90% due to thermal injury or blast effects and 10% due to super-lethal radiation exposure.\nIntermediate stage—from 10 to 12 weeks. The deaths in this period are from ionizing radiation in the median lethal range – LD50\nLate period—lasting from 13 to 20 weeks. This period has some improvement in survivors' condition.\nDelayed period—from 20+ weeks. Characterized by numerous complications, mostly related to healing of thermal and mechanical injuries, and if the individual was exposed to a few hundred to a thousand millisieverts of radiation, it is coupled with infertility, sub-fertility and blood disorders. Furthermore, ionizing radiation above a dose of around 50–100 millisievert exposure has been shown to statistically begin increasing one's chance of dying of cancer sometime in their lifetime over the normal unexposed rate of ~25%, in the long term, a heightened rate of cancer, proportional to the dose received, would begin to be observed after ~5+ years, with lesser problems such as eye cataracts and other more minor effects in other organs and tissue also being observed over the long term.\nFallout exposure—depending on if further afield individuals shelter in place or evacuate perpendicular to the direction of the wind, and therefore avoid contact with the fallout plume, and stay there for the days and weeks after the nuclear explosion, their exposure to fallout, and therefore their total dose, will vary. With those who do shelter in place, and or evacuate, experiencing a total dose that would be negligible in comparison to someone who just went about their life as normal.\nStaying indoors until after the most hazardous fallout isotope, I-131 decays away to 0.1% of its initial quantity after ten half-lifes—which is represented by 80 days in I-131s case, would make the difference between likely contracting Thyroid cancer or escaping completely from this substance depending on the actions of the individual.\n\nEffects of nuclear war\nNuclear war could yield unprecedented human death tolls and habitat destruction. Detonating large numbers of nuclear weapons would have an immediate, short term and long-term effects on the climate, potentially causing cold weather known as a \"nuclear winter\". In 1982, Brian Martin estimated that a US–Soviet nuclear exchange might kill 400–450 million directly, mostly in the United States, Europe and Russia, and maybe several hundred million more through follow-up consequences in those same areas. Many scholars have posited that a global thermonuclear war with Cold War-era stockpiles, or even with the current smaller stockpiles, may lead to the extinction of the human race. The International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War believe that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects, including environmental consequences, societal breakdown, and economic collapse. It has been estimated that a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between India and Pakistan involving 100 Hiroshima yield (15 kilotons) weapons, could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people.\nAccording to a peer-reviewed study published in the journal Nature Food in August 2022, a full-scale nuclear war between the U.S. and Russia would directly kill 360 million people and more than 5 billion people would die from starvation. More than 2 billion people could die from a smaller-scale nuclear war between India and Pakistan.\n\nPublic opposition\nPeace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified \"Japan Council against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs.\" Japanese opposition to nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific Ocean was widespread, and \"an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear weapons\".\nIn the United Kingdom, the Aldermaston Marches organised by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) took place at Easter 1958, when, according to the CND, several thousand people marched for four days from Trafalgar Square, London, to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment close to Aldermaston in Berkshire, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches.\nIn 1959, a letter in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping radioactive waste in the sea 19 kilometres from Boston. In 1962, Linus Pauling won the Nobel Peace Prize for his work to stop the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, and the \"Ban the Bomb\" movement spread.\nIn 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty prohibiting atmospheric nuclear testing. Radioactive fallout became less of an issue and the anti-nuclear weapons movement went into decline for some years. A resurgence of interest occurred amid European and American fears of nuclear war in the 1980s.\n\nCosts and technology spin-offs\nAccording to an audit by the Brookings Institution, between 1940 and 1996, the U.S. spent $11.3 trillion in present-day terms on nuclear weapons programs. 57% of which was spent on building nuclear weapons delivery systems. 6.3% of the total$, 709 billion in present-day terms, was spent on environmental remediation and nuclear waste management, for example cleaning up the Hanford site, and 7% of the total$, 795 billion was spent on making nuclear weapons themselves.\n\nNon-weapons uses\nPeaceful nuclear explosions are nuclear explosions conducted for non-military purposes, such as activities related to economic development including the creation of canals. During the 1960s and 1970s, both the United States and the Soviet Union conducted a number of PNEs. The United States created plans for several uses of PNEs, including Operation Plowshare. Six of the explosions by the Soviet Union are considered to have been of an applied nature, not just tests.\nThe United States and the Soviet Union later halted their programs. Definitions and limits are covered in the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty of 1976. The stalled Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996 would prohibit all nuclear explosions, regardless of whether they are for peaceful purposes or not.\n\nHistory of development\nSee also\nReferences\nNotes\nExplanatory Notes\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\n Media related to Nuclear weapons at Wikimedia Commons\nNuclear Weapon Archive from Carey Sublette: reliable source, has links to other sources and an informative FAQ.\nThe Federation of American Scientists Archived October 18, 1996, at the Wayback Machine provide information on weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear weapons and their effects\nAlsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Archived March 2, 2001, at the Wayback Machine – contains resources related to nuclear weapons, including a historical and technical overview and searchable bibliography of web and print resources\nVideo archive of US, Soviet, UK, Chinese and French Nuclear Weapon Testing at sonicbomb.com\nThe National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States) Archived March 27, 2021, at the Wayback Machine – located in New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum\nNuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources Archived May 15, 2021, at the Wayback Machine\nThe Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb at AtomicArchive.com\nLos Alamos National Laboratory: History Archived January 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine (U.S. nuclear history)\nRace for the Superbomb Archived November 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, PBS website on the history of the H-bomb\nRecordings of recollections of the victims of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\nThe Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project or NPIHP is a global network of individuals and institutions engaged in the study of international nuclear history through archival documents, oral history interviews and other empirical sources.\nNUKEMAP3D Archived August 28, 2015, at the Wayback Machine – a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps.",
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] | How old was the 31st President of the United States when the second nuclear weapon ever used in warfare was dropped? | [] | 70 years old | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Harry Potter is a series of seven fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the lives of a young wizard, Harry Potter, and his friends, Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley, all of whom are students at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. The main story arc concerns Harry's conflict with Lord Voldemort, a dark wizard who intends to become immortal, overthrow the wizard governing body known as the Ministry of Magic, and subjugate all wizards and Muggles (non-magical people).\nThe series was originally published in English by Bloomsbury in the United Kingdom and Scholastic Press in the United States. A series of many genres, including fantasy, drama, coming-of-age fiction, and the British school story (which includes elements of mystery, thriller, adventure, horror, and romance), the world of Harry Potter explores numerous themes and includes many cultural meanings and references. Major themes in the series include prejudice, corruption, madness, love, and death.\nSince the release of the first novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, on 26 June 1997, the books have found immense popularity, positive reviews, and commercial success worldwide. They have attracted a wide adult audience as well as younger readers and are widely considered cornerstones of modern literature. As of February 2023, the books have sold more than 600 million copies worldwide, making them the best-selling book series in history, and have been available in 85 languages. The last four books consecutively set records as the fastest-selling books in history, with the final instalment selling roughly 2.7 million copies in the United Kingdom and 8.3 million copies in the United States within twenty-four hours of its release.\nWarner Bros. Pictures adapted the original seven books into an eight-part namesake film series. In 2016, the total value of the Harry Potter franchise was estimated at $25 billion, making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time. Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a play based on a story co-written by Rowling.\nThe success of the books and films has allowed the Harry Potter franchise to expand with numerous derivative works, a travelling exhibition that premiered in Chicago in 2009, a studio tour in London that opened in 2012, a digital platform on which J. K. Rowling updates the series with new information and insight, and a trilogy of spin-off films premiering in November 2016 with Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, among many other developments. Themed attractions, collectively known as The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, have been built at several Universal Destinations & Experiences amusement parks around the world.\n\nPlot\nEarly years\nThe series follows the life of a boy named Harry Potter. In the first book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the US) , Harry lives in a cupboard under the stairs in the house of the Dursleys, his aunt, uncle and cousin, who all treat him poorly. At the age of 11, Harry discovers that he is a wizard. He meets a half-giant named Hagrid who gives him a letter of acceptance to attend the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Harry learns that his parents, Lily and James Potter, also had magical powers and were murdered by the dark wizard Lord Voldemort when Harry was a baby. When Voldemort attempted to kill Harry, his curse rebounded, seemingly killing Voldemort, and Harry survived with a lightning-shaped scar on his forehead. The event made Harry famous among the community of wizards and witches.\nHarry becomes a student at Hogwarts and is sorted into Gryffindor House. He gains the friendship of Ron Weasley, a member of a large but poor wizarding family, and Hermione Granger, a witch of non-magical, or Muggle, parentage. The trio develop an enmity with the rich pure-blood student Draco Malfoy. Harry encounters the school's headmaster, Albus Dumbledore; the potions professor, Severus Snape, who displays a dislike for him; and the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, Quirinus Quirrell. Quirrell turns out to be allied with Voldemort, who is still alive as a weak spirit. The first book concludes with Harry's confrontation with Voldemort, who, in his quest to regain a body, yearns to possess the Philosopher's Stone, a substance that bestows everlasting life.\nHarry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets describes Harry's second year at Hogwarts. Students are attacked and petrified by an unknown creature; wizards of Muggle parentage are the primary targets. The attacks appear related to the mythical Chamber of Secrets and resemble attacks fifty years earlier. Harry discovers an ability to speak the snake language Parseltongue, which he learns is rare and associated with the Dark Arts. When Hermione is attacked and Ron's younger sister, Ginny Weasley, abducted, Harry and Ron uncover the chamber's secrets and enter it. Harry discovers that Ginny was possessed by an old diary, inside which the memory of Tom Marvolo Riddle, Voldemort's younger self, resides. On Voldemort's behalf, Ginny opened the chamber and unleashed the basilisk, an ancient monster that kills or petrifies those who make direct or indirect eye contact, respectively. With the help of Dumbledore's phoenix, Fawkes, and the Sword of Gryffindor, Harry slays the basilisk and destroys the diary.\nIn the third novel, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Harry learns that he is targeted by Sirius Black, an escaped convict who allegedly assisted in his parents' murder. Dementors, creatures that feed on despair, search for Sirius and guard the school. As Harry struggles with his reaction to the dementors, he reaches out to Remus Lupin, a new professor who teaches him the Patronus charm. On a windy night, Ron is dragged by a black dog into the Shrieking Shack, a haunted house, and Harry and Hermione follow. The dog is revealed to be Sirius Black. Lupin enters the shack and explains that Sirius was James Potter's best friend; he was framed by another friend of James, Peter Pettigrew, who hides as Ron's pet rat, Scabbers. As the full moon rises, Lupin transforms into a werewolf and bounds away, and the group chase after him. They are surrounded by dementors, but are saved by a figure resembling James who casts a stag Patronus. This is later revealed to be a future version of Harry, who traveled back in time with Hermione using a device called a Time Turner. The duo help Sirius escape on a Hippogriff, while Pettigrew escapes.\n\nVoldemort returns\nIn Harry's fourth year of school (detailed in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire), Hogwarts hosts the Triwizard Tournament, a contest between Hogwarts and the schools Beauxbatons and Durmstrang. Harry is unwillingly entered into the contest, becoming Hogwarts' second participant after Cedric Diggory, an unusual occurrence that causes his friends to distance themselves from him. Harry claims the Triwizard Cup with Cedric, but he is teleported to a graveyard where Pettigrew kills Cedric, then resurrects Voldemort using Harry's blood. Voldemort convenes his supporters, the Death Eaters, and Harry manages to escape after a duel with Voldemort. Upon returning to Hogwarts, it is revealed that a Death Eater, Barty Crouch, Jr, in disguise as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Alastor \"Mad-Eye\" Moody, engineered Harry's entry into the tournament, secretly helped him, and had him teleported to Voldemort.\nIn the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the Ministry of Magic refuses to believe that Voldemort has returned. Dumbledore re-activates the Order of the Phoenix, a secret society to counter Voldemort; meanwhile, the Ministry tightens control of Hogwarts by appointing Dolores Umbridge as High Inquisitor of Hogwarts, and she gradually increases her powers. When Umbridge bans practical teaching of Defence Against the Dark Arts, Harry, Ron and Hermione form \"Dumbledore's Army\", a secret group to continue the teachings. Harry has recurring dreams of a dark corridor in the Ministry of Magic, eventually dreaming that Sirius is being tortured there. He races to the Ministry with his friends, but it is a trap, planted in his head by Voldemort. The group are attacked by Death Eaters and saved by the Order of the Phoenix, but Sirius is killed in the battle. A duel between Dumbledore and Voldemort convinces the ministry of Voldemort's return. A prophecy concerning Harry and Voldemort is revealed: one must die at the hands of the other.\nIn the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Snape teaches Defence Against the Dark Arts while Horace Slughorn becomes the Potions master. Harry finds an old textbook with annotations by the Half-Blood Prince, due to which he achieves success in Potions class. Harry also takes lessons with Dumbledore, viewing memories about the early life of Voldemort in a device called a Pensieve. Harry learns from a drunken Slughorn that he used to teach Tom Riddle, and that Voldemort divided his soul into pieces, creating a series of Horcruxes. Harry and Dumbledore travel to a distant lake to destroy a Horcrux; they succeed, but Dumbledore weakens. On their return, they find Draco Malfoy and Death Eaters attacking the school. The book ends with the killing of Dumbledore by Professor Snape, the titular Half-Blood Prince.\nIn Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, the seventh and final novel in the series, Lord Voldemort gains control of the Ministry of Magic. Harry, Ron and Hermione learn about the Deathly Hallows, legendary items that lead to mastery over death. The group infiltrates the ministry, where they steal a locket Horcrux, and visit Godric's Hollow, where they are attacked by Nagini, Voldemort's snake. A silver doe Patronus leads them to the Sword of Gryffindor, with which they destroy the locket. They steal a Horcrux from Gringotts and travel to Hogwarts, culminating in a battle with the Death Eaters. Snape is killed by Voldemort out of paranoia, but he lends Harry his memories before he dies. Harry learns that Snape was always loyal to Dumbledore, and that Harry is himself a Horcrux. Harry surrenders to Voldemort and is killed. The defenders of Hogwarts continue to fight on; Harry is resurrected, faces Voldemort and kills him.\nAn epilogue titled \"Nineteen Years Later\" describes the lives of the surviving characters and the impact of Voldemort's death. Harry and Ginny are married with three children, and Ron and Hermione are married with two children.\n\nStyle and allusions\nGenre and style\nThe novels fall into the genre of fantasy literature, and qualify as a type of fantasy called \"urban fantasy\", \"contemporary fantasy\", or \"low fantasy\". They are mainly dramas, and maintain a fairly serious and dark tone throughout, though they do contain some notable instances of tragicomedy and black humour. In many respects, they are also examples of the bildungsroman, or coming of age novel, and contain elements of mystery, adventure, horror, thriller, and romance. The books are also, in the words of Stephen King, \"shrewd mystery tales\", and each book is constructed in the manner of a Sherlock Holmes-style mystery adventure. The stories are told from a third person limited point of view with very few exceptions (such as the opening chapters of Philosopher's Stone, Goblet of Fire and Deathly Hallows and the first two chapters of Half-Blood Prince).\nThe series can be considered part of the British children's boarding school genre, which includes Rudyard Kipling's Stalky & Co., Enid Blyton's Malory Towers, St. Clare's and the Naughtiest Girl series, and Frank Richards's Billy Bunter novels: the Harry Potter books are predominantly set in Hogwarts, a fictional British boarding school for wizards, where the curriculum includes the use of magic. In this sense they are \"in a direct line of descent from Thomas Hughes's Tom Brown's School Days and other Victorian and Edwardian novels of British public school life\", though they are, as many note, more contemporary, grittier, darker, and more mature than the typical boarding school novel, addressing serious themes of death, love, loss, prejudice, coming-of-age, and the loss of innocence in a 1990s British setting.\nIn Harry Potter, Rowling juxtaposes the extraordinary against the ordinary. Her narrative features two worlds: a contemporary world inhabited by non-magical people called Muggles, and another featuring wizards. It differs from typical portal fantasy in that its magical elements stay grounded in the mundane. Paintings move and talk; books bite readers; letters shout messages; and maps show live journeys, making the wizarding world both exotic and familiar. This blend of realistic and romantic elements extends to Rowling's characters. Their names are often onomatopoeic: Malfoy is difficult, Filch is unpleasant, and Lupin is a werewolf. Harry is ordinary and relatable, with down-to-earth features such as wearing broken glasses; the scholar Roni Natov terms him an \"everychild\". These elements serve to highlight Harry when he is heroic, making him both an everyman and a fairytale hero.\nEach of the seven books is set over the course of one school year. Harry struggles with the problems he encounters, and dealing with them often involves the need to violate some school rules. If students are caught breaking rules, they are often disciplined by Hogwarts professors. The stories reach their climax in the summer term, near or just after final exams, when events escalate far beyond in-school squabbles and struggles, and Harry must confront either Voldemort or one of his followers, the Death Eaters, with the stakes a matter of life and death—a point underlined, as the series progresses, by characters being killed in each of the final four books. In the aftermath, he learns important lessons through exposition and discussions with head teacher and mentor Albus Dumbledore. The only exception to this school-centred setting is the final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, in which Harry and his friends spend most of their time away from Hogwarts, and only return there to face Voldemort at the dénouement.\n\nAllusions\nThe Harry Potter stories feature imagery and motifs drawn from Arthurian myth and fairytales. Harry's ability to draw the Sword of Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat resembles the Arthurian sword in the stone legend. His life with the Dursleys has been compared to Cinderella. Hogwarts resembles a medieval university-cum-castle with several professors who belong to an Order of Merlin; Old Professor Binns still lectures about the International Warlock Convention of 1289; and a real historical person, a 14th-century scribe, Sir Nicolas Flamel, is described as a holder of the Philosopher's Stone. Other medieval elements in Hogwarts include coats-of-arms and medieval weapons on the walls, letters written on parchment and sealed with wax, the Great Hall of Hogwarts, which is similar to the Great Hall of Camelot, the use of Latin phrases, the tents put up for Quidditch tournaments, which are similar to the \"marvellous tents\" put up for knightly tournaments, imaginary animals like dragons and unicorns that exist around Hogwarts, and the banners with heraldic animals for the four Houses of Hogwarts.\nMany of the motifs of the Potter stories, such as the hero's quest invoking objects that confer invisibility, magical animals and trees, a forest full of danger and the recognition of a character based upon scars, are drawn from medieval French Arthurian romances. Other aspects borrowed from French Arthurian romances include the use of owls as messengers, werewolves as characters, and white deer. The American scholars Heather Arden and Kathrn Lorenz in particular argue that many aspects of the Potter stories are inspired by a 14th-century French Arthurian romance, Claris et Laris, writing of the \"startling\" similarities between the adventures of Potter and the knight Claris. Arden and Lorenz noted that Rowling graduated from the University of Exeter in 1986 with a degree in French literature and spent a year living in France afterwards.\nLike C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, Harry Potter also contains Christian symbolism and allegory. The series has been viewed as a Christian moral fable in the psychomachia tradition, in which stand-ins for good and evil fight for supremacy over a person's soul. Children's literature critic Joy Farmer sees parallels between Harry and Jesus Christ. Comparing Rowling with Lewis, she argues that \"magic is both authors' way of talking about spiritual reality\". According to Maria Nikolajeva, Christian imagery is particularly strong in the final scenes of the series: Harry dies in self-sacrifice and Voldemort delivers an \"ecce homo\" speech, after which Harry is resurrected and defeats his enemy.\nRowling stated that she did not reveal Harry Potter's religious parallels in the beginning because doing so would have \"give[n] too much away to fans who might then see the parallels\". In the final book of the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Rowling makes the book's Christian imagery more explicit, quoting both Matthew 6:21 and 1 Corinthians 15:26 (King James Version) when Harry visits his parents' graves. Hermione Granger teaches Harry Potter that the meaning of these verses from the Christian Bible are \"living beyond death. Living after death\", which Rowling states \"epitomize the whole series\". Rowling also exhibits Christian values in developing Albus Dumbledore as a God-like character, the divine, trusted leader of the series, guiding the long-suffering hero along his quest. In the seventh novel, Harry speaks with and questions the deceased Dumbledore much like a person of faith would talk to and question God.\n\nThemes\nHarry Potter's overarching theme is death. In the first book, when Harry looks into the Mirror of Erised, he feels both joy and \"a terrible sadness\" at seeing his desire: his parents, alive and with him. Confronting their loss is central to Harry's character arc and manifests in different ways through the series, such as in his struggles with Dementors. Other characters in Harry's life die; he even faces his own death in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. The series has an existential perspective—Harry must grow mature enough to accept death. In Harry's world, death is not binary but mutable, a state that exists in degrees. Unlike Voldemort, who evades death by separating and hiding his soul in seven parts, Harry's soul is whole, nourished by friendship and love.\nLove distinguishes Harry and Voldemort. Harry is a hero because he loves others, even willing to accept death to save them; Voldemort is a villain because he does not. Harry carries the protection of his mother's sacrifice in his blood; Voldemort, who wants Harry's blood and the protection it carries, does not understand that love vanquishes death.\nRowling has spoken about thematising death and loss in the series. Soon after she started writing Philosopher's Stone, her mother died; she said that \"I really think from that moment on, death became a central, if not the central theme of the seven books\". Rowling has described Harry as \"the prism through which I view death\", and further stated that \"all of my characters are defined by their attitude to death and the possibility of death\".\nWhile Harry Potter can be viewed as a story about good vs. evil, its moral divisions are not absolute. First impressions of characters are often misleading. Harry assumes in the first book that Quirrell is on the side of good because he opposes Snape, who appears to be malicious; in reality, Quirrell is an agent of Voldemort, while Snape is loyal to Dumbledore. This pattern later recurs with Moody and Snape. In Rowling's world, good and evil are choices rather than inherent attributes: second chances and the possibility of redemption are key themes of the series. This is reflected in Harry's self-doubts after learning his connections to Voldemort, such as Parseltongue; and prominently in Snape's characterisation, which has been described as complex and multifaceted. In some scholars' view, while Rowling's narrative appears on the surface to be about Harry, her focus may actually be on Snape's morality and character arc.\nRowling said that, to her, the moral significance of the tales seems \"blindingly obvious\". In the fourth book, Dumbledore speaks of a \"choice between what is right and what is easy\"; Rowling views this as a key theme, \"because that ... is how tyranny is started, with people being apathetic and taking the easy route and suddenly finding themselves in deep trouble\".\nAcademics and journalists have developed many other interpretations of themes in the books, some more complex than others, and some including political subtexts. Themes such as normality, oppression, survival, and overcoming imposing odds have all been considered as prevalent throughout the series. Similarly, the theme of making one's way through adolescence and \"going over one's most harrowing ordeals—and thus coming to terms with them\" has also been considered. Rowling has stated that the books comprise \"a prolonged argument for tolerance, a prolonged plea for an end to bigotry\" and that they also pass on a message to \"question authority and... not assume that the establishment or the press tells you all of the truth\".\n\nDevelopment history\nIn 1990, Rowling was on a crowded train from Manchester to London when the idea for Harry suddenly \"fell into\" her head. Rowling gives an account of the experience on her website saying:\n\nI had been writing almost continuously since the age of six but I had never been so excited about an idea before. I simply sat and thought, for four (delayed train) hours, and all the details bubbled up in my brain, and this scrawny, black-haired, bespectacled boy who did not know he was a wizard became more and more real to me.\nRowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in 1995 and the manuscript was sent off to several prospective agents. The second agent she tried, Christopher Little, offered to represent her and sent the manuscript to several publishers.\n\nPublishing history\nAfter twelve other publishers had rejected Philosopher's Stone, Bloomsbury agreed to publish the book. Despite Rowling's statement that she did not have any particular age group in mind when beginning to write the Harry Potter books, the publishers initially targeted children aged nine to eleven. On the eve of publishing, Rowling was asked by her publishers to adopt a more gender-neutral pen name in order to appeal to the male members of this age group, fearing that they would not be interested in reading a novel they knew to be written by a woman. She elected to use J. K. Rowling (Joanne Kathleen Rowling), using her grandmother's name as her second name because she has no middle name.\nHarry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone was published by Bloomsbury, the publisher of all Harry Potter books in the United Kingdom, on 26 June 1997. It was released in the United States on 1 September 1998 by Scholastic—the American publisher of the books—as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, after the American rights sold for US$105,000—a record amount for a children's book by an unknown author. Scholastic feared that American readers would not associate the word \"philosopher\" with magic, and Rowling suggested the title Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone for the American market. Rowling has later said that she regrets the change.\nThe second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series, at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005. The seventh and final novel, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, was published on 21 July 2007. Rowling herself has stated that the last chapter of the final book (in fact, the epilogue) was completed \"in something like 1990\".\nRowling retained rights to digital editions and released them on the Pottermore website in 2012. Vendors such as Amazon displayed the ebooks in the form of links to Pottermore, which controlled pricing. All seven Harry Potter novels have been released in unabridged audiobook versions, with Stephen Fry reading the British editions and Jim Dale voicing the series for the American editions. On Audible, the series has been listened, as of November 2022, for over a billion hours.\n\nTranslations\nThe series has been translated into more than 80 languages, placing Rowling among the most translated authors in history. The books have seen translations to diverse languages such as Korean, Armenian, Ukrainian, Arabic, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Bulgarian, Welsh, Afrikaans, Albanian, Latvian, Vietnamese and Hawaiian. The first volume has been translated into Latin and even Ancient Greek, making it the longest published work in Ancient Greek since the novels of Heliodorus of Emesa in the 3rd century AD. The second volume has also been translated into Latin.\nSome of the translators hired to work on the books were well-known authors before their work on Harry Potter, such as Viktor Golyshev, who oversaw the Russian translation of the series' fifth book. The Turkish translation of books two to seven was undertaken by Sevin Okyay, a popular literary critic and cultural commentator. For reasons of secrecy, translation on a given book could only start after it had been released in English, leading to a lag of several months before the translations were available. This led to more and more copies of the English editions being sold to impatient fans in non-English speaking countries; for example, such was the clamour to read Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix that its English language edition became the first English-language book ever to top the best-seller list in France.\nThe United States editions were adapted into American English to make them more understandable to a young American audience.\n\nCover art\nFor cover art, Bloomsbury chose painted art in a classic style of design, with the first cover a watercolour and pencil drawing by illustrator Thomas Taylor showing Harry boarding the Hogwarts Express, and a title in the font Cochin Bold. The first releases of the successive books in the series followed in the same style but somewhat more realistic, illustrating scenes from the books. These covers were created by first Cliff Wright and then Jason Cockroft.\nDue to the appeal of the books among an adult audience, Bloomsbury commissioned a second line of editions in an 'adult' style. These initially used black-and-white photographic art for the covers showing objects from the books (including a very American Hogwarts Express) without depicting people, but later shifted to partial colourisation with a picture of Slytherin's locket on the cover of the final book.\nInternational and later editions have been created by a range of designers, including Mary GrandPré for US audiences and Mika Launis in Finland. For a later American release, Kazu Kibuishi created covers in a somewhat anime-influenced style.\n\nReception\nCommercial success\nThe popularity of the Harry Potter series has translated into substantial financial success for Rowling, her publishers, and other Harry Potter related license holders. This success has made Rowling the first and thus far only billionaire author. The books have sold more than 600 million copies worldwide and have also given rise to the popular film adaptations produced by Warner Bros. Pictures, all of which have been highly successful in their own right. The total revenue from the book sales is estimated, as of November 2018, to be around $7.7 billion. The first novel in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, has sold in excess of 120 million copies, making it one of the bestselling books in history. The films have in turn spawned eight video games and have led to the licensing of more than 400 additional Harry Potter products. The Harry Potter brand has been estimated to be worth as much as $25 billion.\nThe great demand for Harry Potter novels motivated The New York Times to create a separate best-seller list for children's literature in 2000, just before the release of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. By 24 June 2000, Rowling's novels had been on the list for 79 straight weeks; the first three novels were each on the hardcover best-seller list. On 12 April 2007, Barnes & Noble declared that Deathly Hallows had broken its pre-order record, with more than 500,000 copies pre-ordered through its site. For the release of Goblet of Fire, 9,000 FedEx trucks were used with no other purpose than to deliver the book. Together, Amazon.com and Barnes & Noble pre-sold more than 700,000 copies of the book. In the United States, the book's initial printing run was 3.8 million copies. This record statistic was broken by Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with 8.5 million, which was then shattered by Half-Blood Prince with 10.8 million copies. Within the first 24 hours of its release, 6.9 million copies of Prince were sold in the US; in the UK more than two million copies were sold on the first day. The initial US print run for Deathly Hallows was 12 million copies, and more than a million were pre-ordered through Amazon and Barnes & Noble.\nFans of the series were so eager for the latest instalment that bookstores around the world began holding events to coincide with the midnight release of the books, beginning with the 2000 publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. The events, commonly featuring mock sorting, games, face painting, and other live entertainment have achieved popularity with Potter fans and have been highly successful in attracting fans and selling books with nearly nine million of the 10.8 million initial print copies of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince sold in the first 24 hours. The final book in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows became the fastest selling book in history, moving 11 million units in the first twenty-four hours of release. The book sold 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US. The series has also gathered adult fans, leading to the release of two editions of each Harry Potter book, identical in text but with one edition's cover artwork aimed at children and the other aimed at adults.\n\nLiterary criticism\nEarly in its history, Harry Potter received positive reviews. On publication, the first book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, attracted attention from the Scottish newspapers, such as The Scotsman, which said it had \"all the makings of a classic\", and The Glasgow Herald, which called it \"Magic stuff\". Soon the English newspapers joined in, with The Sunday Times comparing it to Roald Dahl's work (\"comparisons to Dahl are, this time, justified\"), while The Guardian called it \"a richly textured novel given lift-off by an inventive wit\".\nBy the time of the release of the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the books began to receive strong criticism from a number of literary scholars. Yale professor, literary scholar, and critic Harold Bloom raised criticisms of the books' literary merits, saying, \"Rowling's mind is so governed by clichés and dead metaphors that she has no other style of writing.\" A. S. Byatt authored an op-ed article in The New York Times calling Rowling's universe a \"secondary secondary world, made up of intelligently patchworked derivative motifs from all sorts of children's literature ... written for people whose imaginative lives are confined to TV cartoons, and the exaggerated (more exciting, not threatening) mirror-worlds of soaps, reality TV and celebrity gossip.\"\nMichael Rosen, a novelist and poet, held the opinion that the books were not suited for children, as they would be unable to grasp the complex themes. Rosen also stated that \"J. K. Rowling is more of an adult writer.\" The critic Anthony Holden wrote in The Observer on his experience of judging Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban for the 1999 Whitbread Awards. His overall view of the series was negative—\"the Potter saga was essentially patronising, conservative, highly derivative, dispiritingly nostalgic for a bygone Britain\", and he speaks of \"a pedestrian, ungrammatical prose style\". Ursula K. Le Guin said, \"I have no great opinion of it [...] it seemed a lively kid's fantasy crossed with a 'school novel,' good fare for its age group, but stylistically ordinary, imaginatively derivative, and ethically rather mean-spirited.\" By contrast, author Fay Weldon, while admitting that the series is \"not what the poets hoped for\", nevertheless goes on to say, \"but this is not poetry, it is readable, saleable, everyday, useful prose\".\nThe literary critic A. N. Wilson praised the Harry Potter series in The Times, stating, \"There are not many writers who have JK's Dickensian ability to make us turn the pages, to weep—openly, with tears splashing—and a few pages later to laugh, at invariably good jokes ... We have lived through a decade in which we have followed the publication of the liveliest, funniest, scariest and most moving children's stories ever written.\" Charles Taylor of Salon.com, who is primarily a movie critic, took issue with Byatt's criticisms in particular. While he conceded that she may have \"a valid cultural point—a teeny one—about the impulses that drive us to reassuring pop trash and away from the troubling complexities of art\", he rejected her claims that the series is lacking in serious literary merit and that it owes its success merely to the childhood reassurances it offers. Stephen King called the series \"a feat of which only a superior imagination is capable\", and declared \"Rowling's punning, one-eyebrow-cocked sense of humor\" to be \"remarkable\". However, he wrote that he is \"a little tired of discovering Harry at home with his horrible aunt and uncle\", the formulaic beginning of all seven books.\nSameer Rahim of The Daily Telegraph disagreed, saying \"It depresses me to see 16- and 17-year-olds reading the series when they could be reading the great novels of childhood such as Oliver Twist or A House for Mr Biswas.\" The Washington Post book critic Ron Charles opined in July 2007 that \"through no fault of Rowling's\", the cultural and marketing \"hysteria\" marked by the publication of the later books \"trains children and adults to expect the roar of the coliseum, a mass-media experience that no other novel can possibly provide\". Jenny Sawyer wrote in The Christian Science Monitor on 25 July 2007 that Harry Potter neither faces a \"moral struggle\" nor undergoes any ethical growth and is thus \"no guide in circumstances in which right and wrong are anything less than black and white\". In contrast Emily Griesinger described Harry's first passage through to Platform 9+3⁄4 as an application of faith and hope, and his encounter with the Sorting Hat as the first of many in which Harry is shaped by the choices he makes.\nIn an 8 November 2002, Slate article, Chris Suellentrop likened Potter to a \"trust-fund kid whose success at school is largely attributable to the gifts his friends and relatives lavish upon him\". In a 12 August 2007 review of Deathly Hallows in The New York Times, however, Christopher Hitchens praised Rowling for \"unmooring\" her \"English school story\" from literary precedents \"bound up with dreams of wealth and class and snobbery\", arguing that she had instead created \"a world of youthful democracy and diversity\".\nIn 2016, an article written by Diana C. Mutz compared the politics of Harry Potter to the 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign. She suggests that these themes are also present in the presidential election and it may play a significant role in how Americans have responded to the campaign.\nThere is ongoing discussion regarding the extent to which the series was inspired by Tolkien's Lord of the Rings books.\n\nThematic critique\nThe portrayal of women in Harry Potter has been described as complex and varied, but nonetheless conforming to stereotypical and patriarchal depictions of gender. Gender divides are ostensibly absent in the books: Hogwarts is coeducational and women hold positions of power in wizarding society. However, this setting obscures the typecasting of female characters and the general depiction of conventional gender roles. According to scholars Elizabeth Heilman and Trevor Donaldson, the subordination of female characters goes further early in the series. The final three books \"showcase richer roles and more powerful females\": for instance, the series' \"most matriarchal character\", Molly Weasley, engages substantially in the final battle of Deathly Hallows, while other women are shown as leaders. Hermione Granger, in particular, becomes an active and independent character essential to the protagonists' battle against evil. Yet, even particularly capable female characters such as Hermione and Minerva McGonagall are placed in supporting roles, and Hermione's status as a feminist model is debated. Girls and women are more frequently shown as emotional, more often defined by their appearance, and less often given agency in family settings.\nThe social hierarchy of wizards in Rowling's world has drawn debate among critics. \"Purebloods\" have two wizard parents; \"half-bloods\" have one; and \"Muggle-born\" wizards have magical abilities, although neither of their parents is a wizard. Lord Voldemort and his followers believe that blood purity is paramount and that Muggles are subhuman. According to the literary scholar Andrew Blake, Harry Potter rejects blood purity as a basis for social division; Suman Gupta agrees that Voldemort's philosophy represents \"absolute evil\"; and Nel and Eccleshare agree that advocates of racial or blood-based hierarchies are antagonists. Gupta, following Blake, suggests that the essential superiority of wizards over Muggles—wizards can use magic and Muggles cannot—means that the books cannot coherently reject anti-Muggle prejudice by appealing to equality between wizards and Muggles. Rather, according to Gupta, Harry Potter models a form of tolerance based on the \"charity and altruism of those belonging to superior races\" towards lesser races.\nHarry Potter's's depiction of race, specifically the slavery of house-elves, has received varied responses. Scholars such as Brycchan Carey have praised the books' abolitionist sentiments, viewing Hermione's Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare as a model for younger readers' political engagement. Other critics including Farah Mendlesohn find the portrayal of house-elves \"most difficult to accept\": the elves are denied the right to free themselves and rely on the benevolence of others like Hermione. Pharr terms the house-elves a disharmonious element in the series, writing that Rowling leaves their fate hanging; at the end of Deathly Hallows, the elves remain enslaved and cheerful. The goblins of the world of Harry Potter have also received criticism for following antisemitic caricatures – particularly for their grotesque \"hook-nosed\" portrayal in the films, an appearance associated with Jewish stereotypes.\n\nControversies\nThe books have been the subject of a number of legal proceedings, stemming from various conflicts over copyright and trademark infringements. The popularity and high market value of the series has led Rowling, her publishers, and film distributor Warner Bros. to take legal measures to protect their copyright, which have included banning the sale of Harry Potter imitations, targeting the owners of websites over the \"Harry Potter\" domain name, and suing author Nancy Stouffer to counter her accusations that Rowling had plagiarised her work. \nVarious religious fundamentalists have claimed that the books promote witchcraft and religions such as Wicca and are therefore unsuitable for children, while a number of critics have criticised the books for promoting various political agendas. The series has landed the American Library Associations' Top 10 Banned Book List in 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2019 with claims it was anti-family, discussed magic and witchcraft, contained actual spells and curses, referenced the occult/Satanism, violence, and had characters who used \"nefarious means\" to attain goals, as well as conflicts with religious viewpoints.\nThe books also aroused controversies in the literary and publishing worlds. From 1997 to 1998, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone won almost all the United Kingdom awards judged by children, but none of the children's book awards judged by adults, and Sandra Beckett suggested the reason was intellectual snobbery towards books that were popular among children. In 1999, the winner of the Whitbread Book of the Year award children's division was entered for the first time on the shortlist for the main award, and one judge threatened to resign if Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was declared the overall winner; it finished second, very close behind the winner of the poetry prize, Seamus Heaney's translation of the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf.\nIn 2000, shortly before the publication of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the previous three Harry Potter books topped The New York Times fiction best-seller list and a third of the entries were children's books. The newspaper created a new children's section covering children's books, including both fiction and non-fiction, and initially counting only hardback sales. The move was supported by publishers and booksellers. In 2004, The New York Times further split the children's list, which was still dominated by Harry Potter books, into sections for series and individual books and removed the Harry Potter books from the section for individual books. The split in 2000 attracted condemnation, praise and some comments that presented both benefits and disadvantages of the move. Time suggested that, on the same principle, Billboard should have created a separate \"mop-tops\" list in 1964 when The Beatles held the top five places in its list, and Nielsen should have created a separate game-show list when Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? dominated the ratings.\n\nLegacy\nInfluence on literature\nHarry Potter transformed children's literature. In the 1970s, children's books were generally realistic as opposed to fantastic, while adult fantasy became popular because of the influence of The Lord of the Rings. The next decade saw an increasing interest in grim, realist themes, with an outflow of fantasy readers and writers to adult works.\nThe commercial success of Harry Potter reversed this trend. The scale of its growth had no precedent in the children's market: within four years of the series' inception, it occupied 28% of that field by revenue. Children's literature rose in cultural status, and fantasy became a dominant genre. Older works in the genre, including Diana Wynne Jones's Chrestomanci series and Diane Duane's Young Wizards, were reprinted and rose in popularity; some authors re-established their careers. In the following decades, many Harry Potter imitators and subversive responses grew popular.\nRowling has been compared to Enid Blyton, who also wrote in simple language about groups of children and long held sway over the British children's market. She has also been described as an heir to Roald Dahl. Some critics view Harry Potter's rise, along with the concurrent success of Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, as part of a broader shift in reading tastes: a rejection of literary fiction in favour of plot and adventure. This is reflected in the BBC's 2003 \"Big Read\" survey of the UK's favourite books, where Pullman and Rowling ranked at numbers 3 and 5, respectively, with very few British literary classics in the top 10.\n\nCultural impact\nHarry Potter has been described as a cultural phenomenon. The word \"Muggle\" has spread beyond its origins in the books, entering the Oxford English Dictionary in 2003.\nA real-life version of the sport Quidditch was created in 2005 and featured as an exhibition tournament in the 2012 London Olympics. Characters and elements from the series have inspired scientific names of several organisms, including the dinosaur Dracorex hogwartsia, the spider Eriovixia gryffindori, the wasp Ampulex dementor, and the crab Harryplax severus.\nLibrarian Nancy Knapp pointed out the books' potential to improve literacy by motivating children to read much more than they otherwise would. The seven-book series has a word count of 1,083,594 (US edition). Agreeing about the motivating effects, Diane Penrod also praised the books' blending of simple entertainment with \"the qualities of highbrow literary fiction\", but expressed concern about the distracting effect of the prolific merchandise that accompanies the book launches. However, the assumption that Harry Potter books have increased literacy among young people is \"largely a folk legend\".\nResearch by the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) has found no increase in reading among children coinciding with the Harry Potter publishing phenomenon, nor has the broader downward trend in reading among Americans been arrested during the rise in the popularity of the Harry Potter books. The research also found that children who read Harry Potter books were not more likely to go on to read outside the fantasy and mystery genres. NEA chairman Dana Gioia said the series, \"got millions of kids to read a long and reasonably complex series of books. The trouble is that one Harry Potter novel every few years is not enough to reverse the decline in reading.\"\nMany fan fiction and fan art works about Harry Potter have been made. In March 2007, \"Harry Potter\" was the most commonly searched fan fiction subject on the internet.\nJennifer Conn used Snape's and Quidditch coach Madam Hooch's teaching methods as examples of what to avoid and what to emulate in clinical teaching, and Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first-year sociology class: \"sociological concepts including culture, society, and socialisation; stratification and social inequality; social institutions; and social theory\".\nFrom the early 2000s onwards, several news reports appeared in the UK of the Harry Potter book and movie series driving demand for pet owls, and even reports that after the end of the movie series these same pet owls were now being abandoned by their owners. This led J. K. Rowling to issue several statements urging Harry Potter fans to refrain from purchasing pet owls. Despite the media flurry, research into the popularity of Harry Potter and sales of owls in the UK failed to find any evidence that the Harry Potter franchise had influenced the buying of owls in the country or the number of owls reaching animal shelters and sanctuaries.\n\nAwards, honours, and recognition\nThe Harry Potter series has been recognised by a host of awards since the initial publication of Philosopher's Stone including a platinum award from the Whitaker Gold and Platinum Book Awards ( 2001), three Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes (1997–1999), two Scottish Arts Council Book Awards (1999 and 2001), the inaugural Whitbread children's book of the year award (1999), and the WHSmith book of the year (2006), among others. In 2000, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Novel, and in 2001, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire won said award. Honours include a commendation for the Carnegie Medal (1997), a short listing for the Guardian Children's Award (1998), and numerous listings on the notable books, editors' Choices, and best books lists of the American Library Association, The New York Times, Chicago Public Library, and Publishers Weekly.\nIn 2002, sociologist Andrew Blake named Harry Potter a British pop culture icon along with the likes of James Bond and Sherlock Holmes. In 2003, four of the books were named in the top 24 of the BBC's The Big Read survey of the best loved novels in the UK. A 2004 study found that books in the series were commonly read aloud in elementary schools in San Diego County, California. Based on a 2007 online poll, the US National Education Association listed the series in its \"Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children\". Time magazine named Rowling as a runner-up for its 2007 Person of the Year award, noting the social, moral, and political inspiration she has given her fandom. Three of the books placed among the \"Top 100 Chapter Books\" of all time, or children's novels, in a 2012 survey published by School Library Journal: Sorcerer's Stone ranked number three, Prisoner of Azkaban 12th, and Goblet of Fire 98th. \nIn 2007, the seven Harry Potter book covers were depicted on a series of UK postage stamps issued by Royal Mail. In 2012, the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London featured a 100-foot tall rendition of Lord Voldemort in a segment designed to showcase the UK's cultural icons. In November 2019, the BBC listed the Harry Potter series on its list of the 100 most influential novels.\n\nAdaptations\nFilms\nIn 1999, Rowling sold the film rights for Harry Potter to Warner Bros. for a reported £1 million (US$2,000,000). Rowling had creative control on the film series, observing the filmmaking process of Philosopher's Stone and serving as producer on the two-part Deathly Hallows, alongside David Heyman and David Barron. Rowling demanded the principal cast be kept strictly British and Irish, nonetheless allowing for the inclusion or French and Eastern European actors where characters from the book are specified as such.\nChris Columbus was selected as the director for Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (titled \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\" in the United States). Philosopher's Stone was released on 14 November 2001. Just three days after the film's release, production for Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, also directed by Columbus, began and the film was released on 15 November 2002. Columbus declined to direct Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, only acting as producer. Mexican director Alfonso Cuarón took over the job, and after shooting in 2003, the film was released on 4 June 2004. Due to the fourth film beginning its production before the third's release, Mike Newell was chosen as the director for Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, released on 18 November 2005. Newell became the first British director of the series, with television director David Yates following suit after he was chosen to helm Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Production began in January 2006 and the film was released the following year in July 2007. Yates was selected to direct Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, which was released on 15 July 2009. The final instalment in the series, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was released in two cinematic parts: Part 1 on 19 November 2010 and Part 2 on 15 July 2011.\n\nSpin-off prequels\nA prequel series is planned to consist of five films, taking place before the main series. The first film Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released in November 2016, followed by the second Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald in November 2018 and Fantastic Beasts: The Secrets of Dumbledore in April 2022. Rowling wrote the screenplays for all three films, marking her foray into screenwriting.\n\nGames\nA number of non-interactive media games and board games have been released such as Cluedo Harry Potter Edition, Scene It? Harry Potter and Lego Harry Potter models, which are influenced by the themes of both the novels and films.\nThere are fourteen Harry Potter video games, eight corresponding with the films and books and six spin-offs. The film/book-based games are produced by Electronic Arts (EA), as was Harry Potter: Quidditch World Cup, with the game version of the first entry in the series, Philosopher's Stone, being released in November 2001. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone went on to become one of the best-selling PlayStation games ever. The video games were released to coincide with the films. Objectives usually occur in and around Hogwarts. The story and design of the games follow the selected film's characterisation and plot; EA worked closely with Warner Bros. to include scenes from the films. The last game in the series, Deathly Hallows, was split, with Part 1 released in November 2010 and Part 2 debuting on consoles in July 2011.\nThe spin-off games Lego Harry Potter: Years 1–4 and Lego Harry Potter: Years 5–7 were developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. The spin-off games Book of Spells and Book of Potions were developed by London Studio and use the Wonderbook, an augmented reality book designed to be used in conjunction with the PlayStation Move and PlayStation Eye. The Harry Potter universe is also featured in Lego Dimensions, with the settings and side characters featured in the Harry Potter Adventure World, and Harry, Voldemort, and Hermione as playable characters. In 2017, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment opened its own Harry Potter-themed game design studio, by the name of Portkey Games, before releasing Hogwarts Mystery, developed by Jam City, in 2018 and Hogwarts Legacy, developed by Avalanche Software, in 2023.\n\nStage production\nHarry Potter and the Cursed Child: Parts I and II is a play which serves as a sequel to the books, beginning nineteen years after the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. It was written by Jack Thorne based on an original new story by Thorne, Rowling and John Tiffany. It has run at the Palace Theatre in London's West End since previews began on 7 June 2016 with an official premiere on 30 June 2016. The first four months of tickets for the June–September performances were sold out within several hours upon release. Forthcoming productions are planned for Broadway and Melbourne.\nThe script was released as a book at the time of the premiere, with a revised version following the next year.\n\nTelevision\nOn 25 January 2021, it was reported that a live-action television series has been in early development at HBO Max. Though it was noted that the series has \"complicated rights issues\", due to a seven-year rights deal with Warner Bros. Domestic TV Distribution that included US broadcast, cable and streaming rights to the franchise, which ends in April 2025. On 12 April 2023, the series was confirmed to be in development, and will be streamed on the new streaming service Max (formerly known as HBO Max). On 23 February 2024, Warner Bros. Discovery CEO David Zaslav announced that the series would debut on Max in 2026. On 25 June 2024, it was announced the series would also be streamed on HBO.\n\nAttractions\nUniversal and Warner Brothers created The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, a Harry Potter-themed expansion to the Islands of Adventure theme park at Universal Orlando Resort in Florida. It opened to the public on 18 June 2010. It includes a recreation of Hogsmeade and several rides; its flagship attraction is Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey, which exists within a recreation of Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.\nIn 2014 Universal opened a Harry Potter-themed area at the Universal Studios Florida theme park. It includes a recreation of Diagon Alley. The flagship attraction is the Harry Potter and the Escape from Gringotts roller coaster ride. A completely functioning full-scale replica of the Hogwarts Express was created for the Diagon Alley expansion, connecting King's Cross Station at Universal Studios to the Hogsmeade station at Islands of Adventure. The Wizarding World of Harry Potter opened at the Universal Studios Hollywood theme park near Los Angeles, California in 2016, and in Universal Studios Japan theme park in Osaka, Japan in 2014. The Osaka venue includes the village of Hogsmeade, Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ride, and Flight of the Hippogriff roller coaster. Other Harry Potter roller coasters are the Dragon Challenge and Hagrid's Magical Creatures Motorbike Adventure, both at Universal Islands of Adventure.\nWarner Bros. Studio Tour London – The Making of Harry Potter is a behind-the-scenes walking tour in London featuring authentic sets, costumes and props from the film series. The attraction is located at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, where all eight of the Harry Potter films were made. Warner Bros. constructed two new sound stages to house and showcase the sets from each of the British-made productions, following a £100 million investment. It opened to the public in March 2012.\n\nSupplementary works\nRowling expanded the Harry Potter universe with short books produced for charities. In 2001, she released Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (a purported Hogwarts textbook) and Quidditch Through the Ages (a book Harry reads for fun). Proceeds from the sale of these two books benefited the charity Comic Relief. In 2007, Rowling composed seven handwritten copies of The Tales of Beedle the Bard, a collection of fairy tales that is featured in the final novel, one of which was auctioned to raise money for the Children's High Level Group, a fund for mentally disabled children in poor countries. The book was published internationally on 4 December 2008. Rowling also wrote an 800-word prequel in 2008 as part of a fundraiser organised by the bookseller Waterstones. All three of these books contain extra information about the wizarding world not included in the original novels.\nIn 2016, she released three new e-books: Hogwarts: An Incomplete and Unreliable Guide, Short Stories from Hogwarts of Power, Politics and Pesky Poltergeists and Short Stories from Hogwarts of Heroism, Hardship and Dangerous Hobbies.\n\nRowling's website Pottermore was launched in 2012. Pottermore allows users to be sorted, be chosen by their wand and play various minigames. The main purpose of the website was to allow the user to journey through the story with access to content not revealed by JK Rowling previously, with over 18,000 words of additional content. The site was redesigned in 2015 as WizardingWorld and it mainly focuses on the information already available, rather than exploration.\n\nSee also\nMary Poppins\nThe Worst Witch\n\nReferences\nSources\nFurther reading\nAgarwal, Nikita; Chitra Agarwal (2005). Friends and Foes of Harry Potter: Names Decoded. Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-59800-221-8.\nAllardice, Lisa (18 June 2022). \"'There was practically a riot at King's Cross': an oral history of Harry Potter at 25\". The Guardian. Retrieved 26 August 2024.\nBurkart, Gina (2005). A parent's guide to Harry Potter. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-3288-0. Harry Potter.\nDuriez, Colin (2007). Field Guide to Harry Potter. IVP Books. ISBN 978-0-8308-3430-3.\nMulholland, Neil (2007). The Psychology of Harry Potter: An Unauthorized Examination of the Boy Who Lived. BenBella Books. ISBN 978-1-932100-88-4.\nSilvester, William (2010). Harry Potter Collector's Handbook. Krause. ISBN 978-1-4402-0897-3.\n\nExternal links\n\nJ. K. Rowling's personal website\nHarry Potter movies—Official website (Warner Bros.)\nHarry Potter at Bloomsbury.com (International publisher)\nHarry Potter at Scholastic.com (US publisher)\nHarry Potter at Raincoast.com (Canadian publisher)\nHarry Potter collected news and commentary at The Guardian \nHarry Potter collected news and commentary at The New York Times\nThe Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Orlando resort, Florida",
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"paragraph_text": "Joanne Rowling ( ROH-ling; born 31 July 1965), known by her pen name J. K. Rowling, is a British author and philanthropist. She is the author of Harry Potter, a seven-volume fantasy novel series published from 1997 to 2007. The series has sold over 600 million copies, been translated into 84 languages, and spawned a global media franchise including films and video games. The Casual Vacancy (2012) was her first novel for adults. She writes Cormoran Strike, an ongoing crime fiction series, under the alias Robert Galbraith. \nBorn in Yate, Gloucestershire, Rowling was working as a researcher and bilingual secretary for Amnesty International in 1990 when she conceived the idea for the Harry Potter series. The seven-year period that followed saw the death of her mother, the birth of her first child, divorce from her first husband, and relative poverty until the first novel in the series, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was published in 1997. Six sequels followed, concluding with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows (2007). By 2008, Forbes had named her the world's highest-paid author.\nThe novels follow a boy called Harry Potter as he attends Hogwarts (a school for wizards), and battles Lord Voldemort. Death and the divide between good and evil are the central themes of the series. Its influences include Bildungsroman (the coming-of-age genre), school stories, fairy tales, and Christian allegory. The series revived fantasy as a genre in the children's market, spawned a host of imitators, and inspired an active fandom. Critical reception has been more mixed. Many reviewers see Rowling's writing as conventional; some regard her portrayal of gender and social division as regressive. There were also religious debates over the Harry Potter series.\nRowling has won many accolades for her work. She has received an OBE and made a Companion of Honour for services to literature and philanthropy. Harry Potter brought her wealth and recognition, which she has used to advance philanthropic endeavours and political causes. She established the Volant Charitable Trust in 2000, and co-founded the charity Lumos in 2005. Rowling's philanthropy centres on medical causes and supporting at-risk women and children. In 2012, Forbes estimated that Rowling's charitable giving totaled US$160 million. She has also donated to Britain's Labour Party, and opposed Scottish independence and Brexit. Since 2017, Rowling has been vocal about her opinions on transgender people and related civil rights. Her comments, described as transphobic by critics and LGBT rights organisations, have divided feminists, fuelled debates on freedom of speech and cancel culture, and prompted declarations of support for transgender people from the culture sector.\n\nName\nAlthough she writes under the pen name J. K. Rowling, before her remarriage her name was Joanne Rowling, or Jo. At birth, she had no middle name. Staff at Bloomsbury Publishing suggested that she use two initials rather than her full name, anticipating that young boys – their target audience – would not want to read a book written by a woman. She chose K as the second initial, from her paternal grandmother Kathleen Rowling, and because of the ease of pronunciation of the two consecutive letters. Following her 2001 remarriage, she has sometimes used the name Joanne Murray when conducting personal business.\n\nLife and career\nEarly life and family\nJoanne Rowling was born on 31 July 1965 in Yate, Gloucestershire, to a middle-class family. Her parents Anne (née Volant) and Peter (\"Pete\") James Rowling had met the previous year on a train, sharing a trip from King's Cross station, London, to their naval postings at Arbroath, Scotland. Rowling's mother was with the Wrens and her father with the Royal Navy. Pete Rowling was the son of a machine-tool setter who later opened a grocery shop. They left the navy life and sought a country home to raise the baby they were expecting, and married on 14 March 1965 when both were 19. The Rowlings settled in Yate, where Pete started work as an assembly-line production worker at the Bristol Siddeley factory. The company became part of Rolls-Royce, and he worked his way into management as a chartered engineer. Anne Rowling later worked as a science technician. Neither of Rowling's parents attended university.\nRowling is two years older than her sister, Dianne, whose birth was Rowling's earliest memory. When she was four, Rowling's family moved to Winterbourne, Gloucestershire. She began at St Michael's Church of England Primary School in Winterbourne when she was five. The Rowlings lived near a family called Potter – a name Rowling always liked. Rowling's mother liked to read and the family's homes were filled with books. Her father read The Wind in the Willows to his daughters, while her mother introduced them to the animals in Richard Scarry's books. Rowling's first attempt at writing, a story called \"Rabbit\" composed when she was six, was inspired by Scarry's creatures.\nWhen Rowling was about nine, the family purchased the historic Church Cottage in Tutshill. In 1974, Rowling began attending the nearby Church of England School. Biographer Sean Smith describes her teacher as a \"battleaxe\" who \"struck fear into the hearts of the children\"; Rowling's teacher seated her in \"dunces' row\" after she performed poorly on an arithmetic test. In 1975, Rowling joined a Brownies pack. Its special events and parties, and the pack groups (Fairies, Pixies, Sprites, Elves, Gnomes and Imps) provided a magical world away from her stern teacher. When she was eleven or twelve, she wrote a short story, \"The Seven Cursed Diamonds\". She later described herself during this period as \"the epitome of a bookish child – short and squat, thick National Health glasses, living in a world of complete daydreams\".\n\nSecondary school and university\nRowling's secondary school was Wyedean School and College, a state school she began attending at the age of eleven and where she was bullied. Rowling was inspired by her favourite teacher, Lucy Shepherd, who taught the importance of structure and precision in writing. Smith writes that Rowling \"craved to play heavy electric guitar\", and describes her as \"intelligent yet shy\". Her teacher Dale Neuschwander was impressed by her imagination. When she was a young teenager, Rowling's great-aunt gave her Hons and Rebels, the autobiography of the civil rights activist Jessica Mitford. Mitford became Rowling's heroine, and she read all her books.\nAnne had a strong influence on her daughter. Early in Rowling's life, the support of her mother and sister instilled confidence and enthusiasm for storytelling. Anne was a creative and accomplished cook, who helped lead her daughters' Brownie activities, and took a job in the chemistry department at Wyedean while her daughters were there. The three walked to and from school together, with a relationship more like sisters than mother and daughters. John Nettleship, the head of science at Wyedean, described Anne as \"absolutely brilliant, a sparkling character ... very imaginative\".\nAnne Rowling was diagnosed with a \"virulent strain\" of multiple sclerosis when she was 34 or 35 and Jo was 15, and had to quit her job. Rowling's home life was complicated by her mother's illness and a strained relationship with her father. Rowling later said \"home was a difficult place to be\", and that her teenage years were unhappy. In 2020, she wrote that her father would have preferred a son and described herself as having severe obsessive–compulsive disorder in her teens. She began to smoke, took an interest in alternative rock, and adopted Siouxsie Sioux's back-combed hair and black eyeliner. Sean Harris, her best friend in the Upper Sixth, owned a turquoise Ford Anglia that provided an escape from her difficult home life and the means for Harris and Rowling to broaden their activities.\nLiving in a small town with pressures at home, Rowling became more interested in her schoolwork. Steve Eddy, her first secondary school English teacher, remembers her as \"not exceptional\" but \"one of a group of girls who were bright, and quite good at English\". Rowling took A-levels in English, French, and German, achieving two As and a B, and was named head girl at Wyedean. She applied to Oxford University in 1982 but was rejected. Biographers attribute her rejection to privilege, as she had attended a state school rather than a private one.\nRowling always wanted to be a writer, but chose to study French and the classics at the University of Exeter for practical reasons, influenced by her parents who thought job prospects would be better with evidence of bilingualism. She later stated that Exeter was not initially what she expected (\"to be among lots of similar people – thinking radical thoughts\") but that she enjoyed herself after she met more people like her. She was an average student at Exeter, described by biographers as prioritising her social life over her studies, and lacking ambition and enthusiasm. Rowling recalls doing little work at university, preferring to read Dickens and Tolkien. She earned a BA in French from Exeter, graduating in 1987 after a year of study in Paris.\n\nInspiration and mother's death\nAfter university, Rowling moved to a flat in Clapham Junction with friends, and took a course to become a bilingual secretary. While she was working temporary jobs in London, Amnesty International hired her to document human rights issues in French-speaking Africa. She began writing adult novels while working as a temp, although they were never published. In 1990, she planned to move with her boyfriend to Manchester, and frequently took long train trips to visit. In mid-1990, she was on a train delayed by four hours from Manchester to London, when the characters Harry Potter, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger came plainly into her mind. Having no pen or paper allowed her to fully explore the characters and their story in her imagination before she reached her flat and began to write.\nRowling moved to Manchester around November 1990. She described her time in Manchester, where she worked for the Chamber of Commerce and at Manchester University in temp jobs, as a \"year of misery\". Her mother died of multiple sclerosis on 30 December 1990. At the time, she was writing Harry Potter and had never told her mother about it. Her mother's death heavily affected Rowling's writing. She later said that her literary creation of the Mirror of Erised is about her mother's death, and noted an \"evident parallelism\" between Harry confronting his own mortality and her life.\nThe pain of the loss of her mother was compounded when some personal effects her mother had left her were stolen. With the end of the relationship with her boyfriend, and \"being made redundant from an office job in Manchester\", Rowling described herself as being in a state of \"fight or flight\". An advertisement in The Guardian led her to move to Porto, Portugal, in November 1991 to teach night classes in English as a foreign language, writing during the day.\n\nMarriage, divorce and single parenthood\nFive months after arriving in Porto, Rowling met the Portuguese television journalist Jorge Arantes in a bar and found that they shared an interest in Jane Austen. By mid-1992, they were planning a trip to London to introduce Arantes to Rowling's family, when she had a miscarriage. The relationship was troubled, but they married on 16 October 1992. Their daughter Jessica Isabel Rowling Arantes (named after Jessica Mitford) was born on 27 July 1993 in Portugal. By this time, Rowling had finished the first three chapters of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone – almost as they were eventually published – and had drafted the rest of the novel.\nRowling experienced domestic abuse during her marriage. Arantes said in June 2020 that he had slapped her and did not regret it. Rowling described the marriage as \"short and catastrophic\". She says she was not allowed to have a house key and that her husband used the growing manuscript of her first book as a hostage. Rowling and Arantes separated on 17 November 1993 after Arantes threw her out of the house; she returned with the police to retrieve Jessica and her belongings and went into hiding for two weeks before she left Portugal. In late 1993, with a draft of Harry Potter in her suitcase, Rowling moved with her daughter to Edinburgh, Scotland, planning to stay with her sister until Christmas.\nHer biographer Sean Smith raises the question of why Rowling chose to stay with her sister rather than her father. Rowling has spoken of an estrangement from her father, stating in an interview with Oprah Winfrey that \"It wasn't a good relationship from my point of view for a very long time but I had a need to please and I kept that going for a long time and then there ... just came a point at which I had to pull up and say I can't do this anymore.\" Pete had married his secretary within two years of Anne's death, and The Scotsman reported in 2003 that \"[t]he speed of his decision to move in with his secretary ... distressed both sisters and a fault-line now separated them and their father.\" Rowling said in 2012 that they had not spoken in the last nine years.\nRowling sought government assistance and got £69 (US$103) per week from Social Security; not wanting to burden her recently married sister, she moved to a flat that she described as mouse-ridden. She later described her economic status as being as \"poor as it is possible to be in modern Britain, without being homeless\". Seven years after graduating from university, she saw herself as a failure. Tison Pugh writes that the \"grinding effects of poverty, coupled with her concern for providing for her daughter as a single parent, caused great hardship\". Her marriage had failed, and she was jobless with a dependent child, but she later described this as \"liberating\" her to focus on writing. She has said that \"Jessica kept me going\". Her old school friend, Sean Harris, lent her £600 ($900), which allowed her to move to a flat in Leith, where she finished Philosopher's Stone.\nArantes arrived in Scotland in March 1994 seeking both Rowling and Jessica. On 15 March 1994, Rowling sought an action of interdict (order of restraint); the interdict was granted and Arantes returned to Portugal. Early in the year, Rowling began to experience a deep depression and sought medical help when she contemplated suicide. With nine months of therapy, her mental health gradually improved. She filed for divorce on 10 August 1994; the divorce was finalised on 26 June 1995.\nRowling wanted to finish the book before enrolling in a teacher training course, fearing she might not be able to finish once she started the course. She often wrote in cafés, including Nicolson's, part-owned by her brother-in-law. Secretarial work brought in £15 ($22.50) per week, but she would lose government benefits if she earned more. In mid-1995, a friend gave her money that allowed her to come off benefits and enrol full-time in college. Still needing money and expecting to make a living by teaching, Rowling began a teacher training course in August 1995 at Moray House School of Education after completing her first novel. She earned her teaching certificate in July 1996 and began teaching at Leith Academy. Rowling later said that writing the first Harry Potter book had saved her life and that her concerns about \"love, loss, separation, death ... are reflected in the first book\".\n\nPublishing Harry Potter\nRowling completed Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in June 1995. The initial draft included an illustration of Harry by a fireplace, showing a lightning-shaped scar on his forehead. Following an enthusiastic report from an early reader, Christopher Little Literary Agency agreed to represent Rowling. Her manuscript was submitted to twelve publishers, all of which rejected it. Barry Cunningham, who ran the children's literature department at Bloomsbury Publishing, bought it, after Nigel Newton, who headed Bloomsbury at the time, saw his eight-year-old daughter finish one chapter and want to keep reading. Rowling recalls Cunningham telling her, \"You'll never make any money out of children's books, Jo.\" Rowling was awarded a writer's grant by the Scottish Arts Council to support her childcare costs and finances before Philosopher's Stone's publication, and to aid in writing the sequel, Chamber of Secrets. On 26 June 1997, Bloomsbury published Philosopher's Stone with an initial print run of 5,650 copies. Before Chamber of Secrets was published, Rowling had received £2,800 ($4,200) in royalties.\nPhilosopher's Stone introduces Harry Potter. Harry is a wizard who lives with his non-magical relatives until his eleventh birthday, when he is invited to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Rowling wrote six sequels, which follow Harry's adventures at Hogwarts with friends Hermione Granger and Ron Weasley and his attempts to defeat Lord Voldemort, who killed Harry's parents when he was a child.\n\nRowling received the news that the US rights were being auctioned at the Bologna Children's Book Fair. To her surprise and delight, Scholastic Corporation bought the rights for $105,000. She bought a flat in Edinburgh with the money from the sale. Arthur A. Levine, head of the imprint at Scholastic, pushed for a name change. He wanted Harry Potter and the School of Magic; as a compromise Rowling suggested Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone. Sorcerer's Stone was released in the United States in September 1998. It was not widely reviewed, but the reviews it received were generally positive. Sorcerer's Stone became a New York Times bestseller by December.\nThe next three books in the series were released in quick succession between 1998 and 2000: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (1998), Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (1999), and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000), each selling millions of copies. When Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix had not appeared by 2002, rumours circulated that Rowling was suffering writer's block. Rowling denied these rumours, stating the 896-page book took three years to write because of its length. It was published in June 2003, selling millions of copies on the first day. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince was released two years later in July 2005, again selling millions of copies on the first day. The series ended with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, published in July 2007.\n\nFilms\nIn 1999, Warner Bros. purchased film rights to the first two Harry Potter novels for a reported $1 million. Rowling accepted the offer with the provision that the studio only produce Harry Potter films based on books she authored, while retaining the right to final script approval, and some control over merchandising. Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, an adaptation of the first Harry Potter book, was released in November 2001. Steve Kloves wrote the screenplays for all but the fifth film, with Rowling's assistance, ensuring that his scripts kept to the plots of the novels.\nThe film series concluded with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, which was adapted in two parts; part one was released on 19 November 2010, and part two followed on 15 July 2011.\nWarner Bros. announced an expanded relationship with Rowling in 2013, including a planned series of films about her character Newt Scamander, fictitious author of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. The first film of five, a prequel to the Harry Potter series, set roughly 70 years earlier, was released in November 2016. Rowling wrote the screenplay, which was released as a book. Crimes of Grindelwald was released in November 2018. Secrets of Dumbledore was released in April 2022. \nIn November 2022, Variety reported that Warner Bros. Discovery was not actively planning to continue the film series or to develop any further films related to the Wizarding World franchise.\n\nReligion, wealth and remarriage\nBy 1998, Rowling was portrayed in the media as a \"penniless divorcee hitting the jackpot\". According to her biographer Sean Smith, the publicity became effective marketing for Harry Potter, but her journey from living on benefits to wealth brought, along with fame, concerns from different groups about the books' portrayals of the occult and gender roles. Ultimately, Smith says that these concerns served to \"enhance [her] public profile rather than damage it\".\nRowling identifies as a Christian. Although she grew up next door to her church, accounts of the family's church attendance differ. She began attending a Church of Scotland congregation, where Jessica was christened, around the time she was writing Harry Potter. In a 2012 interview, she said she belonged to the Scottish Episcopal Church. Rowling has stated that she believes in God, but has experienced doubt, and that her struggles with faith play a part in her books. She does not believe in magic or witchcraft.\nRowling married Neil Murray, a doctor, in 2001. The couple intended to marry that July in the Galapagos, but when this leaked to the press, they delayed their wedding and changed their holiday destination to Mauritius. After the UK Press Complaints Commission ruled that a magazine had breached Jessica's privacy when the eight-year-old was included in a photograph of the family taken during that trip, Murray and Rowling sought a more private and quiet place to live and work. Rowling bought Killiechassie House and its estate in Perthshire, Scotland, and on 26 December 2001, the couple had a small, private wedding there, officiated by an Episcopalian priest who travelled from Edinburgh. Their son, David Gordon Rowling Murray, was born in 2003, and their daughter Mackenzie Jean Rowling Murray in 2005.\nIn 2004, Forbes named Rowling \"the first billion-dollar author\". Rowling denied that she was a billionaire in a 2005 interview. By 2012, Forbes concluded she was no longer a billionaire due to her charitable donations and high UK taxes. She was named the world's highest paid author by Forbes in 2008, 2017 and 2019. Her UK sales total in excess of £238 million, making her the best-selling living author in Britain. The 2021 Sunday Times Rich List estimated Rowling's fortune at £820 million, ranking her as the 196th-richest person in the UK. As of 2020, she also owns a £4.5 million Georgian house in Kensington and a £2 million home in Edinburgh, where she lives with Murray and her two youngest children.\n\nAdult fiction and Robert Galbraith\nIn mid-2011, Rowling left Christopher Little Literary Agency and followed her agent Neil Blair to the Blair Partnership. He represented her for the publication of The Casual Vacancy, released in September 2012 by Little, Brown and Company. It was Rowling's first since Harry Potter ended, and her first book for adults. A contemporary take on 19th-century British fiction about village life, Casual Vacancy was promoted as a black comedy, while the critic Ian Parker described it as a \"rural comedy of manners\". It was adapted to a miniseries co-created by the BBC and HBO. \nLittle, Brown and Company also published The Cuckoo's Calling, the purported début novel of Robert Galbraith, in April 2013. Telling the story of detective Cormoran Strike, a disabled veteran of the War in Afghanistan, it initially sold 1,500 copies in hardback. After an investigation prompted by discussion on Twitter, the journalist Richard Brooks contacted Rowling's agent, who confirmed Galbraith was Rowling's pseudonym. Rowling later said she enjoyed working as Robert Galbraith, a name she took from Robert F. Kennedy, a personal hero, and Ella Galbraith, a name she invented for herself in childhood. After the revelation of her identity, sales of Cuckoo's Calling escalated.\nContinuing the Cormoran Strike series of detective novels, The Silkworm was released in 2014; Career of Evil in 2015; Lethal White in 2018; Troubled Blood in 2020; The Ink Black Heart in 2022; and The Running Grave in 2023. In 2017, BBC One aired the first episode of the five-season series Strike, a television adaptation of the Cormoran Strike novels starring Tom Burke and Holliday Grainger, with a sixth season being shot in 2024. The series was picked up by HBO for distribution in the United States and Canada.\nIn September 2024, Rowling tweeted that she had begun work on a futuristic novel; she added that there were three different projects she could turn to, once the tenth and final planned Strike novel had been published.\n\nLater Harry Potter works\nPottermore, a website with information and stories about characters in the Harry Potter universe, launched in 2011. On its release, Pottermore was rooted in the Harry Potter novels, tracing the series's story in an interactive format. Its brand was associated with Rowling: she introduced the site in a video as a shared media environment to which she and Harry Potter fans would contribute. The site was substantially revised in 2015 to resemble an encyclopedia of Harry Potter. \nHarry Potter and the Cursed Child premiered in the West End in May 2016 and on Broadway in July. At its London premiere, Rowling confirmed that she would not write any more Harry Potter books. Rowling collaborated with writer Jack Thorne and director John Tiffany. Cursed Child's script was published as a book in July 2016. The play follows the friendship between Harry's son Albus and Scorpius Malfoy, Draco Malfoy's son, at Hogwarts.\nIn April 2023, it was announced that the Harry Potter television series will span 10 years of production and feature a season dedicated to each of the seven Harry Potter books, with Rowling as executive producer. It will release in 2026.\n\nChildren's stories\nThe Ickabog was Rowling's first book aimed at children since Harry Potter. Ickabog is a monster that turns out to be real; a group of children find out the truth about the Ickabog and save the day. Rowling released The Ickabog for free online in mid-2020, during the COVID-19 lockdown in the United Kingdom. She began writing it in 2009 but set it aside to focus on other works including Casual Vacancy. Scholastic held a competition to select children's art for the print edition, which was published in the US and Canada on 10 November 2020. Profits went to charities focused on COVID-19 relief.\nIn The Christmas Pig, a young boy loses his favourite stuffed animal, a pig, and the Christmas Pig guides him through the fantastical Land of the Lost to retrieve it. The novel was published on 12 October 2021 and became a bestseller in the UK and the US.\n\nInfluences\nRowling has named Jessica Mitford as her greatest influence. She said Mitford had \"been my heroine since I was 14 years old, when I overheard my formidable great-aunt discussing how Mitford had run away at the age of 19 to fight with the Reds in the Spanish Civil War\", and that what inspired her about Mitford was that she was \"incurably and instinctively rebellious, brave, adventurous, funny and irreverent, she liked nothing better than a good fight, preferably against a pompous and hypocritical target\". As a child, Rowling read C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, Elizabeth Goudge's The Little White Horse, Manxmouse by Paul Gallico, and books by E. Nesbit and Noel Streatfeild. Rowling describes Jane Austen as her \"favourite author of all time\".\nRowling acknowledges Homer, Geoffrey Chaucer, and William Shakespeare as literary influences. Scholars agree that Harry Potter is heavily influenced by the children's fantasy of writers such as Lewis, Goudge, Nesbit, J. R. R. Tolkien, Ursula K. Le Guin, and Diana Wynne Jones. According to the critic Beatrice Groves, Harry Potter is also \"rooted in the Western literary tradition\", including the classics. Commentators also note similarities to the children's stories of Enid Blyton and Roald Dahl. Rowling expresses admiration for Lewis, in whose writing battles between good and evil are also prominent, but rejects any connection with Dahl.\nEarlier works prominently featuring characters who learn to use magic include Le Guin's Earthsea series, in which a school of wizardry also appears, and the Chrestomanci books by Jones. Rowling's setting of a \"school of witchcraft and wizardry\" departs from the still older tradition of protagonists as apprentices to magicians, exemplified by The Sorcerer's Apprentice: yet this trope does appear in Harry Potter, when Harry receives individual instruction from Remus Lupin and other teachers. Rowling also draws on the tradition of stories set in boarding schools, a major example of which is Thomas Hughes's 1857 volume Tom Brown's School Days.\n\nStyle and themes\nStyle and allusions\nRowling is known primarily as an author of fantasy and children's literature. Her writing in other genres, including literary fiction and murder mystery, has received less critical attention. Rowling's most famous work, Harry Potter, has been defined as a fairy tale, a Bildungsroman and a boarding-school story. Her other writings have been described by Pugh as gritty contemporary fiction with historical influences (The Casual Vacancy) and hardboiled detective fiction (Cormoran Strike).\nIn Harry Potter, Rowling juxtaposes the extraordinary against the ordinary. Her narrative features two worlds – the mundane and the fantastic – but it differs from typical portal fantasy in that its magical elements stay grounded in the everyday. Paintings move and talk; books bite readers; letters shout messages; and maps show live journeys, making the wizarding world \"both exotic and cosily familiar\" according to the scholar Catherine Butler. This blend of realistic and romantic elements extends to Rowling's characters. Harry is ordinary and relatable, with down-to-earth features such as wearing broken glasses; These elements serve to highlight Harry when he is heroic, making him both an everyman and a fairytale hero.\nArthurian, Christian and fairytale motifs are frequently found in Rowling's writing. Harry's ability to draw the Sword of Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat resembles the Arthurian sword in the stone legend. His life with the Dursleys has been compared to Cinderella. Like C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, Harry Potter contains Christian symbolism and allegory. The series has been viewed as a Christian moral fable in the psychomachia tradition, in which stand-ins for good and evil fight for supremacy over a person's soul. The critic of children's literature Joy Farmer sees parallels between Harry and Jesus Christ. According to Maria Nikolajeva, Christian imagery is particularly strong in the final scenes of the series: she writes that Harry dies in self-sacrifice and Voldemort delivers an ecce homo speech, after which Harry is resurrected and defeats his enemy.\n\nThemes\nDeath is Rowling's overarching theme in Harry Potter. In the first book, when Harry looks into the Mirror of Erised, he feels both joy and \"a terrible sadness\" at seeing his desire: his parents, alive and with him. Confronting their loss is central to Harry's character arc and manifests in different ways through the series, such as in his struggles with Dementors. Other characters in Harry's life die; he even faces his own death in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. Rowling has spoken about thematising death and loss in the series. Soon after she started writing Philosopher's Stone, her mother died, and she said that \"I really think from that moment on, death became a central, if not the central theme of the seven books\". Rowling has described Harry as \"the prism through which I view death\", and further stated that \"all of my characters are defined by their attitude to death and the possibility of death\".\nWhile Harry Potter can be viewed as a story about good versus evil, its moral divisions are not absolute. First impressions of characters are often misleading. Harry assumes in the first book that Quirrell is good because he opposes Snape, who appears malicious; in reality, their positions are reversed. In Rowling's world, good and evil are choices rather than inherent attributes: second chances and redemption are key themes of the series.\n\nReception\nRowling has enjoyed enormous commercial success as an author. Her Harry Potter series topped bestseller lists, spawned a global media franchise including films and video games, and had been translated into 84 languages by 2023. The first three Harry Potter books occupied the top three spots of The New York Times bestseller list for more than a year; they were then moved to a newly created children's list. The final four books each set records as the fastest-selling books in the UK or US, and the series as a whole had sold more than 600 million copies as of 2023. Neither of Rowling's later works, The Casual Vacancy and the Cormoran Strike series, has been as successful, although Casual Vacancy was still a bestseller in the UK within weeks of its release. Harry Potter's popularity has been attributed to factors including the nostalgia evoked by the boarding-school story, the endearing nature of Rowling's characters, and the accessibility of her books to a variety of readers. According to Julia Eccleshare, the books are \"neither too literary nor too popular, too difficult nor too easy, neither too young nor too old\", and hence bridge traditional reading divides.\nCritical response to Harry Potter has been more mixed. Harold Bloom regarded Rowling's prose as poor and her plots as conventional, while Jack Zipes argues that the series would not be successful if it were not formulaic. Zipes states that the early novels have the same plot: in each book, Harry escapes the Dursleys to visit Hogwarts, where he confronts Lord Voldemort and then heads back successful. Rowling's prose has been described as simple and not innovative; Le Guin, like several other critics, considered it \"stylistically ordinary\". According to the novelist A. S. Byatt, the books reflect a dumbed-down culture dominated by soap operas and reality television. Thus, some critics argue, Harry Potter does not innovate on established literary forms; nor does it challenge readers' preconceived ideas. Conversely, the scholar Philip Nel rejects such critiques as \"snobbery\" that reacts to the novels' popularity, whereas Mary Pharr argues that Harry Potter's conventionalism is the point: by amalgamating literary forms familiar to her readers, Rowling invites them to \"ponder their own ideas\". Other critics who see artistic merit in Rowling's writing include Marina Warner, who views Harry Potter as part of an \"alternative genealogy\" of English literature that she traces from Edmund Spenser to Christina Rossetti. Michiko Kakutani praises Rowling's fictional world and the darker tone of the series' later entries.\nReception of Rowling's later works has varied among critics. The Casual Vacancy, her attempt at literary fiction, drew mixed reviews. Some critics praised its characterisation, while others stated that it would have been better if it had contained magic. The Cormoran Strike series was more warmly received as a work of British detective fiction, even as some reviewers noted that its plots are occasionally contrived. Theatrical reviews of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child were highly positive. Fans have been more critical of the play's use of time travel, changes to characters' personalities, and perceived queerbaiting in Albus and Scorpius's relationship, leading some to question its connection to the Harry Potter canon.\n\nGender and social division\nRowling's portrayal of women in Harry Potter has been described as complex and varied, but nonetheless conforming to stereotypical and patriarchal depictions of gender. Gender divides are ostensibly absent in the books: Hogwarts is coeducational and women hold positions of power in wizarding society. However, this setting obscures the typecasting of female characters and the general depiction of conventional gender roles. According to the scholars Elizabeth Heilman and Trevor Donaldson, the subordination of female characters goes further early in the series. The final three books \"showcase richer roles and more powerful females\": for instance, the series' \"most matriarchal character\", Molly Weasley, engages substantially in the final battle of Deathly Hallows, while other women are shown as leaders. Hermione Granger, in particular, becomes an active and independent character essential to the protagonists' battle against evil. Yet, even particularly capable female characters such as Hermione and Minerva McGonagall are placed in supporting roles, and Hermione's status as a feminist model is debated. Girls and women are frequently shown as emotional, defined by their appearance, and denied agency in family settings.\nThe social hierarchies in Rowling's magical world have been a matter of debate among scholars and critics. The primary antagonists of Harry Potter, Voldemort and his followers, believe blood purity is paramount, and that non-wizards, or \"muggles\", are subhuman. Their ideology of racial difference is depicted as unambiguously evil. However, the series cannot wholly reject racial division, according to several scholars, as it still depicts wizards as fundamentally superior to muggles. Blake and Zipes argue that numerous examples of wizardly superiority are depicted as \"natural and comfortable\". Thus, according to Gupta, Harry Potter depicts superior races as having a moral obligation of tolerance and altruism towards lesser races, rather than explicitly depicting equality.\nRowling's depictions of the status of magical non-humans is similarly debated. Discussing the slavery of house-elves within Harry Potter, scholars such as Brycchan Carey have praised the books' abolitionist sentiments, viewing Hermione's Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare as a model for younger readers' political engagement. Other critics, including Farah Mendlesohn, find the portrayal of house-elves extremely troublesome; they are written as happy in their slavery, and Hermione's efforts on their behalf are implied to be naïve. Pharr terms the house-elves a disharmonious element in the series, writing that Rowling leaves their fate hanging; at the end of Deathly Hallows, the elves remain enslaved and cheerful. More generally, the subordination of magical non-humans remains in place, unchanged by the defeat of Voldemort. Thus, scholars suggest, the series's message is essentially conservative; it sees no reason to transform social hierarchies, only being concerned with who holds positions of power.\n\nReligious reactions\nThere have been attempts to ban Harry Potter around the world, especially in the United States, and in the Bible Belt in particular. The series topped the American Library Association's list of most challenged books in the first three years of its publication. In the following years, parents in several US cities launched protests against teaching it in schools. Some Christian critics, particularly Evangelical Christians, have claimed that the novels promote witchcraft and harm children; similar opposition has been expressed to the film adaptations. Criticism has taken two main forms: allegations that Harry Potter is a pagan text; and claims that it encourages children to oppose authority, derived mainly from Harry's rejection of the Dursleys, his adoptive parents. The author and scholar Amanda Cockrell suggests that Harry Potter's popularity, and recent preoccupation with fantasy and the occult among Christian fundamentalists, explains why the series received particular opposition. Some groups of Shia and Sunni Muslims also argued that the series contained Satanic subtext, and it was banned in private schools in the United Arab Emirates.\nThe Harry Potter books also have a group of vocal religious supporters who believe that Harry Potter espouses Christian values, or that the Bible does not prohibit the forms of magic described in the series. Christian analyses of the series have argued that it embraces ideals of friendship, loyalty, courage, love, and the temptation of power. After the final volume was published, Rowling said she intentionally incorporated Christian themes, in particular the idea that love may hold power over death. According to Farmer, it is a profound misreading to think that Harry Potter promotes witchcraft. The scholar Em McAvan writes that evangelical objections to Harry Potter are superficial, based on the presence of magic in the books: they do not attempt to understand the moral messages in the series.\n\nLegacy\nRowling's Harry Potter series has been credited with a resurgence in crossover fiction: children's literature with an adult appeal. Crossovers were prevalent in 19th-century American and British fiction, but fell out of favour in the 20th century and did not occur at the same scale. The post-Harry Potter crossover trend is associated with the fantasy genre. In the 1970s, children's books were generally realistic as opposed to fantastic, while adult fantasy became popular because of the influence of The Lord of the Rings. The next decade saw an increasing interest in grim, realist themes, with an outflow of fantasy readers and writers to adult works.\nThe commercial success of Harry Potter in 1997 reversed this trend. The scale of its growth had no precedent in the children's market: within four years, it occupied 28% of that field by revenue. Children's literature rose in cultural status, and fantasy became a dominant genre. Older works of children's fantasy, including Diana Wynne Jones's Chrestomanci series and Diane Duane's Young Wizards, were reprinted and rose in popularity; some authors re-established their careers. In the following decades, many Harry Potter imitators and subversive responses grew popular.\nRowling has been compared with Enid Blyton, who also wrote in simple language about groups of children and long held sway over the British children's market. She has also been described as an heir to Roald Dahl. Some critics view Harry Potter's rise, along with the concurrent success of Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, as part of a broader shift in reading tastes: a rejection of literary fiction in favour of plot and adventure. This is reflected in the BBC's 2003 \"Big Read\" survey of the UK's favourite books, where Pullman and Rowling ranked at numbers 3 and 5, respectively, with very few British literary classics in the top 10.\nHarry Potter's popularity led its publishers to plan elaborate releases and spawned a textual afterlife among fans and forgers. Beginning with the release of Prisoner of Azkaban on 8 July 1999 at 3:45 pm, its publishers coordinated selling the books at the same time globally, introduced security protocols to prevent premature purchases, and required booksellers to agree not to sell copies before the appointed time. Driven by the growth of the internet, fan fiction about the series proliferated and has spawned a diverse community of readers and writers. While Rowling has supported fan fiction, her statements about characters – for instance, that Harry and Hermione could have been a couple, and that Dumbledore was gay – have complicated her relationship with readers; according to Pugh, she only announced Dumbledore's sexuality to her fans, but not in the books, thus \"closeting this character for unexplained reasons\". According to scholars, this shows that modern readers feel a sense of ownership over the text that is independent of, and sometimes contradicts, authorial intent.\n\nLegal disputes\nIn the 1990s and 2000s, Rowling was both a plaintiff and defendant in lawsuits alleging copyright infringement. Nancy Stouffer sued Rowling in 1999, alleging that Harry Potter was based on stories she published in 1984. Rowling won in September 2002. Richard Posner describes Stouffer's suit as deeply flawed and notes that the court, finding she had used \"forged and altered documents\", assessed a $50,000 penalty against her.\nWith her literary agents and Warner Bros., Rowling has brought legal action against publishers and writers of Harry Potter knockoffs in several countries. In the mid-2000s, Rowling and her publishers obtained a series of injunctions prohibiting sales or published reviews of her books before their official release dates.\nBeginning in 2001, after Rowling sold film rights to Warner Bros., the studio tried to take Harry Potter fan sites offline unless it determined that they were made by \"authentic\" fans for innocuous purposes. In 2007, with Warner Bros., Rowling started proceedings to cease publication of a book based on content from a fan site called The Harry Potter Lexicon. The court held that Lexicon was neither a fair use of Rowling's material nor a derivative work, but it did not prevent the book from being published in a different form. Lexicon was published in 2009.\n\nPhilanthropy\nLong interested in issues affecting women and children, Rowling established the Volant Charitable Trust in 2000, named after her mother to address social deprivation in at-risk women, children and youth. She was appointed president of One Parent Families (now Gingerbread) in 2004, after becoming its first ambassador in 2000. She collaborated with Sarah Brown on a book of children's stories to benefit One Parent Families. Together with the MEP Emma Nicholson, Rowling founded the charity now known as Lumos in 2005. Lumos has worked with an orphanage west of Kyiv, Ukraine since 2013; after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Rowling offered to personally match up to £1 million in donations to Lumos for Ukraine. Later in 2022, during her advocacy against the Gender Recognition Reform (Scotland) Bill, Rowling stated she had founded and would fund Beira's Place, a women-only rape help centre that provides free support services to survivors of sexual violence. The centre excludes trans women. She has donated several hundred thousand pounds to help women lawyers flee from the Taliban's control, helping hundreds of Afghans escape.\nRowling has made donations to support other medical causes. She named another institution after her mother in 2010, when she donated £10 million to found a multiple sclerosis research centre at the University of Edinburgh. She gave an additional £15.3 million to the centre in 2019. During the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, accompanied by an inflatable representation of Lord Voldemort, she read from Peter Pan as part of a tribute to the Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children. To support COVID-19 relief, she donated six-figure sums to both Khalsa Aid and the British Asian Trust from royalties for The Ickabog.\nSeveral publications in the Harry Potter universe have been sold for charitable purposes. Profits from Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages, both published in 2001, went to Comic Relief. To support Children's Voice, later renamed Lumos, Rowling sold a deluxe copy of The Tales of Beedle the Bard at auction in 2007. Amazon's £1.95 million purchase set a record for a contemporary literary work and for children's literature. Rowling published the book and, in 2013, donated the proceeds of nearly £19 million (then about $30 million) to Lumos. Rowling and 12 other writers composed short pieces in 2008 to be sold to benefit Dyslexia Action and English PEN. Rowling's contribution was an 800-word Harry Potter prequel. When the revelation that Rowling wrote The Cuckoo's Calling led to an increase in sales, she donated the royalties to ABF The Soldiers' Charity (formerly the Army Benevolent Fund).\nRowling's charitable donations before 2012 were estimated by Forbes at $160 million. She was the second most generous UK donor in 2015 (following the singer Elton John), giving about $14 million.\n\nViews\nRowling was actively engaged on the internet before author webpages were common. She has at times used Twitter unreservedly to reach her Harry Potter fans and followers.\n\nPolitics\nIn 2008, Rowling donated £1 million to the Labour Party, endorsed the Labour prime minister Gordon Brown over his Conservative challenger David Cameron, and commended Labour's policies on child poverty. In June 2024, she wrote that she had a \"poor opinion\" of Keir Starmer and that it would be hard for her to vote for Labour. When asked about the 2008 United States presidential election, she stated that \"it is a pity that Clinton and Obama have to be rivals because both are extraordinary.\"\nIn her \"Single mother's manifesto\" published in The Times in 2010, Rowling criticised the prime minister David Cameron's plan to offer married couples an annual tax credit. She thought that the proposal discriminated against single parents, whose interests the Conservative Party failed to consider.\nRowling opposed the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, due to concerns about the economic consequences, and donated £1 million to the Better Together anti-independence campaign. She campaigned for the UK to stay in the European Union in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. She defined herself as an internationalist, \"the mongrel product of this European continent\", and expressed concern that \"racists and bigots\" were directing parts of the Leave campaign.\nShe opposed Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, but refused to support a cultural boycott of Israel in 2015, believing that depriving Israelis of shared culture would not dislodge him. In 2015, Rowling joined 150 others in signing a letter published in The Guardian in favour of cultural engagement with Israel.\n\nPress\nRowling has a difficult relationship with the press and has tried to influence the type of coverage she receives. She described herself in 2003 as \"too thin-skinned\". As of 2011, she had taken more than 50 actions against the press. Rowling dislikes the British tabloid the Daily Mail, which she successfully sued in 2014 for libel about her time as a single mother.\nThe Leveson Inquiry, an investigation of the British press, named Rowling as a \"core participant\" in 2011. She was one of many celebrities alleged to have been victims of phone hacking. In 2012, she criticised Cameron's decision not to implement all the inquiry's recommendations and supported the Hacked Off campaign, pushing for further media reform.\n\nTransgender people\nRowling has gender-critical views, and she opposes many proposed laws that would make it simpler for transgender people to transition. These views have attracted widespread criticism and are often described as transphobic or anti-trans, though Rowling disputes this. \nFriction over Rowling's gender-critical writings surged in 2019 when she defended Maya Forstater, whose employment contract was not renewed after she made anti-trans statements. Rowling wrote that transgender people should live in \"peace and security\" but said she opposed \"forc[ing] women out of their jobs for stating that sex is real\". According to Harry Potter scholar Lana Whited, in the next six months \"Rowling herself fanned the flames as she became increasingly vocal\". In June 2020, Rowling mocked the phrase \"people who menstruate\" and tweeted that women's rights and \"lived reality\" would be \"erased\" if \"sex isn't real\". In April 2024, responding to Scotland's Hate Crime and Public Order Act, she tweeted a list of trans women, writing that they are \"men, every last one of them\".\nRowling believes that making it simpler for transgender people to transition could impinge on access to female-only spaces and legal protections for women. She opposes legislation to advance gender self-recognition and enable transition without a medical diagnosis. On social media, Rowling suggests that children and cisgender women are threatened by trans women and trans-positive messages.\nRowling's views have fuelled debates on freedom of speech and prompted declarations of support for transgender people from the literary, music, theme park, and video gaming sectors. She has been the target of widespread condemnation for her comments on transgender people. This negative reaction has included insults and threats, including death threats. Criticism came from Harry Potter fansites, LGBT charities, leading actors of the Wizarding World, and Human Rights Campaign. After Kerry Kennedy expressed \"profound disappointment\" in her views, Rowling returned the Ripple of Hope Award given to her by the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights organisation. Despite the controversy, sales of Harry Potter books have been unaffected.\nRowling denies being transphobic. In an essay posted on her website in June 2020 – which left transgender people feeling betrayed – Rowling said her views on women's rights sprang from her experience of domestic abuse and sexual assault. While affirming that \"the majority of trans-identified people not only pose zero threat to others, but are vulnerable ... transgender people need and deserve protection\", she wrote that it would be unsafe to allow \"any man who believes or feels he's a woman\" into bathrooms or changing rooms. Writing of her own experiences with misogyny, she wondered if the \"allure of escaping womanhood\" would have led her to transition if she had been born later, and she said that trans activism was \"seeking to erode 'woman' as a political and biological class\". Whited asserted in 2024 that Rowling's sometimes \"flippant\" and \"simplistic understanding of gender identity\" had permanently changed her \"relationship not only with fans, readers, and scholars ... but also with her works themselves\".\n\nAwards and honours\nRowling's Harry Potter series has won awards for general literature, children's literature, and speculative fiction. It has earned multiple British Book Awards, beginning with the Children's Book of the Year for the first two volumes, Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets. The third novel, Prisoner of Azkaban, was nominated for an adult award, the Whitbread Book of the Year, where it competed against the Nobel prize laureate Seamus Heaney's translation of Beowulf. The award body gave Rowling the children's prize instead (worth half the cash amount), which some scholars felt exemplified a literary prejudice against children's books. She won the World Science Fiction Convention's Hugo Award for the fourth book, Goblet of Fire, and the British Book Awards' adult prize – the Book of the Year – for the sixth novel, Half-Blood Prince.\nRowling was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2000 Birthday Honours for services to children's literature, and three years later received Spain's Prince of Asturias Award for Concord. Following the conclusion of the Harry Potter series, she won the Outstanding Achievement prize at the 2008 British Book Awards. The next year, she was made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur by the French president Nicolas Sarkozy, and leading magazine editors named her the \"Most Influential Woman in the UK\" in 2010. For services to literature and philanthropy, she was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in 2017.\nMany academic institutions have bestowed honorary degrees on Rowling, including her alma mater, the University of Exeter, and Harvard University, where she spoke at the 2008 commencement ceremony. She is a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature (FRSL), the Royal Society of Edinburgh (HonFRSE), and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (FRCPE).\nRowling shared the British Academy Film Award (BAFTA) for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema with the cast and crew of the Harry Potter films in 2011. Her other awards include the 2017 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play for Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, and the 2021 British Book Awards' Crime and Thriller prize for the fifth volume of her Cormoran Strike series.\n\nBibliography\nFilmography\nFilm\nTelevision\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nBooks\n\nJournal articles\n\nNon-English news articles\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nJ. K. Rowling at British Council: Literature\nJ. K. Rowling at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database\nJ. K. Rowling at IMDb\nWorks by J. K. Rowling at Open Library",
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] | As of August 1 2024, what books has the author of the Harry Potter series written under an alias? | [] | The Cuckoo's Calling, The Silkworm, Career of Evil, Lethal White, Troubled Blood, The Ink Black Heart, The Running Grave | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Barbie is a fashion doll created by American businesswoman Ruth Handler, manufactured by American toy and entertainment company Mattel and introduced on March 9, 1959. The toy was based on the German Bild Lilli doll which Handler had purchased while in Europe. The figurehead of an eponymous brand that includes a range of fashion dolls and accessories, Barbie has been an important part of the toy fashion doll market for over six decades. Mattel has sold over a billion Barbie dolls, making it the company's largest and most profitable line. The brand has expanded into a multimedia franchise since 1984, including video games, animated films, television/web series, and a live-action film.\nBarbie and her male counterpart, Ken, have been described as the two most popular dolls in the world. Mattel generates a large portion of Barbie's revenue through related merchandise —accessories, clothes, friends, and relatives of Barbie. Writing for Journal of Popular Culture in 1977, Don Richard Cox noted that Barbie has a significant impact on social values by conveying characteristics of female independence, and with her multitude of accessories, an idealized upscale lifestyle that can be shared with affluent friends.\n\nHistory\nDevelopment\nRuth Handler watched her daughter Barbara play with paper dolls, and noticed that she often enjoyed giving them adult roles. At the time, most children's toy dolls were representations of infants. Realizing that there could be a gap in the market, Handler suggested the idea of an adult-bodied doll to her husband Elliot, a co-founder of the Mattel toy company. He was unenthusiastic about the idea, as were Mattel's directors.\nDuring a trip to Switzerland in 1956 with her children Barbara and Kenneth, Ruth Handler came across a German toy doll called Bild Lilli. The adult-figured doll was exactly what Handler had in mind, so she purchased three of them. She gave one to her daughter and took the others back to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a popular character appearing in a satirical comic strip drawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaper Bild. The Lilli doll was first sold in West Germany in 1955, and although it was initially sold to adults, it became popular with children who enjoyed dressing her up in outfits that were available separately.\nUpon her return to the United States, Handler redesigned the doll (with help from local inventor-designer Jack Ryan) and the doll was given a new name, Barbie, after Handler's daughter Barbara. The doll made its debut at the American International Toy Fair in New York City on March 9, 1959. This date is also used as Barbie's official birthday.\n\nLaunch\nThe first Barbie doll wore a black-and-white zebra striped swimsuit and signature topknot ponytail, and was available as either a blonde or brunette. The doll was marketed as a \"Teen-age Fashion Model\", with her clothes created by Mattel fashion designer Charlotte Johnson.\nAnalysts expected the doll to perform poorly due to her adult appearance and widespread assumptions about consumer preferences at the time. Ruth Handler believed it was important for Barbie to have an adult appearance, but early market research showed that some parents were unhappy about the doll's chest, which had distinct breasts.\nBarbie sold about 350,000 units in her first year, beating market expectations and generating upside risk for investors. Sales of Barbie exceeded Mattel's ability to produce her for the first three years of her run. The market stabilized for the next decade while volume and margin increased by exporting refurbished dolls to Japan. Barbie was manufactured in Japan during this time, with her clothes hand-stitched by Japanese homeworkers.\nLouis Marx and Company sued Mattel in March 1961. After licensing Lilli, they claimed that Mattel had \"infringed on Greiner & Hausser's patent for Bild-Lilli's hip joint\", and also claimed that Barbie was \"a direct take-off and copy\" of Bild-Lilli. The company additionally claimed that Mattel \"falsely and misleadingly represented itself as having originated the design\". Mattel counter-claimed and the case was settled out of court in 1963. In 1964, Mattel bought Greiner & Hausser's copyright and patent rights for the Bild-Lilli doll for $21,600.\n\nBarbie's appearance has been changed many times, most notably in 1971 when the doll's eyes were adjusted to look forwards rather than having the demure sideways glance of the original model. This would be the last adjustment Ruth would make to her own creation as, three years later, she and her husband Elliot were removed from their posts at Mattel after an investigation found them guilty of issuing false and misleading financial reports.\nBarbie was one of the first toys to have a marketing strategy based extensively on television advertising, which has been copied widely by other toys. In 2006, it was estimated that over a billion Barbie dolls had been sold worldwide in over 150 countries, with Mattel claiming that three Barbie dolls are sold every second.\nSales of Barbie dolls declined sharply from 2014 to 2016. According to MarketWatch, the release of the 2023 film Barbie is expected to create \"significant growth\" for the brand until at least 2030. As well as reinvigorated sales, the release of the film triggered a fashion trend known as \"Barbiecore\" and a film-related cultural phenomena named Barbenheimer.\n\nAppearances in media\nSince 1984, in response to a rise of digital and interactive media and a gradual decline in toys and doll sales at that time, Barbie has been featured in an eponymous media franchise beginning with the release of two eponymous video games, one that year and another in 1991 and two syndicated television specials released in 1987; Barbie and the Rockers: Out of This World and its sequel. She then began to appear as a virtual actress in a series of direct-to-video animated feature films with Barbie in the Nutcracker in 2001, which were also broadcast on Nickelodeon in the United States as promotional specials until 2017. Since 2017, the film series were revamped as streaming television films, branded as animated \"specials\" and released through streaming media services, primarily on Netflix.\nAt the time of the release of Barbie in the Pink Shoes on February 26, 2013, the film series have sold over 110 million units globally. Since 2012, she has appeared in several television and web series; including Barbie: Life in the Dreamhouse, Barbie: Dreamtopia, Barbie: Dreamhouse Adventures, Barbie: It Takes Two and Barbie: A Touch of Magic. Aside in lead roles, she has appeared as a supporting character in the Toy Story films between its second and third sequels with a cameo at the fourth and the My Scene media franchise. In 2015, Barbie began appearing as a vlogger on YouTube called Barbie Vlogger where she talks about her fictional life, fashion, friends and family, and even charged topics such as mental health and racism. She was portrayed by Australian actress Margot Robbie in a live-action film adaptation released on July 21, 2023, by Warner Bros. Pictures in the United States.\n\nFictional biography\nBarbie's full name is Barbara Millicent Roberts and her parents' names are given as George and Margaret Roberts from the fictional town of Willows, Wisconsin, in a series of novels published by Random House in the 1960s. In those novels, Barbie attended Willows High School; while in the Generation Girl books, published by Golden Books in 1999, she attended the fictional Manhattan International High School in New York City (based on the real-life Stuyvesant High School).\nShe has an on-off romantic relationship with her then-boyfriend Ken (full name \"Kenneth Sean Carson\"), who first appeared in 1961. A news release from Mattel in February 2004 announced that Barbie and Ken had decided to split up, but in February 2006, they were hoping to rekindle their relationship after Ken had a makeover. In 2011, Mattel launched a campaign for Ken to win Barbie's affections back. The pair officially reunited in Valentine's Day 2011. Beginning with Barbie Dreamhouse Adventures in 2018, the pair are seen as just friends or next-door neighbors until a brief return to pre-2018 aesthetics in the 2023 television show, Barbie: A Touch of Magic.\nMattel has created a range of companions and relatives for Barbie. She has three younger sisters: Skipper, Stacie, and Chelsea (named Kelly until 2011). Her sisters have co-starred in many entries of the Barbie film series, starting with Barbie & Her Sisters in A Pony Tale from 2013. 'Retired' members of Barbie's family included Todd (twin brother to Stacie), Krissy (a baby sister), and Francie (cousin). Barbie's friends include Hispanic Teresa, Midge, African American Christie, and Steven (Christie's boyfriend). Barbie was also friendly with Blaine, an Australian surfer, during her split with Ken in 2004.\nBarbie has had over 40 pets including cats and dogs, horses, a panda, a lion cub, and a zebra. She has owned a wide range of vehicles, including pink Beetle and Corvette convertibles, trailers, and Jeeps. She also holds a pilot's license, and operates commercial airliners in addition to serving as a flight attendant. Barbie's careers are designed to show that women can take on a variety of roles in life, and the doll has been sold with a wide range of titles including Miss Astronaut Barbie (1965), Doctor Barbie (1988), and Nascar Barbie (1998).\n\nLegacy and influence\nBarbie has become a cultural icon and has been given honors that are rare in the toy world. In 1974, a section of Times Square in New York City was renamed Barbie Boulevard for a week. The Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris at the Louvre held a Barbie exhibit in 2016. The exhibit featured 700 Barbie dolls over two floors as well as works by contemporary artists and documents (newspapers, photos, video) that contextualize Barbie.\nIn 1986, the artist Andy Warhol created a painting of Barbie. The painting sold at auction at Christie's, London for $1.1 million. In 2015, The Andy Warhol Foundation then teamed up with Mattel to create an Andy Warhol Barbie.\nOutsider artist Al Carbee took thousands of photographs of Barbie and created countless collages and dioramas featuring Barbie in various settings. Carbee was the subject of the 2013 feature-length documentary Magical Universe. Carbee's collage art was presented in the 2016 Barbie exhibit at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris in the section about visuals artists who have been inspired by Barbie.\n\nIn 2013, in Taiwan, the first Barbie-themed restaurant called \"Barbie Café\" opened under the Sinlaku group.\n\nThe Economist has emphasized the importance of Barbie to children's imagination:From her early days as a teenage fashion model, Barbie has appeared as an astronaut, surgeon, Olympic athlete, downhill skier, aerobics instructor, TV news reporter, vet, rock star, doctor, army officer, air force pilot, summit diplomat, rap musician, presidential candidate (party undefined), baseball player, scuba diver, lifeguard, fire-fighter, engineer, dentist, and many more. [...] When Barbie first burst into the toy shops, just as the 1960s were breaking, the doll market consisted mostly of babies, designed for girls to cradle, rock and feed. By creating a doll with adult features, Mattel enabled girls to become anything they want.\nOn September 7, 2021, following the debut of the streaming television film Barbie: Big City, Big Dreams on Netflix, Barbie joined forces with Grammy Award-nominated music producer, songwriter, singer and actress Ester Dean and Girls Make Beats – an organization dedicated to expanding the female presence of music producers, DJs and audio engineers – to inspire more girls to explore a future in music production.\n\nMattel Adventure Park\nIn 2023, Mattel broke ground on a theme park near Phoenix, Arizona. The park is to open in 2024 and highlights Mattel's toys, including a Barbie Beach House, a Thomas & Friends themed ride, and a Hot Wheels go-kart race track. The theme park will take place at the VAI Resort complex, located 15 miles (24 km) west of Phoenix, Arizona.\n\n50th anniversary\nIn 2009, Barbie celebrated her 50th birthday. The celebrations included a runway show in New York for the Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week. The event showcased fashions contributed by fifty well-known haute couturiers including Diane von Fürstenberg, Vera Wang, Calvin Klein, Bob Mackie, and Christian Louboutin.\n\nBarbie Dream Gap Project\nIn 2019, Mattel launched the \"Barbie Dream Gap Project\" to raise awareness of the phenomenon known as the \"Dream Gap\": beginning at the age of five, girls begin to doubt their own intelligence, where boys do not. This leads to boys pursuing careers requiring a higher intelligence, and girls being underrepresented in those careers. As an example, in the U.S., 33% of sitting judges are female. This statistic inspired the release of Judge Barbie in four different skin tones and hairstyles with judge robes and a gavel accessory.\n\nThank You Heroes\nIn May 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Mattel announced a new line of career dolls modeled after the first responders and essential workers of 2020. For every doll purchased, Mattel donated a doll to the First Responders Children's Foundation.\n\nHabitat for Humanity\nIn February 2022, Mattel celebrated its 60-year anniversary of the Barbie Dreamhouse by partnering with Habitat for Humanity International. Mattel committed to taking on 60 projects, including new construction, home preservation, and neighborhood revitalization.\n\nBad influence concerns\nIn July 1992, Mattel released Teen Talk Barbie, which spoke a number of phrases including \"Will we ever have enough clothes?\", \"I love shopping!\", and \"Wanna have a pizza party?\" Each doll was programmed to say four out of 270 possible phrases, so that no two given dolls were likely to be the same (the number of possible combinations is 270!/(266!4!) = 216,546,345). One of these 270 phrases was \"Math class is tough!\", which led to criticism from the American Association of University Women; about 1.5% of all the dolls sold said the phrase. The doll was often erroneously misattributed in the media as having said \"Math is hard!\" In October 1992, Mattel announced that Teen Talk Barbie would no longer say \"Math class is tough!\", and offered a swap to anyone who owned a doll that did.\nIn 2002, Mattel introduced a line of pregnant Midge (and baby) dolls, but this Happy Family line was quickly pulled from the market due to complaints that she promoted teen pregnancy, though Midge was supposed to be a married adult.\nIn September 2003, the Middle Eastern country of Saudi Arabia outlawed the sale of Barbie dolls and franchises, stating that they did not conform to the ideals of Islam. The Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice warned, \"Jewish Barbie dolls, with their revealing clothes and shameful postures, accessories and tools are a symbol of decadence to the perverted West. Let us beware of her dangers and be careful.\" The 2003 Saudi ban was temporary. In Muslim-majority nations, there is an alternative doll called Fulla, which was introduced in November 2003 and is equivalent to Barbie, but is designed specifically to represent traditional Islamic values. Fulla is not manufactured by Mattel (although Mattel still licenses Fulla dolls and franchises for sale in certain markets), and (as of January 2021) the \"Jewish\" Barbie brand is still available in other Muslim-majority countries including Egypt and Indonesia. In Iran, the Sara and Dara dolls, which were introduced in March 2002, are available as an alternative to Barbie, even though they have not been as successful.\nIn November 2014, Mattel received criticism over the book I Can Be a Computer Engineer, which depicted Barbie as personally inept at computers, requiring her two male friends complete all of the necessary tasks to restore two laptops after she accidentally infects her and her sister's laptop with a malware-laced USB flash drive, before ultimately getting credit for recovering her sister's school project. Critics felt that the characterization of Barbie as a software designer lacking low-level technical skills was sexist, as other books in the I Can Be... series depicted Barbie as someone who was totally competent in those jobs and did not require outside assistance from others. Mattel later removed the book from sale on Amazon in response to the criticism, and the company released a \"Computer Engineer Barbie\" doll who was a game programmer rather than game designer.\n\nDiversity\n\"Colored Francie\" made her debut in 1967, and she is sometimes described as the first African-American Barbie doll. However, she was produced using the existing head molds for the white Francie doll and lacked distinct African characteristics other than dark skin. The first African-American doll in the Barbie range is usually regarded as Christie, who made her debut in 1968. Black Barbie was launched in 1980 but still had Caucasian features. In 1990, Mattel created a focus group with African-American children and parents, early childhood specialists, and clinical psychologist, Darlene Powell Hudson. Instead of using the same molds for the Caucasian Barbies, new ones were created. In addition, facial features, skin tones, hair texture, and names were all altered. The body shapes looked different, but the proportions were the same to ensure clothing and accessories were interchangeable. In September 2009, Mattel introduced the So In Style range, which was intended to create a more realistic depiction of African-American people than previous dolls.\n\nStarting in 1980, it produced Hispanic dolls, and later came models from across the globe. For example, in 2007, it introduced \"Cinco de Mayo Barbie\" wearing a ruffled red, white, and green dress (echoing the Mexican flag). Hispanic magazine reports that:[O]ne of the most dramatic developments in Barbie's history came when she embraced multi-culturalism and was released in a wide variety of native costumes, hair colors and skin tones to more closely resemble the girls who idolized her. Among these were Cinco De Mayo Barbie, Spanish Barbie, Peruvian Barbie, Mexican Barbie and Puerto Rican Barbie. She also has had close Hispanic friends, such as Teresa. Professor Emilie Rose Aguilo-Perez argued that over time, Mattel shifted from ambiguous Hispanic presentations in their dolls to one that is more assertive in its \"Latinx\" marketing and product labeling.\nMattel has responded to criticisms pointing to a lack of diversity in the line. In 2016, Mattel expanded the So In Style line to include seven skin tones, twenty-two eye colors, and twenty-four hairstyles. Part of the reason for this change was due to declining sales. The brand now offers over 22 skin tones, 94 hair colors, 13 eye colors and five body types.\nMattel teamed up with Nabisco to launch a cross-promotion Barbie doll with Oreo cookies in 1997 and 2001. While the 1997 release of the doll was only released in a white version, for the 2001 release Mattel manufactured both a white and a black version. The 2001 release Barbie Oreo School Time Fun was marketed as someone with whom young girls could play after class and share \"America's favorite cookie\". Critics argued that in the African American community, Oreo is a derogatory term meaning that the person is \"black on the outside and white on the inside\", like the chocolate sandwich cookie itself.\nIn May 1997, Mattel introduced Share a Smile Becky, a doll in a pink wheelchair. Kjersti Johnson, a 17-year-old high school student in Tacoma, Washington with cerebral palsy, pointed out that the doll would not fit into the elevator of Barbie's $100 Dream House. Mattel announced that it would redesign the house in the future to accommodate the doll.\nIn July 2024, Mattel released the first blind Barbie in collaboration with the American Foundation for the Blind. Alongside this, the company also launched a black Barbie with Down syndrome.\n\nRole model Barbies\nIn March 2018, in time for International Women's Day, Mattel unveiled the \"Barbie Celebrates Role Models\" campaign with a line of 17 dolls, informally known as \"sheroes\", from diverse backgrounds \"to showcase examples of extraordinary women\". Mattel developed this collection in response to mothers concerned about their daughters having positive female role models. Dolls in this collection include Frida Kahlo, Patti Jenkins, Chloe Kim, Nicola Adams, Ibtihaj Muhammad, Bindi Irwin, Amelia Earhart, Misty Copeland, Helene Darroze, Katherine Johnson, Sara Gama, Martyna Wojciechowska, Gabby Douglas, Guan Xiaotong, Ava Duvernay, Yuan Yuan Tan, Iris Apfel, Ashley Graham and Leyla Piedayesh. In 2020, the company announced a new release of \"shero\" dolls, including Paralympic champion Madison de Rozario, and world four-time sabre champion Olga Kharlan. In July 2021, Mattel released a Naomi Osaka Barbie doll as a part of the 'Barbie Role Model' series. Osaka originally partnered with Barbie two years earlier. A month earlier, a Julie Bishop doll was released to acknowledge the former Australian politician, as was one for general practitioner Kirby White for her work during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. In August 2021 a Barbie modelled after European Space Agency astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti was released.\n\nCollecting\nThe standard range of Barbie dolls and related accessories are manufactured to approximately 1/6 scale, which is also known as playscale. The standard dolls are approximately 11+1⁄2 inches (29 cm) tall.\nMattel estimates that there are well over 100,000 avid Barbie collectors. Ninety percent are women, at an average age of 40, purchasing more than twenty Barbie dolls each year. Forty-five percent of them spend upwards of $1000 a year.\nVintage Barbie dolls from the early years are the most valuable at auction, and while the original Barbie was sold for $3.00 in 1959, a mint boxed Barbie from 1959 sold for $3552.50 on eBay in October 2004. On September 26, 2006, a Barbie doll set a world record at auction of £9,000 sterling (US$17,000) at Christie's in London. The doll was a Barbie in Midnight Red from 1965 and was part of a private collection of 4,000 Barbie dolls being sold by two Dutch women, Ietje Raebel and her daughter Marina.\nIn recent years, Mattel has sold a wide range of Barbie dolls aimed specifically at collectors, including porcelain versions, vintage reproductions, and depictions of Barbie as a range of characters from film and television series such as The Munsters and Star Trek. There are also collector's edition dolls depicting Barbie dolls with a range of different ethnic identities. In 2004, Mattel introduced the Color Tier system for its collector's edition Barbie dolls including pink, silver, gold, and platinum, depending on how many of the dolls are produced. In 2020, Mattel introduced the Dia De Los Muertos collectible Barbie doll, the second collectible released as part of the company's La Catrina line which was launched in 2019.\n\nParodies and lawsuits\nBarbie has frequently been the target of parody: \n\nMattel sued artist Tom Forsythe over a 1999 series of photographs called Food Chain Barbie in which Barbie winds up in a blender. Mattel lost the lawsuit and was forced to pay Forsythe's legal costs.\nOn the 25th episode of In Living Color, in December 1990, a Homey D. Clown sketch found HDC filling in for Santa Claus at a shopping mall. A little girl (Kelly Coffield) asks for a Malibu Barbie & Condominium playset; instead, \"Homey Claus\" gives her \"Compton Carlotta\" (a crude doll made of sticks and bottlecaps) with a slum-apartment (a milk carton). When the girl complains, Homey raises his signature blackjack and wishes her a Merry Christmas; taking the hint, she thanks him and hastily retires.\nIn Latin America, notable controversies include a 2018 legal dispute involving the Panama-based Frida Kahlo Corporation's allegations that Frida Kahlo's great-niece in Mexico had wrongly licensed the Frida Kahlo trademark for the \"Frida Kahlo Barbie\" doll.\nMattel filed a lawsuit in 2004 in the U.S. against Barbara Anderson-Walley, a Canadian business owner whose nickname is Barbie, over her website, which sells fetish clothing. The lawsuit was dismissed.\nIn 2011, Greenpeace parodied Barbie, calling on Mattel to adopt a policy for its paper purchases that would protect the rainforest. Four months later, Mattel adopted a paper sustainability policy.\nSaturday Night Live aired a parody of the Barbie commercials featuring \"Gangsta Bitch Barbie\" and \"Tupac Ken\". In 2002, the show also aired a skit, which starred Britney Spears as Barbie's sister Skipper.\nIn November 2002, a New York judge refused an injunction against the British-based artist Susanne Pitt, who had produced a \"Dungeon Barbie\" doll in bondage clothing.\nAqua's song \"Barbie Girl\" was the subject of the lawsuit Mattel v. MCA Records, which Mattel lost in 2002, with Judge Alex Kozinski saying that the song was a \"parody and a social commentary\".\nTwo commercials by automobile company Nissan featuring dolls similar to Barbie and Ken was the subject of another lawsuit in 1997. In the first commercial, a female doll is lured into a car by a doll resembling G.I. Joe to the dismay of a Ken-like doll, accompanied by Van Halen's \"You Really Got Me\". In the second commercial, the \"Barbie\" doll is saved by the \"G.I. Joe\" doll after she is accidentally knocked into a swimming pool by the \"Ken\" doll to Kiss's \"Calling Dr. Love\". The makers of the commercial said that the dolls' names were Roxanne, Nick and Tad. Mattel claimed that the commercial did \"irreparable damage\" to its products, but settled.\nIn 1999, Canadian nude model Barbie Doll Benson was involved in a trademark infringement case over her domain name, BarbieBenson.com.\nIn 1993, a group calling itself the Barbie Liberation Organization secretly modified a group of Barbie dolls by implanting voice boxes from G.I. Joe dolls, then returning the Barbies to the toy stores from where they were purchased.\nMalibu Stacy from The Simpsons 1994 episode \"Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy\".\nSavior Barbie refers to a satirical Instagram account. Savior Barbie is depicted as being in Africa where she runs an NGO that provides drinking water to locals and makes sure to provide footage that depicts her glorious acts of goodness. The account is likely to have inspired others such as \"Hipster Barbie\" and \"Socality Barbie\".\n\nCompetition from Bratz dolls\nIn May 2001, MGA Entertainment launched the Bratz series of dolls, a move that gave Barbie her first serious competition in the fashion doll market. In 2004, sales figures showed that Bratz dolls were outselling Barbie dolls in the United Kingdom, although Mattel maintained that in terms of the number of dolls, clothes, and accessories sold, Barbie remained the leading brand. In 2005, figures showed that sales of Barbie dolls had fallen by 30% in the United States, and by 18% worldwide, with much of the drop being attributed to the popularity of Bratz dolls.\nIn December 2006, Mattel sued MGA Entertainment for $1 billion, alleging that Bratz creator Carter Bryant was working for Mattel when he developed the idea for Bratz. On July 17, 2008, a federal jury agreed that the Bratz line was created by Carter Bryant while he was working for Mattel and that MGA and its chief executive officer Isaac Larian were liable for converting Mattel property for their own use and intentionally interfering with the contractual duties owed by Bryant to Mattel. On August 26, the jury found that Mattel would have to be paid $100 million in damages. On December 3, 2008, U.S. District Judge Stephen Larson banned MGA from selling Bratz. He allowed the company to continue selling the dolls until the winter holiday season ended. On appeal, a stay was granted by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit; the Court also overturned the District Court's original ruling for Mattel, where MGA Entertainment was ordered to forfeit the entire Bratz brand.\nMattel Inc. and MGA Entertainment Inc. returned to court on January 18, 2011, to renew their battle over who owns Bratz, which this time included accusations from both companies that the other side stole trade secrets. On April 21, 2011, a federal jury returned a verdict supporting MGA. On August 5, 2011, Mattel was also ordered to pay MGA $310 million for attorney fees, stealing trade secrets, and false claims rather than the $88.5 million issued in April.\nIn August 2009, MGA introduced a range of dolls called Moxie Girlz, intended as a replacement for Bratz dolls.\n\nEffects on body image\nFrom the start, some have complained that \"the blonde, plastic doll conveyed an unrealistic body image to girls.\"\nCriticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns that children consider Barbie a role model and will attempt to emulate her. One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman, leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will become anorexic. Unrealistic body proportions in Barbie dolls have been connected to some eating disorders in children.\nA standard Barbie doll is 11.5 inches (29 cm) tall, giving a height of 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) at 1/6 scale. Barbie's vital statistics have been estimated at 36 inches (91 cm) (chest), 18 inches (46 cm) (waist) and 33 inches (84 cm) (hips). According to research by the University Central Hospital in Helsinki, Finland, she would lack the 17 to 22 percent body fat required for a woman to menstruate. In 1963, the outfit \"Barbie Baby-Sits\" came with a book titled How to Lose Weight which advised: \"Don't eat!\" The same book was included in another ensemble called \"Slumber Party\" in 1965 along with a pink bathroom scale permanently set at 110 pounds (50 kg), which would be underweight for a woman 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) tall. Mattel said that the waist of the Barbie doll was made small because the waistbands of her clothes, along with their seams, snaps, and zippers, added bulk to her figure. In 1997, Barbie's body mold was redesigned and given a wider waist, with Mattel saying that this would make the doll better suited to contemporary fashion designs.\nIn 2016, Mattel introduced a range of new body types: 'tall', 'petite', and 'curvy', releasing them exclusively as part of the Barbie Fashionistas line. 'Curvy Barbie' received a great deal of media attention and even made the cover of Time magazine with the headline \"Now Can We Stop Talking About My Body?\". Despite the curvy doll's body shape being equivalent to a US size 4 in clothing, some children reportedly regarded her as \"fat\".\nAlthough Barbie had been criticized for its unrealistic-looking \"tall and petite\" dolls, the company has been offering more dolls set to more realistic standards in order to help promote a positive body image.\n\n\"Barbie syndrome\"\n\"Barbie syndrome\" is a term that has been used to depict the desire to have a physical appearance and lifestyle representative of the Barbie doll. It is most often associated with pre-teenage and adolescent girls but is applicable to any age group or gender. A person with Barbie syndrome attempts to emulate the doll's physical appearance, even though the doll has unattainable body proportions. This syndrome is seen as a form of body dysmorphic disorder and results in various eating disorders as well as an obsession with cosmetic surgery.\nUkrainian model Valeria Lukyanova has received attention from the press, due in part to her appearance having been modified based on the physique of Barbie. She stated that she has only had breast implants and relies heavily on make up and contacts to alter her appearance. Similarly, Lacey Wildd, an American reality television personality frequently referred to as \"Million Dollar Barbie\", has also undergone 12 breast augmentation surgeries to become \"the extreme Barbie\".\nJessica Alves, prior to coming out as transgender, underwent over £373,000 worth of cosmetic procedures to match the appearance of Barbie's male counterpart, garnering her the nickname the \"Human Ken Doll\". These procedures have included multiple nose jobs, six pack ab implants, a buttock lift, and hair and chest implants. Sporting the same nickname, Justin Jedlica, the American businessman, has also received multiple cosmetic surgeries to enhance his Ken-like appearance.\nIn 2006, researchers Helga Dittmar, Emma Halliwell, and Suzanne Ive conducted an experiment testing how dolls, including Barbie, affect self-image in young girls. Dittmar, Halliwell, and Ive gave picture books to girls age 5–8, one with photos of Barbie and the other with photos of Emme, a doll with more realistic physical features. The girls were then asked about their ideal body size. Their research found that the girls who were exposed to the images of Barbie had significantly lower self-esteem than the girls who had photos of Emme. However, Benjamin Radford noted that the answer may not be this simple since this research also showed that the age of the girl was a significant factor in the influence the doll had on her self esteem.\n\nNotable designers\nKitty Black Perkins, creator of Black Barbie\nCarol Spencer, Barbie fashion designer from 1963 to 1999\n\nSee also\nCreatable World\nLammily – a crowd funded alternative developed by Nickolay Lamm\nList of Barbie animated films\nList of Barbie video games\nSindy\nSuperstar: The Karen Carpenter Story\nThe Most Popular Girls in School\nTotally Hair Barbie\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nBest, Joel. \"Too Much Fun: Toys as Social Problems and the Interpretation of Culture\", Symbolic Interaction 21#2 (1998), pp. 197–212. DOI: 10.1525/si.1998.21.2.197 in JSTOR\nBillyBoy* (1987). Barbie: Her Life & Times. Crown. ISBN 978-0-517-59063-8.\nCox, Don Richard. \"Barbie and her playmates.\" Journal of Popular Culture 11#2 (1977): 303–307.\nForman-Brunell, Miriam. \"Barbie in\" LIFE\": The Life of Barbie.\" Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 2#3 (2009): 303-311. online\nGerber, Robin (2009). Barbie and Ruth: The Story of the World's Most Famous Doll and the Woman Who Created Her. Collins Business. ISBN 978-0-06-134131-1.\nKarniol, Rachel, Tamara Stuemler-Cohen, and Yael Lahav-Gur. \"Who Likes Bratz? The Impact of Girls’ Age and Gender Role Orientation on Preferences for Barbie Versus Bratz.\" Psychology & Marketing 29#11 (2012): 897-906.\nKnaak, Silke, \"German Fashion Dolls of the 50&60\". Paperback www.barbies.de.\nLord, M. G. (2004). Forever Barbie: the unauthorized biography of a real doll. New York: Walker & Co. ISBN 978-0-8027-7694-5.\nPlumb, Suzie, ed. (2005). Guys 'n' Dolls: Art, Science, Fashion and Relationships. Royal Pavilion, Art Gallery & Museums. ISBN 0-948723-57-2.\nRogers, Mary Ann (1999). Barbie culture. London: SAGE Publications. ISBN 0-7619-5888-6.\nSherman, Aurora M., and Eileen L. Zurbriggen. \"'Boys can be anything': Effect of Barbie play on girls’ career cognitions.\" Sex roles 70.5-6 (2014): 195-208. online\nSingleton, Bridget (2000). The Art of Barbie. London: Vision On. ISBN 0-9537479-2-1.\nWeissman, Kristin Noelle. Barbie: The Icon, the Image, the Ideal: An Analytical Interpretation of the Barbie Doll in Popular Culture (1999).\nWepman, Dennis. \"Handler, Ruth\" American National Biography (2000) online\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nSt. Petersburg Times Floridian: \"The doll that has everything – almost\", an article by Susan Taylor Martin about the \"Muslim Barbie\"\nUSA Today: Barbie at number 43 on the list of The 101 Most Influential People Who Never Lived\nThe Telegraph: Doll power: Barbie celebrates 50th anniversary and toy world dominance\nNPR Audio Report: Pretty, Plastic Barbie: Forever What We Make Her\nLawmaker Wants Barbie Banned in W.Va.; Local Residents Quickly React Archived February 27, 2014, at the Wayback Machine March 3, 2009\nNew York Times: Barbie: Doll, Icon Or Sexist Symbol? December 23, 1987\nBarbie's 50th Archived November 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine – slideshow by The First Post\nBBC News: Mattel shuts flagship Shanghai Barbie concept store March 7, 2011\nBBC News 1: Making Cindy into Barbie? - BBC News, HEALTH (21 September 1998)\nCBS News: Becoming Barbie: Living Dolls, Real Life Couple Are Models Of Plastic Perfection - by Rebecca Leung (Aug. 6, 2004) CBS News\nGlowka; et al. (2001). \"Among the New Words\". American Speech. 76 (1). Project MUSE: 79–96. doi:10.1215/00031283-76-1-79.\nAnna Hart, Introducing the new, realistic Barbie: 'The thigh gap has officially gone', The Telegraph website, January 28, 2016",
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"paragraph_text": "Hot Wheels is an American media franchise and brand of scale model cars invented by Elliot Handler and introduced by his company Mattel on May 18, 1968. It was the primary competitor of Matchbox until Mattel bought Matchbox owner Tyco Toys in 1997.\nMany automobile manufacturers have since licensed Hot Wheels to make scale models of their cars, allowing the use of original design blueprints and detailing. Although Hot Wheels were originally intended to be children's toys, they have become popular with adult collectors, for whom limited edition models are now made available.\n\nHistory\n1968\nThe original Hot Wheels were made by Elliot Handler. Handler discovered his son Kenneth playing with Matchbox cars and decided to create a line to compete with Matchbox. Hot Wheels were originally conceived by Handler to be more like \"hot rod\" cars (i.e., customized/modified or even caricaturized or fantasy cars, often with big rear tires, superchargers, flame paint-jobs, outlandish proportions, hood blowers, etc.), as compared to Matchbox cars which were generally small-scale models of production cars. He began producing the cars with assistance from fellow engineer Jack Ryan.\n\nThe Sweet 16\nThe first line of Hot Wheels cars, known as The Original Sweet 16 was manufactured in 1967. These were the first of the Red Line Series, named for the tires which had a red pin stripe on their sides.\nThere were sixteen castings released, eleven of them designed by Harry Bentley Bradley with assistance from Handler and Ryan. The first one produced was a dark blue \"Custom Camaro\". Bradley was from the car industry and had designed the body for the (full-sized) Dodge Deora concept car and the Custom Fleetside, (based on his own customized 1966 El Camino).\n\nRacing track set\nIn addition to the cars themselves, Mattel produced a racing track set (sold separately). Though it would be updated throughout the years, the original track set consists of a series of bright orange road sections (pieced together to form an oblong, circular race track), with one (or sometimes two) \"superchargers\" (faux service stations through which cars passed on the tracks, featuring battery-powered spinning wheels, which would propel the cars along the tracks). Hot Wheels' use of wide, hard-plastic tires created much less friction and tracked more smoothly than the narrow metal or plastic wheels used on contemporary Matchbox cars. Hot Wheels cars were designed to roll easily and at high speeds, which was a great innovation at the time.\n\n1968\nThe Hot Wheels brand was a staggering success. The series completely disrupted the industry for small die-cast car models from 1968 onward, forcing the competition at Matchbox and elsewhere to completely rethink their concepts, and to scramble to try to recover lost ground. Harry Bentley Bradley did not think that would be the case and had quit Mattel to go back to the car industry. When the company asked him to come back, he recommended a good friend, Ira Gilford. Gilford, who had just left Chrysler, quickly accepted the job of designing the next Hot Wheels models. Some of Hot Wheels' greatest cars, such as the Twin Mill and Splittin' Image, came from Ira Gilford's drawing board. The Twin Mill was introduced in 1969 and was used to create the company's first full-scale replica car in 2001.\nThe success of the 1968 line was solidified and consolidated with the 1969 releases, with which Hot Wheels effectively established itself as the hottest brand of small toy car models in the USA. Splittin' Image, Torero, Turbofire, and Twin Mill were part of the \"Show & Go\" series and are the very first original in-house designs by Hot Wheels.\nThe initial prototypes of the Beach Bomb were faithful to the shape of a real VW Type 2 \"bus\", and had two surfboards sticking out the back window, in a nod to the VW's perceived association with the surfing community and the slang term for a person who spends much time surfing—a \"beach bum\". During the fledgling Hot Wheels era, Mattel wanted to make sure that each of the cars could be used with any of the playsets and stunt track sets. Unfortunately, testing showed that this early version (now known among collectors as the Rear-Loader Beach Bomb, or \"RLBB\") was too narrow to roll effectively on Hot Wheels track or be powered by the Super Charger, and was too top-heavy to negotiate high-speed corners.\nHot Wheels designers Howard Rees and Larry Wood modified the casting, extending the side fenders to accommodate the track width, as well as providing a new place on the vehicle to store each of the plastic surfboards. The roof was also cut away and replaced by a full-length sunroof, to lower the center of gravity. Nicknamed the Side-loader by collectors, this was the production version of the Beach Bomb.\nThe Rear-Loader Beach Bomb is widely considered the \"Holy Grail\", or ultimate pinnacle, of a serious Hot Wheels collection. An unknown number were made as test subjects and given to employees. A regular production Beach Bomb may be worth up to $600, depending on condition. Market prices on RLBBs however, have easily reached the five-figure plateau, ranging from $70,000 to $120,000. The Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles had a pink RLBB in its Hot Wheels exhibit, displayed alone on a rotating platform under glass. The Hot Wheels Collectors Club released a new, updated version of the Rear Loading Beach Bomb in 2002 as a limited edition.\n\n1970s\n1970 was a very successful year for Hot Wheels, so Mattel came up with a new advertising slogan for the cars: \"Go With the Winner\". 43 new cars appeared that year, including the Sizzlers and Heavyweights lines. Howard Rees, who worked with Ira Gilford, was tired of designing cars. He wanted to work on the Major Matt Mason action figure toy line-up. Rees had a good friend by the name of Larry Wood, whom he worked with at Ford designing cars. When Wood found out about Hot Wheels at a party Rees was holding, Rees offered him the job of designing Hot Wheels models. Wood accepted, and, by the end of the week, Wood was working at Mattel, where his first design was the Tri-Baby. Larry Wood retired in 2019 after over 40 years of designing cars.\nAnother designer, Paul Tam, joined Wood and Gilford. Tam's first design was the Whip Creamer. Tam continued to work for Mattel until 1973. Among the many fantastic designs Tam thought up for Hot Wheels, some of the collector's favorites include Evil Weevil (a Volkswagen Beetle with two engines), Open Fire (an AMC Gremlin with six wheels), Six Shooter (another six-wheeled car), and the rare Double Header (co-designed with Larry Wood).\nThe year 1970 introduced \"the Snake and the Mongoose\", a manufactured 'rivalry' between two professional drag racers calling themselves \"the Snake\" and \"the Mongoose\" for the purposes of publicity. This was notably drag racing's first major non-automotive corporate sponsor, and the beginning of the NHRA’s booming popularity with large-budget teams and championships. 1970 also introduced the first 'Silver Series', which contained three silver-painted models: the Boss Hoss, the Heavy Chevy, and the King 'Kuda, which were only obtainable through a mail-in offer that included a membership to the Hot Wheels Club. These three cars featured \"supercharged\" engines (featuring large Roots blowers) without hoods, and open exhaust headers, after the style of drag racing cars of the era. Popular among children, these 'Silver Cars' were considered faster than the rest of the Hot Wheels lineup, because they were supposedly heavier than the other gravity models, but the accuracy of this claim has never been tested under scientific conditions.\nHowever, 1972 and 1973 were slow years. Only seven new models were made in 1972. Of the 24 models appearing for 1973, only three were new models. Also the cars changed from Mattel's in-house Spectraflame colors to mostly drab, solid enamel colors, which mainstream Hot Wheels cars still use today. Due to low sales, and the fact that the majority of the castings were not re-used in later years, the 1972-3 models are known to be very collectible.\nIn 1974, Hot Wheels introduced its 'Flying Colors' line, and added flashy decals and \"tampo-printed\" paint designs which helped revitalize sales. As with the lower-friction wheels in 1968, this innovation was revolutionary in the industry, and—although far less effective in terms of sales impact than in 1968—was copied by the competition, who did not want to be outmaneuvered again by Mattel product strategists.\nIn 1977, the 'Redline Wheel' was phased out, with the red lines no longer being printed on the wheels. This cut costs, but also reflected that the prototypical \"red line tires\" popular on high-speed-rated automotive tires during the era of muscle cars and Polyglas tires were no longer popular. During this period, there was a trend away from wild hot rods and fantastic cars, and a move to more realistic cars and trucks, like the competitor Matchbox.\n\n1977–1988: The 'Blackwalls' era\nIn 1981, Hot Ones wheels were introduced, which had gold-painted hubs, and claimed to have thinner axles for greater speed, along with additional suspension compliance that older production Hot Wheels lacked. Ultra Hot Wheels were introduced in 1984, and looked something like the cast alloy wheels found on a 1980s-era high-trim Renault Fuego or a Mazda 626, with three parallel dark lines cutting diagonally across the flat chrome face of the wheel, all three broken in the center to form six individual shorter lines. These new \"Ultra Hots\" claimed further speed improvements. Hot Wheels started offering models based on 1980s-era sports and economy cars, like the Pontiac Fiero or Dodge Omni 024, in addition to their typical 'hot rod' and muscle car style offerings. In 1983, a new style of wheel called Real Riders was introduced, which featured real rubber tires. Despite the fact that they were very popular, the Real Riders line was short-lived, because of high production costs. In the late 1980s, the so-called Blue Card blister pack color scheme was introduced, which would become the basis of Hot Wheels colors still used today (original blister packs were red and yellow).\nTwo other innovations were introduced briefly in Hot Wheels cars in the 1980s – Thermal Color Change paint, and rotating 'crash panel' vehicles (\"Crack-Ups\"). The former was able to change color on exposure to hot or cold water, and there was an initial release of 20 different cars, available as sets of three vehicles. The latter were vehicles with a panel that, on contact, would rotate to reveal a reverse side that appeared to be heavily dented. Variations in crash panels included front, rear and side panels, the last of whose mechanism has proven to be the most durable.\nIn the 1980s, Hot Wheels had gotten into a controversy with General Motors' Chevrolet Motors Division. In 1982, the Chevrolet Corvette had ended the curvaceous \"Mako Shark\" body style that had been in production for almost 15 years, and GM announced that the Corvette would be redesigned. In 1983, Chevrolet started to produce the all-new C4 Corvette but had assembly line problems which pushed production back 6 months causing GM's Marketing Department to label all 1983s as 1984s once they got production perfected so it would seem to the public that the all-new C4 Corvette came out early rather than late. But Hot Wheels saw what the new model of Corvette was going to look like before GM's official unveiling, and they designed a die-cast version of the 1984 Corvette. GM was angered and almost pulled its licensing with Mattel, but this controversy helped Corvette enthusiasts see what the new Corvette was going to look like. The 1984 Corvette production ran for 1.5 model years covering half of the remaining 1983 model year and ending on time for the 1985 model year.\nIn conjunction with Epyx Software, Mattel released a computer game edition of Hot Wheels for various 8-bit platforms in 1985, as part of the Computer Activity Toys series.\n\n1989–1994: The collector number era\nIn 1989, Mattel released collector numbers. Each car had its own number. The cards were all blue, for all blister packs released from 1989 to 1994. Numbers included went as high as 274; however, these were skip numbered, and numbers such as 48, 61, and 173 were not used.\n\n1995–1999: The Treasure Hunt era\nThe year 1995 brought a major change to the Hot Wheels line, where the cars were split up into series. One was the 1995 Model Series, which included all of that year's new castings. In 1996, the Model Series was renamed to First Editions. 1995 also saw the introduction of the Treasure Hunt Series (see below). The rest of the series included four cars with paint schemes that followed a theme. For example, the Pearl Driver cars all had pearlescent paint. Sales for the series models soared with another program also introduced that year called the Bonus Car program, causing stores across the nation to have shortages. Purchasing the four car sets and sending in the packaging backs plus a handling fee gave you the opportunity to collect the bonus cars, 1 each released for each quarter of the year starting in 1996 through at least 2000. Several new wheel designs were also introduced in the 1990s.\nMattel bought Tyco Toys in 1997. Along with the purchase came the company's old competitor Matchbox. Arguably the two dominant companies in matchbox-sized cars were now under one roof.\nIn 1998, Mattel celebrated the 30th anniversary of the Hot Wheels brand by replicating various cars and individual packaging from its 30-year history and packaging these replicated vehicles in special 30th Anniversary boxes. In 1999, Hot Wheels Interactive was launched.\n\n2000s\nA new generation of Hot Wheels Designers came in. Eric Tscherne and Fraser Campbell along with former designer Paul Tam's son, Alec Tam, joined the design team. Tscherne's Seared Tuner (formerly Sho-Stopper) graced the mainline packaging from 2000 to 2003. The Deora II, one of only two Hot Wheels concept cars ever made into full-size, functional cars, was also released this year.\nIn 2001, Mattel created a Hot Wheels collectors website.\nAlso in 2001, Mattel issued 240 mainline releases consisting of 12 Treasure Hunts, 36 First Editions, 12 Segment Series with four cars each, and 144 open stock cars. Popular models that debuted include the HyperMite and FrightBike.\nFor 2002, the mainline consisted of 12 Treasure Hunts, 42 First Editions, 15 Segment Series of 4 cars each, and 126 open stock cars. Popular new models included the `68 Cougar and the Nissan Skyline GT-R. Some cars from the first editions series are the Backdraft, Overbored 454, and Super Tsunami.\n\n2003\nHot Wheels celebrated its 35th anniversary with a full-length animated film called Hot Wheels Highway 35 World Race. This movie tied into the Highway 35 line of cars that featured 35 classic Hot Wheels cars with special graphics and co-molded wheels.\n\n2004\nIn 2004, Hot Wheels unveiled its \"Hot 100\" line of 100 new models. These included mostly short-lived lines of cartoonish vehicles such as 'Tooned (vehicles based on the larger Hot Tunerz line of Hot Wheels created by Eric Tscherne), Blings (boxy bodies and big wheels), Hardnoze (enlarged fronts), Crooze (stretched out bodies), and Fatbax (super-wide rear wheels and short bodies). Fatbax models included vehicles such as the Toyota Supra and Corvette C6. These vehicles did not sell as well as Mattel expected, and many could still be found in stores throughout 2005. Mattel also released 2004 First Editions cars with unpainted Zamac bodies. They were sold through Toys 'R' Us and were made in limited numbers.\n\n2005 and 2006\nIn 2005, Hot Wheels continued with new \"extreme\" castings for the 2nd year, debuting the Torpedoes line (skinny bodies and outboard wheels) and Drop Tops (flattened rooflines and wheel arches that extend above the car's roofline), in addition to 20 \"Realistix\" models. The rest of the line included the standard 12 Treasure Hunts, 10 Track Aces, 50 Segment Series Cars, and 50 Open Stock Models. Four Volkswagen \"Mystery Cars\" were offered as a special mail-in promo. Each Mystery Car came with a special voucher. Upon collection of all 4 vouchers, one was able to send away for a special 13th Treasure Hunt, a VW Drag Bus.\nHot Wheels also unveiled its new \"Faster than Ever\" line of cars, which had special nickel-plated axles, along with bronze-colored Open-Hole 5 Spoke wheels. These adjustments supposedly reduce friction dramatically, resulting in cars that are called the \"Faster than Ever\" series. The first run of these cars were available for a limited time only, from the beginning of October towards the end of November 2005.\nAlso, a continuation of the movie Highway 35 called Hot Wheels AcceleRacers was created, taking place two years after the events of Highway 35. It is featured in four movies and many short segments where the drivers (old ones, gangs, like Teku, Metal Maniacs, the evil Racing Drones, and the stealthy Silencerz). All of the shorts and previews of the movies were placed on a temporary website that was deleted shortly after the last movie.\n2006 was the final year of the First Editions series consisting of 38 cars for that year including a Toyota AE86, 2006 Honda Civic Si, Plymouth Superbird and 2007 Cadillac Escalade alongside with fantasy models like the Nerve Hammer, Pharodox, Semi-Psycho as well as the fan-favourite Bone Shaker, Larry Wood's most popular design to date.\n\n2007 and 2008\nIn 2007, Mattel released 36 New Models (formerly First Editions), 12 Treasure Hunts (with a hard-to-find regular version and even rarer \"Super Treasure Hunt\" version of each with rubber Real Rider tires and Spectraflame paint), 12 'Teams' of 4 cars each (formerly Segment Series), 24 Code Cars (codes imprinted inside the packaging that can be used to unlock web content), 12 Track Stars (formerly Track Aces), 24 Mystery Cars (packaged on a card with an opaque blister, so the buyer cannot see which car is inside without opening it), and 24 All-Stars (formerly Open Stock). In late 2006, a new package design for 2007 was released. Some 2006 cars and all 2007 cars are packaged on a blister card with the new design. Hot Wheels released a series called Modifighters, which are similar to Transformers except for the fact that they were originally cars and were modified into robots. The Modifighters names are: Streetwyse, Skullface, Live Wire, Bedlam, Nightlife, Mr. Big, and Quick-Tyme.\nIn 2008, all the series and vehicles were relatively similar to 2007's cars. Approximately 180 to 200 new vehicles were released.\n\n2009 and 2010\nIn 2009, Mattel released 42 New Models, 12 Treasure Hunts, 12 Track Stars, 24 Mystery Cars, 10 Segment Series of 10 cars, and introduced the Indy Car Series drivers.\nMattel released its first-ever animated episodic television series called Hot Wheels Battle Force 5, which was a co-production between Canadian animation giants Nelvana and WildBrain. The US version of the series debuted on Cartoon Network on August 29, 2009..\n\n2011\n2011 saw the release of 244 cars beginning with the 2011 New Car Series which includes the Lamborghini Gallardo LP570-4 Superleggera, Custom 2011 Camaro, and the DeLorean time machine from the Back to the Future series. This was followed by the 15-car Treasure Hunt series with 1957 Chevy and 1958 Chevy Impala, 15 Track Stars including the 2010 Formula Street series, the 10x10 series, the Thrill Racers series, and 22 HW Video Game Heroes which were packaged with codes for an internet computer game. The new series \"Team Hot Wheels\" appear in late 2011.\n\n2012\n2012 saw the release of 247 cars, beginning with the 2012 New Car Series which includes the Lamborghini Aventador, Ford Mustang Boss 302 Laguna Seca, KITT from Knight Rider, and the ever-popular Scooby-Doo Mystery Machine. 2012 also saw the release of two vehicles from the Angry Birds video game franchise, consisting of the Red Bird and the green Minion Pig.\n\n2013\n2013 saw the release of 250 cars including Stunt, Racing, Imagination, City, and Showroom, all of which contain sub-series. 2013 also saw a change in the look of the packaging cards which includes a quartet of helmeted motorcycle riders standing behind the flame logo and the Treasure Hunt series cards no longer marked with a treasure chest. Some of those cars include Rodzilla, Fangula, Twin Mill III (3), Bone Shaker and Baja Bone Shaker.\n\nGeneral Motors also released a special Chevrolet Camaro Hot Wheels Edition, which was a blue convertible that offered various Hot-Wheels-themed decorations throughout the car.\n\n2014\n2014 saw 250 mainstream cars released with similar segments to 2013. Various playsets and other non-car merchandise were also released this year. 2014 also marked the end of the license agreement between Mattel and Ferrari, meaning the 2014 release of Ferrari 5 Pack would be the last for Mattel, and the 2015 black Ferrari 599XX was the last Ferrari model appearing in mainstream, both regular model and its Treasure Hunt variant.\n\n2016\n2016 lineup was similar to 2015 and 2014 in terms of segments, and the design of the card was overhauled. Some car names were TBD (To Be Determined) or 2016 (Coming Soon). They're now divided into mini collections with their corresponding segments and their icons printed on the card. Some of them include HW Showroom, BMW (100th anniversary of BMW), HW Screen Time (Cars and characters seen on television, video games, and movies), and HW Snow Stormers. New models include the Cruise Bruiser, Side Ripper, Grass Chomper, and the '16 Acura NSX, while other models first see their release in the mainline series, such as the '52 Hudson Hornet.\n\n2017–present\n2017 saw a major change in casting numbering. Since that moment, recolors are named with a different number than the original, thus causing the number limit of cars to expand to 365. The idea of numbering a casting with a number corresponding to their own series was also aborted. There were also some new mainline series introduced, such as Experimotors (cars with moving parts, or a secondary purpose), Holiday Racers (cars that have a holiday based theme), Factory Fresh (a series including newer, sometimes older castings with fabric painting) and Camaro Fifty (a series dedicated to the Chevrolet Camaro, and its 50th anniversary).\nIn 2018, Hot Wheels celebrated its 50th anniversary. The style of the blister cards were changed again, depicting a city in the background of the car, thus emulating a \"Hot Wheels City\" theme. For that year, each blister card had a 50th Anniversary logo. Hot Wheels also launched several collector-focused lines for that year, including Favorites, which was a series that consisted of 11 highly detailed vehicles (which were based on real cars), all with metal bodies and rubber tires. For this year, Hot Wheels also launched a display case, which could hold up to 48 cars, and could either stand up on its own (via attachable \"feet\") or be mounted on a wall. Each display case came with an exclusive car.\nOn October 4, 2018, Hot Wheels filed a new trademark for the motto it's not the same without the flame. In 2019, a seal was added in the bottom left corner of the blister card with the motto.\nOn February 18, 2021, the Hot Wheels Mars Perseverance Rover was released; a die-cast scale model latest vehicle in its Space mini-collections inspired by the NASA-launched Perseverance rover.\nHot Wheels designer Ryu Asada died on March 23, 2021, at age 42, after years of suffering from cancer. That same year, Hot Wheels began a partnership with Milestone S.r.l. to release their first game, Hot Wheels Unleashed, in which came out on September 30, 2021.\nOn March 7, 2023, NBC ordered a reality competition series known as Hot Wheels: Ultimate Challenge with Rutledge Wood as host which premiered on May 30.\nOn September 28, 2023, Netflix announced Hot Wheels Let's Race, a new animated series adaptation which premiered on March 4, 2024.\n\nHot Wheels Legends Tour\nStarting in 2018, Hot Wheels launched a new program called the Hot Wheels Legends Tour. This program was originally launched to commemorate Hot Wheels's 50th anniversary. Each year, there are 18 Legends Tour events that are held at various Walmart locations across the United States. Over 111,000 people attend and about 5,000 cars are entered at those events. At each event, one car is picked to be recreated as a potential new Hot Wheels casting. After all the events for that year conclude, one finalist is then picked to be the winner, and their car then gets recreated as a new Hot Wheels casting next year. Hot Wheels are looking for vehicles that embody the fun and creative spirit of Hot Wheels, which is their main selling point.\n\nHot Wheels Legends Tour winners\n2018: Custom built \"2JetZ\", built by Luis Rodriguez\n2019: 1957 Nash Metropolitan \"The Nash\", built by Greg Salzillo and Dave Ford\n2020: 1970 Pontiac Trans Am, built by Riley Stair.\n2021: 1969 Volvo P1800 \"Ain't No Saint\", built by Lee Johnstone.\n2022: 1992 Autozam Scrum \"Texas Toot\", built by Craig Meaux\n2023: 1990 Mazda MX-5 Roadster \"Chimera\", built by Chris Watson\n\n\"Sweet 16\" line\nThe Sweet 16 was the first production line of Hot Wheels for the year 1968. The lineup consisted of the following:\n\nNotes\n\nCollectables\nThrough the years, Hot Wheels cars have been collected mostly by children. However, since the late 1990s, there has been an increase in the number of adult collectors. Mattel estimates that 41 million children grew up playing with the toys, the average collector has over 1,550 cars, and children between the ages of 5 and 15 have an average of 41 cars. Most believe the collecting craze started with the Treasure Hunts in 1995. Mike Strauss has been called the father of Hot Wheels collecting; he has organized two collectors' events each year in some form since 1986. The first event was the Annual Hot Wheels Collectors Convention, normally held each year in the fall. The convention occurred in various locations around the country until 2001, when the first Annual Hot Wheels Collectors Nationals was put together. Since then, the Conventions are held each year in southern California. The Hot Wheels Collectors Nationals rotate among cities outside of California during the spring. Strauss has also published the quarterly Hot Wheels Newsletter since 1986 and was one of the first to unite collectors all over the world. He also writesTomart's Price Guide To Hot Wheels, a book listing history, car descriptions and values, which is used by almost every collector to learn more about the hobby and their collection. Strauss sold his collection in 2011 and retired from the Hot Wheels Newsletter.\nThere are hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of web pages dedicated to Hot Wheels collecting. Collectors are seeking everything related to Hot Wheels, from only new castings to only Red Lines and everything in between. For the most part, it is a relatively inexpensive hobby, when compared with coin collecting, stamp collecting or Barbie collecting, with mainline cars costing about $0.97-$1.08 (USD) at retail. The price has not changed much in almost 40 years, although in real terms the models have dropped significantly in price (a Hot Wheels car cost $0.98 in 1968 and costs $0.98 today, in spite of inflation). After the cars are no longer available at retail the cost can vary significantly. A common car may sell for less than retail, while some of the more difficult cars can sell for many hundred or even thousands of dollars. The highest price paid for a Hot Wheels car was close to $70,000 in 2000 for a pre-production version of a Volkswagen Rear Loader Beach Bomb (the asking price was $72,000). The Beach Bomb is a VW microbus with a pair of surfboards poking out the rear window. This design failed initial testing, proving to be top-heavy and not functional with the Power Booster track accessory. A widened version with the surfboards mounted in side slots was designed and released for the 1969 model year, making the \"rear loader\" version a rarity and very sought-after piece. As of 2018, there are about 50 \"rear loaders\" known to exist.\n\nDates on cars\nThe date on the base of a Hot Wheels car (Example: ©2008 Mattel) is the copyright date for the casting of the car, not a production date or release year. The date is usually the year before the car was first released, but not always. For example, a car in the 2001 First Editions series called Evil Twin, was released in 2001 but the year dated on the bottom of the car is 2000. Sometimes, the copyright will be the same year as the casting's first release. This usually happens with cars released toward the end of a model year. There are a few cases where the copyright is several years before a car's first release. The copyright date will usually not change through the lifetime of a casting. For example, the Twin Mill, first released in 1969, still had a 1969 copyright date on the 2019 mainline releases of the car. If the tooling for a car has a major change at some point in its life, the copyright date might be changed or amended to reflect the change. For example, Quick Bite, first released in 1984 as the Good Humor Truck, had a tooling update before 2018, so its date reads 1983, '17 on the base of the 2018 release.\nThere are a few exceptions where the copyright date applies only to the base of a car instead of to the entire car. Those exceptions are mostly funny car castings where the same base was used with various different bodies over the years.\nSince the year 2008, Hot Wheels cars have had a code stamped or printed on the base. This is a \"base code\". This base code can be used to identify exactly when an individual car was produced in the Hot Wheels factory. The code begins with a letter, followed by a two-digit number. The letter for the year 2018 was \"L\". The letter is then followed by two numbers, which represent the week of that particular year the car was manufactured. For example, a car with the date stamp of \"L42\" was produced on the forty-second week of 2018.\nSome cars have 4-digit date codes on the base. These date codes are more specific than the 3-digit codes as they indicate the day a car was made instead of just the week. For the 4-digit codes, the first 3 digits indicate the day of the year and the last digit is the year. A date code of 1987 would indicate the car was made on the 198th day of 2017 (July 17). A code of 0250 would be the 25th day of 2010 (or 2020; depending on the car).\nDate codes only indicate when a specific car was made. They do not necessarily reflect the model release year of a particular car. Mainline production changes to the next model year right around the middle of the calendar year at the end of June/beginning of July. Premiums and other special series lines often run later in the calendar year before changing production to the next year.\n\nHot Wheels Classics\nThe Hot Wheels Classics line was an immediate hit with enthusiasts everywhere. The new line focused on muscle cars, hot rods, and other offbeat vehicles (such as a go-kart, a motor home and even an airplane), many from the company's first ten years (1968–78) of production. The series is also used to debut several different castings, such as the 1965 Chevy Malibu or the 1972 Ford Ranchero.\nSeries 1 from 2005 consisted of 25 models, each with all-metal body and chassis, decked out with Spectraflame paint, in packages similar to those used from 1968 to 1972. Each car had a retail price of about three to four dollars (USD) and each of the 25 cars were released with 7 or 8 different colors. Models included the 1957 Chevy Bel Air (pictured at the right), the 1963 Ford T-Bird, and the 1965 Pontiac GTO.\nThere were also track sets in similar retro packaging, and 1:18 scale Hot Wheels Classics. The Classics version of the Purple Passion was released with Real Riders tires at San Diego Comic-Con. Mattel also produced a Classics Olds 442 in Spectraflame blue for the 2005 Toy Fair.\nIn late 2005, Series 2 now consisted of 30 models including the 1967 Camaro Convertible, the 1969 Dodge Charger, and a 1965 Mustang GT. There was also supposed to be a separate Mustang Funny Car (as listed on the blisterpack rear checklist) but this was apparently changed to a Plymouth Barracuda Funny Car during production.\nIn 2006, a Series 3 line of Classics was introduced, again containing 30 models with multiple colors of each vehicle. Models included the '69 Pontiac Firebird, a Meyers Manx dune buggy, and the Richard Petty '70 Plymouth \"Superbird\".\nIn 2007, Series 4 debuted with just fifteen models. However, in recognition of the 40th anniversary there were two packaging versions available - models came with a collectible metal badge (featuring a portrait of the involved vehicle) or were sold alone as in the previous three series. Models included a VW Karmann Ghia, a '68 Mercury Cougar, and the \"Red Baron\" hot rod. For its 40th anniversary in 2008, Hot Wheels celebrated the making of its four billionth car with the production of a diamond-studded model worth US$140,000. It had 2,700 diamond chips, a total of almost 23 karats, and was cast in white gold, with rubies serving as taillights.\nIn 2009, Series 5 has 30 models. For the first time, there are chase cars in the classics series. These cars feature Real Riders rubber tires. A few models included are Copper Stopper, 1970 Pontiac GTO, and Hammer Sled.\n\nSpecial model lines\nHot Wheels has also released slightly larger, more detailed models, such as the original Gran Toros (1/43 scale) from 1970, and the Dropstars line (a model line of \"blinged\" cars). Also in this larger scale are the HIN (Hot Import Nights), G-Machines and Customs lines. These lines were introduced in 2004–2005.\nHot Wheels has produced many replica scale models in the industry standard 1/43, 1/24 and 1/18 scales. In 2004, it released a 1/12 scale replica of the C6 Corvette.\nHot Wheels also in the early 1990s introduced a series known as the California Customs. A line of cars that had a California theme.\nOther lines from Hot Wheels include: R-R-Rumblers & Chopcycles (motorcycles introduced in 1971), Hotbirds (metal airplanes), Sizzlers, XV Racers, Hot Tunerz and Stockerz.\nOver the years, Mattel has also teamed up with other retail organizations to produce special models available through those retailers. The list of retailers includes Avon, Chuck E. Cheese, Dinty Moore, FAO Schwarz, Full Grid, General Mills, Getty, HEB, Hills, Hormel, Hughes Family Markets, JC Penney, JC Whitney, Kay-Bee Toys, K-Mart, Kellogg's, Kool-Aid, Kroger, Lexmark, Liberty Promotions (contracted the series of special models for Jiffy Lube and Penske), Little Debbie Snacks, Malt-O-Meal, McDonald's, Mervyn's, Otter Pops, Rose's Discount Stores, Shell, Target, Tony's Pizza, Toys \"R\" Us, Union 76, Valvoline, Van de Kamp's, Walmart, and White's Guide to Collecting, as well as several Major League Baseball franchises to name a few.\nIn 2016, Hot Wheels released a special collection for the 50th anniversary of the Beatles’ 1966 song “Yellow Submarine.” The collections includes five cars, a VW microbus and a yellow submarine.\n\nMade by other companies\nIn some cases, Hot Wheels dies have been sold or acquired by other companies once Mattel has finished using them. One example were early dies that made their way to Argentina and were reproduced as Mukys, though not with spectra-flame paints or the same quality as seen in Mattel's products.\n\nHot Wheels Elite and Hot Wheels Mattel\nHot Wheels have a series named Hot Wheels Elite and Hot Wheels Mattel. The Elite Hot Wheels are 1:18, 1:43 and 1:50 highly detailed diecast; the majority of them being based on Ferraris. They are more expensive than the Mattel models which aren't as highly detailed. The Elite versions are licensed by Ferrari. The Hot Wheels Elite series have a \"mini\" series which can be seen on the website. Two of the popular limited 1:18 Hot Wheels Elite series' are the Ferrari in Music and Cult Classics. The music series features singers' and rappers' Ferraris, including Jamiroquai's Jay Kay's Black Enzo Ferrari.\n\nCar Culture\nIn 2016, Hot Wheels started a new line of Collector's models, in a line called Car Culture. Car Culture is Hot Wheels' line of Premium 1:64 models with metal bodies and bases, two-piece wheels with rubber tires, and more detailed decorations. Intended for adult collectors primarily, these models retail for roughly 6-7 times the cost of a mainstream 1:64 Hot Wheels model. These cars retail for over three times the retail price of a \"basic\" car, and are produced in significantly fewer numbers.\nThis line debuted with the release of \"Japan Historics\", a set of five Japanese sports cars. Every year at least four more sets are introduced. All Car Culture sets have five cars, and often have new castings created for the sets. The number five spot in the set is usually reserved for the newest casting in the set. Car Culture cars are typically based on real automobiles; however in 2018, Hot Wheels introduced a set called \"Team Transport\", which included some fantasy truck castings. The fact that some of the trucks are unlicensed allows the castings to be universally used in any Team Transport set regardless of theme (for example, a Chevrolet-branded truck would not make sense in a Ford-themed set). Although \"Team Transport\" is labeled under the Car Culture line, they are a separate category of Car Culture vehicles than the usual 5-car sets, possessing different barcodes and prices.\nIn 2018, for Hot Wheels' 50th Anniversary, Car Culture card sizes were increased, along with the amount of decorations on the cars. A Hot Wheels \"50th anniversary\" logo was also placed beside the set's name on the packaging.\n\nTreasure Hunt series\nTreasure Hunt (sometimes T-Hunt) is a line of Hot Wheels cars, introduced by Mattel in 1995. It consisted of 12 cars every year (15 beginning in 2011) with one or two released per month. The original production run was 10,000 of each car worldwide; that number has since risen due to the increasing demand for and popularity of Hot Wheels as a collector's item.\n\nTreasure Hunt vehicles are identifiable by a label on the package. The blister card said \"Treasure Hunt\" or \"T-Hunt\" on a green bar, sometimes with an illustration of a treasure chest. Since 2013, Treasure Hunts do not have the green stripe anymore; instead, the cars are recognizable with a \"flame in a circle logo\" on the vehicle and behind it on the card. The cars were decorated with flashy designs and special \"rubber\" wheels before 2007.\nIn 2007, Mattel introduced a two-tiered Treasure Hunt system. A regular Treasure Hunt will feature normal enamel paint and normal wheels like other Hot Wheels cars. The production of these is rumored to be greater than previous T-Hunts. \"Super\" Treasure Hunts are much harder to find. Like Treasure Hunts of the past, a Super Treasure Hunt features premium wheels and Spectraflame paint, as well as (starting in 2015), a golden-colored circle-flame logo printed on the card behind the car. Many Hot Wheels collectors have noticed in recent times that the US Basic mixes are more likely to have a Super Treasure Hunt in them compared to International Mixes.\nBefore 2013, all 12 Treasure Hunt cars of a year were released in both regular and super versions. In 2012, Super Treasure Hunts came with special paint and wheels, but with series designation on the card. However, the regular T-hunts retained a special T-Hunt series card. Mattel stopped using special cards for all Treasure Hunts in 2013. Some U.S. releases in 2014 had the phrase \"This symbol on the vehicle lets you know it is hard to find and highly collectible\". However, in 2016, this was changed to \"Congratulations! This symbol means you just found a collectable treasure-hunt car!\". This would be under a silver flame logo on the card for T-Hunts. In 2015, Supers featured a gold logo on the card. Generally, Hot Wheels has targeted both kids and adults with the T-Hunt series, focusing more on the adult collecting market with Supers.\n\nLive-action film adaptation\nOn January 30, 2003, Columbia Pictures announced they had gained exclusive rights to developing a feature film based on the toy line Hot Wheels with McG attached to direct. Although unwritten, the premise involved a young man \"trying to reconcile with his father. It's a kid who steals his dad's racecar and ends up going through a sort of Back to the Future portal into this world, and he has to reconcile his relationship with his father.\" In 2006, McG said that he dropped out as director and chose to produce instead. The film was to be produced by Columbia Pictures, Flying Glass of Milk Films and Silver Pictures, under license to Mattel.\nIn 2009, with no recent developments, the film was put into turnaround, and the rights were handed over to Warner Bros. Pictures. Joel Silver took over producing with Matt Nix writing the script.\nOn June 17, 2011, it was announced that Legendary Pictures was developing a film based on Hot Wheels due to the success of Fast Five by developing an edgier film. On July 10, 2013, Simon Crane and Juan Carlos Fresnadillo were named as the frontrunners to direct the film, with Art Marcum and Matt Holloway writing the film, intended to be more Mission: Impossible than The Fast and the Furious. On September 28, 2016, Justin Lin signed on to direct the film, which will be produced through his production company Perfect Storm Entertainment. On August 1, 2017, Lin revealed that the film was still in development. It was speculated that the film would be released as an animated direct sequel to 2003's Hot Wheels: World Race and will be receive additional animation development from Playground Games who collaborated with Mattel in 2017 to create the Forza Horizon 3: Hot Wheels video game. However the option expired and returned to Mattel.\nIn late January 2019, Mattel Films and Warner Bros. Pictures agreed to partner on a Hot Wheels film.\nIt was announced on September 25, 2020, by The Hollywood Reporter that Warner Bros. has hired Neil Widener and Gavin James to write the film.\nOn April 25, 2022, it was announced that Bad Robot will produce the film. On January 23, 2023, Dalton Leeb and Nicholas Jacobson-Larson were announced to write the film.\n\nSizzlers\nThe Sizzlers were a 1970s Hot Wheels spin off with a built-in motor and a tiny rechargeable battery. (The X-V racers of the 1990s were similar.) They were introduced in 1970 and became immediately popular. Sizzlers run on the regular \"orange\" Hot Wheels track, and Mattel created special race sets with U-Turns, multi-level spirals and loops to take advantage of the cars' electric motor. Two lane race sets such as the California/8 race set were developed that allowed Sizzlers to race side-by side, until Mattel created the black Fat Track which is three lanes wide with steep banked curves and designed to allow Sizzlers to run free. In action, Sizzlers supposedly display a unique, competitive \"passing action\" when running on the Fat Track, as if each car were piloted by an impatient driver trying to jockey ahead of the rest. The Fat Track sets included the \"Big O\", \"California 500\", and \"Super Circuit\" race sets, and accessories such as the \"Scramble Start\" (a four-car starting gate), \"Lap Computer\" four car lap counter, and \"Race-Timer\" stop watch.\nSix cars were made in 1970, 12 cars were made in 1971, and 4 cars were made in 1972. The \"Fat Daddy\" Sizzlers (oversized bodies with huge tires) were introduced in 1973. Mattel put the Sizzlers on a hiatus after that year, and in 1976 they created Sizzlers II. That next year, the Night Ridin' Sizzlers (which had headlights you could turn on or off) were created. Mattel permanently stopped Sizzlers production in 1978. They were replaced by another spin off named Scorchers. The Scorchers were \"pull back\" cars which wound a clock spring when pulled backwards a short distance, which then propelled them forward for several feet.\nSizzlers are charged with four or two D battery chargers called the Juice Machine and Goose Pump respectively. Later, the Power Pit was introduced—which was an electric charger that plugged into any household AC outlet and resembled a race track garage or pit stop. A 90-second charge of the tiny internal NiCad battery gives up to five minutes of useful run time. It was claimed by advertisers that the 90-second charge time was \"the longest minute and a half in a kid's life\" as they waited impatiently for the car to charge sufficiently to get back into the race.\nThe Sizzler electric technology spun off into the Hotline Trains, which ran on track similar to regular Hot Wheels, and the Earthshakers construction vehicles. Both lines of vehicles were charged using the Sizzler Juice Machine or Power Pit.\nIn the 1990s, Mattel's trademark on the \"Sizzlers\" name had lapsed and toy company Playing Mantis released a new Sizzlers line based around NASCAR stock car models and copied the Fat Track as the \"Stocker 400\" and \"Mach 500\" track sets to capitalize on the booming popularity of NASCAR in that decade. The Juice Machine was renamed the \"Mega-Charger\" and incorporated a more efficient \"trickle charge\" rather than the \"dump charge\" of the original machines. Interest in the toys began to increase once again. They were taken off the market after Mattel filed a lawsuit against Playing Mantis. However, Sizzlers returned again in 2006, when Mattel struck an exclusive deal with Target stores to re-release Sizzlers cars, the \"Big O\" Fat track, Juice Machine and car carrying case—all in the original packaging from the 1970s. As of January 2009, the Sizzlers line has been discontinued by Target.\nIn 2011, Sizzlers have been re-released as Cars 2 characters, and were sold at Target stores. This line was called Charge Ups and released under the Mattel brand name but not as part of the Hot Wheels line.\n\nPromotion and sponsorships\nHot Wheels appeared in the 2016 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade.\n\nMotorsports\nStarting in 1970, professional drag racers Don Prudhomme (\"The Snake\") and Tom McEwen (\"The Mongoose\") were sponsored by Hot Wheels, and later on, Hot Wheels created the Snake and Mongoose Drag Set in 1970. Later somewhere in 1972, the second versions of both driver's self-titled funny cars were released, when McEwen had the Mongoose 2, and Prudhomme had the Snake 2. The drag set remained the same. Then, Hot Wheels made rail-type dragster versions of them, based on the actual funny cars and was featured in the Wild Wheelie Set. Later in Hot Wheels' lifespan, the normal drag set with Snake and Mongoose were still being produced. The latest set with the Snake and Mongoose is in the Drag-Strip Demons lineup.\nIn 1970, Hot Wheels sponsored Trans-Am Series driver Dan Gurney and his All American Racers car. In 1992, Hot Wheels sponsored the Trans-Am car of Jack Baldwin as he went on to win that year's championship. Hot Wheels signed a sponsorship deal in 1997 with NASCAR driver Kyle Petty and the No. 44 PE2 Motorsports car and thus began making replicas of NASCAR stock cars. Three years later, Hot Wheels joined the Craftsman Truck Series team of Carlos Contreras and the No. 12 truck. In 2004, Hot Wheels sponsored the No. 99 car of Jeff Burton for one race at Darlington Raceway. Six years later, the company returned to NASCAR to sponsor the No. 7 JR Motorsports car of Danica Patrick at Michigan International Speedway. Hot Wheels made another one-off sponsorship in 2021 for NASCAR driver Jade Buford's No. 48 Big Machine Racing Team car at Darlington Raceway; Buford's paint scheme for the race was modeled after Gurney's Trans-Am car.\nIn 1999, Hot Wheels partnered with five Formula One teams to manufacture scale model Formula One cars. In 2016, Hot Wheels opened the Race to Win exhibit at The Children's Museum of Indianapolis to promote the 100th Indianapolis 500.\nFrom 1999 to 2018, Hot Wheels had a Monster Jam license to release monster truck diecasts and field a Hot Wheels-themed truck in the real-life shows. The partnership ended in 2019 after Feld Entertainment signed a new ten year toy licensing deal with Spin Master for Monster Jam, diecast production stopped and the Hot Wheels team retired. Soon after, Hot Wheels created the Hot Wheels Monster Trucks line and the Hot Wheels Monster Trucks Live show with the non-Monster Jam owned version of the Bigfoot truck as a competitor. Monster Jam claimed this as a plagiarism, causing controversy.\nAt the 2002 24 Hours of Le Mans, Hot Wheels logos appeared on the sidepods of the pair of MG-Lola EX257 prototypes entered by MG Sport & Racing.\nHot Wheels is a partner and sponsor of the Australian stunt rider Matt Mingay's Stuntz Inc team, and also sponsors him in the Stadium Super Trucks. After Mingay suffered serious facial injuries at the Detroit Belle Isle Grand Prix in 2016, Robby Gordon drove the No. 2 Hot Wheels truck at the Townsville Street Circuit. Hot Wheels and Castrol returned to support Mingay when he made his racing return in 2020.\n\nVideo games\nVarious video games based on Hot Wheels have been released for numerous consoles, PC's and mobile devices:\n\nPinball\nA coin-operated pinball machine based on Hot Wheels cars and the Hot Wheels City YouTube series was released by American Pinball in June 2020.\n\nSee also\nModel car\nHotwheels sisyphus, a species of ground spider named for the brand\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
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"paragraph_text": "Ruth Marianna Handler (née Mosko; November 4, 1916 – April 27, 2002) was an American business magnate and inventor. She is best known for inventing the Barbie doll in 1959, and being co-founder of toy manufacturer Mattel with her husband Elliot, as well as serving as the company's first president from 1945 to 1975.\nThe Handlers were forced to resign from Mattel in 1975 after the Securities and Exchange Commission investigated the company for falsifying financial documents.\nHandler was prominently characterized in the 2023 film Barbie.\n\nEarly life\nRuth Marianna Mosko was born on November 4, 1916 in Denver, Colorado, to Polish-Jewish immigrants Jacob Moskowicz, a blacksmith, and Ida Moskowicz (née-Rubenstein). She was the youngest of ten children. When she was six months old, her parents sent her to live with her older sister Sarah. She stayed with Sarah until she was 19 and developed an enthusiasm for business by working at Sarah’s drugstore/soda fountain.\nIn 1932, Ruth fell in love with Izzy Handler, an art student. The summer of her sophomore year at University of Denver, she went to Los Angeles and landed a job at Paramount Studio. Ruth and Izzy married in 1938 in Denver. Returning to California, Ruth encouraged her husband to become known by his middle name, Elliot. Ruth returned to work at Paramount and Elliot was employed as a lighting fixture designer.\n\nMattel\nElliot became interested in furniture-making, and decided to make furniture from two plastics, Lucite and Plexiglas. At Ruth's suggestion, they started a furniture business where Ruth was in charge of sales, and she landed contracts with businesses such as Douglas Aircraft Company.\nBusiness executive Harold \"Matt\" Matson joined the Handlers' company, which they renamed Mattel by combining \"Matson\" and \"Elliot\". (Elliot later said that they were unable to think of a way to include Ruth's name.) When sales fell during World War II, Mattel began making toy furniture. Its success spurred the company's transition to toy manufacturing.\n\nBarbie\nObserving her daughter Barbara and friends having fun with paper dolls and role-play adult scenarios, Ruth noticed a market void. Dolls available at that time were mainly babies and toddlers; no dolls were available that resembled adults.\nDuring a trip to Europe in 1956 with Barbara and her son Kenneth, Ruth came across Bild Lilli, a German doll. In an interview with Mary G. Lord, author of Forever Barbie, Handler said that she saw the doll in Lucerne, Switzerland. However, the book points out that on other occasions Handler said that she saw it in Zürich or Vienna. The adult-figured doll was exactly what Ruth had in mind. She purchased three, gave one to her daughter, and took the others to Mattel. The Lilli doll was based on a popular character in a satirical comic strip drawn by Reinhard Beuthin for the newspaper Bild. The Lilli doll was first sold in 1955 in Germany, and although initially sold to adults, it became popular with children who enjoyed dressing it in outfits that were available separately.\nOn return to the US, Handler redesigned the doll with help from local inventor-designer Jack Ryan. She named the doll Barbie after her daughter Barbara, and said that Barbie was from Willows, Wisconsin. Premiering on March 9, 1959 at the American International Toy Fair in New York City, the first Barbie doll cost $3 and was an instant hit. In its first year, 300,000 were sold. \nThe Handlers and Mattel later added a boyfriend for Barbie, named Ken after the Handlers' son. Eventually a huge range of Barbie dolls was released, portrayed with more than 125 careers, and Barbie became known for her versatility and fashion. The Handlers added cars, sports gear, clothes, and doll furniture to their Barbie products.\n\nLater years\nHandler was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1970. She had a modified radical mastectomy, which was often done at the time to combat the disease. She spent less time at Mattel to focus on improving her health. Her loss of self-esteem affected her leadership, and she lost control of her business. In a 1980 interview, she said: \"When I conceived Barbie, I believed it was important to a little girl’s self-esteem to play with a doll that [had] breasts. Now I find it even more important to return that self-esteem to women who have lost theirs.”\nDue to difficulties in finding a good breast prosthesis, Handler decided to make her own. With the help of new business partner Peyton Massey, and under her new company, Ruthton Corp., she manufactured a more realistic version of a woman's breast called Nearly Me, aiming to boost women's confidence regardless of their health. The invention became quite popular; first lady Betty Ford was fitted for one after a mastectomy.\nHandler received various awards for her philanthropy and business activities. She was chosen Woman of the Year in Business by the Los Angeles Times, inducted into the Toy Industry Hall of Fame by the Toy Manufacturers of America, received the Volunteer Achievement Award from the American Cancer Society, and was the inaugural Woman of Distinction of the United Jewish Appeal.\nFollowing several investigations into fraudulent financial reports, Handler resigned from Mattel in 1975. Investigations continued, and she was charged with fraud and false reporting by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. She pleaded no contest and was fined $57,000 (equivalent to $270,000 in 2023) and sentenced to 2,500 hours of community service. She blamed her illness for making her \"unfocused\" on her business.\nHandler died on April 27, 2002 in California from complications during surgery for colon cancer. She was 85.\n\nIn popular culture\nHandler is portrayed in the 2023 film Barbie by actress Rhea Perlman. In the film, the ghost of an elderly Handler resides in an office on the 17th floor of Mattel headquarters in Los Angeles. There she meets the movie's stereotypical Barbie (Margot Robbie). Later, while advising Barbie, Handler tells her about her creation and how it related to her daughter, Barbara. Barbie then takes the name \"Barbara Handler\" as her own.\nThe film stirred a wave of media coverage of Handler.\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nForman-Brunell, Miriam. \"Barbie in\" LIFE\": The Life of Barbie.\" Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 2.3 (2009): 303-311. online\nGerber, Robin. Barbie and Ruth: The Story of the World's Most Famous Doll and the Woman Who Created Her. Harper/Collins, 2008.\nWeissman, Kristin Noelle. Barbie: The Icon, the Image, the Ideal: An Analytical Interpretation of the Barbie Doll in Popular Culture (1999).\nWepman, Dennis. \"Handler, Ruth\" American National Biography (2000) online\n\nExternal links\n\nRuth Handler at IMDb\ndoi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1002288",
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"paragraph_text": "Elliot Handler (April 9, 1916 – July 21, 2011) was an American inventor, business magnate, and the co-founder of Mattel. With his wife, Ruth Handler, he developed some of the biggest-selling toys in American history, including Barbie, Chatty Cathy, Creepy Crawlers, and Hot Wheels.\n\nEarly life\nIsadore \"Izzy\" Elliot Handler was born to a Jewish family in Chicago, Illinois, on April 9, 1916. Handler's parents were Ukrainian Jews who largely spoke Yiddish within their household. The family moved out of Chicago, and Handler grew up on the west side of Denver, Colorado. He studied industrial design at the Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. In 1929, he met his future wife Ruth Mosko at a B'nai B'rith dance for teenagers. They dated on and off for years, and were married in June 1938. Shortly after their marriage, his new wife Ruth requested he change his name: partially due to her preferring his middle name \"Elliot\" over \"Izzy\", and partially from her fears of American antisemitism toward an obviously Jewish name like Isadore. He complied. The couple had two children: Barbara, who was the namesake of Barbie dolls; and Kenneth, the namesake of Ken dolls. While a struggling art student and designer of light fixtures, Handler partnered with Harold Matson to design a realistic-looking miniature piano that received roughly 300,000 orders; however, they mispriced the product and lost a dime on each one produced.\n\nMattel\nMattel received its name from business partners Harold \"Matt\" Matson and Elliot Handler in 1945. Elliot's wife, Ruth, took Matson's role when the Handlers bought his share in the late 1940s.\nHandler holds credit for developing the first talking doll Chatty Cathy, using a pull string talking mechanism, revolutionizing the toy industry. Mattel continued to develop a number of talking toys, including Chatty Baby, Tiny Chatty Baby, and Charmin' Chatty. Toys were made for cartoon favorites such as Bugs Bunny and Porky Pig, and for television characters such as Herman Munster and Mr. Ed. \nWhen Handler's daughter Barbara married Allan Segal, they created Allan, Ken's friend. The 1965 talking doll Baby Cheryl was named after the Handlers' first grandchild, and the Todd doll in the Barbie line was named after their grandson.\nHandler was primarily responsible for two additional Mattel product lines. In 1966, Mattel introduced smaller dolls called Liddle Kiddles. Handler claimed he wanted them to resemble little children in neighborhoods across America. They were sculpted by doll artist Martha Armstrong-Hand. Kiddles were a great success and continued to be produced in different versions until the early 1970s. Another product line was Hot Wheels, introduced in 1968, which gave rise to 10,000 different models.\nFirst called Mattel Creations, the company has become the largest toy maker in the world in terms of revenue. In April 2006, Mattel honored Handler with a 90th birthday party at its headquarters in El Segundo, California. Guests included his daughter Barbara Segal, the namesake of the Barbie doll.\n\nPersonal life\nHandler died of heart failure at home in Century City, a district of Los Angeles, California, at age 95 on July 21, 2011. Ruth Handler, Elliot's wife, died in 2002; their son Ken died in 1994.\n\nNotes\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Elliot_Handler"
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] | What was the age difference between the inventor of Barbie and the inventor of Hot Wheels? | [] | 6 months and 26 days. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Dippin' Dots is an American ice cream snack invented by Curt Jones in 1988. The confection is created by flash freezing ice cream mix in liquid nitrogen. The snack is made by Dippin' Dots, Inc., headquartered in Paducah, Kentucky. Dippin' Dots are sold in 14 countries, including Honduras and Luxembourg.\nBecause the product requires storage at temperatures below −40 °C (−40 °F), it is not sold in most grocery stores, as most cannot meet such extreme cooling requirements.\nDippin' Dots are sold in individual servings at franchised outlets. Many are in stadiums, arenas, shopping malls, and in vending machines, though there are also locations at aquariums, zoos, museums and theme parks.\n\nHistory\nDippin' Dots was founded in Paducah, Kentucky, in 1988. Jones began the company in his parents' garage. It was originally invented as cow feed when Jones, who specialized in cryogenics, was trying to make efficient fodder for farm animals.\nThe company is now headquartered in Paducah, Kentucky.\nIn 1992, Dippin' Dots received U.S. patent 5,126,156 for its ice cream making process, and in 1996 unsuccessfully sued its main competitor, Mini Melts, for patent infringement, losing the suit in February 2007.\nJapan became the first international licensee of Dippin' Dots in 1995.\nIn 2007, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office ruled against Dippin' Dots because the process of creating the ice cream was \"obvious\" rather than proprietary.\nOn November 4, 2011, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, after failing to reach an agreement with their lender, Regions Bank. According to The New York Times, the bank had been trying to foreclose on Dippin' Dots for over a year.\nOn May 18, 2012, U.S. Bankruptcy Court approved the purchase of the company by Scott Fischer and his father Mark Fischer. The Fischers had co-founded Chaparral Energy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. They retained company founder Curt Jones as CEO, and planned to expand from 1,600 sales locations to 2,000 locations, keeping the production and headquarters in Paducah, where it employed 165 people.\nIn mid-2014, the company purchased gourmet popcorn franchisor Doc Popcorn, which had about 100 stores. On February 10, 2015, the company announced they would co-brand stores with both products. The 1,000-square-foot stores would sell Dippin' Dots and Doc Popcorn, with a common selling counter, register and employees.\nIn May 2022, J & J Snack Foods Corp. announced that it was going to acquire Dippin’ Dots for $222 million, and the acquisition was closed on June 21, 2022.\n\nCharity work\nDippin' Dots has sponsored the \"Celebrity Grand Slam Paddle Jam\" celebrity table tennis tournament in Hollywood, whose proceeds benefit St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee.\nThe company is a contributor to the charity Give Kids the World Village in Kissimmee, Florida.\n\nDD Cryogenics\nDippin' Dots are stored and transported at –40 degree Fahrenheit (–40 °C), which is colder than most frozen foods require. The company's development of ultra low temperature freezers, proper storage and transportation got the company involved from about 1988 with selling their equipment for other uses, such as preserving microbiological cultures for fermentation.\nTo expand this side business after the 2011 bankruptcy and sale, a subsidiary company, Dippin' Dot (DD) Cryogenics LLC, was established in May 2019. DD Cryogenics did contract freezing and pelletizing of microbiological products out of their Paducah plant. In August 2020 a new dedicated 6,000 square foot, US$3.2 million manufacturing plant came online in Paducah.\nTheir services now include contract design and manufacturing, cryogenic processors, and ultra low temperature freezers.\n\nVaccine storage\nDD's creation of ultra low temperature freezing for their own food products, and commercial freezers going as low as −122 °F (−86 °C), sparked interest when vaccines were developed for COVID-19 that required storage at -94 °F (-70 °C). Pharmacists and distributors of those vaccines reached out for those freezers.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website",
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"paragraph_text": "Paducah ( pə-DOO-kə) is a home rule-class city in the Upland South, and the county seat of McCracken County, Kentucky, United States. The largest city in the Jackson Purchase region, it is located in the Southeastern United States at the confluence of the Tennessee and the Ohio rivers, halfway between St. Louis, Missouri, to the northwest and Nashville, Tennessee, to the southeast. As of the 2020 census, the population was 27,137, up from 25,024 in 2010. Twenty blocks of the city's downtown have been designated as a historic district and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.\nPaducah is the principal city of the Paducah metropolitan area, which includes McCracken, Ballard, Carlisle and Livingston counties in Kentucky and Massac County in Illinois. The total population of the metro area was 103,481 in 2020. The Paducah–Mayfield combined statistical area had a total population of 140,138.\n\nHistory\nEarly history\nPaducah was first settled as \"Pekin\" around 1821 by European Americans James and William Pore. The town was laid out by explorer and surveyor William Clark in 1827 and renamed Paducah.\nAlthough local lore long connected this name to an eponymous Chickasaw chief \"Paduke\" and his band of \"Paducahs\", authorities on the Chickasaw have since said that there was never any chief or tribe of that name, or anything like it. The Chickasaw language does not have related words. Instead, historians believe that Clark named the town for the Comanche people of the western plains. They were known by regional settlers as the Padoucas, from a Spanish transliteration of the Kaw word Pádoka or the Omaha Pádoⁿka.\n\nIncorporation, steamboats and railroads\nPaducah was formally established as a town in 1830 and incorporated as a city by the state legislature in 1838. The city charter was drafted by Quintus Quincy Quigley and H. Clay King in 1856.\nBy this time, steam boats traversed the river system, and its port facilities were important to trade and transportation. In addition, developing railroads began to enter the region. A factory for making red bricks, and a foundry for making rail and locomotive components became the nucleus of a thriving \"River and Rail\" economy. Paducah became the site of dry dock facilities for steamboats and towboats, and thus headquarters for many barge companies. Because of its proximity to coalfields further to the east in Kentucky and north in Illinois, Paducah also became an important railway hub for the Illinois Central Railroad. This was the primary north–south railway connecting the industrial cities of Chicago and East St. Louis to the Gulf of Mexico at Gulfport, Mississippi, and New Orleans, Louisiana. The Illinois Central system also provided east–west links to the Burlington Northern and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railways (which later merged to become the BNSF Railway).\nIn 1924 the Illinois Central Railroad began construction at Paducah of their largest locomotive workshop in the nation. Over a period of 190 days, a large ravine between Washington and Jones streets was filled with 44,560 carloads of dirt to enlarge the site, sufficient for the construction of 23 buildings. The eleven million dollar project was completed in 1927 as the fourth-largest industrial plant in Kentucky. The railroad became the largest employer in Paducah, having 1,075 employees in 1938.\nAs steam locomotives were replaced through the 1940s and 1950s, the Paducah shops were converted to maintain diesel locomotives. A nationally known rebuilding program for aging diesel locomotives from Illinois Central and other railroads began in 1967. The shops became part of the Paducah and Louisville Railway in 1986. In the early 21st century, they are operated by VMV Paducahbilt.\n\nCivil War\nAt the outset of the Civil War, Kentucky attempted to take a neutral position. However, when a Confederate force occupied Columbus, a Union force under General Ulysses S. Grant responded by occupying Paducah. Throughout most of the war, Col. Stephen G. Hicks was in charge of Paducah, and the town served as a massive supply depot for Federal forces along the Ohio, Mississippi, and Tennessee river systems.\nOn December 17, 1862, under the terms of General Order No. 11, US forces required 30 Jewish families to leave their long-established homes. Grant was trying to break up a black market in cotton, in which he assumed Jewish traders were involved due to racial stereotyping associated with anti-Semitic tropes. Cesar Kaskel, a prominent local Jewish businessman, dispatched a telegram of complaint to President Lincoln and met with him. As there were similar actions taken by other Jewish businessmen and loud complaints by Congress about the treatment of their constituents, Lincoln ordered the policy to be revoked within a few weeks.\nOn March 25, 1864, Confederate Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest raided Paducah as part of his campaign northward from Mississippi into Western Tennessee and Kentucky. He intended to re-supply the Confederate forces in the region with recruits, ammunition, medical supplies, horses and mules, and especially to disrupt the Union domination of the regions south of the Ohio River. Known as the Battle of Paducah, the raid was successful in terms of the re-supply effort and in intimidating the Union, but Forrest returned south. According to his report, \"I drove the enemy to their gunboats and fort; and held the city for ten hours, captured many stores and horses; burned sixty bales of cotton, one steamer, and a drydock, bringing out fifty prisoners.\" Much of the fighting took place around Fort Anderson on the city's west side, in the present-day Lower Town neighborhood; most buildings in the neighborhood postdate the war, as most of the neighborhood was demolished soon after the battle to deny any future raids the advantage of surprise that they had enjoyed during the battle. Among the few houses that were not destroyed is the David Yeiser House, a single-story Greek Revival structure.\nLater having read in the newspapers that 140 fine horses had escaped the raid, Forrest sent Brigadier General Abraham Buford back to Paducah, to get the horses and to keep Union forces busy there while he attacked Fort Pillow in Tennessee. His forces were charged with a massacre of United States Colored Troops among the Union forces whom they defeated at the fort. On April 14, 1864, Buford's men found the horses hidden in a Paducah foundry, as reported by the newspapers. Buford rejoined Forrest with the spoils, leaving the Union in control of Paducah until the end of the War.\n\n1937 flood\nIn a far-reaching flood, on January 21, 1937, the Ohio River at Paducah rose above its 50-foot (15 m) flood stage, cresting at 60.8 feet (18.5 m) on February 2 and receding again to 50 feet on February 15. For nearly three weeks, 27,000 residents were forced to flee or to stay with friends and relatives on higher ground in McCracken or other counties. The American Red Cross and local churches provided some shelters. Buildings in downtown Paducah still bear historic plaques that define the high water marks.\nDriven by 18 inches (460 mm) of rainfall in 16 days, along with sheets of swiftly moving ice, the Ohio River flood of 1937 was the worst natural disaster in Paducah's history and elsewhere in the Ohio Valley. The earthen levee was ineffective against this flood. As a result, Congress authorized the United States Army Corps of Engineers to build the flood wall that now protects the city.\n\nAtomic City\nIn 1950, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission selected Paducah as the site for a new uranium enrichment plant. Construction began in 1951 and the plant opened for operations in 1952. Originally operated by Union Carbide, the plant has changed hands several times. Martin Marietta, its successor company Lockheed-Martin, and now the United States Enrichment Corporation have operated the plant in turn. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), successor to the AEC, remains the owner. The plant was closed in June 2013, and the Department of Energy began the process of decontaminating and shutting down the facilities.\n\nQuilt City\nOn April 25, 1991, the National Quilt Museum opened in downtown Paducah. Paducah has been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of craft and folk art since November 2013. The national quilt show takes place yearly at the Schroeder Expo Center. The American Quilter's Society hosts a week of quilt shows with quilt classes, fabric shops and a variety of vendors. They host a variety of award-winning quilts from across the country. The show features exhibits that include hand pieced and appliqued quilts, Kentucky heritage quilts, and Paducah contest quilts.\n\nThe Heath shooting\nOn December 1, 1997, 14-year-old Michael Carneal brought five loaded guns to Heath High School and shot a group of fellow students in the school's lobby as they were leaving a prayer group before school. Three students, all girls, were killed and five others were wounded; one of the wounded was left a paraplegic. Carneal subsequently received a sentence of life with the possibility of parole after 25 years. In 2022, the Kentucky Parole Board denied his bid for parole.\n\nGeography\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 20.0 square miles (52 km2), of which 19.9 square miles (52 km2) is land and 0.10 square miles (0.26 km2), comprising 0.52%, is water.\n\nClimate\nPaducah has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa) with four distinct seasons and is located in USDA hardiness zone 7a. Spring-like conditions typically begin in mid-to-late March, summer from mid-to-late-May to late September, with fall in the October–November period. Seasonal extremes in both temperature and precipitation are common during early spring and late fall; severe weather is also common, with occasional tornado outbreaks in the region. Winter typically brings a mix of rain, sleet, and snow, with occasional heavy snowfall and icing. The city has a normal January mean temperature of 34.6 °F (1.4 °C) and averages 13 days annually with temperatures staying at or below freezing; the first and last freezes of the season on average fall on October 25 and April 8, respectively. Summer is typically hazy, hot, and humid with a July daily average of 78.9 °F (26.1 °C) and drought conditions at times. Paducah averages 48 days a year with high temperatures at or above 90 °F (32 °C). Snowfall averages 8.9 inches (23 cm) per season, contributing to the average annual precipitation of 50.32 inches (1,280 mm). Extremes in temperature range from 108 °F (42 °C) on July 17, 1942, and June 29, 2012, down to −15 °F (−26 °C) on January 20, 1985. Paducah is prone to river flooding from the Ohio River, and as of late February 2018, the river had been expected to crest at 49 feet on February 28.\n\nDemographics\n2020 census\nAs of the 2020 United States Census, there were 27,137 people, 11,330 households, and 5,561 families residing in the city.\n\n2010 census\nAs of the census of 2010, there were 25,024 people, 11,462 households, and 6,071 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,251.0 inhabitants per square mile (483.0/km2). There were 12,851 housing units at an average density of 642.5 per square mile (248.1/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 70.99% White, 23.67% African American, 0.22% Native American, 1.02% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.07% from other races, and 3.01% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 2.68% of the population.\nThere were 11,462 households, out of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.5% were married couples living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.0% were non-families. 41.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.09 and the average family size was 2.84.\nIn the city, the population was spread out, with 21.8% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 18.2% who were 65 or older. The median age was 41.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.2 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $31,220, and the median income for a family was $42,645. Males had a median income of $36,778 versus $27,597 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,430. About 18.1% of families and 22.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.3% of those under age 18 and 12.8% of those age 65 or over.\n\n2000 census\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 26,307 people, 11,825 households, and 6,645 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,350.2 inhabitants per square mile (521.3/km2). There were 13,221 housing units at an average density of 678.6 per square mile (262.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 72.78% White, 24.15% African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.64% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.55% from other races, and 1.56% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.38% of the population.\nThere were 11,825 households, out of which 25.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 16.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% were non-families. 39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.84.\nIn the city the population was spread out, with 22.5% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 20.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.9 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $26,137, and the median income for a family was $34,092. Males had a median income of $32,783 versus $21,901 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,417. About 18.0% of families and 22.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.8% of those under age 18 and 16.8% of those age 65 or over.\n\nEconomy\nDippin' Dots, the Paducah & Louisville Railway and several barge companies have their headquarters in Paducah.\nThe river continues to be a prominent source of industry for Paducah. Twenty-three barge companies have their operating or corporate headquarters in Paducah. In 2017, the city of Paducah opened a 340-foot transient boat dock that provides space for transient boaters to tie up for a few hours or several nights, increasing tourism in the city. Amenities include fuel (diesel and marine grade gasoline), water, power pedestals, and a sewer pumpout station (seasonal for water and sewer amenities).\nA federal National Weather Service Forecast Office is based in Paducah, providing weather information to western Kentucky, southeastern Missouri, southern Illinois, and southwestern Indiana.\n\nTop employers\nAccording to Paducah's 2023 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city were entities in healthcare and education services:\n\nSource:\nSeveral employers in McCracken County call Paducah home, although their facilities are located outside the city limits. Paducah and McCracken County jointly operate Greater Paducah Economic Development (\"GPED\"). GPED lists the top employers in McCracken County, several of which include employers within the City of Paducah limits, and is more reflective of the true top employer situation as perceived by citizens of Paducah, as:\n\nArts and culture\nArt\nMurals\nIn 1996, the Paducah Wall to Wall mural program was begun by the Louisiana mural artist Robert Dafford and his team on the floodwall in downtown Paducah. They have painted more than 50 murals addressing numerous subjects, including Native American history, industries such as river barges and hospitals, local African-American heritage, the historic Carnegie Library on Broadway Street, steamboats, and local labor unions.\nIn May 2003, photographer Jim Roshan documented the painting of the Lewis and Clark Expedition mural during the America 24/7 project. One of the images was used in the book Kentucky24/7, published in 2004.\nBy 2008 the mural project was completed and being maintained. Muralist Herb Roe returned to the city each year to repaint and refurbish the panels. Roe is the only muralist associated with the project to have worked on all of the panels. Roe added a new mural to the project in the summer of 2010. It shows the 100-year history of the local Boy Scout troop, Troop 1. Troop 1 is one of only a handful of troops who share their centennial with that of the national scouting organization itself. The dedication for the mural was held on National Scout Sunday, February 6, 2011.\nIn 2017, artist Char Downs debuted the newest addition to the Wall to Wall mural program: a series of murals of award-winning quilts on the floodwall facing Park Street. Downs invested nearly 500 hours recreating Caryl Bryer Fallert-Gentry's historic award-winning quilt Corona II: Solar Eclipse—the first quilt in the series—in her studio in Paducah's Lower Town Arts District.\nThe Paducah Art Alliance has a program of Artist in Residencies to bring respected artists in to the city. In 2018 British Artist Ian Berry came and put on an exhibition to great acclaim. Ian is famed around the world with his art in denim, and fitted in with the textile art that Paducah is known for.\n\nLower Town Artist Relocation Program\nIn August 2000, Paducah's Artist Relocation Program was started to offer incentives for artists to relocate to its historic downtown and Lower Town areas. The program has become a national model for using the arts for economic development. It has received the Governors Award in the Arts, the Distinguished Planning Award from the Kentucky Chapter of the American Planning Association, the American Planning Association's National Planning Award, and most recently, the Kentucky League of Cities' Enterprise Cities Award.\nLower Town, home of the Artist Relocation Program, is the oldest neighborhood in Paducah. As retail commerce moved toward the outskirts of the city, efforts were made to preserve the architectural character, and historic Victorian structures were restored in the older parts of the city. The artists' housing program contributed to that effort and became a catalyst for revitalizing the downtown area. The Luther F. Carson Center for the Performing Arts was completed in downtown Paducah in 2004.\n\nUNESCO Creative City\nOn November 21, 2013, Paducah was designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a Creative City of Crafts and Folk Art. Arts and cultural initiatives have included the Lower Town Artist Relocation program, the National Quilt Museum, Paducah \"Wall to Wall\" floodwall murals, and the Paducah School of Art and Design. Participation in the program has been criticized by local business owners and by Paducah's economic development council due to the financial cost to the city, and because the \"UNESCO Creative Cities Network only benefits a small portion of Paducah's economy\".\n\nMusic\nThe Luther F. Carson Center for the Performing Arts was completed in downtown Paducah in 2004. From Crosby, Stills & Nash to Garrison Keillor, Shanghai Circus to STOMP, the Carson Center hosts touring Broadway productions, well-known entertainers, dramas, dance and popular faith-based and family series.\nIn September 2004, plans came together to highlight Paducah's musical roots through the redevelopment of the southern side of downtown. The centerpiece of the effort is the renovation of Maggie Steed's Hotel Metropolitan.[28] Prominent African-American musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Cab Calloway, Chick Webb's orchestra, B.B. King, Bobby \"Blue\" Bland, Ike and Tina Turner and other R & B and blues legends have performed here as part of what has become known as the \"Chitlin' Circuit\". Supporters want to promote Paducah's role in the history of American music.\nPaducah is the birthplace and residence of musicians in various genres. Rockabilly Hall of Fame artists Ray Smith, whose recording of \"Rockin' Little Angel\" was a hit in 1960, and Stanley Walker, who played guitar for Ray Smith and others, grew up in Paducah. Terry Mike Jeffrey, an Emmy-nominated songwriter, is a resident of Paducah. Nashville, Tennessee–based composer–violinist, Mark Evitts, is also from Paducah. The most prominent mainstream artist is Steven Curtis Chapman, the top-selling Christian artist of all time.\nPaducah is one of only two cities named in the world-famous song \"Hooray for Hollywood\", which is used as the opening number for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Awards (the Oscars). The 1937 song, with music by Richard Whiting and lyrics by Johnny Mercer, contains in the second verse: \"Hooray for Hollywood! That phony, super Coney, Hollywood. They come from Chilicothes and Padukahs...\"\nBoth cities were misspelled in the original published lyrics, though that may have been the fault of the publishers rather than Mercer. He was noted for his sophistication and the attention to detail he put into his lyrics. The correct spellings are \"Chillicothe\" and \"Paducah\".\n\nSports\nPaducah was home to professional baseball's minor league Class D Kentucky–Illinois–Tennessee League (or KITTY League) Paducah Paddys (1903), Paducah Indians (1904–06, 1910, 1914, 1922–23, 1936–41), Paducah Polecats (1911), Paducah Chiefs (1912–13, 1951–55), and Paducah Redbirds (1935). The Chiefs competed in the Mississippi-Ohio Valley League from 1949 to 1950.\nThe Chiefs played in J. Polk Brooks Stadium from its opening in 1948 until the KITTY League folded after the 1955 season. Since then, the ballpark has served as the home venue for Paducah Tilghman High School and American Legion Post 31 baseball teams, as well as various special baseball games and tournaments. In recent years, Brooks Stadium hosted the Ohio Valley Conference baseball tournament (2001–2009) and the National Club Baseball Association World Series (2015 and 2016). Brooks Stadium currently is the home field for the Paducah Chiefs of the Ohio Valley Summer Collegiate Baseball League.\nIn 1969, the Paducah Community College Indians won the National Junior College men's basketball championship.\nThe Paducah International Raceway is a 3/8-mile motorsport racetrack built in 1972.\n\nGovernment\nPaducah operates under a council–manager form of city government. The Paducah Board of Commissioners is made up of the mayor and four commissioners elected at-large by the citizens on a non-partisan basis. The mayor is elected for a four-year term and commissioners each for a two-year term. The mayor and council select and appoint a city manager to operate the city.\n\nEducation\nPaducah Public Schools operates public schools serving most of the City of Paducah. Three K-5 elementary schools, Clark Elementary School, McNabb Elementary School and Morgan Elementary School, serve the city. All district residents are zoned to Paducah Middle School and Paducah Tilghman High School.\nParts of the city and surrounding county are instead served by the McCracken County Public Schools. Concord Elementary School and Reidland Elementary/Intermediate serve students through the 5th grade; Lone Oak Elementary School and Hendron–Lone Oak Elementary School end at the third grade, with 4th and 5th grade students in those schools' attendance zones attending Lone Oak Intermediate School. Middle school students in those areas may be zoned into Heath, Lone Oak, or Reidland Middle School. The county district began operating a single, consolidated McCracken County High School on August 9, 2013. The Paducah city district did not participate in this consolidation and Paducah Tilghman High School remains separate.\nPaducah is also home to two private school systems, St. Mary High School and Community Christian Academy.\n\nHigher education\nWest Kentucky Community and Technical College (WKCTC) is a member of the Kentucky Community and Technical College System and is a public, two-year, degree-granting institution serving the Western Region of Kentucky. There are approximately 6,200 students enrolled at the college. WKCTC was rated as one of the top 10 community colleges in the United States by the Aspen Institute for 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2017.\nThere is a Paducah campus of the University of Kentucky College of Engineering located on the WKCTC campus.\nThere is also a Paducah campus of Murray State University, which offers approximately 20 bachelor's and master's degree programs. It has a 43,000-square-foot (4,000 m2) facility located on a 23-acre (9.3 ha) campus adjacent to WKCTC that was opened in 2014.\n\nPublic library\nPaducah has a lending library, the McCracken County Public Library.\n\nMedia\nBroadcast\nPaducah is one of three control cities of the Paducah-Cape Girardeau-Harrisburg media market, and is served by all the major network affiliates in the market. Locally, television stations in Paducah include NBC affiliate WPSD-TV, MyNetworkTV affiliate WDKA (a sister station to Cape Girardeau-based Fox affiliate KBSI), and Kentucky Educational Television satellite station WKPD. Paducah was also previously home to WQWQ-LD, which served as the area's affiliate of The CW. That station now operates from Cape Girardeau as the market's Telemundo affiliate, but still nominally licensed in Paducah.\nSix radio stations are located in Paducah; half of the stations are owned by Bristol Broadcasting Company.\n\nPrint\nThe main print outlet is the regional daily newspaper The Paducah Sun, owned by Paxton Media Group, which owns WPSD. The weekly newspapers, the West Kentucky News and The Good Neighbor, enjoy significant readership.\nThe bi-monthly magazine Paducah Life debuted in 1994 and continues publication today. The magazine features articles about life and residents in and around Paducah. Purchase Area Family Magazine, a monthly publication distributed throughout Western Kentucky and Metropolis, Illinois, debuted in 2003. The magazine features a comprehensive calendar of events for the Purchase Area as well as unique articles about events, organizations and activities for families in the region.\n\nInfrastructure\nTransportation\nPort Authority\nThe Paducah-McCracken County Riverport Authority was established in 1964 by the legislative bodies of the County of McCracken and the City of Paducah under an equal ownership agreement. The Riverport Authority is a quasi-government agency that provides essential maritime services for the rural regions of Western Kentucky, Southern Illinois, Southeast Missouri, and Northwestern Tennessee. The agency specializes in bulk, agricultural, general, and containerized cargoes, and operates Foreign Trade Zone No. 294. It is the only United States Maritime Administration Marine Highway Designation on the Ohio River and the only Marine Highway port on the river that is designated for container on barge service. The authority owns the largest flat-top crane in North America.\n\nAir service\nBarkley Regional Airport (PAH) serves the area offering regional jet service to Charlotte Douglas International Airport (CLT). CLT is ranked among the world's top 10 busiest airports, offering nonstop service to 178 destinations, including 36 international. Barkley Regional Airport is served by one airline, Contour Airlines. Barkley Regional Airport is concluding a multi-million dollar construction/relocation of its terminal.\n\nTransit\nThe Paducah Area Transit System (PATS) provides fixed-route transit and paratransit service in and around the city.. Fixed-route services operate from Monday through Saturday from 7 AM to 7 PM on four routes.\n\nRoadways\nInterstate 24 is a four-lane freeway that routes west to St. Louis and east to Nashville. The highway has a business loop that runs through downtown Paducah.\n Interstate 69 is planned to follow the route of the existing Purchase Parkway to the south and east of Paducah. When completed, it would connect north to Indianapolis and south to Memphis.\n US 60 is a major east–west highway that runs through the Paducah business district.\n US 45 enters the city from the north via the Irvin S. Cobb Bridge from Brookport, Illinois, and runs south down to Mayfield.\n US 62 connects to Cairo, Illinois, to the west and Calvert City to the east.\n US 68 connects the Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area, Hopkinsville and Bowling Green to the east-southeast.\n\nNotable people\nSee also\nList of cities and towns along the Ohio River\nPaducah, Texas\nWIAR (Kentucky)\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nPaducah, Kentucky at Curlie",
"title": "Paducah,_Kentucky"
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] | As of 2020, what was the population of the city where Dippin' Dots were founded? | [] | 27,137 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "David Andrew Leo Fincher (born August 28, 1962) is an American film director. His films, most of which are psychological thrillers, have collectively grossed over $2.1 billion worldwide and have received numerous accolades, including three nominations for the Academy Awards for Best Director. He has also received four Primetime Emmy Awards, two Grammy Awards, a BAFTA Award, and a Golden Globe Award.\nFincher co-founded the production company Propaganda Films in 1986. He directed numerous music videos for the company, including Madonna's \"Express Yourself\" in 1989 and \"Vogue\" in 1990, both of which won him the MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction. He received two Grammy Awards for Best Music Video for \"Love Is Strong\" (1994) by the Rolling Stones and \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) by Justin Timberlake featuring Jay-Z.\nHe made his feature film debut with Alien 3 (1992) and gained his breakthrough with Seven (1995). He has since directed The Game (1997), Fight Club (1999), Panic Room (2002), Zodiac (2007), The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011), Gone Girl (2014), and The Killer (2023). He received nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director for the dramas The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), and Mank (2020).\nIn television, Fincher has served as an executive producer and director for the Netflix series House of Cards (2013–2018) and Mindhunter (2017–2019), winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the pilot episode of the former. He also executive produced and co-created the Netflix animated series Love, Death & Robots (2019–present) which received three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program.\n\nEarly life\nDavid Andrew Leo Fincher was born in Denver on August 28, 1962. His mother, Claire Mae (née Boettcher), was a mental health nurse from South Dakota who worked in drug addiction programs. His father, Howard Kelly \"Jack\" Fincher (1930–2003), was an author from Oklahoma who worked as a reporter and bureau chief for Life magazine. When Fincher was two years old, the family moved to San Anselmo, California, where he counted filmmaker George Lucas among his neighbors. He became fascinated with filmmaking at the age of eight and began making films on an 8mm camera. In a 2012 interview, he said:\n\nI was eight years old and I saw a documentary on the making of Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. It had never occurred to me that movies didn't take place in real time. I knew that they were fake, I knew that the people were acting, but it had never occurred to me that it could take [...] four months to make a movie! It showed the entire company with all these rental horses and moving trailers to shoot a scene on top of a train. They would hire somebody who looked like Robert Redford to jump onto the train. It never occurred to me that there were hours between each of these shots. The actual circus of it was invisible, as it should be, but in seeing that I became obsessed with the idea of \"How?\" It was the ultimate magic trick. The notion that 24 still photographs are shown in such quick succession that movement is imparted from it—wow! And I thought that there would never be anything that would be as interesting as that to do with the rest of my life.\nAs a teenager, Fincher moved to Ashland, Oregon, where he attended Ashland High School. He directed plays and designed sets and lighting after school, was a non-union projectionist at Varsity Theatre, and worked as a production assistant at the KOBI news station in Medford. He supported himself by working as a busboy, dishwasher, and fry cook.\n\nCareer\n1983–1991: Early work\nWhile establishing himself in the film industry, Fincher was employed at John Korty's studio as a production head. Gaining further experience, he became a visual effects producer, working on the animated Twice Upon a Time (1983) with George Lucas. He was hired by Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) in 1983 as an assistant cameraman and matte photographer and worked on Return of the Jedi (1983) and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984). In 1984, he left ILM to direct a television commercial for the American Cancer Society that depicted a fetus smoking a cigarette.\nThis quickly brought Fincher to the attention of producers in Los Angeles, and he was soon given the opportunity to direct Rick Springfield's 1985 documentary, The Beat of the Live Drum. Set on a directing career, Fincher co-founded production company Propaganda Films and started directing commercials and music videos. Other directors such as Michael Bay, Antoine Fuqua, Michel Gondry, Spike Jonze, Alex Proyas, Paul Rachman, Mark Romanek, Zack Snyder and Gore Verbinski also honed their skills at Propaganda Films before moving on to feature films.\nFincher directed TV commercials for many companies including Levi's, Converse, Nike, Pepsi, Revlon, Sony, Coca-Cola and Chanel, although he loathed doing them. Starting in 1984, Fincher began his foray into music videos. He directed videos for various artists including singer-songwriters Rick Springfield, Don Henley, Martha Davis, Paula Abdul, rock band the Outfield, and R&B singer Jermaine Stewart. Fincher's 1990 music video for \"Freedom! '90\" was one of the most successful for George Michael.\nHe directed Michael Jackson's \"Who Is It\", Aerosmith's \"Janie's Got A Gun\" and Billy Idol's \"Cradle of Love\". For Madonna, he directed the videos for \"Express Yourself\", \"Oh Father\", \"Bad Girl\" and \"Vogue\". The black-and-white video for \"Vogue\" took inspiration from the films of the 1920s and 1930s and has been frequently cited as one of the best videos of all time. Between 1984 and 1993, Fincher was credited as a director for 53 music videos. He referred to the production of music videos as his own \"film school\", in which he learned how to work efficiently within a small budget and time frame.\n\n1992–2000: Breakthrough\nIn 1990, 20th Century Fox hired Fincher to replace Vincent Ward as the director for the science-fiction horror Alien 3 (1992), his film directorial debut. It was the third installment in the Alien franchise starring Sigourney Weaver. The film was released in May 1992 to a mixed reception from critics and was considered weaker than the preceding films. From the beginning, Alien 3 was hampered by studio intervention and several abandoned scripts. Peter Travers of the Rolling Stone called the film \"bold and haunting\", despite the \"struggle of nine writers\" and \"studio interference\".\nThe film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. Years later, Fincher publicly expressed his dismay and subsequently disowned the film. In the book Director's Cut: Picturing Hollywood in the 21st Century, Fincher blames the producers for their lack of trust in him. In an interview with The Guardian in 2009, he stated, \"No one hated it more than me; to this day, no one hates it more than me.\"\nAfter this critical disappointment, Fincher eschewed reading film scripts or directing another project. He briefly retreated to directing commercials and music videos, including the video for the song \"Love Is Strong\" by the Rolling Stones in 1994, which won the Grammy Award for Best Music Video. Shortly, Fincher decided to make a foray back into film. He read Andrew Kevin Walker's original screenplay for Seven (1995), which had been revised by Jeremiah Chechik, the director attached to the project at one point. Fincher expressed no interest in directing the revised version, so New Line Cinema agreed to keep the original ending. Starring Brad Pitt, Morgan Freeman, Gwyneth Paltrow, R. Lee Ermey, and Kevin Spacey, it tells the story of two detectives who attempt to identify a serial killer who bases his murders on the Christian seven deadly sins. Seven was positively received by film critics and was one of the highest-earning films of 1995, grossing more than $320 million worldwide. Writing for Sight and Sound, John Wrathall said it \"stands as the most complex and disturbing entry in the serial killer genre since Manhunter\" and Roger Ebert opined that Seven is \"one of the darkest and most merciless films ever made in the Hollywood mainstream.\"\nFollowing Seven, Fincher directed a music video for \"6th Avenue Heartache\" by the Wallflowers and went on to direct his third feature film, the mystery thriller The Game (1997), written by the duo John Brancato and Michael Ferris. Fincher also hired Seven screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker to contribute and polish the script. Filmed on location in San Francisco, the story follows an investment banker, played by Michael Douglas, who receives an unusual gift from his younger brother (Sean Penn), where he becomes involved in a \"game\" that integrates with his everyday life, making him unable to differentiate between game and reality. Almar Haflidason of the BBC was critical of the ending, but praised the visuals—\"Fincher does a marvelous job of turning ordinary city locations into frightening backdrops, where every corner turned is another step into the unknown\". Upon The Game's release in September 1997, the film received generally favorable reviews but performed moderately at the box office. The Game was later included in the Criterion Collection.\nIn August 1997, Fincher agreed to direct Fight Club, based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Chuck Palahniuk. It was his second film with 20th Century Fox after the troubled production of Alien 3. Starring Brad Pitt, Edward Norton and Helena Bonham Carter, the film is about a nameless office worker suffering from insomnia, who meets a salesman, and together form an underground fighting club as a form of therapy. Fox struggled with the marketing of the film, and were concerned that it would have a limited audience. Fight Club premiered on October 15, 1999, in the United States to a polarized response and modest box office success; the film grossed $100.9 million against a budget of $63 million. Initially, many critics thought the film was \"a violent and dangerous express train of masochism and aggression.\" However, in following years, Fight Club became a cult favorite and gained acknowledgement for its multilayered themes; the film has been the source of critical analysis from academics and film critics.\n\n2001–2010: Continued success\nIn 2001, Fincher served as an executive producer for the first season of The Hire, a series of short films to promote BMW automobiles. The films were released on the internet in 2001. Next in 2002, Fincher returned to another feature film, a thriller titled Panic Room. The story follows a single mother and her daughter who hide in a safe room of their new home, during a home invasion by a trio. Starring Jodie Foster (who replaced Nicole Kidman), Forest Whitaker, Kristen Stewart, Dwight Yoakam, and Jared Leto, it was theatrically released on March 29, 2002, after a month delay, to critical acclaim and commercial success.\nIn North America, the film earned $96.4 million. In other countries, it grossed $100 million for a worldwide $196.4 million. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle praised the filmmakers for their \"fair degree of ingenuity... for 88 minutes of excitement\" and the convincing performance given by Foster. Fincher acknowledged Panic Room for being more mainstream, describing the film, \"It's supposed to be a popcorn movie—there are no great, overriding implications. It's just about survival.\"\nFive years after Panic Room, Fincher returned on March 2, 2007, with Zodiac, a thriller based on Robert Graysmith's books about the search for the Zodiac, a real life serial murderer who terrorized communities between the late 1960s and early 1970s. Fincher first learned of the project after being approached by producer Brad Fischer; he was intrigued by the story due to his childhood personal experience. \"The highway patrol had been following our school buses\", he recalled. His father told him, \"There's a serial killer who has killed four or five people... who's threatened to... shoot the children as they come off the bus.\"\nAfter extensive research on the case with fellow producers, Fincher formed a principal cast of Jake Gyllenhaal, Mark Ruffalo, Robert Downey Jr., Anthony Edwards and Brian Cox. It was the first of Fincher's films to be shot in digital, with a Thomson Viper FilmStream HD camera. However, high-speed film cameras were used for particular murder scenes. Zodiac was well received, appearing in more than two hundred top ten lists (only No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood appeared in more). However, the film struggled at the United States box office, earning $33 million, but did better overseas with a gross of $51.7 million. Worldwide, Zodiac was a moderate success. Despite a campaign by Paramount Pictures, the film did not receive any Academy Award or Golden Globe nominations.\nIn 2008, Fincher was attached to a film adaptation of the science-fiction novel, Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke, however, Fincher said the film is unlikely to go ahead due to problems with the script. His next project was The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's eponymous 1923 short story, about a man who is born as a seventy-year-old baby and ages in reverse. The romantic-drama marked Fincher's third collaboration with Brad Pitt, who stars opposite Cate Blanchett. The budget for the film was estimated to be $167 million, with very expensive visual effects utilized for Pitt's character.\nFilming started in November 2006 in New Orleans, taking advantage of Louisiana's film incentive. The film was theatrically released on December 25, 2008, in the United States to a commercial success and warm reception. Writing for the USA Today, Claudia Puig praises the \"graceful and poignant\" tale despite it being \"overlong and not as emotionally involving as it could be\". The film received thirteen Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Director for Fincher, Best Actor for Pitt, and Best Supporting Actress for Taraji P. Henson, and won three, for Best Art Direction, Best Makeup, and Best Visual Effects.\nFincher directed the 2010 film The Social Network, a biographical drama about Facebook founder, Mark Zuckerberg and his legal battles. The screenplay was written by Aaron Sorkin, who adapted it from the book The Accidental Billionaires. It stars Jesse Eisenberg as Zuckerberg, with a supporting cast of Andrew Garfield, Justin Timberlake, Armie Hammer and Max Minghella. Principal photography started in October 2009 in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the film was released one year later. The Social Network was also a commercial success, earning $224.9 million worldwide. At the 83rd Academy Awards, the film received eight nominations and won three awards; soundtrack composers Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross won for Best Original Score, and the other two awards were for Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing. The film received awards for Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, Best Screenplay, and Best Original Score at the 68th Golden Globe Awards. Critics including Roger Ebert, complimented the writing, describing the film as having \"spellbinding dialogue. It makes an untellable story clear and fascinating\".\n\n2011–present: Established filmmaker\nIn 2011, Fincher followed the success of The Social Network with The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, a psychological thriller based on the novel by Swedish writer Stieg Larsson. Screenwriter Steven Zaillian spent three months analyzing the novel, writing notes and deleting elements to achieve a suitable running time. Featuring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander, it follows Blomkvist's investigation to solve what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared four decades ago. To maintain the novel's setting, the film was primarily shot in Sweden.\nThe soundtrack, composed by collaborators Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross, was described by A. O. Scott of The New York Times as, \"unnerving and powerful\". Upon the film's release in December, reviews were generally favorable, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Scott adds, \"Mr. Fincher creates a persuasive ambience of political menace and moral despair\". Philip French of The Guardian praises the \"authentic, quirky detail\" and faithful adaptation. The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Actress for Mara, and won the award for Best Film Editing. In 2012, Fincher signed a first look deal with Regency Enterprises.\nIn 2013, Fincher served as an executive producer for the Netflix television series House of Cards, a political thriller about a Congressman's quest for revenge, of which he also directed the first two episodes. The series received positive reviews, earning nine Primetime Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. Fincher won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the first episode. He also directed a music video for the first time since 2005, \"Suit & Tie\" by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z, which won a Grammy Award for Best Music Video.\nIn 2014, Fincher signed a deal with HBO for three television series - Utopia (an adaptation of the British series, to be written by Gillian Flynn), Shakedown, and Videosyncrazy. In August 2015, budget disputes between him and the network halted production. Three years later, in 2018, Utopia was picked up by Amazon Studios, with Gillian Flynn as creator.\n\nFincher directed Gone Girl (2014), an adaptation of Gillian Flynn's novel of the same name, starring Ben Affleck and Rosamund Pike. He even met with Flynn to discuss his interest in the project before a director was selected. Set in Missouri, the story begins as a mystery that follows the events surrounding Nick Dunne (Affleck), who becomes the prime suspect in the sudden disappearance of his wife Amy (Pike). A critical and commercial success, the film earned $369 million worldwide against a $61 million budget, making it Fincher's highest-grossing work to date. Writing for Salon magazine, Andrew O'Hehir praises the \"tremendous ensemble cast who mesh marvelously\", adding, \"All the technical command of image, sound and production design for which Fincher is justly famous is here as well.\" Gone Girl garnered awards and nominations in a various categories; Pike earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress and Fincher received his third Golden Globe nomination for Best Director.Between 2016 and 2019, Fincher directed, produced and served as showrunner for another series, Mindhunter, starring Holt McCallany and Jonathan Groff. The series, based on the book Mind Hunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit, debuted on Netflix worldwide on October 13, 2017. He has expressed interest in eventually making a third season of Mindhunter, which was put on indefinite hold in 2020. In 2023, Fincher confirmed that Netflix will not be making a third season of Mindhunter, saying \"I'm very proud of the first two seasons. But it's a very expensive show and, in the eyes of Netflix, we didn't attract enough of an audience to justify such an investment [for Season 3].\"\nIn June 2017, Jim Gianopulos of Paramount Pictures announced that a sequel to World War Z was \"in advanced development\" with Fincher and Brad Pitt. Producers Dede Gardner and Jeremy Kleiner said that Fincher would begin directing it in June 2019. However, in February 2019, Paramount cancelled the project. As of 2019, Fincher serves as an executive producer for Love, Death & Robots, an animated science-fiction web series for Netflix.\nIn July 2019, Fincher signed on to direct Mank, a biopic about Citizen Kane screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz. Mank received a limited theatrical release on November 13, 2020, and was made available on Netflix on December 4. Gary Oldman portrayed Mankiewicz, and the film received ten Academy Award nominations, winning two for Best Cinematography and Best Production Design.\nFincher served as an executive producer on a series titled Voir (2021) for Netflix. In 2022, Fincher made his first foray in animation directing an episode for the third season of Love, Death & Robots. The episode is titled \"Bad Travelling\" and was written by Seven screenwriter Andrew Kevin Walker. In February 2021, it was reported that Fincher would direct an adaptation of the graphic novel The Killer for Netflix, with Andrew Kevin Walker writing the screenplay and Michael Fassbender attached to star. It premiered at the 80th Venice International Film Festival. It began a limited theatrical release in October 2023 and was subsequently released on Netflix on 10 November.\n\nFilmmaking style and techniques\nInfluences\nFincher did not attend film school. He has listed filmmakers George Roy Hill, Alfred Hitchcock, Stanley Kubrick, Alan J. Pakula, Ridley Scott, and Martin Scorsese as his major influences. His personal favorite films include Rear Window (1954), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), The Graduate (1967), Paper Moon (1973), American Graffiti (1973), Jaws (1975), All the President's Men (1976), Taxi Driver (1976), Close Encounters of the Third Kind (1977), and Zelig (1983). He suggested that his film Panic Room is a combination of Rear Window and Straw Dogs (1971).\nFor Seven, Fincher and cinematographer Darius Khondji were inspired by films The French Connection (1971) and Klute (1971), as well as the work of photographer Robert Frank. He has cited graphic designer Saul Bass as an inspiration for his films' title sequences; Bass designed many such sequences for prominent directors, including Hitchcock and Kubrick.\n\nMethod\nFincher's filmmaking process always begins with extensive research and preparation, although he has said the process is different every time: \"I enjoy reading a script that you can see in your head, and then I enjoy the casting and I enjoy the rehearsal, and I enjoy all the meetings about what it should be, what it could be, what it might be.\" He has admitted to having autocratic tendencies and prefers to micromanage every aspect of a film's production. Icelandic film producer Sigurjón Sighvatsson, with whom Fincher has collaborated for decades, has said that \"[Fincher] was always a rebel... always challenging the status quo\".\nKnown for his perfectionism and meticulous eye for detail, Fincher performs thorough research when casting actors to ensure their suitability for the part. His colleague Max Daly said, \"He's really good at finding the one detail that was missed. He knows more than anybody.\" Producer Laura Ziskin said of him, \"He's just scary smart, sort of smarter than everyone else in the room.\" He approaches editing like \"intricate mathematical problems\". Long-time collaborator Angus Wall said that editing Zodiac was like \"putting together a Swiss watch... all the pieces are so beautifully machined\". He elaborated, \"[Fincher] is incredibly specific. He never settles. And there's a purity that shows in his work.\"\nWhen working with actors, Fincher is known to demand a grueling series of takes to capture a scene perfectly. For instance, the Zodiac cast members were required to do upwards of 70 takes for certain scenes, much to the displeasure of Jake Gyllenhaal. Rooney Mara had to endure 99 takes for a scene in The Social Network and said that Fincher enjoys challenging people. Gone Girl averaged 50 takes per scene. In one of the episodes for Mindhunter, it was reported that a nine-minute scene took 11 hours to shoot. When asked about this method, Fincher said, \"I hate earnestness in performance... usually by take 17 the earnestness is gone.\" He added that he wants a scene to be as natural and authentic as possible. Some actors appreciate this approach, arguing that the subtle adjustments have a big difference in the way a scene is carried. Others have been critical, with R. Lee Ermey stating, \"[Fincher] wants puppets. He doesn't want actors that are creative.\"\nFincher prefers shooting with Red digital cameras, under natural or pre-existing light conditions rather than using elaborate lighting setups. Fincher is known to use computer-generated imagery, which is mostly unnoticeable to the viewer. He does not normally use hand-held cameras during filming, instead preferring cameras on a tripod. He said, \"Handheld has a powerful psychological stranglehold. It means something specific and I don't want to cloud what's going on with too much meaning.\" He has experimented with the disembodied camera movement, notably in Panic Room, where the camera glides around the house to give the impression of surveillance by an unseen observer.\n\nStyle and themes\nOne element of Fincher's visual style is the specific way in which he uses tilt, pan, and track in the camera movements. When a character is in motion or expressing emotions, the camera moves at the exact same speed and direction as their body. The movements are choreographed precisely between the actors and camera operators. The resulting effect helps the audience connect with the character to understand their feelings. Similarly, in his music videos, Fincher appreciated that the visuals should enhance the listening experience. He would cut around the vocals, and let the choreography finish before cutting the shot. Camera movements are synchronized to the beat of the music.\nSome regard Fincher as an auteur filmmaker, although he dislikes being associated with that term. Much of his work is influenced by classical film noir and neo noir genres. Fincher's visual style also includes using monochromatic and desaturated colors of blue, green, and yellow, representing the world that the characters are in. In The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Fincher uses heavy desaturation for certain scenes, and increases or decreases the effect based on the story or characters' emotions. Erik Messerschmidt, cinematographer for Mindhunter, explained the color palette: \"The show has a desaturated green-yellow look... [it] helps give the show its period feel.\" He states the effect is achieved through production design, costumes, and filming locations—not necessarily through lighting used on set. Fincher also favors detailed and pronounced shadows, as well as using minimal light. When asked about his use of dim lighting, he said bright lights make the color of skin appear unnatural, and that the lights and colors in his films represent \"the way the world looks to [him]\".\nFincher has explored themes of martyrdom, alienation, and dehumanization of modern culture. In addition to the wider themes of good and evil, his characters are usually troubled, discontented, and flawed; they are often unable to socialize and suffer from loneliness. In Seven, Zodiac, and The Social Network, themes of pressure and obsession are explored, leading to the character's downfall. Quoting historian Frank Krutnik, the writer Piers McCarthy argues that \"the protagonists of these films are not totally in control of their actions but are subject to darker, inner impulses\".\nIn a 2017 interview, Fincher explained his fascination of sinister themes: \"There was always a house in any neighborhood that I ever lived in that all the kids on the street wondered, 'What are those people up to?' We sort of attach the sinister to the mundane in order to make things interesting... I think it's also because in order for something to be evil, it almost has to cloak itself as something else.\" Fincher once stated, \"I think people are perverts. I've maintained that. That's the foundation of my career.\"\n\nCollaborators\nOver the course of his career, Fincher has shown loyalty to many members of his cast and crew. As a music video director, he collaborated with Paula Abdul five times, as well as Madonna and Rick Springfield four times each. Once he made the transition to feature films, he cast Brad Pitt in three of them. He said of Pitt, \"On-screen and off-screen, Brad's the ultimate guy... he has such a great ease with who he is.\" Bob Stephenson, Michael Massee, Christopher John Fields, John Getz, Elias Koteas, Zach Grenier, Charles Dance, Rooney Mara, Jared Leto, Arliss Howard, and Richmond Arquette have also appeared in at least two of his films.\nFight Club was scored by the Dust Brothers, who at that point had never scored a film. Describing their working relationship with Fincher, they said he \"was not hanging over our shoulders telling us what to do\" and that the only direction he gave was to make the music sound as great as the score from The Graduate (1967). Nine Inch Nails members Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross composed the music for The Social Network, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Gone Girl, Mank, and The Killer. The musicians describe their working relationship as \"collaborative, respectful, and inspiring\" although quipped that it \"hasn't gotten any easier\". Many years before the duo worked with Fincher, he arranged for a remix of the Nine Inch Nails song \"Closer\" to play over the opening credits of Seven. Howard Shore composed the scores for Seven, The Game, and Panic Room.\nDarius Khondji and Jeff Cronenweth have served as cinematographers for Fincher's films. Khondji said, \"Fincher deserves a lot of credit. It was his influence that pushed me to experiment and got me as far as I did.\" Fincher has hired sound designer Ren Klyce in all his films since 1995 and trusts him \"implicitly\". He has worked with film editor Angus Wall since 1988. Wall has worked on seven of his films, five of which as editor.\nDonald Graham Burt has served as a production designer for six films and Bob Wagner has served as an assistant director for six. Casting director Laray Mayfield has worked with Fincher for over 20 years. In a 2010 interview, Fincher said, \"You don't have to love all of your co-collaborators, but you do have to respect them. And when you do, when you realize that people bring stuff to the table that's not necessarily your experience, but if you allow yourself to relate to it, it can enrich the buffet that you're going to bring with you into the editing room.\"\n\nPersonal life\nFincher married model Donya Fiorentino (sister of actress Linda Fiorentino). They had one daughter together, before divorcing in 1995. Fincher married producer Ceán Chaffin in 1996.\n\nFilmography\nAwards and recognitions\nTim Walker of The Independent praised Fincher's work, stating \"His portrayals of the modern psyche have a power and precision that few film-makers can match.\" In 2003, Fincher was ranked 39th in The Guardian's 40 best directors. In 2012, The Guardian listed him again in their ranking of 23 best film directors in the world, applauding \"his ability to sustain tone and tension\". In 2016, Zodiac and The Social Network appeared in the BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century list. In addition to films, Fincher has often been admired for producing some of the most creative music videos.\nFincher received three Academy Award for Best Director nominations for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008), The Social Network (2010), and Mank (2020). He won both the BAFTA Award for Best Direction and the Golden Globe Award for Best Director for The Social Network. He also received two Grammy Awards for \"Love Is Strong\" (1995) by The Rolling Stones and \"Suit & Tie\" (2013) by Justin Timberlake and Jay-Z as well as four Primetime Emmy Awards for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for House of Cards (2013) and three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short Form Animated Program for Love, Death & Robots.\n\nSee also\nDavid Fincher's unrealized projects\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nWaxman, Sharon, ed. (2005). Rebels on the Backlot: Six Maverick Directors and How They Conquered the Hollywood Studio System. HarperEntertainment.\n\nExternal links\n\nDavid Fincher at IMDb\nDavid Fincher at AllMovie",
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"paragraph_text": "Aardvarks ( ARD-vark; Orycteropus afer) are medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammals native to Africa. They have a long snout, similar to that of a pig, which is used to sniff out food. \nAardvarks are the only living species of the order Tubulidentata, although other prehistoric species and genera of Tubulidentata are known. They are afrotheres, a clade that also includes elephants, manatees, and hyraxes. \nThey are found over much of the southern two-thirds of the African continent, avoiding areas that are mainly rocky. Nocturnal feeders, aardvarks subsist on ants and termites by using their sharp claws and powerful legs to dig the insects out of their hills. Aardvarks also dig to create burrows in which to live and rear their young. \nAardvarks are listed as \"least concern\" by the IUCN, although their numbers are decreasing.\n\nName and taxonomy\nName\nThe aardvark is sometimes colloquially called the \"African ant bear\", \"anteater\" (not to be confused with the South American anteaters), or the \"Cape anteater\" after the Cape of Good Hope.\nThe name \"aardvark\" is Afrikaans (pronounced [ˈɑːrtfark]) and comes from earlier Afrikaans erdvark. It means \"earth pig\" or \"ground pig\" (aarde: 'earth', vark: 'pig, young pig'), because of its burrowing habits.\nThe name Orycteropus means \"burrowing foot\", and the name afer refers to Africa. The name of the aardvark's order, Tubulidentata, comes from the tubule-style teeth.\n\nTaxonomy\nThe aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus Orycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are the outcome of convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecidae, and golden moles. Along with sirenians, hyraxes, elephants, and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra.\n\nEvolutionary history\nBased on his study of fossils, Bryan Patterson has concluded that early relatives of the aardvark appeared in Africa around the end of the Paleocene. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates.\nThe first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably Myorycteropus africanus from Kenyan Miocene deposits. The earliest example from the genus Orycteropus was Orycteropus mauritanicus, found in Algeria in deposits from the middle Miocene, with an equally old version found in Kenya. Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East.\nThe mysterious Pleistocene Plesiorycteropus from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that Plesiorycteropus is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.\n\nSubspecies\nThe aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed:\n\nOrycteropus afer afer (Southern aardvark)\nO. a. adametzi Grote, 1921 (Western aardvark)\nO. a. aethiopicus Sundevall, 1843\nO. a. angolensis Zukowsky & Haltenorth, 1957\nO. a. erikssoni Lönnberg, 1906\nO. a. faradjius Hatt, 1932\nO. a. haussanus Matschie, 1900\nO. a. kordofanicus Rothschild, 1927\nO. a. lademanni Grote, 1911\nO. a. leptodon Hirst, 1906\nO. a. matschiei Grote, 1921\nO. a. observandus Grote, 1921\nO. a. ruvanensis Grote, 1921\nO. a. senegalensis Lesson, 1840\nO. a. somalicus Lydekker, 1908\nO. a. wardi Lydekker, 1908\nO. a. wertheri Matschie, 1898 (Eastern aardvark)\nThe 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica also mentions O. a. capensis or Cape ant-bear from South Africa.\n\nDescription\nThe aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb'), resulting in four toes, while the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. Whereas the aardvark is considered digitigrade, it appears at times to be plantigrade. This confusion happens because when it squats it stands on its soles. A contributing characteristic to the burrow digging capabilities of aardvarks is an endosteal tissue called compacted coarse cancellous bone (CCCB). The stress and strain resistance provided by CCCB allows aardvarks to create their burrows, ultimately leading to a favourable environment for plants and a variety of animals. Digging is also facilitated by its forearm's unusually stout ulna and radius.An aardvark's weight is typically between 60 and 80 kilograms (130–180 lb). An aardvark's length is usually between 105 and 130 centimetres (3.44–4.27 ft), and can reach lengths of 2.2 metres (7 ft 3 in) when its tail (which can be up to 70 centimetres (28 in)) is taken into account. It is 60 centimetres (24 in) tall at the shoulder, and has a girth of about 100 centimetres (3.3 ft). It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-grey in colour and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The hair on the majority of its body is grouped in clusters of 3–4 hairs. The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense to help filter particulate matter out as it digs. Its tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers.\n\nHead\nThe greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. It contains a thin but complete zygomatic arch. The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is their teeth. Instead of having a pulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of dentine), with individual pulp canals, held together by cementum. The number of columns is dependent on the size of the tooth, with the largest having about 1,500. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks have only cheek teeth at the back of the jaw, and have a dental formula of: 0.0.2-3.30.0.2.3 These remaining teeth are peg-like and rootless and are of unique composition. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. The nasal area of the aardvark is another unique area, as it contains ten nasal conchae, more than any other placental mammal.\nThe sides of the nostrils are thick with hair. The tip of the snout is highly mobile and is moved by modified mimetic muscles. The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has sensory functions, but it is uncertain whether they are olfactory or vibratory in nature. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between 9 and 11, compared to dogs with 4 to 5. With a large quantity of turbinate bones, the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium, which is the location of the olfactory bulb. The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs, more than any other mammal. Its keen sense of smell is not just from the quantity of bulbs in the nose but also in the development of the brain, as its olfactory lobe is very developed. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as 30 centimetres (12 in) long) and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. The ears, which are very effective, are disproportionately long, about 20–25 centimetres (7.9–9.8 in) long. The eyes are small for its head, and consist only of rods.\n\nDigestive system\nThe aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts as a gizzard to grind swallowed food up, thereby rendering chewing unnecessary. Its cecum is large. Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland. Its salivary glands are highly developed and almost completely ring the neck; their output is what causes the tongue to maintain its tackiness. The female has two pairs of teats in the inguinal region.\nGenetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa.\n\nHabitat and range\nAardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where suitable habitat (savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland) and food (i.e., ants and termites) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They also avoid terrain rocky enough to cause problems with digging. They have been documented as high as 3,200 metres (10,500 ft) in Ethiopia. They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa all the way to South Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas of Namibia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar.\n\nEcology and behaviour\nAardvarks live for up to 23 years in captivity. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, cheetahs, African wild dogs, hyenas, and pythons. Some humans also hunt aardvarks for meat. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs lying motionless except to lash out with all four feet. They are capable of causing substantial damage to unprotected areas of an attacker. They will also dig to escape as they can. Sometimes, when pressed, aardvarks can dig extremely quickly.\n\nFeeding\nThe aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites (myrmecophagy); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. In fact, the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they eat the subterranean fruit, then defecate the seeds near their burrows, which then grow rapidly due to the loose soil and fertile nature of the area. The time spent in the intestine of the aardvark helps the fertility of the seed, and the fruit provides needed moisture for the aardvark. They avoid eating the African driver ant and red ants. Due to their stringent diet requirements, they require a large range to survive. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing 10 to 30 kilometres (6.2 to 18.6 mi). While foraging for food, the aardvark will keep its nose to the ground and its ears pointed forward, which indicates that both smell and hearing are involved in the search for food. They zig-zag as they forage and will usually not repeat a route for 5–8 days as they appear to allow time for the termite nests to recover before feeding on it again.\nDuring a foraging period, they will stop to dig a V-shaped trench with their forefeet and then sniff it profusely as a means to explore their location. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly. It avoids inhaling the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (up to 30 centimetres (12 in)) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. After an aardvark visit at a termite mound, other animals will visit to pick up all the leftovers. Termite mounds alone do not provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns 10–40 metres (33–131 ft) long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals. The trampled grass and dung attract termites from the Odontotermes, Microtermes, and Pseudacanthotermes genera.\nOn a nightly basis they tend to be more active during the first portion of night (roughly the four hours between 8:00 p.m. and 12:00 a.m.); however, they do not seem to prefer bright or dark nights over the other. During adverse weather or if disturbed they will retreat to their burrow systems. They cover between 2 and 5 kilometres (1.2 and 3.1 mi) per night; however, some studies have shown that they may traverse as far as 30 kilometres (19 mi) in a night.\nAardvarks shift their circadian rhythms to more diurnal activity patterns in response to a reduced food supply. This survival tactic may signify an increased risk of imminent mortality.\n\nVocalisation\nThe aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. It makes a bleating sound if frightened. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.\n\nMovement\nThe aardvark is known to be a good swimmer and has been witnessed successfully swimming in strong currents. It can dig a yard of tunnel in about five minutes, but otherwise moves fairly slowly.\nWhen leaving the burrow at night, they pause at the entrance for about ten minutes, sniffing and listening. After this period of watchfulness, it will bound out and within seconds it will be 10 metres (33 ft) away. It will then pause, prick its ears, twisting its head to listen, then jump and move off to start foraging.\nAside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live, which generally fall into one of three categories: burrows made while foraging, refuge and resting location, and permanent homes. Temporary sites are scattered around the home range and are used as refuges, while the main burrow is also used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as 13 metres (43 ft). These burrows can be large enough for a person to enter. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and periodically moves on and makes a new one. The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene. As they are vacated, then they are inhabited by smaller animals like the African wild dog, ant-eating chat, Nycteris thebaica and warthogs. Other animals that use them are hares, mongooses, hyenas, owls, pythons, and lizards. Without these refuges many animals would die during wildfire season. Only mothers and young share burrows; however, the aardvark is known to live in small family groups or as a solitary creature. If attacked in the tunnel, it will escape by digging out of the tunnel thereby placing the fresh fill between it and its predator, or if it decides to fight it will roll onto its back, and attack with its claws. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, which also serves as protection from its predators.\n\nReproduction\nAardvarks pair only during the breeding season; after a gestation period of seven months, one cub weighing around 1.7–1.9 kilograms (3.7–4.2 lb) is born during May–July. When born, the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles. When nursing, it will nurse off each teat in succession. After two weeks, the folds of skin disappear and after three, the ears can be held upright. After 5–6 weeks, body hair starts growing. It is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks and eats termites at 9 weeks, and is weaned between three months and 16 weeks. At six months of age, it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season, and is sexually mature from approximately two years of age.\n\nConservation\nAardvarks were thought to have declining numbers, however, this is possibly because they are not readily seen. There are no definitive counts because of their nocturnal and secretive habits; however, their numbers seem to be stable overall. They are not considered common anywhere in Africa, but due to their large range, they maintain sufficient numbers. There may be a slight decrease in numbers in eastern, northern, and western Africa. Southern African numbers are not decreasing. It has received an official designation from the IUCN as least concern. However, they are a species in a precarious situation, as they are so dependent on such specific food; therefore if a problem arises with the abundance of termites, the species as a whole would be affected drastically.\nRecent research suggests that aardvarks may be particularly vulnerable to alterations in temperature caused by climate change. Droughts negatively impact the availability of termites and ants, which comprise the bulk of an aardvark's diet. Nocturnal species faced with resource scarcity may increase their diurnal activity to spare the energy costs of staying warm at night, but this comes at the cost of withstanding high temperatures during the day. A study on aardvarks in the Kalahari Desert saw that five out of six aardvarks being studied perished following a drought. Aardvarks that survive droughts can take long periods of time to regain health and optimal thermoregulatory physiology, reducing the reproductive potential of the species.\nAardvarks handle captivity well. The first zoo to have one was London Zoo in 1869, which had an animal from South Africa.\n\nMythology and popular culture\nIn African folklore, the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to soldier ants. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest, the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. Also, some tribes, such as the Margbetu, Ayanda, and Logo, will use aardvark teeth to make bracelets, which are regarded as good luck charms. The meat, which has a resemblance to pork, is eaten in certain cultures. In the mythology of the Dagbon people of Ghana, the aardvark is believed to possess superpowers. The Dagombas believe this animal can transfigure into and interact with humans.\nThe ancient Egyptian god Set is usually depicted with the head of an unidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship.\nThe titular character and his families from Arthur, an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by WGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark. In the first book of the series, Arthur's Nose (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose, but in later books, his face becomes more rounded.\nOtis the Aardvark was a puppet character used on Children's BBC programming.\nAn aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon The Ant and the Aardvark as well as in the Canadian animated series The Raccoons.\nThe supersonic fighter-bomber F-111/FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying F-4s and then F-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip B.C., which the F-4 was said to resemble.\nCerebus the Aardvark is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim.\n\nFootnotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nIUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group\nA YouTube video introducing the Bronx Zoo's aardvarks\n\"The Biology of the Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)\" a diploma thesis (without images)\n\"The Biology of the Aardvark\" (Orycteropus afer)\" the thesis with images\n Texts on Wikisource:\n\"Aard-vark\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. I (9th ed.). 1878. p. 3.\n\"The Aard-Vark or Earth-Hog\" in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 14 (March 1879)\n\"Aardvark\". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.\n\"Aard-vark\". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.",
"title": "Aardvark"
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"paragraph_text": "Puppies first start with sucking from the time of being a newborn up to the time they start teething. Puppies around the age of two weeks old start to experience teething. Teething is the process by which a puppy's deciduous teeth come in and then fall out to make way for their permanent teeth. By 5–6 weeks of life, all of the deciduous teeth have come in, puppies will grow in a set of 28 deciduous teeth or needle teeth. Permanent teeth will start coming in around 12–16 weeks, and puppies will eventually end up with 42 permanent teeth. The process of teething is painful to puppies much like babies. During this process puppies will experience increased salivation, loss of appetite, and extreme irritability when the teeth do erupt from the gums. The gums will swell and become tender to palpation just prior to the tooth coming in. Puppies may exhibit excessive chewing, nipping, and drooling. If there is an extreme change in behavior, it is recommended to visit the veterinarian as soon as possible for an exam. Owners that would like to do an oral exam on their own must be prepared for potential aggressive behavior.\nSome ways that dog owners can help their puppies during this painful teething stage is to ensure that your puppy has something to chew on that is soothing for them. Large carrots are recommended for puppies to teethe on and also are nutritious. Often times pet owners will freeze teething toys to soothe their dogs irritated gums. Veterinarians do recommend chew toys help relieve teething pain. It is important that puppies get durable toys so that they can not accidentally swallow plastic or large pieces of fabric since puppy teeth are very sharp and durable. As your puppy's adult teeth start to grow in it is important to start maintaining the dog's dental health. It is recommended to brush your puppy's teeth every day and work with a veterinarian to schedule yearly dental exams and cleanings. If teething turns into aggressive biting, it is not advised to remove healthy canine teeth due to the fact that this does not address the actual problem at hand. Additionally, this could cause oral pathologic conditions that can be expensive to treat and require anesthesia.\n\nSee also\nTooth eruption\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Puppy_teething"
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] | David Fincher has two movies in the 90's that have numbers in the title. What is the number in the title of David Fincher's later-released movie multiplied by the ratio of the sum of all of the molars in an aardvark over the number of adult teeth in a dog? | [] | 13/3 or 4.333... (infinitely repeating decimal) | [] | true |
715 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Conquest of Bread (French: La Conquête du Pain; Russian: Хлѣбъ и воля, romanized: Khleb i volja, 'Bread and Freedom'; Хлеб и воля in contemporary spelling) is an 1892 book by the Russian anarchist communist Peter Kropotkin. Originally written in French, it first appeared as a series of articles in the anarchist journal Le Révolté. It was first published in Paris with a preface by Élisée Reclus, who also suggested the title. Between 1892 and 1894, it was serialized in part in the London journal Freedom, of which Kropotkin was a co-founder.\nIn the work, Kropotkin identified what he considered to be the defects of the economic systems of feudalism and capitalism, and argued that these systems thrive on and maintain poverty and scarcity. He proceeded to propose a more decentralized economic system based on mutual aid and voluntary cooperation, asserting that the tendencies for this kind of organization already exist, both in evolution and in human society.\nThe Conquest of Bread has become a classic of political anarchist literature. It was heavily influential on both the Spanish Civil War and the Occupy movement.\n\nBackground\nIn 1886, Kropotkin was released from French prison. Fearful of the anarchist scare that was gripping continental Europe following the assassination of Alexander II and wishing to focus more time on composing theory and arguing for his revolutionary ideals, Kropotkin moved to London in the same year. Following the death of Mikhail Bakunin in 1876, anarchists desired a prominent and respected theorist to explain their ideas and—after the splitting of the First International between Marxists and anarchists—Kropotkin wished to formally explain anarchist communism in a way that would clearly differentiate the anarchists from the Marxists, but also help to correct what he saw as flaws in Bakunin's ideology of collectivist anarchism. With this aim, Kropotkin spent a great deal of time in London writing multiple books and pamphlets, in between his international speaking tours to the United States and Canada. It was during this time of rapid literary output that Kropotkin wrote The Conquest of Bread, which became his most well-known attempt to systematically explain the essential parts of anarchist communism.\nKropotkin originally wrote the text in French and published in the French journal Le Révolté, where he served as the primary editor. Following its publication in France, Kropotkin published a serialized version in English in the London anarchist journal Freedom. The book would later be collected and published as a book in France in 1892 and in England in 1906.\nThe publication of the text was a watershed moment in anarchist history, being the first time that a completed and in-depth theoretical work of anarchist communist theory was available to the public. The publication of the text shifted the focus of anarchism from individualist, mutualist and collectivist strains to social and communist tendencies. This shift would prove to be one of the most enduring changes in the history of anarchism as anarchism developed throughout the 20th century with Kropotkin and The Conquest of Bread as firm reference points.\n\nSummary\nChapters 1–3: The Right to Well-Being\nThroughout the first three chapters, Kropotkin constructs an argument for the common ownership of all intellectual and useful property due to the collective work that went into creating it. Kropotkin does not argue that the product of a worker's labor should belong to the worker. Instead, Kropotkin asserts that every individual product is essentially the work of everyone since every individual relies on the intellectual and physical labor of those who came before them as well as those who built the world around them. Because of this, Kropotkin proclaims that every human deserves an essential right to well-being because every human contributes to the collective social product: No more of such vague formulae as \"The right to work\", or \"To each the whole result of his labour.\" What we proclaim is the Right to Well-Being; Well-Being for All!\nKropotkin further contends that the central obstacle preventing humanity from claiming this right is the state's violent protection of private property. Kropotkin compares this relationship to feudalism, saying that even if the forms have changed, the essential relationship between the propertied and the landless is the same as the relationship between feudal lords and their serfs. Kropotkin calls for the destruction of the state and the expropriation of all property into the commons, where the right to well-being can be achieved for all people.\n\nChapters 4–11: Anarchist Communist Society\nThroughout the middle of the book, Kropotkin sketches a picture of what he feels an anarchist communist society could look like. He points to the huge levels of production that modern industrial society achieved in terms of food production, clothing production, and housing production, and he uses this as evidence of the feasibility of an anarchist communist society. More than enough of the essentials are produced for all people, Kropotkin argues; if they were only distributed properly, nobody would have any unmet needs. Kropotkin further argues that with the level of production output being so high people should not have to work more than five hours a day and they should be able to reduce that as much as possible, giving them free time for leisure, socialization, and to work on innovations that would reduce their labor.\nNear the end of this section, Kropotkin discusses luxury items, recognizing that they are a necessity for a good life and affirming that luxury items would still be produced, even if production was taken under the purview of common need. Kropotkin claims that luxury items would be produced on a collective basis by those most interested in their production. He uses an example of a group of pianists dedicating time to building luxury pianos with the help of a group of collective carpenters. Kropotkin argues that this system of collective production could produce necessary luxury items—on top of the production of the necessities—for everybody to live a fulfilling life.\n\nChapters 12–17: Objections and Conclusion\nIn the final chapters, Kropotkin lays out what he feels will be prominent objections to his theory as well as his responses to them. He figures that many critics will claim that people are naturally lazy and they would not work without a profit incentive, even if it is only for five hours and for basic necessities. Kropotkin counters by saying that people are willing to work in jobs they enjoy and given the necessary free time to work on their own, with the guarantee of material stability, people will work willingly on collective gardens or in collective garment factories.\nNear the end of the work, Kropotkin cautions against the state centralization of industry, warning people against more authoritarian strands of socialism and claiming that any revolution must guarantee bread and freedom to the workers and revolutionaries. He ends with a long chapter on agriculture, marveling at the many ways in which humans have cultivated and advanced agricultural production, dreaming about the ways that it could be used to feed everybody and guarantee a healthy and happy life for all people.\n\nLegacy\nThe Conquest of Bread has made an impact which exceeds Kropotkin's own lifetime. It has played a prominent role in the anarchist militias of the Spanish Civil War as well as inspiring anarchist history, theory and praxis throughout the 20th century. Due to the problems of Marxism–Leninism in the Soviet Union, some thinkers came to regard the book as prophetic, with Kropotkin anticipating the many pitfalls and human rights abuses that would occur given the centralization of industry.\nAfter the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the subsequent Occupy movement, Kropotkin's work took on increased prominence. David Graeber, one of the intellectual leaders of the Occupy movement, cited Kropotkin directly as an inspiration for the world the Occupy protesters were attempting to create. In 2015, David Priestland, writing for The Guardian, called for a renewed look at Kropotkin and The Conquest of Bread in the West, given the recent collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the global financial crisis of 2007–2008.\nSometimes the subject of leftist memes, it is known as \"The Bread Book\" colloquially.Since 2018, a loose group of left-leaning YouTube content creators have collectively been referred to as BreadTube, inspired by the title of the book. The term \"breadpilled\" refers to the act of becoming an anarcho-socialist, alluding to the red pill and blue pill from the 1999 film The Matrix.\n\nSee also\nBread and Freedom\nFields, Factories and Workshops\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution\nConqueror of Bread\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nThe Conquest of Bread at Standard Ebooks\n\n The Conquest of Bread at Project Gutenberg\n The Conquest of Bread public domain audiobook at LibriVox\nThe Conquest of Bread entry at the Anarchy Archives\nThe Conquest of Bread entry at the Anarchist Library",
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"paragraph_text": "Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism.\nBorn into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended Page Corps and later served as an officer in Siberia, where he participated in several geological expeditions. He was imprisoned for his activism in 1874 and managed to escape two years later. He spent the next 41 years in exile in Switzerland, France (where he was imprisoned for almost four years) and England. While in exile, he gave lectures and published widely on anarchism and geography. Kropotkin returned to Russia after the Russian Revolution in 1917, but he was disappointed by the Bolshevik state.\nKropotkin was a proponent of a decentralized communist society free from central government and based on voluntary associations of self-governing communities and worker-run enterprises. He wrote many books, pamphlets and articles, the most prominent being The Conquest of Bread (1892) and Fields, Factories, and Workshops (1899), with Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1902) being his principal scientific offering. He contributed the article on anarchism to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition and left an unfinished work on anarchist ethical philosophy.\n\nLife\nEarly life\nKropotkin was born in Moscow on 9 December 1842, in the Konyushennaya (\"Equerries\") district. His father, Alexander, was a typical royal officer who owned serfs in three provinces and whose family descended from the Grand Princes of Smolensk. His mother, Ekatarina Sulima, was the daughter of General Nikolai Sulima and a descendant of a Zaporozhian Cossacks leader. Peter, the youngest of her four children, was three years old when she died of tuberculosis. Kropotkin's father remarried two years later. This stepmother was indifferent towards the Kropotkin children and had a streak of jealous vindictiveness, going through great lengths to remove the memory of Kropotkin's mother.\nWith his father mostly absent, Kropotkin and his older brother, Alexander, were raised by their German nurse. Kropotkin developed an enduring compassion for the estate's servants and serfs who cared for him and relayed stories of his mother's kindness. He was raised in the family's Moscow mansion and an estate in Nikolskoye, Kaluga Oblast, outside Moscow.\nAt the age of eight, Kropotkin attended Tsar Nicholas I's Royal Ball. Commending the child's costume, the tsar chose Kropotkin for his Page Corps, an elite school in St. Petersburg that combined military and court education and produced the tsar's imperial attendants. Kropotkin joined the Page Corps as a teenager and began a 14-year epistolary relationship with his brother that charts his intellectual and emotional development. By the time of his arrival, Kropotkin had already shown a populist position towards the emancipation of serfs and a nature of revolt against his father and the school's hazing. Kropotkin began his first underground revolutionary writings at the school, where he advocated for a Russian constitution. He developed an interest in science, reading, and opera. As a top student, Kropotkin became a sergeant-major in 1861 and was thrust into court life, serving as the emperor's personal Page de Chambre. His views of the tsar and court life soured as imperial policy changed over the next year. Privately he was preoccupied with the need to live a societally useful life.\n\nSiberia\nFor his tour of service, in 1862 he chose the Amur Cossacks in east Siberia, an undesirable post that would let him study the technical mathematics of artillery, travel, life in nature and financial independence from his father. He developed a firm worldview of compassion for the poor and contrasted the pride and dignity of the yeoman peasant farmers against the indignities of serfdom. He wrote approvingly of the cultivated Transbaikalia governor-general Boleslav Kukel, to whom Kropotkin reported. Kukel engaged Kropotkin in prison reform and city self-governance projects that the central government ultimately denied. The exiled poet and political prisoner Mikhail Larionovitch Mikhailov introduced Kropotkin to anarchism by recommending he read an essay by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Kropotkin's brother came to live with him in Irkutsk. \nAfter Kukel's ouster in early 1863, Kropotkin found solace in geographical work. He led a disguised reconnaissance expedition to find a direct route through Manchuria from Chita to Vladivostok the next year. He explored the East Siberian Mountains in the north the year after. The mountain measurements from his 1866 Olekminsk-Vitimsk expedition confirmed his Manchurian hypothesis that the Siberian area from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean was a plateau and not a plain. This discovery of the Patom and Vitim Plateaus won him a gold medal from the Russian Geographical Society and led to the commercialization of the Lena gold fields. A range of mountains in this region was later named for him.\nKropotkin covered Siberia for St. Petersburg newspapers since his arrival, including the condition of the Polish political exiles who participated in the unsuccessful 1866 Baikal Insurrection. Kropotkin secured a promise from the governor-general to suspend the prisoners' death sentences, which was reneged. Disillusioned, Kropotkin and his brother resolved to leave the military. His time in Siberia taught him to appreciate peasant social organization and convinced him that administrative reform was an ineffectual means to improve social conditions.\n\nAfter five years in Siberia, Kropotkin and his brother moved to St. Petersburg, where they continued their schooling and academic work. Kropotkin took a position with the Russian interior ministry with no duties. He studied physics, math, and geography at the university. After presenting his Vitim expedition findings, Kropotkin accepted the Russian Geographical Society's part-time offer of its Physical Geography section Secretaryship. Kropotkin translated Herbert Spencer for additional income. He continued to develop a theory, which he considered his best scientific contribution, that the East Siberian mountains were part of a large plateau and not independent ridges. Kropotkin participated in an 1870 polar expedition plan that postulated the existence of what was later discovered as the Franz Josef Land Arctic archipelago.\nIn early 1871, he was commissioned to study the Ice Age in Scandinavian geography, in which Kropotkin developed theories of the glaciation of Europe and the glacial lakes of its northeast. His father died later that year and Kropotkin inherited a wealthy estate in Tambov. Kropotkin turned down the Geographical Society's offer of its general secretary position, instead choosing work on his Ice Age data and interest in bettering the lives of peasants.\n\nAnarchism\nWhile Kropotkin became increasingly revolutionary in his writings, he was not known for activism. He was spurred by the 1871 Paris Commune and trial of Sergey Nechayev. He and his brother attended meetings on the Franco-Prussian War and revolutionism. Likely at the encouragement of a Swiss extended family member and his own desire to see the socialist worker's movement, Kropotkin set out to see Switzerland and Western Europe in February 1872. Over three months, he met Mikhail Sazhin in Zurich, worked and fell out with Nikolai Utin's Marxist group in Geneva, and was introduced to the Jura Federation's James Guillaume and Adhémar Schwitzguébel. The Jura were the main internal opposition to the Marxist-controlled First International, as followers of Mikhail Bakunin. Kropotkin was quickly impressed and was instantly converted to anarchism by the group's egalitarianism and independence of expression, but narrowly missed meeting the leading anarchist, Bakunin, while there. Kropotkin visited Belgium's movement before returning to Russia in May with contraband literature.\nBack in St. Petersburg, Kropotkin joined the Chaikovsky Circle, a group of revolutionaries that Kropotkin considered more educational than revolutionary in their activities. Kropotkin believed in the inevitability of social revolution and the need for stateless social organization. His populist revolutionary program for the group focused on urban workers and peasants whereas the group's moderates focused on students. Partially for this reason, he declined to contribute his personal wealth to the group. He viewed professionals as unlikely to forgo their privileges and judged them to not live societally useful lives. His program emphasized federated agrarian communes and a revolutionary party. While he could speak powerfully, Kropotkin was not a successful organizer.\nKropotkin's first political memo in November 1873 covered his basic plan for stateless social reconstruction including common property, worker control of factories, shared physical labor towards societal need, and labor vouchers in lieu of money. He emphasized living among commoners and using propaganda to focus mass dissatisfaction. He rejected the Nechayev conspiracy model. Members of the circle began to be arrested in late 1873 and the Third Section secret police came for Kropotkin in March 1874.\nHis arrest for agitation, as a former page de chambre and officer, was scandalous. Kropotkin had just filed his Ice Age report and had been recently elected president of the Geographical Society's Physical and Mathematical Department. At the society's request the tsar granted Kropotkin books to finish his glaciation report. Kropotkin was held in the Peter and Paul Fortress. His brother, who had also radicalized as a follower of Lavrov, was also arrested and exiled in Siberia, where he committed suicide about a decade later.\nKropotkin was moved to the House of Detention prison military hospital in St. Petersburg for poor health, with the help of his sister. With assistance from friends, he escaped from the minimal-security prison in June 1876. By way of Scandinavia and England, Kropotkin arrived in Switzerland by the end of the year, where he met Italian anarchists Carlo Cafiero and Errico Malatesta. He visited Belgium and Zurich, where he met French geographer Élisée Reclus, who became a close friend.\n\nExile\nKropotkin associated with the Jura Federation and began editing its publication. There he met Ukrainian Jewish student Sophie Kropotkin, and the two were married in 1878. In 1879, he started Le Révolté, a revolutionary fortnightly, in Geneva that published his personal articulation of anarchist communism, the idea of distributing work product communally based on need rather than by work. He became the philosophy's most prominent proponent, despite not creating it. The philosophy became part of the Jura program in 1880 at Kropotkin's advocacy. Le Révolté also published Kropotkin's best known pamphlet, \"An Appeal to the Young,\" in 1880. \nSwitzerland expelled Kropotkin at Russia's behest after the assassination of Alexander II in early 1881. He moved to Thonon-les-Bains, France, near Geneva, so that his wife could finish her Swiss education. Upon learning that the Holy League, a tsarist group, intended to kill him for his alleged association with the assassination, he moved to London, but could only bear to live there for a year. Upon his return in late 1882, the French arrested him for agitation, partly to appease Russia. He was sentenced to five years in Lyons. In early 1883, he was transferred to the Clairvaux Prison, where he continued his academic work. A public campaign of intellectuals and French legislators called for his release. Reclus published Words of a Rebel, a compilation of Kropotkin's Révolté writings while he was in prison, which became a main source of Kropotkin's thoughts on revolution. As Kropotkin's health worsened from scurvy and malaria, France released him in early 1886. He would stay in England through 1917, settling in Harrow, London, apart from brief trips to other European countries.\nIn London in late 1886, he co-founded Freedom, an anarchist monthly and the first English anarchist periodical, which he continued to support for almost three decades. His first and only child, Alexandra Kropotkin, was born the next year. He published multiple books over the next coming years including In Russian and French Prisons and The Conquest of Bread. His intellectual circle in London included William Morris and W. B. Yeats as well as old Russian friends Sergey Stepnyak-Kravchinsky and Nikolai Tchaikovsky. Kropotkin contributed to the Geographical Journal and Nature.\nAfter 1890, according to biographers George Woodcock and Ivan Avakumović, Kropotkin became more of a scholarly recluse and less of a propagandist. His works' revolutionary zeal subsided as he turned to social, ethical, and scientific questions. He joined the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He continued to contribute to Freedom but was no longer an editor.\nSeveral of Kropotkin's books began as journal articles. His writings on anarchist communist social life were printed in the French successor to Le Révolté and later revised into The Conquest of Bread in 1892. Kropotkin's writings on decentralizing production and industry against the countervailing trend of centralized industrialization were compiled into his Fields, Factories, and Workshops in 1899. His research throughout the 1890s on the animal instinct for cooperation as a counterpoint to Darwinism became a series of articles in Nineteenth Century and, later, the book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which was widely translated.\nFollowing a scientific congress in Toronto in 1897, Kropotkin toured Canada. His experience there led him to advise the Russian Doukhobors who sought to immigrate there. He helped facilitate their emigration in 1899. Kropotkin entered the United States and met John Most, Emma Goldman, and Benjamin Tucker. American publishers published his Memoirs of a Revolutionist and Fields, Factories, and Workshops by the end of the decade. He visited the United States again in 1901 at the invitation of the Lowell Institute to give lectures on Russian literature that were later published. He published The Great French Revolution (1909), The Terror in Russia (1909), and Modern Science and Anarchism (1913). His 70th birthday in 1912 had celebratory gatherings in London and Paris.\nKropotkin's support for Western entry into World War I, siding with Britain and France, divided the anarchist movement, which had been anti-war, and damaged his esteem as a luminary of socialism. He exacerbated this by insisting, with returning to Russia, that Russians support the war as well.\n\nReturn to Russia\nWith the outbreak of the Russian Revolution, Kropotkin returned to Russia in June 1917. He refused the Petrograd Provisional Government's offer of a cabinet seat. In August, he advocated for defending Russia and the revolution at the National State Conference. Kropotkin applied for a residence in Moscow in 1918, which was personally approved by Vladimir Lenin, head of the Soviet government. Months later, finding life in Moscow difficult in his old age, Kropotkin moved with his family to a friend's home in the nearby town of Dmitrov. In 1919, Emma Goldman visited his family there. Kropotkin met with Lenin in Moscow and corresponded by mail to discuss political questions of the day. He advocated for workers' cooperatives and argued against the Bolsheviks' hostage policy and centralization of authority while simultaneously encouraging Western comrades to stop their governments' military interventions in Russia. Kropotkin ultimately had little impact on the Russian revolution, but his advocacy work for political and anarchist prisoners in Russia and for the Russian revolution, during the last four years of his life replenished some of the goodwill he had lost from his support for Western powers in World War I.\nKropotkin died of pneumonia on 8 February 1921. His family refused an offer of a state funeral. With his Moscow funeral, the Bolsheviks permitted the diminished Russian anarchist movement an official, restrained occasion to memorialize their figurehead. It was the last major anarchist demonstration of the period in Russia, as the movement and Kropotkin's writings would be fully suppressed later that year.\n\nPhilosophy\nCritique of capitalism\nKropotkin critiqued what he considered to be the fallacies of the economic systems of feudalism and capitalism. He believed they create poverty and artificial scarcity and promote privilege. Alternatively, he proposed a more decentralized economic system based on mutual aid and voluntary cooperation. He argued that the tendencies for this kind of organization already exist, both in evolution and in human society.\nKropotkin disagreed in part with the Marxist critique of capitalism, including the labor theory of value, believing there was no necessary link between work performed and the values of commodities. His attack on the institution of wage labor was based more on the power employers exerted over employees, and not only on the extraction of surplus value from their labor. Kropotkin claimed this power was made possible by the state's protection of private ownership of productive resources. However, Kropotkin believed the possibility of surplus value was itself the problem, holding that a society would still be unjust if the workers of a particular industry kept their surplus to themselves, rather than redistributing it for the common good.\n\nCritique of state socialism\nKropotkin believed that a communist society could be established only by a social revolution, which he described as, \"... the taking possession by the people of all social wealth. It is the abolition of all the forces which have so long hampered the development of Humanity\". However, he criticized forms of revolutionary methods (like those proposed by Marxism and Blanquism) that retained the use of state power, arguing that any central authority was incompatible with the dramatic changes needed by a social revolution. Kropotkin believed that the mechanisms of the state were deeply rooted in maintaining the power of one class over another, and thus could not be used to emancipate the working class. Instead, Kropotkin insisted that both private property and the state needed to be abolished together. The economic change which will result from the Social Revolution will be so immense and so profound, it must so change all the relations based today on property and exchange, that it is impossible for one or any individual to elaborate the different social forms, which must spring up in the society of the future. [...] Any authority external to it will only be an obstacle, only a trammel on the organic labor which must be accomplished, and beside that a source of discord and hatred.Kropotkin believed that any post-revolutionary government would lack the local knowledge to organize a diverse population. Their vision of society would be limited by their own vindictive, self-serving, or narrow ideals. To ensure order, preserve authority, and organize production the state would need to use violence and coercion to suppress further revolution, and control workers. The workers would be reliant on the state bureaucracy to organize them, so they would never develop the initiative to self-organize as they needed. This would lead to the re-creation of classes, an oppressed workforce, and eventually another revolution. Thus, Kropotkin wrote that maintaining the state would paralyze any true social revolution, making the idea of a \"revolutionary government\" a contradiction in terms:We know that Revolution and Government are incompatible; one must destroy the other, no matter what name is given to government, whether dictator, royalty, or parliament. We know that what makes the strength and the truth of our party is contained in this fundamental formula — \"Nothing good or durable can be done except by the free initiative of the people, and every government tends to destroy it;\" and so the very best among us, if their ideas had not to pass through the crucible of the popular mind, before being put into execution, and if they should become masters of that formidable machine — the government — and could thus act as they chose, would become in a week fit only for the gallows. We know whither every dictator leads, even the best intentioned, — namely to the death of all revolutionary movement.Rather than a centralized approach, Kropotkin stressed the need for decentralized organization. He believed that dissolving the state would cripple counter-revolution without reverting to authoritarian methods of control, writing, \"In order to conquer, something more than guillotines are required. It is the revolutionary idea, the truly wide revolutionary conception, which reduces its enemies to impotence by paralyzing all the instruments by which they have governed hitherto.\" He believed this was possible only through a widespread \"Boldness of thought, a distinct and wide conception of all that is desired, constructive force arising from the people in proportion as the negation of authority dawns; and finally -- the initiative of all in the work of reconstruction -- this will give to the revolution the Power required to conquer.\"\nKropotkin applied this criticism to the Bolsheviks' rule following the October Revolution. Kropotkin summarized his thoughts in a 1919 letter to the workers of Western Europe, promoting the possibility of revolution, but also warning against the centralized control in Russia, which he believed had condemned them to failure. Kropotkin wrote to Lenin in 1920, describing the desperate conditions that he believed to be the result of bureaucratic organization, and urging Lenin to allow for local and decentralized institutions. Following an announcement of executions later that year, Kropotkin sent Lenin another furious letter, admonishing the terror which Kropotkin saw as needlessly destructive.\n\nCooperation and competition\nIn 1902, Kropotkin published his book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, which gave an alternative view of animal and human survival. At the time, some proponents of \"Social Darwinism\" such as Francis Galton proffered a theory of interpersonal competition and natural hierarchy. Instead, Kropotkin argued that \"it was an evolutionary emphasis on cooperation instead of competition in the Darwinian sense that made for the success of species, including the human\". In the last chapter, he wrote:\n\nIn the animal world we have seen that the vast majority of species live in societies, and that they find in association the best arms for the struggle for life: understood, of course, in its wide Darwinian sense – not as a struggle for the sheer means of existence, but as a struggle against all natural conditions unfavourable to the species. The animal species [...] in which individual struggle has been reduced to its narrowest limits [...] and the practice of mutual aid has attained the greatest development [...] are invariably the most numerous, the most prosperous, and the most open to further progress. The mutual protection which is obtained in this case, the possibility of attaining old age and of accumulating experience, the higher intellectual development, and the further growth of sociable habits, secure the maintenance of the species, its extension, and its further progressive evolution. The unsociable species, on the contrary, are doomed to decay.\nKropotkin did not deny the presence of competitive urges in humans, but did not consider them the driving force of human history. He believed that seeking out conflict proved to be socially beneficial only in attempts to destroy injustice, as well as authoritarian institutions such as the state or the Russian Orthodox Church, which he saw as stifling human creativity and impeding human instinctual drive towards cooperation.\nKropotkin claimed that the benefits arising from mutual organization incentivizes humans more than mutual strife. His hope was that in the long run, mutual organization would drive individuals to produce. Anarcho-primitivists and anarcho-communists believe that a gift economy can break the cycle of poverty. They rely on Kropotkin, who believed that the hunter-gatherers he had visited implemented mutual aid.\n\nMutual aid\nIn his 1892 book The Conquest of Bread, Kropotkin proposed a system of economics based on mutual exchanges made in a system of voluntary cooperation. He believed that in a society that is socially, culturally, and industrially developed enough to produce all the goods and services it needs, there would be no obstacle, such as preferential distribution, pricing or monetary exchange, to prevent everyone to take what they need from the social product. He supported the eventual abolition of money or tokens of exchange for goods and services.\nKropotkin believed that Mikhail Bakunin's collectivist economic model was just a wage system by a different name and that such a system would breed the same type of centralization and inequality as a capitalist wage system. He stated that it is impossible to determine the value of an individual's contributions to the products of labor and thought that anyone who was placed in a position of trying to make such determinations would wield authority over those whose wages they determined.\nAccording to Kirkpatrick Sale, \"[w]ith Mutual Aid especially, and later with Fields, Factories, and Workshops, Kropotkin was able to move away from the absurdist limitations of individual anarchism and no-laws anarchism that had flourished during this period and provide instead a vision of communal anarchism, following the models of independent cooperative communities he discovered while developing his theory of mutual aid. It was an anarchism that opposed centralized government and state-level laws as traditional anarchism did, but understood that at a certain small scale, communities and communes and co-ops could flourish and provide humans with a rich material life and wide areas of liberty without centralized control.\"\n\nSelf-sufficiency\nKropotkin's focus on local production led to his view that a country should strive for self-sufficiency by manufacturing its own goods and growing its own food, thus lessening the need to rely on imports. To these ends, he advocated irrigation and greenhouses to boost local food production.\n\nPersonal life\nKropotkin married Sofia, a Russian Jewish student, in Switzerland in October 1878. She was over a decade younger than Kropotkin. Kropotkin references her as a primary source of criticism and feedback. Her published story, \"The Wife of Number 4,237\", was based on her own experience with her husband at Clairvaux prison. She created an archive in Moscow dedicated to his works before her death in 1941. Their only child, Alexandra, was born in London in 1887. Kropotkin was reserved about his private life.\nAs an individual, Kropotkin was known for having exceptional integrity and moral character that matched his beliefs. Henry Hyndman, an ideological adversary, recalled Kropotkin's charm and sincerity. These traits, wrote Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, contributed to Kropotkin's power as a public speaker. As a thinker, Kropotkin focused more acutely on issues of morality than of economics or politics and carried himself by his own principles without imposition on others. In practice, this made him more of a \"revolutionary humanitarian\" than a revolutionist by deed. He was also known for being exceptionally kind and for forgoing material comforts to live a revolutionary, principled life by example. Gerald Runkle wrote that \"Kropotkin with his scholarly and saintly ways ... almost brought respectability to the movement.\"\n\nLegacy\nAs the anarchists' leading theorist in his lifetime, Kropotkin wrote their most systematic doctrine and in an accessible way; and led the development of anarchist-communist social doctrine. His works, inventive and pragmatic, were the most read anarchist books and pamphlets, with translations into major European and Eastern languages that influenced revolutionaries (e.g., Nestor Makhno and Emiliano Zapata) and non-anarchist reformers alike (e.g., Patrick Geddes, Ebenezer Howard), as well as a wide range of intellectuals (including the writers Ba Jin and James Joyce). Much of Kropotkin's impact was in his intellectual writings prior to 1914. He had little influence on the Russian revolution, despite returning for it.\nEmma Goldman regarded Kropotkin as her \"great teacher\" and as among the greatest minds and personalities of the 19th century. \nAfter Kropotkin's 1921 death, the Bolsheviks permitted Kropotkin's Moscow house to become a Kropotkin Museum. This closed in 1938 with his wife's death.\nKropotkin is the namesake for multiple regional entities. The Konyushennaya district in Moscow, where Kropotkin was born, is now known by his name, as the Kropotkinsky district, including the Kropotkinskaya metro station. He is the namesake for a large town in the North Caucasus (southwest Russia) and a small town in Siberia. The Kropotkin Range he was first to cross in the Siberian Patom Highlands was named for him, as was a peak in East Antarctica.\n\nWorks\nBooks\nIn Russian and French Prisons, London: Ward and Downey; 1887.\nThe Conquest of Bread (Paris, 1892) Project Gutenberg e-text, Project LibriVox audiobook\nThe Great French Revolution, 1789–1793 (French original: Paris, 1893; English translation: London, 1909). e-text (in French), Anarchist Library e-text (in English)\nThe Terror in Russia, 1909, RevoltLib e-text\nWords of a Rebel, 1885,\nFields, Factories, and Workshops (London and New York, 1898).\nMemoirs of a Revolutionist, London: Smith, Elder; 1899. Anarchist Library e-text, Anarchy Archives e-text\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (London, 1902) Project Gutenberg e-text, Project LibriVox audiobook\nModern Science and Anarchism, 1903, *\nRussian Literature: Ideals and Realities (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1905). Anarchy Archives e-text\nThe State: Its Historic Role, published 1946,\nEthics: Origin and Development (unfinished). Included as first part of Origen y evolución de la moral (Spanish e-text)\n\nPamphlets\nArticles\nSee also\nMaria Leshern von Herzfeld\nGolets Kropotkin\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nFurther reading\nBooks on Kropotkin\nButterworth, Alex (9 August 2011). The World That Never Was: A True Story of Dreamers, Schemers, Anarchists, and Secret Agents. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-38675-5. OCLC 676726867.\nCahm, Caroline (1989). Kropotkin and the Rise of Revolutionary Anarchism 1872–1886. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36445-0. OCLC 19553164.\nDavis, Mike (2018). \"The Coming Desert: Kropotkin, Mars and the Pulse of Asia\". Old Gods, New Enigmas: Marx's Lost Theory. London: Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78873-217-8. OCLC 1014051592.\nEngelbert, Arthur (2012). Help! Gegenseitig behindern oder helfen. Eine politische Skizze zur Wahrnehmung heute. Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann. ISBN 978-3-8260-5017-6. OCLC 822991908.\nJoll, James (1980). The Anarchists. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03641-3. OCLC 6016024.\nMac Laughlin, Jim (4 November 2023). Kropotkin and the Anarchist Intellectual Tradition. London: Pluto Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt19qgdvc. ISBN 9780745335131. JSTOR j.ctt19qgdvc. OCLC 937451696.\nMaíz, Jordi, ed. (2021). Kropotkin. Cien años después. Madrid: Fundación de Estudios Libertarios Anselmo Lorenzo. ISBN 978-84-123507-1-5. OCLC 1264877365.\nMiller, Martin A. (1976). Kropotkin. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-52594-5. OCLC 1035901653.\nMorris, Brian (2004). Kropotkin: The Politics of Community. Oakland, California: PM Press. ISBN 9781629635057. OCLC 1030892242.\nWalter, Nicolas (2004). \"Kropotkin, Peter\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/42326. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)\nWoodcock, George; Avakumović, Ivan (1950). The Anarchist Prince: A Biographical Study of Peter Kropotkin. Kraus Reprint. ISBN 9780805203059. OCLC 242229.\n\nPeriodical articles\nAfinogenov, Greg (4 May 2023). \"What should the action be?\". London Review of Books. Vol. 45, no. 9. ISSN 0260-9592.\nAlan, Barnard (March 2004). \"Mutual Aid and the Foraging Mode of Thought: Re-reading Kropotkin on the Khoisan\". Social Evolution & History. 3 (1): 3–21. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.515.4372.\nChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivich\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 928.\nChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). \"Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivich, Prince\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 31 (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company. p. 688.\nEfremenko, Dmitry; Evseeva, Yaroslava (2012). \"Studies of Social Solidarity in Russia: Tradition and Modern Trends\". The American Sociologist. 43 (4): 349–365. doi:10.1007/s12108-012-9165-2. ISSN 0003-1232. JSTOR 23319618. S2CID 255519594.\nGould, S. J. (June 1997). \"Kropotkin Was No Crackpot\". Natural History. 106: 12–21.\n\"Prince P. A. Kropotkin\". Nature. 106 (2675): 735–736. February 1921. Bibcode:1921Natur.106..735.. doi:10.1038/106735a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4292571.\n\nExternal links\n\nWorks by Peter Kropotkin in eBook form at Standard Ebooks\nWorks by or about Peter Kropotkin at the Internet Archive\nWorks by Peter Kropotkin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nKropotkin Museum\npeterkropotkin.org",
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"paragraph_text": "Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution is a 1902 collection of anthropological essays by Russian naturalist and anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin. The essays, initially published in the English periodical The Nineteenth Century between 1890 and 1896, explore the role of mutually beneficial cooperation and reciprocity (or \"mutual aid\") in the animal kingdom and human societies both past and present. It is an argument against theories of social Darwinism that emphasize competition and survival of the fittest, and against the romantic depictions by writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who thought that cooperation was motivated by universal love. Instead, Kropotkin argues that mutual aid has pragmatic advantages for the survival of human and animal communities and, along with the conscience, has been promoted through natural selection.\nMutual Aid is considered a fundamental text in anarchist communism. It presents a scientific basis for communism as an alternative to the historical materialism of the Marxists. Kropotkin considers the importance of mutual aid for prosperity and survival in the animal kingdom, in indigenous and early European societies, in the medieval free cities (especially through the guilds), and in the late 19th century village, labor movement, and impoverished people. He criticizes the State for destroying historically important mutual aid institutions, particularly through the imposition of private property.\nMany biologists (including Stephen Jay Gould, one of the most influential evolutionary biologists of his generation) also consider it an important catalyst in the scientific study of cooperation.\n\nReception\nDaniel P. Todes, in his account of Russian naturalism in the 19th century, concludes that Kropotkin's work \"cannot be dismissed as the idiosyncratic product of an anarchist dabbling in biology\" and that his views \"were but one expression of a broad current in Russian evolutionary thought that pre-dated, indeed encouraged, his work on the subject and was by no means confined to leftist thinkers.\"\nKropotkin emphasizes the distinction between competitive struggle between individual organisms over limited resources and collective struggle between organisms and the environment. He drew from his firsthand observations of Siberia and Northeast Asia, where he saw that animal populations were limited not by food sources, which were abundant, but rather by harsh weather. For example, predatory birds may compete by stealing food from one another while migratory birds cooperate in order to survive harsh winters by traveling long distances. He did not deny the competitive form of struggle but argued that the cooperative counterpart has been under-emphasized: \"There is an immense amount of warfare and extermination going on amidst various species; there is, at the same time, as much, or perhaps even more, of mutual support, mutual aid, and mutual defense... Sociability is as much a law of nature as mutual struggle.\"\nAs a description of biology, Kropotkin's perspective is consistent with contemporary understanding. Stephen Jay Gould admired Kropotkin's observations, noting that cooperation, if it increases individual survival, is not ruled out by natural selection, and is in fact encouraged. Kropotkin's ideas anticipate the now recognized importance of mutualism (a beneficial relationship between two different species) and altruism (when one member of a species aids another) in biology. Examples of altruism in animals include kin selection and reciprocal altruism. Douglas H. Boucher places Kropotkin's book as a precursor to the development of the biological theory of altruism.\n\nEditions\nSee also\nA Darwinian Left: Politics, Evolution and Cooperation\nEthology\nEvolutionary anthropology\nPsychological egoism\nList of books about anarchism\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, the original edition at archive.org\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution at The Anarchist Library\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution at Libcom.org\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution at Standard Ebooks\n Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution at Project Gutenberg\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution – HTML version at the Anarchy Archives\nMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution – Plain PDF version at the RevoltLib\n Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution public domain audiobook at LibriVox\nPaul Mattick, Kropotkin on Mutual Aid — Review, 1956.\nIain McKay, Mutual Aid: An Introduction and Evaluation, AK Press, Edinburgh, 2010.",
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"paragraph_text": "Herbert Marshall McLuhan (, mə-KLOO-ən; July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980) was a Canadian philosopher whose work is among the cornerstones of the study of media theory. He studied at the University of Manitoba and the University of Cambridge. He began his teaching career as a professor of English at several universities in the United States and Canada before moving to the University of Toronto in 1946, where he remained for the rest of his life. He is known as the \"father of media studies\".\nMcLuhan coined the expression \"the medium is the message\" in the first chapter in his Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man and the term global village. He predicted the World Wide Web almost 30 years before it was invented. He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, though his influence began to wane in the early 1970s. In the years following his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles. However, with the arrival of the Internet and the World Wide Web, interest was renewed in his work and perspectives.\n\nLife and career\nMcLuhan was born on July 21, 1911, in Edmonton, Alberta, and was named \"Marshall\" from his maternal grandmother's surname. His brother, Maurice, was born two years later. His parents were both also born in Canada: his mother, Elsie Naomi (née Hall), was a Baptist school teacher who later became an actress; and his father, Herbert Ernest McLuhan, was a Methodist with a real-estate business in Edmonton. When the business failed at the start of World War I, McLuhan's father enlisted in the Canadian Army. After a year of service, he contracted influenza and remained in Canada, away from the front lines. After Herbert's discharge from the army in 1915, the McLuhan family moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba, where Marshall grew up and went to school, attending Kelvin Technical School before enrolling in the University of Manitoba in 1928.\n\nUndergraduate education\nAfter studying for one year as an engineering student, he changed majors and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree (1933), winning a University Gold Medal in Arts and Sciences. He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree (1934) in English from the university as well. He had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and was accepted by Trinity Hall, Cambridge, having failed to secure a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Oxford.\nThough having already earned his BA and MA in Manitoba, Cambridge required him to enroll as an undergraduate \"affiliated\" student, with one year's credit towards a three-year bachelor's degree, before entering any doctoral studies. He went up to Cambridge in the autumn of 1934, studied under I. A. Richards and F. R. Leavis, and was influenced by New Criticism. Years afterward, upon reflection, he credited the faculty there with influencing the direction of his later work because of their emphasis on the \"training of perception\", as well as such concepts as Richards' notion of \"feedforward\". These studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms. He received the required bachelor's degree from Cambridge in 1936 and entered their graduate program.\n\nConversion to Catholicism\nAt the University of Manitoba, McLuhan explored his conflicted relationship with religion and turned to literature to \"gratify his soul's hunger for truth and beauty,\" later referring to this stage as agnosticism. While studying the trivium at Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion to Catholicism in 1937, founded on his reading of G. K. Chesterton. In 1935, he wrote to his mother:Had I not encountered Chesterton I would have remained agnostic for many years at least. Chesterton did not convince me of religious faith, but he prevented my despair from becoming a habit or hardening into misanthropy. He opened my eyes to European culture and encouraged me to know it more closely. He taught me the reasons for all that in me was simply blind anger and misery.At the end of March 1937, McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, when he was formally received into the Catholic Church. After consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert. His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable. McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter. He had a lifelong interest in the number three (e.g., the trivium, the Trinity) and sometimes said that the Virgin Mary provided intellectual guidance for him. For the rest of his career, he taught in Catholic institutions of higher education.\n\nEarly career, marriage, and doctorate\nUnable to find a suitable job in Canada, he went to the United States to take a job as a teaching assistant at the University of Wisconsin–Madison for the 1936–37 academic year. From 1937 to 1944, he taught English at Saint Louis University (with an interruption from 1939 to 1940 when he returned to Cambridge). There he taught courses on Shakespeare, eventually tutoring and befriending Walter J. Ong, who would write his doctoral dissertation on a topic that McLuhan had called to his attention, as well as become a well-known authority on communication and technology.\nMcLuhan met Corinne Lewis in St. Louis, a teacher and aspiring actress from Fort Worth, Texas, whom he married on August 4, 1939. They spent 1939–40 in Cambridge, where he completed his master's degree (awarded in January 1940) and began to work on his doctoral dissertation on Thomas Nashe and the verbal arts. While the McLuhans were in England, World War II had erupted in Europe. For this reason, he obtained permission to complete and submit his dissertation from the United States, without having to return to Cambridge for an oral defence. In 1940, the McLuhans returned to Saint Louis University, where they started a family as he continued teaching. He was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in December 1943.\nHe next taught at Assumption College in Windsor, Ontario, from 1944 to 1946, then moved to Toronto in 1946 where he joined the faculty of St. Michael's College, a Catholic college of the University of Toronto, where Hugh Kenner would be one of his students. Canadian economist and communications scholar Harold Innis was a university colleague who had a strong influence on his work. McLuhan wrote in 1964: \"I am pleased to think of my own book The Gutenberg Galaxy as a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences, first of writing then of printing.\"\n\nLater career and reputation\nIn the early 1950s, McLuhan began the Communication and Culture seminars at the University of Toronto, funded by the Ford Foundation. As his reputation grew, he received a growing number of offers from other universities. During this period, he published his first major work, The Mechanical Bride (1951), in which he examines the effect of advertising on society and culture. Throughout the 1950s, he and Edmund Carpenter also produced an important academic journal called Explorations. McLuhan and Carpenter have been characterized as the Toronto School of communication theory, together with Harold Innis, Eric A. Havelock, and Northrop Frye. During this time, McLuhan supervised the doctoral thesis of modernist writer Sheila Watson on the subject of Wyndham Lewis. Hoping to keep him from moving to another institute, the University of Toronto created the Centre for Culture and Technology (CCT) in 1963.\nFrom 1967 to 1968, McLuhan was named the Albert Schweitzer Chair in Humanities at Fordham University in the Bronx. While at Fordham, he was diagnosed with a benign brain tumor, which was treated successfully. He returned to Toronto where he taught at the University of Toronto for the rest of his life and lived in Wychwood Park, a bucolic enclave on a hill overlooking the downtown where Anatol Rapoport was his neighbour.\nIn 1970, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 1975, the University of Dallas hosted him from April to May, appointing him to the McDermott Chair. Marshall and Corinne McLuhan had six children: Eric, twins Mary and Teresa, Stephanie, Elizabeth, and Michael. The associated costs of a large family eventually drove him to advertising work and accepting frequent consulting and speaking engagements for large corporations, including IBM and AT&T.\n\nDeath\nIn September 1979, McLuhan suffered a stroke which affected his ability to speak. The University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies tried to close his research center shortly thereafter, but was deterred by substantial protests. McLuhan never fully recovered from the stroke and died in his sleep on December 31, 1980. He is buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Thornhill, Ontario, Canada.\n\nMajor works\nDuring his years at Saint Louis University (1937–1944), McLuhan worked concurrently on two projects: his doctoral dissertation and the manuscript that was eventually published in 1951 as a book, titled The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man, which included only a representative selection of the materials that McLuhan had prepared for it.\nMcLuhan's 1942 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation surveys the history of the verbal arts (grammar, logic, and rhetoric—collectively known as the trivium) from the time of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe. In his later publications, McLuhan at times uses the Latin concept of the trivium to outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history of Western culture. McLuhan suggests that the Late Middle Ages, for instance, were characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic. The key development that led to the Renaissance was not the rediscovery of ancient texts, but a shift in emphasis from the formal study of logic to rhetoric and grammar. Modern life is characterized by the re-emergence of grammar as its most salient feature—a trend McLuhan felt was exemplified by the New Criticism of Richards and Leavis.\nMcLuhan also began the academic journal Explorations with anthropologist Edmund \"Ted\" Carpenter. In a letter to Walter Ong, dated 31 May 1953, McLuhan reports that he had received a two-year grant of $43,000 from the Ford Foundation to carry out a communication project at the University of Toronto involving faculty from different disciplines, which led to the creation of the journal.\nAt a Fordham lecture in 1999, Tom Wolfe suggested that a major under-acknowledged influence on McLuhan's work is the Jesuit philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, whose ideas anticipated those of McLuhan, especially the evolution of the human mind into the \"noosphere.\" In fact, McLuhan warns against outright dismissing or whole-heartedly accepting de Chardin's observations early on in his second published book The Gutenberg Galaxy:\n\nThis externalization of our senses creates what de Chardin calls the \"noosphere\" or a technological brain for the world. Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as in an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and super-imposed co-existence.\nIn his private life, McLuhan wrote to friends saying: \"I am not a fan of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. The idea that anything is better because it comes later is surely borrowed from pre-electronic technologies.\" Further, McLuhan noted to a Catholic collaborator: \"The idea of a Cosmic thrust in one direction ... is surely one of the lamest semantic fallacies ever bred by the word 'evolution'.… That development should have any direction at all is inconceivable except to the highly literate community.\"\nSome of McLuhan's main ideas were influenced or prefigured by anthropologists like Edward Sapir and Claude Lévi-Strauss, arguably with a more complex historical and psychological analysis. The idea of the retribalization of Western society by the far-reaching techniques of communication, the view on the function of the artist in society, and the characterization of means of transportation, like the railroad and the airplane, as means of communication, are prefigured in Sapir's 1933 article on Communication in the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, while the distinction between \"hot\" and \"cool\" media draws from Lévi-Strauss' distinction between hot and cold societies.\n\nThe Mechanical Bride (1951)\nMcLuhan's first book, The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man (1951), is a pioneering study in the field now known as popular culture. In the book, McLuhan turns his attention to analysing and commenting on numerous examples of persuasion in contemporary popular culture. This followed naturally from his earlier work as both dialectic and rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed at persuasion. At this point, his focus shifted dramatically, turning inward to study the influence of communication media independent of their content. His famous aphorism \"the medium is the message\" (elaborated in his Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 1964) calls attention to this intrinsic effect of communications media.\nHis interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the 1933 book Culture and Environment by F. R. Leavis and Denys Thompson, and the title The Mechanical Bride is derived from a piece by the Dadaist artist Marcel Duchamp.\nThe Mechanical Bride is composed of 59 short essays that may be read in any order—what he styled the \"mosaic approach\" to writing a book. Each essay begins with a newspaper or magazine article, or an advertisement, followed by McLuhan's analysis thereof. The analyses bear on aesthetic considerations as well as on the implications behind the imagery and text. McLuhan chose these ads and articles not only to draw attention to their symbolism, as well as their implications for the corporate entities who created and disseminated them, but also to mull over what such advertising implies about the wider society at which it is aimed. Roland Barthes's essays 1957 Mythologies, echoes McLuhan's Mechanical Bride, as a series of exhibits of popular mass culture (like advertisements, newspaper articles and photographs) that are analyzed in a semiological way.\n\nThe Gutenberg Galaxy (1962)\nWritten in 1961 and first published by University of Toronto Press, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) is a pioneering study in the fields of oral culture, print culture, cultural studies, media ecology or media-adequacy.\nThroughout the book, McLuhan makes efforts to reveal how communication technology (i.e., alphabetic writing, the printing press, and the electronic media) affects cognitive organization, which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization:\n\n[I]f a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world, then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture. It is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody. And when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque, and what had been vague or opaque will become translucent.\n\nMovable type\nMcLuhan's episodic history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic, tribal humankind to the electronic age. According to McLuhan, the invention of movable type greatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan means phonemic orthography. (McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet from logographic or logogramic writing systems, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs or ideograms.)\nPrint culture, ushered in by the advance in printing during the middle of the 15th century when the Gutenberg press was invented, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral. Quoting (with approval) an observation on the nature of the printed word from William Ivins' Prints and Visual Communication, McLuhan remarks:\n\nIn this passage [Ivins] not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential habits, but, even more important, points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background.…The technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it were, \"formal\" causality, both in our inner and external lives. Print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook.\nThe main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon in The Medium Is the Massage) is that new technologies (such as alphabets, printing presses, and even speech) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn, affects social organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits—\"visual homogenizing of experience\"—which in turn affects social interactions—\"fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a…specialist outlook\". According to McLuhan, this advance of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the modern period in the Western world: individualism, democracy, Protestantism, capitalism, and nationalism. For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of \"segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visual quantification.\"\n\nGlobal village\nIn the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called \"electronic interdependence\" wherein electronic media replaces visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind would move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a \"tribal base.\" McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is the global village.\nThe term is sometimes described as having negative connotations in The Gutenberg Galaxy, but McLuhan was interested in exploring effects, not making value judgments:\n\nInstead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and superimposed co-existence.… Terror is the normal state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the time.…In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture.\nKey to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has no per se moral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society's self-conception and realization:\n\nIs it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological grounds?…Print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture that detribalizes or decollectivizes man in the first instance. Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition. Thus, print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do. Print is the technology of individualism. If men decided to modify this visual technology by an electric technology, individualism would also be modified. To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping off fingers. \"But\", someone says, \"we didn't know it would happen.\" Yet even witlessness is not a moral issue. It is a problem, but not a moral problem; and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies. It would be good for morality.\nThe moral valence of technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective. For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter 17th century with the modern concern for the \"end of the book.\" If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that \"there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of the causalities and effects inherent in our technologies\".\nThough the World Wide Web was invented almost 30 years after The Gutenberg Galaxy, and 10 years after his death, McLuhan prophesied the web technology seen today as early as 1962:\n\nThe next medium, whatever it is—it may be the extension of consciousness—will include television as its content, not as its environment, and will transform television into an art form. A computer as a research and communication instrument could enhance retrieval, obsolesce mass library organization, retrieve the individual's encyclopedic function and flip into a private line to speedily tailored data of a saleable kind.\nFurthermore, McLuhan coined and certainly popularized the usage of the term surfing to refer to rapid, irregular, and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements such as \"Heidegger surf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly as Descartes rode the mechanical wave.\" Paul Levinson's 1999 book Digital McLuhan explores the ways that McLuhan's work may be understood better through using the lens of the digital revolution.\nMcLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong's Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue (1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to write The Gutenberg Galaxy. Ong wrote a highly favorable review of this new book in America. However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy as \"a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond.\" McLuhan himself said of the book, \"I'm not concerned to get any kudos out of [The Gutenberg Galaxy]. It seems to me a book that somebody should have written a century ago. I wish somebody else had written it. It will be a useful prelude to the rewrite of Understanding Media [the 1960 NAEB report] that I'm doing now.\"\nMcLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy won Canada's highest literary award, the Governor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962. The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner, Northrop Frye.\n\nUnderstanding Media (1964)\nMcLuhan's best-known work, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964), is a seminal study in media theory. Dismayed by the way in which people approach and use new media such as television, McLuhan famously argues that in the modern world \"we live mythically and integrally…but continue to think in the old, fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric age.\"\nMcLuhan proposes that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of study—popularly quoted as \"the medium is the message\". His insight is that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content it delivers, but by its own characteristics. McLuhan points to the light bulb as a clear demonstration of this. A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles, or a television has programs, but it is a medium that has a social effect; that is, a light bulb enables people to create spaces at night that would otherwise be enveloped by darkness. He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content. McLuhan writes, \"a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence.\" More controversially, he postulates that content has little effect on society—for example, whether television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, its effect on society is identical. He notes that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book can be reread at will, but a movie must be screened again in its entirety to study any part of it.\n\n\"Hot\" and \"cool\" media\nIn the first part of Understanding Media, McLuhan writes that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Using terminology derived from French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss's distinction between hot and cold societies, McLuhan argues that a cool medium requires increased involvement due to decreased description, while a hot medium is the opposite, decreasing involvement and increasing description. In other words, a society that appears to be actively participating in streaming content but does not consider the tool's effects is not allowing an \"extension of ourselves\". A movie is thus said to be \"high definition\", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book \"low definition\", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value: \"Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one, as a lecture makes for less participation than a seminar, and a book for less than a dialogue.\"\nSome media, such as movies, are hot—that is, they enhance a single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort to perceive a detailed moving image. Hot media usually, but not always, provide complete involvement with considerable stimulus. In contrast, \"cool\" print may also occupy visual space, using visual senses, but require focus and comprehension to immerse readers. Hot media creation favour analytical precision, quantitative analysis and sequential ordering, as they are usually sequential, linear, and logical. They emphasize one sense (for example, of sight or sound) over the others. For this reason, hot media include film (especially silent films), radio, the lecture, and photography.\nMcLuhan contrasts hot media with cool—specifically, television [of the 1960s i.e. small black-and-white screens], which he claims requires more effort from the viewer to determine meaning; and comics, which, due to their minimal presentation of visual detail, require a high degree of effort to fill in details the cartoonist may have intended to portray. Cool media are usually, but not always, those that provide little involvement with substantial stimulus. They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts. Therefore, in addition to television, cool media include seminars and cartoons. McLuhan describes the term cool media as emerging from jazz and popular music used, in this context, to mean \"detached\".\nThis appears to force media into binary categories, but McLuhan's hot and cool exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than as dichotomous terms.\n\nCritiques of Understanding Media\nSome theorists have attacked McLuhan's definition and treatment of the word \"medium\" for being too simplistic. Umberto Eco, for instance, contends that McLuhan's medium conflates channels, codes, and messages under the overarching term of the medium, confusing the vehicle, internal code, and content of a given message in his framework.\nIn Media Manifestos, Régis Debray also takes issue with McLuhan's envisioning of the medium. Like Eco, he is ill at ease with this reductionist approach, summarizing its ramifications as follows:\n\n The list of objections could be and has been lengthened indefinitely: confusing technology itself with its use of the media makes of the media an abstract, undifferentiated force and produces its image in an imaginary \"public\" for mass consumption; the magical naivete of supposed causalities turns the media into a catch-all and contagious \"mana\"; apocalyptic millenarianism invents the figure of a homo mass-mediaticus without ties to historical and social context, and so on.\nFurthermore, when Wired magazine interviewed him in 1995, Debray said he saw McLuhan \"more as a poet than a historian, a master of intellectual collage rather than a systematic analyst.… McLuhan overemphasizes the technology behind cultural change at the expense of the usage that the messages and codes make of that technology.\"\nDwight Macdonald, in turn, reproached McLuhan for his focus on television and for his \"aphoristic\" prose style, which he believes leaves Understanding Media filled with \"contradictions, non-sequiturs, facts that are distorted and facts that are not facts, exaggerations, and chronic rhetorical vagueness.\"\nBrian Winston's Misunderstanding Media, published in 1986, chides McLuhan for what he sees as his technologically deterministic stances. Raymond Williams furthers this point of contention, claiming:\n\nThe work of McLuhan was a particular culmination of an aesthetic theory which became, negatively, a social theory ... It is an apparently sophisticated technological determinism which has the significant effect of indicating a social and cultural determinism.… For if the medium—whether print or television—is the cause, all other causes, all that men ordinarily see as history, are at once reduced to effects.\nDavid Carr wrote that there has been a long line of \"academics who have made a career out of deconstructing McLuhan’s effort to define the modern media ecosystem\", whether it be due to what they see as McLuhan's ignorance of sociohistorical context or the style of his argument.\nWhile some critics have taken issue with McLuhan's writing style and mode of argument, McLuhan himself urged readers to think of his work as \"probes\" or \"mosaics\" offering a toolkit approach to thinking about media. His eclectic writing style has also been praised for its postmodern sensibilities and suitability for virtual space.\n\nThe Medium Is the Massage (1967)\nThe Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects, published in 1967, was McLuhan's best seller, \"eventually selling nearly a million copies worldwide.\" Initiated by Quentin Fiore, McLuhan adopted the term \"massage\" to denote the effect each medium has on the human sensorium, taking inventory of the \"effects\" of numerous media in terms of how they \"massage\" the sensorium.\nFiore, at the time a prominent graphic designer and communications consultant, set about composing the visual illustration of these effects which were compiled by Jerome Agel. Near the beginning of the book, Fiore adopted a pattern in which an image demonstrating a media effect was presented with a textual synopsis on the facing page. The reader experiences a repeated shifting of analytic registers—from \"reading\" typographic print to \"scanning\" photographic facsimiles—reinforcing McLuhan's overarching argument in this book: namely, that each medium produces a different \"massage\" or \"effect\" on the human sensorium.\nIn The Medium Is the Massage, McLuhan also rehashed the argument—which first appeared in the Prologue to 1962's The Gutenberg Galaxy—that all media are \"extensions\" of our human senses, bodies and minds.\n\nFinally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media. \"The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth [century]\", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while \"[t]he technique of the suspended judgment is the discovery of the twentieth century,\" brought on by the bard abilities of radio, movies and television.The past went that-a-way. When faced with a totally new situation we tend always to attach ourselves to the objects, to the flavor of the most recent past. We look at the present through a rear-view mirror. We march backward into the future. Suburbia lives imaginatively in Bonanza-land.An audio recording version of McLuhan's famous work was made by Columbia Records. The recording consists of a pastiche of statements made by McLuhan interrupted by other speakers, including people speaking in various phonations and falsettos, discordant sounds and 1960s incidental music in what could be considered a deliberate attempt to translate the disconnected images seen on TV into an audio format, resulting in the prevention of a connected stream of conscious thought. Various audio recording techniques and statements are used to illustrate the relationship between spoken, literary speech and the characteristics of electronic audio media. McLuhan biographer Philip Marchand called the recording \"the 1967 equivalent of a McLuhan video.\"\"I wouldn't be seen dead with a living work of art.\"—'Old man' speaking\n\"Drop this jiggery-pokery and talk straight turkey.\"—\"Middle-aged man\" speaking\n\nWar and Peace in the Global Village (1968)\nIn War and Peace in the Global Village, McLuhan used James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, an inspiration for this study of war throughout history, as an indicator as to how war may be conducted in the future.\nJoyce's Wake is claimed to be a gigantic cryptogram that reveals a cyclic pattern for human history through its Ten Thunders. Each \"thunder\" below is a 100-character portmanteau of other words to create a statement McLuhan likens to an effect that each technology has on the society into which it is introduced. In order to glean the most understanding out of each, the reader must break the portmanteau into separate words (many of these themselves portmanteaus of words taken from multiple languages other than English) and speak them aloud for the spoken effect of each word. There is much dispute over what each portmanteau truly denotes.\nMcLuhan claims that the ten thunders in Wake represent different stages in the history of man:\n\nThunder 1: Paleolithic to Neolithic. Speech. Split of East/West. From herding to harnessing animals.\nThunder 2: Clothing as weaponry. Enclosure of private parts. First social aggression.\nThunder 3: Specialism. Centralism via wheel, transport, cities: civil life.\nThunder 4: Markets and truck gardens. Patterns of nature submitted to greed and power.\nThunder 5: Printing. Distortion and translation of human patterns and postures and pastors.\nThunder 6: Industrial Revolution. Extreme development of print process and individualism.\nThunder 7: Tribal man again. All characters end up separate, private man. Return of choric.\nThunder 8: Movies. Pop art, pop Kulch via tribal radio. Wedding of sight and sound.\nThunder 9: Car and Plane. Both centralizing and decentralizing at once create cities in crisis. Speed and death.\nThunder 10: Television. Back to tribal involvement in tribal mood-mud. The last thunder is a turbulent, muddy wake, and murk of non-visual, tactile man.\n\nFrom Cliché to Archetype (1970)\nCollaborating with Canadian poet Wilfred Watson in From Cliché to Archetype (1970), McLuhan approaches the various implications of the verbal cliché and of the archetype. One major facet in McLuhan's overall framework introduced in this book that is seldom noticed is the provision of a new term that actually succeeds the global village: the global theater.\nIn McLuhan's terms, a cliché is a \"normal\" action, phrase, etc. which becomes so often used that we are \"anesthetized\" to its effects. McLuhan provides the example of Eugène Ionesco's play The Bald Soprano, whose dialogue consists entirely of phrases Ionesco pulled from an Assimil language book: \"Ionesco originally put all these idiomatic English clichés into literary French which presented the English in the most absurd aspect possible.\"\nMcLuhan's archetype \"is a quoted extension, medium, technology, or environment.\" Environment would also include the kinds of \"awareness\" and cognitive shifts brought upon people by it, not totally unlike the psychological context Carl Jung described.\nMcLuhan also posits that there is a factor of interplay between the cliché and the archetype, or a \"doubleness\":\n\nAnother theme of the Wake [Finnegans Wake] that helps in the understanding of the paradoxical shift from cliché to archetype is 'past time are pastimes.' The dominant technologies of one age become the games and pastimes of a later age. In the 20th century, the number of 'past times' that are simultaneously available is so vast as to create cultural anarchy. When all the cultures of the world are simultaneously present, the work of the artist in the elucidation of form takes on new scope and new urgency. Most men are pushed into the artist's role. The artist cannot dispense with the principle of 'doubleness' or 'interplay' because this type of hendiadys dialogue is essential to the very structure of consciousness, awareness, and autonomy.\nMcLuhan relates the cliché-to-archetype process to the Theater of the Absurd:\n\nPascal, in the seventeenth century, tells us that the heart has many reasons of which the head knows nothing. The Theater of the Absurd is essentially a communicating to the head of some of the silent languages of the heart which in two or three hundred years it has tried to forget all about. In the seventeenth century world the languages of the heart were pushed down into the unconscious by the dominant print cliché.\nThe \"languages of the heart\", or what McLuhan otherwise defined as oral culture, were thus made archetype by means of the printing press, and turned into cliché.\nAccording to McLuhan, the satellite medium encloses the Earth in a man-made environment, which \"ends 'Nature' and turns the globe into a repertory theater to be programmed.\" All previous environments (book, newspaper, radio, etc.) and their artifacts are retrieved under these conditions (\"past times are pastimes\"). McLuhan thereby meshes this into the term global theater. This updates his concept of the global village, which, in its own definitions, can be said to be subsumed into the overall condition of the global theater.\n\nThe Global Village (1989)\nIn his posthumous book, The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century (1989), McLuhan, collaborating with Bruce R. Powers, provides a strong conceptual framework for understanding the cultural implications of the technological advances associated with the rise of a worldwide electronic network. This is a major work of McLuhan's as it contains the most extensive elaboration of his concept of acoustic space, and provides a critique of standard 20th-century communication models such as the Shannon–Weaver model.\nMcLuhan distinguishes between the existing worldview of visual space—a linear, quantitative, classically geometric model—and that of acoustic space—a holistic, qualitative order with an intricate, paradoxical topology: \"Acoustic Space has the basic character of a sphere whose focus or center is simultaneously everywhere and whose margin is nowhere.\" The transition from visual to acoustic space was not automatic with the advent of the global network, but would have to be a conscious project. The \"universal environment of simultaneous electronic flow\" inherently favors right-brain Acoustic Space, yet we are held back by habits of adhering to a fixed point of view. There are no boundaries to sound. We hear from all directions at once. Yet Acoustic and Visual Space are inseparable. The resonant interval is the invisible borderline between Visual and Acoustic Space. This is like the television camera that the Apollo 8 astronauts focused on the Earth after they had orbited the Moon.\n\nMcLuhan illustrates how it feels to exist within acoustic space by quoting from the autobiography of Jacques Lusseyran, And There Was Light. Lusseyran lost his eyesight in a violent accident as a child, and the autobiography describes how a reordering of his sensory life and perception followed:When I came upon the myth of objectivity in certain modern thinkers, it made me angry. So, there was only one world for these people, the same for everyone. And all the other worlds were to be counted as illusions left over from the past. Or why not call them by their name—hallucinations? I had learned to my cost how wrong they were. From my own experience I knew very well that it was enough to take from a man a memory here, an association there, to deprive him of hearing or sight, for the world to undergo immediate transformation, and for another world, entirely different, but entirely coherent, to be born. Another world? Not really. The same world, rather, but seen from a different angle, and counted in entirely new measures. When this happened all the hierarchies they called objective were turned upside down, scattered to the four winds, not even theories but like whims.Reading, writing, and hierarchical ordering are associated with the left brain and visual space, as are the linear concept of time and phonetic literacy. The left brain is the locus of analysis, classification, and rationality. The right brain and acoustic space are the locus of the spatial, tactile, and musical. \"Comprehensive awareness\" results when the two sides of the brain are in true balance. Visual Space is associated with the simplified worldview of Euclidean geometry, the intuitive three dimensions useful for the architecture of buildings and the surveying of land. It is linearly rational and has no grasp of the acoustic. Acoustic Space is multisensory. McLuhan writes about robotism in the context of Japanese Zen Buddhism and how it can offer us new ways of thinking about technology. The Western way of thinking about technology is too related to the left brain, which has a rational and linear focus. What he called robotism might better be called androidism in the wake of Blade Runner and the novels of Philip K. Dick. Robotism-androidism emerges from the further development of the right brain, creativity and a new relationship to spacetime (most humans are still living in 17th-century classical Newtonian physics spacetime). Robots-androids will have much greater flexibility than humans have had until now, in both mind and body. Robots-androids will teach humanity this new flexibility. And this flexibility of androids (what McLuhan calls robotism) has a strong affinity with Japanese culture and life. McLuhan quotes from Ruth Benedict's The Chrysanthemum and the Sword an anthropological study of Japanese culture published in 1946:Occidentals cannot easily credit the ability of the Japanese to swing from one behavior to another without psychic cost. Such extreme possibilities are not included in our experience. Yet in Japanese life the contradictions, as they seem to us, are as deeply based in their view of life as our uniformities are in ours.The ability to live in the present and instantly readjust.\n\nBeyond existing communication models\n\"All Western scientific models of communication are—like the Shannon–Weaver model—linear, sequential, and logical as a reflection of the late medieval emphasis on the Greek notion of efficient causality.\" McLuhan and Powers criticize the Shannon-Weaver model of communication as emblematic of left-hemisphere bias and linearity, descended from a print-era perversion of Aristotle's notion of efficient causality.\nA third term of The Global Village that McLuhan and Powers develop at length is The Tetrad. McLuhan had begun development on the Tetrad as early as 1974. The tetrad is an analogical, simultaneous, fourfold pattern of transformation. \"At full maturity the tetrad reveals the metaphoric structure of the artifact as having two figures and two grounds in dynamic and analogical relationship to each other.\" Like the camera focused on the Earth by the Apollo 8 astronauts, the tetrad reveals figure (Moon) and ground (Earth) simultaneously. The right-brain hemisphere thinking is the capability of being in many places at the same time. Electricity is acoustic. It is simultaneously everywhere. The Tetrad, with its fourfold Möbius topological structure of enhancement, reversal, retrieval and obsolescence, is mobilized by McLuhan and Powers to illuminate the media or technological inventions of cash money, the compass, the computer, the database, the satellite, and the global media network.\n\nKey concepts\nTetrad of media effects\nIn Laws of Media (1988), published posthumously by his son Eric, McLuhan summarized his ideas about media in a concise tetrad of media effects. The tetrad is a means of examining the effects on society of any technology (i.e., any medium) by dividing its effects into four categories and displaying them simultaneously. McLuhan designed the tetrad as a pedagogical tool, phrasing his laws as questions with which to consider any medium:\n\nWhat does the medium enhance?\nWhat does the medium make obsolete?\nWhat does the medium retrieve that had been obsolesced earlier?\nWhat does the medium flip into when pushed to extremes?\nThe laws of the tetrad exist simultaneously, not successively or chronologically, and allow the questioner to explore the \"grammar and syntax\" of the \"language\" of media. McLuhan departs from his mentor Harold Innis in suggesting that a medium \"overheats,\" or reverses into an opposing form, when taken to its extreme.\nVisually, a tetrad can be depicted as four diamonds forming an X, with the name of a medium in the centre. The two diamonds on the left of a tetrad are the Enhancement and Retrieval qualities of the medium, both Figure qualities. The two diamonds on the right of a tetrad are the Obsolescence and Reversal qualities, both Ground qualities.\n\nUsing the example of radio:\n\nEnhancement (figure): What the medium amplifies or intensifies. Radio amplifies news and music via sound.\nObsolescence (ground): What the medium drives out of prominence. Radio reduces the importance of print and the visual.\nRetrieval (figure): What the medium recovers which was previously lost. Radio returns the spoken word to the forefront.\nReversal (ground): What the medium does when pushed to its limits. Acoustic radio flips into audio-visual TV.\n\nFigure and ground\nMcLuhan adapted the Gestalt psychology idea of a figure and a ground, which underpins the meaning of \"the medium is the message.\" He used this concept to explain how a form of communications technology, the medium, or figure, necessarily operates through its context, or ground.\nMcLuhan believed that in order to grasp fully the effect of a new technology, one must examine figure (medium) and ground (context) together, since neither is completely intelligible without the other. McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to the technologies that preceded them. The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in their turn, further affect society and individuals.\nAll technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions about time and space. The message which the medium conveys can only be understood if the medium and the environment in which the medium is used—and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates—are analysed together. He believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society.\n\nOpposition between optic and haptic perception\nIn McLuhan's (and Harley Parker's) work, electric media have an affinity with haptic and hearing perception, while mechanical media have an affinity with visual perception. This opposition between optic and haptic had previously been formulated by art historians Alois Riegl in his 1901 Late Roman Art Industry, and by Erwin Panofsky, in his 1927 Perspective as Symbolic Form.\nIn his The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1935), Walter Benjamin observed how, in perceptions of modern Western culture, from about the 19th century a shift began from the optic toward the haptic. This shift is one of the main recurring topics in McLuhan's work, which McLuhan attributes to the advent of the electronic era.\n\nLegacy\nInfluence\nAfter the publication of Understanding Media, McLuhan received an astonishing amount of publicity, making him perhaps the most-publicized 20th-century English teacher and arguably the most controversial. This publicity began with the work of two California advertising executives, Howard Gossage and Gerald Feigen, who used personal funds to fund their practice of \"genius scouting\". Much enamoured of McLuhan's work, Feigen and Gossage arranged for McLuhan to meet with editors of several major New York magazines in May 1965 at the Lombardy Hotel in New York. Philip Marchand reports that, as a direct consequence of these meetings, McLuhan was offered the use of an office in the headquarters of both Time and Newsweek anytime he wanted it.\nIn August 1965, Feigen and Gossage held what they called a \"McLuhan festival\" in the offices of Gossage's advertising agency in San Francisco. During this \"festival\", McLuhan met with advertising executives, members of the mayor's office, and editors from the San Francisco Chronicle and Ramparts magazine. More significant was the presence at the festival of Tom Wolfe, who wrote about McLuhan in a subsequent article, \"What If He Is Right?\", published in New York magazine and Wolfe's own The Pump House Gang. According to Feigen and Gossage, their work had only a moderate effect on McLuhan's eventual celebrity: they claimed that their work only \"probably speeded up the recognition of his genius by about six months.\" In any case, McLuhan soon became a fixture of media discourse. Newsweek magazine did a cover story on him; articles appeared in Life, Harper's, Fortune, Esquire, and others. Cartoons about him appeared in The New Yorker. In 1969, Playboy magazine published a lengthy interview with him. In a running gag on the popular sketch comedy Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, the \"poet\" Henry Gibson would randomly say, \"Marshall McLuhan, what are you doin'?\"\nMcLuhan was credited with coining the phrase Turn on, tune in, drop out by its popularizer, Timothy Leary, in the 1960s. In a 1988 interview with Neil Strauss, Leary said the slogan was \"given to him\" by McLuhan during a lunch in New York City. Leary said McLuhan \"was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, 'Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms, that’s a lot,' to the tune of a Pepsi commercial. Then he started going, 'Tune in, turn on, and drop out.'\"\nDuring his lifetime and afterward, McLuhan heavily influenced cultural critics, thinkers, and media theorists such as Neil Postman, Jean Baudrillard, Timothy Leary, Terence McKenna, William Irwin Thompson, Paul Levinson, Douglas Rushkoff, Jaron Lanier, Hugh Kenner, and John David Ebert, as well as political leaders such as Pierre Elliott Trudeau and Jerry Brown. Andy Warhol was paraphrasing McLuhan with his now famous \"15 minutes of fame\" quote. When asked in the 1970s for a way to sedate violence in Angola, he suggested a massive spread of TV devices. Douglas Coupland argued that McLuhan \"was conservative, socially, but he never let politics enter his writing or his teaching\".\n\nPopular culture\nWoody Allen's Oscar-winning Annie Hall (1977) featured McLuhan in a cameo as himself. In the film, a pompous academic is arguing with Allen in a cinema queue when McLuhan suddenly appears and silences him, saying, \"You know nothing of my work.\"\nThe character \"Brian O'Blivion\" in David Cronenberg's 1983 film Videodrome is a \"media oracle\" based on McLuhan.\nIn 1991, McLuhan was named the \"patron saint\" of Wired magazine and a quote of his appeared on the masthead for the first ten years of its publication.\nMcLuhan's perspective on the cycle of cultural identity inspired Duke Ellington's album The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse.\nHe is mentioned by name in a Peter Gabriel–penned lyric in the song \"Broadway Melody of 1974\", on Genesis's concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway: \"Marshall McLuhan, casual viewin', head buried in the sand.\"\nMcLuhan is jokingly referred to in an episode of The Sopranos titled \"House Arrest\".\nDespite his death in 1980, someone claiming to be McLuhan posted on a Wired mailing list in 1996. The information this person provided convinced one Wired writer that \"if the poster was not McLuhan himself, it was a bot programmed with an eerie command of McLuhan's life and inimitable perspective.\"\nMcLuhan is the subject of the 1993 play The Medium, the first major work by the Saratoga International Theater Institute and director Anne Bogart. The play was revived by SITI Company for a farewell tour in 2022.\n\nRecognition\nA new centre known as the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, formed soon after his death in 1980, was the successor to McLuhan's Centre for Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto. Since 1994, it has been part of the University of Toronto Faculty of Information. In 2008, the centre incorporated in the Coach House Institute, which was subsequently renamed The McLuhan Centre for Culture and Technology. In 2011, at the time of his centenary, the centre established a \"Marshall McLuhan Centenary Fellowship\" program in his honour, and each year appoints up to four fellows for a maximum of two years.\nIn Toronto, Marshall McLuhan Catholic Secondary School is named after him.\nThe media room at Canada House in Berlin is called the Marshall McLuhan Salon. It includes a multimedia information centre and an auditorium, and hosts a permanent exhibition dedicated to McLuhan, based on its collection of film and audio items by and about him.\n\nBibliography of major works\nThis is a partial list of works cited in this article.\n\n1951. The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man (1st ed.). New York: Vanguard Press.\nreissued by Gingko Press, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58423-050-2.\n1962. The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man. (1st ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.\nreissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7100-1818-2.\n1964. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1st ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.\nreissued by MIT Press, 1994, with introduction by Lewis H. Lapham; reissued by Gingko Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1-58423-073-1.\n1967. The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects (1st ed.), with Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel. Random House.\nreissued by Gingko Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1-58423-070-0.\n1968. War and Peace in the Global Village (1st ed.), with design/layout by Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel. New York: Bantam.\nreissued by Gingko Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1-58423-074-8.\n1970. From Cliché to Archetype, with Wilfred Watson. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-33093-5.\n1988. Laws of Media, edited by Eric McLuhan. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5782-2.\n2016 The Future of the Library: From Electronic Media to Digital Media, edited by Robert K. Logan. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-3264-3.\n\nDiscography\nThe Medium Is The Massage: With Marshall McLuhan (1967) Columbia – CS 9501\n\nSee also\nNeuroplasticity\nCortical remapping\nSocial interface\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFootnotes\nWorks cited\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nMarshall McLuhan at IMDb\nMarshall McLuhan bibliography at Monoskop\n\"James Feeley fonds\". University of St. Michael's College, John M. Kelly Library. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 15 October 2015.\n\"The Marshall McLuhan Collection\". University of St. Michael's College, John M. Kelly Library. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 15 October 2015.",
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"paragraph_text": "Videodrome is a 1983 Canadian science fiction body horror film written and directed by David Cronenberg and starring James Woods, Sonja Smits, and Debbie Harry. Set in Toronto during the early 1980s, it follows the CEO of a small UHF television station who stumbles upon a broadcast signal of snuff films. Layers of deception and mind-control conspiracy unfold as he attempts to uncover the signal's source, complicated by increasingly intense hallucinations that cause him to lose his grasp on reality.\nDistributed by Universal Pictures, Videodrome was the first film by Cronenberg to gain backing from any major Hollywood studio. With the highest budget of any of his films to date, the film was a box-office bomb, recouping only $2.1 million from a $5.9 million budget. The film received praise for the special makeup effects, Cronenberg's direction, Woods and Harry's performances, its \"techno-surrealist\" aesthetic, and its cryptic, psychosexual themes. Cronenberg won the Best Direction award and was nominated for seven other awards at the 5th Genie Awards.\nNow considered a cult classic, the film has been cited as one of Cronenberg's best, and a key example of the body horror and science fiction horror genres.\n\nPlot\nMax Renn is the president of CIVIC-TV, a Toronto UHF television station specializing in sensationalist programming. Harlan, the operator of CIVIC-TV's unauthorized satellite dish, shows Max Videodrome. Purportedly broadcast from Malaysia, it is a plotless show depicting victims being violently tortured and eventually murdered. Believing this to be the future of television, Max orders Harlan to begin unlicensed use of the show.\nNicki Brand, a sadomasochistic radio host who becomes sexually involved with Max, is aroused by an episode of Videodrome. Upon learning it is actually broadcast out of Pittsburgh, she goes to audition for the show but never returns. Max contacts Masha, a softcore pornographer, and asks her to help him investigate Videodrome. Through Masha, Max learns that the footage is real and is the public \"face\" of a political movement. Masha further informs him that the enigmatic media theorist Brian O'Blivion knows about Videodrome.\nMax tracks down O'Blivion to a homeless shelter where vagrants engage in marathon sessions of television viewing. He discovers that O'Blivion's daughter Bianca runs the mission, aiding her father's vision of a world where television replaces everyday life. Later, Max views a videotape of O'Blivion explaining that Videodrome is a socio-political battleground in which a war is being fought to control the minds of the people of North America. Max then hallucinates that Nicki speaks directly to him and causes his television to undulate as he kisses the screen. Disturbed, Max returns to O'Blivion's homeless shelter. Bianca tells him that Videodrome carries a broadcast signal that gives malignant brain tumors. O'Blivion considers it as part of his vision, and hallucinations are a higher form of reality. When O'Blivion found out it was to be used for malevolent purposes, he attempted to stop his partners only to be killed by his own invention. In the year before his death, O'Blivion recorded tens of thousands of videos, which now form the basis of his television appearances.\nLater that night, Max hallucinates placing his handgun in a slit in his abdomen. He is contacted by Videodrome's producer, Barry Convex of the Spectacular Optical Corporation, an eyeglasses company that acts as a front for an arms company, who uses a device to record Max's fantasies. Max then wakes up to find Masha's corpse in his bed. He frantically calls Harlan to photograph the body as evidence, but, shortly after he arrives, her body is gone.\nWanting to see the latest Videodrome broadcast, Max meets Harlan at his studio. Harlan reveals that he has been working with Convex to recruit Max to their cause. They aim to end North America's cultural decay by using Videodrome to kill anyone too obsessed with sex and violence. Convex then inserts a brainwashing Betamax tape into Max's torso. Under Convex's influence, Max kills his colleagues at CIVIC-TV. He attempts to kill Bianca, who stops him by showing him a videotape of Nicki's murder on the Videodrome set. Bianca then 'reprograms' Max to her father's cause: \"Death to Videodrome. Long live the new flesh.\" On her orders, he kills Harlan and Convex.\nNow wanted for murder, Max takes refuge on a derelict boat in the Port Lands. Appearing to him on television, Nicki tells him he has weakened Videodrome, but to defeat it, he must \"leave the old flesh\" and ascend to the next level. The television shows an image of Max shooting himself in the head, which causes the set to explode. Reenacting what he has just seen, Max utters the words \"Long live the new flesh\" and shoots himself.\n\nCast\nProduction\nDevelopment\nThe basis for Videodrome came from David Cronenberg's childhood. Cronenberg used to pick up American television signals from Buffalo, New York, late at night after Canadian stations had gone off the air, and worry he might see something disturbing not meant for public consumption. As Cronenberg explained, \"I've always been interested in dark things and other people's fascinations with dark things. Plus, the idea of people locking themselves in a room and turning a key on a television set so that they can watch something extremely dark, and by doing that, allowing themselves to explore their fascinations.\" Cronenberg watched Marshall McLuhan, on whom O'Blivion was based, and McLuhan later taught at the University of Toronto while Cronenberg was a student there, although he never took any of McLuhan's classes.\nCronenberg's first exploration of themes of the branding of sex and violence and media impacting people's reality was writing a treatment titled Network of Blood in the early 1970s; its premise was a worker for an independent television company (who would become Max Renn in Videodrome) unintentionally finding, in the filmmaker's words, \"a private television network subscribed to by strange, wealthy people who were willing to pay to see bizarre things.\" He later planned the story to be told from the main character's first-person perspective, showcasing a duality between how insane he looks to other people and how he himself perceives a different reality in his head. Concepts similar to Network of Blood's were further explored in a 1977 episode of the CBC Television series Peep Show Cronenberg directed, named \"The Victim.\" The film's fictional station CIVIC-TV was modeled on the real-life Toronto television station CITY-TV, which was known for broadcasting pornographic content and violent films in its late-night programming bloc The Baby Blue Movie.\nVictor Snolicki, Dick Schouten, and Pierre David of Vision 4, a company taking advantage of Canada's tax shelter policies, aided Cronenberg in the film's financing. Vision 4 dissolved after Schouten's death and reorganized into Filmplan International which funded Scanners. Solnicki, David, and Claude Héroux formed Filmplan II which gave financial backing to Videodrome. This was the last film Cronenberg made under Canada's film tax shelter policy.\nCronenberg's increased reputation made it easier for his projects to get produced, leading to the film's $5.5 million budget, more interest from studios and producers, and a larger number of interested actors to choose from. After the box office success of Scanners, Cronenberg turned down the chance of directing Return of the Jedi, having had no desire to direct material produced by other filmmakers. Cronenberg met with David in Montreal to discuss ideas for a new film, with the former pitching two ideas, one of them being Videodrome.\nCronenberg started writing the first draft of Videodrome in January 1981, and, as with first drafts of Cronenberg's prior projects, included many parts not featured in the final cut to make it more acceptable for audiences; this included Renn having an explosive grenade as a hand after he chops off his flesh gun during a hallucination, Renn and Nicki melting, via a kiss, into an object that then melts an on-looker, and five other characters besides Barry also dying of cancer. Cronenberg admits that he was worried that the project would be rejected by Filmplan due to the excessive violent content of an early draft, but it was approved, with Claude Héroux joking that the movie would get a triple X rating. Although talent for the film was attracted using the first draft, alterations were made constantly from pre-production to post-production.\nAccumulation of the cast and crew started in the summer of 1981 in Toronto, with most of the supporting actors being local performers of the city. Videodrome's three producers, David, Claude Héroux and Victor Solnicki, suggested James Woods for the role of Max Renn; they unsuccessfully tried to attach him to another film they produced, Models (1982). Woods was a fan of Rabid (1977) and Scanners, and met Cronenberg in Beverly Hills for the part; Cronenberg liked the fact that Woods was very articulate in terms of delivery, and Woods appreciated the filmmaker's oddball style as well as being a \"good controversialist\" with \"a lot of power.\" Cronenberg doubled for Woods in the scene where Max puts on the Videodrome helmet since the actor was afraid of getting electrocuted. Co-star Debbie Harry was recommended by David, and Cronenberg cast her after viewing her two times in Union City (1980) and a Toronto audition. She had never had such a large part before, and said that the more experienced Woods gave her a number of helpful suggestions.\n\nFilming\nThe film was shot in Toronto from 27 October to 23 December 1981, on a budget of $5,952,000 (equivalent to $18,890,085 in 2023), with the financing equally coming from Canada and the United States. 50% of the film's budget came from Universal. The initial week of filming being devoted to videotaping various monitor inserts. These included the television monologues of Professor Brian O'Blivion, as well as the Videodrome torture scenes and the soft-core pornographic programs Samurai Dreams and Apollo & Dionysus. The video camera used for the monitor scenes was a Hitachi SK-91. The film's cinematography was handled by Mark Irwin, who was very uncomfortable with doing the monitor scenes; he was far more experienced with composing shots for regular film cameras than videotapes, disliked the flat television standards of lighting and color, and couldn't compose his shots privately as all of the film crew watched the monitors as the shots were being set up. Cronenberg stated that Videodrome was the first time that he fired a crew worker due to an incident between a hairdresser and Harry.\nThe Samurai Dreams short was filmed in half a day without any audio recorded at a rented spot at a Global TV studio in Toronto, and lasted five minutes longer than what ended up in the final film.\nThree different endings were filmed. The ending used in the final film, wherein Max shoots himself on the derelict ship, was James Woods' idea. One of the initial intentions for the ending was to include an epilogue after the suicide, wherein Max, Bianca, and Nicki appear on the set of Videodrome. Bianca and Nicki are shown to have chest slits like Max, from which grotesque, mutated sex organs emerge. Another ending featured an orgy between Bianca, Max, and Nicki after Max shoots himself and sex-organs were designed for the scene, but Cronenberg decided to remove the scene.\n\nEffects\nRick Baker, who worked on the effects of An American Werewolf in London, did the effects for the film. However, his desired six months of preparation was reduced to two months and less effects were created due to a reduced budget.\nOne of the scenes cut from the script showed Max and Nicki's faces melting together while kissing and going across the floor to a bystander's leg and melting him.\nMichael Lennick served as special video effects supervisor. To create the breathing effects of the television set that Max interacts with, Frank C. Carere utilized an air compressor with valves hooked to a piano keyboard that he himself operated. The undulating screen of the television set was created using a video projector and a sheet of rubbery dental dam. Baker stated that \"I knew we would need a flexible material ... we tested with a weather balloon first, stretching it over a frame the size of a TV screen, and pushed a hand through it to see how far it stretched, and then we rear-projected on it.\" Betamax videotape cassettes were used as items to be inserted into Max's stomach slit, because VHS cassettes were too large to fit the faux abdominal wound. Woods found the stomach slit uncomfortable, and after a long day of wearing it, vented, \"I am not an actor anymore. I'm just the bearer of the slit!\" Baker's original concept for Max's flesh gun featured eyes, mouth and foreskin, which Cronenberg found to be \"too graphic\". The cancer effects caused by Max's flesh gun went through various tests, with some tests having the face of the victim being distorted through the use of solvents, but Baker decided against this upon learning that his mentor, Dick Smith, had recently used the same technique in Spasms. Baker settled on having the cancer tumors burst out from the body of Barry Convex, with his crew operating a dummy underneath the set. Lennick devised effects such as having the image of the Videodrome television set distort whenever Max would whip it through the use of a device which he called the \"Videodromer\", and glitch and twitch effects related to Max's visions through the Videodrome helmet, but these effects were scrapped due to budget and time concerns.\n\nMusic\nAn original score was composed for Videodrome by Cronenberg's close friend, Howard Shore. The score was composed to follow Max Renn's descent into video hallucinations, starting out with dramatic orchestral music that increasingly incorporates, and eventually emphasizes, electronic instrumentation. To achieve this, Shore composed the entire score for an orchestra before programming it into a Synclavier II digital synthesizer. The rendered score, taken from the Synclavier II, was then recorded being played in tandem with a small string section. The resulting sound was a subtle blend that often made it difficult to tell which sounds were real and which were synthesized.\nThe soundtrack was also released on vinyl by Varèse Sarabande, and was re-released on compact disc in 1998. The album itself is not just a straight copy of Shore's score, but a remix. Shore has commented that while there were small issues with some of the acoustic numbers, \"on the whole I think they did very well\".\n\nEditing\nCronenberg stated that the first test screening of a 72-75 minute cut of the film was \"the most disastrous screening you can imagine\". He and editor Ronald Sanders \"thought we had cut it really tight, but it was totally incomprehensible that you didn't even know that Max Renn worked at Civic TV, I'd cut out all the footage that explained that\".\nThe MPAA requested multiple edits to the film. Bob Remy, the head of Universal Pictures, also suggested removing the scene in Samurai Dreams showing the dildo. Cronenberg was confused by Remy's suggestion as the \"MPAA didn't even ask me to cut that. Why is he asking me to cut that\". Thom Mount told Cronenberg that it was due to Remy having \"a problem with cocks\". The film's runtime was 87 minutes and 18 seconds in Canada and the United States, but was 15 seconds longer in the international version.\nCronenberg was critical of edits Universal Pictures performed on the film without request from the MPAA.\n\nThemes\nAccording to Tim Lucas, Videodrome deals with \"the impression of a sprawlingly technological world on our human senses; the fascination and horror of sex and violence; and the boundaries of reality and consciousness.\"\n\nRelease\nDavid was able to get Universal Pictures to finance and distribute the film based \"on a one-page description,\" according to Cronenberg. Videodrome was distributed by Universal Pictures in Canada and the United States, and by Les Films Mutuels in Quebec. It was released in six hundred theatres on 4 February 1983.\nCronenberg stated that Sidney Sheinberg regretted giving the film a wide theatrical release rather than treating it as an art film. Around 900 prints of the film were distributed according to Cronenberg, and the film was only in theaters for a short amount of time. Cronenberg stated that Videodrome \"wasn't an exploitation sell, and it wasn't an art sell. I don't know what it was.\"\n\nReception\nThe film holds a 83% aggregate rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 59 reviews, with an average score of 7.5/10. Its consensus states, \"Visually audacious, disorienting, and just plain weird, Videodrome's musings on technology, entertainment, and politics still feel fresh today.\" It has been described as a \"disturbing techno-surrealist film\" and \"burningly intense, chaotic, indelibly surreal, absolutely like nothing else\".\nJanet Maslin of The New York Times remarked on the film's \"innovativeness\", and praised Woods' performance as having a \"sharply authentic edge\". Adam Smith of Empire gave the film 4 out of 5 possible stars, calling it a \"perfect example\" of body horror. The staff of Variety wrote that the film \"proves more fascinating than distancing\", and commended the \"stunning visual effects\". Gary Arnold of The Washington Post gave the film a negative review, calling it \"simultaneously stupefying and boring\".\nC.J. Henderson reviewed Videodrome in The Space Gamer No. 63. Henderson commented that \"Despite the fact that Videodrome came and went faster than Superman and his bullet, it is still an excellent picture. It is a genre film of high caliber, posing a number of important questions.\"\nChristopher John reviewed Videodrome in Ares Magazine #14 and commented that \"As usual, Cronenberg has pulled no punches in getting his message across. The movie is tight, and perfectly clear for anyone willing to watch the screen and think about what they are seeing.\"\nTrace Thurman of Bloody Disgusting listed it as one of eight \"horror movies that were ahead of their time\". It was also selected as one of the \"23 weirdest films of all time\" by Total Film. Nick Schager of Esquire ranked the film at number 10 on their list of \"the 50 best horror movies of the 1980s\".\n\nAwards\nThe film won a number of awards upon its release. At the 1984 Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film, it tied with Bloodbath at the House of Death for Best Science-Fiction Film, and Mark Irwin received a CSC Award for Best Cinematography in a Theatrical Feature. Videodrome was also nominated for eight Genie Awards, with David Cronenberg tying Bob Clark's A Christmas Story for Best Achievement in Direction.\nIt was the first Genie Award that Cronenberg won.\nVideodrome was named the 89th-most-essential film in history by the Toronto International Film Festival.\n\nHome media\nVideodrome was released on VHS and DVD in the late 1990s by Universal Studios Home Entertainment, who also released the film on LaserDisc.\nThe film was released on DVD by the Criterion Collection on August 31, 2004, and their Blu-ray edition was released on December 7, 2010. The Criterion Blu-ray features two commentary tracks, one with Cronenberg and cinematographer Mark Irwin, and the other with actors James Woods and Deborah Harry. Among the other special features are a documentary titled Forging the New Flesh; the soft-core video Samurai Dreams; the 2000 short film Camera; three trailers for Videodrome; and Fear on Film, which consists of an interview with Cronenberg, John Carpenter and John Landis, hosted by Mick Garris.\nIn 2015, Arrow Films released the film on Blu-ray in Region B with further special features, including Cronenberg's short films Transfer (1966) and From the Drain (1967), as well as his feature films Stereo (1969) and Crimes of the Future (1970).\n\nNovelization\nA novelization of Videodrome was released by Zebra Books alongside the movie in 1983. Though credited to \"Jack Martin\", the novel was, in fact, the work of horror novelist Dennis Etchison. Cronenberg reportedly invited Etchison up to Toronto, where they discussed and clarified the story, allowing the novel to remain as close as possible to the actions in the film. There are some differences, however, such as the inclusion of the \"bathtub sequence\", a scene never filmed in which a television rises from Max Renn's bathtub like in Sandro Botticelli's The Birth of Venus. This was the result of the lead time required to write the book, which left Etchison working with an earlier draft of the script than was used in the film.\n\nSee also\nPirate television\nSnuff film\n\nReferences\nWorks cited\nBeard, William; White, Jerry (2002). North of everything: English-Canadian Cinema Since 1980. The University of Alberta Press. ISBN 0-88864-398-5.\nCronenberg, David (2006). David Cronenberg: Interviews with Serge Grünberg. Plexus Publishing. ISBN 0859653765.\nLucas, Tim (December 1983). \"Videodrome\". Cinefantastique. pp. 32–49.\nLucas, Tim. Studies in the Horror Film - Videodrome. Lakewood, CO: Centipede Press, 2008. ISBN 1-933618-28-0.\nRodley, Chris, ed. (1997). Cronenberg on Cronenberg. Faber and Faber. ISBN 0571191371.\nTurner, D. John, ed. (1987). Canadian Feature Film Index: 1913-1985. Canadian Film Institute. ISBN 0660533642.\n\nExternal links\n\nVideodrome at IMDb\nVideodrome at AllMovie\nVideodrome at Box Office Mojo\nVideodrome at Rotten Tomatoes\nVideodrome at Metacritic \nVideodrome at the TCM Movie Database\nVideodrome review (archived) at InternalBleeding\nVideodrome: The Slithery Sense of Unreality an essay by Gary Indiana at the Criterion Collection\nunderstanding media - Videodrome, a list of academic texts about the film",
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"paragraph_text": "Jack Creley (March 6, 1926 – March 10, 2004) was an American-born Canadian actor. Although most prominently a stage actor, he also had film and television roles.\n\nBackground\nCreley was born in Chicago, Illinois, on March 6, 1926. During the Great Depression, his family moved to California, where he acted in amateur theatre as a teenager, until he was old enough to enlist in the United States Army late in World War II. He was shot in the shoulder during the Battle of Okinawa, and spent the rest of his life telling the story that he knew he was destined to become an actor when he realized he was responding to the injury like a character in a John Wayne film.\nAfter the end of the war, he went to New York City to study acting under Erwin Piscator at the Dramatic Workshop, where he was a classmate of Harry Belafonte, Tony Curtis and Rod Steiger. He moved to Montreal in 1951 to take a job with the Mountain Theatre Company, and remained there until 1954, when he moved to Toronto. Soon after moving to Toronto, he met David Smith, who would be his partner for the remainder of his life.\n\nActing career\nIn Toronto, he acted on stage, including frequent performances at the Stratford Festival, and often appeared in CBC Television anthology series, including Scope, Playbill, CBC Summer Theatre, Encounter, Folio, Startime, Horizon, Playdate and several Wayne and Shuster sketches, as well as performing in cabaret shows.\nIn 1956, Creley starred in the Canadian production of Salad Days, and in 1958 he starred in the Canadian production of Visit to a Small Planet. In 1960, he played two roles at the Stratford Festival, as Lord Capulet in Romeo and Juliet and as King Philip in King John.\nCreley had his first major film role in 1961, in the Western film The Canadians. After completing a run as Holofernes in a Stratford Festival production of Love's Labour's Lost that summer, he returned to New York to appear in a Broadway production of A Man for All Seasons as Cardinal Wolsey. After completing his run in New York, he appeared in a Stratford Festival production of The Gondoliers, and then went to London to appear alongside Corinne Conley, Dave Broadfoot, Eric House and Eric Christmas in the musical revue Clap Hands at the Hammersmith Theatre. Following the end of that show's run, most of the cast returned to Canada, although Creley remained in London to take a role as Mr. Staines in the film Dr. Strangelove.\nAfter returning to Canada, he appeared in productions of Edward Albee's The Zoo Story and Anton Chekhov's Summer in the Country. During this time, he also became a popular voice-over artist for television commercials, recording at least 18 commercial spots in 1965 and 1966. He directed a musical revue, The Decline and Fall of the Entire World As Seen Through the Eyes of Cole Porter, in 1965 and 1966, and when he stepped in for several shows in the absence of lead performer Louis Negin, it was his first time singing on stage since the end of Clap Hands in 1963.\nIn 1966, he appeared as Wilfrid Laurier in the CBC Television miniseries Reluctant Nation, and in 1969 he appeared in the television series Strange Paradise as Laslo Thaxton.\nIn 1970, he starred in the musical Oh, Coward! at Theatre in the Dell, alongside Patricia Collins and Gordon Thomson. Charles Pope from the Toronto Star called his performance \"magnificent\".\nIn 1972 he had his second and final Broadway role, appearing in a production of There's One in Every Marriage as Roubillon, and in 1974 he had his last role at Stratford in a production of The Imaginary Invalid. In this era, he began to appear more often in film and television roles, most notably in the film Videodrome and the television sitcom Snow Job. His final role was a guest appearance on E.N.G. in 1990.\n\nPersonal life\nCreley and Smith shared ownership of an antique store, The Green Dolphin, beginning in 1955, and later of a clothing store, Mr. Smith. They also had a widespread reputation among actors as being excellent hosts of parties; performers such as Vivien Leigh, Sean Connery, Richard Burton, Bea Arthur and Billy Dee Williams were frequent houseguests of the couple.\nLate in life, Creley suffered two strokes, and began to develop aphasia. He died on March 10, 2004, in Toronto.\n\nFilmography\nReferences\nExternal links\nJack Creley at IMDb",
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"paragraph_text": "The Red Hot Chili Peppers are an American rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1982, comprising vocalist Anthony Kiedis, bassist Flea, drummer Chad Smith, and guitarist John Frusciante. Their music incorporates elements of alternative rock, funk, punk rock, hard rock, hip hop, and psychedelic rock. Their eclectic range has influenced genres such as funk metal, rap metal, rap rock, and nu metal. With over 120 million records sold worldwide, the Red Hot Chili Peppers are one of the top-selling bands of all time. They hold the records for most number-one singles (15), most cumulative weeks at number one (91) and most top-ten songs (28) on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart. They have won three Grammy Awards, were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2012, and in 2022 received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\nThe Red Hot Chili Peppers were formed in Los Angeles by Kiedis, Flea, guitarist Hillel Slovak and drummer Jack Irons. Due to commitments to other bands, Slovak and Irons did not play on the band's 1984 self-titled debut album, which instead featured guitarist Jack Sherman and drummer Cliff Martinez. Slovak rejoined for their second album, Freaky Styley (1985), and Irons for their third, The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987). Irons left after Slovak died of a drug overdose in June 1988.\nWith new recruits Frusciante and Smith, the Red Hot Chili Peppers recorded Mother's Milk (1989) and their first major commercial success, Blood Sugar Sex Magik (1991). Frusciante was uncomfortable with their newfound popularity and left abruptly on tour in 1992. After a series of temporary guitarists, he was replaced by Dave Navarro, who appeared on the group's sixth album, One Hot Minute (1995). Although successful, the album failed to match the critical or popular acclaim of Blood Sugar Sex Magik. Frusciante and Kiedis struggled with drug addiction throughout the 1990s.\nIn 1998, following Navarro's departure, Frusciante rejoined the band. Their seventh album, Californication (1999), became their biggest commercial success, with 16 million copies sold worldwide. By the Way (2002) and Stadium Arcadium (2006) were also successful; Stadium Arcadium was their first album to reach number one on the Billboard 200 chart. Frusciante left again in 2009 to focus on his solo career; he was replaced by Josh Klinghoffer, who appeared on I'm with You (2011) and The Getaway (2016), before Frusciante rejoined in 2019. They released their 12th and 13th albums, Unlimited Love and Return of the Dream Canteen, in 2022.\n\nHistory\n1982–1984: Early history\nThe Red Hot Chili Peppers were formed in Los Angeles in 1982 by singer Anthony Kiedis, guitarist Hillel Slovak, bassist Flea, and drummer Jack Irons, classmates at Fairfax High School. Their first performance was on December 16, 1982, at the Grandia Room club on Hollywood Boulevard to a crowd of approximately 30. Gary Allen, a friend of the band, was hosting a release party for his new EP and asked Kiedis and Flea to put together an opening act.\nAt the time, Slovak and Irons were already committed to another group, What Is This?; however, the new band was asked to return the following week. In March, they changed their name to the Red Hot Chili Peppers, playing several shows at Los Angeles venues. Six songs from these shows were on the band's first demo tape. In November 1983, manager Lindy Goetz struck a seven-album deal with EMI America and Enigma Records. Two weeks earlier, however, What Is This? had also obtained a record deal with MCA, and in December Slovak and Irons quit the Red Hot Chili Peppers to focus on What Is This?. Flea and Kiedis recruited Weirdos drummer Cliff Martinez and guitarist Jack Sherman.\nThe band released their debut album, The Red Hot Chili Peppers, in August 1984. Airplay on college radio and MTV helped build a fan base, and the album sold 300,000 copies. Gang of Four guitarist Andy Gill, who produced the album, pushed the band to play with a cleaner, more radio-friendly sound, and the band was disappointed with the result, finding it over-polished. The album included backing vocals by Gwen Dickey, the singer for the 1970s disco funk group Rose Royce. The band embarked on a gruelling tour, performing 60 shows in 64 days. During the tour, continuing musical and lifestyle tension between Kiedis and Sherman complicated the transition between concert and daily band life. Sherman was fired in February 1985, and Slovak, who had just quit What Is This?, rejoined the band.\n\n1985–1988: Building a following, drug abuse, and death of Slovak\nThe second Chili Peppers album, Freaky Styley (1985), was produced by funk musician George Clinton, who introduced elements of punk and funk into the band's repertoire. The album featured Maceo Parker and Fred Wesley. The band used heroin while recording the album, which influenced the lyrics and music. The band had a much better relationship with Clinton than with Gill, but Freaky Styley, released on August 16, 1985, also achieved little success, failing to make an impression on any chart. The band also considered the subsequent tour unproductive. Despite the lack of success, the band was satisfied with Freaky Styley; Kiedis reflected that \"it so surpassed anything we thought we could have done that we were thinking we were on the road to enormity.\" Around this time, the band appeared in the 1986 films Thrashin', playing the song \"Blackeyed Blonde\" from Freaky Styley, and Tough Guys, performing the unreleased song \"Set It Straight\".\nIn early 1986, EMI gave the Chili Peppers $5,000 to record a demo tape for their next album. They chose to work with producer Keith Levene from Public Image Ltd, as he shared their interest in drugs. Levene and Slovak put aside $2,000 of the budget to spend on heroin and cocaine, which created tension between the band members. Martinez's \"heart was no longer in the band\", but he did not quit, so Kiedis and Flea fired him in April 1986. Irons rejoined the band, to their surprise; it marked the first time all four founding members were together since 1983. During the recording and subsequent tour of Freaky Styley, Kiedis and Slovak were dealing with debilitating heroin addictions. Due to his addiction, Kiedis \"didn't have the same drive or desire to come up with ideas or lyrics\" and appeared at rehearsal \"literally asleep\".\nFor their third album, the Chili Peppers attempted to hire Rick Rubin to produce, but he declined due to the band's increasing drug problems. They eventually hired Michael Beinhorn from the art funk project Material, their last choice. The early attempts at recording were halted due to Kiedis's worsening drug problems, and Kiedis was briefly fired. After the band were named \"band of the year\" by LA Weekly, Kiedis entered drug rehabilitation. The band auditioned new singers, but Kiedis, now sober, rejoined the recording sessions with new enthusiasm. Songs formed quickly, blending the funk feel and rhythms of Freaky Styley with a harder, more immediate approach to punk rock. The album was recorded in the basement of the Capitol Records Building. The recording process was difficult; Kiedis would frequently disappear to seek drugs; after fifty days of sobriety, Kiedis had decided to take drugs again to celebrate his new music.\nThe third Red Hot Chili Peppers album, The Uplift Mofo Party Plan, was released in September 1987 and peaked at No. 148 on the Billboard 200 chart, a significant improvement over their earlier albums. The band immediately embarked on a two and a half month North American tour to promote the release, accompanied by Faith No More as support who were also promoting their new album Introduce Yourself. During this period, however, Kiedis and Slovak had both developed serious drug addictions, often disappearing for days on end. Slovak died from a heroin overdose on June 25, 1988, soon after the conclusion of the Uplift tour. Kiedis fled the city and did not attend Slovak's funeral. Irons, troubled by the death, left the band; following years of depression, he became a member of the Seattle grunge band Pearl Jam in 1994.\n\n1988–1989: Frusciante and Smith join\nDeWayne \"Blackbyrd\" McKnight, a former member of Parliament-Funkadelic, joined as guitarist, and D. H. Peligro of Dead Kennedys joined as drummer. Kiedis re-entered rehab for 30 days, and visited Slovak's grave as part of his rehabilitation, finally confronting his grief. Three dates into the tour, McKnight was fired for lack of chemistry with the band. McKnight was so unhappy he threatened to burn down Kiedis's house.\nPeligro introduced Kiedis and Flea to teenage guitarist and Chili Peppers fan John Frusciante, who brought a darker, more melodic rock style to the band. Frusciante performed his first show with the Chili Peppers in September 1988. The new lineup began writing for the next album and went on a short tour, the Turd Town Tour. In November, Kiedis and Flea fired Peligro due to his drug and alcohol problems. Following open auditions, they hired drummer Chad Smith in December 1988, who has remained since. According to Smith, \"We started playing, and right away we just hit it off musically.\"\nThe Chili Peppers began work on their fourth album in late 1988. Unlike the stop-start sessions for The Uplift Mofo Party Plan, preproduction went smoothly. However, the sessions were made tense by Beinhorn's desire to create a hit, frustrating Frusciante and Kiedis. Released on August 16, 1989, Mother's Milk peaked at number 52 on the U.S. Billboard 200. The record failed to chart in the United Kingdom and Europe, but climbed to number 33 in Australia. \"Knock Me Down\" reached number six on the U.S. Modern Rock Tracks, whereas \"Higher Ground\" charted at number eleven and reached number 54 in the UK and 45 in Australia and France. Mother's Milk was certified gold in March 1990 and was the first Chili Peppers album to ship over 500,000 units.\n\n1990–1993: Blood Sugar Sex Magik, fame, and Frusciante's first departure\nIn 1990, after the success of Mother's Milk, the Chili Peppers left EMI and entered a major-label bidding war. They signed with Warner Bros. Records and hired the producer Rick Rubin. Rubin had turned the band down in 1987 because of their drug problems but felt they were now healthier and more focused; he went on produce several more of their albums. The writing process was more productive than it had been for Mother's Milk, with Kiedis saying, \"[every day], there was new music for me to lyricize\". At Rubin's suggestion, they recorded in the Mansion, a studio in a house where magician Harry Houdini once lived.\nIn September 1991, Blood Sugar Sex Magik was released. \"Give It Away\" was the first single, which achieved international fame and became the band's first number-one single on the Modern Rock chart. The ballad \"Under the Bridge\" was the second single, and reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the band's highest position to date.\nBlood Sugar Sex Magik sold over 12 million copies. It was listed at number 310 on Rolling Stone's list of 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and in 1992 it rose to number three on the US album charts, almost a year after its release. The album was accompanied by a documentary, Funky Monks. The Chili Peppers began their Blood Sugar Sex Magik tour, which featured Nirvana, Pearl Jam and Smashing Pumpkins, three of the era's biggest upcoming bands in alternative music, as opening acts.\nFrusciante was troubled by fame, and began falling out with Kiedis. He isolated himself and developed a secret heroin addiction. In an appearance on Saturday Night Live, he performed off-key; Kiedis believed he wanted to sabotage the performance. Frusciante abruptly quit after a show in Tokyo in May 1992. He returned to Los Angeles and spent years living in squalor, struggling with addiction.\nTo replace Frusciante, the Chili Peppers contacted Dave Navarro, who had just split from Jane's Addiction, but he was involved in his own drug problems. After failed auditions with Zander Schloss, they hired Arik Marshall of the Los Angeles band Marshall Law, and headlined the Lollapalooza festival in 1992. Marshall appeared in the music videos for \"Breaking the Girl\" and \"If You Have to Ask\", as well as the Simpsons episode \"Krusty Gets Kancelled\". In September 1992, the Chili Peppers performed \"Give It Away\" at the MTV Video Music Awards. They were nominated for seven awards, winning three, including Viewer's Choice. In February 1993, they performed \"Give It Away\" at the Grammy Awards, and the song won the band their first Grammy, Best Hard Rock Performance With Vocal.\nThe Chili Peppers dismissed Marshall and held auditions for a new guitarist, including Buckethead, whom Flea felt was not right for the band. Jesse Tobias of the Los Angeles band Mother Tongue was briefly hired, but dismissed due to poor chemistry. However, Navarro said he was now ready to join the band. In August 1993, the non-album single \"Soul to Squeeze\" was released and featured on the soundtrack to the film Coneheads. The song topped the Billboard US Modern Rock chart.\n\n1994–1997: One Hot Minute and Dave Navarro\nNavarro first appeared with the Chili Peppers at Woodstock '94, performing early versions of new songs. This was followed by a brief tour, including headlining appearances at Pukkelpop and Reading Festivals and two performances as the opening act for the Rolling Stones. The relationship between Navarro and the band began to deteriorate; Navarro admitted he did not care for funk music or jamming. Kiedis had relapsed into heroin addiction following a dental procedure in which an addictive sedative, Valium, was used, though the band did not discover this until later.\nWithout Frusciante, songs were written at a far slower rate. Kiedis said: \"John had been a true anomaly when it came to songwriting ... I just figured that was how all guitar players were, that you showed them your lyrics and sang a little bit and the next thing you knew you had a song. That didn't happen right off the bat with Dave.\" With Kiedis often absent from recording due to his drug problems, Flea took on a larger role when he wrote and sang lead on \"Pea\".\nOne Hot Minute was released in September 1995 after several delays. It departed from the Chili Peppers' previous sound, with Navarro's guitar work incorporating heavy metal riffs and psychedelic rock. The band described it as a darker, sadder record. Kiedis's lyrics addressed drugs, including the lead single, \"Warped\", and broken relationships and deaths of loved ones, including \"Tearjerker\", written about Kurt Cobain and \"Transcending\" about River Phoenix. Despite mixed reviews, the album sold eight million copies worldwide. The band also contributed to soundtracks including Working Class Hero: A Tribute to John Lennon and Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, and Flea and Navarro contributed to Alanis Morissette's single \"You Oughta Know\".\nThe Chili Peppers began the tour for One Hot Minute in Europe in 1995. The US tour was postponed after Smith broke his wrist. In 1997, several shows were cancelled following deteriorating band relations, injuries, and Navarro and Kiedis's drug use. The band played three shows that year, including the first Fuji Rock Festival in Japan. In April 1998, the Chili Peppers announced that Navarro had left due to creative differences. Kiedis said the decision was mutual. Reports at the time indicated that Navarro's departure came after he attended a band practice under the influence of drugs.\n\n1998–2001: Return of Frusciante and Californication\nWith no guitarist, the Red Hot Chili Peppers were on the verge of breaking up. In the years following Frusciante's departure, his heroin addiction had left him in poverty and near death. Flea convinced Frusciante to enter Las Encinas Drug Rehabilitation Center in January 1998. His addiction left him with scarring on his arms, a restructured nose, and dental implants following an oral infection. In April 1998, Flea visited the recovered Frusciante and asked him to rejoin the band. Frusciante began sobbing and said nothing would make him happier.\n\nIn June 1999, after more than a year of production, the Red Hot Chili Peppers released Californication, their seventh studio album. It sold over 16 million copies, and remains their most successful album. Californication contained fewer rap songs than its predecessors, instead integrating textured and melodic guitar riffs, vocals and basslines. It produced three number-one modern rock hits, \"Scar Tissue\", \"Otherside\" and \"Californication\". Californication received stronger reviews than One Hot Minute, and was a greater success worldwide. While many critics credited the success of the album to Frusciante's return, they also felt Kiedis's vocals had also improved. It was later listed at number 399 on the Rolling Stone magazine list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.\nCalifornication was supported with a two-year international world tour, producing the first Chili Peppers concert DVD, Off the Map (2001). In July 1999, the Chili Peppers played the closing show at Woodstock 1999. During the set, a small fire escalated into violence and vandalism, resulting in the intervention of riot control squads. ATMs and several semi-tractor trailers were looted and destroyed. The band was blamed in the media for inciting the riots after performing a cover of the Jimi Hendrix song \"Fire\". In his memoir, Kiedis wrote: \"It was clear that this situation had nothing to do with Woodstock anymore. It wasn't symbolic of peace and love, but of greed and cashing in.\"\n\n2001–2004: By the Way\nThe Chili Peppers began writing their next album in early 2001, immediately following the Californication tour. Frusciante and Kiedis would collaborate for days straight, discussing and sharing guitar progressions and lyrics. For Kiedis, \"writing By the Way ... was a whole different experience from Californication. John was back to himself and brimming with confidence.\" The recording was difficult for Flea, who felt his role was being diminished and fought with Frusciante about the musical direction. Flea considered quitting the band after the album, but the two worked out their problems.\n\nBy the Way was released in July 2002 and produced four singles; \"By the Way\", \"The Zephyr Song\", \"Can't Stop\" and \"Universally Speaking\". The album was their most subdued to date, focusing on melodic ballads over rap and funk, with layered textures, more keyboards, and string arrangements. The album was followed by an eighteen-month world tour, a concert DVD, Live at Slane Castle, and the band's first live album, Red Hot Chili Peppers Live in Hyde Park. More than 258,000 fans paid over $17,100,000 for tickets over three nights, a 2004 record; the event ranked No. 1 on Billboard's Top Concert Boxscores of 2004. In November 2003, the Chili Peppers released their Greatest Hits album, which featured new songs \"Fortune Faded\" and \"Save the Population\".\n\n2005–2007: Stadium Arcadium\nIn 2006, the Chili Peppers released their ninth album, Stadium Arcadium. Although they initially planned to release a trilogy of albums, they chose to release a 28-track double album. It was their first album to debut at number one on the US charts, where it stayed for two weeks, and debuted at number one in the UK and 25 other countries. Stadium Arcadium sold over seven million units. It won the Grammys for Best Rock Album and Best Rock Performance by a Duo Or Group With Vocal (\"Dani California\").\n\nThe first single, \"Dani California\", was the band's fastest-selling single, debuting on top of the Modern Rock chart in the U.S., peaking at number six on the Billboard Hot 100, and reaching number 2 in the UK. \"Tell Me Baby\", released next, also topped the charts in 2006. \"Snow (Hey Oh)\" was released in late 2006, breaking multiple records by 2007. The song became their eleventh number-one single, giving the band a cumulative total of 81 weeks at number one. It was also the first time three consecutive singles by the band made it to number one. \"Desecration Smile\" was released internationally in February 2007 and reached number 27 on the UK charts. \"Hump de Bump\" was planned to be the next single for the US, Canada, and Australia only, but due to positive feedback from the music video, it was released as a worldwide single in May 2007.\nThe Stadium Arcadium World Tour began in 2006, including several festival dates. Frusciante's friend and frequent musical collaborator Josh Klinghoffer joined the touring band, contributing guitar, backing vocals, and keyboards. The band was the musical guest for Saturday Night Live, which aired in May 2006 with featured host Tom Hanks.\n\n2008–2009: Klinghoffer replaces Frusciante\nFollowing the Stadium Arcadium tour, the Chili Peppers took an extended break. Kiedis attributed this to the band being worn out from their years of nonstop work since Californication. Their only recording during this time was in 2008 with George Clinton on his album George Clinton and His Gangsters of Love; accompanied by Kim Manning, they recorded a new version of Shirley and Lee's classic \"Let the Good Times Roll\".\nKiedis, who had recently become a father, planned to spend the time taking care of his son and developing a television series based on his autobiography, Spider and Son. Flea began taking music theory classes at the University of Southern California, and revealed plans to release a mainly instrumental solo record; guest musicians included Patti Smith and a choir from the Silverlake Conservatory. He also joined Thom Yorke in the supergroup Atoms for Peace. Frusciante released his album The Empyrean. Smith worked with Sammy Hagar, Joe Satriani, and Michael Anthony in the supergroup Chickenfoot, as well as on his solo project, Chad Smith's Bombastic Meatbats.\nIn July 2009, Frusciante again left the Chili Peppers, though no announcement was made until December. Frusciante explained on his Myspace page that there was no ill feeling about his departure this time, and that he wanted to focus on his solo work. In October 2009, the Chili Peppers entered the studio to begin writing their tenth studio album, with Klinghoffer replacing Frusciante. In January 2010, the Chili Peppers made their live comeback in January 2010, paying tribute to Neil Young with a cover of \"A Man Needs a Maid\" at MusiCares. In February, after months of speculation, Klinghoffer was confirmed as Frusciante's replacement.\n\n2011–2014: I'm with You\nRed Hot Chili Peppers recorded their tenth album, I'm with You, between September 2010 and March 2011. They decided against releasing another double album, reducing the album to 14 tracks. I'm with You was released in the US in August 2011. It topped the charts in 18 countries, and received mostly positive reviews. \"The Adventures of Rain Dance Maggie\", became the band's 12th number-one single. \"Monarchy of Roses\", \"Look Around\" and \"Did I Let You Know\" (released only in Brazil), and \"Brendan's Death Song\" were also released as singles.\n\nIn July 2011, the Chili Peppers played three invitation-only warm-up shows in California, their first since 2007. They began a month-long promotional tour in August 2011, starting in Asia. The I'm with You World Tour ran from September 2011 until 2013. The North American leg, expected to begin in January 2012, was postponed to March due to a surgery Kiedis required for foot injuries he had sustained during the Stadium Arcadium tour. Following the I'm with You World Tour, the band set out on another small tour, including their first shows in Alaska, Paraguay, the Philippines and Puerto Rico. Recordings from the tours were released in 2012 on the free 2011 Live EP.\n\nThe Chili Peppers were nominated for two MTV Europe Music Awards for Best Rock Band and Best Live Artist and nominated for Best Group at the 2012 People's Choice Awards I'm with You was also nominated for a 2012 Grammy Award for Best Rock Album. In April 2012, the Chili Peppers were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. May saw the release of the download-only Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Covers EP, comprising previously released studio and live covers of artists that had influenced the band. From August 2012, the band began releasing a series of singles as the I'm with You Sessions, which were compiled on the I'm Beside You LP in November 2013 as a Record Store Day exclusive.\nIn February 2014, the Chili Peppers joined Bruno Mars as performers at the Super Bowl XLVIII half-time show, watched by a record 115.3 million viewers. The performance was met with mixed reviews for its use of backing music; Flea responded that it was an NFL rule for bands to pre-record music due to time and technical issues, and that they had agreed because it was a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. He said Kiedis's vocals were completely live and the band had recorded \"Give it Away\" during rehearsals. The band began another tour in May 2013, which ended in June 2014. 2012-13 Live EP was released in July 2014 through their website as a free download.\n\n2015–2018: The Getaway\nThe Chili Peppers released Fandemonium in November 2014, a book dedicated to their fans. That December, they began work on their eleventh album, their first without producer Rick Rubin since 1989; it was instead produced by Danger Mouse. Flea broke his arm during a skiing trip, which delayed the recording for several months. \"Dark Necessities\", the first single from their upcoming album, was released on May 5. Their eleventh album, The Getaway, was released in June. Kiedis said the songs were influenced by a two-year relationship that fell apart. \"Dark Necessities\" became the band's 25th top-ten single on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart, a record they hold over U2. In February 2016, \"Circle of the Noose\", an unreleased song recorded with Navarro in 1998, was leaked.\n\nIn May, the band released \"The Getaway\". The music video for \"Dark Necessities\", directed by actress Olivia Wilde, was released in June 2016. The Getaway made its debut at number 2 on the Billboard 200 chart, behind Drake, who had the number-one album for eight consecutive weeks. The Getaway outsold Drake its opening week with album sales of 108,000 to 33,000 (actually placing him at 4th in sales for the week) though due to album streaming, Drake managed to top the band for the top position in the charts. In July 2016, the Live In Paris EP was released exclusively through the music streaming website Deezer. \"Go Robot\" was announced as the second single from The Getaway. In the same month, the band members started to post images from the set of the music video. The Getaway was reissued on limited edition pink vinyl in September, as part of 10 Bands 1 Cause. All money from sales of the re-issue went to Gilda's Club NYC an organization that provides community support for both those diagnosed with cancer and their caretakers. It is named after comedian Gilda Radner.\nThe band began the headlining portion of the Getaway World Tour in September with the North American leg, featuring Jack Irons, the band's original drummer, as an opening act, beginning in January 2017. Dave Rat, the band's sound engineer since 1991, announced that following the show of January 22, 2017, he would no longer be working with the band.\nThe Getaway World Tour concluded in October 2017. The tour consisted of 151 shows lasting a year and almost five months. In December, the band headlined the Band Together 2 Benefit Concert at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco. Money raised from the concert went to the Tipping Point Emergency Relief Fund which between 2005 and 2017 raised $150 million to educate, employ, house and support those in need in the Bay Area.\n\n2019–2023: Frusciante's second return, Unlimited Love, and Return of the Dream Canteen\nThe recording of the next Chili Peppers album was delayed due to the Woolsey Fire; the band performed a benefit show for fire victims on January 13, 2019. In February, they performed \"Dark Necessities\" with rapper Post Malone at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards. They appeared in Malone's music video for \"Wow\", released in March.\n\nIn February 2019, the Chili Peppers began a month-long tour, featuring their first headlining shows in Australia in 12 years, including their first show in Tasmania, which was briefly halted due to a power outage. On March 15, they performed in Egypt, becoming one of the few acts allowed to perform at the Pyramids of Giza. The performance was livestreamed. On October 26, the photographer David Mushegain announced that a Chili Peppers documentary was in the works.\nOn December 15, 2019, the Chili Peppers announced that, after 10 years, Frusciante had rejoined, replacing Klinghoffer. They wrote that Klinghoffer was \"a beautiful musician who we respect and love\". In an interview, Klinghoffer said there was no animosity: \"It's absolutely John's place to be in that band ... I'm happy that he's back with them.\" On November 2, the Chili Peppers performed their final show with Klinghoffer, at a charity event at the Silverlake Conservatory of Music in Los Angeles. Klinghoffer released his debut solo album, To Be One with You, on November 22, 2019, featuring Flea and the former Chili Peppers drummer Jack Irons.\nOn February 8, 2020, Frusciante performed with the Chili Peppers for the first time in 13 years at a memorial service held by the Tony Hawk Foundation for the film producer Andrew Burkle, the son of billionaire Ronald Burkle. Shows were scheduled for three festivals that May, but were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In August, the former Chili Peppers guitarist Jack Sherman died aged 64; the band issued a statement thanking him for \"all times good, bad and in between\".\nOn April 24, 2021, the Chili Peppers announced that they had left Q Prime, their management company for the previous 20 years, and would now be managed by their longtime friend Guy Oseary, founder of Maverick Records. On May 3, it was reported that the Red Hot Chili Peppers would sell their back catalogue to Hipgnosis Songs Fund for $140–$150 million. On March 31, the Chili Peppers received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\n\nThe 12th Red Hot Chili Peppers album, Unlimited Love, produced by Rubin, was released on April 1, 2022. It debuted at number one in ten countries, becoming the first US number-one Chili Peppers album since Stadium Arcadium. It was promoted with the singles \"Black Summer\" and \"These Are the Ways\". NME wrote that Unlimited Love shared the \"melancholic riffmaking, anthemic choruses and softly-sung melodies\" of Frusciante's previous work with the Chili Peppers, but introduced new \"grungy\" and acoustic elements.\nOn the day of the release, the broadcasting company Sirius XM launched a dedicated Red Hot Chili Peppers channel, Whole Lotta Red Hot, featuring music videos, live performances and acts that influenced the Chili Peppers. On June 4, the Red Hot Chili Peppers began their Global Stadium Tour. The 13th Chili Peppers album, Return of the Dream Canteen, recorded during the same sessions as Unlimited Love, was released on October 14. The first single, \"Tippa My Tongue\", was released in August, followed by \"The Drummer\" in October. The band's former drummer D.H. Peligro died at the age of 63 on October 28.\n\n2024–present: Upcoming fourteenth album\nIn April 2024, Smith said the Chili Peppers would take a break following their 2024 tour dates, and would start writing their next album in 2025. In July, Klinghoffer was sued for wrongful death after striking a pedestrian and killing him in March 2024. For the closing ceremony of the 2024 Paris Olympics on August 11, the Chili Peppers provided a performance of \"Can't Stop\" (\"Eddie\" was performed during a post-Olympics special on NBC) in Long Beach, California, representing Los Angeles, where the 2028 Summer Olympics will be held.\n\nStyle\nThe music of the Red Hot Chili Peppers has been characterized as funk rock, alternative rock, funk metal, and rap rock, with influences from hard, psychedelic, and punk rock. Regarding their genre, Flea stated in a 2006 Guitar World interview, \"For all the styles that have come and gone through-out our career, we never really aligned ourselves with any of them; we were never part of any movement. At one time, people put us together in a category with Fishbone and Faith No More, but we were always different from those bands, and they were always different from us.\" The band's influences include Parliament-Funkadelic, Defunkt, Jimi Hendrix, the Misfits, Black Sabbath, Metallica, James Brown, Gang of Four, Bob Marley, Big Boys, Bad Brains, Sly and the Family Stone, Ohio Players, Queen, Stevie Wonder, Elvis Presley, Deep Purple, the Beach Boys, Black Flag, Ornette Coleman, Led Zeppelin, Yes, Fugazi, Fishbone, Marvin Gaye, Billie Holiday, Santana, Elvis Costello, the Stooges, the Clash, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Devo, and Miles Davis.\nKiedis provided multiple vocal styles. His primary approach up to Blood Sugar Sex Magik was spoken verse and rapping, which he complemented with traditional vocals. This helped the band to maintain a consistent style. As the group matured, notably with Californication (1999), they reduced the number of rapped verses. By the Way (2002) contained only two songs with a rap-driven verse and melodic chorus. Kiedis's more recent style was developed through ongoing coaching.\nOriginal guitarist Slovak's style was based in blues and funk. Slovak was primarily influenced by hard-rock artists such as Hendrix, Kiss and Led Zeppelin, while his playing method was based on improvisation common in funk. He was noted for an aggressive playing style; he would often play with such force, that his fingers would \"come apart\". Kiedis observed that his playing evolved during his time away from the group in What Is This?, when Slovak adopted a more fluid style featuring \"sultry\" elements compared to his earlier hard-rock techniques. On The Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987), Slovak experimented with genres outside of traditional funk music including reggae and speed metal. His guitar riffs would often serve as the basis of the group's songs, with the other members writing their parts to complement his guitar work. His melodic riff featured in the song \"Behind the Sun\" inspired the group to create \"pretty\" songs with an emphasis on melody. Kiedis describes the song as \"pure Hillel inspiration\". Slovak also used a talk box on songs such as \"Green Heaven\" and \"Funky Crime\", in which he would sing into a tube while playing to create psychedelic effects.\nFrusciante's musical style has evolved over the course of his career. His guitar playing employs melody and emotion rather than virtuosity. Although virtuoso influences can be heard throughout his career, he has said that he often minimizes this. Frusciante brought a melodic and textured sound, notably on Californication, By the Way, and Stadium Arcadium (2006). This contrasts with his earlier abrasive approach in Mother's Milk, as well as his dry, funky and more docile arrangements on Blood Sugar Sex Magik. On Californication and By the Way, Frusciante derived the technique of creating tonal texture through chord patterns from post-punk guitarist Vini Reilly of the Durutti Column, and bands such as Fugazi and the Cure. On By the Way, he wanted people to be able to sing the lead guitar part, influenced by John McGeoch of Siouxsie and the Banshees, Johnny Marr of the Smiths, and Bernard Sumner of Joy Division. He initially wanted this album to be composed of \"these punky, rough songs\", drawing inspiration from early punk artists such as the Germs and the Damned. However, this was discouraged by producer Rick Rubin, and he instead built upon Californication's melodically driven style. During the recording of Stadium Arcadium (2006), he moved away from his new-wave influences and concentrated on emulating flashier guitar players such as Hendrix and Van Halen. Navarro brought his own sound to the band during his tenure, with his style based on heavy metal, progressive rock and psychedelia.\nFlea's bass guitar style can be considered an amalgamation of funk, psychedelic, punk, and hard rock. The groove-heavy melodies, played through either finger-picking or slapping, contributed to their signature style. While Flea's slap bass style was prominent in earlier albums, albums after Blood Sugar Sex Magik have more melodic and funk-driven bass lines. He has also used double stops on some newer songs. Flea's bass playing has changed considerably throughout the years. When he joined Fear, his technique centered largely around traditional punk-rock bass lines. However, he changed this style when the Red Hot Chili Peppers formed. He began to incorporate a \"slap\" bass style that drew influence largely from Bootsy Collins. Blood Sugar Sex Magik saw a notable shift in style as it featured none of his signature technique but focused more on traditional and melodic roots. His intellectual beliefs as a musician also shifted: \"I was trying to play simply on Blood Sugar Sex Magik because I had been playing too much prior to that, so I thought, 'I've really got to chill out and play half as many notes'. When you play less, it's more exciting—there's more room for everything. If I do play something busy, it stands out, instead of the bass being a constant onslaught of notes. Space is good.\"\nDrummer Smith blends rock with funk, mixing metal and jazz to his beats. Influences include Buddy Rich and John Bonham. He brought a different sound to Mother's Milk, playing tight and fast. In Blood Sugar Sex Magik, he displays greater power. He is recognized for his ghost notes, his beats and his fast right foot. MusicRadar put him in sixth place on their list of the \"50 Greatest Drummers Of All Time\".\nDuring their early career, the Chili Peppers would often perform nude, wearing only socks over their genitals; this became a part of their stage persona, and brought them early notoriety. They retired the tradition in 2000 as they approached their forties.\n\nLyrics and songwriting\nEarly in the group's career, Kiedis wrote comical songs filled with sexual innuendos and songs inspired by friendship and the band members' personal experiences. However, after the death of his close friend and bandmate Hillel Slovak, Kiedis's lyrics became much more introspective and personal, as exemplified by the Mother's Milk song \"Knock Me Down\", which was dedicated to Slovak along with the Blood Sugar Sex Magik song \"My Lovely Man\".\nWhen the band recorded One Hot Minute (1995), Kiedis had turned to drugs once again, which resulted in darker lyrics. He began to write about anguish, and the self-mutilating thoughts he would experience as a result of his heroin and cocaine addiction. The album also featured tributes to close friends the band lost during the recording process including Kurt Cobain on the song \"Tearjerker\" and River Phoenix on the song \"Transcending\".\nAfter witnessing Frusciante's recovery from his heroin addiction, Kiedis wrote many songs inspired by rebirth and the meaning of life on Californication. He was also intrigued by the life lessons that the band had learned, including Kiedis's experience with meeting a young mother at the YMCA, who was attempting to battle her crack addiction while living with her infant daughter.\nOn By the Way, Kiedis was lyrically influenced by love and his girlfriend. Drugs also played an integral part in Kiedis's writings, as he had only been sober since 2000. Tracks such as \"This Is the Place\" and \"Don't Forget Me\" expressed his intense dislike for narcotics and the harmful physical and emotional effects they caused him. Stadium Arcadium (2006) continued the themes of love and romance; Kiedis stated, that \"love and women, pregnancies and marriages, relationship struggles—those are real and profound influences on this record. And it's great, because it wasn't just me writing about the fact that I'm in love. It was everybody in the band. We were brimming with energy based on falling in love.\" I'm with You (2011) again featured Kiedis writing about the loss of a close friend, this time in the song \"Brendan's Death Song\", a tribute to club owner Brendan Mullen who gave the band some of their earliest shows and showed support to them throughout their career.\nThemes within Kiedis's repertoire include love and friendship, teenage angst, good-time aggression, various sexual topics and the link between sex and music, political and social commentary (Native American issues in particular), romance, loneliness, globalization and the cons of fame and Hollywood, poverty, drugs, alcohol, dealing with death, and California.\n\nLegacy\nInfluence\nThe Red Hot Chili Peppers' mix of hard rock, funk and hip hop has influenced genres such as funk metal, rap metal, rap rock and nu metal.\nAllMusic claim that in 1992, \"oodles of (mostly horribly bad) funk-metal acts were following in Faith No More and the Red Hot Chili Peppers' footsteps.\" Bands who have cited the Red Hot Chili Peppers as an influence include Incubus, Mr. Bungle, Primus, Rage Against the Machine, System of a Down, Papa Roach, 311, and Sugar Ray.\nThe members of Korn, who were formerly in the funk metal band L.A.P.D., have also cited them as an influence. Kiedis said the band were early to combine \"hardcore funk and hip-hop-style vocals\", and suggested they had influenced Limp Bizkit, Kid Rock, and Linkin Park. Smith said, \"Certainly Anthony's singing style and voice lends itself to being unique, and nobody sounds like him. The cool thing about it is we can play any style of music whether it's hard and fast, or loud or quiet, slow or medium, whatever it is; rock or funk, and it still sounds like us. I'm proud of that because sometimes bands don't have that strong personality where you go, 'Oh, that's boom, right away.'\"\n\nRecognition\nThe Red Hot Chili Peppers were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in April 2012. The induction lineup was Kiedis, Flea, Smith, Klinghoffer, Frusciante, Slovak (represented by his brother James), Irons and Martinez; Frusciante was invited, but did not attend. Navarro and Sherman were not inducted; Sherman said he felt \"dishonored\". The band performed \"By the Way\", \"Give It Away\" and \"Higher Ground\", which included Irons and Martinez on drums. It was the first time Kiedis and Flea had performed with Irons in more than 20 years.\nIn 2003, Rolling Stone released their first list of the \"500 Greatest Albums of All Time\", with Blood Sugar Sex Magik at #310 and Californication at #399. In 2012, a revised list was released, with Californication at #401. In 2020, Rolling Stone released another version of the list, with Blood Sugar Sex Magik at #186 and Californication at #286.\nThe band received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on March 31, 2022. George Clinton, Woody Harrelson, and Bob Forrest unveiled the star at the ceremony.\nOn August 28, 2022, the band received the Global Icon Award at the 2022 MTV Video Music Awards. The award was presented to them by Cheech & Chong.\n\nPublic profile\nActivism\nIn 1990, the Chili Peppers appeared in PSA ads for Rock the Vote, a non-profit organization in the United States geared toward increasing voter turnout in the United States Presidential Election among voters ages 18 to 24.\nThe band was invited by Beastie Boys and the Milarepa Fund to perform at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in June 1996 in San Francisco. They also performed at the June 1998 Washington, D.C. concert. The concerts, which were broadcast worldwide, were to support the cause of Tibetan independence. \nIn September 2005, the band performed \"Under the Bridge\" at the ReAct Now: Music & Relief benefit which was held to raise money for the victims of Hurricane Katrina. The live event raised $30 million.\nIn July 2007, the band performed on behalf of former U.S. Vice President Al Gore who invited the band to perform at the London version of his Live Earth concerts which were held to raise awareness towards global warming and solving the most critical environmental issues of our time. The band performed a free concert in downtown Cleveland, Ohio in April 2012 in support of President Obama's re-election campaign. The requirement for getting into the concert was agreeing to volunteer for the Obama 2012 phone bank. The event quickly met its capacity limit after being announced.\nIn May 2013, the band performed a concert in Portland, Oregon, for the Dalai Lama as part of the Dalai Lama Environmental Summit. In January 2015, they performed their first show of the new year for the Sean Penn & Friends Help Haiti Home fundraiser in support of the J/P Haitian Relief Organization. In September 2015, the band joined more than 120 other entertainers and celebrities to formally endorse Bernie Sanders for President during the Democratic primary ahead of the 2016 presidential election. The band performed at a fundraiser event at the Belly Up Tavern in Solana Beach in the same month. All money was donated to A Reason To Survive (ARTS), Heartbeat Music Academy, San Diego Young Artists Music Academy, and the Silverlake Conservatory of Music. In October, Kiedis and Flea hosted the annual benefit for the Silverlake Conservatory of Music. The band performed a special rare acoustic set.\nIn February 2016, the band headlined a fundraiser concert in support of Sanders. In April, they performed at a private function on behalf of Facebook and Napster founder Sean Parker for his launch of The Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy. Smith and Will Ferrell hosted the Red Hot Benefit Comedy + Music Show & Quinceanera in the same month. The benefit featured a performance by the Chili Peppers along with comedy acts selected by Ferrell and Funny or Die. A portion of the proceeds went to Ferrell's Cancer for College and Smith's Silverlake Conservatory of Music.\nIn February 2018, Smith once again joined Ferrell at his One Classy Night benefit at the Moore Theater in Seattle to help raise money for Cancer for College. The event raised $300,000 in college scholarship money for students who have survived cancer.\n\nSexual assault and sexual harassment\nIn his autobiography Scar Tissue, Kiedis described having sex with a 14-year-old fan who was the daughter of a Louisiana police chief, despite knowing her age. He wrote the song \"Catholic School Girls Rule\" about the encounter. In 1986, Kiedis dated the actress Ione Skye when she was 16, below the age of consent in California.\nOn 21 April 1989, Kiedis was convicted of sexual battery and indecent exposure after a concert at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia. Kiedis exposed himself and pressed his penis to a woman's face against her wishes. He was fined $1,000 on each charge. In 1990, Kiedis said the incident was \"blown way out of proportion by both the media and the prosecution\", and was merely \"a playful thing that happened backstage\" with no intent of harm.\nIn 1990, Flea and Smith were arrested on charges of battery in Daytona Beach, Florida, at a spring break performance for MTV. Flea was also charged with disorderly conduct and solicitation to commit an unnatural and lascivious act. Flea picked up a 20-year-old woman and threw her into the sand, while Smith forcibly removed her bathing suit and slapped her buttocks. Flea allegedly demanded that she perform oral sex on him before both he and Smith were removed by security. Following the arrest, the State University of New York at New Paltz canceled a Chili Peppers concert. Flea and Smith pled guilty to all charges. They were each sentenced to pay a $1,000 fine, plus $300 to the State Attorney's Office for prosecution costs and $5,000 to the Volusia County Rape Crisis Center, and ordered to write letters of apology to the woman. In a 1992 Rolling Stone interview, Flea said: \"I wish I'd never done it, and it was a really stupid thing to do. I was out of control. But I did not assault anybody, and it was not sexual. It had nothing to do with sex.\"\nIn 2016, former music executive Julie Farman alleged that two members of the Red Hot Chili Peppers pressed themselves against her and \"told me about all of the ways we could make a super sexy sandwich\" following a meeting at Epic Records in 1990.\n\nMembers\nCurrent\nAnthony Kiedis – lead vocals (1982–present)\nFlea (Michael Balzary) – bass, backing vocals (1982–present), trumpet (1988–present), keyboards (1991, 2011–present)\nJohn Frusciante – guitars, backing vocals (1988–1992, 1998–2009, 2019–present), keyboards (1998–2009, 2019–present)\nChad Smith – drums, percussion (1988–present)\nFormer\nHillel Slovak – guitars, backing vocals (1982–1983, 1985–1988; his death)\nJack Irons – drums, backing vocals (1982–1983, 1986–1988)\nCliff Martinez – drums (1983–1986)\nJack Sherman – guitars, backing vocals (1983–1984; died 2020)\nDeWayne McKnight – guitars, backing vocals (1988)\nD. H. Peligro (Darren Henley) – drums (1988; died 2022)\nArik Marshall – guitars, backing vocals (1992–1993)\nJesse Tobias – guitars, backing vocals (1993)\nDave Navarro – guitars, backing vocals (1993–1998)\nJosh Klinghoffer – guitars, keyboards, backing vocals (2009–2019; touring 2007)\n\nAwards and nominations\nDiscography\nThe Red Hot Chili Peppers (1984)\nFreaky Styley (1985)\nThe Uplift Mofo Party Plan (1987)\nMother's Milk (1989)\nBlood Sugar Sex Magik (1991)\nOne Hot Minute (1995)\nCalifornication (1999)\nBy the Way (2002)\nStadium Arcadium (2006)\nI'm with You (2011)\nThe Getaway (2016)\nUnlimited Love (2022)\nReturn of the Dream Canteen (2022)\n\nTours\nRed Hot Chili Peppers 1982–1983 Tour\nRed Hot Chili Peppers 1984 Tour\nFreaky Styley Tour (1985–1986)\nThe Uplift Mofo Party Tour (1987–1988)\nTurd Town Tour (1988)\nMother's Milk Tour (1989–1990)\nBlood Sugar Sex Magik Tour (1991–1993)\nTour de La Sensitive (1994)\nOne Hot Minute Tour (1995–1997)\nCalifornication Tour (1999–2000)\nRed Hot Chili Peppers 2001 Tour\nBy the Way World Tour (2002–2003)\nRoll on the Red Tour (2004)\nStadium Arcadium World Tour (2006–2007)\nI'm with You World Tour (2011–2013)\nRed Hot Chili Peppers 2013–2014 Tour\nThe Getaway World Tour (2016–2017)\nGlobal Stadium Tour (2022–2024)\n\nSee also\nList of artists who reached number one on the U.S. alternative rock chart\nList of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart\nList of best-selling music artists\nList of funk metal and funk rock bands\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nRHCP Live Archive\nRHCP Sessions Archive\nRed Hot Chili Peppers at Curlie",
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"paragraph_text": "Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela ( man-DEH-lə; Xhosa: [xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla]; born Rolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid activist and politician who served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.\nA Xhosa, Mandela was born into the Thembu royal family in Mvezo, South Africa. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its Youth League in 1944. After the National Party's white-only government established apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant uMkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 that led a sabotage campaign against the apartheid government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and, following the Rivonia Trial, was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state.\nMandela served 27 years in prison, split between Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation.\nMandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the far left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Globally regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Thembu clan name, Madiba, and described as the \"Father of the Nation\".\n\nEarly life\nChildhood: 1918–1934\nMandela was born on 18 July 1918, in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, then part of South Africa's Cape Province. He was given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning \"troublemaker\", and in later years became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was ruler of the Thembu Kingdom in the Transkeian Territories of South Africa's modern Eastern Cape province. One of Ngubengcuka's sons, named Mandela, was Nelson's grandfather and the source of his surname. Because Mandela was the king's child by a wife of the Ixhiba clan, a so-called \"Left-Hand House\", the descendants of his cadet branch of the royal family were morganatic, ineligible to inherit the throne but recognised as hereditary royal councillors.\nNelson Mandela's father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa Mandela, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he was appointed to the position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a governing white magistrate. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unreasonable demands. A devotee of the god Qamata, Gadla was a polygamist with four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, daughter of Nkedama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of the Xhosa.\n\nMandela later stated that his early life was dominated by traditional Xhosa custom and taboo. He grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy and spent much time outside with other boys. Both his parents were illiterate, but his mother, being a devout Christian, sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Methodist, Mandela was given the English forename of \"Nelson\" by his teacher. When Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qunu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment that Mandela believed to be lung disease. Feeling \"cut adrift\", he later said that he inherited his father's \"proud rebelliousness\" and \"stubborn sense of fairness\".\nMandela's mother took him to the \"Great Place\" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted to the guardianship of the Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Although he did not see his mother again for many years, Mandela felt that Jongintaba and his wife Noengland treated him as their own child, raising him alongside their children. As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life. He attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, where he studied English, Xhosa, history and geography. He developed a love of African history, listening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and was influenced by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of a visiting chief, Joyi. Nevertheless, at the time he considered the European colonizers not as oppressors but as benefactors who had brought education and other benefits to southern Africa. Aged 16, he, his cousin Justice and several other boys travelled to Tyhalarha to undergo the ulwaluko circumcision ritual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; afterwards he was given the name Dalibunga.\n\nClarkebury, Healdtown, and Fort Hare: 1934–1940\nIntending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu royal house, Mandela began his secondary education in 1933 at Clarkebury Methodist High School in Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Africans in Thembuland. Made to socialise with other students on an equal basis, he claimed that he lost his \"stuck up\" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong love of gardening. He completed his Junior Certificate in two years, and in 1937 he moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most Thembu royalty, including Justice. The headmaster emphasised the superiority of European culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a speaker of Sotho, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa who broke taboo by marrying a Sotho. Mandela spent much of his spare time at Healdtown as a long-distance runner and boxer, and in his second year he became a prefect.\nIn 1939, with Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a BA degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution of approximately 150 students in Alice, Eastern Cape. He studied English, anthropology, politics, \"native administration\", and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department. Mandela stayed in the Wesley House dormitory, befriending his own kinsman, K. D. Matanzima, as well as Oliver Tambo, who became a close friend and comrade for decades to come. He took up ballroom dancing, performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln, and gave Bible classes in the local community as part of the Student Christian Association. Although he had friends who held connections to the African National Congress (ANC) who wanted South Africa to be independent of the British Empire, Mandela avoided any involvement with the nascent movement, and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World War broke out. At the end of his first year he became involved in a students' representative council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was suspended from the university; he never returned to complete his degree.\n\nArriving in Johannesburg: 1941–1943\nReturning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arranged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Queenstown, arriving in April 1941. Mandela found work as a night watchman at Crown Mines, his \"first sight of South African capitalism in action\", but was fired when the induna (headman) discovered that he was a runaway. He stayed with a cousin in George Goch Township, who introduced Mandela to realtor and ANC activist Walter Sisulu. The latter secured Mandela a job as an articled clerk at the law firm of Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, a company run by Lazar Sidelsky, a liberal Jew sympathetic to the ANC's cause. At the firm, Mandela befriended Gaur Radebe—a Hlubi member of the ANC and Communist Party—and Nat Bregman, a Jewish communist who became his first white friend. Mandela attended Communist Party gatherings, where he was impressed that Europeans, Africans, Indians, and Coloureds mixed as equals. He later stated that he did not join the party because its atheism conflicted with his Christian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially based rather than as class warfare. To continue his higher education, Mandela signed up to a University of South Africa correspondence course, working on his bachelor's degree at night.\nEarning a small wage, Mandela rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandra township; despite being rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra always remained a special place for him. Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly dated a Swazi woman before unsuccessfully courting his landlord's daughter. To save money and be closer to downtown Johannesburg, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association, living among miners of various tribes; as the compound was visited by various chiefs, he once met the Queen Regent of Basutoland. In late 1941, Jongintaba visited Johannesburg—there forgiving Mandela for running away—before returning to Thembuland, where he died in the winter of 1942. After he passed his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer rather than become a privy councillor in Thembuland.\n\nEarly revolutionary activity\nLaw studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943–1949\nMandela began studying law at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was the only black African student and faced racism. There, he befriended liberal and communist European, Jewish and Indian students, among them Joe Slovo and Ruth First. Becoming increasingly politicised, Mandela marched in August 1943 in support of a successful bus boycott to reverse fare rises. Joining the ANC, he was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spending time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including his old friend Oliver Tambo. In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an ANC member affiliated with the \"Africanist\" branch of African nationalism, which was virulently opposed to a racially united front against colonialism and imperialism or to an alliance with the communists. Despite his friendships with non-blacks and communists, Mandela embraced Lembede's views, believing that black Africans should be entirely independent in their struggle for political self-determination. Deciding on the need for a youth wing to mass-mobilise Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela was among a delegation that approached ANC president Alfred Bitini Xuma on the subject at his home in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre, with Lembede as president and Mandela as a member of its executive committee.\n\nAt Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, a trainee nurse and ANC activist from Engcobo, Transkei. Entering a relationship and marrying in October 1944, they initially lived with her relatives until moving into a rented house in the township of Orlando in early 1946. Their first child, Madiba \"Thembi\" Thembekile, was born in February 1945; a daughter, Makaziwe, was born in 1947 but died of meningitis nine months later. Mandela enjoyed home life, welcoming his mother and his sister, Leabie, to stay with him. In early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Eidelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bantu Welfare Trust.\nIn July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede, who was ill, to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who agreed to co-operate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secretary. Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, and in December 1947 supported an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideology un-African. In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of the ANC's Transvaal Province branch, serving under regional president C. S. Ramohanoe. When Ramohanoe acted against the wishes of the committee by co-operating with Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation.\nIn the South African general election in 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel François Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Party. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with new apartheid legislation. Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandela and his party cadre allies began advocating direct action against apartheid, such as boycotts and strikes, influenced by the tactics already employed by South Africa's Indian community. Xuma did not support these measures and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confidence, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant executive committee containing Sisulu, Mda, Tambo and Godfrey Pitje. Mandela later related that he and his colleagues had \"guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path.\" Having devoted his time to politics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimately denied his degree in December 1949.\n\nDefiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950–1954\nMandela took Xuma's place on the ANC national executive in March 1950, and that same year was elected national president of the ANCYL. In March, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing together African, Indian and communist activists to call a May Day general strike in protest against apartheid and white minority rule. Mandela opposed the strike because it was multi-racial and not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introduction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all protest groups. At the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially united front, but was outvoted.\nThereafter, Mandela rejected Lembede's Africanism and embraced the idea of a multi-racial front against apartheid. Influenced by friends like Moses Kotane and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of national liberation, his mistrust of communism broke down and he began reading literature by Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Mao Zedong, eventually embracing the Marxist philosophy of dialectical materialism. Commenting on communism, he later stated that he \"found [himself] strongly drawn to the idea of a classless society which, to [his] mind, was similar to traditional African culture where life was shared and communal.\" In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm, which was owned by a communist, although his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his family.\nIn 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against apartheid with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recruit volunteers. The campaign was designed to follow the path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mahatma Gandhi; some supported this for ethical reasons, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic. At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000 people, initiating the campaign protests for which he was arrested and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison. These events established Mandela as one of the best-known black political figures in South Africa. With further protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000 members; the government responded with mass arrests and introduced the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law. In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANC president J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although Africanists opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected to be regional president in October.\n\nIn July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act and stood trial as one of the 21 accused—among them Moroka, Sisulu and Yusuf Dadoo—in Johannesburg. Found guilty of \"statutory communism\", a term that the government used to describe most opposition to apartheid, their sentence of nine months' hard labour was suspended for two years. In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANC presidency impractical, and during this period the Defiance Campaign petered out. In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's \"No Easy Walk to Freedom\" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was taken from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influence on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario in which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.\nMandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, before moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to become a full-fledged attorney. In August 1953, Mandela and Tambo opened their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African-run law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved black people, often dealing with cases of police brutality. Disliked by the authorities, the firm was forced to relocate to a remote location after their office permit was removed under the Group Areas Act; as a result, their clientele dwindled. As a lawyer of aristocratic heritage, Mandela was part of Johannesburg's elite black middle-class, and accorded much respect from the black community. Although a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in May 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. He may have had affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; various individuals close to Mandela in this period have stated that the latter bore him a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's preoccupation with politics.\n\nCongress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955–1961\nAfter taking part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the forced relocation of all black people from the Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955, Mandela concluded that violent action would prove necessary to end apartheid and white minority rule. On his advice, Sisulu requested weaponry from the People's Republic of China, which was denied. Although the Chinese government supported the anti-apartheid struggle, they believed the movement insufficiently prepared for guerrilla warfare. With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the Coloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Congress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all South Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the responses, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation of a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. The charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown, which was forcibly closed down by police. The tenets of the Freedom Charter remained important for Mandela, and in 1956 he described it as \"an inspiration to the people of South Africa\".\nFollowing the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working holiday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 1951 with local Xhosa chiefs, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proceeding to Cape Town. In March 1956, he received his third ban on public appearances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often defied it. Mandela's marriage broke down and Evelyn left him, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that Mandela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations and fought for custody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, with the children placed in Evelyn's care. During the divorce proceedings, he began courting a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, whom he married in Bizana in June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spending several weeks in prison. Together they had two children: Zenani, born in February 1959, and Zindziswa (1960–2020).\n\nIn December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC national executive and accused of \"high treason\" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protests, they underwent a preparatory examination before being granted bail. The defence's refutation began in January 1957, overseen by defence lawyer Vernon Berrangé, and continued until the case was adjourned in September. In January 1958, Oswald Pirow was appointed to prosecute the case, and in February the judge ruled that there was \"sufficient reason\" for the defendants to go on trial in the Transvaal Supreme Court. The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges—all linked to the governing National Party—replaced. In August, one charge was dropped, and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformulated version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high treason by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.\nIn April 1959, Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front approach founded the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC); Mandela disagreed with the PAC's racially exclusionary views, describing them as \"immature\" and \"naïve\". Both parties took part in an anti-pass campaign in early 1960, in which Africans burned the passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organised demonstrations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. The incident brought international condemnation of the government and resulted in rioting throughout South Africa, with Mandela publicly burning his pass in solidarity.\nResponding to the unrest, the government implemented state of emergency measures, declaring martial law and banning the ANC and PAC; in March, they arrested Mandela and other activists, imprisoning them for five months without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison. Imprisonment caused problems for Mandela and his co-defendants in the Treason Trial; their lawyers could not reach them, and so it was decided that the lawyers would withdraw in protest until the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency was lifted in late August 1960. Over the following months, Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In African Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March 1961, at which 1,400 anti-apartheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at-home strike to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic. On 29 March 1961, six years after the Treason Trial began, the judges produced a verdict of not guilty, ruling that there was insufficient evidence to convict the accused of \"high treason\", since they had advocated neither communism nor violent revolution; the outcome embarrassed the government.\n\nMK, the SACP, and African tour: 1961–62\nDisguised as a chauffeur, Mandela travelled around the country incognito, organising the ANC's new cell structure and the planned mass stay-at-home strike. Referred to as the \"Black Pimpernel\" in the press—a reference to Emma Orczy's 1905 novel The Scarlet Pimpernel—a warrant for his arrest was put out by the police. Mandela held secret meetings with reporters, and after the government failed to prevent the strike, he warned them that many anti-apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through groups like the PAC's Poqo. He believed that the ANC should form an armed group to channel some of this violence in a controlled direction, convincing both ANC leader Albert Luthuli—who was morally opposed to violence—and allied activist groups of its necessity.\nInspired by the actions of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 1961 Mandela, Sisulu and Slovo co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (\"Spear of the Nation\", abbreviated MK). Becoming chairman of the militant group, Mandela gained ideas from literature on guerrilla warfare by Marxist militants Mao and Che Guevara as well as from the military theorist Carl von Clausewitz. Although initially declared officially separate from the ANC so as not to taint the latter's reputation, MK was later widely recognised as the party's armed wing. Most early MK members were white communists who were able to conceal Mandela in their homes; after hiding in communist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesleaf Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution. Although in later life Mandela denied, for political reasons, ever being a member of the Communist Party, historical research published in 2011 strongly suggested that he had joined in the late 1950s or early 1960s. This was confirmed by both the SACP and the ANC after Mandela's death. According to the SACP, he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee.\n\nOperating through a cell structure, MK planned to carry out acts of sabotage that would exert maximum pressure on the government with minimum casualties; they sought to bomb military installations, power plants, telephone lines, and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela stated that they chose sabotage because it was the least harmful action, did not involve killing, and offered the best hope for racial reconciliation afterwards; he nevertheless acknowledged that should this have failed then guerrilla warfare might have been necessary. Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, MK publicly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 1961, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.\nThe ANC decided to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 meeting of the Pan-African Freedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Leaving South Africa in secret via Bechuanaland, on his way Mandela visited Tanganyika and met with its president, Julius Nyerere. Arriving in Ethiopia, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selassie's at the conference. After the symposium, he travelled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and in April 1962 he went to Morocco where asked El Khatib to meet the king to ask him to give him £5,000. The next day he got the £5,000 along with some weapons and training to Mandela's soldier, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Habib Bourguiba gave him £5,000 for weaponry. He proceeded to Morocco, Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian president William Tubman and Guinean president Ahmed Sékou Touré. He left Africa for London, England, where he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and prominent politicians. Upon returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla warfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa by the ANC's leadership.\n\nImprisonment\nArrest and Rivonia trial: 1962–1964\nOn 5 August 1962, police captured Mandela along with fellow activist Cecil Williams near Howick. Many MK members suspected that the authorities had been tipped off with regard to Mandela's whereabouts, although Mandela himself gave these ideas little credence. In later years, Donald Rickard, a former American diplomat, revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency, which feared Mandela's associations with communists, had informed the South African police of his location. Jailed in Johannesburg's Marshall Square prison, Mandela was charged with inciting workers' strikes and leaving the country without permission. Representing himself with Slovo as legal advisor, Mandela intended to use the trial to showcase \"the ANC's moral opposition to racism\" while supporters demonstrated outside the court. Moved to Pretoria, where Winnie could visit him, he began correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree from the University of London International Programmes. His hearing began in October, but he disrupted proceedings by wearing a traditional kaross, refusing to call any witnesses, and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. Found guilty, he was sentenced to five years' imprisonment; as he left the courtroom, supporters sang \"Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika\".\n\nOn 11 July 1963, police raided Liliesleaf Farm, arresting those that they found there and uncovering paperwork documenting MK's activities, some of which mentioned Mandela. The Rivonia Trial began at Pretoria Supreme Court in October, with Mandela and his comrades charged with four counts of sabotage and conspiracy to violently overthrow the government; their chief prosecutor was Percy Yutar. Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's case for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting his new case from December 1963 until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.\nAlthough four of the accused denied involvement with MK, Mandela and the other five accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever agreed to initiate guerrilla war against the government. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; at the opening of the defence's proceedings, Mandela gave his three-hour \"I Am Prepared to Die\" speech. That speech—which was inspired by Castro's \"History Will Absolve Me\"—was widely reported in the press despite official censorship. The trial gained international attention; there were global calls for the release of the accused from the United Nations and World Peace Council, while the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency. On 12 June 1964, justice De Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused guilty on all four charges; although the prosecution had called for the death sentence to be applied, the judge instead condemned them to life imprisonment.\n\nRobben Island: 1964–1982\nIn 1964, Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robben Island, remaining there for the next 18 years. Isolated from non-political prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell measuring 8 feet (2.4 m) by 7 feet (2.1 m), with a straw mat on which to sleep. Verbally and physically harassed by several white prison wardens, the Rivonia Trial prisoners spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassigned in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry. Mandela was initially forbidden to wear sunglasses, and the glare from the lime permanently damaged his eyesight. At night, he worked on his LLB degree, which he was obtaining from the University of London through a correspondence course with Wolsey Hall, Oxford, but newspapers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occasions for the possession of smuggled news clippings. He was initially classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, meaning that he was permitted one visit and one letter every six months, although all mail was heavily censored.\n\nThe political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes—the latter considered largely ineffective by Mandela—to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle. ANC prisoners elected him to their four-man \"High Organ\" along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba, and he involved himself in a group, named Ulundi, that represented all political prisoners (including Eddie Daniels) on the island, through which he forged links with PAC and Yu Chi Chan Club members. Initiating the \"University of Robben Island\", whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise, he debated socio-political topics with his comrades.\nThough attending Christian Sunday services, Mandela studied Islam. He also studied Afrikaans, hoping to build a mutual respect with the warders and convert them to his cause. Various official visitors met with Mandela, most significantly the liberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who championed Mandela's cause outside of prison. In September 1970, he met British Labour Party politician Denis Healey. South African Minister of Justice Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, but he and Mandela did not get along with each other. His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, and his firstborn son Thembi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from attending either funeral. His wife was rarely able to see him, being regularly imprisoned for political activity, and his daughters first visited in December 1975. Winnie was released from prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort and remained unable to see him.\nFrom 1967 onwards, prison conditions improved. Black prisoners were given trousers rather than shorts, games were permitted, and the standard of their food was raised. In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after the conspiracy was infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Security (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape. In 1970, Commander Piet Badenhorst became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had Badenhorst reassigned. He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who developed a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison standards.\n\nBy 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner, which allowed him greater numbers of visits and letters. He corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu. That year, he began his autobiography, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; prison authorities discovered several pages, and his LLB study privileges were revoked for four years. Instead, he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading until the authorities permitted him to resume his LLB degree studies in 1980.\nBy the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Seeing the ANC as ineffectual, the BCM called for militant action, but, following the Soweto uprising of 1976, many BCM activists were imprisoned on Robben Island. Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young radicals, although he was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-apartheid activists. Renewed international interest in his plight came in July 1978, when he celebrated his 60th birthday. He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Lesotho, the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding in India in 1979, and the Freedom of the City of Glasgow, Scotland in 1981. In March 1980, the slogan \"Free Mandela!\" was developed by journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Security Council to call for his release. Despite increasing foreign pressure, the government refused, relying on its Cold War allies US president Ronald Reagan and British prime minister Margaret Thatcher; both considered Mandela's ANC a terrorist organisation sympathetic to communism and supported its suppression.\n\nPollsmoor Prison: 1982–1988\nIn April 1982, Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town, along with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and Raymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influence on younger activists at Robben Island. Conditions at Pollsmoor were better than at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the island. Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Mandela was permitted to create a roof garden; he also read voraciously and corresponded widely, now being permitted 52 letters a year. He was appointed patron of the multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF), founded to combat reforms implemented by South African president P. W. Botha. Botha's National Party government had permitted Coloured and Indian citizens to vote for their own parliaments, which had control over education, health and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system. Like Mandela, the UDF saw this as an attempt to divide the anti-apartheid movement on racial lines.\n\nThe early 1980s witnessed an escalation of violence across the country, and many predicted civil war. This was accompanied by economic stagnation as various multinational banks—under pressure from an international lobby—had stopped investing in South Africa. Numerous banks and Thatcher asked Botha to release Mandela—then at the height of his international fame—to defuse the volatile situation. Although considering Mandela a dangerous \"arch-Marxist\", Botha offered him, in February 1985, a release from prison if he \"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon\". Mandela spurned the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating, \"What freedom am I being offered while the organisation of the people [ANC] remains banned? Only free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts.\"\nIn 1985, Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland before being given new solitary quarters on the ground floor. He was met by an international delegation sent to negotiate a settlement, but Botha's government refused to co-operate, calling a state of emergency in June and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid resistance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987. The violence escalated as the government used the army and police to combat the resistance and provided covert support for vigilante groups and the Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha, which was involved in an increasingly violent struggle with the ANC. Mandela requested talks with Botha but was denied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, and having a further 11 meetings over the next three years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team agreed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on the condition that they permanently renounce violence, break links with the Communist Party, and not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these conditions, insisting that the ANC would end its armed activities only when the government renounced violence.\nMandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, including a tribute concert at London's Wembley Stadium that was televised and watched by an estimated 200 million viewers. Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal problems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a gang, the \"Mandela United Football Club\", which had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents—including children—in Soweto. Though some encouraged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was found guilty by trial.\n\nVictor Verster Prison and release: 1988–1990\nRecovering from tuberculosis exacerbated by the damp conditions in his cell, Mandela was moved to Victor Verster Prison, near Paarl, in December 1988. He was housed in the relative comfort of a warder's house with a personal cook, and he used the time to complete his LLB degree. While there, he was permitted many visitors and organised secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.\nIn 1989, Botha suffered a stroke; although he retained the state presidency, he stepped down as leader of the National Party, to be replaced by F. W. de Klerk. In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989, an invitation Mandela considered genial. Botha was replaced as state president by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president believed that apartheid was unsustainable and released a number of ANC prisoners. Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his cabinet together to debate legalising the ANC and freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed to his plans, de Klerk met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considered friendly, before legalising all formerly banned political parties in February 1990 and announcing Mandela's unconditional release. Shortly thereafter, for the first time in 20 years, photographs of Mandela were allowed to be published in South Africa.\nLeaving Victor Verster Prison on 11 February, Mandela held Winnie's hand in front of amassed crowds and the press; the event was broadcast live across the world. Driven to Cape Town's City Hall through crowds, he gave a speech declaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the white minority, but he made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not over and would continue as \"a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid\". He expressed hope that the government would agree to negotiations, so that \"there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle\", and insisted that his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in national and local elections. Staying at Tutu's home, in the following days Mandela met with friends, activists, and press, giving a speech to an estimated 100,000 people at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium.\n\nEnd of apartheid and elections\nEarly negotiations: 1990–91\nMandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and politicians in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, and continuing to Sweden, where he was reunited with Tambo, and London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium. Encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions against the apartheid government, he met President François Mitterrand in France, Pope John Paul II in the Vatican, and Thatcher in the United Kingdom. In the United States, he met President George H. W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eight cities, being particularly popular among the African American community. In Cuba, he became friends with President Castro, whom he had long admired. He met President R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, and Prime Minister Bob Hawke in Australia. He visited Japan, but not the Soviet Union, a longtime ANC supporter.\nIn May 1990, Mandela led a multiracial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiations with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner men. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, and the negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency. In August, Mandela—recognising the ANC's severe military disadvantage—offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was widely criticised by MK activists. He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg conference in December attended by 1,600 delegates, many of whom found him more moderate than expected. At the ANC's July 1991 national conference in Durban, Mandela admitted that the party had faults and wanted to build a task force for securing majority rule. At the conference, he was elected ANC President, replacing the ailing Tambo, and a 50-strong multiracial, mixed gendered national executive was elected.\nMandela was given an office in the newly purchased ANC headquarters at Shell House, Johannesburg, and moved into Winnie's large Soweto home. Their marriage was increasingly strained as he learned of her affair with Dali Mpofu, but he supported her during her trial for kidnapping and assault. He gained funding for her defence from the International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa and from Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, but, in June 1991, she was found guilty and sentenced to six years in prison, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela publicly announced his separation from Winnie. The ANC forced her to step down from the national executive for misappropriating ANC funds; Mandela moved into the mostly white Johannesburg suburb of Houghton. Mandela's prospects for a peaceful transition were further damaged by an increase in \"black-on-black\" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, which resulted in thousands of deaths. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but the ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela argued that there was a \"third force\" within the state intelligence services fuelling the \"slaughter of the people\" and openly blamed de Klerk—whom he increasingly distrusted—for the Sebokeng massacre. In September 1991, a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg at which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace accord, though the violence continued.\n\nCODESA talks: 1991–92\nThe Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Centre, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure. After de Klerk used the closing speech to condemn the ANC's violence, Mandela took to the stage to denounce de Klerk as the \"head of an illegitimate, discredited minority regime\". Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved. CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, at which de Klerk insisted that post-apartheid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule. Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC activists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiations, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and proposed that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent \"state terrorism\". Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organised the largest-ever strike in South African history, and supporters marched on Pretoria.\n\nFollowing the Bisho massacre, in which 28 ANC supporters and one soldier were shot dead by the Ciskei Defence Force during a protest march, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to further violence and resumed negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the conditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapons be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off; de Klerk reluctantly agreed. The negotiations agreed that a multiracial general election would be held, resulting in a five-year coalition government of national unity and a constitutional assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also conceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism. The duo agreed on an interim constitution based on a liberal democratic model, guaranteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a US-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service, a concession between de Klerk's desire for federalism and Mandela's for unitary government.\nThe democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG), an alliance of black ethnic-secessionist groups like Inkatha and far-right Afrikaner parties; in June 1993, one of the latter—the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB)—attacked the Kempton Park World Trade Centre. Following the murder of ANC activist Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appearing at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died of a stroke. In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the United States, independently meeting President Bill Clinton, and each receiving the Liberty Medal. Soon after, Mandela and de Klerk were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Norway. Influenced by Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and he played down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much-needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he had been encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietnamese Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.\n\nGeneral election: 1994\nWith the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and orchestrating People's Forums across the country at which Mandela could appear, as a popular figure with great status among black South Africans. The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free education and extend access to water and electricity. The party's slogan was \"a better life for all\", although it was not explained how this development would be funded. With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Africa's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party. Mandela devoted much time to fundraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy donors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime. He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14; rejected by the ANC, this policy became the subject of ridicule.\nConcerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of the conflict in Bophuthatswana and the Shell House massacre—incidents of violence involving the AWB and Inkatha, respectively—Mandela met with Afrikaner politicians and generals, including P. W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading many to work within the democratic system. With de Klerk, he also convinced Inkatha's Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than launch a war of secession. As leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to deem it a victory for Mandela. The election went ahead with little violence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. As widely expected, the ANC won a sweeping victory, taking 63% of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority needed to unilaterally change the constitution. The ANC was also victorious in seven provinces, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking one. Mandela voted at the Ohlange High School in Durban, and though the ANC's victory assured his election as president, he publicly accepted that the election had been marred by instances of fraud and sabotage.\n\nPresidency of South Africa: 1994–1999\nThe newly elected National Assembly's first act was to formally elect Mandela as South Africa's first black chief executive. His inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a billion viewers globally. The event was attended by four thousand guests, including world leaders from a wide range of geographic and ideological backgrounds. Mandela headed a Government of National Unity dominated by the ANC—which had no experience of governing by itself—but containing representatives from the National Party and Inkatha. Under the Interim Constitution, Inkatha and the National Party were entitled to seats in the government by virtue of winning at least 20 seats. In keeping with earlier agreements, both de Klerk and Thabo Mbeki were given the position of Deputy President. Although Mbeki had not been his first choice for the job, Mandela grew to rely heavily on him throughout his presidency, allowing him to shape policy details. Moving into the presidential office at Tuynhuys in Cape Town, Mandela allowed de Klerk to retain the presidential residence in the Groote Schuur estate, instead settling into the nearby Westbrooke manor, which he renamed \"Genadendal\", meaning \"Valley of Mercy\" in Afrikaans. Retaining his Houghton home, he also had a house built in his home village of Qunu, which he visited regularly, meeting with locals, and judging tribal disputes.\nAged 76, he faced various ailments, and although exhibiting continued energy, he felt isolated and lonely. He often entertained celebrities, such as Michael Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg and the Spice Girls, and befriended ultra-rich businessmen, like Harry Oppenheimer of Anglo American. He also met with Queen Elizabeth II on her March 1995 state visit to South Africa, which earned him strong criticism from ANC anti-capitalists. Despite his opulent surroundings, Mandela lived simply, donating a third of his R 552,000 annual income to the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, which he had founded in 1995. Although dismantling press censorship, speaking out in favour of freedom of the press and befriending many journalists, Mandela was critical of much of the country's media, noting that it was overwhelmingly owned and run by middle-class whites and believing that it focused too heavily on scaremongering about crime.\nIn December 1994, Mandela published Long Walk to Freedom, an autobiography based around a manuscript he had written in prison, augmented by interviews conducted with American journalist Richard Stengel. In late 1994, he attended the 49th conference of the ANC in Bloemfontein, at which a more militant national executive was elected, among them Winnie Mandela; although she expressed an interest in reconciling, Nelson initiated divorce proceedings in August 1995. By 1995, he had entered into a relationship with Graça Machel, a Mozambican political activist 27 years his junior who was the widow of former president Samora Machel. They had first met in July 1990 when she was still in mourning, but their friendship grew into a partnership, with Machel accompanying him on many of his foreign visits. She turned down Mandela's first marriage proposal, wanting to retain some independence and dividing her time between Mozambique and Johannesburg.\n\nNational reconciliation\nPresiding over the transition from apartheid minority rule to a multicultural democracy, Mandela saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency. Having seen other post-colonial African economies damaged by the departure of white elites, Mandela worked to reassure South Africa's white population that they were protected and represented in \"the Rainbow Nation\". Although his Government of National Unity would be dominated by the ANC, he attempted to create a broad coalition by appointing de Klerk as Deputy President and appointing other National Party officials as ministers for Agriculture, Environment, and Minerals and Energy, as well as naming Buthelezi as Minister for Home Affairs. The other cabinet positions were taken by ANC members, many of whom—like Joe Modise, Alfred Nzo, Joe Slovo, Mac Maharaj and Dullah Omar—had long been comrades of Mandela, although others, such as Tito Mboweni and Jeff Radebe, were far younger. Mandela's relationship with de Klerk was strained; Mandela thought that de Klerk was intentionally provocative, and de Klerk felt that he was being intentionally humiliated by the president. In January 1995, Mandela heavily chastised de Klerk for awarding amnesty to 3,500 police officers just before the election, and later criticised him for defending former Minister of Defence Magnus Malan when the latter was charged with murder.\nMandela personally met with senior figures of the apartheid regime, including lawyer Percy Yutar and Hendrik Verwoerd's widow, Betsie Schoombie, also laying a wreath by the statue of Afrikaner hero Daniel Theron. Emphasising personal forgiveness and reconciliation, he announced that \"courageous people do not fear forgiving, for the sake of peace.\" He encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated national rugby team, the Springboks, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Mandela wore a Springbok shirt at the final against New Zealand, and after the Springboks won the match, Mandela presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner. This was widely seen as a major step in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later put it, \"Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans.\" Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of white people, but also drew criticism from more militant black people. Among the latter was his estranged wife, Winnie, who accused the ANC of being more interested in appeasing the white community than in helping the black majority.\nMandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the government and the ANC, appointing Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation of martyrs, the commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it held two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings and assassinations before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both de Klerk and Mbeki appealed to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was successful. Mandela praised the commission's work, stating that it \"had helped us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future\".\n\nDomestic programmes\nMandela's administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. Of a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation, and 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. There was 33% unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line. Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed nationalisation or job creation. In 1996, the RDP was replaced with a new policy, Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), which maintained South Africa's mixed economy but placed an emphasis on economic growth through a framework of market economics and the encouragement of foreign investment; many in the ANC derided it as a neo-liberal policy that did not address social inequality, no matter how Mandela defended it. In adopting this approach, Mandela's government adhered to the \"Washington consensus\" advocated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.\nUnder Mandela's presidency, welfare spending increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups. In 1994, free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant women, a provision extended to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election, the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.\n\nThe Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants living on farms where they grew crops or grazed livestock. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of 65. Recognising that arms manufacturing was a key industry for the South African economy, Mandela endorsed the trade in weapons but brought in tighter regulations surrounding Armscor to ensure that South African weaponry was not sold to authoritarian regimes. Under Mandela's administration, tourism was increasingly promoted, becoming a major sector of the South African economy.\nCritics like Edwin Cameron accused Mandela's government of doing little to stem the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country; by 1999, 10% of South Africa's population were HIV positive. Mandela later admitted that he had personally neglected the issue, in part due to public reticence in discussing issues surrounding sex in South Africa, and that he had instead left the issue for Mbeki to deal with. Mandela also received criticism for failing to sufficiently combat crime; South Africa had one of the world's highest crime rates, and the activities of international crime syndicates in the country grew significantly throughout the decade. Mandela's administration was also perceived as having failed to deal with the problem of corruption.\nFurther problems were caused by the exodus of thousands of skilled white South Africans from the country, who were escaping the increasing crime rates, higher taxes and the impact of positive discrimination toward black people in employment. This exodus resulted in a brain drain, and Mandela criticised those who left. At the same time, South Africa experienced an influx of millions of illegal migrants from poorer parts of Africa; although public opinion toward these illegal immigrants was generally unfavourable, characterising them as disease-spreading criminals who were a drain on resources, Mandela called on South Africans to embrace them as \"brothers and sisters\".\n\nForeign affairs\nMandela expressed the view that \"South Africa's future foreign relations [should] be based on our belief that human rights should be the core of international relations\". Following the South African example, Mandela encouraged other nations to resolve conflicts through diplomacy and reconciliation. In September 1998, Mandela was appointed secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement, who held their annual conference in Durban. He used the event to criticise the \"narrow, chauvinistic interests\" of the Israeli government in stalling negotiations to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and urged India and Pakistan to negotiate to end the Kashmir conflict, for which he was criticised by both Israel and India. Inspired by the region's economic boom, Mandela sought greater economic relations with East Asia, in particular with Malaysia, although this was prevented by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. He extended diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were growing as an economic force, and initially also to Taiwan, who were already longstanding investors in the South African economy. However, under pressure from the PRC, he cut recognition of Taiwan in November 1996, and he paid an official visit to Beijing in May 1999.\n\nMandela attracted controversy for his close relationship with Indonesian president Suharto, whose regime was responsible for mass human rights abuses, although on a July 1997 visit to Indonesia he privately urged Suharto to withdraw from the occupation of East Timor. He also faced similar criticism from the West for his government's trade links to Syria, Cuba and Libya and for his personal friendships with Castro and Gaddafi. Castro visited South Africa in 1998 to widespread popular acclaim, and Mandela met Gaddafi in Libya to award him the Order of Good Hope. When Western governments and media criticised these visits, Mandela lambasted such criticism as having racist undertones, and stated that \"the enemies of countries in the West are not our enemies.\" Mandela hoped to resolve the long-running dispute between Libya and the United States and Britain over bringing to trial the two Libyans, Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah, who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotaging Pan Am Flight 103. Mandela proposed that they be tried in a third country, which was agreed to by all parties; governed by Scots law, the trial was held at Camp Zeist in the Netherlands in April 1999, and found one of the two men guilty.\nMandela echoed Mbeki's calls for an \"African Renaissance\", and he was greatly concerned with issues on the continent. He took a soft diplomatic approach to removing Sani Abacha's military junta in Nigeria but later became a leading figure in calling for sanctions when Abacha's regime increased human rights violations. In 1996, he was appointed chairman of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and initiated unsuccessful negotiations to end the First Congo War in Zaire. He also played a key role as a mediator in the ethnic conflict between Tutsi and Hutu political groups in the Burundian Civil War, helping to initiate a settlement which brought increased stability to the country but did not end the ethnic violence. In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, troops were ordered into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili after a disputed election had prompted opposition uprisings. The action was not authorised by Mandela himself, who was out of the country at the time, but by Buthelezi, who was serving as acting president during Mandela's absence, with the approval of Mandela and Mbeki.\n\nWithdrawing from politics\nThe new Constitution of South Africa was agreed upon by parliament in May 1996, enshrining a series of institutions to place checks on political and administrative authority within a constitutional democracy. De Klerk opposed the implementation of this constitution, and that month he and the National Party withdrew from the coalition government in protest, claiming that the ANC were not treating them as equals. The ANC took over the cabinet positions formerly held by the Nationals, with Mbeki becoming sole Deputy President. Inkatha remained part of the coalition, and when both Mandela and Mbeki were out of the country in September 1998, Buthelezi was appointed \"Acting President\", marking an improvement in his relationship with Mandela. Although Mandela had often governed decisively in his first two years as president, he had subsequently increasingly delegated duties to Mbeki, retaining only a close personal supervision of intelligence and security measures. During a 1997 visit to London, he said that \"the ruler of South Africa, the de facto ruler, is Thabo Mbeki\" and that he was \"shifting everything to him\".\nMandela stepped down as ANC President at the party's December 1997 conference. He hoped that Ramaphosa would succeed him, believing Mbeki to be too inflexible and intolerant of criticism, but the ANC elected Mbeki regardless. Mandela and the Executive supported Jacob Zuma, a Zulu who had been imprisoned on Robben Island, as Mbeki's replacement for Deputy President. Zuma's candidacy was challenged by Winnie, whose populist rhetoric had gained her a strong following within the party, although Zuma defeated her in a landslide victory vote at the election.\nMandela's relationship with Machel had intensified; in February 1998, he publicly stated that he was \"in love with a remarkable lady\", and under pressure from Tutu, who urged him to set an example for young people, he organised a wedding for his 80th birthday, in July that year. The following day, he held a grand party with many foreign dignitaries. Although the 1996 constitution allowed the president to serve two consecutive five-year terms, Mandela had never planned to stand for a second term in office. He gave his farewell speech to Parliament on 29 March 1999 when it adjourned prior to the 1999 general elections, after which he retired. Although opinion polls in South Africa showed wavering support for both the ANC and the government, Mandela himself remained highly popular, with 80% of South Africans polled in 1999 expressing satisfaction with his performance as president.\n\nPost-presidency and final years\nContinued activism and philanthropy: 1999–2004\nRetiring in June 1999, Mandela aimed to lead a quiet family life, divided between Johannesburg and Qunu. Although he set about authoring a sequel to his first autobiography, to be titled The Presidential Years, it remained unfinished and was only published posthumously in 2017. Mandela found such seclusion difficult and reverted to a busy public life involving a daily programme of tasks, meetings with world leaders and celebrities, and—when in Johannesburg—working with the Nelson Mandela Foundation, founded in 1999 to focus on rural development, school construction, and combating HIV/AIDS. Although he had been heavily criticised for failing to do enough to fight the HIV/AIDS pandemic during his presidency, he devoted much of his time to the issue following his retirement, describing it as \"a war\" that had killed more than \"all previous wars\"; affiliating himself with the Treatment Action Campaign, he urged Mbeki's government to ensure that HIV-positive South Africans had access to anti-retrovirals. Meanwhile, Mandela was successfully treated for prostate cancer in July 2001.\nIn 2002, Mandela inaugurated the Nelson Mandela Annual Lecture, and in 2003 the Mandela Rhodes Foundation was created at Rhodes House, University of Oxford, to provide postgraduate scholarships to African students. These projects were followed by the Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory and the 46664 campaign against HIV/AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Conference in Durban in 2000, and in 2004, spoke at the XV International AIDS Conference in Bangkok, Thailand, calling for greater measures to tackle tuberculosis as well as HIV/AIDS. Mandela publicised AIDS as the cause of his son Makgatho's death in January 2005, to defy the stigma about discussing the disease.\nPublicly, Mandela became more vocal in criticising Western powers. He strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and called it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world. In 2003, he spoke out against the plans for the United States to launch a war in Iraq, describing it as \"a tragedy\" and lambasting US president George W. Bush and British prime minister Tony Blair (whom he referred to as an \"American foreign minister\") for undermining the UN, saying, \"All that (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oil\". He attacked the United States more generally, asserting that \"If there is a country that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United States of America\", citing the atomic bombing of Japan; this attracted international controversy, although he later improved his relationship with Bush. Retaining an interest in the Lockerbie suspect, he visited Megrahi in Barlinnie prison and spoke out against the conditions of his treatment, referring to them as \"psychological persecution\".\n\n\"Retiring from retirement\": 2004–2013\nIn June 2004, aged 85 and amid failing health, Mandela announced that he was \"retiring from retirement\" and retreating from public life, remarking, \"Don't call me, I will call you.\" Although continuing to meet with close friends and family, the foundation discouraged invitations for him to appear at public events and denied most interview requests.\nHe retained some involvement in international affairs. In 2005, he founded the Nelson Mandela Legacy Trust, travelling to the United States to speak before the Brookings Institution and the NAACP on the need for economic assistance to Africa. He spoke with US senator Hillary Clinton and President George W. Bush and first met the then-senator Barack Obama. Mandela also encouraged Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe to resign over growing human rights abuses in the country. When this proved ineffective, he spoke out publicly against Mugabe in 2007, asking him to step down \"with residual respect and a modicum of dignity.\" That year, Mandela, Machel and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership to some of the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech delivered on his 89th birthday.\n\nMandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008; a tribute concert was held in Hyde Park, London. Throughout Mbeki's presidency, Mandela continued to support the ANC, usually overshadowing Mbeki at any public events that the two attended. Mandela was more at ease with Mbeki's successor, Zuma, although the Nelson Mandela Foundation was upset when his grandson, Mandla Mandela, flew him out to the Eastern Cape to attend a pro-Zuma rally in the midst of a storm in 2009.\nIn 2004, Mandela successfully campaigned for South Africa to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, declaring that there would be \"few better gifts for us\" in the year marking a decade since the fall of apartheid. Despite maintaining a low profile during the event due to ill health, Mandela made his final public appearance during the World Cup closing ceremony, where he received much applause. Between 2005 and 2013, Mandela, and later his family, were embroiled in a series of legal disputes regarding money held in family trusts for the benefit of his descendants. In mid-2013, as Mandela was hospitalised for a lung infection in Pretoria, his descendants were involved in an intra-family legal dispute relating to the burial place of Mandela's children, and ultimately Mandela himself.\n\nIllness and death: 2011–2013\nIn February 2011, Mandela was briefly hospitalised with a respiratory infection, attracting international attention, before being re-admitted for a lung infection and gallstone removal in December 2012. After a successful medical procedure in early March 2013, his lung infection recurred and he was briefly hospitalised in Pretoria. In June 2013, his lung infection worsened and he was readmitted to a Pretoria hospital in serious condition. The Archbishop of Cape Town Thabo Makgoba visited Mandela at the hospital and prayed with Machel, while Zuma cancelled a trip to Mozambique to visit him the following day. In September 2013, Mandela was discharged from hospital, although his condition remained unstable.\nAfter suffering from a prolonged respiratory infection, Mandela died on 5 December 2013 at the age of 95, at around 20:50 local time at his home in Houghton, surrounded by his family. Zuma publicly announced his death on television, proclaiming ten days of national mourning, a memorial service held at Johannesburg's FNB Stadium on 10 December 2013, and 8 December as a national day of prayer and reflection. Mandela's body lay in state from 11 to 13 December at the Union Buildings in Pretoria and a state funeral was held on 15 December in Qunu. Approximately 90 representatives of foreign states travelled to South Africa to attend memorial events. It was later revealed that 300 million rand (about 20 million dollars) originally earmarked for humanitarian development projects had been redirected to finance the funeral. The media was awash with tributes and reminiscences, while images of tributes to Mandela proliferated across social media. His US$4.1 million estate was left to his widow, other family members, staff, and educational institutions.\n\nPolitical ideology\nMandela identified as both an African nationalist, an ideological position he held since joining the ANC, and as a socialist. He was a practical politician, rather than an intellectual scholar or political theorist. According to biographer Tom Lodge, \"for Mandela, politics has always been primarily about enacting stories, about making narratives, primarily about morally exemplary conduct, and only secondarily about ideological vision, more about means rather than ends.\"\nThe historian Sabelo J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni described Mandela as a \"liberal African nationalist–decolonial humanist\", while political analyst Raymond Suttner cautioned against labelling Mandela a liberal and stated that Mandela displayed a \"hybrid socio-political make-up\". Mandela adopted some of his political ideas from other thinkers—among them Indian independence leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, African American civil rights activists, and African nationalists like Nkrumah—and applied them to the South African situation. At the same time, he rejected other aspects of their thought, such as the anti-white sentiment of many African nationalists. In doing so he synthesised both counter-cultural and hegemonic views, for instance by drawing upon ideas from the then-dominant Afrikaner nationalism in promoting his anti-apartheid vision.\nHis political development was strongly influenced by his legal training and practice, in particular his hope to achieve change not through violence but through \"legal revolution\". Over the course of his life, he began by advocating a path of non-violence, later embracing violence, and then adopting a non-violent approach to negotiation and reconciliation. When endorsing violence, he did so because he saw no alternative, and was always pragmatic about it, perceiving it as a means to get his opponent to the negotiating table. He sought to target symbols of white supremacy and racist oppression rather than white people as individuals and was anxious not to inaugurate a race war in South Africa. This willingness to use violence distinguishes Mandela from the ideology of Gandhism, with which some commentators have sought to associate him.\n\nDemocracy\nAlthough he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy and abided by majority decisions even when deeply disagreeing with them. He had exhibited a commitment to the values of democracy and human rights since at least the 1960s. He held a conviction that \"inclusivity, accountability and freedom of speech\" were the fundamentals of democracy, and was driven by a belief in natural and human rights. Suttner argued that there were \"two modes of leadership\" that Mandela adopted. On one side he adhered to ideas about collective leadership, although on the other believed that there were scenarios in which a leader had to be decisive and act without consultation to achieve a particular objective.\nAccording to Lodge, Mandela's political thought reflected tensions between his support for liberal democracy and pre-colonial African forms of consensus decision making. He was an admirer of British-style parliamentary democracy, stating that \"I regard the British Parliament as the most democratic institution in the world, and the independence and impartiality of its judiciary never fail to arouse my admiration.\" In this he has been described as being committed to \"the Euro-North American modernist project of emancipation\", something which distinguishes him from other African nationalist and socialist leaders like Nyerere who were concerned about embracing styles of democratic governance that were Western, rather than African, in origin. Mandela nevertheless also expressed admiration for what he deemed to be indigenous forms of democracy, describing Xhosa traditional society's mode of governance as \"democracy in its purest form\".\n\nSocialism and Marxism\nMandela advocated the ultimate establishment of a classless society, with Sampson describing him as being \"openly opposed to capitalism, private land-ownership and the power of big money\". Mandela was influenced by Marxism, and during the revolution he advocated scientific socialism. He denied being a communist at the Treason Trial, and maintained this stance both when later talking to journalists, and in his autobiography, where he outlined that the cooperation with the SACP was pragmatic, asking rhetorically, \"who is to say that we were not using them?\" According to the sociologist Craig Soudien, \"sympathetic as Mandela was to socialism, a communist he was not.\" Conversely, the biographer David Jones Smith stated that Mandela \"embraced communism and communists\" in the late 1950s and early 1960s, while the historian Stephen Ellis commented that Mandela had assimilated much of the Marxist–Leninist ideology by 1960.\nEllis also found evidence that Mandela had been an active member of the South African Communist Party (SACP) during the late 1950s and early 1960s, something that was confirmed after his death by both the ANC and the SACP, the latter of which claimed that he was not only a member of the party, but also served on its Central Committee. His membership had been hidden by the ANC, aware that knowledge of Mandela's former SACP involvement might have been detrimental to his attempts to attract support from Western countries. Mandela's view of these Western governments differed from those of Marxist–Leninists, for he did not believe that they were anti-democratic or reactionary and remained committed to democratic systems of governance. \nThe 1955 Freedom Charter, which Mandela had helped create, called for the nationalisation of banks, gold mines and land, to ensure equal distribution of wealth. Despite these beliefs, Mandela initiated a programme of privatisation during his presidency in line with trends in other countries of the time. It has been repeatedly suggested that Mandela would have preferred to develop a social democratic economy in South Africa but that this was not feasible as a result of the international political and economic situation during the early 1990s. This decision was in part influenced by the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc during the early 1990s.\n\nPersonality and personal life\nMandela was widely considered a charismatic leader, described by biographer Mary Benson as \"a born mass leader who could not help magnetizing people\". He was highly image conscious and throughout his life always sought out fine quality clothes, with many commentators believing that he carried himself in a regal manner. His aristocratic heritage was repeatedly emphasised by supporters, thus contributing to his \"charismatic power\". While living in Johannesburg in the 1950s, he cultivated the image of the \"African gentleman\", having \"the pressed clothes, correct manners, and modulated public speech\" associated with such a position. In doing so, Lodge argued that Mandela became \"one of the first media politicians ... embodying a glamour and a style that projected visually a brave new African world of modernity and freedom\". Mandela was known to change his clothes several times a day, and he became so associated with highly coloured Batik shirts after assuming the presidency that they came to be known as \"Madiba shirts\".\nFor political scientists Betty Glad and Robert Blanton, Mandela was an \"exceptionally intelligent, shrewd, and loyal leader\". His official biographer, Anthony Sampson, commented that he was a \"master of imagery and performance\", excelling at presenting himself well in press photographs and producing sound bites. His public speeches were presented in a formal, stiff manner, and often consisted of clichéd set phrases. He typically spoke slowly, and carefully chose his words. Although he was not considered a great orator, his speeches conveyed \"his personal commitment, charm and humour\".\nMandela was a private person who often concealed his emotions and confided in very few people. Privately, he lived an austere life, refusing to drink alcohol or smoke, and even as president made his own bed. Renowned for his mischievous sense of humour, he was known for being both stubborn and loyal, and at times exhibited a quick temper. He was typically friendly and welcoming, and appeared relaxed in conversation with everyone, including his opponents. A self-described Anglophile, he claimed to have lived by the \"trappings of British style and manners\". Constantly polite and courteous, he was attentive to all, irrespective of their age or status, and often talked to children or servants. He was known for his ability to find common ground with very different communities. In later life, he always looked for the best in people, even defending political opponents to his allies, who sometimes thought him too trusting of others. He was fond of Indian cuisine, and had a lifelong interest in archaeology and boxing.\n\nHe was raised in the Methodist denomination of Christianity; the Methodist Church of Southern Africa claimed that he retained his allegiance to them throughout his life. On analysing Mandela's writings, the theologian Dion Forster described him as a Christian humanist, although added that his thought relied to a greater extent on the Southern African concept of Ubuntu than on Christian theology. According to Sampson, Mandela never had \"a strong religious faith\" however, while Elleke Boehmer stated that Mandela's religious belief was \"never robust\".\nMandela was very self-conscious about being a man and regularly made references to manhood. He was heterosexual, and biographer Fatima Meer said that he was \"easily tempted\" by women. Another biographer, Martin Meredith, characterised him as being \"by nature a romantic\", highlighting that he had relationships with various women. Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, and had seventeen grandchildren and at least seventeen great-grandchildren. He could be stern and demanding of his children, although he was more affectionate with his grandchildren. His first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase in October 1944; they divorced in March 1958 under the multiple strains of his alleged adultery and constant absences, devotion to revolutionary agitation, and the fact that she was a Jehovah's Witness, a religion requiring political neutrality. Mandela's second wife was the social worker Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, whom he married in June 1958. They divorced in March 1996. Mandela married his third wife, Graça Machel, on his 80th birthday in July 1998.\n\nReception and legacy\nBy the time of his death, within South Africa Mandela was widely considered both \"the father of the nation\" and \"the founding father of democracy\". Outside of South Africa, he was a \"global icon\", with the scholar of South African studies Rita Barnard describing him as \"one of the most revered figures of our time\". One biographer considered him \"a modern democratic hero\". Some have portrayed Mandela in messianic terms, in contrast to his own statement that \"I was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader because of extraordinary circumstances.\" He is often cited alongside Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. as one of the 20th century's exemplary anti-racist and anti-colonial leaders. Boehmer described him as \"a totem of the totemic values of our age: toleration and liberal democracy\" and \"a universal symbol of social justice\".\nMandela's international fame emerged during his incarceration in the 1980s, when he became the world's most famous political prisoner, a symbol of the anti-apartheid cause, and an icon for millions who embraced the ideal of human equality. In 1986, Mandela's biographer characterised him as \"the embodiment of the struggle for liberation\" in South Africa. Meredith stated that in becoming \"a potent symbol of resistance\" to apartheid during the 1980s, he had gained \"mythical status\" internationally. Sampson commented that even during his life, this myth had become \"so powerful that it blurs the realities\", converting Mandela into \"a secular saint\". Within a decade of the end of his presidency, Mandela's era was widely thought of as \"a golden age of hope and harmony\", with much nostalgia being expressed for it. His name was often invoked by those criticising his successors like Mbeki and Zuma. Across the world, Mandela earned international acclaim for his activism in overcoming apartheid and fostering racial reconciliation, coming to be viewed as \"a moral authority\" with a great \"concern for truth\". Mandela's iconic status has been blamed for concealing the complexities of his life.\nMandela generated controversy throughout his career as an activist and politician, having detractors on both the right and the radical left. During the 1980s, Mandela was widely labelled a terrorist by prominent political figures in the Western world for his embrace of political violence. According to Thatcher, for instance, the ANC was \"a typical terrorist organisation\". The US government's State and Defense departments officially designated the ANC as a terrorist organisation, resulting in Mandela remaining on their terrorism watch-list until 2008. On the left, some voices in the ANC—among them Frank B. Wilderson III—accused him of selling out for agreeing to enter negotiations with the apartheid government and for not implementing the reforms of the Freedom Charter during his presidency. According to Barnard, \"there is also a sense in which his chiefly bearing and mode of conduct, the very respect and authority he accrued in representing his nation in his own person, went against the spirit of democracy\", and concerns were similarly expressed that he placed his own status and celebrity above the transformation of his country. His government would be criticised for its failure to deal with both the HIV/AIDS pandemic and the high levels of poverty in South Africa.\n\nOrders, decorations, monuments, and honours\nOver the course of his life, Mandela was given over 250 awards, accolades, prizes, honorary degrees and citizenships in recognition of his political achievements. Among his awards were the Nobel Peace Prize, the US Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Soviet Union's Lenin Peace Prize, and the Libyan Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights. In 1990, India awarded him the Bharat Ratna, and in 1992 Pakistan gave him their Nishan-e-Pakistan. The same year, he was awarded the Atatürk Peace Award by Turkey; he at first refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time, but later accepted the award in 1999. He was appointed to the Order of Isabella the Catholic and the Order of Canada, and was the first living person to be made an honorary Canadian citizen. Queen Elizabeth II appointed him as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John and granted him membership in the Order of Merit.\nIn 2004, Johannesburg granted Mandela the Freedom of the City, and in 2008 a Mandela statue was unveiled at the spot where Mandela was released from prison. On the Day of Reconciliation 2013, a bronze statue of Mandela was unveiled at Pretoria's Union Buildings. In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed Mandela's birthday, 18 July, as \"Mandela Day\", marking his contribution to the anti-apartheid struggle. It called on individuals to donate 67 minutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Mandela had been a part of the movement. In 2015 the UN General Assembly named the amended Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners as \"the Mandela Rules\" to honour his legacy. Subsequently, the years 2019 to 2028 were also designated the United Nations Nelson Mandela Decade of Peace.\n\nBiographies and popular media\nThe first biography of Mandela was based on brief interviews with him that the author, Mary Benson, had conducted in the 1960s. Two authorised biographies were later produced by friends of Mandela. The first was Fatima Meer's Higher Than Hope, which was heavily influenced by Winnie and thus placed great emphasis on Mandela's family. The second was Anthony Sampson's Mandela, published in 1999. Other biographies included Martin Meredith's Mandela, first published in 1997, and Tom Lodge's Mandela, brought out in 2006.\nSince the late 1980s, Mandela's image began to appear on a proliferation of items, among them \"photographs, paintings, drawings, statues, public murals, buttons, t-shirts, refrigerator magnets, and more\", items that have been characterised as \"Mandela kitsch\". In the 1980s he was the subject of several songs, such as The Specials' \"Free Nelson Mandela\", Hugh Masekela's \"Bring Him Back Home (Nelson Mandela)\", and Johnny Clegg's \"Asimbonanga (Mandela)\", which helped to bring awareness of his imprisonment to an international audience.\nMandela has also been depicted in films on multiple occasions. Some of these, such as the 2013 feature film Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom, the 2017 miniseries Madiba and the 1996 documentary Mandela, have focused on covering his adult life in entirety or until his inaugural as president. Others, such as the 2009 feature film Invictus and the 2010 documentary The 16th Man, have focused on specific events in his life. Lukhele has argued that in Invictus and other films, \"the America film industry\" has played a significant part in \"the crafting of Mandela's global image\".\n\nSee also\nList of peace activists\nMandela effect\n\nReferences\nFootnotes\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\nNelson Mandela Centre of Memory\nNelson Mandela Children's Fund\nNelson Mandela Foundation (archived)\nMandela Rhodes Foundation\nThe Elders\nNelson Mandela Museum\nNelson Mandela Day (archived)\nNelson Mandela's family tree\nNelson Mandela at Curlie\nNelson Mandela at IMDb\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nNelson Mandela on Nobelprize.org",
"title": "Nelson_Mandela"
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] | How many Red Hot Chili Peppers albums were released while Nelson Mandela was in prison? | [] | 4 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball (MLB) and concludes the MLB postseason. First played in 1903, the World Series championship is a best-of-seven playoff and is a contest between the champions of baseball's National League (NL) and American League (AL). Often referred to as the \"Fall Classic\", the modern World Series has been played every year since 1903 with two exceptions: in 1904, when the NL champion New York Giants declined to play the AL champion Boston Americans; and in 1994, when the series was canceled due to the players' strike. The best-of-seven style has been the format of all World Series except in 1903, 1919, 1920, 1921, when the winner was determined through a best-of-nine playoff. Although the large majority of contests have been played entirely during the month of October, a small number of Series have also had games played during September and November. The Series-winning team is awarded the Commissioner's Trophy. Players, coaches and others associated with the team are generally given World Series rings to commemorate their victory; however, they have received other items such as pocket watches and medallions in the past. The winning team is traditionally invited to the White House to meet the President of the United States.\nA total of 119 World Series have been contested through 2023, with the AL champion winning 68 and the NL champion winning 51. The New York Yankees of the AL have played in 40 World Series, winning 27 – the most championship appearances and most victories by any team amongst the major North American professional sports leagues. The Dodgers of the NL have the most losses with 14, while the Yankees have the most losses among AL teams with 13. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 championships, the most championships among NL clubs and second-most all-time behind the Yankees, and have made 19 total appearances, third-most among NL clubs. The Dodgers have represented the NL the most in the World Series with 21 appearances. The Seattle Mariners are the only MLB franchise that has never appeared in a World Series; the Milwaukee Brewers, San Diego Padres, Tampa Bay Rays, and Colorado Rockies have all played in the Series but have never won it, with the Padres and the Rays appearing twice. The Los Angeles Angels and Washington Nationals are the only teams who have won their only World Series appearance, and the Toronto Blue Jays and Miami Marlins are the only teams with multiple World Series appearances with no losses. The Toronto Blue Jays are the only franchise from outside the United States to appear in and win a World Series, winning in 1992 and 1993. The Houston Astros are the only franchise to have represented both the NL (2005) and the AL (2017, 2019, 2021, 2022), winning the Series in 2017 and 2022. The 1919 and 2017 world series were both marred with cheating scandals: the Black Sox Scandal and the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal. The most recent World Series champions are the Texas Rangers.\n\nWorld Series results\nNumbers in parentheses in the table are World Series appearances as of the date of that World Series, and are used as follows:\n\nWinning team and losing team columns indicate the number of times that team has appeared in a World Series as well as each respective team's World Series record to date.\n\nLegend\n\nV The 1903, 1919, 1920, and 1921 World Series were in a best-of-nine format (carried by the first team to win five games).\nT The 1907, 1912, and 1922 World Series each included one tied game.\nL1 The Brewers were in the American League from 1969 to 1997, after which they moved to the National League.\nL2 The Astros were in the National League from 1962 to 2012, after which they moved to the American League.\nW Indicates a team that made the playoffs as a wild card team (rather than by winning a division).\nCV The 2020 World Series and all of its previous playoff games in the 2020 postseason were played at a neutral venue and with limited attendance due to the global COVID-19 pandemic.\nSource for this Table\n\nWorld Series records by franchise\nIn the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of wins, then by number of appearances, and finally by year of first appearance. In the \"Season(s)\" column, bold years indicate winning appearances.\n\nFrequent matchups\nThe following are the 20 matchups of teams that have occurred two or more times in the World Series. All teams that have participated in these were \"Classic Eight\" members of either the American or National League; no expansion team (created in 1961 or later) has faced the same opponent more than once in a World Series.\n\nSee also\nList of National League pennant winners\nList of American League pennant winners\nList of Major League Baseball franchise postseason streaks\nList of Major League Baseball franchise postseason droughts\nList of pre-World Series baseball champions\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nWorldSeries.com – official website\nList of World Series winning rosters",
"title": "List_of_World_Series_champions"
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"paragraph_text": "The 2021 Atlanta Braves season was the 151st season of the Atlanta Braves franchise, the 56th Season in Atlanta, and the Braves' 5th season at Truist Park. The Braves were managed by Brian Snitker, in his sixth season as the team’s manager. The Braves clinched their fourth consecutive National League East title. They defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in the NLDS and faced the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS for the second straight year. They defeated the Dodgers in six games to reach the World Series for the first time since 1999. They would go on to defeat the Houston Astros in six games, winning their first World Series since 1995, their second since moving to Atlanta, and their fourth in franchise history. Jorge Soler won the Most Valuable Player award in the World Series.\n\nOffseason\nNovember\nOn November 11, 2020, the Braves re-signed right-handed relief pitcher Josh Tomlin to a one-year, $1 million contract that includes a $1.25 million club option for 2022.\nOn November 16, 2020, the Braves signed left-handed starting pitcher Drew Smyly to a one-year, $11 million contract.\nOn November 24, 2020, the Braves signed right-handed starting pitcher Charlie Morton to a one-year, $15 million contract.\n\nFebruary\nOn February 5, 2021, the Braves re-signed outfielder Marcell Ozuna to a four-year, $64 million contract. The contract includes a club option for a fifth year, worth $16 million, with a $1 million buyout.\n\nRegular season\nStandings\nNational League East\nNational League Division Leaders\nRecord vs. opponents\nUpdated with the results of all games through October 3, 2021.\n\nGame log\nPlayer stats\nBatting\nNote: G = Games played; AB = At bats; R = Runs; H = Hits; 2B = Doubles; 3B = Triples; HR = Home runs; RBI = Runs batted in; SB = Stolen bases; BB = Walks; AVG = Batting average; SLG = Slugging average\n\nSource:[1]\n\nPitching\nNote: W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts\n\nSource:[2]\n\nPostseason\nGame log\nPostseason rosters\nRoster\nFarm system\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n2021 Atlanta Braves season at Baseball Reference",
"title": "2021_Atlanta_Braves_season"
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"paragraph_text": "The 2021 Houston Astros season was the 60th season for the Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise in Houston, Texas, their 57th as the Astros, ninth in both the American League and American League West, and 22nd at Minute Maid Park.\nFour Astros players gained selection to the 2021 All-Star Game, tied for the second most from any team in baseball. The four were second baseman José Altuve, shortstop Carlos Correa, outfielder Michael Brantley, and relief pitcher Ryan Pressly, although none of them participated in the game. First baseman Yuli Gurriel won the AL batting title, his first, with a .319 batting average, becoming the second Cuban-born player and second Astro to do so. Correa led AL position players with 7.2 Wins Above Replacement (WAR).\nThe Astros concluded the regular season with a 95–67 record, while clinching an AL West title for the fourth time in the last five seasons, as well as their sixth playoff berth in seven years. By winning the AL West, Dusty Baker became the first manager in major league history to guide five different clubs to a division title, giving him eight division titles overall.\nIn the playoffs, the Astros defeated the Chicago White Sox in the ALDS in four games to advance to their fifth straight ALCS. They faced the Boston Red Sox in a rematch of the 2018 ALCS. The Astros won the ALCS in six games to advance to the World Series for the third time in five years. It was the Astros' fourth pennant in franchise history and their third as an AL team. They lost in the World Series to the Atlanta Braves in six games.\nFollowing the season, Yuli Gurriel and Carlos Correa won their first Gold Glove Awards, and the Astros were named the American League Gold Glove Team. Correa also won his first Platinum Glove Award and his first Fielding Bible Award. An American League (and franchise) record five Astros were named Gold Glove finalists, along with another five as finalists for the Silver Slugger Award. Dusty Baker and Luis García were named finalists for the AL Manager of the Year and AL Rookie of the Year awards, respectively. Baker finished third in voting, and García finished second. This marked the third consecutive season that an Astros player was named a finalist for the AL Rookie of the Year Award, following Yordan Álvarez, who won it unanimously in 2019, and Cristian Javier, who finished in third in 2020.\nAdditionally, Álvarez and Kyle Tucker were both selected for 2021's All-MLB Second Team.\n\nOffseason\nSummary\nThe Astros entered the 2021 Major League Baseball (MLB) season as having been defeated by the Tampa Bay Rays in seven games in the American League Championship Series (ALCS) and runner-up for the 2020 AL pennant. The Astros played to a 3–0 deficit to begin the ALCS, won the next three, and were defeated 4–2 in Game 7. The Rays thus avoided joining the 2004 New York Yankees as the only MLB clubs to lose a League Championship Series after mounting a 3–0 lead.\nAce starting pitcher Justin Verlander missed the entire 2021 season recuperating from ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction surgery, also known as Tommy John surgery, which was performed on October 1, 2020. He was in the final year of his contract. On February 27, 2021, the Astros placed the right-hander on the 60-day injured list as he continued to recover from the surgery.\n\nOffseason transactions\nFree agent signings\nSigned right-handed pitcher (RHP) Ryne Stanek to a 1-year contract on January 7, 2021\nSigned RHP Pedro Báez to a 2-year contract on January 13, 2021\nSigned catcher (C) Jason Castro to a 2-year contract on January 22, 2021\nSigned RHP Jake Odorizzi to a 2-year contract on March 8, 2021\n\nFree agent departures\nOutfielder (OF) George Springer signed a six-year contract with the Toronto Blue Jays on January 23, 2021.\nOF Josh Reddick signed a minor league contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks on April 12, 2021.\nPitchers that elected for free agency included Joe Biagini, Chase De Jong, Roberto Osuna, Brad Peacock, Chris Devenski, and Dustin Garneau\n\nTrades and waiver claims\nPlayers that were traded or claimed in the offseason by a different team included Brandon Bailey, Humberto Castellanos, Cionel Pérez, Carlos Sanabria, Cy Sneed, and Jack Mayfield.\n\nContract extensions\nSigned RHP Lance McCullers Jr. to a five-year contract extension on March 24, 2021\n\nRegular season\nSummary\nApril\nOn April 1, starting pitcher Zack Greinke earned his first career Opening Day win, and 209th win overall, as the Astros defeated the Oakland Athletics, 8–1, at the Oakland Coliseum. He pitched six scoreless innings, the 65th time his career he has produced at least six scoreless innings. Yordan Álvarez, returning from dual knee surgery that cost him nearly all of the 2020 season, drove in three runners, and Michael Brantley and Alex Bregman hit back-to-back home runs in the eighth inning. Outfielder Chas McCormick made his MLB debut as a defensive replacement for Brantley. It was the Astros' ninth consecutive Opening Day win, a club record, and equalled the modern era (since 1900) major league record for the longest streak, with the Seattle Mariners (2007–15), Cincinnati Reds (1983–91), New York Mets (1975–83) and St. Louis Browns (1937–45).\nRyan Pressly first became Houston's full-time closer in 2021.\nBrantley batted .345 in April and .410 in June, remaining at or near the top of the AL batting leaders for much of the season.\nManager Dusty Baker earned his 1,900th career win in the major leagues on April 22 by an 8–2 score versus the Los Angeles Angels. In that game, Cristian Javier became the first Astros pitcher to record the first eight outs of a game by strikeout since Jim Deshaies on September 23, 1986, versus the Los Angeles Dodgers. Over five innings, Javier set a new personal high with nine strikeouts and one walk and no earned runs.\nIn their first rematch since the 2020 American League Championship Series (ALCS), the Astros defeated the Tampa Bay Rays, 9–2, on April 30. Lance McCullers Jr. hurled seven shutout innings, striking out nine. Brantley and Carlos Correa both had four hits and Bregman hit a two-run home run. Four RBI came via Aledmys Díaz' two hits. Brantley, Bregman, Álvarez and Correa produced consecutive hits in the third inning, leading to three of the runs. With this win, Baker reached 1,906 to pass Casey Stengel for 12th all-time.\n\nMay\nOutfielder Kyle Tucker recorded a breakout season in 2021: from May 1 through the end of the season, he batted .320 and led the AL in on-base percentage, slugging and OPS.\nDuring the May 7 game versus the Toronto Blue Jays, designated hitter Yordan Álvarez drove in the 100th run of his career, doing so in 114 game as part of a 10–4 victory. He was the seventh-fastest player to reach 100 RBI in league history and the fastest to do so since the expansion era started in 1961. The next game, he homered and drove in three more in an 8–4 loss to the Blue Jays for 103 RBI in 115 games.\nIn the May 25 contest versus the Los Angeles Dodgers, Greinke became the 135th pitcher in major league history to reach 3,000 career innings. José Altuve was hitless in four at bats to end a 17-game hitting streak, the longest in the major leagues to that point in the season.\n\nJune\nOn June 4, Zack Greinke threw his first complete game since April 19, 2017, and first as a member of the Astros. He allowed six hits with one run and one walk and three strikeouts in a 13–1 win over the Toronto Blue Jays at Sahlen Field in Buffalo, New York. Martín Maldonado hit a grand slam, and Carlos Correa homered twice to lead the Astros' 16-hit attack.\nIn the June 6 contest versus the Blue Jays, infielder Aledmys Díaz suffered a fracture in his left hand on a hit by pitch delivered from Ross Stripling. Díaz was expected to miss six to eight weeks.\nOn June 15, José Altuve hit a walk-off grand slam against the Texas Rangers. The next day, he continued with a lead-off home run against Texas; Altuve is the first player in major league history to have a walk-off grand slam and then a lead-off home run in the following game. The Astros won that game, 8–4, to sweep their in-state rivals and realize their 12th win in their past 16th games. Third baseman Alex Bregman injured his left quadriceps in the first inning of the June 16 game as he attempted to avoid hitting into a double play. Catcher Garrett Stubbs was recalled from Triple-A Sugar Land to take his place on the 25-man roster.\nAltuve hit his 150th career home run on June 23, served up by Thomas Eshelman of the Baltimore Orioles.\n\nAll-Star Game selections\nThe following Astros players were selected as reserves to play at the 91st All-Star Game, hosted by the Colorado Rockies at Coors Field on July 13, 2021:\n\nJosé Altuve, second baseman: seventh selection, tied Craig Biggio for most appearances by an Astro\nMichael Brantley, outfielder: had batted .402 with nine doubles, one triple and 16 RBI in a one-month span since returning from injury\nCarlos Correa: shortstop: ranked fifth in AL in OPS (.926) at time of selection\nRyan Pressly, relief pitcher: second selection. Pressly had not allowed an earned run in 12 consecutive appearances, leading to a 1.54 ERA over 35 innings and a 4–1 record. He was tied for first in save percentage (93.3%), and among relief pitchers in the AL, was third in ERA, fourth in WHIP (0.83) and hed tied for fifth in with 14 saves.\nWith the four total selections, the Astros tied for second-most selections for 2021.\n\nJuly\nA lingering knee injury dampened Brantley's second-half performance. As of late July, he maintained a batting average of .336.\nIn an attempt to revamp their bullpen by adding higher-velocity pitchers, the Astros acquired Yimi García from the Miami Marlins on July 28. Up until that trade, García saved 15 games with a 3.47 ERA over 39 total relief appearances in 2021. He struck out 35 in 36+1⁄3 innings. The Astros sent outfielder Bryan De La Cruz and pitcher Austin Pruitt in return.\nOn July 30, the Astros traded Myles Straw to the Cleveland Indians for reliever Phil Maton and minor league catcher Yainer Díaz. Trading Straw allowed for the Astros to give rookie outfielders Chas McCormick and Jake Meyers more opportunities to play. On July 31, the club selected Meyers' contract from Sugar Land and promoted him to the major league roster.\n\nAugust\nJake Meyers made his Major League debut on August 1 as a pinch hitter in the ninth inning of a 5–3 loss to the San Francisco Giants.\nJake Meyers hit his first career home run on August 14 versus pitcher Jaime Barría of the Los Angeles Angels, and added a grand slam later in the same game as the Astros won, 8–2.\nThird baseman Alex Bregman returned from left quadriceps strain on August 25 after missing over two months. He scoring the winning run versus the Kansas City Royals on the day of his return, capping a 6–5, 10-inning score.\n\nSeptember and October\nJosé Siri made his major league debut on September 3 as a pinch runner in the ninth inning versus the San Diego Padres. Jake Meyers promptly hit a single that scored Siri from second base to give Siri his first run as a major leaguer.\nSiri made his first start in the majors on September 13, playing left field and facing the Texas Rangers. He went 4-for-5 with two home runs and five runs batted in to power a 15–1 rout at Globe Life Field. He is the first player since the RBI statistic became official in 1920 to have that many RBI along with multiple home runs in their first major league start. Yordan Álvarez added two home runs, including his 30th of the season; at the age of 24, he is the second Astro to hit 30 home runs in a season at that age after Alex Bregman, who hit 31 in 2018.\nIn the September 17 contest versus the Arizona Diamondbacks, José Altuve homered off Madison Bumgarner at Minute Maid Park to collect his 849th career hit in the stadium. The hit tied him with Lance Berkman for most by an Astro in the venue. He then passed Berkman the next night with a double.\nOn September 21, Carlos Correa scored his 100th run on the season to become the first Astros shortstop to score 100 runs in a season.\nDuring the final road trip of the season, twenty-seven members of the team paid homage to veteran pitcher Zack Greinke, known for his leisurely dress style. They wore fishing shirts, short shorts, and bucket hats. Lance McCullers Jr. also brought in a bag of groceries from Whole Foods – as is Greinke's habit to fill his locker – as replenishment for their upcoming flight. Greinke, who is from Florida, wore a bright orange Tampa Bay Buccaneers hat, an oversized fishing shirt, and shorts. Martín Maldonado donned his own bright orange hat. With Greinke posing with his new cadre of imitators, the team posted photos of their amusement on Instagram. The team had chosen to honor the pitcher, in the final year of his contract, after a 7–6 win over the Arizona Diamondbacks in which had allowed five runs over four innings, raising his ERA on the season to 4.11.\nOn September 23, Álvarez drove in two runs on a home run in the first inning against Los Angeles Angels to score his 100th RBI of the season. He was the second-youngest Astro to reach 100 RBI in one season, trailing César Cedeño, who did so at the age of 23 in 1974. It was a 9–5 win. Ryan Pressly completed a scoreless ninth in his 60th appearance of the season in this game, concluding the final condition for his contract for 2022 to fully vest. He would earn a guaranteed $10 million. Since being acquired by Houston at the 2018 trade deadline, Pressly had produced a 2.19 ERA, 0.924 WHIP, and saved 42 games in 160+1⁄3 innings. He had converted 25 of 27 save chances on the season.\nOn September 28, the Astros won 4–3 against the Tampa Bay Rays on consecutive walks with the bases loaded, which was the first time they had done so in team history and only the eighth time in Major League Baseball history since 1931. The Astros clinched the AL West on September 30 with a win over Tampa Bay at Minute Maid Park for their fourth division title in five seasons. It was Houston's tenth division title and 15th postseason entrance. For the first time in franchise history, the Astros gained a postseason berth for the fifth consecutive season. With a combined record of 432–272 (.614) since 2017, Houston had attained the most wins in the major leagues in that span. Manager Dusty Baker secured his eighth division title while becoming the first manager to guide five different clubs to a division title. It was Baker's 11th career postseason appearance.\nIn the final game of the 2021 regular season, Yuli Gurriel hit a walk-off single to score Jason Castro and defeat the Oakland Athletics. With that hit, his batting average stood at .319 to lead teammate Michael Brantley and Vladimir Guerrero Jr. of the Toronto Blue Jays (both hit .311) for the AL batting championship. At age 37, Gurriel was the sixth-oldest player to win a batting title, the oldest to win their first batting title since Barry Bonds in 2002, and the first Cuban-born player since Tony Oliva in 1971. Brantley, continuing to produce through lingering knee pain, saw 39 at bats in September. It was the sixth time in his career he had finished in the top 10 in the AL in batting.\nOver the final month of the season, right fielder Kyle Tucker batted .346 with eight home runs, 20 runs scored, 19 RBI, .438 on-base percentage, and .692 slugging percentage for a 1.130 OPS. He was awarded AL Player of the Month for September, his first career monthly award.\n\nSeason standings\nAmerican League West\nRecord against opponents\nUpdated with the results of all games through October 3, 2021.\n\nGame log\nPostseason\nGame log\nPostseason rosters\nAwards notes\nFor recognition of their defensive prowess, Rawlings Sporting Goods announced that the Houston Astros were the winners of the 2021 American League (AL) Gold Glove Team Award, the second iteration of the team-wide award, and Houston's first. The Astros led the American League with +78 Defensive Runs Saved (DRS), second in MLB to only the St. Louis Cardinals with +86, the winners of the National League Gold Glove Team Award. The Astros also led the AL with +45 outs above average (OAA), second in the major leagues to the Cardinals (+50). Shortstop Carlos Correa won his first career of both the Platinum Glove and Gold Glove Awards, marking the first time an Astros player has won a Platinum Glove. Correa led the AL with +21 DRS in 2021.\nFive Astros players were announced on October 25, 2021, as finalists for the Silver Slugger Award, including José Altuve, Yordan Álvarez, Correa, Yuli Gurriel, and Kyle Tucker. However, all of the five were claimed by players on other teams, including Vladimir Guerrero Jr. of Toronto at first base, Marcus Semien of Toronto at second base, Xander Bogaerts of Boston at shortstop, Teoscar Hernández, Aaron Judge and Cedric Mullins in the outfield, and Shohei Ohtani at designated hitter.\nStarting pitcher Luis García finished second to Randy Arozarena of Tampa Bay in the American League Rooke of the Year balloting, receiving two first-place votes \nManager Dusty Baker was named as a finalist for AL Manager of the Year Award. He finished third, garnering two first-place votes, five for second place, and eight for third place. Kevin Cash of Tampa Bay was the winner.\n\nStatistics\nNote: Yellow background is team leader in specific category.\n\nBatting\nRegular season\nPitching\nNote: Pos = Position; W = Wins; L = Losses; ERA = Earned run average; G = Games pitched; GS = Games started; SV = Saves; IP = Innings pitched; H = Hits allowed; R = Runs allowed; ER = Earned runs allowed; BB = Walks allowed; SO = Strikeouts; HBP = Hit by pitch; WHIP = Walks + hits per inning pitched\n\nSource:[1]\n\nAwards and achievements\nMajor League debuts and awards\nAL batting leaders\nAL pitching leaders\nAL fielding leaders\nRoster\nMinor league system and first-year player draft\nTeams\nIn advance of the 2021 season, Major League Baseball took direct control of, and restructured, Minor League Baseball in part with the intent of cost efficiency, and enhancing the experience and compensation for its players and directly managing their development plans. The legacy league names were replaced with generic names depicting their level of play. One significant change for Astros included aligning the Sugar Land Skeeters as their AAA club; the Skeeters were previously members of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball and unaffiliated with any major league clubs. Sugar Land replaced the Round Rock Express.\n\nMajor League Baseball draft\nSee also\nList of Major League Baseball batting champions\nList of Major League Baseball franchise postseason streaks\n\nReferences\nFootnotes\n\nSources\n\nExternal links\nHouston Astros season official site Archived October 4, 2012, at the Wayback Machine\n2021 Houston Astros season at Baseball Reference",
"title": "2021_Houston_Astros_season"
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"paragraph_text": "Jack Roosevelt Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball player who became the first African-American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke the color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s. Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.\nBorn in Cairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised in Pasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete at Pasadena Junior College and the University of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with the UCLA Bruins football team. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service during World War II but was court martialed for refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro leagues from where he caught the eye of Branch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in Major League Baseball.\nDuring his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inaugural Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won the National League (NL) Most Valuable Player Award in 1949—the first black player so honored. Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers' 1955 World Series championship. In 1997, Major League Baseball retired his uniform No. 42 across all major league teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored. MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, \"Jackie Robinson Day\", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears No. 42.\nRobinson's character, his use of nonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his achievements on and off the field.\n\nEarly life\nFamily and personal life\nJack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed \"Mack\"), and Willa Mae. His middle name honored former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born. After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California.\nThe extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family. Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities. As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.\n\nJohn Muir High School\nIn 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir Technical High School. Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete and silver medalist behind Jesse Owens in the 200 meters at the Berlin 1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.\nAt Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track and field, and baseball. He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also a member of the tennis team.\nIn 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon. In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported that Robinson \"for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis.\"\n\nPasadena Junior College\nAfter Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track. On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team, and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft. 6+1⁄2 in. on May 7, 1938. As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white. While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military. In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player.\nThat year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing \"outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition.\" Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.\nAn incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist—a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police. Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism. While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian. Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.\n\nUCLA and afterward\nAfter graduating from PJC in spring 1939, Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.\nHe was one of four black players on the Bruins' 1939 football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players. At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's most integrated team. They went undefeated with four ties at 6–0–4. Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons.\nIn track and field, Robinson won the 1940 NCAA championship in the long jump at 24 ft 10+1⁄4 in (7.58 m). Baseball was Robinson's \"worst sport\" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home.\nWhile a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum (b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career at PJC. He played football as a senior, but the 1940 Bruins won only one game. In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum. He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.\nAfter the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears. After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League. By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, which drew the United States into World War II and ended Robinson's nascent football career.\n\nMilitary career\nIn 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit at Fort Riley, Kansas. Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley.\nAlthough the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership. The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months. After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War), the men were accepted into OCS. The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis. Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.\nAfter receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st \"Black Panthers\" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston–Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.\nAn event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career. While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus. Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the military police, who took Robinson into custody. When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court-martialed.\nAfter Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink.\nBy the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning. Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers.\nAlthough his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat.\nAfter his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944. While there, Robinson met a former player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout. Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird.\n\nPost-military\nAfter his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs. Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Samuel Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference. The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season. As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games. Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach, and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.\n\nPlaying career\nNegro leagues and major league prospects\nIn early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues. Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month. Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him. The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter. In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, and registering 13 stolen bases. He also appeared in the 1945 East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats.\nDuring the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues since Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884, but the Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16. The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore H. Y. Muchnick. Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets. He left the tryout humiliated, and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster.\nOther teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals. Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him. In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. Robinson was aghast: \"Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?\" Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player \"with guts enough not to fight back.\" After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to \"turn the other cheek\" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 a month, equal to $10,155 today. Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause. Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects was Wendell Smith, writer for the black weekly Pittsburgh Courier, who, according to Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck, \"influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit.\"\nAlthough he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945. On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season. On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals. In what was later referred to as \"The Noble Experiment\", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s. He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues, and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first. Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson, said, \"One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken.\"\nRickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League. Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City. On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs.\n\nMinor leagues\nIn 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League. Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused.\n\nRobinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune. Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach. In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director. In DeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting.\nAfter much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach. Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s.\n\nLater in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base. Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants' season opener against the Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs. Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his five at bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's third inning. He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory. Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example), the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson. Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards. In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.\n\nMajor leagues\nBreaking the color barrier (1947)\nIn 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman. Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearing uniform number 42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseason exhibition game against the New York Yankees at Ebbets Field with 24,237 in attendance. On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black. Although he failed to get a base hit, he walked and scored a run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory. Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams.\nRobinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players. However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse. Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, \"I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded.\"\nRobinson was also derided by opposing teams. According to a press report, the St. Louis Cardinals threatened to strike if Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League. Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the New York Herald Tribune's Rud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to his Tribune colleague and editor, Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland. The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. \"You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts,\" Frick was quoted as saying. \"I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another.\" Woodward's article received the E. P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting. The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told author Roger Kahn that Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech \"never happened\". Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from the sports media. Even The Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike.\nRobinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter. On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players and manager Ben Chapman called Robinson a \"nigger\" from their dugout and yelled that he should \"go back to the cotton fields\". Rickey later recalled that Chapman \"did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men.\"\nHowever, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson named Lee \"Jeep\" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, \"You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them.\" In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati. A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson. Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he \"whispered a few words into Robinson's ear\", which Robinson later characterized as \"words of encouragement\". Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games. Robinson also talked frequently with Larry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the American League with the Cleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season.\nRobinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers, with a batting average of .297, an on-base percentage of .383, and a .427 slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31 doubles, 5 triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29. His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).\nThat year, the Brooklyn Dodgers won the National League pennant and went on to face the Yankees in the 1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7.\n\nMVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950)\nFollowing Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season. In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle—a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game. The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.\n\nRacial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $158,518 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate. In 1948, Wendell Smith's book, Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released.\nIn the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that \"Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second\". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949. In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored. For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player Award for the National League. Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game — the first All-Star Game to include black players.\nThat year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, \"Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?\", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version. Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.\nSummer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.\n\nIn 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133. His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($443,237 in 2023 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases. The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actress Ruby Dee played Rachel \"Rae\" (Isum) Robinson. The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man. The New York Times wrote that Robinson, \"doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star.\"\nRobinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as \"Rickey's prima donna\". In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise. Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, \"Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it.\"\n\nPennant races and outside interests (1951–1953)\nBefore the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the Montreal Standard as saying, \"Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post\"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.\nDuring the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137. He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants.\n\nDespite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed \"how much of a competitor Robinson was.\" He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.\nRobinson had what was an average year for him in 1952. He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436. The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player. Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a \"bigot\", said, \"If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness.\" The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.\nIn 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats. He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis. Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.\n\nWorld Championship and retirement (1954–1956)\nIn 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles. The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base. Robinson, then 36 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series. He missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.\nIn 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals. By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball. Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the 1956 World Series. After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $392,240 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company. Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously, his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.\n\nLegacy\nRobinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their accelerated migration to the North, where their political clout grew, and President Harry Truman's desegregation of the military in 1948. Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. said that he was \"a legend and a symbol in his own time\", and that he \"challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration.\" According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's \"efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... [His] accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities.\"\nBeginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers. During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games. In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.\nRobinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–\"long ball\" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning. Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291). Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other). He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home. None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time). Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as \"the father of modern base-stealing\".\nHistorical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played. After playing his rookie season at first base, Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman. He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951. Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.\nAssessing himself, Robinson said, \"I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being.\" Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, \"You want a guy that comes to play. But he didn't just come to play. He came to beat you. He came to stuff the damn bat right up your ass.\"\n\nPortrayals on stage, film and television\nRobinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story.\nOther portrayals include:\n\nJohn Lafayette, in the 1978 ABC television special \"A Home Run for Love\" (broadcast as an ABC Afterschool Special).\nDavid Alan Grier, in the 1981 Broadway production of the musical The First.\nMichael-David Gordon, in the 1989 Off-Broadway production of the musical Play to Win.\nSterling Macer Jr. in the 1989 Edward Schmidt play Mr. Rickey Calls a Meeting, a fictionalized version of the meeting in which Branch Rickey offered Robinson a major-league contract.\nAndre Braugher, in the 1990 TNT television movie The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson.\nBlair Underwood, in the 1996 HBO television movie Soul of the Game.\nAntonio Todd in \"Colors\", a 2005 episode of the CBS television series Cold Case.\nChadwick Boseman, in the 2013 motion picture 42.\nRobert Hamilton in \"Sundown\", a 2020 episode of the HBO television series Lovecraft Country.\nRobinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary, Jackie Robinson, which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice-over as Robinson.\n\nPost-baseball life\nRobinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that \"the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over.\" Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957. Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed with diabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers. Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease.\nIn October 1959, Robinson entered the Greenville Municipal Airport's whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At a National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) speech in Greenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged \"complete freedom\" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 people marched on New Year's Day to the airport, which was desegregated shortly thereafter.\nIn his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game. He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first black player inducted into the Cooperstown museum.\n\nIn 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts, the first black person to do so. In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League. In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts.\nFrom 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first black person to serve as vice president of a major American corporation. Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry. He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967. In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank—a black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem. He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board. In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.\nRobinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent, although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy). After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights. Robinson was angered by the 1964 presidential election candidacy of conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, who had opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election. After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had \"a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany\". He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to the New York State Athletic Commission by Rockefeller. In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in that year's presidential election.\nRobinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in an old-timers' game at Yankee Stadium in 1969. He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, \"I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball.\" This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other black players, the number of African-American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s.\n\nFamily life and death\nAfter Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center. She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990. She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952).\n\nRobinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age. He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in the Vietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965. After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution. On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24. The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.\nRobinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered a heart attack. Complications from heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road in North Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old. Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at Upper Manhattan's Riverside Church in Morningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners. Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball star Bill Russell served as pallbearers, and the Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy. Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum. Twenty-five years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed the Jackie Robinson Parkway in his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite.\nAfter Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and she remains an officer as of 2024. On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan. Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father. His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.\n\nAwards and recognition\nOn June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Robinson's uniform number, 42, alongside those of former teammates Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32). In 2017, a statue of Robinson, created by sculptor Branly Cadet, was unveiled at Dodger Stadium. It was the first statue the Dodgers ever unveiled.\nIn 1999, Robinson was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. That same year, he was ranked No. 44 on The Sporting News list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\" in 1999. In 2020, The Athletic ranked Robinson at number 42 on its \"Baseball 100\" list, complied by sportswriter Joe Posnanski.\nBaseball writer Bill James, in The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career. Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984. In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.\nThe City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field in Brookside Park next to the Rose Bowl, and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services). In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $616,853 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.\nMajor League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the \"Jackie Robinson Award\" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues).\n\nOn April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues. Under the terms of the retirement, a grandfather clause allowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers. This affected players such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn. The Yankees' Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season, was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, and Bill Russell's number 6, retired by the NBA in 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports.\nAs an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004. For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007. The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number. After Griffey received her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same. Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates. The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42. On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics. In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date.\n\nAt the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009. It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that the Mets—in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create the Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center, located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square, along Canal Street in lower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to \"young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals.\" The museum opened in 2022. The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque in Monument Park.\nSince 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the \"Jackie Robinson Award\".\nRobinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American. President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984, and on March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente. On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.\n\nA number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium, which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis. The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990. A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack. The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson, and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him. His home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976, and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark. In 1978, Colonial Park in Harlem was renamed after Robinson. Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson. In 1997, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor. The following year, a statue of Robinson was dedicated at Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City, New Jersey.\nIn 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin. Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.\nIn 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball. The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé near Jarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for the Montreal Royals during 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: \"I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man.\"\nOn November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him. The only sport this did not affect was men's basketball, which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard (although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing). In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues.\nA jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at an auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey.\n\nSee also\nReferences\nBook sources\nFurther reading\nBooks\nKahn, Roger (1972). The Boys of Summer. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0060883966.\nRobinson, Jackie; Tygiel, Jules (1997). The Jackie Robinson Reader: Perspectives on an American Hero. Dutton Penguin. ISBN 978-0525940968.\nKashatus, William C. (2014). Jackie & Campy: The Untold Story of Their Rocky Relationship and the Breaking of Baseball's Color Line. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0803246331.\nKennedy, Kostya (2022). True: The Four Seasons of Jackie Robinson. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250274045.\n\nArticles\nGraham, John; Lardner, Rex (January 7, 1950). \"Success: Jackie Robinson's Second Job\". The New Yorker.\nDawidoff, Nicholas (September 28, 1987). \"Recalling Jackie Robinson\". Sports Illustrated.\nDreier, Peter (April 11, 2013). \"The Real Story of Baseball's Integration That You Won't See in 42\". The Atlantic.\nHertzberg, Hendrik (May 17, 2013). \"Summers of \"42\"\". The New Yorker.\nWilliams, Andrea (April 15, 2022). \"The Complicated Legacy of Jackie Robinson's Dodgers Debut\". Sports Illustrated.\nRapoport, Ron (April 14, 2022). \"Baseball reveres Jackie Robinson, but Robinson didn't revere baseball. Here's why\". Los Angeles Times.\n\nExternal links\n\nCareer statistics and player information from MLB, or ESPN, or Baseball Reference, or Fangraphs, or Baseball Reference (Minors), or Retrosheet, or Seamheads\nOfficial website\nJackie Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame\nJackie Robinson at the SABR Baseball Biography Project\nJackie Robinson at IMDb",
"title": "Jackie_Robinson"
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] | As of August 2024, the Atlanta Braves beat the Houston Astros the last time they won the World Series. How many years before this did Jackie Robinson join the Brooklyn Dodgers? | [] | 74 years | [] | true |
267 | [
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"paragraph_text": "This is a list of the costliest land battles of the American Civil War, measured by casualties (killed, wounded, captured, and missing) on both sides.\n\nHighest casualty battles\nSee also\n\nList of American Civil War battles\nTimeline of events leading to the American Civil War\nBibliography of the American Civil War\nBibliography of Ulysses S. Grant\n\n\n== Notes ==",
"title": "List_of_costliest_American_Civil_War_land_battles"
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"paragraph_text": "The Battle of Gettysburg (locally ) was a three-day battle in the American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate forces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation. It was the Civil War's bloodiest battle, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties over three days.\nIn the Battle of Gettysburg, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.\nAfter his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces through Shenandoah Valley to begin the Gettysburg Campaign, his second attempted invasion of the North. With Lee's army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia in the hopes of penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania or Philadelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to abandon their prosecution of the war. President Abraham Lincoln initially prodded Major General Joseph Hooker to move his Union forces in pursuit of Lee, but relieved Hooker of his command just three days before the battle, replacing him with Meade.\nOn July 1, 1863, as Lee's forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union Army, the two armies initially collided, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city. On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union's left flank, leading to fierce fighting at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union's right flank, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines.\nOn the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg, but the main military engagement was a dramatic Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line at Cemetery Ridge in what is known as Pickett's Charge. The Confederate charge was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on the Fourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturous retreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, representing the most deadly battle in U.S. history. \nOn November 19, President Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, where he spoke at a ceremony dedicating Gettysburg National Cemetery that honored the fallen Union soldiers and redefined the purpose of the Civil War in his famed Gettysburg Address, a 271-word address considered one of the famous speeches in American history.\n\nBackground\nMilitary situation\nShortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 – May 6, 1863), General Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam). Such a move would upset the Union's plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North.\n\nInitial movements to battle\nThus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. Following the death of Thomas J. \"Stonewall\" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lieutenant General James Longstreet (First Corps), Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lieutenant General A.P. Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility. The cavalry division remained under the command of Major General J.E.B. Stuart.\nThe Union Army of the Potomac under Major General Joseph Hooker consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an artillery reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men.\nThe first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Major General Alfred Pleasonton's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repelled the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.\nBy mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the Union garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between Washington, D.C., and Lee's army. The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27.\nLee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative effects on the civilian population. Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright unless a citizen concealed property, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money which was virtually worthless or with equally worthless promissory notes were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. During the invasion, the Confederates seized between 40 and nearly 60 northern African Americans. A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but many were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard.\nOn June 26, elements of Major General Jubal Early's division of Ewell's corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised 26th Pennsylvania emergency militia in a series of minor skirmishes. Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.\nMeanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg (28 mi (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle (30 mi (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.\nIn a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Major General George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.\nOn June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight mi (13 km) west of Gettysburg. On June 30, while part of Hill's corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades (North Carolinians under Brigadier General J. Johnston Pettigrew) ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Major General Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes.\nWhen Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Major General John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.\n\nOpposing forces\nUnion\nThe Army of the Potomac, initially under Hooker (Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization:\n\nI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. James S. Wadsworth, Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson, and Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday.\nII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John C. Caldwell, John Gibbon, and Alexander Hays.\nIII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. David B. Birney and Maj. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys.\nV Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Sykes (George G. Meade until June 28), with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. James Barnes, Romeyn B. Ayres, and Samuel W. Crawford.\nVI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Horatio G. Wright, Brig. Gen. Albion P. Howe, and Maj. Gen. John Newton.\nXI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr, and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz.\nXII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. Alpheus S. Williams and John W. Geary.\nCavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John Buford, David McM. Gregg, and H. Judson Kilpatrick.\nArtillery Reserve, commanded by Brig. Gen. Robert O. Tyler. (The preeminent artillery officer at Gettysburg was Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, chief of artillery on Meade's staff.)\nDuring the advance on Gettysburg, Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI corps. Many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg. These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry.\n\nConfederate\nIn reaction to the death of Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his Army of Northern Virginia (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three.\n\nFirst Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Lafayette McLaws, George Pickett, and John Bell Hood.\nSecond Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Jubal A. Early, Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson, and Robert E. Rodes.\nThird Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. A. P. Hill, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens. Richard H. Anderson, Henry Heth, and W. Dorsey Pender.\nCavalry division, commanded by Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart, with brigades commanded by Brig. Gens. Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, Beverly H. Robertson, Albert G. Jenkins, William E. \"Grumble\" Jones, and John D. Imboden, and Col. John R. Chambliss.\n\nFirst day of battle\nHerr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge\nAnticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them.\nHeth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by brigadier generals James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three mi (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lieutenant Marcellus Jones. Eventually Heth's men encountered dismounted troopers of Colonel William Gamble's cavalry brigade. The dismounted troopers resisted stoutly, delaying the Confederate advance with most firing their breech-loading Sharp's carbines from behind fences and trees. (A small number of troopers had other carbine models. A small minority of historians have written that some troopers had Spencer repeating carbines or Spencer repeating rifles but most sources disagree.) Still, by 10:20 am, the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Major General John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.\nNorth of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brigadier General Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repelled with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The Union Iron Brigade under Brigadier General Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.\nGeneral Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be \"the best general in the army\". Major General Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 pm. It resumed around 2:30 pm, when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Colonel John M. Brockenbrough.\nAs Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army, with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Major General William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.\nAs the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Major General Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Union line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.\nHowever, the Union did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.\nAround 2:00 p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of major generals Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI corps' positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of Colonel Edward A. O'Neal and Brigadier General Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brigadier General John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder by Brigadier General Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.\n\nAs Union positions collapsed both north and west of town, Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brigadier General Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve. Major General Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle. Hancock told Howard, \"I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw.\" When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: \"Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field.\" Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.\nGeneral Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken \"if practicable\". Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.\nThe first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged.\n\nSecond day of battle\nPlans and movement to battle\nThroughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Two of Longstreet's divisions were on the road: Brigadier General George Pickett, had begun the 22-mile (35 km) march from Chambersburg, while Brigadier General Evander M. Law had begun the march from Guilford. Both arrived late in the morning. Law completed his 28-mile (45 km) march in eleven hours.\nThe Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a \"fishhook\" formation.\nThe Confederate line paralleled the Union line about one mile (1,600 m) to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) long.\nLee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions. On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Union line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Major General Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps.\n\nOn the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left. Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a \"diversion\", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.\nLee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right. Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route.\nLee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m. About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles's outpost guard and the Third Corps—upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form—did not get into position until 1:00 pm.\nHood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4:00 p.m. and 5:00 p.m., respectively.\n\nAttacks on the Union left flank\nAs Longstreet's left division, under Major General Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Major General Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions one-half mile (800 m) to the west—centered at the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard—he violated orders and advanced his corps to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brigadier General Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Major General David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively. The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 pm. After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles's position and demanded an explanation of the situation. Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles' offer to withdraw.\nMeade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brigadier General John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the \"Valley of Death\") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.\nAs fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Colonel Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brigadier General Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain and possibly led down the slope by Lieutenant Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Chamberlain into prominence after the war.\n\nAttacks on the Union right flank\nEwell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade. His 32 guns, along with A. P. Hill's 55 guns, engaged in a two-hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect. Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front.\nMajor General Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson's division had contemplated an assault on Culp's Hill, but they were still a mile away and had Rock Creek to cross. The few possible crossings would make significant delays. Because of this, only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack. Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brigadier General George S. Greene behind strong, newly constructed defensive works. With reinforcements from the I and XI corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp's Hill.\nEarly was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays's and Isaac E. Avery's brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill. Once started, fighting was fierce: Colonel Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, XI Corps came under a withering attack, losing half his men. Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries. Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew. His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes's division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack. He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw.\nJeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brigadier General Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg.\n\nThird day of battle\nLee's plan\nLee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Union left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, \"the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before\".\nLee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Union II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Union positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.\nMuch has been made over the years of General Longstreet's objections to General Lee's plan. In his memoirs, Longstreet states that he told Lee that there were not enough men to assault the strong left center of the Union line by McLaws's and Hood's divisions reinforced by Pickett's brigades. Longstreet thought the attack would be repulsed and a counterattack would put Union forces between the Confederates and the Potomac River. Longstreet wrote that he said it would take a minimum of thirty thousand men to attack successfully as well as close coordination with other Confederate forces. He noted that only about thirteen thousand men were left in the selected divisions after the first two days of fighting. They would have to walk a mile under heavy artillery and long-range musketry fire. Longstreet states that he further asked Lee: \"the strength of the column. He [Lee] stated fifteen thousand. Opinion was then expressed [by Longstreet] that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed.\"\n\nLargest artillery bombardment of the war\nAround 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. To save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brigadier General Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Union cannons opened fire. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position.\n\nPickett's Charge\nAround 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and between 10,500 and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge. A more accurate name for the charge would be the \"Pickett–Pettigrew–Trimble Charge\" after the commanders of the three divisions taking part in the charge, but the role of Pickett's division has led to the attack generally being known as \"Pickett's Charge\". As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and the Little Round Top area, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps. In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results.\n\nAlthough the Union line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the \"Angle\" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repelled. The farthest advance, by Brigadier General Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Pickett's division at the Angle, is referred to as the \"high-water mark of the Confederacy\". Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates. Armistead was mortally wounded shortly afterward. Nearly one half of the Confederate attackers did not return to their own lines. Pickett's division lost about two-thirds of its men, and all three brigadiers were killed or wounded.\n\nCavalry battles\nThere were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. The first one was coordinated with Pickett's Charge, and the standoff may have prevented a disaster for Union infantry. The site of this engagement is now known as the East Cavalry Field. The second engagement was a loss for Union cavalry attacking Confederate infantry. It has been labeled as a \"fiasco\", and featured faulty cavalry tactics. The site of this engagement is now known as the South Cavalry Field.\n\nNortheast of Gettysburg\nStuart's cavalry division (three brigades), with the assistance of Jenkins' brigade, was sent to guard the Confederate left flank. Stuart was also in position to exploit any success the Confederate infantry (Pickett's Charge) might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Union right and getting behind Union infantry facing the Confederate attack. The cavalry fight took place about three miles (4.8 km) northeast of Gettysburg at about 3:00 pm—around the end of the Confederate artillery barrage that preceded Pickett's charge. Stuart's forces collided with Union cavalry: Brigadier General David McMurtrie Gregg's division and Custer's brigade from Kilpatrick's division. The fight evolved into \"a wild melee of swinging sabers and blazing pistols and carbines\". One of Custer's regiments, the 5th Michigan Cavalry Regiment, was armed with Spencer repeating rifles, and at least two companies from an additional regiment were also armed with repeaters. The fight ended in a standoff, as neither side changed positions. However, Gregg and Custer prevented Stuart from gaining the rear of Union infantry facing Pickett.\n\nSouthwest of Gettysburg\nAfter hearing news of the Union's success against Pickett's charge, Brigadier General Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. The terrain was difficult for a mounted attack because it was rough, heavily wooded, and contained huge boulders—and Longstreet's men were entrenched with artillery support. Brigadier General Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the fourth of five unsuccessful attacks, and his brigade suffered significant losses. Although Kilpatrick was described by at least one Union leader as \"brave, enterprising, and energetic\", incidents such as Farnsworth's charge earned him the nickname of \"Kill Cavalry\".\n\nAftermath\nCasualties\nThe two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties, and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work, Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing). Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured. The casualties for both sides for the 6-week campaign, according to Sears, were 57,225.\nIn addition to being the deadliest battle of the war, Gettysburg also had the most generals killed in action. Several generals also were wounded. The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle. Confederate generals who were wounded included Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood who lost the use of his left arm and Maj. Gen. Henry Heth who received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long-term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches). Confederate generals James L. Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat. Confederate Brig. Gen. James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death. In the Confederate 1st Corps, eight of Longstreet's fourteen division and brigade commanders were killed or wounded, including Brig. Gen. George T. Anderson and Brig. Gen. Jerome B. Robertson, who were wounded. In Ewell's 2nd Corps, Brig. Gen. Isaac E. Avery was mortally wounded and Brig. Gen. John M. Jones was wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corps, in addition to Pender and Pettigrew being killed, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth and Col. Birkett D. Fry (later brigadier general), in temporary brigade command were wounded. In Hill's 3rd Corp, Brig. Gen. Alfred M. Scales and Col. William L. J. Lowrance, in temporary brigade command, were wounded. In the Confederate Cavalry Division, Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton and Brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins were wounded.\nUnion generals killed were John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, and Stephen H. Weed, as well as Elon J. Farnsworth, assigned as brigadier general by Maj. Gen. Pleasanton based on his nomination although his promotion was confirmed posthumously, and Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general. Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, Daniel Butterfield, and Winfield Scott Hancock. Five of seven brigade commanders in Reynolds's First Corps were wounded. In addition to Hancock and Brig. Gen. John Gibbon being wounded in the Second Corps, three of ten brigade commanders were killed and three were wounded.\nThe following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle, according to Busey and Martin.\n\nBruce Catton wrote, \"The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe.\" But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread. Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69-year-old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process. Though aged and injured, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872. Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. More than 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners.\nConfederates lost over 31–55 battle flags, with the Union possibly having lost slightly fewer than 40. The Confederate battle flags were sent to Washington.\n3,000–5,000 horses were killed.\n\nConfederate retreat\nOn the morning of July 4, with Lee's army still present, Meade ordered his cavalry to get to the rear of Lee's army. In a heavy rain, the armies stared at one another across the bloody fields, on the same day that, some 920 miles (1,480 km) away, the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Major General Ulysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield's west side, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.\nLate in the rainy afternoon, Lee started moving the non-fighting portion of his army back to Virginia. Cavalry under Brigadier General John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the seventeen-mile long wagon train of supplies and wounded men, using a long route through Cashtown and Greencastle to Williamsport, Maryland. After sunset, the fighting portion of Lee's army began its retreat to Virginia using a more direct (but more mountainous) route that began on the road to Fairfield. Although Lee knew exactly what he needed to do, Meade's situation was different. Meade needed to remain at Gettysburg until he was certain Lee was gone. If Meade left first, he could possibly leave an opening for Lee to get to Washington or Baltimore. In addition, the army that left the battlefield first was often considered the defeated army.\n\nUnion cavalry had some minor successes pursuing Lee's army. The first major encounter took place in the mountains at Monterey Pass on July 4, where Kilpatrick's cavalry division captured 150 to 300 wagons and took 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners. Beginning July 6, additional cavalry fighting took place closer to the Potomac River in Maryland's Williamsport-Hagerstown area. Lee's army was trapped and delayed from crossing the Potomac River because rainy weather had caused the river to swell, and the pontoon bridge at Falling Waters had been destroyed. Meade's infantry did not fully pursue Lee until July 7, and despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, was not aggressive enough to destroy Lee's army. A new pontoon bridge was constructed at Falling Waters, and lower water levels allowed the Confederates to begin crossing after dark on July 13. Although Meade's infantry had reached the area on July 12, it was his cavalry that attacked the Confederate rear guard on the morning of July 14. Union cavalry took 500 prisoners, and Confederate Brigadier General Pettigrew was mortally wounded, but Lee's army completed its Potomac crossing. The campaign continued south of the Potomac until the Battle of Manassas Gap on July 23, when Lee escaped and Meade abandoned the pursuit.\n\nUnion reaction to the news of the victory\nThe news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed \"Victory! Waterloo Eclipsed!\" New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:\n\nThe results of this victory are priceless. ... The charm of Robert E. Lee's invincibility is broken. The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it, and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard-fought failures. ... Copperheads are palsied and dumb for the moment at least. ... Government is strengthened four-fold at home and abroad.\nHowever, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that \"Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!\" Brigadier General Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as \"Chase, Seward and others\", disgusted with Meade, \"write to me that Lee really won that Battle!\"\n\nEffect on the Confederacy\nIn fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams, whose father was serving as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom at the time, wrote, \"The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end.\"\nCompounding the effects of the defeat was the end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle, costing the Confederacy an additional 30,000 men, along with all their arms and stores.\nThe immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned \"rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac\". He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, \"Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove.\" Some Southern publications, such as the Charleston Mercury, were critical of Lee's actions. On August 8, Lee offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.\n\nGettysburg Address\nThe ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.\n\nMedal of Honor\nThere were 72 Medals of Honor awarded for the Gettysburg Campaign, 64 of which were for actions taken during the battle itself. The first recipient was awarded in December 1864, while the most recent was posthumously awarded to Lieutenant Alonzo Cushing in 2014.\n\nHistorical assessment\nDecisive victory controversies\nThe nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the \"turning point\", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day. This is based on the observation that, after Gettysburg, Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war.\n\nIt is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of \"decisive victory\" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided. For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a \"strategic loss for the Confederacy\" and James M. McPherson wrote that \"Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863.\"\nHowever, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the \"strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited.\" Steven E. Woodworth wrote that \"Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater.\" Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that \"after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864.\" Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that \"Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion,\" yet after Gettysburg, \"without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia [remained] an extremely formidable force.\" Ed Bearss wrote, \"Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ...\" Historian Alan Guelzo notes that Gettysburg and Vicksburg did not end the war and that the war would go on for two more years. He also noted that a little more than a year later Federal armies appeared hopelessly mired in sieges at Petersburg and Atlanta.\nPeter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the \"horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity,\" implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's Military Review journal on the definition of \"decisive\" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: \"For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'.\" The military historian John Keegan agrees. Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed. The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy. If \"not exactly a decisive battle\", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant's Overland Campaign.\n\nLee vs. Meade\nPrior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians such as Fuller, Glatthaar, and Sears have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg. Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; his failing health; and, the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.\nThroughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee \"acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into.\" Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, \"No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor.\"\n\nThe most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings. Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders. All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:\n\nJames Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors, not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war. His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2, squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up. They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them. The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle, agreed to delays on the morning of July 2, and never criticized Longstreet's performance. (There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard.)\nJ.E.B. Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army's. This arguably led to Lee's surprise at Hooker's vigorous pursuit; the engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2. The disagreements regarding Stuart's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee, but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry's mission early in the campaign.\nRichard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1. Once again the disagreement centers on Lee's orders, which provided general guidance for Ewell to act \"if practicable\". Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson, if he had survived Chancellorsville, would have aggressively seized Culp's Hill, rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible, and changing the entire complexion of the battle. A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate.\nA.P. Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance. His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1, despite Lee's orders not to bring on a general engagement (although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day). However, Hill's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle, and Lee took the explicit step of temporarily removing troops from Hill's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett's Charge.\nIn addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack. As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks.\nLee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade \"would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it.\" That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, \"The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg.\" Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a \"sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in [themselves]. The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle.\"\nMeade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command. Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience.\n\nBattlefield preservation\nGettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks. Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation. Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development.\nSome preservation successes have emerged in recent years. Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field. The American Battlefield Trust, formerly the Civil War Trust, also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres (38 ha) at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011.\nLess than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved 1,242 acres (5.03 km2) of the battlefield in more than 40 separate transactions from 1997 to mid-2023. Some of these acres are now among the 4,998 acres (2,023 ha) of the Gettysburg National Military Park. In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a four-acre (1.6 ha) parcel that included the stone house that Confederate General Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters during the battle. The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee's headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs. It opened the site to the public in October 2016.\n\nIn popular culture\nAt the 50th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1913), 50,000 veterans attended according to a 1938 Army Medical report. Historian Carol Reardon writes that attendance included at least 35,000 Union veterans and though estimates of attendees ran as high as 56,000, only a few more than 7,000 Confederate veterans, most from Virginia and North Carolina, attended. Some veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides. There was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall on Cemetery Ridge.\nAt the 75th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1938), 1,333 Union veterans and 479 Confederate veterans attended.\nFilm records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield, in 1913. and 1938.\n\n The American Civil War Centennial was the official United States commemoration of the American Civil War. Commemoration activities began in 1957, four years before the 100th anniversary of the war's first battle, and ended in 1965 with the 100th anniversary of the surrender at Appomattox. The United States Civil War Centennial Commission and state commissions were established to organize the commemorations. The National Park Service, and other federal agencies that controlled key Civil War battlefields, used the Centennial to successfully lobby Congress for increased funding to re-landscape and interpret these battlefields for the general public. The Post Office issued a series of noncontroversial commemorative stamps to mark the centennial.\nThe children's novel Window of Time (1991), by Karen Weinberg, tells the story of a boy transported by time travel from the 1980s to the Battle of Gettysburg.\nThe Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film Gettysburg, based on Michael Shaara's 1974 novel The Killer Angels. The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge.\n\nSee also\nGettysburg Cyclorama, a painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett's Charge\nList of costliest American Civil War land battles\nTroop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863\n\nNotes\nCitations\nReferences\nMemoirs and primary sources\nFurther reading\nAdkin, Mark. The Gettysburg Companion: The Complete Guide to America's Most Famous Battle. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8117-0439-7.\nBachelder, John B. The Bachelder Papers: Gettysburg in Their Own Words. Edited by David L. Ladd and Audrey J. Ladd. 3 vols. Dayton, OH: Morningside Press, 1994. ISBN 0-89029-320-1.\nBachelder, John B. Gettysburg: What to See, and How to See It: Embodying Full Information for Visiting the Field. Boston: Bachelder, 1873. OCLC 4637523.\nBallard, Ted, and Billy Arthur. Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book Archived April 30, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999. OCLC 42908450.\nBoritt, Gabor S., ed. The Gettysburg Nobody Knows. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-510223-1.\nDesjardin, Thomas A. These Honored Dead: How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81267-3.\nFrassanito, William A. Early Photography at Gettysburg. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995. ISBN 1-57747-032-X.\nLyon Fremantle, Arthur J. The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy. Edited by Walter Lord. Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books, 2002. ISBN 1-58080-085-8. First published 1954 by Capricorn Books.\nGottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3–13, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. ISBN 978-1-932714-30-2.\nGrimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson. Gettysburg: A Battlefield Guide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8032-7077-1.\nHall, Jeffrey C. The Stand of the U.S. Army at Gettysburg. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-253-34258-9.\nHaskell, Frank Aretas. The Battle of Gettysburg. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1-4286-6012-0.\nHawthorne, Frederick W. Gettysburg: Stories of Men and Monuments. Gettysburg, PA: Association of Licensed Battlefield Guides, 1988. ISBN 0-9657444-0-X.\nHuntington, Tom. Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8117-3379-3.\nLaino, Philip, Gettysburg Campaign Atlas, 2nd ed. Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009. ISBN 978-1-934900-45-1.\nMcMurry, Richard M. \"The Pennsylvania Gambit and the Gettysburg Splash\". In The Gettysburg Nobody Knows, edited by Gabor Boritt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-510223-1.\nMcPherson, James M. Hallowed Ground: A Walk at Gettysburg. New York: Crown Publishers, 2003. ISBN 0-609-61023-6.\nPetruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley. The Complete Gettysburg Guide. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. ISBN 978-1-932714-63-0.\nRhodes, James Ford. \"The Battle of Gettysburg.\" American Historical Review 4#4 1899, pp. 665–677. online\nStackpole, General Edward J. They Met at Gettysburg. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1956, OCLC 22643644.\n\nExternal links\n\nBattle of Gettysburg: Battle Maps, histories, photos, and preservation news (American Battlefield Trust)\nAnimated map of the Battle of Gettysburg (American Battlefield Trust)\nGettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)\nPapers of the Gettysburg National Military Park seminars\nU.S. Army's Interactive Battle of Gettysburg with Narratives\nMilitary History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg\nOfficial Records: The Battle of Gettysburg\nThe Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg\nGettysburg Discussion Group archives Archived February 1, 2009, at the Wayback Machine\nList of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg Archived December 26, 2008, at the Wayback Machine\nEncyclopædia Britannica: Battle of Gettysburg\nNational Park Service battle description\nA film clip \"Blue and Gray At 75th Anniversary of Great Battle, 1938/07/04 (1938)\" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive",
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"paragraph_text": "The governor of Pennsylvania is the head of government of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, as well as commander-in-chief of the state's national guard.\nThe governor has a duty to enforce state laws and the power to approve or veto bills passed by the Pennsylvania General Assembly, as well as to convene the legislature. The governor may grant pardons except in cases of impeachment, but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons.\nThere have been seven presidents and 48 governors of Pennsylvania, with two governors (Robert E. Pattison and Gifford Pinchot) serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 55 terms in both offices. The longest term was that of the first governor, Thomas Mifflin, who served three full terms as governor in addition to two years as President of the Continental Congress. The shortest term belonged to John C. Bell Jr., who served only 19 days as acting governor after his predecessor, Edward Martin, resigned. \nThe current governor is Josh Shapiro, who took office on January 17, 2023.\n\nGovernors\nPennsylvania was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and was admitted as a state on December 12, 1787. Before it declared its independence, Pennsylvania was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain.\n\nPresidents of the Supreme Executive Council\nThe Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 created the Supreme Executive Council as the state's executive branch, with a president as its head. The president was chosen annually by the council, though with no specific term dates.\nThe constitution created the position of \"vice-president\", though no provision was made if the office of the president became vacant, which occurred four times later. Contemporary sources continue to label the chief executive in such times as the vice-president, without any notion of succeeding in the presidency. One acting president, George Bryan, was subsequently recognized later as a full-fledged governor, due to his acting as president for over six months.\n\nGovernors of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania\nThe 1790 constitution abolished the council and replaced the president with a governor, and established a three-year term for governor commencing on the third Tuesday of the December following the election, with governors not allowed to serve more than nine out of any twelve years. The 1838 constitution moved the start of the term to the third Tuesday of the January following the election, and allowed governors to only serve six out of any nine years. The 1874 constitution lengthened the term to four years, and prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. The current constitution of 1968 changed this to allow governors to serve two consecutive terms, with no lifetime limit.\nUnder the 1968 constitution, Milton Shapp was the first governor to serve two terms, and Tom Corbett was the first incumbent governor to lose a re-election bid.\nIf the office of governor becomes vacant through death, resignation, or conviction on impeachment, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term; if the office is only temporarily vacant due to disability of the governor, the lieutenant governor only acts out the duties of governor. Should both offices be vacant, the president pro tempore of the state senate becomes governor. The position of a lieutenant governor was created in the 1874 constitution; prior to then, the speaker of the senate would act as governor in cases of vacancy. Originally, the lieutenant governor could only act as governor; it was not until the 1968 constitution that the lieutenant governor could actually become the sitting governor in that fashion. The office of governor has been vacant for an extended period once before, a 17-day gap in 1848 between the resignation of the previous governor and the swearing in of his acting successor. Governors and lieutenant governors are elected on the same political party ticket.\n\nSee also\nGubernatorial lines of succession in the United States#Pennsylvania\nList of Pennsylvania gubernatorial elections\nList of Pennsylvania state legislatures\nList of colonial governors of Pennsylvania\n\nNotes\nReferences\nGeneral\n\nSpecific\n\nExternal links\n\nOffice of the Governor of Pennsylvania\nPennsylvania Politicals",
"title": "List_of_governors_of_Pennsylvania"
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] | Twenty-three years after the deadliest battle in the US Civil War, who served as governor in the state in which this battle was fought? | [] | Robert E Pattison | [] | true |
632 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Damon Kyle Wayans Sr. (; born September 4, 1960) is an American stand-up comedian, actor, producer, and writer. He performed as a comedian and actor throughout the 1980s, including a year-long stint on the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live. He later became a writer and performer on Fox's sketch comedy show In Living Color (1990–1992), on his animated series Waynehead (1996–1997) and on his TV series Damon (1998). Since then, he has starred in a number of films and television shows, some of which he has co-produced or co-written, including Mo Money, The Last Boy Scout, Major Payne, Bulletproof, and the sitcom My Wife and Kids. From 2016 to 2019, he starred as Roger Murtaugh in the Fox television series Lethal Weapon. He is a member of the Wayans family of entertainers.\n\nEarly life\nWayans was born in Harlem in New York City, the son of Elvira Alethia (Green), a homemaker, singer and social worker, and Howell Stouten Wayans, a supermarket manager. He has five sisters—Elvira, Vonnie, Nadia, Kim and Diedra—and four brothers—Keenen, Marlon, Shawn and Dwayne. He was club footed as a child.\nThis attribute would also be given to his character in My Wife and Kids, and his character on the short lived cartoon series Waynehead. Wayans attended Murry Bergtraum High School.\n\nCareer\nDamon started doing stand-up comedy in 1982. His earliest film appearance was a brief cameo as an effeminate hotel employee in the Eddie Murphy film of 1984, Beverly Hills Cop. From 1985 to 1986, he appeared on Saturday Night Live as a featured player, before getting fired after just eleven episodes for improvising during a live sketch, playing his character as a flamboyant gay cop instead of a straight cop. Wayans later claimed that he wanted to be fired due to lack of creative freedom and screen time. Wayans further explained that Lorne Michaels did not want Wayans to do too much too soon and began drawing comparisons to Eddie Murphy who had just left the show. He also appeared in the syndicated television series Solid Gold during the 1980s as a comedian.\nWith his brother Keenen, Wayans created the Fox sketch comedy series In Living Color, which had a mostly African-American cast. The show went on the air in April 1990. It continued running until May 1994, although Wayans left the show in 1992 to pursue a film career.\nAfter In Living Color, he starred in films such as Mo' Money, The Last Boy Scout, Major Payne, Celtic Pride, Bulletproof, and The Great White Hype, and wrote and starred in the film Blankman. He also appeared in Janet Jackson's video \"The Best Things in Life Are Free\" and was considered for the role of The Riddler in Batman Forever (the role went to Jim Carrey, his co star from In Living Color and Earth Girls Are Easy).\nIn October 1996, he produced Waynehead, a short lived cartoon for The WB, loosely based on his own childhood growing up in a large family, starring a poor boy with a club foot. The show only lasted a season due to poor ratings. From 1997 to 1998, he was the executive producer of 413 Hope St., a short lived drama on the FOX network starring Richard Roundtree and Jesse L. Martin.\nIn March 1998, he starred in the short lived comedy television series Damon, in which he played a detective from Chicago. It aired on Fox. In 1999, his The New York Times bestselling book Bootleg, with co author David Asbery was published; it is a humorous compilation of his observations about family.\nIn October 2000, he was the lead in Spike Lee's Bamboozled. Wayans starred in the ABC comedy series My Wife and Kids from March 2001 to May 2005. He also was a co-creator of the short lived ABC sitcom Rodney starring Rodney Carrington and Jennifer Aspen that ran from 2004–2006. In the end of 2006, he produced and starred in the Showtime sketch comedy series The Underground, which also featured his son, Damon Jr. He also hosted the June 2006 BET Awards.\n\nIn 2011, he also added author of a serious fictional novel to his credits with \"Red Hats\" which is the story of a suicidal sixty five-year-old woman who finds friendship and happiness, when she joins the Red Hat Society. As of 2014, Wayans continues to perform stand-up comedy and has developed apps with his company of freelancers \"MIMS\" (Money in My Sleep). The company created applications such as Flick Dat, Diddeo and VHedz.\nOn November 12, 2015, at the Irvine Improv, Damon Wayans announced his retirement from stand up commencing December 2015. In September 2016, he was cast as Roger Murtaugh in the television version of Lethal Weapon, a role originated by Danny Glover in the film series. On October 3, 2018, it was reported that Wayans would leave Lethal Weapon after filming of the first thirteen episodes of Season 3 wrapped. Lethal Weapon officially ended in February 2019, after three seasons.\nDamon Wayans will return to television in the fall of 2024 with his son Damon Jr. on the CBS sitcom Poppa's House.\n\nAwards and honors\nWayans received four Emmy awards nominations for his acting and writing in In Living Color.\nFor his role in My Wife and Kids, he won the 2002 People's Choice Awards for Favorite Male Performer in a New TV Series, and received four International Press Academy \"Golden Satellite Award\" nominations.\n\nPersonal life\nWayans was married to Lisa Thorner; they divorced in 2000. He has four children with Thorner: sons Damon Wayans Jr. and Michael Wayans and daughters Cara Mia Wayans and Kyla Wayans. He is also a grandfather. He is the uncle of Damien Dante Wayans, Chaunté Wayans and Craig Wayans.\nWayans was diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes in January 2013.\nIn September 2015, Wayans defended comedian Bill Cosby following sexual assault accusations against him, saying \"It's a money hustle... Forty years – listen, how big is his penis that it gives you amnesia for 40 years? If you listen to them talk, they go, 'Well, the first time...' The first time? Bitch, how many times did it happen? Just listen to what they're saying and some of them really is unrape-able. I look at them and go, 'You don't want that. Get outta here.'\"\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nTelevision\nDocumentary\nReferences\nExternal links\nDamon Wayans at IMDb\nTwit.tv's Triangulation Episode 175 Damon Wayans",
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"paragraph_text": "The eleventh season of Saturday Night Live, an American sketch comedy series, originally aired in the United States on NBC between November 9, 1985, and May 24, 1986. \nThe season marked Lorne Michaels' return to SNL as showrunner after a five-year hiatus. Michaels hired new cast members, but instead of his usual approach of recruiting from comedy clubs and improv groups, he cast established names such as Randy Quaid, Anthony Michael Hall, Robert Downey Jr., and Joan Cusack. Due to their relative inexperience in comedy, the new cast failed to connect with audiences. \nThe show also featured a frustrated writing crew (including future Simpsons writers Jon Vitti, George Meyer, and John Swartzwelder), who didn't know how to write sketches for such an eclectic cast. The season was plagued by harsh criticism, low ratings, and rumors of a possible cancellation. NBC president Brandon Tartikoff planned to cancel SNL after its season finale in May 1986; Michaels, however, pleaded with Tartikoff to let the show go on. Most of the cast was let go for the following season, with only Dunn, Lovitz and Miller along with featured player Brown returning, making it one of the more notable cast overhauls alongside season 6 and season 20.\n\nCast\nWith Dick Ebersol's cast and writers gone, Michaels hired Academy Award nominee Randy Quaid, best known for his work in The Last Detail and National Lampoon's Vacation; as well as Joan Cusack and Robert Downey Jr. Part of the reasoning that Michaels chose younger performers was due to SNL's original audience, which comprised baby boomers, now nearing middle age, meaning that producers and NBC executives needed to appeal to a younger audience.\nDanitra Vance was added along with stand-up comedians Dennis Miller and Damon Wayans, and improv comedians Nora Dunn and Jon Lovitz. Terry Sweeney, who had been a writer on season 6 of SNL, was added to the cast, making him the first openly gay male cast member. Don Novello returned as his popular Father Guido Sarducci character. Writer A. Whitney Brown was also added to the cast midseason and Al Franken returned in the finale. Miller became the new anchor for Weekend Update. Despite the season's negative reception, Lovitz would gain popularity with characters like the Pathological Liar and Master Thespian.\nAccording to a recent interview with short-term cast member Dan Vitale, actress Anjelica Huston was nearly hired as a cast member this season. Huston, a friend of Lorne's, was begged to join the show as a cast member; instead she co-hosted the season finale with Billy Martin.\n\nIncidents\nNotable moments of the season included when Chevy Chase hosted the show. Chase was not popular with the cast and crew and, according to the book Live From New York: The Uncensored History of Saturday Night Live, Chase pitched an idea for a sketch that featured openly gay cast member Terry Sweeney as a person with AIDS who is weighed by a doctor to see how much weight he lost.\n\nCast roster\nbold denotes Weekend Update anchor\n\nWriters\nThis season's writers were A. Whitney Brown, Tom Davis, Jim Downey, Al Franken, Jack Handey, Lanier Laney, Carol Leifer, George Meyer, Lorne Michaels, Don Novello, Michael O'Donoghue, R. D. Rosen, Herb Sargent, Suzy Schneider, Robert Smigel, John Swartzwelder, Terry Sweeney, Mark McKinney and Bruce McCulloch. The head writer was Jim Downey. Downey and Sargent were the only writers from the previous season to return to the show.\n\nEpisodes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nShales, Tom; Miller, James Andrew (2002). Live From New York: An Uncensored History of Saturday Night Live. Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0316781466.",
"title": "Saturday_Night_Live_season_11"
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"paragraph_text": "In Living Color is an American sketch comedy television series that originally ran on Fox from April 15, 1990, to May 19, 1994. Keenen Ivory Wayans created, wrote and starred in the program. The show was produced by Ivory Way Productions in association with 20th Television and was taped at stage 7 at the Metromedia Square on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California.\nThe title of the series was inspired by the NBC announcement of broadcasts being presented \"in living color\" during the 1960s, prior to mainstream color television. It also refers to the fact that most of the show's cast was African Americans, unlike other popular sketch comedy shows such as Saturday Night Live, whose casts were mostly white at the time. In Living Color portrayed a form of irreverent Black humor in a time when mainstream American tastes regarding Black comedy on television had been set by inoffensive family-friendly shows such as The Cosby Show, causing an eventual feud for control between Fox executives and the Wayans.\nOther members of the Wayans family—Damon, Kim, Shawn, and Marlon—had regular roles, while brother Dwayne frequently appeared as an extra. The show also starred several previously unknown comedians and actors, including Jamie Foxx, Jim Carrey, Tommy Davidson, David Alan Grier, Kelly Coffield Park, and T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh. The show introduced Jennifer Lopez and Carrie Ann Inaba as members of In Living Color's dance troupe The Fly Girls, with actress Rosie Perez serving as choreographer. The show was immensely popular in its first two seasons, capturing more than a 10-point Nielsen rating; in the third and fourth seasons, ratings faltered as the Wayans brothers fell out with the Fox network's leadership over creative control and rights.\nThe series won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series in 1990. The series gained international prominence for its bold move and its all-time high ratings gained by airing a live, special episode as a counterprogram for the halftime show of U.S. leader CBS's live telecast of Super Bowl XXVI, prompting the National Football League to book A-list acts for future game entertainment, starting with Michael Jackson the following year. In 2018, a history of the show, Homey Don't Play That! by David Peisner, was released by 37 INK, an imprint of Simon & Schuster.\n\nEpisodes\nCast\nCast members\nGuest stars\nChris Rock appeared (as a \"special guest star\") in a number of sketches in the fifth season, and reprised his \"Cheap Pete\" character from I'm Gonna Git You Sucka. In the early years of In Living Color, Rock was parodied as being \"the only African American cast member on Saturday Night Live\" (despite Tim Meadows and Ellen Cleghorne appearing on the program at the time). In an SNL episode honoring Mother's Day, Rock's mother states that she is disappointed in him for not trying out for In Living Color, to which Rock states he is happy with his job on SNL.\nOther recurring guest stars in the fifth season include Nick Bakay (for The Dirty Dozens sketches) and Peter Marshall (for several editions of East Hollywood Squares). Rapper Biz Markie also appeared in various roles as a guest star in the fifth season, such as being in drag as Wanda the Ugly Woman's sister or as \"Dirty Dozens\" contestant Damian \"Foosball\" Franklin. Ed O'Neill made a cameo appearance as Al Bundy in a \"Dirty Dozens\" segment.\n\nProduction\nEarly history\nFollowing Keenen Ivory Wayans' success with Hollywood Shuffle and I'm Gonna Git You Sucka, Fox approached Wayans to offer him his own show. Wayans wanted to produce a variety show similar to Saturday Night Live, but with a cast of people of color that took chances with its content. Fox gave Wayans a lot of freedom with the show, although Fox executives were a bit concerned about the show's content prior to its television debut.\nIn announcing its debut, Fox described In Living Color as a \"contemporary comedy variety show\". In its preview, the Christian Science Monitor warned that its, \"raw tone may offend some, but it does allow a talented troupe to experiment with black themes in a Saturday Night Live-ish format.\" Keenen Ivory Wayans said, \"I wanted to do a show that reflects different points of view. We've added an Asian and a Hispanic minority to the show. We're trying in some way to represent all the voices. ... Minority talent is not in the system and you have to go outside. We found Crystal doing her act in the lobby of a theater in Chicago. We went beyond the Comedy Stores and Improvs, which are not showcase places for minorities.\"\nThe first episode aired on Sunday, April 15, 1990, following an episode of Married... with Children. The first episode was watched by 22.7 million people, making it the 29th-most-viewed show for the week.\nThe Miami Herald said the show was as \"smart and saucy as it is self-aware\" and \"audacious and frequently tasteless, but terrific fun\". The Philadelphia Inquirer called it \"the fastest, funniest half-hour in a long time\". The Seattle Times said it had \"the free-wheeling, pointed sense of humor that connects with a large slice of today's audience\". The Columbus Dispatch described it as a \"marvelously inventive\" show that has \"catapulted television back to the cutting edge\".\n\nDescription\nThe sketch comedy show helped launch the careers of comedians/actors Jim Carrey (then credited as \"James Carrey\"), one of only two white members of the original cast; Jamie Foxx, who joined the cast in the third season; and David Alan Grier (an established theater actor who had worked in Keenen Ivory Wayans' 1988 motion picture I'm Gonna Git You Sucka).\nThe series strove to produce comedy with a strong emphasis on modern African American subject matter. It became renowned for parody, especially of race relations in the United States. For instance, Carrey was frequently used to ridicule white musicians such as Snow and Vanilla Ice, who performed in genres more commonly associated with Black people. The Wayans themselves often played exaggerated Black ghetto stereotypes for humor and effect. A sketch parodying Soul Train mocked the show as Old Train, suggesting the show (along with its host, Don Cornelius) was out of touch and only appealed to the elderly and the dead. When asked about the show's use of stereotypes of Black culture for comedy, Wayans said, \"Half of comedy is making fun of stereotypes. They only get critical when I do it. Woody Allen has been having fun with his culture for years, and no one says anything about it. Martin Scorsese, his films basically deal with the Italian community, and no one ever says anything to him. John Hughes, all of his films parody upscale white suburban life. Nobody says anything to him. When I do it, then all of a sudden it becomes a racial issue. You know what I mean? It's my culture, and I'm entitled to poke fun at the stereotypes that I didn't create in the first place. I don't even concern myself with that type of criticism, because it's racist in itself.\"\nProminent skits:\n\n\"The Homeboy Shopping Network\", featuring Damon and Keenan as streetwise criminals operating an unlicensed, Home Shopping Network-style shopping network out of the back of their van to sell stolen goods.\n\"Fire Marshal Bill\", featuring Carrey as an unhinged, dangerously incompetent fire marshal.\n\"Men on Film\", featuring Damon and Grier as effeminate Black film critics with exaggerated physical motions, such as \"two snaps up\".\n\"Homey D. Clown\", featuring Damon as a misanthropic, verbally abusive clown doing demeaning entertainment gigs for low pay as part of his prison release program.\n\"East Hollywood Squares\", featuring many of the cast in a ghetto parody of the game show Hollywood Squares.\n\"Benita Buttrell\", featuring Kim Wayans as an untrustworthy neighborhood gossip.\nParodies of Arsenio Hall (who was popular on his own show at the time) by Keenan Wayans.\n\"Calhoun Tubbs\", a blues singer (played by Grier) who sang extremely short songs (about 10 seconds each) at the slightest provocation.\n\nOpening credits\nFor the first episode, an exotic-looking logo was used for the opening credits. However, after the band Living Colour claimed in a lawsuit that the show stole the band's logo and name, the logo was changed to one with rather plain-type letters of three colors. The show title itself is a homage to the NBC Peacock tag line, \"The following program is brought to you in living color\" from the 1960s when television was transitioning from black & white to color TV.\nIn the first two seasons, the opening sequence was set in a room covered with painters' tarps. Each cast member, wearing black-and-white, played with brightly colored paint in a different way (throwing paintballs at the camera by hand, spray painting the lens, using a roller to cover the camera lens, etc.). The sequence ended with a segue to a set built to resemble the rooftop of an apartment building, where the show's dancers performed a routine and opened a door to let Keenen Ivory Wayans greet a live audience.\nFor the third and fourth seasons, an animated sequence and different logo were used. Cast members were superimposed over pictures hanging in an art gallery and interacted with them in different ways (spinning the canvas to put it right-side up, swinging the frame out as if it were a door, etc.). The final image was of the logo on a black canvas, which shattered to begin the show. The fifth season retained the logo, but depicted the cast members on various signs and billboards around a city (either New York or Chicago), ending with the logo displayed on a theater marquee. The main title sequences were created by Klasky-Csupo, best known for Rugrats and produced by Robert Jason with some graphics by Beau Tardy.\nThe hip-hop group Heavy D & the Boyz performed two different versions of the opening theme. One version was used for the first two seasons and remixed for the fifth, while the other was featured in the third and fourth seasons.\n\nLive musical performances\nIn Living Color was known for its live music performances, which started in Season 2 with Queen Latifah as their first performer (appearing again in the third season). Additional musical acts who appeared were Heavy D, Public Enemy, Kris Kross, En Vogue, Eazy-E, Da Youngsta's, Monie Love, Onyx, 3rd Bass, MC Lyte, Arrested Development, Jodeci, Mary J. Blige, Tupac Shakur, Father MC, Gang Starr, The Pharcyde, Simple E, Us3, Digable Planets, Pete Rock & CL Smooth, Nice & Smooth, Wreckx-n-Effect, A.D.O.R., Redman, Showbiz and A.G., Patra, Naughty by Nature, Lords of the Underground, Prince Markie Dee, A Tribe Called Quest, Color Me Badd and Leaders of the New School.\n\nThe Fly Girls\nThe show employed an in-house dance troupe known as the \"Fly Girls\". The original lineup consisted of Carrie Ann Inaba (who became a choreographer and judge on Dancing with the Stars), Cari French, Deidre Lang, Lisa Marie Todd, Barbara Lumpkin and Michelle Whitney-Morrison. Rosie Perez was the choreographer for the first four seasons. The most notable former Fly Girl was future actress/singer Jennifer Lopez, who joined the show in its third season.\nThroughout the show's run, the Fly Girls frequently performed a dance routine to lead into commercial breaks and/or during the closing credits. In the first two seasons, they also performed a routine that immediately followed the opening sequence. Music was provided by an in-house DJ – Shawn Wayans (credited as SW-1) in the first two seasons, then DJ Twist from season 3 onward.\nThe Fly Girls would sometimes be used as extras in sketches, or as part of an opening gag. In one sketch, they were shown performing open-heart surgery (in the sketch, the girls are dancing in order to pay their way through medical school). Another routine featured the three original female cast members dancing off-beat during the introduction of the show, when it was revealed that the regular Fly Girls were all bound and gagged and breaking through the door where Keenan Ivory Wayans enters.\nThree of the Fly Girls also appeared in the eleventh episode of Muppets Tonight's second season in 1997.\n\nWayans family departures\nKeenen Ivory Wayans stopped appearing in sketches in 1992 after the end of the third season, over disputes with Fox about the network censoring the show's content and rerunning early episodes without his consultation. Wayans feared that Fox would ultimately decrease the syndication value of In Living Color.\nThe Wayans protested on the Christmas live special by wearing shades, caps and not participating at the end of the closing credits as Jamie Foxx sang This Christmas. \nDamon went on to pursue a movie career around the same time, though he made occasional return appearances during the fourth season. In season four (1992–1993), Keenen appeared only in the season opener, though he remained the executive producer and thus stayed in the opening credits until the thirteenth episode. Marlon, who joined the show that same year, left shortly after Keenen resigned as producer. Shawn and Kim tried to leave as well, but they were contractually obligated to stay. Both left at the end of the fourth season.\n\nBroadcast and syndication\nOriginally produced by 20th Television on Fox, the series was in reruns on local affiliates for a few years, but has since become a longstanding mainstay on FX and FXX, which had been sister channels to Fox prior to being acquired by The Walt Disney Company. In syndication, the series is distributed by Disney-ABC Domestic Television.\nReruns have also aired on MTV2, VH1, NuvoTV, Fusion TV, BET, and Centric, while the series previously aired on Aspire and TV One as of September 2020.\nUnlike past runs on FX and the Viacom Media Networks, the FXX cut of episodes are mostly uncut and censored. The music video parodies and spoken references to licensed songs have been reinstated, but the \"Bolt 45\" sketch, the \"drop the soap\" line, and the \"Men on Football\" sketch with the adlibbed lines about Richard Gere's and Carl Lewis's alleged homosexuality are still edited (though the facial ejaculation shot on \"Men on Fitness\" was reinstated), along with a line from the season five sketch \"Fire Marshall Bill at the Magic Show\" that makes reference to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing (the missing line is, \"That's what they said about the World Trade Center, son. But me and my friend Abdul and a couple of pounds of plastique explosives showed them different.\" Bill's laugh and his catchphrase \"Lemme show ya somethin'\" was also cut abruptly), due to the September 11, 2001 attacks.\nThe Best of In Living Color aired on MyNetworkTV from April 16 to June 18, 2008. Hosted by David Alan Grier, it was a retrospective featuring classic sketches, along with cast interviews and behind-the-scenes footage. The show aired on Wednesdays at 8:30 pm Eastern/7:30 pm Central, after MyNetworkTV's sitcom Under One Roof.\n\nHome media\n20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all five seasons of In Living Color on DVD in Region 1. Due to music licensing issues, some sketches have been edited to remove any and all mention of licensed songs, from characters waxing lyrical to entire performances (including the music video parodies and some of the Fly Girl dancing interstitials). Additionally, the \"Bolt 45\" sketch (which aired once on May 5, 1990) was omitted, and the \"soap\" portion of the \"drop the soap\" line in the second \"Men on Film\" sketch has been muted.\n\nReception\nRatings\n1990–91: #62 (10.5 rating)\n1991–92: #42 (12.2 rating)\n1992–93: #53 (10.4 rating)\n1993–94: #90 (7.6 rating)\n\nAwards\nImage Awards 1994 for Outstanding Variety Series\nImage Awards 1992 for Outstanding Comedy Series\nPGA Awards 1992 for Most Promising Producer in Television: Keenen Ivory Wayans\nPeople's Choice Award 1991 for Favorite New TV Comedy Series Tied with The Simpsons (1989)\nTV Land Awards 2012 for Groundbreaking Show: Shared with whole cast\nPrimetime Emmy Award 1990 for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Series\n\nCrossovers\nAt the 2006 BET Awards when the show returned from one of its commercial breaks, the show's host Damon Wayans played a character very reminiscent to \"Men on ...\" critic Blaine Edwards\nIn Living Color alums Damon Wayans, Jim Carrey, and David Alan Grier reprised some of their In Living Color characters on Saturday Night Live:\nDamon Wayans, a featured player during that show's eleventh season, hosted an episode from SNL's 20th season in 1995, where he brought on two of his famous In Living Color characters: homeless wino Anton Jackson and gay film critic Blaine Edwards. In the latter sketch, David Alan Grier made a surprise on-set appearance as Antoine Merriweather; Grier himself would also host SNL on December 9, 1995 (season 21) and January 18, 1997 (season 22), but did not reprise any of his In Living Color characters during those respective episodes.\nJim Carrey auditioned to be one of the repertory members on SNL's ill-fated 1980–1981 season, but was dropped in favor of Charles Rocket (who later appeared in the 1988 film Earth Girls Are Easy and the 1994 film Dumb and Dumber with Carrey). Carrey also auditioned for the 1985–1986 season (season 11), but backed out after seeing a man threatening to jump from 30 Rockefeller Center, believing that the stress of working on Saturday Night Live would drive Carrey to suicide. Carrey hosted the season finale of SNL's 21st season in 1996, where he impersonated Fire Marshal Bill during the monologue. Carrey's most recent hosting stint, in October 2014, involved a Carrey family reunion sketch in which Cecily Strong plays Carrey's aunt, who is modeled after Fire Marshal Bill.\nJamie Foxx reprised his role as Wanda in a short segment at the 2009 BET Awards.\nIn 1997, three of the Fly Girls also appeared in the eleventh episode of Muppets Tonight's second season.\nIn the 1997 film Liar Liar, Jim Carrey reprised his \"Fire Marshal Bill\" character (albeit with no lines) in the background of one of the closing scenes.\nThe February 10, 2001 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Jennifer Lopez included a sketch where Lopez \"reunited\" with the Fly Girls (played by Rachel Dratch, Jerry Minor and Tracy Morgan).\n\nAttempted revival\nIn 2011, there were plans to make a revival of the original series that featured a new cast, characters, and sketches. The pilot episodes were hosted and executive produced by original series creator and cast member Keenen Ivory Wayans. In early 2012, Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo were hired as the choreographers. They cast the new line-up of The Fly Girls and shot pilot episodes for the show which were set to air on Fox, like the original. However, on January 8, 2013, Keenen Ivory Wayans confirmed the reboot had been canceled because he and Fox did not feel that the show was sustainable after one season.\nReported cast members included Cooper Barnes, Jennifer Bartels, Sydney Castillo, Josh Duvendeck, Jermaine Fowler, Ayana Hampton, Kali Hawk, and Lil Rel Howery. In addition, featured cast members were Henry Cho, Melanie Minichino, and Chris Leidecker. Members of the new Fly Girls included Christina Chandler, Tera Perez, Lisa Rosenthal, Katee Shean, and Whitney Wiley.\nMany of the cast members of the revival (Bartels, Fowler, and Howery) went on to create the TruTV sketch show Friends of the People.\n\nLegacy\nSinger Bruno Mars paid tribute to the television program in the music video for his single \"Finesse\".\n\nSee also\nReferences\nExternal links\nIn Living Color at IMDb\nClips and Skits from the Show\nIn Living Color streaming episodes on TheWB",
"title": "In_Living_Color"
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"paragraph_text": "This article lists the episodes of the television show In Living Color during its five-season run.\n\nSeries overview\nEpisodes\nThis list is considered far from complete. Some sketches may have been omitted due to lack of evidence. Sources of the sketch titles shown below come from the DVD collection and the televised version shown on Fox, FX, FXX, BET, Centric, Aspire, and Fusion TV.\n\nSeason 1 (1990)\nSeason 2 (1990–91)\nSeason 3 (1991–92)\nSeason 4 (1992–93)\nSeason 5 (1993–94)\nLive performances\nSeason 2\nQueen Latifah\nMonie Love\nHeavy D & the Boyz\n3rd Bass\nD-Nice\nNikki D\nRich Nice\nLeaders of the New School\nAnother Bad Creation\nKRS-One\nPublic Enemy with Ice Cube\nThe Afros\n\nSeason 3\nLeaders of the New School\nNice & Smooth\nBig Daddy Kane\nQueen Latifah\nA Tribe Called Quest\nColor Me Badd\nEric B. & Rakim\nShabba Ranks with Maxi Priest\nBlack Sheep\nKris Kross\nJodeci\nHeavy D & the Boyz with 2Pac and Flavor Flav\nMC Lyte\n\nSeason 4\nRedman\nGang Starr with Nice & Smooth\nA.D.O.R.\nGrand Puba\nWreckx-n-Effect with Teddy Riley\nPete Rock & CL Smooth\nMary J. Blige\nJamie Foxx\nDigable Planets\nFather MC\nAnother Bad Creation\nArrested Development\nNaughty by Nature\nHeavy D & the Boyz\nPrince Markie Dee & The Soul Convention\nDa Youngsta's\nShowbiz and A.G. with Dres\nOnyx\nThe Pharcyde\n\nSeason 5\nGuru with N'Dea Davenport\nLeaders of the New School\nLords of the Underground\nUs3\nPatra with Lyn Collins\nSimple E\nEazy-E with Dresta and B.G. Knocc Out\nSouls of Mischief\nBoss\nMeshell Ndegeocello\nTo Be Continued\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "List_of_In_Living_Color_episodes"
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] | How many days is it from Damon Wayans's first episode as a cast member of Saturday Night Live to Damon Wayans's first episode as a cast member of In Living Color, including the days the first episodes premiered? | [] | 1619 days. | [] | true |
181 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Clash were an English rock band that formed in London in 1976 and were key players in the original wave of British punk rock. Billed as \"The Only Band That Matters\", they used elements of reggae, dub, funk, ska, and rockabilly, and they contributed to the post-punk and new wave movements that followed punk. For most of their recording career, the Clash consisted of lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist Joe Strummer, lead guitarist and vocalist Mick Jones, bassist Paul Simonon, and drummer Nicky \"Topper\" Headon.\nThe Clash achieved critical and commercial success in the United Kingdom with the release of their debut album The Clash (1977) and their second album Give 'Em Enough Rope (1978). Their experimental third album London Calling, which was released in the UK in December 1979, earned them popularity in the United States, where it was released the following month. A decade later, Rolling Stone named London Calling the best album of the 1980s. Following continued musical experimentation on their fourth album Sandinista! (1980), the band achieved further commercial success with the release of Combat Rock (1982), which includes the US top-10 hit \"Rock the Casbah\", helping the album to achieve a 2× platinum certification there.\nIn 1982, Headon left the band due to internal friction surrounding his increasing heroin addiction, and Jones departed the following year. With a new lineup, the band released their final album Cut the Crap in 1985 before disbanding a few weeks later.\nIn January 2003, shortly after the death of Joe Strummer, the band, including original drummer Terry Chimes, were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Clash number 28 on its list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of All Time\".\n\nHistory\nOrigins: 1974–1976\nBefore the Clash's founding, the band's future members were active in different parts of the London music scene. Joe Strummer, whose real name was John Graham Mellor, sang and played rhythm guitar in the pub rock band The 101ers, which he had formed in 1974 with Alvaro Pena-Rojas. Mellor later abandoned his original stage name \"Woody\" Mellor in favour of \"Joe Strummer\", a reference to his rudimentary strumming skills on the ukulele while he was a busker in the London Underground.\nMick Jones played guitar in protopunk band London SS, who rehearsed for much of 1975 but never played a live show and recorded only one demo. London SS were managed by Bernard Rhodes, an associate of impresario Malcolm McLaren and a friend of the members of the Sex Pistols, whom Mclaren managed. Jones and his bandmates became friendly with Sex Pistols members Glen Matlock and Steve Jones, who helped them as they auditioned potential new members. Vocalist Paul Simonon and drummer Terry Chimes auditioned for London SS but were rejected, and Nicky Headon drummed with the band for a week then quit.\nAfter London SS broke up in early 1976, Rhodes continued as Jones' manager. In February, Jones saw the Sex Pistols perform for the first time and commented: \"You knew straight away that was it, and this was what it was going to be like from now on. It was a new scene, new values—so different from what had happened before. A bit dangerous.\" In March of that year, at the instigation of Rhodes, Jones contacted Simonon and suggested he learn an instrument so he could join the new band Jones was organising. Soon Jones, Simonon on bass, Keith Levene on guitar and \"whoever we could find really to play the drums\" were rehearsing. Chimes was asked to audition for the new band and was accepted but quit soon after.\nThe band were still searching for a lead singer. According to Chimes, Billy Watts, who \"seemed to be, like, nineteen or eighteen then, as we all were\", handled the duties for a time. Rhodes was watching Strummer, with whom he made exploratory contact; both Jones and Levene had seen Strummer perform and were impressed. In April, Strummer saw the Sex Pistols open for one of his band's gigs. Strummer later said:\n\nI knew something was up, so I went out in the crowd which was fairly sparse. And I saw the future—with a snotty handkerchief—right in front of me. It was immediately clear. Pub rock was, \"Hello, you bunch of drunks, I'm gonna play these boogies and I hope you like them.\" The Pistols came out that Tuesday evening and their attitude was, \"Here's our tunes, and we couldn't give a flying fuck whether you like them or not. In fact, we're gonna play them even if you fucking hate them.\"\nOn 30 May, Rhodes and Levene approached Strummer after a 101ers gig and invited him to meet up at the band's rehearsal location on Davis Road. After Strummer turned up, Levene played \"Keys to Your Heart\", one of Strummer's own tunes. Rhodes gave Strummer 48 hours to decide whether to join the new band that would \"rival the Pistols\". Within 24 hours, he agreed. Simonon later said: \"Once we had Joe on board it all started to come together\". Strummer introduced the band to his school friend Pablo LaBritain, who sat in on drums during Strummer's first few rehearsals with the band. LaBritain left the band shortly after and joined 999. Terry Chimes, whom Jones later referred to as \"one of the best drummers\" in their circle, became the band's regular drummer.\nIn Westway to the World, Jones said: \"I don't think Terry was officially hired or anything. He had just been playing with us.\" Chimes did not like Strummer at first, saying: \"He was like twenty-two or twenty-three or something that seemed 'old' to me then. And he had these retro clothes and this croaky voice.\" Simonon thought of the band's name; they had briefly named themselves the Weak Heartdrops and the Psychotic Negatives. According to Simonon: \"It really came to my head when I started reading the newspapers and a word that kept recurring was the word 'clash', so I thought 'the Clash, what about that' to the others. And they and Bernard, they went for it.\"\n\nEarly gigs and the growing scene: 1976\nAfter rehearsing with Strummer for less than a month, the Clash made their debut performance on 4 July 1976, supporting the Sex Pistols at the Black Swan nightclub in Sheffield. The Clash wanted to appear on stage before their rivals The Damned, another London SS spinoff, made their own scheduled debut two days later. The Clash did not play in front of another audience for five weeks. Levene was becoming disaffected with his position in the group. At the Black Swan, he approached the Sex Pistols' lead singer John Lydon, whose stage name was Johnny Rotten, and suggested they form a band together if the Pistols broke up.\nHours after their debut, the Clash, most of the Sex Pistols and much of London's \"inner circle\" of punks attended a performance by New York City's leading punk rock band the Ramones at Dingwalls; according to Strummer: \"It can't be stressed how great the first Ramones album was to the scene ... It was the first word of Punk, a fantastic record\". Afterwards \"came the first example of the rivalry-induced squabbling that was to dog the punk scene and undermine any attempts to promote a spirit of unity among the bands involved\". Simonon fought with J.J. Burnel, the bass player of The Stranglers, a slightly older band who were publicly identified with the punk scene but were not part of the \"inner circle\", which centered on the Sex Pistols.\n\nRhodes insisted the Clash should not perform live again until they were much tighter so they intensely rehearsed the following month. According to Strummer, the band devoted themselves to creating a distinct identity, saying:The day I joined The Clash was very much back to square one, year zero. Part of Punk was that you had to shed all of what you knew before. We were almost Stalinist in the way that you had to shed all your friends, or everything that you'd known, or every way that you'd played before.\nStrummer and Jones shared most of the writing duties; according to Jones: \"Joe would give me the words and I would make a song out of them\". The band sometimes met in the office over their Camden Town rehearsal studio. According to Strummer: \"Bernie [Rhodes] would say, 'An issue, an issue. Don't write about love, write about what's affecting you, what's important.\" Jones's later said: \"Bernie had a hand in everything. Not the lyrics—he didn't help with the lyrics. He didn't tell us not to write love songs, as the myth goes—that's kind of simplified version of it. He told us to write what we knew about\" \nStrummer performed lead vocals on the majority of songs but he and Jones sometimes shared the lead. Once the band began recording, Jones rarely had a solo lead on more than one song per album, though he was responsible for two of the group's biggest hits. On 13 August 1976, the Clash, wearing paint-spattered \"Jackson Pollock\" outfits, played in their Camden studio before a small, invitation-only audience, which included Sounds magazine critic Giovanni Dadamo, whose review described the band as a \"runaway train ... so powerful, they're the first new group to come along who can really scare the Sex Pistols shitless\".\nOn 29 August, the Clash and Manchester's Buzzcocks opened for the Sex Pistols at The Screen on the Green; it was the Clash's first public performance since 4 July. The triple-bill show is seen as pivotal to the consolidation of the British punk scene into a movement; New Musical Express reviewer Charles Shaar Murray wrote: \"The Clash are the sort of garage band that should be speedily returned to the garage, preferably with the motor still running\". Strummer later credited Murray's comments with inspiring the Clash's song \"Garageland\".\nIn early September, Levene was fired from the Clash. According to Strummer, Levene's dwindling interest in the band was due to his use of speed, a point Levene denied. On 21 September 1976, the Clash performed publicly for the first time without Levene at the 100 Club Punk Special, sharing the bill with the Sex Pistols, Siouxsie and the Banshees and Subway Sect. Chimes left in late November; he was briefly replaced by Rob Harper as the Clash toured in support of the Sex Pistols during December's Anarchy Tour.\nThe Clash promoted a left-wing message in their songs and interviews, and sang about social problems, such as career opportunities, unemployment, and the need for a backlash against racism and oppression. Joe Strummer said in 1976: \"We're anti-fascist, we're anti-violence, we're anti-racist and we're pro-creative\". Strummer also said: \"I don't believe in all that anarchy bollocks!\" According to the Clash guitarist Mick Jones: \"The important thing is to encourage people to do things for themselves, think for themselves and stand up for what their rights are\".\nA confrontation between Black youth and police at the 1976 Notting Hill Carnival was important in the development of the Clash's political stance and inspired Joe Strummer to write \"White Riot\". Images of the riots were used as The Clash's stage backdrop and as the back cover of their first album, and was reprinted on badges and Clash t-shirts.\n\nPunk breakthrough and UK fame: 1977–1979\nBy January 1977, punk had become a major media phenomenon in the UK; according to New Musical Express (NME): \"1977 is the year of The Clash\". On 25 January, the band signed to CBS Records for £100,000, a remarkable amount for a band who had played about thirty gigs and very few headlining shows. Clash historian Marcus Gray said: \"the band members found themselves having to justify [the deal] to both the music press and to fans who picked up on the critics' muttered asides about the Clash having 'sold out' to the establishment\". Mark Perry, founder of the leading London punk periodical Sniffin' Glue wrote: \"Punk died the day the Clash signed to CBS\", but recanted when he first heard the single \"White Riot\", saying: \"They're the most important group in the world at the moment. I believe in them completely. All I said about them is crap.\" According to one of the band's associates the deal \"was later used as a classic example of the kind of contract that no group should ever sign—the group had to pay for their own tours, recordings, remixes, artwork, expenses ...\" According to Strummer in March 1977:\n\nSigning that contract did bother me a lot. I've been turning it over in my mind, but now I've come to terms with it. I've realised that all it boils down to is perhaps two-year's security ... Before, all I could think about was my stomach ... Now I feel free to think—and free to write down what I'm thinking about ... And look—I've been fucked about for so long I'm not going to suddenly turn into Rod Stewart just because I get £25.00 a week. I'm much too far gone for that, I tell you.\nMickey Foote, who worked as a technician at the band's concerts, was hired to produce their debut album, and Terry Chimes was drafted back for the recording. The band's first single \"White Riot\" was released in March and peaked at number 34 in the UK Singles Chart. The album The Clash was released the following month and peaked at number 12 on the UK Albums Chart; with lyrics criticising the ruling establishment, bosses and the police and addressing themes such as alienation and boredom.\nThe Clash presaged the band's future works with their cover of the reggae song \"Police and Thieves\". The band had been influenced by the subject matter, slogans and lyrics of reggae, which they often played in rehearsals but recording \"Police and Thieves\" was an important step that was only taken after a lot of discussion within the group.\nAccording to music journalist and former punk musician John Robb: \"Amidst the Sex Pistols' inertia in the first half of 1977, the Clash found themselves as the flag-wavers of the punk rock consciousness\". Though The Clash quickly rose to number 12 in the UK, CBS refused to give it a US release, believing that its raw, barely produced sound would make it unmarketable there. A North American version of the album with a modified track listing released in the US in 1979, after the UK release, became the US's best-selling import album of the year.\nChimes, whose career aspirations owed little to the punk ethos, left the band again soon after the recording sessions. He later said: \"The point was I wanted one kind of life and they wanted another and, like, why are we working together, if we want completely different things?\" As a result, only Simonon, Jones and Strummer are featured on the album's cover, and Chimes was credited as \"Tory Crimes\". Strummer later said: \"We must have tried every drummer that then had a kit. I mean every drummer in London. I think we counted 205. And that's why we were lost until we found Topper Headon.\" Simonon nicknamed Headon, who had briefly played with Jones's band London SS, \"Topper\" because he felt Headon resembled Mickey the Monkey, a character in the comic Topper. Headon could also play piano, bass and guitar. The day after he signed to the band, Headon said: \"I really wanted to join the Clash. I want to give them even more energy than they've got—if that's possible\"; in an interview over twenty years later, he said his original plan was to stay briefly, gain a name for himself, and then move on to a better gig. Strummer later said: \"Finding someone who not only had the chops, but the strength and the stamina to do it was just the breakthrough for us\".\nIn May, The Clash set out on the White Riot Tour, headlining a punk package that included Buzzcocks, The Jam, Subway Sect, The Slits and The Prefects. The day after a Newcastle gig, Strummer and Headon were arrested for stealing pillowcases from their hotel room. The highlight of the tour was the Rainbow Theatre in London on 9 May; it was the first time The Clash had played a major music venue. The audience began ripping up seats and the gig turned into a riot. The Sun reported the violence with the front-page headline \"Punk Wreck\".New Musical Express, while expressing serious concerns over the violence, said: \"The Clash are probably the best band in the country right now\". Strummer commented: \"That was the night punk broke ... we were in the right place doing the right thing at the right time\".\nThat same month, CBS released \"Remote Control\" as The Clash's second single, defying the wishes of the band, who saw it as one of the album's weakest tracks. Headon's first recording with the band was the single \"Complete Control\", which addresses the band's anger at their record label's behaviour. It was co-produced by reggae artist Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, though Foote was summoned to \"ground things\". The single was released in September 1977 and NME commented that CBS had allowed the group to \"bait their masters\". The single peaked at number 28 on the UK chart and has been cited as one of punk's greatest singles.\nIn October 1977, the Clash set out on the \"Out of Control\" UK tour. The tour was due to open at the Ulster Hall, Belfast but the insurance was pulled and the gig was cancelled at the last moment. This led to punks blocking the road outside the venue and a confrontation between the punks and the police, which became known as the \"Battle of Bedford Street\".\nIn February 1978, the Clash released the single \"Clash City Rockers\"; and played the song live, along with \"Tommy Gun\", on BBC television's youth show Something Else. On 30 April, the Clash played at Rock Against Racism in Victoria Park, London. Late 1970s England had seen an increase in racist attacks and a growth in support for the far-right political party The National Front. Also on the bill were X-Ray Spex, Steel Pulse, Misty in Roots, and headliners Tom Robinson Band; they played to 100,000 people, who marched through London and attended the RAR Carnival.\nIn June, the band released \"(White Man) In Hammersmith Palais\" as a single, which peaked at number 32 in the UK Singles chart; it quickly became a favourite with Clash fans and was voted single of the year in the 1978 NME Readers' Poll.\nBefore the Clash began recording their second album, CBS requested they adopt a cleaner sound than its predecessor to reach American audiences. Sandy Pearlman, who is known for his work with Blue Öyster Cult, was hired to produce the record. Simonon later said: \"[R]ecording that album was just the most boring situation ever. It was just so nitpicking, such a contrast to the first album ... it ruined any spontaneity.\" Strummer said: \"it wasn't our easiest session\". The band dismissed their manager Bernie Rhodes and hired journalist Caroline Coon to replace him.\nThe album Give 'Em Enough Rope was released in early November 1978, and received mixed reviews in the UK music press, where some reviewers complained about its relatively mainstream production style. The album reached number 2 in the UK album chart. NME readers voted Give 'Em Enough Rope the second-best album of 1978 and the Clash were voted the best group in the same end-of-year poll. In the US, the album peaked at number 128 on the Billboard chart.\n\"Tommy Gun\", the album's first UK single, peaked at number 19, the highest chart position for a Clash single to date. To accompany the single, the band produced their first official music video, in which Joe Strummer wears an H Block T-shirt in support of the campaign for political status for Irish Republican prisoners. The band embarked on a North American tour, culminating in a performance at the Palladium in New York City.\n\"English Civil War\", which warned against the rise of the far-right in the UK, was released as the album's second single in February 1979, reaching number 25 in the UK Singles Chart. The B-side is a cover of the Toots and the Maytals' song \"Pressure Drop\", once again illustrating the group's reggae influences.\nIn support of the album, the Clash toured the UK supported by the Slits and the Innocents. The tour, which consisted of more than thirty shows, was promoted as the Sort It Out Tour. The band later undertook their first, largely successful tour of North America in February 1979.\nIn June 1979, the band released the Extended Play (EP) The Cost of Living, which includes a cover of Bobby Fuller's song \"I Fought the Law\", two original songs and a re-recording of \"Capital Radio\". The EP reached 22 in the UK charts and the band dismissed Coon as their manager. They then embarked on a second tour of the US, adding Mick Gallagher on keyboards.\n\nChanging style and US breakthrough: 1979–1982\nIn August and September 1979, The Clash recorded the double album London Calling, which Guy Stevens, a former A&R executive who had worked with Mott the Hoople and Traffic, produced. The double album was a mix of punk rock, reggae, ska, rockabilly and traditional rock and roll. It is regarded as one of the greatest rock albums ever recorded. In the US, the single \"Train in Vain\" became their first top-40 hit, peaking at number 23 on the Billboard chart. In the UK, the title track was released as a single and peaked at number 11—the highest position any Clash single reached in the UK before the band's break-up.\nLondon Calling was released in December 1979; it peaked at number 9 on the British album chart and at number 27 in the United States, where it was issued in January 1980. The album's cover photograph by Pennie Smith became one of the most-recognisable images and Q magazine later cited it as the \"best rock 'n roll photograph of all time\". During this period, The Clash began to be regularly billed as \"The Only Band That Matters\". Musician Gary Lucas, who was employed by CBS Records' creative services department, has said he coined the tagline. Fans and journalists soon widely adopted the epithet.\n\nAt the end of 1979, the band members attended a private screening of a new film called Rude Boy, which is part fiction and tells the story of a Clash fan who leaves his job in a Soho sex shop to become a roadie for the group. The movie, which was named after the rude boy subculture, includes footage of the band on tour, at a London Rock Against Racism concert, and in the studio recording Give 'Em Enough Rope. The band were disenchanted with the film so they had Better Badges make badges that said: \"I don't want RUDE BOY Clash Film\". On 27 February 1980, the film premiered at the 30th Berlin International Film Festival, where it won an honourable mention.\nThe Clash had planned to record and release a single every month in 1980. CBS dismissed this idea and the band released only one single—an original reggae song called \"Bankrobber\", in August. It featured Mikey Dread and reached number 12 in the UK Singles Chart. In October, the band's US record company released a B-side compilation EP called Black Market Clash, which was later re-released in expanded form as a full-length album.\nIn December 1980, The Clash released the 36-song triple album Sandinista!, which again reflected a broad range of musical styles. It was produced by the band members with further participation of Mikey Dread. Sandinista! proved to be controversial, both politically and musically. Critical opinions were divided; Trouser Press writer Ira Robbins described half of the album as \"great\" and the other half as \"nonsense\" and worse, while New Rolling Stone Record Guide critic Dave Marsh said: \"Sandinista! is nonsensically cluttered. Or rather seems nonsensically cluttered. One of the Clash's principal concerns ... is to avoid being stereotyped.\" The album sold reasonably well in the US, where it charted at number 24. In the UK, the album peaked at number 19 and the single \"The Call Up\" charted at number 40. In January 1980, Rhodes was reinstated as the band's manager and the single \"Hitsville UK\" reached number 54 in the UK Singles Chart while \"The Magnificent Seven\" charted at number 34, and the band spent most of the year touring.\nIn December 1981, the Clash released \"This Is Radio Clash\" as a single; it charted at number 47 in the UK Singles Chart. In September 1981, the band began work on their fifth album Combat Rock, which Glyn Johns produced and was released in May 1982. In the UK, the first single \"Know Your Rights\" reached number 43. The lead single in the US was \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\", which was released in June 1982 and received significant airplay on Album-oriented rock (AOR) stations. The follow-up single \"Rock the Casbah\" was composed by Headon, who performed the percussion, piano and bass on the track. It became the band's biggest US hit, charting at number eight while the album reached number two in the UK and number seven in the US.\n\nDisintegration and break up: 1982–1986\nAfter the release of Combat Rock, the Clash began to disintegrate. In May 1982, Headon was asked to leave the band because his addiction caused reliability problems. Chimes was brought back to drum for the next few months. The band opened for The Who on a leg of their final US tour that included a show at New York's Shea Stadium.\nChimes left the band after the Combat Rock Tour and was replaced with Pete Howard in May 1983. The Clash co-headlined the US Festival in San Bernardino, California, on 28 May in front of a crowd of 140,000. After the show, members of the band brawled with security staff. The festival was Jones' last appearance with the band; Strummer and Simonon dismissed him in September that year. Nick Sheppard, formerly of the Bristol-based band The Cortinas, and Vince White were recruited as the Clash's new guitarists. The band's new lineup played their first shows in January 1984 with a batch of new material and embarked on the self-financed Out of Control Tour, travelling widely over the winter and into early summer. The band also headlined a benefit show for striking miners.\nIn November 1985, they released the album Cut the Crap; it includes the single \"This Is England\", which charted at number 24 in the UK Singles Chart. Strummer later noted: \"CBS had paid an advance for it so they had to put it out\". Dave Marsh later listed \"This Is England\" as one of the top 1001 rock singles of all time. The album peaked at number 16 in the UK Albums Chart and at number 88 in the US. Strummer largely disowned the album but later said: \"I really like 'This Is England' and [album track] 'North and South' is a vibe\".\nIn January 1986, it was announced that the Clash had disbanded. Strummer later said: \"When the Clash collapsed, we were tired. There had been a lot of intense activity in five years. Secondly, I felt we'd run out of idea gasoline. And thirdly, I wanted to shut up and let someone else have a go at it.\"\n\nCollaborations, reunions and Strummer's death: 1986–present\nAfter his dismissal, Jones formed Big Audio Dynamite (B.A.D.), who released their debut album This Is Big Audio Dynamite late in 1985. Jones and Strummer worked together on their respective 1986 projects; Jones helped with the two songs Strummer wrote and performed for the soundtrack to the film Sid and Nancy (1986), and Strummer co-wrote a number of the tracks for the second B.A.D. album No. 10, Upping St., which he also co-produced. With Jones committed to B.A.D., Strummer moved on to solo projects and screen acting. Simonon formed a band called Havana 3am. Headon recorded a solo album Waking Up but was imprisoned in 1987 for drug-related offences.\nIn 1988, the compilation album The Story of the Clash, Volume 1 was released and the single \"I Fought The Law\" was reissued and reached number 29 in the UK Singles Chart. On 2 March 1991, a reissue of \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" gave the Clash their first and only number-one UK single. The same year, \"Rock the Casbah\" featured on a broadcast of Armed Forces Radio during the Gulf War.\nIn 1999, Strummer, Jones and Simonon cooperated in compiling the live album From Here to Eternity and the video documentary Westway to the World. On 7 November 2002, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame announced the Clash would be inducted the following March. On 15 November, Jones and Strummer shared the stage, performing three Clash songs during a London benefit show by Joe Strummer and the Mescaleros. Strummer, Jones and Headon wanted to play a reunion show to coincide with their induction into the Hall of Fame; Simonon did not want to participate because he believed playing at the high-priced event would not have been in the spirit of the Clash. On 22 December 2002, Strummer died from a congenital heart defect, ending any possibility of a full reunion. In March 2003, Strummer, Jones, Simonon, Chimes and Headon were inducted into the Hall of Fame.\nIn early 2008, Carbon/Silicon, a new band founded by Mick Jones and his former London SS bandmate Tony James, entered into a six-week residency at London's Inn on the Green. On opening night, 11 January, Headon joined the band for the Clash's song \"Train in Vain\". An encore followed with Headon playing drums on \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\". This was the first time since 1982 that Headon and Jones had performed together on stage.\n\nIn September 2009, Jones and Headon reunited to re-record the 1970s Clash B-side \"Jail Guitar Doors\" with Billy Bragg, who founded an eponymous charity that gives musical instruments and lessons to prison inmates. Simonon and Jones are featured on the title track of the Gorillaz album Plastic Beach (2010), marking the first time they had worked together in over twenty years. They later joined Gorillaz on their Escape to Plastic Beach Tour for the remainder of 2010.\n\nIn July 2012, Strummer's daughters Jazz and Lola gave a rare interview to discuss the tenth anniversary of Strummer's death, his legacy and the possibility of a Clash reunion had their father lived. Jazz said: There was talk about the Clash reforming before he died. But there had been talk for years and years about them reforming. They had been offered stupid amounts of money to do it, but they were very good at keeping the moral high ground and saying no. But I think if Dad hadn't died, it would have happened. It felt like it was in the air.\nIn the UK on 9 September 2013, and a day later in the US, the Clash released a 12-disc box set called Sound System, which includes their re-mastered studio albums on eight discs and three discs featuring demos, non-album singles, rarities and B-sides; a DVD with previously unseen footage by Don Letts and Julien Temple and other film footage; and merchandising ephemera, including an exclusive the Clash poster. Mick Jones and Paul Simonon oversaw the project, including the re-masters. The box set was accompanied by 5 Album Studio Set, which contains the first five studio albums (excluding Cut the Crap), and The Clash Hits Back, a 33-track, two-CD best-of collection.\n\nIn a 3 September 2013 interview with Rolling Stone, Mick Jones discussed the band reuniting, saying it likely would not have occurred. Jones said: There were a few moments at the time I was up for it (Hall of Fame reunion in 2003), Joe was up for it. Paul wasn't. And neither, probably, was Topper, who didn't wind up even coming in the end. It didn't look like a performance was going to happen anyway. I mean, you usually play at that ceremony when you get in. Joe had passed by that point, so we didn't. We were never in agreement. It was never at a point where all of us wanted to do it at the same time. Most importantly for us, we became friends again after the group broke up, and continued that way for the rest of the time. That was more important to us than the band.\n\nJones also stated the Sound System box set was the last time he would be involved in the band's releases: \"I'm not even thinking about any more Clash releases. This is it for me, and I say that with an exclamation mark\".\nOn 6 September 2013, Mick Jones, Paul Simonon and Topper Headon reunited for an exclusive BBC Radio 6 Music show to promote their legacy and the release of Sound System.\n\nIn an October 2013 interview with BBC 6 Music, Jones said Strummer did have intentions of a Clash reunion and that new music was being written for a possible album. In the months before Strummer's death, Jones and Strummer began working on new music for what he thought would be the next Mescaleros album. Jones said: We wrote a batch – we didn't used to write one, we used to write a batch at a time – like gumbo. The idea was he was going to go into the studio with the Mescaleros during the day and then send them all home. I'd come in all night and we'd all work all night.\nAccording to Jones, months after their work together, he ran into Strummer at an event; Strummer informed him the songs were going to be used for the next Clash album. On 6 April 2022, the Clash announced the re-release of Combat Rock, including demos with Ranking Roger's vocals, titled 'Combat Rock / The People's Hall'. \"Rock the Casbah (Ranking Roger)\" and \"Red Angel Dragnet (Ranking Roger)\" were released as supporting singles. The re-release occurred on 20 May 2022 to mixed reviews.\nOn 11 November 2022, a month before the 20th anniversary of Strummer's death, founding member Keith Levene died in Norfolk, England.\n\nPolitics\nThe Clash's music often expresses left-wing ideological sentiments. Strummer was a committed socialist. The Clash are credited with pioneering the advocacy of radical politics in punk rock; NME dubbed them \"Thinking Man's Yobs\". Like many early punk bands, the Clash protested against monarchy and aristocracy but unlike many of their peers, they rejected nihilism. Instead, they found solidarity with a number of liberation movements and were involved with groups such as the Anti-Nazi League. At their performance on 30 April 1978 at the Rock Against Racism concert in London's Victoria Park for a crowd of between 50,000 and 100,000 people, Strummer wore a T-shirt identifying two far-left armed militant groups: Italy's Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse, misspelt as Brigade Rosse on the T-shirt) and West Germany's Red Army Faction.\nAccording to rock historian Mikal Gilmore:\n\nThe moment that best exemplifies the Clash ... took place in August 1977, at a music festival in Liege, Belgium. The band was playing before 20,000 people and had been under fire from a crowd that was throwing bottles at the stage. But that wasn't what bothered lead singer Joe Strummer. What enraged him was a 10-foot-high barbed-wire fence strung between concrete posts and forming a barrier between the group and the audience ... [He] jumped from the stage and attacked the fence, trying to pull it down ... The Clash were the only performers at the show who tried to do anything about the obstacle. They were more willing to run the risk of the crowd than to tolerate barbed wire that was meant to fend off that crowd. This is more or less what the Clash were about: fighting the good fight that few others would fight.\nThe band made their politics explicit in the lyrics of early recordings including \"White Riot\", which encourages disaffected white youths to riot like their black counterparts; \"Career Opportunities\", which addressed the alienation of low-paid, routine jobs and discontent over the lack of alternatives; and \"London's Burning\" is about the bleakness and boredom of life in the inner city. Artist Caroline Coon, who was associated with the punk scene, said: \"[t]hose tough, militaristic songs were what we needed as we went into Thatcherism\".\nThe title of Sandinista! refers to the Sandinista National Liberation Front, a group of left-wing rebels who had recently overthrown Nicaraguan President Anastasio Somoza Debayle; the album includes songs that were inspired by other political issues; \"Washington Bullets\" addresses covert military operations around the globe and \"The Call-Up\" is a meditation on US draft policies. scholars Simon Reynolds and Joy Press described Combat Rock's track \"Straight to Hell\" as an \"around-the-world-at-war-in-five-verses guided tour of hell-zones where boy-soldiers had languished\".\nThe band's political sentiments are reflected in their resistance to the music industry's profit motivations; even at their peak, tickets to shows and souvenirs were reasonably priced. The group insisted CBS sell their double and triple albums London Calling and Sandinista! for the price of a single album (then £5), succeeding with the former and compromising with the latter by agreeing to sell it for £5.99 and forfeit their performance royalties on the first 200,000 sales. These \"value for money\" (VFM) principles meant they were constantly in debt to CBS and only started to break even around 1982.\n\nMusical style, legacy and influence\nThe Clash are mainly described as a punk rock band. According to Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic: \"Sex Pistols may have been the first British punk rock band, but the Clash were the definitive British punk rockers\". Later in their career, The Clash used elements of a variety of musical genres, including reggae, rockabilly, dub and R&B. With their double album London Calling, the band expanded the breadth of their musical styles. The band's music has been described as experimental rock and new wave. Since their beginning, the band covered reggae songs and wrote their own, and incorporated lovers' rock into London Calling.\nIn 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the Clash number 28 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time, and in 2010, the band was ranked 22nd on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. According to The Times, the Clash's debut, alongside Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols, is \"punk's definitive statement\" and London Calling \"remains one of the most influential rock albums\". London Calling was ranked eighth In Rolling Stone's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, which is the highest entry by a punk band; in the same list, The Clash was ranked 77th and Sandinista! was ranked 404th. In the magazine's 2004 list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, \"London Calling\" was ranked number 15, again the highest entry for any song by a punk band. Four other Clash songs made the list: \"Should I Stay Or Should I Go\" (228), \"Train in Vain\" (292), \"Complete Control\" (361), and \"(White Man) in Hammersmith Palais\" (430). \"London Calling\" ranked number 48 in the magazine's 2008 list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time. In 2010, the cover art of London Calling was one of ten albums by British music acts whose albums were commemorated on a UK postage stamp issued by Royal Mail.\n\nJake Burns of Stiff Little Fingers, the first major punk band from Northern Ireland, said of their debut album's impact:\n[T]he big watershed was the Clash album—that was go out, cut your hair, stop mucking about time, y'know. Up to that point we'd still been singing about bowling down California highways. I mean, it meant nothing to me. Although the Damned and the Pistols were great, they were only exciting musically; lyrically, I couldn't really make out a lot of it ... [T]o realise that [The Clash] were actually singing about their own lives in West London was like a bolt out of the blue.\n\nThe Clash inspired many musicians who were only loosely associated, if at all, with punk. The band's embrace of ska and reggae, and England's Jamaican subculture helped provide impetus for the 2 Tone movement that emerged after the punk explosion. Other musicians who began performing while the Clash were active and acknowledged their debt to the band include Billy Bragg and Aztec Camera. U2's The Edge has compared the Clash's inspirational effect to that of Ramones, both of which gave young rock musicians a \"sense that the door of possibility had swung open\". He wrote: \"The Clash, more than any other group, kick-started a thousand garage bands across Ireland and the UK ... [S]eeing them perform was a life-changing experience\". Bono described the Clash as \"the greatest rock band. They wrote the rule book for U2.\"\n\nWhile Sex Pistols' debut gig at Manchester's Lesser Free Trade Hall has been acknowledged as the starting point of that city's punk scene, the Clash's first performance at Eric's, where they were supported by The Specials, had a similar effect in Liverpool. The gig was witnessed by Jayne Casey, Julian Cope, Pete Wylie, Pete Burns, Bill Drummond, Holly Johnson, Will Sergeant, Budgie and Ian McCulloch. Jon Langford of The Mekons said:\nYou can't overestimate how important The Clash were back in 1977. We loved the Pistols' self-aware nihilism, but we didn't want to be the Pistols, and if The Clash were cartoon-heroic and occasionally a bit silly we still loved them and recognised the risks they were taking.\nThe Clash's influence can be heard in the works of American political punk bands such as The Offspring, Rancid, Anti-Flag, Bad Religion, NOFX, Green Day, and Rise Against, and in the political hard rock of early Manic Street Preachers. California band Rancid are known as \"incurable Clash zealots\". The title track of Rancid's album Indestructible says: \"I'll keep listening to that great Joe Strummer!\" Outside rock music, Chuck D has credited The Clash as an inspiration for Public Enemy, in particular for their use of socially and politically conscious lyrics, which gained them attention from the music press: \"They talked about important subjects, so therefore journalists printed what they said, which was very pointed ... We took that from the Clash, because we were very similar in that regard. Public Enemy just did it 10 years later\". In 2019, Chuck D narrated Stay Free: The Story of The Clash, an eight-part podcast series produced by Spotify and BBC Studios.\nAccording to biographer Antonio Ambrosio, the Clash's involvement with Jamaican musical and production styles inspired similar cross-cultural efforts by bands such as Bad Brains, Massive Attack, 311, Sublime and No Doubt. Jakob Dylan of The Wallflowers lists London Calling as the record that \"changed his life\". Bands identified with the garage rock revival of the late 1990s and 2000s such as Sweden's The Hives, Australia's The Vines, Britain's The Libertines, and America's The White Stripes and the Strokes, show the Clash's influence. Among the many late-20th-century British acts identified as having been inspired by the Clash are Babyshambles, The Futureheads, The Charlatans and Arctic Monkeys.\n\nUse in film and television\nThe band's 1982 hit \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\" appears in multiple episodes of the 2016 Netflix science-fiction drama series Stranger Things, which is set in 1983. London Town, a film that tells the story of a Clash-obsessed teenager who in 1979 meets Joe Strummer by chance and finds his life changing as a result, was released in 2016.\n\nNotable covers of The Clash songs\nBefore M.I.A. had an international hit in 2008 with \"Paper Planes\", which is built around a sample from \"Straight to Hell\", she referenced \"London Calling\" on 2003's \"Galang\". A cover of \"The Guns of Brixton\" by German punk band Die Toten Hosen was released as a single in 2006. A version by reggae singer Jimmy Cliff with Tim Armstrong from Rancid was scheduled for release in November 2011. American-Irish punk band Dropkick Murphys released a cover of \"The Guns of Brixton\" on Anti Heroes vs Dropkick Murphys (1997).\nIn June 2009, Bruce Springsteen & the E Street Band opened their concert in Hyde Park, London, with \"London Calling\". The concert was later released on DVD as London Calling: Live in Hyde Park. Bruce Springsteen, Little Steven, Dave Grohl and Elvis Costello performed the same song at the 2003 Grammys as a tribute to Joe Strummer, who died the year before. In 2009, Springsteen & the E Street Band covered Strummer's song \"Coma Girl\" and in 2014, along with Tom Morello, they opened some of their shows on the High Hopes Tour with \"Clampdown\".\nThe band has also had a notable impact on music in the Spanish-speaking world. In 1997, a Clash tribute album featuring performances by Buenos Aires punk bands was released. Many rock en español bands such as Todos Tus Muertos, Café Tacuba, Maldita Vecindad, Los Prisioneros, Tijuana No, and Attaque 77, are indebted to the Clash. Argentina's Los Fabulosos Cadillacs covered \"Should I Stay or Should I Go\", London Calling's \"Revolution Rock\" and \"The Guns of Brixton\", and invited Mick Jones to sing on their song \"Mal Bicho\". The Clash's influence is similarly reflected in Paris-founded band Mano Negra's politicised lyrics and fusion of musical styles.\nIn March 2022, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, surviving members of the Clash gave permission to Ukrainian punk band Beton to rewrite the lyrics of London Calling. The song was mixed in Los Angeles by music producer Danny Saber and proceeds from its sales were designated to help fund war efforts.\n\nBand members\nClassic lineup (1977–1982)\n\nJoe Strummer – lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar (1976–1986; died 2002)\nMick Jones – lead guitar, lead and backing vocals (1976–1983)\nPaul Simonon – bass guitar, backing and lead vocals (1976–1986)\nNicky \"Topper\" Headon – drums, percussion (1977–1982)\n\nDiscography\nThe Clash (1977)\nGive 'Em Enough Rope (1978)\nLondon Calling (1979)\nSandinista! (1980)\nCombat Rock (1982)\nCut the Crap (1985)\n\nSee also\nAlbum era\nThe Clash on film\nJohn Richards, KEXP radio personality, created International Clash Day on 7 February 2013.\n\nFootnotes\nReferences\nSources\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nThe Clash Website\n\"The Clash\". Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. \nThe Clash at AllMusic\nThe Clash discography at Discogs\nThe Clash's channel on YouTube\nLegacy Recordings Official Site\nDocumentary of The Clash on YouTube by Google Play\nThe Clash: London Calling exhibit",
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"paragraph_text": "The Clash is the debut studio album by the English punk rock band the Clash, released on 8 April 1977 through CBS Records. Recorded and mixed over three weeks in February 1977 for £4,000, it would go on to reach No. 12 on the UK charts, and has been included on many retrospective rankings as one of the greatest punk albums of all time.\nSongs on the album were composed by guitarists Joe Strummer and Mick Jones, with the notable exception of the reggae cover \"Police and Thieves\". The song \"What's My Name\" is co-credited to Clash founding member Keith Levene, who left the band in September 1976.\nSeveral songs from the album's recording sessions, including \"Janie Jones\", \"White Riot\", and \"London's Burning\" became classics of the punk genre and were among the first punk songs to see significant presence on singles charts. The Clash featured Jones and Strummer sharing guitar and vocal duties, with Paul Simonon on bass and Terry Chimes on drums, his only studio appearance with the band (Chimes and Rob Harper drummed intermittently with The Clash until Topper Headon joined the band as permanent drummer in May 1977). Chimes was credited as \"Tory Crimes\" on the album's original sleeve.\nThe Clash was not released in the US until 1979, making it the band's second US release. The US version also included a significantly different track listing, changing the track order and swapping out several songs for non-album tracks recorded in the interim.\n\nBackground\nMost of the album was conceived on the 18th floor of a council high rise on London's Harrow Road, in a flat that was rented by Mick Jones's grandmother, who frequently went to see their live concerts. The album was recorded over three weekend sessions at CBS Studio 3 in February 1977. By the third of these sessions, the album was recorded and mixed to completion, with the tapes being delivered to CBS at the start of March. It cost £4,000 to produce.\n\nAlbum cover\nThe cover artwork was designed by Polish artist Rosław Szaybo. The album's front cover photo, shot by Kate Simon, was taken in the alleyway directly opposite the front door of the band's 'Rehearsal Rehearsals' building in Camden Market. Drummer Terry Chimes, though a full member of the Clash at the time, did not appear in the picture as he had already decided to leave the group. Another picture from the same Kate Simon photoshoot appears on the UK Special Edition DVD of Rude Boy, released in 2003. The picture of the charging police officers on the rear, shot by Rocco Macauly, was taken during the 1976 riot at the Notting Hill Carnival—the inspiration for the track \"White Riot\".\n\nSongs\nThe subject of the opening track, \"Janie Jones\", was a famous brothel keeper in London during the 1970s. \"Remote Control\" was written by Mick Jones after the Anarchy Tour and contains pointed observations about the civic hall bureaucrats who had cancelled concerts, the police, big business and especially record companies. CBS decided to release the song as a single without consulting the band. \"I'm So Bored with the USA\", developed from a Mick Jones song titled \"I'm So Bored with You\", condemns the Americanization of the UK. \"White Riot\" was the Clash's debut single. The song is short and intense, in a punk style of two chords played very fast (five chords are used in the whole song). Lyrically, it is about class economics and race.\n\"Career Opportunities\", the opening track of the second side of the album, attacks the political and economic situation in England at the time, citing the lack of jobs available, and the dreariness and lack of appeal of those that were available.\n\n\"Protex Blue\", sung by Mick Jones, is about a 1970s brand of condom. It was inspired by the contraceptive vending machine in the Windsor Castle's toilets. The song ends with the shouted phrase \"Johnny Johnny!\", johnny being a British slang term for a condom.\nThe version of \"White Riot\" featured on the album was not recorded for the album; the original demo (recorded at Beaconsfield Studios before the band signed to CBS) was used instead.\n\"Police & Thieves\" was added to the album when the group realised that the track listing was too short. Another cover the band played at these sessions was The Wailers' \"Dancing Shoes\". \"Garageland\" was written in response to Charles Shaar Murray's damning review of the Clash's early appearance at the Sex Pistols Screen on the Green concert – \"The Clash are the kind of garage band who should be returned to the garage immediately, preferably with the engine running\". It was the final track recorded for the album.\n\nRelease\nThe Clash was released in the United Kingdom through CBS Records on 8 April 1977, engineered by CBS staff engineer Simon Humphrey and produced by Clash live soundman Mickey Foote, at the (since demolished) CBS Whitfield Street Studio No. 3. The Clash was unusually musically varied for a punk band, with reggae and early rock and roll influences plainly evident.\n\nReception\nThe Clash received critical acclaim and peaked at number 12 in the UK charts.\nWhen the album was released in April 1977, Tony Parsons wrote in the New Musical Express: “Jones and Strummer write with graphic perception about contemporary Great British urban reality as though it’s suffocating them … Their songs don’t lie … The Clash have made an album that consists of some of the most exciting rock’n’roll in contemporary music.” Mark Perry declared in Sniffin’ Glue: “The Clash album is like a mirror. It reflects all the shit. It shows us the truth. To me, it is the most important album ever released.” The review by Kris Needs in April 1977's Zigzag announced: “This is the most exciting album I’ve heard in years … it’s one of the most important records ever made.”\nIn his 1979 consumer guide for The Village Voice, critic Robert Christgau gave the album's US release an \"A\" grade and stated, \"Cut for cut, this may be the greatest rock and roll album (plus limited-edition bonus single) ever manufactured in the U.S. It offers 10 of the 14 titles on the band's British debut as well as 7 of the 13 available only on 45. [...] The U.K. version of The Clash is the greatest rock and roll album ever manufactured anywhere\". In his decade-end list for the newspaper, he ranked the UK version as the best album of the 1970s.\nIn 1993, the New Musical Express ranked the album number 13 on its list of the greatest albums of all time. NME also ranked The Clash number three on its list of the Greatest Albums of the '70s, and wrote in the review that \"the speed-freaked brain of punk set to the tinniest, most frantic guitars ever trapped on vinyl. Lives were changed beyond recognition by it\".\nIn 1999, Q magazine wrote that the Clash \"would never sound so punk as they did on 1977's self-titled debut\", calling it a \"lyrically intricate\" album that \"still howled with anger\". In 2000, Alternative Press described The Clash as \"the eternal punk album\" and \"a blueprint for the pantomime of 'punkier' rock acts\", concluding that \"for all of its forced politics and angst, The Clash continues to sound crucial.\"\nThe Clash was voted number 180 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums (2000). Q placed The Clash at number 48 on its list of the \"100 Greatest British Albums Ever\" in 2000, and included the album in its \"100 Best Punk Albums of All Time\" list in 2002. Spin ranked the album at number three on its 2001 list of the \"50 Most Essential Punk Records\", calling it \"punk as alienated rage, as anticorporate blather, as joyous racial confusion, as evangelic outreach and white knuckles and haywire impulses\". In 2003, Mojo ranked The Clash at second place on its list of the \"Top 50 Punk Albums\", deeming it \"the ultimate punk protest album\". The same year, the US version was ranked number 77 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The album was re-ranked at number 81 in 2012, and at number 102 in the 2020 update. The album was included in Robert Dimery's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.\nNoted Jamaican producer Lee Perry heard the album while in London in 1977, and played it to Bob Marley, who in turn mentioned the Clash on his own track \"Punky Reggae Party\".\n\nTrack listing\nAll lead vocals by Joe Strummer, except where noted.\n\n1979 US version\nIn the United States, the Clash's debut studio album was released one year after Give 'Em Enough Rope, making it their second release in the US. CBS in America had decided that the album was 'not radio friendly', so it was initially only available in the States during 1977–1978 as an import, and as such became the best-selling import of the year, selling over 100,000 copies.\nIn July 1979, Epic released a modified version of the album for the United States market. This version replaced four songs from the original version with five non-album singles and B-sides, some of which were recorded and released after the Clash's second studio album, Give 'Em Enough Rope (1978). It also used the re-recorded single version of \"White Riot\", rather than the original take featured on the UK version. Owing to its inclusion of non-album singles, the US edition of The Clash could be considered a de facto compilation album.\nOmitted from the US version of The Clash were the following tracks:\n\n\"Deny\"\n\"Cheat\"\n\"Protex Blue\"\n\"48 Hours\"\n\"White Riot\" (original version)\nAdded were the following tracks:\n\n\"Clash City Rockers\" – Initially released as a single (A-side) in the UK in February 1978 \n\"Complete Control\" – Initially released as a single (A-side) in the UK in September 1977 \n\"White Riot\" (re-recorded version) – Initially released as a single (A-side) in the UK in March 1977 \n\"(White Man) In Hammersmith Palais\" – Initially released as a single (A-side) in the UK in June 1978 \n\"I Fought the Law\" – Initially released as a track on the Clash EP The Cost of Living in the UK in May 1979 \n\"Jail Guitar Doors\" – Initially released as the B-side to \"Clash City Rockers\" in the UK in February 1978 \nInitial copies of the US version also came with a bonus 7-inch single which featured \"Groovy Times\" and \"Gates of the West\". The liner notes incorrectly credit new drummer Nicky Headon for \"White Riot\".\nIt was another moderately successful album for the Clash in the United States, even though the sales were likely diluted by the longstanding popularity of the UK version on the import market. The Clash peaked at number 126 on the Billboard charts, setting the stage for the commercial breakthrough of London Calling later that year. Since the Clash's first UK album had already been released in Canada by CBS Records, when CBS Canada released the US version, they changed the cover art so as to not confuse the record-buying public. The CBS Canada version of the LP has a dark blue border instead of green. Initial copies also contained the bonus \"Groovy Times\" 7\". Some original cassette pressings of the US version featured \"What's My Name?\" as track 4 and \"Complete Control\" as track 11. Though the back of these original pressings list the two songs as they are featured on recent versions of the album.\n\nTrack listing\nPersonnel\nThe Clash\nJoe Strummer − lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar, lead guitar on \"48 Hours,\" piano and production on US version\nMick Jones − lead guitar, backing and lead vocals, production on US version\nPaul Simonon − bass guitar, production on US version\nTerry Chimes (listed as \"Tory Crimes\") − drums, production on UK version\nTopper Headon − drums on side one tracks 1, 4, 6, and 8 and side two track 6 on US version, production on US version\n\nProduction\nMickey Foote − production, engineering on US version\nSimon Humphrey − engineering\nKate Simon − cover art\nRocco Macauly − back cover photo\nLee \"Scratch\" Perry – production on US version\nSandy Pearlman – production on US version\nBill Price – production on US version\n\nCharts\nCertifications\nReferences\nFurther reading\nGilbert, Pat (2005) [2004]. Passion Is a Fashion: The Real Story of The Clash (4th ed.). London: Aurum Press. ISBN 1-84513-113-4. OCLC 61177239.\nGray, Marcus (2005) [1995]. The Clash: Return of the Last Gang in Town (5th revised ed.). London: Helter Skelter. ISBN 1-905139-10-1. OCLC 60668626.\nGreen, Johnny; Garry Barker (2003) [1997]. A Riot of Our Own: Night and Day with The Clash (3rd ed.). London: Orion. ISBN 0-7528-5843-2. OCLC 52990890.\nGruen, Bob; Chris Salewicz (2004) [2001]. The Clash (3rd ed.). London: Omnibus. ISBN 1-903399-34-3. OCLC 69241279.\nNeeds, Kris (25 January 2005). Joe Strummer and the Legend of the Clash. London: Plexus. ISBN 0-85965-348-X. OCLC 53155325.\nTopping, Keith (2004) [2003]. The Complete Clash (2nd ed.). Richmond: Reynolds & Hearn. ISBN 1-903111-70-6. OCLC 63129186.\n\nExternal links\nThe Clash at Discogs (list of releases)",
"title": "The_Clash_(album)"
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"paragraph_text": "Columbia Records is an American record label owned by Sony Music Entertainment, a subsidiary of Sony Corporation of America, the American division of multinational conglomerate Sony. Columbia is the oldest surviving brand name in the recorded sound business, and the second major company to produce records. From 1961 to 1991, its recordings were released outside North America under the name CBS Records to avoid confusion with EMI's Columbia Graphophone Company. Columbia is one of Sony Music's four flagship record labels: Epic Records, and former longtime rivals, RCA Records and Arista Records as the latter two were originally owned by BMG before its 2008 relaunch after Sony's acquisition alongside other BMG labels.\n\nHistory\nBeginnings (1889–1929)\nThe Columbia Phonograph Company was founded on January 15, 1889, by stenographer, lawyer, and New Jersey native Edward D. Easton (1856–1915) and a group of investors. It derived its name from the District of Columbia, where it was headquartered. At first it had a local monopoly on sales and service of Edison phonographs and phonograph cylinders in Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Delaware. As was the custom of some of the regional phonograph companies, Columbia produced many commercial cylinder recordings of its own, and its catalogue of musical records in 1891 was 10 pages.\nColumbia's ties to Edison were severed in 1894 with the North American Phonograph Company's breakup. Thereafter, it sold only records and phonographs of its own manufacture. In 1902, Columbia introduced the \"XP\" record, a molded brown wax record, to use up old stock. Columbia introduced black wax records in 1903. According to one source, they continued to mold brown waxes until 1904 with the highest number being 32601, \"Heinie\", which is a duet by Arthur Collins and Byron G. Harlan. The molded brown waxes may have been sold to Sears for distribution (possibly under Sears' Oxford trademark for Columbia products).\nColumbia began selling disc records, invented and patented by Victor Talking Machine Company's Emile Berliner, and phonographs in addition to the cylinder system in 1901, preceded only by their \"Toy Graphophone\" of 1899, which used small, vertically cut records. For a decade, Columbia competed with both the Edison Phonograph Company cylinders and Victor Talking Machine Company disc records as one of the top three names in American sound recording.\nIn 1903, in order to add prestige to its early catalog of artists, Columbia contracted a number of prominent singers from the Metropolitan Opera in New York to make a highly touted series of Grand Opera Records. These stars included Marcella Sembrich, Lillian Nordica, Antonio Scotti, and Edouard de Reszke, but the technical standard of Columbia's Grand Opera series was not considered to be as high as the results achieved with opera singers during the pre–World War I period by Victor, Edison, England's His Master's Voice (The Gramophone Company Ltd.) or Italy's Fonotipia Records. After an abortive attempt in 1904 to manufacture discs with the recording grooves stamped into both sides of each disc—not just one—in 1908 Columbia commenced successful mass production of what they called their \"Double-Faced\" discs, the 10-inch variety initially selling for 65 cents each. Columbia also introduced the internal-horn \"Grafonola\" to compete with the extremely popular \"Victrola\" introduced by the rival Victor Talking Machine Company in 1906.\nDuring this era, Columbia began to use the \"Magic Notes\" logo—a pair of sixteenth notes (semiquavers) in a circle—both in the United States and overseas (where this particular logo would never substantially change).\nIn 1908, Columbia ceased the recording and manufacturing of wax cylinder records after arranging to issue celluloid cylinder records made by the Indestructible Record Company of Albany, New York, as \"Columbia Indestructible Records\". In July 1912, Columbia decided to concentrate exclusively on disc records and ended production of cylinder phonographs, although Indestructible cylinders continued to be sold under the Columbia label for a few more years.\nColumbia was split into two companies, one to make records and one to make players. Columbia Phonograph relocated to Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Edward Easton went with it. Eventually it was renamed the Dictaphone Corporation.\n\nColumbia Phonograph Company ownership (1925–1931)\nIn late 1922, Columbia entered receivership.\nThe company was bought by its UK subsidiary, the Columbia Graphophone Company, in 1925 and the label, record numbering system, and recording process changed. On February 25, 1925, Columbia began recording with the electric recording process licensed from Western Electric. \"Viva-tonal\" records set a benchmark in tone and clarity unequaled on commercial discs during the 78-rpm era. The first electrical recordings were made by Art Gillham, the \"Whispering Pianist\". In a secret agreement with Victor, electrical technology was kept secret to avoid hurting sales of acoustic records.\nLouis Sterling, managing director of the Columbia Graphophone Company, had been the moving force behind bringing Western Electric's recording process, and the British takeover. Originally from New York, Sterling became Chairman of Columbia NY from 1925 until 1931, and oversaw stability and success.\nIn 1926, Columbia acquired Okeh Records and its growing stable of jazz and blues artists, including Louis Armstrong and Clarence Williams. Columbia had already built a catalog of blues and jazz artists, including Bessie Smith in their 14000-D Race series. Columbia also had a successful \"Hillbilly\" series (15000-D) with Dan Hornsby among others. By 1927, the \"Sweet Jazz\" bandleader Guy Lombardo also joined Columbia and recorded forty five 78 rpm's by 1931. In 1928, Paul Whiteman, the nation's most popular orchestra leader, left Victor to record for Columbia. During the same year, Columbia executive Frank Buckley Walker pioneered some of the first country music or \"hillbilly\" genre recordings with the Johnson City sessions in Tennessee, including artists such as Clarence Horton Greene and \"Fiddlin'\" Charlie Bowman. He followed that with a return to Tennessee the next year, as well as recording sessions in other cities of the South. Moran and Mack as The Two Black Crows 1926 recording 'The Early Bird Catches the Worm' sold 2.5 million copies.\nIn 1929, Ben Selvin became house bandleader and A. & R. director. Other favorites in the Viva-tonal era included Ruth Etting, Paul Whiteman, Fletcher Henderson, Ipana Troubadours (a Sam Lanin group), and Ted Lewis. Columbia used acoustic recording for \"budget label\" pop product well into 1929 on the labels Harmony, Velvet Tone (both general purpose labels), and Diva (sold exclusively at W.T. Grant stores). When Edison Records folded, Columbia was the oldest surviving record label.\n\nColumbia ownership separation (1931–1936)\nThe repercussions of the stock market Crash of 1929 and subsequent Great Depression led to the near collapse of the entire recording industry and, in March 1931, J.P Morgan, the major shareholder, steered the Columbia Graphophone Company (along with Odeon records and Parlophone, which it had owned since 1926) into a merger with the Gramophone Company (\"His Master's Voice\") to form Electric and Musical Industries Ltd (EMI). Since the Gramophone Company (HMV) was now a wholly owned subsidiary of Victor, and Columbia in America was a subsidiary of UK Columbia, Victor now technically owned its largest rival in the US. To avoid antitrust legislation, EMI had to sell off its US Columbia operation, which continued to release pressings of matrices made in the UK.\nIn December, 1931, the U.S. Columbia Phonograph Company, Inc. was acquired by the Grigsby-Grunow Company, the manufacturers of Majestic radios and refrigerators. When Grigsby-Grunow declared bankruptcy in November 1933, Columbia was placed in receivership, and in June 1934, the company was sold to Sacro Enterprises Inc. (\"Sacro\") for $70,000. Sacro was incorporated a few days before the sale in New York. Public documents do not contain any names. Many suspect that it was a shell corporation set up by Consolidated Films Industries, Inc. (\"CFI\") to hold the Columbia stock, while its subsidiary, American Record Corporation (\"ARC\"), operated the label. This assumption grew out of the ease which CFI later exhibited in selling Columbia in 1938.\nOn December 3, 1931, CFI made a deal with Warner Brothers Pictures, Inc. (\"WB\") to lease Brunswick Record Corporation, which included the trademarks and masters of the Brunswick, Vocalion, and Melotone labels to ARC. WB would receive a portion of the sales of its catalogues, while ARC was free to use the labels for new recordings. Brunswick immediately became the premium $.75 label, Melotone would release new hillbilly and other $.35 dime-store discounted discs, and Vocalion, while re-releasing prior ARC records, would also be the blues-R&B label, and the exclusive outlet for Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys, a phenomenal mid-1930s Western Swing band, which drew 10,000+ customers nightly to dance. Columbia was added in mid-1932, relegated to slower sellers such as the Hawaiian music of Andy Iona, the Irving Mills stable of artists and songs, and the still unknown Benny Goodman. It tried a marketing ploy, the Columbia \"Royal Blue Record\", a brilliant blue laminated product with matching label. Royal Blue issues, made from late 1932 through 1935, are particularly popular with collectors for their rarity and musical interest. The Columbia plant in Oakland, California, did Columbia's pressings for sale west of the Rockies and continued using the Royal Blue material for these until about mid-1936.\nAs southern gospel developed, Columbia had astutely sought to record the artists associated with the emerging genre; for example, Columbia was the only company to record Charles Davis Tillman. Most fortuitously for Columbia in its Depression Era financial woes, in 1936 the company entered into an exclusive recording contract with the Chuck Wagon Gang, a hugely successful relationship which continued into the 1970s. A signature group of southern gospel, the Chuck Wagon Gang became Columbia's bestsellers with at least 37 million records, many of them through the aegis of the Mull Singing Convention of the Air sponsored on radio (and later television) by southern gospel broadcaster J. Bazzel Mull (1914–2006).\nIn 1935, Herbert M. Greenspon, an 18-year-old shipping clerk, led a committee to organize the first trade union shop at the main manufacturing factory in Bridgeport, Connecticut. Elected as president of the Congress of Industrial Unions (CIO) local, Greenspon negotiated the first contract between factory workers and Columbia management. In a career with Columbia that lasted 30 years, Greenspon retired after achieving the position of executive vice president of the company. Columbia also hired talent scout, music writer, producer, and impresario John Hammond in 1937. Alongside his significance as a discoverer, promoter, and producer of jazz, blues, and folk artists during the swing music era, Hammond had already been of great help to Columbia in 1932–33. Through his involvement in the UK music paper Melody Maker, Hammond had arranged for the struggling US Columbia label to provide recordings for the UK Columbia label, mostly using the specially created Columbia W-265000 matrix series. Hammond recorded Fletcher Henderson, Benny Carter, Joe Venuti, Roger Wolfe Kahn and other jazz performers during a time when the economy was bad enough that many of them would not have had the opportunity to enter a studio and play real jazz (a handful of these in this special series were issued in the US). Hammond's work for Columbia was interrupted by his service during World War II, and he had less involvement with the music scene during the bebop era, but when he returned to work as a talent scout for Columbia in the 1950s, his career proved to be of incalculable historical and cultural importance – the list of superstar artists he would discover and sign to Columbia over the course of his career included Charlie Christian, Count Basie, Teddy Wilson, Pete Seeger, Bob Dylan, Leonard Cohen, Aretha Franklin, Bruce Springsteen and Stevie Ray Vaughan, and in the early 1960s Hammond would also exert an enormous cultural effect on the emerging rock music scene thanks to his championing of reissue LPs of the music of blues artists Robert Johnson and Bessie Smith.\nBy 1937–38, the record business in America was finally recovering from the near-death blow of the Great Depression, at least for RCA Victor and Decca, but privately, there were doubts about the survival of ARC. In a 1941 court case brought by unhappy shareholders of Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. (\"CBS\"), Edward Wallerstein, a high executive with RCA Victor from 1932 thru 1938, was asked to comment on ARC. \"The chief value was that the record industry had come back tremendously, especially in the case of two other record companies; and the American Record Company, with all its facilities, had not, so far as I could learn, increased its business in any degree at all in the previous six years.\"\n\nCBS takes over (1938–1947)\nOn December 17, 1938, the ARC, including the Columbia label in the U.S., was acquired by William S. Paley of the Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. for US$700,000,. ten times the price ARC paid in 1934, which would later spark lawsuits by disgruntled shareholders. (Columbia Records had originally co-founded CBS in 1927 along with New York talent agent Arthur Judson, but soon cashed out of the partnership leaving only the name; Paley acquired the fledgling radio network in 1928.) On January 3, 1939, Wallerstein left RCA Victor to become president of the CBS phonograph subsidiary, a position he would hold for twelve years. CBS kept the ARC name for three months. then on April 4, it amended the New York Department of State record of \"Columbia Phonograph Company, Inc.,\" naming several of its own employees to directorships, and announced in a press release, \"The American Record Co. tag is discarded\". Columbia Records was actually reborn on May 22, 1939, as \"Columbia Recording Corporation, Inc.\", a Delaware corporation. The NYDOS shows a later incorporation date of April 4, 1947. This corporation changed its name to Columbia Records, Inc. on October 11, 1954, and reverted to Columbia Recording Corporation on January 2, 1962. The Columbia trademark remained under Columbia Records, Inc. of Delaware, filed back in 1929. Brothers Ike and Leon Levy owned stakes in CBS.\nIn February 1939, NYC Studios moved from ARC headquarters at 1776 Broadway, to 799 7th Avenue, 6th&7th flrs, New York City (\"Studio A\"). Corporate offices, studio and Pressing Plant would also continue at 1473 Barnum Avenue, Bridgeport, CT. John Hammond was hired by Wallerstein as \"Associate Director Popular Recording\" (at 7th Ave). Another executive from ARC, Art Satherley, was not expected to transition over as easily. \"It is understood that CBS and the Levys are not interested in retaining American Record's hillbilly department, and that Art Satherly, who has been running this section for many years, will take it out of the company with him\". Fortunately, to the delight of many, this did not happen, and Art went on to many more successful years supervising all aspects of Columbia's Hillbilly/Country artists and sessions.\nOn August 30, 1939, Columbia replaced its $.75 Brunswick record for a $.50 Columbia label. Brunswick was gradually phased out, the final issue being Brunswick 8520, in April 1940. Wallerstein and Paley knew in advance that their course of action would lead to violation of the 1931 Brunswick lease agreement, so they discontinued Vocalion in June 1940, and fired up Okeh. By July, it was releasing new Hillbilly platters by Gene Autry and Bob Wills, and re-issuing past Vocalion discs, using the same catalogue numbers with a leading zero added. When a January 1941 audit found that not more than 150,000 Brunswick records had sold during the period from December 1, 1939, through December 31, 1940, control of the loaned trademarks and catalog of master recordings made prior to December 3, 1931, reverted to Warner Bros. Pictures.\nThe Columbia trademark from this point until the late 1950s was two overlapping circles with the Magic Notes in the left circle and a CBS microphone in the right circle. The Royal Blue labels were dropped in favor of a deep red, which caused RCA Victor to claim infringement on its famous Red Seal trademark (RCA lost the case). The blue Columbia label was retained for its classical music Columbia Masterworks Records series until it was later changed to a green label before switching to a gray label in the late 1950s, and then to the bronze that is familiar to owners of Columbia/CBS classical and Broadway albums. Columbia Phonograph Company of Canada did not survive the Great Depression, so CBS made a distribution deal with Sparton Records in 1939 to release Columbia records in Canada under the Columbia name.\nDuring the 1940s, Frank Sinatra recorded for Columbia and helped to substantially boost the company's revenue. Sinatra recorded over 200 songs for Columbia which include his most popular songs from his early years. Other popular artists on Columbia at this time included Benny Goodman (signed from RCA Victor in 1939), Count Basie, Jimmie Lunceford (both signed from Decca), Eddy Duchin, Ray Noble (both moved to Columbia from Brunswick), Kate Smith, Mildred Bailey, and Will Bradley.\nIn 1947, the company was renamed Columbia Records Inc. and founded its Mexican record company, Discos Columbia de Mexico. 1948 saw the first classical LP Nathan Milstein's recording of the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto. Columbia's new 33 rpm format quickly spelled the death of the classical 78 rpm record and for the first time in nearly fifty years, gave Columbia a commanding lead over RCA Victor Red Seal.\n\nThe LP record (1948–1959)\nColumbia's president Edward Wallerstein was instrumental in steering Paley towards the ARC purchase. He set his talents to his goal of hearing an entire movement of a symphony on one side of an album. Ward Botsford writing for the Twenty-Fifth Anniversary Issue of High Fidelity Magazine relates: \"He was no inventor—he was simply a man who seized an idea whose time was ripe and begged, ordered, and cajoled a thousand men into bringing into being the now accepted medium of the record business.\" Despite Wallerstein's stormy tenure, in June 1948, Columbia introduced the Long Playing \"microgroove\" LP record format (sometimes written \"Lp\" in early advertisements), which rotated at 33⅓ revolutions per minute, to be the standard for the gramophone record for forty years. CBS research director Dr. Peter Goldmark played a managerial role in the collaborative effort, but Wallerstein credits engineer William Savory with the technical prowess that brought the long-playing disc to the public.\nBy the early 1940s, Columbia had been experimenting with higher fidelity recordings, as well as longer masters, which paved the way for the successful release of the LPs in 1948. One such record that helped set a new standard for music listeners was the 10\" LP reissue of The Voice of Frank Sinatra, originally released on March 4, 1946, as an album of four 78 rpm records, which was the first pop album issued in the new LP format. Sinatra was arguably Columbia's hottest commodity and his artistic vision combined with the direction Columbia were taking the medium of music, both popular and classic, were well suited. The Voice of Frank Sinatra was also considered to be the first genuine concept album. Since the term \"LP\" has come to refer to the 12-inch 33+1⁄3 rpm vinyl disk, the first LP is the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto in E minor played by Nathan Milstein with Bruno Walter conducting the New York Philharmonic (then called the Philharmonic-Symphony Orchestra of New York), Columbia ML 4001, found in the Columbia Record Catalog for 1949, published in July 1948. The other \"LP's\" listed in the catalog were in the 10 inch format starting with ML 2001 for the light classics, CL 6001 for popular songs and JL 8001 for children's records. The Library of Congress in Washington DC now holds the Columbia Records Paperwork Archive which shows the Label order for ML 4001 being written on March 1, 1948. One can infer that Columbia was pressing the first LPs for distribution to their dealers for at least 3 months prior to the introduction of the LP on June 21, 1948. The catalog numbering system has had minor changes ever since.\nColumbia's LPs were particularly well-suited to classical music's longer pieces, so some of the early albums featured such artists as Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra, Bruno Walter and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, and Sir Thomas Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. The success of these recordings persuaded Capitol Records to begin releasing LPs in 1949. Even before the LP record was officially demonstrated, Columbia offered to share the new speed with rival RCA Victor, who initially rejected it and soon introduced their new competitive 45 RPM record. When it became clear that the LP was the preferred format for classical recordings, RCA Victor announced that the company would begin releasing its own LPs in January 1950. This was quickly followed by the other major American labels. Decca Records in the U.K. was the first to release LPs in Europe, beginning in 1949. EMI would not fully adopt the LP format until 1955.\nAn \"original cast recording\" of Rodgers & Hammerstein's South Pacific with Ezio Pinza and Mary Martin was recorded in 1949. Both conventional metal masters and tape were used in the sessions in New York City. For some reason, the taped version was not used until Sony released it as part of a set of CDs devoted to Columbia's Broadway albums. Over the years, Columbia joined Decca and RCA Victor in specializing in albums devoted to Broadway musicals with members of the original casts. In the 1950s, Columbia also began releasing LPs drawn from the soundtracks of popular films.\nMany album covers put together by Columbia and the other major labels were put together using one piece of cardboard (folded in half) and two paper \"slicks\", one for the front and one for the back. The front slick bent around the top, bottom, and left sides (the right side is open for the record to be inserted into the cover) and glued the two halves of cardboard together at the top and bottom. The back slick is pasted over the edges of the pasted-on front slick to make it appear that the album cover is one continuous piece.\nColumbia discovered that printing two front cover slicks, one for mono and one for stereo, was inefficient and therefore needlessly costly. Starting in the summer of 1959 with some of the albums released in August, they went to the \"paste-over\" front slick, which had the stereo information printed on the top and the mono information printed on the bottom. For stereo issues, they moved the front slick down so the stereo information was showing at the top, and the mono information was bent around the bottom to the back and \"pasted over\" by the back slick. Conversely, for a mono album, they moved the slick up so the mono information showed at the bottom, and the stereo information was pasted over. Soon, other record companies had adopted the paste-over method.\n\n1950s\nIn 1951, Columbia US began issuing records in the 45 rpm format RCA Victor had introduced two years earlier. The same year, Ted Wallerstein retired as Columbia Records chairman; and Columbia US also severed its decades-long distribution arrangement with EMI and signed a distribution deal with Philips Records to market Columbia recordings outside North America. EMI continued to distribute Okeh and later Epic label recordings until 1968. EMI also continued to distribute Columbia recordings in Australia and New Zealand. American Columbia was not happy with EMI's reluctance to introduce long playing records.\nColumbia became the most successful non-rock record company in the 1950s after it lured producer and bandleader Mitch Miller away from the Mercury label in 1950. Despite its many successes, Columbia remained largely uninvolved in the teenage rock'n'roll market until the mid-1960s, despite a handful of crossover hits, largely because of Miller's frequently expressed loathing of rock'n'roll. (Miller was a classically trained oboist who had been a friend of Columbia executive Goddard Lieberson since their days at the Eastman School of Music in the 1930s.) Miller quickly signed up Mercury's biggest artist at the time, Frankie Laine, and discovered several of the decade's biggest recording stars including Tony Bennett, Mahalia Jackson, Jimmy Boyd, Guy Mitchell (whose stage surname was taken from Miller's first name), Johnnie Ray, The Four Lads, Rosemary Clooney, Kay Lande, Ray Conniff, Jerry Vale and Johnny Mathis. He also oversaw many of the early singles by the label's top female recording star of the decade, Doris Day.\nIn 1953, Columbia formed a new subsidiary label Epic Records. 1954 saw Columbia end its distribution arrangement with Sparton Records and form Columbia Records of Canada. To enhance its country music stable, which already included Marty Robbins, Ray Price and Carl Smith, Columbia bid $15,000 for Elvis Presley's contract from Sun Records in 1955. Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, turned down their offer and signed Presley with RCA Victor. However, Columbia did sign two Sun artists in 1958: Johnny Cash and Carl Perkins.\nWith 1954, Columbia U.S. decisively broke with its past when it introduced its new, modernist-style \"Walking Eye\" logo, designed by Columbia's art director S. Neil Fujita. This logo actually depicts a stylus (the legs) on a record (the eye); however, the \"eye\" also subtly refers to CBS's main business in television, and that division's iconic Eye logo. Columbia continued to use the \"notes and mike\" logo on record labels and even used a promo label showing both logos until the \"notes and mike\" was phased out (along with the 78 in the US) in 1958. In Canada, Columbia 78s were pressed with the \"Walking Eye\" logo in 1958. The original Walking Eye was tall and solid; it was modified in 1961 to the familiar one still used today (pictured on this page), despite the fact that the Walking Eye was used only sporadically during most of the 1990s.\nAlthough the big band era had passed, Columbia had Duke Ellington under contract for several years, capturing the historic moment when Ellington's band provoked a post-midnight frenzy (followed by international headlines) at the 1956 Newport Jazz Festival, which proved a boost to a bandleader whose career had stalled. Under new head producer George Avakian, Columbia became the most vital label to the general public's appreciation and understanding (with help from Avakian's prolific and perceptive play-by-play liner notes) of jazz, releasing a series of LP's by Louis Armstrong, but also signing to long-term contracts Dave Brubeck and Miles Davis, the two modern jazz artists who would in 1959 record albums that remain—more than sixty years later—among the best-selling jazz albums by any label—viz., Time Out by the Brubeck Quartet and, to an even greater extent, Kind of Blue by the Davis Sextet, which, in 2003, appeared as number 12 in Rolling Stone's list of the \"500 Greatest Albums Of All Time\". With another producer, Teo Macero, a skilled modernist composer himself, Columbia cemented contracts with jazz composer/musicians Thelonious Monk and Charles Mingus, while Macero became a significant figure in Miles Davis career from an explorer of the art of modal jazz from Davis' sextets 1958 album Milestones to innovator and avatar of the marriage of jazz with rock and electronic sounds—commonly known as jazz fusion.\nIn 1954, Columbia embraced small-group modern jazz by signing of the Dave Brubeck Quartet, which resulted in the release of the on-location, best-selling jazz album (up to this time), Jazz Goes to College. Contemporaneously with Columbia's first release of modern jazz by a small group, which was also the Brubeck Quartet's debut on the label, was a Time magazine cover story on the phenomenon of Brubeck's success on college campuses. The humble Dave Brubeck demurred, saying that the second Time cover story on a jazz musician (the first featured Louis Armstrong's picture) had been earned by Duke Ellington, not himself. Within two years Ellington's picture would appear on the cover of Time, following his success at the 1956 Newport Jazz Festival. Ellington at Newport, recorded on Columbia, was also the bandleader-composer-pianist's best-selling album. Moreover, this exclusive trinity of jazz giants featured on the cover of Time magazine were all Columbia artists. (In the early 1960s Columbia jazz artist Thelonious Monk would be afforded the same honor.)\nColumbia changed distributors in Australia and New Zealand in 1956 when the Australian Record Company picked up distribution of U.S. Columbia product to replace the Capitol Records product which ARC lost when EMI bought Capitol. As EMI owned the Columbia trademark at that time, the U.S. Columbia material was issued in Australia and New Zealand on the CBS Coronet label.\nIn the same year, former Columbia A&R manager Goddard Lieberson was promoted to President of the entire CBS recording division, which included Columbia and Epic, as well as the company's various international divisions and licensees. Under his leadership the corporation's music division soon overtook RCA Victor as the top recording company in the world, boasting a star-studded roster of artists and an unmatched catalogue of popular, jazz, classical and stage and screen soundtrack titles. Lieberson, who had joined Columbia as an A&R manager in 1938, was known for both his personal elegance and his dedication to quality, overseeing the release of many hugely successful albums and singles, as well as championing prestige releases that sold relatively poorly, and even some titles that had limited appeal, such as complete editions of the works of Arnold Schoenberg and Anton von Webern. One of his first major successes was the original Broadway cast album of My Fair Lady, which sold over 5 million copies worldwide in 1957, becoming the most successful LP ever released up to that time. Lieberson also convinced long-serving CBS President William S. Paley to become the sole backer of the original Broadway production, a $500,000 investment which subsequently earned the company some $32 million in profits.\nIn October 1958, Columbia, in time for the Christmas season, put out a series of \"Greatest Hits\" packages by such artists as Johnny Mathis, Doris Day, Guy Mitchell, Johnnie Ray, Jo Stafford, Tony Bennett, Rosemary Clooney, Frankie Laine and the Four Lads; months later, it put out another Mathis compilation as well as that of Marty Robbins. Only Mathis' compilations charted, since there were only 25 positions on Billboard's album charts at the time. However, the compilations were so successful that they led to Columbia doing such packages on a widespread basis, usually when an artist's career was in decline.\n\nStereo\nAlthough Columbia began recording in stereo in 1956, stereo LPs did not begin to be manufactured until 1958. One of Columbia's first stereo releases was an abridged and re-structured performance of Handel's Messiah by the New York Philharmonic and the Westminster Choir conducted by Leonard Bernstein (recorded on December 31, 1956, on 1⁄2-inch tape, using an Ampex 300-3 machine). Bernstein combined the Nativity and Resurrection sections, and ended the performance with the death of Christ. As with RCA Victor, most of the early stereo recordings were of classical artists, including the New York Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Bruno Walter, Dimitri Mitropoulos, and Leonard Bernstein, and the Philadelphia Orchestra conducted by Eugene Ormandy, who also recorded an abridged Messiah for Columbia. Some sessions were made with the Columbia Symphony Orchestra, an ensemble drawn from leading New York musicians, which had first made recordings with Sir Thomas Beecham in 1949 in Columbia's New York City studios. George Szell and the Cleveland Orchestra recorded mostly for Epic. When Epic dropped classical music, the roster and catalogue was moved to Columbia Masterworks Records.\nColumbia released its first pop stereo albums in the summer of 1958. All of the first dozen or so were stereo versions of albums already available in mono. It was not until September 1958, that Columbia began simultaneous mono/stereo releases. Mono versions of otherwise stereo recordings were discontinued in 1968. To celebrate the 10th anniversary of the introduction of the LP, in 1958 Columbia initiated the \"Adventures in Sound\" series that showcased music from around the world.\nAs far as the catalog numbering system went, there was no correlation between mono and stereo versions for the first few years. Columbia started a new CS 8000 series for pop stereo releases, and figuring the stereo releases as some sort of specialty niche records, didn't bother to link the mono and stereo numbers for two years. Masterworks classical LPs had an MS 6000 series, while showtunes albums on Masterworks were OS 2000. Finally, in 1960, the pop stereo series jumped from 8300 to 8310 to match Lambert, Hendricks & Ross Sing Ellington, the Lambert, Hendricks & Ross album issued as CL-1510. From that point, the stereo numbers on pop albums were exactly 6800 higher than the mono; stereo classical albums were the mono number plus 600; and showtunes releases were the mono number MINUS 3600. Only the last two digits in the respective catalog series' matched.\nPop stereo LPs got into the high 9000s by 1970, when CBS Records revamped and unified its catalog numbering system across all its labels. Masterworks classical albums were in the 7000s, while showtunes stayed in the low 2000s.\nColumbia's engineering department developed a process for emulating stereo from a mono source. They called this process \"Electronically Rechanneled for Stereo\". In the June 16, 1962, issue of Billboard magazine (page 5), Columbia announced it would issue \"rechanneled\" versions of greatest hits compilations that had been recorded in mono, including albums by Doris Day, Frankie Laine, Percy Faith, Mitch Miller, Marty Robbins, Dave Brubeck, Miles Davis, and Johnny Mathis.\n\nThe 1960s\nOuting of \"deep groove\"\nBy the latter half of 1961, Columbia started using pressing plants with newer equipment. The \"deep groove\" pressings were made on older pressing machines, where the groove was an artifact of the metal stamper being affixed to a round center \"block\" to assure the resulting record would be centered. Newer machines used parts with a slightly different geometry, that only left a small \"ledge\" where the deep groove used to be. This changeover did not happen all at once, as different plants replaced machines at different times, leaving the possibility that both deep groove and ledge varieties could be original pressings. The changeover took place starting in late 1961.\n\nCBS Records\nIn 1961, CBS ended its arrangement with Philips Records and formed its own international organization, CBS Records International, in 1962. This subsidiary label released Columbia recordings outside the US and Canada on the CBS label (until 1964 marketed by Philips in Britain). The recordings could not be released under the Columbia Records name because EMI operated a separate record label by that name, Columbia Graphophone Company, outside North America. This was the result of legal maneuvers which led to the creation of EMI in the early 1930s.\nWhile this happened, starting in late 1961, both the mono and the stereo labels of domestic Columbia releases started carrying a small \"CBS\" at the top of the label. This was not something that changed at a certain date, but rather, pressing plants were told to use up the stock of old (pre-CBS) labels first, resulting in a mixture of labels for some given releases. Some are known with the CBS text on mono albums, and not on stereo of the same album, and vice versa; diggings brought up pressings with the CBS text on one side and not on the other. Many, but certainly not all, of the early numbers with the \"ledge\" variation (i.e., no deep groove), had the small \"CBS\". This text would be used on the Columbia labels until June 1962.\nColumbia's Mexican unit, Discos Columbia, was renamed Discos CBS.\nWith the formation of CBS Records International, CBS started establishing its own distribution in the early 1960s, beginning in Australia. In 1960 CBS took over its distributor in Australia and New Zealand, the Australian Record Company (founded in 1936) including Coronet Records, one of the leading Australian independent recording and distribution companies of the day. The CBS Coronet label was replaced by the CBS label with the 'walking eye' logo in 1963. ARC continued trading under that name until the late 1970s when it formally changed its business name to CBS Australia.\n\nMitch Miller on television\nIn 1961, Columbia's music repertoire was given an enormous boost when Mitch Miller, its A&R manager and bandleader, became the host of the variety series Sing Along with Mitch on NBC. The show was based on Miller's 'folksy' but appealing 'chorus' style performance of popular standards. During its four-season run, the series promoted Miller's \"Singalong\" albums, which sold over 20 million units, and received a 34% audience share when it was cancelled in 1964.\n\nBob Dylan\nIn September 1961, CBS A&R manager John Hammond was producing the first Columbia album by folk singer Carolyn Hester, who invited a friend to accompany her on one of the recording sessions. It was here that Hammond first met Bob Dylan, whom he signed to the label, initially as a harmonica player. Dylan's self-titled debut album was released in March 1962 and sold only moderately. Some executives in Columbia dubbed Dylan \"Hammond's folly\" and suggest that Dylan be dropped from the label. But John Hammond and Johnny Cash defended Dylan, who over the next four years became one of Columbia's highest earning acts.\nOver the course of the 1960s, Dylan achieved a prominent position in Columbia. His early folk songs were recorded by many acts and became hits for Peter, Paul & Mary and The Turtles. Some of these cover versions became the foundation of the folk rock genre. The Byrds achieved their pop breakthrough with a version of Dylan's \"Mr. Tambourine Man\". In 1965, Dylan's controversial decision to 'go electric' and work with rock musicians divided his audience but catapulted him to greater commercial success with his 1965 hit single \"Like a Rolling Stone\". Following his withdrawal from touring in 1966, Dylan recorded a large group of songs with his backing group The Band which reached other artists as 'demo recordings'. These resulted in hits by Manfred Mann (\"The Mighty Quinn\") and Brian Auger, Julie Driscoll & Trinity (\"This Wheel's On Fire\"). Dylan's late 1960s albums John Wesley Harding and Nashville Skyline became cornerstone recordings of the emergent country rock genre and influenced The Byrds and The Flying Burrito Brothers.\n\nRock and roll\nWhen the British Invasion arrived in January 1964, Columbia had no rock musicians on its roster except for Dion, who was signed in 1963 as the label's first major rock star, and Paul Revere & the Raiders who were also signed in 1963. The label released a merseybeat album, The Exciting New Liverpool Sound (Columbia CL-2172, issued in mono only). Terry Melcher, son of Doris Day, produced the hard driving \"Don't Make My Baby Blue\" for Frankie Laine, who had gone six years without a hit record. The song reached No. 51 on the pop chart and No. 17 on the easy listening chart.\nMelcher and Bruce Johnston discovered and brought to Columbia the Rip Chords, a vocal group consisting of Ernie Bringas and Phil Stewart, and turned it into a rock group through production techniques. The group had hits in \"Here I Stand\", a remake of the song by Wade Flemons, and \"Hey Little Cobra\". Columbia saw the two recordings as a start to getting into rock and roll. Melcher and Johnston recorded several additional singles for Columbia in 1964 as \"Bruce & Terry\" and later as \"The Rogues\". Melcher produced early albums by the Byrds and Paul Revere & the Raiders for Columbia while Johnston produced the Beach Boys for Capitol Records.\n\nAscension of Clive Davis\nWhen Mitch Miller retired in 1965, Columbia was at a turning point. Miller's disdain for rock and roll and pop rock had dominated Columbia's A&R policy. Sales of Broadway soundtracks and Mitch Miller's singalong series were waning. Pretax earnings had flattened to about $5 million annually. The label's only significant \"pop\" acts at the time were Bob Dylan, the Byrds, Paul Revere & the Raiders and Simon & Garfunkel. In its catalogue were other genres: classical, jazz and country, along with a select group of R&B artists, among them Aretha Franklin. Most historians observed that Columbia had problems marketing Franklin as a major talent in the R&B genre, which led to her leaving the label for Atlantic Records in 1967.\nIn 1967, Brooklyn-born lawyer Clive Davis became president of Columbia. Following the appointment of Davis, the Columbia label became more of a rock music label, thanks mainly to Davis's fortuitous decision to attend the Monterey International Pop Festival, where he spotted and signed several leading acts including Janis Joplin. Joplin led the way for several generations of female rock and rollers. However, Columbia/CBS still had a hand in traditional pop and jazz and one of its key acquisitions during this period was Barbra Streisand. She released her first solo album on Columbia in 1963 and remains with the label to this day. Additionally, the label kept Miles Davis on the roster, and his late 1960s recordings, In a Silent Way and Bitches Brew, pioneered a fusion of jazz and rock music.\nA San Francisco group called Moby Grape had been gaining popularity on the West Coast, and were signed by Davis in 1967. As a way of introducing them to the world with a splash, they released their debut album, along with five singles from the album, all on the same day, June 6, 1967, 23 years following D-Day. The album hit made No. 24 on the Billboard 200, but the singles barely made a dent in the charts, the best performer being \"Omaha\", which lasted a mere three weeks on the Hot 100 reaching only No. 88. The other charter, \"Hey Grandma\", only reached the Bubbling Under chart and faded within a week. Also, there were some complaints about the obscene gesture made to the American flag on the front cover that had to be edited out on the second pressing, not to mention that the group started to decline in sales after that. The return on all the promotional budget for the singles realized nothing. Although the group made two more albums, this particular publicity stunt was never again attempted by Columbia or any other major label.\n\nSimon & Garfunkel\nArguably the most commercially successful Columbia pop act of this period, other than Bob Dylan, was Simon & Garfunkel. The duo scored a surprise No. 1 hit in 1965 when Columbia producer Tom Wilson, inspired by the folk-rock experiments of Dylan, The Byrds and others, added drums and bass to the duo's earlier recording of \"The Sound of Silence\" without their knowledge or approval. Indeed, the duo had already broken up some months earlier, discouraged by the poor sales of their debut LP, and Paul Simon had relocated to the UK, where he only found out about the single being a hit via the music press. The dramatic success of the song prompted Simon to return to the US; the duo reformed, and they soon became one of the flagship acts of the folk-rock boom of the mid-1960s. Their next album, Parsley, Sage, Rosemary and Thyme, went to No. 4 on the Billboard album chart. The duo subsequently had a Top 20 single, \"A Hazy Shade of Winter\", but progress slowed during 1966–67 as Simon struggled with writer's block and the demands of constant touring. They shot back to the top in 1968 after Simon agreed to write songs for the Mike Nichols film The Graduate. The resulting single, \"Mrs. Robinson\", became a smash hit. Both The Graduate soundtrack and Simon & Garfunkel's next studio album, Bookends, were major hits on the album chart, with combined total sales in excess of five million copies. Simon and Garfunkel's fifth and final studio album, Bridge over Troubled Water (1970), reached number one in the US album charts in January 1970 and became one of the most successful albums of all time.\n\nHoyt Axton and Tom Rush\nDavis lured artists Hoyt Axton and Tom Rush to Columbia in 1969, and both were given what was known as \"the pop treatment\" by the label. Hoyt Axton had been a folk/blues singer-songwriter since the early 1960s, when he made several albums for Horizon, then Vee-Jay. By the time he joined Columbia, he had mixed successful pop songs like \"Greenback Dollar\", with hard rock songs for Steppenwolf, such as \"The Pusher\", which was used in the film Easy Rider in the same year. When he landed at Columbia, his album My Griffin Is Gone was described as \"the poster child for 'overproduced,' full of all kinds of instruments and even strings\". After that album, Axton left and joined Capitol Records, where his next albums contained \"Joy to the World\" and \"Never Been to Spain\", which became hits for Three Dog Night on Dunhill. Axton eventually became a country singer, and founded his own record label, Jeremiah.\n\nTom Rush had always been the \"storyteller\" or \"balladeer\" type of folk artist, before and after his stint with Columbia, to which Rush was lured from Elektra. As with Axton, Rush was given \"the treatment\" on his self-titled Columbia debut. The multitude of instruments added to his usual solo guitar were all done \"tastefully\", of course, but was not really on par with Rush's audience expectations. He commented to record label historian Mike Callahan: Well, when you're in the studio, they bring out all these \"sweeteners\" and things they have, and while you're there, you say, yeah, that sounds good. But then you get the album home and you almost can't hear yourself under all that. Eventually, Rush returned to his usual sound (which he applied to his next three albums for Columbia) and has been playing to appreciative audiences ever since.\n\nThe 1970s\nCatalog numbers\nThe Columbia album series began in 1951 with album GL-500 (CL-500) and reached an awkward milestone in 1970, when the stereo numbering sequence reached CS-9999, assigned to the Patti Page album Honey Come Back. This presented a catalog numbering system challenge as Columbia had used a four-digit catalog number for 13 years, and CS-10000 seemed cumbersome. Columbia decided to start issuing albums at CS-1000 instead, preserving the four-digit catalog number. However, this resulted in the reuse of numbers previously used in 1957–58, although the prefix was now different. In July 1970, the cataloging department implemented a new system, combining all their labels into a unified catalog numbering system starting with 30000, with the prefix letter indicating the label: C for Columbia, E for Epic, H for Harmony (budget reissue line), M for Columbia Masterworks, S for movie soundtrack and original Broadway cast albums, Y for Columbia Odyssey, and Z for every other label that CBS distributed (collectively referred to as CBS Associated). The prefix letter G was also used for two album sets—or the number of records in the set after the label letter, such as KC2. The first CBS album released under the new system was The Elvin Bishop Group's self-titled album on Fillmore Records, assigned with F 30001 (the earliest Fillmore albums had the 'F' prefix, rather than a 'Z'), while the first actual Columbia release under the system was Herschel Bernardi's Show Stopper, assigned with C 30004. The highest catalog number released in the old system was CS-1069, assigned to The Sesame Street Book and Record. Chronologically, Columbia issued at least one album in this series in August, but by that time, the CBS Consolidated 30000 series, which started issuing albums in July with the new label design, was well underway, having issued nearly 100 albums. The system was later expanded with even more prefix letters (including R and V for Portrait, A and W for Special Products, L for Sony Wonder, S for Sony Classical, N for Monument, O for Chaos Recordings, and B for 550 Music), which continued until 2005.\nIn September 1970, under the guidance of Clive Davis, Columbia Records entered the West Coast rock market, opening a state-of-the art recording studio (which was located at 827 Folsom St. in San Francisco and later morphed into the Automatt) and establishing an A&R head and office in San Francisco at Fisherman's Wharf, headed by George Daly, a producer and artist for Monument Records (who inked a distribution deal with Columbia at the time) and a former bandmate of Nils Lofgren and Roy Buchanan. The recording studio operated under CBS until 1978.\n\nQuadraphonic Sound\nDuring 1971 Columbia began producing records in four-channel quadraphonic sound, using the \"SQ Quadraphonic\" matrix decoding system. These recordings were backward compatible on conventional two-channel stereo playback systems, but played four-channels of surround sound when heard with special amplifiers and additional speakers. Artists using this technology covered all genres, including classical music Leonard Bernstein and Pierre Boulez, plus popular artists such as Electric Light Orchestra, Billy Joel, Pink Floyd, Johnny Cash, Barbra Streisand, Ray Conniff, Santana, Herbie Hancock, and Blue Öyster Cult. RCA had already begun releasing quadraphonic recordings on 8-track tape starting in 1970, and countered on LP record with the Quadradisc system. The RCA process required a special phono cartridge for \"discrete\" four-channel playback unlike the Columbia \"matrix\" system. Although the Columbia process was simpler and quite effective, many consumers were confused by competing systems and sales of both were disappointing. Columbia released its last quadraphonic recordings in 1978. Starting in the 1990s multichannel surround sound music surged again with the popularity of home cinema systems. Many quadraphonic recordings were reissued in new surround sound formats such as Dolby Digital, DTS, Super Audio CD and Blu-ray, however, multichannel music still did not reach mass-market acceptance.\n\nYetnikoff becomes president\nIn 1975, Walter Yetnikoff was promoted to become President of Columbia Records, and his vacated position as President of CBS Records International was filled by Dick Asher. At this point, according to music historian Frederic Dannen, the shy and introverted Yetnikoff began to transform his personality, becoming (in Asher's words) \"wild, menacing, crude, and above all, very loud\". In Dannen's view, Yetnikoff was probably over-compensating for his naturally sensitive and generous personality, and that he had little hope of being recognised as a \"record man\" (someone with a musical ear and an intuitive understanding of current trends and artists' intentions) because he was tone-deaf, so he instead determined to become a \"colourful character\". Yetnikoff soon became notorious for his violent temper and regular tantrums: \"He shattered glassware, spewed a mixture of Yiddish and barnyard epithets, and had people physically ejected from the CBS building.\"\nIn 1976, Columbia Records of Canada was renamed CBS Records Canada Ltd. The Columbia label continued to be used by CBS Canada, but the CBS label was introduced for French-language recordings. On May 5, 1979, Columbia Masterworks began digital recording in a recording session of Stravinsky's Petrouchka by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Zubin Mehta, in New York (using 3M's 32-channel multitrack digital recorder).\n\nDick Asher vs \"The Network\"\nCBS Records had a popular roster of musicians. It distributed Philadelphia International Records, Blue Sky Records, the Isley Brothers' T-Neck Records and Monument Records (from 1971 to 1976). But the music industry was in financial decline. Total sales fell by 11%, the biggest drop since World War II. In 1979, CBS had a pre-tax income of $51 million and sales of over $1 billion. The label laid off hundreds of employees.\nTo deal with the crisis, CEO John Backe promoted Dick Asher from Vice President of Business Affairs to Deputy President. Charged with cutting costs and restoring profits, Asher was reportedly reluctant to take on the role. He was worried that Yetnikoff would resent his promotion. But Backe had confidence in Asher's experience. In 1972, Asher had turned the British division of CBS from loss to profit. Backe considered him to be honest and trustworthy, and he appealed to Asher's loyalty to the company. Employees at CBS thought Asher was a bore and an interloper. He cut back on expenses and on perks like limousines and restaurants. His relationship with Yetnikoff deteriorated.\nAsher became increasingly concerned about the huge and rapidly growing cost of hiring independent agents, who were paid to promote new singles to radio station program directors. \"Indies\" had been used by record labels for many years to promote new releases, but as he methodically delved into CBS Records' expenses, Asher was dismayed to discover that hiring these independent promoters was now costing CBS alone as much as $10 million per year. When Asher took over CBS' UK division in 1972, a freelance promoter might only charge $100 per week, but by 1979 the top American independent promoters had organized themselves into a loose collective known as \"The Network\", and their fees were now running into the tens millions of dollars per year, Music historian Frederic Dannen estimates that by 1980 the major labels were paying anywhere from to $100,000 to $300,000 per song to the \"Network\" promoters, and that it was costing the industry as whole as much as $80 million annually.\nDuring this period, Columbia scored a Top 40 hit with the Pink Floyd single \"Another Brick in the Wall\", and its parent album The Wall would spend four months at No. 1 on the Billboard LP chart in early 1980, but few in the industry knew that Dick Asher was in fact using the single as a covert experiment to test the extent of the pernicious influence of The Network – by not paying them to promote the new Pink Floyd single. The results were immediate and deeply troubling – not one of the major radio stations in Los Angeles would program the record, despite the fact that the group was in town, performing the first seven concerts on their elaborate The Wall Tour at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena to rave reviews and sold-out crowds. Asher was already worried about the growing power of The Network, and the fact it operated entirely outside the control of the label, but he was profoundly dismayed to realize that \"The Network\" was in effect a huge extortion racket, and that the operation could well be linked to organized crime – a concern vehemently dismissed by Yetnikoff, who resolutely defended the \"indies\" and declared them to be \"mensches\". But Dick Asher now knew that The Network's real power lay in their ability to prevent records from being picked up by radio, and as an experienced media lawyer and a loyal CBS employee, he was also acutely aware that this could become a new payola scandal which had the potential to engulf the entire CBS corporation, and that the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) could even revoke CBS' all-important broadcast licenses if the corporation was found to be involved in any illegality.\n\nThe 1980s and sale to Sony\nThe structure of US Columbia remained the same until 1980, when it spun off the classical/Broadway unit, Columbia Masterworks Records, into a separate imprint, CBS Masterworks Records.\nIn 1988, the CBS Records Group, including the Columbia Records unit, was acquired by Sony, which re-christened the parent division Sony Music Entertainment in 1991. As Sony only had a temporary license on the CBS Records name, it then acquired the rights to the Columbia trademarks (Columbia Graphophone) outside the U.S., Canada, Spain (trademark owned by BMG) and Japan (Nippon Columbia) from EMI, a firm which generally had not used them since the early 1970s. The CBS Records label was officially renamed Columbia Records on January 1, 1991, worldwide except Spain (where Sony got the rights in 2004 by forming a joint venture with BMG) and Japan. CBS Masterworks Records was renamed Sony Classical Records. In December 2006, CBS Corporation revived the CBS Records name for a new minor label closely linked with its television properties (coincidentally, the new CBS Records is currently distributed by another Sony Music division, RED Distribution).\n\nThe 1990s–present\nAmerican talent manager Will Botwin was recruited in 1996 to serve as a Senior Vice President. In 1998, he was appointed Executive Vice President/General Manager and worked closely with many of the label's established artists, as well as newer performers such as Microdisney and Five For Fighting. In 2002, Botwin was promoted to President of the Columbia Records Group; he was appointed Chairman in 2005. In 2006, he left Columbia to head Red Light Management and its associated ATO Records.\nColumbia Records remains a premier subsidiary label of Sony Music Entertainment. In 2009, during the re-consolidation of Sony Music, Columbia was partnered with its Epic Records sister to form the Columbia/Epic Label Group under which it operated as an imprint. In July 2011, as part of further corporate restructuring, Epic was split from the Columbia/Epic Group as Epic took in multiple artists from Jive Records.\nAs of March 2013, Columbia Records was home to 90 artists such as Lauren Jauregui, Robbie Williams, Calvin Harris and Daft Punk.\nOn January 2, 2018, Ron Perry was named as the chairman and CEO of Columbia Records. In January 2023, Jennifer Mallory was appointed President.\n\nLogos and branding\nThe acquisition of rights to the Columbia trademarks by EMI (including the \"Magic Notes\" logo) presented the company with a dilemma of which logo to use. For much of the 1990s, Columbia released its albums without a logo, just the \"COLUMBIA\" word mark in the Bodoni Classic Bold typeface. Columbia experimented with bringing back the \"Notes and Mic\" logo but without the CBS mark on the microphone. That logo is currently used in the \"Columbia Jazz\" series of jazz releases and reissues. A modified \"Magic Notes\" logo is found on the logo for Sony Classical. In mid to late 1999, it was eventually decided that the \"Walking Eye\" (previously the CBS Records logo outside North America) would be Columbia's logo, with the retained Columbia word mark design, throughout the world except in Japan where Nippon Columbia has the rights to the Columbia trademark to this day and continues to use the \"Magic Notes\" logo. In Japan, CBS/Sony Records was renamed Sony Records in 1991 and stopped using the \"Walking Eye\" logo in 1998.\n\nList of Columbia Records artists\nAs of 2024, the current Columbia Records roster includes Barbra Streisand, Bruce Springsteen, Celine Dion, Beyoncé, Adele, Rosalía, Harry Styles, Miley Cyrus, Lil Nas X, Blink-182, Addison Rae, Jennie, JoJo Siwa, Dove Cameron, Central Cee, Chlöe, Halsey, Ive and many more. In October 2012, there were 85 recording artists signed to Columbia Records, making it the largest of the three flagship labels owned by Sony Music (followed by RCA Records with 78 artists and Epic Records with 43 artists).\n\nSubsidiaries\nKemosabe Records\nSmall Giant Records\nCloudBoy Records\nSignal Records\nCMV: Columbia Music Video\nBrushfire Records\n\nAffiliated labels\nColumbia Label Group (UK)\nIn January 2006, Sony BMG UK split its front-line operations into two separate labels: RCA Label Group, mainly dealing with Pop and R&B and Columbia Label Group, mainly dealing with Rock, Dance and Alternative music (although this remit has widened in recent years). Domestic artists include Calvin Harris, George Ezra, Central Cee and Robbie Williams. Dipesh Parmar is the President of Columba Label Group and Amy Wheatley is the Managing Director. Subsidiary labels include Ministry of Sound Records and Room Two Recordings.\n\nAmerican Recording Company (ARC)\nDuring August 1978 Maurice White, founder and leader of the band Earth, Wind & Fire, re-launched the American Recording Company (ARC). In addition to White's Earth, Wind & Fire, the Columbia Records-distributed label artist roster included successful R&B and pop singer Deniece Williams, jazz-fusion group Weather Report, and R&B trio the Emotions. Since the 1940s, Columbia has also re-issued thousands of 1930s records issued on ARC labels.\n\nAware Records\nIn 1997, Columbia made an affiliation with unsigned artist promotion label Aware Records to distribute Aware's artists' music. In 2002, Columbia and Aware accepted the option to continue this relationship.\n\nColumbia Nashville\nIn 2007, Columbia formed Columbia Nashville, which is part of Sony Music Nashville. This gave Columbia Nashville complete autonomy and managerial separation from Columbia in New York City. Columbia had given its country music department semi-autonomy for many years and through the 1950s, had a 20,000 series catalog for country music singles while the rest of Columbia's output of singles had a 30,000, then 40,000 series catalog number.\nIn 2009, Columbia Nashville became part of Sony Music Nashville under the Sony Group Corporation umbrella through Sony Music Group.\n\nRecording studios\nColumbia Records operated recording studios, the most notable of which were in New York City, Nashville, Hollywood and San Francisco. Columbia's first recording studio was established in 1913, after the company moved into the Woolworth Building in Manhattan, the tallest building in the world at the time. In 1917, Columbia used this studio to make one of the earliest jazz records, by the Original Dixieland Jass Band.\n\n7th Avenue, New York\nIn 1939, Columbia established Studio A at 799 Seventh Avenue in New York City. This studio – well known for its use by Bob Dylan in the 1960s – was purchased in 1967 by Jack Arnold and Phil Ramone's A&R Recording, and became Studios A-1 and A-2 for A & R. The building was demolished in 1983 to make way for the Equitable Tower.\n\n52nd Street, New York\nStudio B and Studio E were located in the CBS Studio Building at 49 East 52nd Street in New York City – on the second and fifth floor, respectively.\n\n30th Street, New York\nIn 1948, Columbia built additional new studios at 207 East 30th Street in Manhattan's Murray Hill district, naming them Studio C and Studio D. This complex, nicknamed \"The Church\" due to it having been built within an 1875 building that was originally constructed as a Christian church, was considered by some in the music industry to be the best-sounding room of its time, and many consider it to have been the greatest recording studio in history. CBS never took up the option to buy the building outright, giving up its lease and closing the studio in 1981. In spite of the building's inherent heritage status and its cultural significance, it was sold to developers in 1985, demolished, and replaced by a high-rise apartment complex.\n\nColumbia Square, Hollywood\nIn 1961, Columbia Records renovated and repurposed CBS Radio Studio A at the company's Columbia Square complex at 6121 Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood, California. Columbia utilized the studio for recording and mastering services until its closure in 1972.\n\nColumbia Studios, Nashville\nIn 1962, Columbia Records purchased the Bradley Studios in Nashville, Tennessee (also known as the Quonset Hut), the first recording studio in what would become Nashville's Music Row district when first established by Harold and Owen Bradley in 1954. Renamed Columbia Studios, the company replaced Bradley Studio A with a building containing a newer, larger studio A, mixing and mastering studios, and administrative offices. Columbia operated these studios from 1962 through 1982, when they were converted into office space. Philanthropist Mike Curb bought the structure in 2006 and restored it; it is now a recording classroom for Belmont University's Mike Curb College of Entertainment & Music Business.\n\nLiederkranz Hall Studio, New York\nColumbia also recorded in the highly respected Liederkranz Hall, at 111 East 58th Street between Park and Lexington Avenues, in New York City, it was built by and formerly belonged to a German cultural and musical society, The Liederkranz Society, and used as a recording studio (Victor also recorded in Liederkranz Hall in the late 1920s). The producer Morty Palitz had been instrumental in convincing Columbia Records to begin to use the Liederkranz Hall studio for recording music, additionally convincing the conductor Andre Kostelanetz to make some of the first recordings in Liederkranz Hall which until then had only been used for CBS Symphony radio shows. In 1949, the large Liederkranz Hall space was physically rearranged to create four television studios.\n\nExecutives\nRon Perry – Chairman & CEO\nJenifer Mallory – GM\nStephen Russo – EVP & CFO\nAbou \"Bu\" Thiam – EVP\nEdward Wallerstein – Chairman & CEO (1939–1951)\n\nSee also\nJim Flora, successor to Alex Steinweiss and legendary illustrator for the label during the 1940s\nList of record labels\nSony BMG\nAlex Steinweiss, the label's Art Director from 1938 to 1943, inventor of the illustrated album cover and the LP sleeve\n\nReferences\nDannen, Frederic (1991). Hit Men: Power Brokers and Fast Money Inside The Music Business. London: Vintage. ISBN 0099813106.\n\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nColumbia masters in the Discography of American Historical Recordings\nSee the Profile of Designer Alex Steinweiss",
"title": "Columbia_Records"
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"paragraph_text": "The Australian Record Company (ARC) was a record label and manufacturer later acquired by CBS Records International.\nOriginally known as Featuradio, a company formed in 1933 by George Sutton and his brother-in-law James M. Sayer. They sold the business in 1936, and Sutton continued to work there until it became The Australian Record Company (ARC) in 1938. At the time, ARC shared a studio with radio station 2GB in Sydney and produced transcription discs for radio broadcast, and later began pressing and distributing records. They created original radio programmes directed by Gordon Grimsdale.\nIn 1949, ARC started two new labels, Rodeo and Pacific. Rodeo released music by Reg Lindsay and recordings of Tex Morton. Pacific produced local versions of pop songs from Capitol Records, but stopped when in 1951 ARC purchased the rights to distribute London Records and Capitol Records catalogue in Australia. They later sold its rights to Capitol to EMI.\nIn 1953 The Australian Record Company became The Australian Record Company Limited, and released the first 10\" LP and first 45 RPM record in Australia. They acquired the license to press records from the US Columbia Records, and did so under the name Coronet.\nARC was the largest record company in Australia in 1960 and employed 167 people at the time. That year, ARC were acquired by CBS Records International and changed their name to CBS Records Australia in 1977. By the end of the 1980s, the company had become Sony Music Australia, and later Sony Music Entertainment (Australia) Limited.\n\nReferences\nGeneral references\nThe Australian 45rpm Revolution\nTHE CAPITOL RECORD STORY, Barrier Miner (16 Oct 1954) Page 6\nThe Australian Record Company at Milesago\n\nExternal links\nAustralian Record Company discography at Discogs (1938 to 1953)\nAustralian Record Company discography at Discogs (1953 to 1977)",
"title": "Australian_Record_Company"
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"paragraph_text": "Coronet Records is the name of at least three different record companies.\nOne was based in San Francisco in the 1940s and was responsible for the first recordings of Dave Brubeck. Brubeck's Coronet Records disbanded when it couldn't pay its bills and its recordings were taken over by what became Fantasy Records.\nThe second, a division of Premier Albums, issued a wide range of inexpensive LP records in the 1950s and 1960s in the United States.\nThe third was a record label in Australia, based in Sydney. It operated from the early 1950s until around 1962 and was recognizable by its octagonal label. Until early 1960 Coronet was the principal house label of the ARC, releasing material licensed from international labels, primarily CBS Records in the U.S., as well as material recorded by Australian artists.\nIn 1960 ARC was taken over by CBS Records (although the company continued to trade as ARC until the late 1970s) and the Coronet label was phased out in favour of the new CBS Australia label, which used the CBS/Columbia \"walking eye\" logo.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nCoronet Records discography - Global Dog Productions\nMILESAGO: \"The Australian Record Company\"\n\nSee also\nList of record labels",
"title": "Coronet_Records"
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] | What is so distinctive about the label design of an Australian record label which was purchased in 1960 by another record label which produced the debut album for The Clash? | [] | The octagonal shape | [] | true |
342 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Uduak Amimo is a journalist of Kenyan origin. She hosted the current affairs talk show, Cheche, on Citizen TV, which is part of the Royal Media Services stable between 2012 and 2017. Before returning to Kenya, Amimo worked for several international media organisations, including the BBC World Service, Voice of America and Reuters. She was one of the moderators of Kenya's first presidential debates, held during the 2013 general election.\nAmimo serves as a trustee on the board of Uraia, a national civic education organisation. She is a Media Fellow of the African Leadership Initiative, part of the Aspen Global Leadership Network; she is a Boehm Media Fellow, a Tutu Fellow and a GSIH Fellow.\nShe took a break from her talk show and the media in 2017, she has said, to pursue her interest in coaching and social impact projects. She is the founder of a community-based organisation, Ramani Life Group, which offers career guidance to students in under-resourced secondary schools in Kenya. She also runs a mentoring and coaching program for young professionals in communication-affiliated industries.\n\nEducation\nAmimo begun her primary education at Lavington Primary School in Nairobi before spending three years at Roosevelt Elementary School in Iowa in the United States. She then returned to St George's Primary School in Nairobi before moving to the Navy Primary and Secondary schools in Nigeria. She completed her secondary education in Kenya at the Bunyore Girls High School, where she was a prefect.\nAmimo holds a Bachelor of Arts (Honours) in International Relations from the United States International University in Nairobi, Kenya. She was part of the team that launched the university's newspaper and soon became its editor.\nShe also holds a Master of Arts in Journalism and Public Policy from the American University in Washington, D.C., which she received after winning a scholarship and teaching assistantship.\n\nCareer\nAmimo says she became a journalist to address what she felt was the negative portrayal of Africa, particularly in the international media. Her first job was as an Assistant Producer with Reuters Television in Kenya, where she had interned in her senior year of university. She left Reuters to pursue her MA. After completing her studies, she joined the Voice of America in Washington as a radio and television host, reporter and producer in the English to Africa service.\n\nBBC\nShe joined the BBC in 2002, as a producer and presenter with the English-language BBC African news and current affairs programmes, Network Africa and Focus on Africa Amimo presented, produced and edited radio programmes for the African News and Current Affairs section of the BBC World Service before becoming a Senior Producer and Presenter of the BBC African flagship programme, Focus on Africa. \nIn 2006, Amimo was appointed Senior Editorial Adviser, supporting the Director of the BBC World Service, Nigel Chapman. She moved to Ethiopia in 2009 to become the BBC correspondent in Addis Ababa, covering both the country and the African Union. She has reported from several other African countries.\nShe left the BBC and returned to Kenya in 2011. She took up her position at Royal Media Services in 2012.\n\nPersonal life\nAmimo is a Christian. Her parents are from Kenya and Nigeria.Uduak, her Nigerian name means God's will in her father's language. \nHer second name Amimo is a Kenyan name. She is named after her great-grandmother on her mother's side of the family from western Kenya. She is a first-born.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Uduak_Amimo"
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"paragraph_text": "The president of the Republic of Kenya (Swahili: Rais wa Jamhuri ya Kenya) is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Kenya. The president is also the head of the executive branch of the Government of Kenya and is the commander-in-chief of the Kenya Defence Forces. The country's current president is William Ruto since 13 September 2022.\n\nHistory\nOn 12 December 1964, the Republic of Kenya was proclaimed, and Jomo Kenyatta became Kenya's first president.\nKenya has had a total of five presidents since establishment, in successive order: Jomo Kenyatta, Daniel arap Moi, Mwai Kibaki, Uhuru Kenyatta, and the incumbent, William Ruto, who was inaugurated on 13 September 2022. Moi remains the country's longest serving president, having served for a total of 24 years.\n\nQualifications and election to office\nAccording to the current Constitution, if a person wishes to be elected as president, the following qualifications must be met: \n\nShould be a Kenyan citizen by birth;\nShould be qualified for election as a Member of Parliament;\nShould have been nominated by a political party to stand as its candidate for the presidency, or they may stand as an independent candidate; and\nThe person should have been nominated by more than two thousand voters from each of a majority of the country's 47 counties.\nA candidate will be disqualified to run for presidency if they have allegiance to a foreign state or is working for the government in any capacity as a public officer. Being a public officer is not applicable to the incumbent president if running for a second term.\nThe president is elected by popular vote in the general election held in the month of August every five years. For a presidential candidate to be declared the winner, they must have:\n\nMore than half of the total votes cast in the election; and\nAt least 25% of the votes cast in each of more than half of the 47 counties in the country.\nThe official residence of the president of Kenya is State House, Nairobi.\nThe wife of the president is referred to as the first lady of Kenya.\n\nTerm of office\nA president is eligible for two consecutive terms of five years each, starting from the date the president is sworn in.\n\nRoles and responsibilities\nThe following is a summary of the roles of the president of Kenya as provided in the Constitution of Kenya:\n\nIs the country's head of state and government.\nExercises the country's executive authority.\nIs the commander-in-chief of the country's military, the Kenya Defence Forces.\nIs the chairperson of the country's National Security Council.\nIs a symbol of national unity.\nThe responsibilities of the president are summarised as follows:\n\nIs responsible for addressing each newly elected Parliament and report once to special parliamentary seating concerning issues of national value and governance.\nHolds nominating and appointing authority, with Parliament's approval, over the country's cabinet secretaries, attorney-general, principal secretaries, diplomatic and consular representatives and any other public officer over whom the Constitution grants said authority.\nIs the chairperson of Cabinet meetings and oversees the running of operations in various ministries and government departments.\nThe president may also undertake any other executive functions as permitted by the Constitution.\nThe president also exercises the power of mercy, whereupon the president may pardon a person convicted of an offence.\nAdditionally, a person serving as president has legal immunity, with the exception of crimes under treaties to which Kenya is party with provisions that prohibit such immunity.\n\nList of presidents\nPresidential standards\nAs with most other countries, the president of Kenya has a presidential standard to signify their status as the country's head of state and government. Its design is generally based on the country's national flag, although the president has some leeway to customise its appearance. The flag is generally displayed in notable locations associated with the president, usually alongside the national flag, such as the president's offices and the president's official state car, and during notable state occasions.\n\nThe presidential standards of Kenya's presidents since the country's independence have been as follows:\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\nLists of incumbents\nPolitics of Kenya\nPrime Minister of Kenya\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website",
"title": "President_of_Kenya"
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] | Who was the president of Kenya when Uduak Amimo took a break from her talk show and the media to pursue her interest in coaching and social impact projects? | [] | Uhuru Kenyatta | [] | true |
202 | [
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"paragraph_text": "National Peace Corps Association (NPCA) is a North American nonprofit organization supporting the Peace Corps Agency community. Founded in 1979, the NPCA is headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States \nThe NPCA maintains a database comprising around 150,000 records of volunteers, including figures such as the Peace Corps' founder, John F. Kennedy, and individuals from host countries. The NPCA has historically provided advisory support to Peace Corps volunteers. Its stated objectives include fostering a commitment to the global ideals of the Peace Corps community and advocating for the enhancement and expansion of the U.S. Peace Corps initiative. \nAccording to the Peace Corps mission statement, those ideals entail promoting \"world peace and friendship\" by fulfilling three goals:\n\nTo help the countries interested in meeting their need for trained people.\nTo help promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served.\nTo help promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans.\"\n\nHistory\nIn the mid-1970s, at conferences of global educators in the Midwest, a group of returned Peace Corps volunteers began meeting to discuss their service experiences. They adopted a Peace Corps objective that President John F. Kennedy stated in 1961: \"Come home and teach your neighbors about the communities where you served.\" Their aim was to offer returning Peace Corps volunteers in America a continuing mission and communal identity as Returned Peace Corps Volunteers (RPCVs).\nIn 1979, this group joined with RPCV community leaders in New York and Washington, D.C., to form the National Council of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers, which was incorporated in 1981. In 1993, the organization’s name was later changed to the National Peace Corps Association (NPCA).\nIn response to the Rwandan genocide in 1994, NPCA created the Emergency Response Network (ERN) of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers willing to respond to a crisis. Peace Corps Director Mark Gearan modeled the Crisis Corps (later renamed Peace Corps Response) after this program.\nIn coordination with the Returned Peace Corps Volunteers of Washington, D.C., the NPCA organized 200 RPCVs to march in President Barack Obama's inaugural parade on January 20, 2009. That same year, the NPCA launched Peace Corps Connect, an online social networking platform to help current and returning Peace Corps volunteers interact and share ideas about projects, events, careers, and advocacy issues.\nIn 2002, the NPCA was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, along with the Peace Corps.\n\nAdvocacy\nMembers of the NPCA continue to testify on U.S. Peace Corps legislation and key issues like safety and security.\nIn 2005, NPCA successfully coordinated the removal of Peace Corps references from military recruitment legislation.\n\nAwards and recognition\nNPCA has encouraged and recognized the service of members of the Peace Corps community by awarding over 20 Sargent Shriver Awards for Distinguished Humanitarian Service.\n\nPrograms\nPeace Corps Connect is the annual conference of the Peace Corps community.[1]\nAfrica Rural Connect (ARC) is an online collaboration tool aiming to address some of the challenges in rural African communities. This project introduces and encourages collaboration to identify creative, new plans to deal with the fundamental problems of agricultural development and rural poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation has awarded a grant to the ARC project as part of its Agricultural Development initiative to give millions of smallholder farmers in developing countries the tools and opportunities they need to improve their yields, raise their incomes, and improve the quality of life for themselves and their families.\nThe RPCV Mentoring Program assists returning Peace Corps Volunteers with their transition from service. The program connects recently returned Peace Corps Volunteers with RPCV mentors one year after their service ends. Mentors provide advice, key networking contacts, share experiences and adjustment issues, offer guidance on further education, review resumes, assist with career planning, and promote resources available to RPCVs to help them transition from serving abroad to serving at home.\n\nPublications\nNPCA publishes Worldview magazine four times a year. The magazine shares the Peace Corps' perspective on global issues through articles authored by and about Peace Corps Volunteers, Returned Peace Corps volunteers, and people who \"share the global values of the Peace Corps experience\".\nNPCA also produces email newsletters, including the monthly NPCA News, GlobalEdNews on global issues, and NPCA Advocacy on action alerts and news on legislation impacting the Peace Corps community.\n\nHistory of conferences and events\nSince the year before its founding, the NPCA has planned annual events. These events include large conferences, celebrations for major Peace Corps anniversaries, and general meetings to satisfy bylaws requirements.\n\nOct. 1978: Omaha, Nebraska (Red Lion Hotel)\nGathering predates the founding of NPCA.\nOct. 1979: Omaha, Nebraska (Red Lion Hotel)\nMarked as the founding of NPCA. At this gathering, charter members formalized and signed the bylaws.\nOct. 1980: Omaha, Nebraska (Red Lion Hotel)\n1981: Washington, DC (Red Lion Hotel)\nThe 20th Anniversary of the Peace Corps and the first of the major anniversary conferences (always held in Washington, DC.)\nJune 1982: Los Angeles, CA (University of California-Los Angeles)\n1983: Denver, CO (University of Denver)\n1984: Boston, MA (Emmanuel College)\n1985: Atlanta, GA (Georgia Tech)\nJuly 1986: San Antonio, TX (Trinity University)\nSept. 1986: Washington, DC (National Mall)\n25th Anniversary of Peace Corps\n1987: Madison, WI (University of Wisconsin-Madison)\n1988: Boulder, CO (University of Colorado)\n1989: Kent, OH (Kent State University)\n1990: Eugene, OR (University of Oregon and Hilton Hotel)\nAug. 1991: Washington, DC (National Mall)\n30th Anniversary of Peace Corps\n1992: Fayetteville, AR (University of Arkansas-Fayetteville)\n1993: Berkeley, CA (University of California-Berkeley)\n1994: Atlanta, GA (CNN Center and Omni Atlanta Hotel)\n1995: Austin, TX (University of Texas-Austin)\nMar. 1–3, 1996: Washington, DC (Mayflower Hotel)\n35th Anniversary of Peace Corps\n1996: Shawnee-on-Delaware, PA (Resort Hotel)\nJuly 10–13, 1997: San Diego, CA (Town & Country Hotel and Conference Center)\n1998: Columbus, OH (The Ohio State University)\n1999: Saint Paul, MN (University of St. Thomas )\nAug. 11–13, 2000: Shawnee-on-Delaware (Resort Hotel)\nSept. 21, 2001: Planned for Washington, DC\nCanceled due to attacks on World Trade Center and Pentagon\nJune 20–23, 2002: Washington, DC (Omni Shoreham Hotel)\nPostponed celebration of the 40th Anniversary of Peace Corps\nAug. 1–3, 2003: Portland, OR (University Place Hotel and Conference Center)\nAug. 5–8, 2004: Chicago, IL (Palmer House Hilton)\n2005: Annual General Meeting in Washington, DC\nSept. 14–16, 2006: Washington, DC\n45th Anniversary of Peace Corps\nJune 30, 2007: Annual General Meeting in Washington, DC\nOct. 3–4, 2008: San Francisco, CA (Jewish Community Center)\nJune 30, 2009: Annual General Meeting in Washington, DC\nJune 26, 2010: Annual General Meeting in Washington, DC\nSept. 21–25, 2011: Washington, DC (Georgetown University)\n50th Anniversary of Peace Corps\nJune 27 – July 1, 2012: Minneapolis, MN (Minneapolis Convention Center)\nJune 26–29, 2013: Boston, MA (Harvard University Medical School)\nJune 20–21, 2014: Nashville, TN (Vanderbilt University and Country Music Hall of Fame)\nJune 4–6, 2015: Berkeley, CA (University of California-Berkeley)\nSept. 21–25, 2016: Washington, DC (George Washington University) 55th Anniversary of Peace Corps\nAugust 4–6, 2017: Denver, CO (University of Denver)\nAugust 23–25, 2018: Shawnee on Delaware, PA (Resort)\nJune 20–22, 2019: Austin, TX (University of Texas-Austin)\nSept. 26, 2020: \"Peace Corps Connect to the Future\" (Virtual Conference)\nSept. 23–25, 2021: Washington, DC (Virtual Conference)\n60th Anniversary of Peace Corps\nSept. 24, 2022: Washington, DC (Virtual Conference)\nSept. 8–9, 2023: Washington, DC (Virtual Conference)\nStarting in 1990, affiliated group leaders held the NPCA Presidents' Forum in conjunction with each annual meeting at Kent State University. In 2005, these meetings were renamed the \"Group Leaders' Forum.\"\n\nAffiliate Groups\nThe network includes over 180 affiliate groups. Affiliate groups may be geographic (e.g., Chicago Area Peace Corps Association); based on the country of Peace Corps service (e.g., Friends of Guatemala); associated with workplaces (e.g., RPCVs at USAID); driven by social action (e.g., Peace Corps Community for Refugees); or defined by affinity (e.g., the Peace Corps Oral History Project). Groups advocate in line with the stated goals of the organization.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\nPeace Corps Volunteers Papers Numerical List, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution",
"title": "National_Peace_Corps_Association"
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"paragraph_text": "John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to as JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. He was the youngest person elected president. Kennedy served at the height of the Cold War, and the majority of his foreign policy concerned relations with the Soviet Union and Cuba. A Democrat, Kennedy represented Massachusetts in both houses of the United States Congress prior to his presidency.\nBorn into the prominent Kennedy family in Brookline, Massachusetts, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940, joining the U.S. Naval Reserve the following year. During World War II, he commanded PT boats in the Pacific theater. Kennedy's survival following the sinking of PT-109 and his rescue of his fellow sailors made him a war hero and earned the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, but left him with serious injuries. After a brief stint in journalism, Kennedy represented a working-class Boston district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953. He was subsequently elected to the U.S. Senate, serving as the junior senator for Massachusetts from 1953 to 1960. While in the Senate, Kennedy published his book, Profiles in Courage, which won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy ran in the 1960 presidential election. His campaign gained momentum after the first televised presidential debates in American history, and he was elected president, narrowly defeating Republican opponent Richard Nixon, the incumbent vice president.\nKennedy's presidency saw high tensions with communist states in the Cold War. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam, and the Strategic Hamlet Program began during his presidency. In 1961, he authorized attempts to overthrow the Cuban government of Fidel Castro in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion and Operation Mongoose. In October 1962, U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet missile bases had been deployed in Cuba. The resulting period of tensions, termed the Cuban Missile Crisis, nearly resulted in nuclear war. In August 1961, after East German troops erected the Berlin Wall, Kennedy sent an army convoy to reassure West Berliners of U.S. support, and delivered one of his most famous speeches in West Berlin in June 1963. In 1963, Kennedy signed the first nuclear weapons treaty. He presided over the establishment of the Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress with Latin America, and the continuation of the Apollo program with the goal of landing a man on the Moon before 1970. He supported the civil rights movement but was only somewhat successful in passing his New Frontier domestic policies.\nOn November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. His vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, assumed the presidency. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the assassination, but he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby two days later. The FBI and the Warren Commission both concluded Oswald had acted alone, but conspiracy theories about the assassination persist. After Kennedy's death, Congress enacted many of his proposals, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Revenue Act of 1964. Kennedy ranks highly in polls of U.S. presidents with historians and the general public. His personal life has been the focus of considerable sustained interest following public revelations in the 1970s of his chronic health ailments and extramarital affairs. Kennedy is the most recent U.S. president to have died in office.\n\nEarly life and education\nJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy was born outside Boston in Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917, to Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., a businessman and politician, and Rose Kennedy (née Fitzgerald), a philanthropist and socialite. His paternal grandfather, P. J. Kennedy, was an East Boston ward boss and Massachusetts state legislator. Kennedy's maternal grandfather and namesake, John F. Fitzgerald, was a U.S. congressman and two-term mayor of Boston. All four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. Kennedy had an older brother, Joseph Jr., and seven younger siblings: Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Edward.\nKennedy's father amassed a private fortune and established trust funds for his nine children that guaranteed lifelong financial independence. His business kept him away from home for long stretches, but Joe Sr. was a formidable presence in his children's lives. He encouraged them to be ambitious, emphasized political discussions at the dinner table, and demanded a high level of academic achievement. John's first exposure to politics was touring the Boston wards with his grandfather Fitzgerald during his 1922 failed gubernatorial campaign. With Joe Sr.'s business ventures concentrated on Wall Street and Hollywood and an outbreak of polio in Massachusetts, the family decided to move from Boston to the Riverdale neighborhood of New York City in September 1927. Several years later, his brother Robert told Look magazine that his father left Boston because of job signs that read: \"No Irish Need Apply.\" The Kennedys spent summers and early autumns at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, a village on Cape Cod, where they swam, sailed, and played touch football. Christmas and Easter holidays were spent at their winter retreat in Palm Beach, Florida. In September 1930, Kennedy, 13 years old, was sent to the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut, for 8th grade. In April 1931, he had an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home.\nIn September 1931, Kennedy started attending Choate, a preparatory boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut. Rose had wanted John and Joe Jr. to attend a Catholic school, but Joe Sr. thought that if they were to compete in the political world, they needed to be with boys from prominent Protestant families. John spent his first years at Choate in his older brother's shadow and compensated with rebellious behavior that attracted a clique. Their most notorious stunt was exploding a toilet seat with a firecracker. In the next chapel assembly, the headmaster, George St. John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of \"muckers\" who would \"spit in our sea,\" leading Kennedy to name his group \"The Muckers Club,\" which included roommate and lifelong friend Lem Billings. Kennedy graduated from Choate in June 1935, finishing 64th of 112 students. He had been the business manager of the school yearbook and was voted the \"most likely to succeed.\"\n\nKennedy intended to study under Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, as his older brother had done. Ill health forced his return to the U.S. in October 1935, when he enrolled late at Princeton University, but had to leave after two months due to gastrointestinal illness.\nIn September 1936, Kennedy enrolled at Harvard College. He wrote occasionally for The Harvard Crimson, the campus newspaper, but had little involvement with campus politics, preferring to concentrate on athletics and his social life. Kennedy played football and was on the JV squad during his sophomore year, but an injury forced him off the team, and left him with back problems that plagued him for the rest of his life. He won membership in the Hasty Pudding Club and the Spee Club, one of Harvard's elite \"final clubs\".\nIn July 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his older brother to work at the American embassy in London, where his father was serving as President Franklin D. Roosevelt's ambassador to the Court of St. James's. The following year, Kennedy traveled throughout Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans, and the Middle East in preparation for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He then went to Berlin, where a U.S. diplomatic representative gave him a secret message about war breaking out soon to pass on to his father, and to Czechoslovakia before returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day that Germany invaded Poland; the start of World War II. Two days later, the family was in the House of Commons for speeches endorsing the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the torpedoing of SS Athenia before flying back to the U.S. on his first transatlantic flight.\nWhile Kennedy was an upperclassman at Harvard, he began to take his studies more seriously and developed an interest in political philosophy. He made the dean's list in his junior year. In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, \"Appeasement in Munich\", about British negotiations during the Munich Agreement. The thesis was released on July 24, under the title Why England Slept. The book was one of the first to offer information about the war and its origins, and quickly became a bestseller. In addition to addressing Britain's unwillingness to strengthen its military in the lead-up to the war, the book called for an Anglo-American alliance against the rising totalitarian powers. Kennedy became increasingly supportive of U.S. intervention in World War II, and his father's isolationist beliefs resulted in the latter's dismissal as ambassador.\nIn 1940, Kennedy graduated cum laude from Harvard with a Bachelor of Arts in government, concentrating on international affairs. That fall, he enrolled at the Stanford Graduate School of Business and audited classes, but he left after a semester to help his father complete his memoirs as an American ambassador. In early 1941, Kennedy toured South America.\n\nU.S. Naval Reserve (1941–1945)\nKennedy planned to attend Yale Law School, but canceled when American entry into World War II seemed imminent. In 1940, Kennedy attempted to enter the army's Officer Candidate School. Despite months of training, he was medically disqualified due to his chronic back problems. On September 24, 1941, Kennedy, with the help of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) and the former naval attaché to Joe Sr., Alan Kirk, joined the United States Naval Reserve. He was commissioned an ensign on October 26, 1941, and joined the ONI staff in Washington, D.C.\n\nIn January 1942, Kennedy was assigned to the ONI field office at Headquarters, Sixth Naval District, in Charleston, South Carolina. His hope was to be the commander of a PT (patrol torpedo) boat, but his health problems seemed almost certain to prevent active duty. Kennedy's father intervened by providing misleading medical records and convincing PT officers that his presence would bring publicity to the fleet. Kennedy completed six months of training at the Naval Reserve Officer Training School in Chicago and at the Motor Torpedo Boat Squadrons Training Center in Melville, Rhode Island. His first command was PT-101 from December 7, 1942, until February 23, 1943. Unhappy to be assigned to the Panama Canal, far from the fighting, Kennedy appealed to Massachusetts senator David Walsh, who arranged for him to be assigned to the South Pacific.\n\nCommanding PT-109 and PT-59\nIn April 1943, Kennedy was assigned to Motor Torpedo Squadron TWO, and on April 24 he took command of PT-109, then based on Tulagi Island in the Solomons. On the night of August 1–2, in support of the New Georgia campaign, PT-109 and fourteen other PTs were ordered to block or repel four Japanese destroyers and floatplanes carrying food, supplies, and 900 Japanese soldiers to the Vila Plantation garrison on the southern tip of the Solomon's Kolombangara Island. Intelligence had been sent to Kennedy's Commander Thomas G. Warfield expecting the arrival of the large Japanese naval force that would pass on the evening of August 1. Of the 24 torpedoes fired that night by eight of the American PTs, not one hit the Japanese convoy. On that moonless night, Kennedy spotted a Japanese destroyer heading north on its return from the base of Kolombangara around 2:00 a.m., and attempted to turn to attack, when PT-109 was rammed suddenly at an angle and cut in half by the destroyer Amagiri, killing two PT-109 crew members. Avoiding surrender, the remaining crew swam towards Plum Pudding Island, 3.5 miles (5.6 km) southwest of the remains of PT-109, on August 2. Despite re-injuring his back in the collision, Kennedy towed a badly burned crewman to the island with a life jacket strap clenched between his teeth. From there, Kennedy and his subordinate, Ensign George Ross, made forays through the coral islands, searching for help. When they encountered an English-speaking native with a canoe, Kennedy carved his location on a coconut shell and requested a boat rescue. Seven days after the collision, with the coconut message delivered, the PT-109 crew were rescued.\nAlmost immediately, the PT-109 rescue became a highly publicized event. The story was chronicled by John Hersey in The New Yorker in 1944 (decades later it was the basis of a successful film). It followed Kennedy into politics and provided a strong foundation for his appeal as a leader. Hersey portrayed Kennedy as a modest, self-deprecating hero. For his courage and leadership, Kennedy was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal, and the injuries he suffered during the incident qualified him for a Purple Heart.\nAfter a month's recovery Kennedy returned to duty, commanding the PT-59. On November 2, Kennedy's PT-59 took part with two other PTs in the rescue of 40–50 marines. The 59 acted as a shield from shore fire as they escaped on two rescue landing craft at the base of the Warrior River at Choiseul Island, taking ten marines aboard and delivering them to safety. Under doctor's orders, Kennedy was relieved of his command on November 18, and sent to the hospital on Tulagi. By December 1943, with his health deteriorating, Kennedy left the Pacific front and arrived in San Francisco in early January 1944. After receiving treatment for his back injury at the Chelsea Naval Hospital in Massachusetts from May to December 1944, he was released from active duty. Beginning in January 1945, Kennedy spent three months recovering from his back injury at Castle Hot Springs, a resort and temporary military hospital in Arizona. On March 1, 1945, Kennedy retired from the Navy Reserve on physical disability and was honorably discharged with the full rank of lieutenant. When later asked how he became a war hero, Kennedy joked: \"It was easy. They cut my PT boat in half.\"\nOn August 12, 1944, Kennedy's older brother, Joe Jr., a navy pilot, was killed on an air mission. His body was never recovered. The news reached the family's home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, a day later. Kennedy felt that Joe Jr.'s reckless flight was partly an effort to outdo him. To console himself, Kennedy set out to assemble a privately published book of remembrances of his brother, As We Remember Joe.\n\nJournalism (1945)\nIn April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend of William Randolph Hearst, arranged a position for his son as a special correspondent for Hearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and \"expose[d] him to journalism as a possible career.\" That May he went to Berlin as a correspondent, covering the Potsdam Conference and other events.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives (1947–1953)\nKennedy's elder brother Joe Jr. had been the family's political standard-bearer and had been tapped by their father to seek the presidency. After Joe's death, the assignment fell to JFK as the second eldest. Boston mayor Maurice J. Tobin discussed the possibility of John becoming his running mate in 1946 as a candidate for Massachusetts lieutenant governor, but Joe Sr. preferred a congressional campaign that could send John to Washington, where he could have national visibility.\n\nAt the urging of Kennedy's father, U.S. Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in the strongly Democratic 11th congressional district of Massachusetts to become mayor of Boston in 1946. Kennedy established legal residency at 122 Bowdoin Street across from the Massachusetts State House. Kennedy won the Democratic primary with 42 percent of the vote, defeating nine other candidates. According to Fredrik Logevall, Joe Sr. spent hours on the phone with reporters and editors, seeking information, trading confidences, and cajoling them into publishing puff pieces on John, ones that invariably played up his war record in the Pacific. He oversaw a professional advertising campaign that ensured ads went up in just the right places the campaign had a virtual monopoly on [Boston] subway space, and on window stickers (\"Kennedy for Congress\") for cars and homes and was the force behind the mass mailing of Hersey's PT-109 article. Though Republicans took control of the House in the 1946 elections, Kennedy defeated his Republican opponent in the general election, taking 73 percent of the vote.\nAs a congressman, Kennedy had a reputation for not taking much interest in the running of his office or his constituents' concerns, with one of the highest absenteeism rates in the House, although much was explained by illness. George Smathers, one of his few political friends at the time, claimed that he was more interested in being a writer than a politician, and at that time he suffered from extreme shyness. Kennedy found \"most of his fellow congressmen boring, preoccupied as they all seemed to be with their narrow political concerns.\" The arcane House rules and customs, which slowed legislation, exasperated him.\nKennedy served in the House for six years, joining the influential Education and Labor Committee and the Veterans' Affairs Committee. He concentrated his attention on international affairs, supporting the Truman Doctrine as the appropriate response to the emerging Cold War. He also supported public housing and opposed the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, which restricted the power of labor unions. Though not as vocally anti-communist as Joseph McCarthy, Kennedy supported the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, which required communists to register with the government, and he deplored the \"loss of China.\" During a speech in Salem, Massachusetts on January 30, 1949, Kennedy denounced Truman and the State Department for contributing to the \"tragic story of China whose freedom we once fought to preserve. What our young men had saved [in World War II], our diplomats and our President have frittered away.\" Having served as a boy scout during his childhood, Kennedy was active in the Boston Council from 1946 to 1955 as district vice chairman, member of the executive board, vice-president, and National Council Representative.\nTo appeal to the large Italian-American voting bloc in Massachusetts, Kennedy delivered a speech in November 1947 supporting a $227 million aid package to Italy. He maintained that Italy was in danger from an \"onslaught of the communist minority\" and that the country was the \"initial battleground in the communist drive to capture Western Europe.\" To combat Soviet efforts to take control in Middle Eastern and Asian countries like Indochina, Kennedy wanted the United States to develop nonmilitary techniques of resistance that would not create suspicions of neoimperialism or add to the country's financial burden. The problem, as he saw it, was not simply to be anti-communist but to stand for something that these emerging nations would find appealing.\nAlmost every weekend that Congress was in session, Kennedy would fly back to Massachusetts to give speeches to veteran, fraternal, and civic groups, while maintaining an index card file on individuals who might be helpful for a campaign for statewide office. Contemplating whether to run for Massachusetts governor or the U.S. Senate, Kennedy abandoned interest in the former, believing that the governor \"sat in an office, handing out sewer contracts.\"\n\nU.S. Senate (1953–1960)\nAs early as 1949, Kennedy began preparing to run for the Senate in 1952 against Republican three-term incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. with the campaign slogan \"KENNEDY WILL DO MORE FOR MASSACHUSETTS\". Joe Sr. again financed his son's candidacy (persuading the Boston Post to switch its support to Kennedy by promising the publisher a $500,000 loan), while John's younger brother Robert emerged as campaign manager. Kennedy's mother and sisters contributed as highly effective canvassers by hosting a series of \"teas\" at hotels and parlors across Massachusetts to reach out to women voters. In the presidential election, Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower carried Massachusetts by 208,000 votes, but Kennedy narrowly defeated Lodge by 70,000 votes for the Senate seat. The following year, he married Jacqueline Bouvier.\nKennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absent from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholic last rites. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book about U.S. senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for which he won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957. Rumors that this work was ghostwritten by his close adviser and speechwriter, Ted Sorensen, were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography.\nAt the start of his first term, Kennedy focused on fulfilling the promise of his campaign to do \"more for Massachusetts\" than his predecessor. Although Kennedy's and Lodge's legislative records were similarly liberal, Lodge voted for the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 and Kennedy voted against it. On NBC's Meet the Press, Kennedy excoriated Lodge for not doing enough to prevent the increasing migration of manufacturing jobs from Massachusetts to the South, and blamed the right-to-work provision for giving the South an unfair advantage over Massachusetts in labor costs. In May 1953, Kennedy introduced \"The Economic Problems of New England\", a 36-point program to help Massachusetts industries such as fishing, textile manufacturing, watchmaking, and shipbuilding, as well as the Boston seaport. Kennedy's policy agenda included protective tariffs, preventing excessive speculation in raw wool, stronger efforts to research and market American fish products, an increase in the Fish and Wildlife Service budget, modernizing reserve-fleet vessels, tax incentives to prevent further business relocations, and the development of hydroelectric and nuclear power in Massachusetts. Kennedy's suggestions for stimulating the region's economy appealed to both parties by offering benefits to business and labor, and promising to serve national defense. Congress would eventually enact most of the program. Kennedy, a Massachusetts Audubon Society supporter, wanted to make sure that the shorelines of Cape Cod remained unsullied by industrialization. On September 3, 1959, Kennedy co-sponsored the Cape Cod National Seashore bill with his Republican colleague Senator Leverett Saltonstall.\n\nAs a senator, Kennedy quickly won a reputation for responsiveness to requests from constituents (i.e., co-sponsoring legislation to provide federal loans to help rebuild communities damaged by the 1953 Worcester tornado), except on certain occasions when the national interest was at stake. In 1954, Kennedy voted in favor of the Saint Lawrence Seaway which would connect the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, despite opposition from Massachusetts politicians who argued that the project would hurt the Port of Boston economically.\nIn 1954, when the Senate voted to condemn Joseph McCarthy for breaking Senate rules and abusing an Army general, Kennedy was the only Democrat not to cast a vote against him. Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the censure. However, it was not delivered because Kennedy was hospitalized for back surgery in Boston. Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damaged his support among members of the liberal community in the 1956 and 1960 elections.\nIn 1956, Kennedy gained control of the Massachusetts Democratic Party, and delivered the state delegation to the party's presidential nominee, Adlai Stevenson II, at the Democratic National Convention in August. Stevenson let the convention select the vice presidential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, but receiving national exposure.\nIn 1957, Kennedy joined the Senate's Select Committee on Labor Rackets (also known as the McClellan Committee) with his brother Robert, who was chief counsel, to investigate racketeering in labor-management relations. The hearings attracted extensive radio and television coverage where the Kennedy brothers engaged in dramatic arguments with controversial labor leaders, including Jimmy Hoffa, of the Teamsters Union. The following year, Kennedy introduced a bill to prevent the expenditure of union dues for improper purposes or private gain; to forbid loans from union funds for illicit transactions; and to compel audits of unions, which would ensure against false financial reports. It was the first major labor relations bill to pass either house since the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 and dealt largely with the control of union abuses exposed by the McClellan Committee but did not incorporate tough Taft–Hartley amendments requested by President Eisenhower. It survived Senate floor attempts to include Taft-Hartley amendments and passed but was rejected by the House. \"Honest union members and the general public can only regard it as a tragedy that politics has prevented the recommendations of the McClellan committee from being carried out this year,\" Kennedy announced.\nThat same year, Kennedy joined the Senate's Foreign Relations Committee. There he supported Algeria's effort to gain independence from France and sponsored an amendment to the Mutual Defense Assistance Act that would provide aid to Soviet satellite nations. Kennedy also introduced an amendment to the National Defense Education Act in 1959 to eliminate the requirement that aid recipients sign a loyalty oath and provide supporting affidavits.\nKennedy cast a procedural vote against President Eisenhower's bill for the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and this was considered by some to be an appeasement of Southern Democratic opponents of the bill. Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson agreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure. Kennedy also voted for the \"Jury Trial Amendment.\" Many civil rights advocates criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act. A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957. As a senator from Massachusetts, which lacked a sizable Black population, Kennedy was not particularly sensitive to the problems of African Americans. Robert Kennedy later reflected, \"We weren't thinking of the Negroes of Mississippi or Alabama—what should be done for them. We were thinking of what needed to be done in Massachusetts.\"\n\nMost historians and political scientists who have written about Kennedy refer to his U.S. Senate years as an interlude. According to Robert Dallek, Kennedy called being a senator \"the most corrupting job in the world.\" He complained that they were all too quick to cut deals and please campaign contributors to ensure their political futures. Kennedy, with the luxury of a rich father who could finance his campaigns, could remain independent of any special interest, except for those in his home state of Massachusetts that could align against his reelection. According to Robert Caro, Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson viewed Kennedy as a \"playboy\", describing his performance in the Senate and the House as \"pathetic\" on another occasion, saying that he was \"smart enough, but he doesn't like the grunt work\". Author John T. Shaw acknowledges that while his Senate career is not associated with acts of \"historic statesmanship\" or \"novel political thought,\" Kennedy made modest contributions as a legislator, drafting more than 300 bills to assist Massachusetts and the New England region (some of which became law).\nIn 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to the Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, with 73.6 percent of the vote, the largest winning margin in the history of Massachusetts politics. In the aftermath of his re-election, Kennedy began preparing to run for president by traveling throughout the U.S. with the aim of building his candidacy for 1960.\n\n1960 presidential election\nOn January 2, 1960, Kennedy announced his candidacy for the Democratic presidential nomination. Though some questioned Kennedy's age and experience, his charisma and eloquence earned him numerous supporters. Kennedy faced several potential challengers, including Senate Majority Leader Lyndon Johnson, Adlai Stevenson II, and Senator Hubert Humphrey.\nKennedy traveled extensively to build his support. His campaign strategy was to win several primaries to demonstrate his electability to the party bosses, who controlled most of the delegates, and to prove to his detractors that a Catholic could win popular support. Victories over Senator Humphrey in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries gave Kennedy momentum as he moved on to the 1960 Democratic National Convention in Los Angeles.\nWhen Kennedy entered the convention, he had the most delegates, but not enough to ensure that he would win the nomination. Stevenson—the 1952 and 1956 presidential nominee—remained very popular, while Johnson also hoped to win the nomination with support from party leaders. Kennedy's candidacy also faced opposition from former President Harry S. Truman, who was concerned about Kennedy's lack of experience. Kennedy knew that a second ballot could give the nomination to Johnson or someone else, and his well-organized campaign was able to earn the support of just enough delegates to win the presidential nomination on the first ballot.\n\nKennedy ignored the opposition of his brother Robert, who wanted him to choose labor leader Walter Reuther, and other liberal supporters when he chose Johnson as his vice-presidential nominee. He believed that the Texas senator could help him win support from the South. In accepting the presidential nomination, Kennedy gave his well-known \"New Frontier\" speech: For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier. ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them.\nAt the start of the fall general election campaign, the Republican nominee and incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon held a six-point lead in the polls. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, the Cuban Revolution, and whether the space and missile programs of the Soviet Union had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12: \"I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters—and the Church does not speak for me.\" He promised to respect the separation of church and state, and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy.\n\nThe Kennedy and Nixon campaigns agreed to a series of televised debates. An estimated 70 million Americans, about two-thirds of the electorate, watched the first debate on September 26. Kennedy had met the day before with the producer to discuss the set design and camera placement. Nixon, just out of the hospital after a painful knee injury, did not take advantage of this opportunity and during the debate looked at the reporters asking questions and not at the camera. Kennedy wore a blue suit and shirt to cut down on glare and appeared sharply focused against the gray studio background. Nixon wore a light-colored suit that blended into the gray background; in combination with the harsh studio lighting that left Nixon perspiring, he offered a less-than-commanding presence. By contrast, Kennedy appeared relaxed, tanned, and telegenic, looking into the camera whilst answering questions. It is often claimed that television viewers overwhelmingly believed Kennedy, appearing to be the more attractive of the two, had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience) thought Nixon had defeated him. However, only one poll split TV and radio voters like this and the methodology was poor. Pollster Elmo Roper concluded that the debates raised interest, boosted turnout, and gave Kennedy an extra two million votes, mostly as a result of the first debate. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role.\n\nKennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Election Day, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote, by most accounts, Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the Electoral College, he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). Fourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the civil rights movement; they voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma. Forty-three years old, Kennedy was the youngest person ever elected to the presidency (though Theodore Roosevelt was a year younger when he succeeded to the presidency after the assassination of William McKinley in 1901).\n\nPresidency (1961–1963)\nKennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address, he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens: \"Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.\" He asked the nations of the world to join to fight what he called the \"common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself.\" He added:\n\nAll this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.\" In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: \"Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you.\nThe address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily political realities would be one of the main tensions of the early years of his administration.\nKennedy scrapped the decision-making structure of Eisenhower, preferring an organizational structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president; he was willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment. Though the cabinet remained important, Kennedy generally relied more on his staffers within the Executive Office. In spite of concerns over nepotism, Kennedy's father insisted that Robert Kennedy become U.S. Attorney General, and the younger Kennedy became the \"assistant president\" who advised on all major issues.\n\nForeign policy\nCold War and flexible response\nKennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the global state of tension known as the Cold War. Like his predecessors, Kennedy adopted the policy of containment to stop the spread of communism. Fearful of the possibility of nuclear war, Kennedy implemented a defense strategy known as flexible response. This strategy relied on multiple options for responding to the Soviet Union, discouraged massive retaliation, and encouraged mutual deterrence. In contrast to Eisenhower's warning about the perils of the military-industrial complex, Kennedy focused on rearmament. From 1961 to 1964 the number of nuclear weapons increased by 50 percent, as did the number of B-52 bombers to deliver them.\nIn January 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev declared his support for wars of national liberation. Kennedy interpreted this step as a direct threat to the \"free world.\"\n\nDecolonization and the Congo Crisis\nBetween 1960 and 1963, twenty-four countries gained independence as the process of decolonization continued. Kennedy set out to woo the leaders and people of the \"Third World,\" expanding economic aid and appointing knowledgeable ambassadors. His administration established the Food for Peace program and the Peace Corps to provide aid to developing countries. The Food for Peace program became a central element in American foreign policy, and eventually helped many countries to develop their economies and become commercial import customers.\nDuring the election campaign, Kennedy attacked the Eisenhower administration for losing ground on the African continent, and stressed that the U.S. should be on the side of anti-colonialism and self-determination. Kennedy considered the Congo Crisis to be among the most important foreign policy issues facing his presidency, and he supported a UN operation that prevented the secession of Katanga. Moïse Tshombe, leader of Katanga, declared its independence from the Congo and the Soviet Union responded by sending weapons and technicians to underwrite their struggle. On October 2, 1962, Kennedy signed United Nations bond issue bill to ensure U.S. assistance in financing UN peacekeeping operations in the Congo and elsewhere.\n\nPeace Corps\nIn one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10924 that officially started the Peace Corps. He named his brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, as its first director. Through this program, Americans volunteered to help developing countries in fields like education, farming, health care, and construction. Kennedy believed that countries that received Peace Corps volunteers were less likely to succumb to a communist revolution. Tanganyika (present-day Tanzania) and Ghana were the first countries to participate. The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the year after. Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps, representing 139 countries.\n\nVienna Summit and the Berlin Wall\nKennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Nikita Khrushchev. The proceedings for the summit got off to a problematic start when Kennedy reacted aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961. The speech was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpreted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into the Vienna summit. The summit would cover several topics, but both leaders knew that the most contentious issue would be Berlin, which had been divided in two with the start of the Cold War. The enclave of West Berlin lay within Soviet-allied East Germany, but was supported by the U.S. and other Western powers. The Soviets wanted to reunify Berlin under the control of East Germany, partly due to the large number of East Germans who had fled to West Berlin.\n\nOn June 4, 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meeting angry and disappointed that he had allowed the premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the president's intelligence but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow and East Berlin. He made it clear that any treaty interfering with U.S. access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war. Shortly after Kennedy returned home, the Soviet Union announced its plan to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Kennedy assumed that his only option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring.\nIn the weeks immediately following the summit, more than 20,000 people fled from East Berlin to the western sector, reacting to statements from the Soviet Union. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies. In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion (equivalent to $33.14 billion in 2023) to the defense budget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating.\nA month later, both the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Germans into West Berlin and erected barbed-wire fences, which were quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall. Kennedy acquiesced to the wall, though he sent Vice President Johnson to West Berlin to reaffirm U.S. commitment to the enclave's defense. In the following months, in a sign of rising Cold War tensions, both the U.S. and the Soviet Union ended a moratorium on nuclear weapon testing. A brief stand-off between U.S. and Soviet tanks occurred at Checkpoint Charlie in October following a dispute over free movement of Allied personnel. The crisis was defused largely through a backchannel communication the Kennedy administration had set up with Soviet spy Georgi Bolshakov. In remarks to his aides on the Berlin Wall, Kennedy noted that \"it's not a very nice solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war.\"\n\nBay of Pigs Invasion\nThe Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime though an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained, anti-Castro Cuban exiles led by CIA paramilitary officers. Kennedy had campaigned on a hardline stance against Castro, and when presented with the plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration, he enthusiastically adopted it regardless of the risk of inflaming tensions with the Soviet Union. Kennedy approved the final invasion plan on April 4, 1961.\nOn April 15, 1961, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers left Nicaragua to bomb Cuban airfields. The bombers missed many of their targets, leaving most of Castro's air force intact. On April 17, the 1,500 U.S.-trained Cuban exile invasion force, known as Brigade 2506, landed at beaches along the Bay of Pigs and immediately came under heavy fire. The goal was to spark a widespread popular uprising against Castro, but no such uprising occurred. No U.S. air support was provided. The invading force was defeated within two days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces; 114 were killed and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for a ransom of $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would take place.\nBiographer Richard Reeves said that Kennedy focused primarily on the political repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it proved unsuccessful, he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad. He took responsibility for the failure, saying, \"We got a big kick in the leg and we deserved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it.\" Kennedy's approval ratings climbed afterwards, helped in part by the vocal support given to him by Nixon and Eisenhower. He appointed Robert Kennedy to help lead a committee to examine the causes of the failure. The Kennedy administration banned all Cuban imports and convinced the Organization of American States (OAS) to expel Cuba.\n\nOperation Mongoose\nIn late 1961, the White House formed the Special Group (Augmented), headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale, Secretary Robert McNamara, and others. The group's objective—to overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tactics—was never pursued. In November 1961, he authorized Operation Mongoose. In March 1962, Kennedy rejected Operation Northwoods, proposals for false flag attacks against American military and civilian targets, and blaming them on the Cuban government to gain approval for a war against Cuba. However, the administration continued to plan for an invasion of Cuba in the summer of 1962.\n\nCuban Missile Crisis\nIn the aftermath of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Khrushchev increased economic and military assistance to Cuba. The Soviet Union planned to allocate in Cuba 49 medium-range ballistic missiles, 32 intermediate-range ballistic missiles, 49 light Il-28 bombers and about 100 tactical nuclear weapons. The Kennedy administration viewed the growing Cuba-Soviet alliance with alarm, fearing that it could eventually pose a threat to the U.S. On October 14, 1962, CIA U-2 spy planes took photographs of the Soviets' construction of intermediate-range ballistic missile sites in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offensive in nature and posed an immediate nuclear threat.\nKennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the Soviet Union, but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons (positioned approximately 90 mi (140 km) away from the Florida coast). The U.S. would also appear to the world as less committed to the defense of the Western Hemisphere. On a personal level, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit. To deal with the crisis, he formed an ad-hoc body of key advisers, later known as EXCOMM, that met secretly between October 16 and 28.\nMore than a third of U.S. National Security Council (NSC) members favored an unannounced air assault on the missile sites, but some saw this as \"Pearl Harbor in reverse.\" There was some concern from the international community (asked in confidence) that the assault plan was an overreaction given that Eisenhower had placed PGM-19 Jupiter missiles in Italy and Turkey in 1958. It also could not be assured that the assault would be 100% effective. In concurrence with a majority vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided on a naval blockade (or \"quarantine\"). On October 22, after privately informing the cabinet and leading members of Congress about the situation, Kennedy announced the naval blockade on national television and warned that U.S. forces would seize \"offensive weapons and associated materiel\" that Soviet vessels might attempt to deliver to Cuba.\n\nThe U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginning October 24. Several Soviet ships approached the blockade line, but they stopped or reversed course. The OAS gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. Kennedy exchanged two sets of letters with Khrushchev, to no avail. UN Secretary General U Thant requested both parties to reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrushchev agreed, but Kennedy did not. Kennedy managed to preserve restraint when a Soviet missile unauthorizedly downed a U.S. Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over Cuba, killing pilot Rudolf Anderson.\nAt the president's direction, Robert Kennedy privately informed Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin that the U.S. would remove the Jupiter missiles from Turkey \"within a short time after this crisis was over.\" On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections. The U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equipped with UGM-27 Polaris missiles.\nIn the aftermath, a Moscow–Washington hotline was established to ensure clear communications between the leaders of the two countries. This crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or after, but \"the humanity\" of Khrushchev and Kennedy prevailed. The crisis improved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's approval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter.\n\nLatin America and communism\nBelieving that \"those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable,\" Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of communism in Latin America by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent aid to some countries and sought greater human rights standards in the region. In response to Kennedy's plea, Congress voted for an initial grant of $500 million in May 1961. The Alliance for Progress supported the construction of housing, schools, airports, hospitals, clinics and water-purification projects as well as the distribution of free textbooks to students. However, the program did not meet many of its goals. Massive land reform was not achieved; populations more than kept pace with gains in health and welfare; and according to one study, only 2 percent of economic growth in 1960s Latin America directly benefited the poor. U.S. presidents after Kennedy were less supportive of the program and by 1973, the permanent committee established to implement the Alliance was disbanded by the OAS.\nThe Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans to assassinate Castro in Cuba and Rafael Trujillo in the Dominican Republic. When Kennedy took office, he privately instructed the CIA that any plan must include plausible deniability by the U.S. His public position was in opposition. In June 1961, the Dominican Republic's leader was assassinated; in the days following, Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles led a cautious reaction by the nation. Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called Bowles \"a gutless bastard\" to his face.\n\nLaos\nAfter the election, Eisenhower emphasized to Kennedy that the communist threat in Southeast Asia required priority; Eisenhower considered Laos to be \"the cork in the bottle\" in regards to the regional threat. In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a \"free\" Laos to a \"neutral\" Laos, indicating privately that Vietnam should be deemed America's tripwire for communism's spread in the area. Though he was unwilling to commit U.S. forces to a major military intervention in Laos, Kennedy did approve CIA activities designed to defeat Communist insurgents through bombing raids and the recruitment of the Hmong people.\n\nVietnam\nDuring his presidency, Kennedy continued policies that provided political, economic, and military support to the South Vietnamese government. Vietnam had been divided into a communist North Vietnam and a non-communist South Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Conference, but Kennedy escalated American involvement in Vietnam in 1961 by financing the South Vietnam army, increasing the number of U.S. military advisors above the levels of the Eisenhower administration, and authorizing U.S. helicopter units to provide support to South Vietnamese forces. On January 18, 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) – \"Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation).\" Operation Ranch Hand, a large-scale aerial defoliation effort using the herbicide Agent Orange, began on the roadsides of South Vietnam to combat guerrilla defendants.\nThough Kennedy provided support for South Vietnam throughout his tenure, Vietnam remained a secondary issue for the Kennedy administration until 1963. On September 2, Kennedy declared in an interview with Walter Cronkite of CBS:\n\nIn the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it, the people of Vietnam, against the Communists... But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake... [The United States] made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate—we may not like it—in the defense of Asia.\nKennedy increasingly soured on the president of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, whose violent crackdown on Buddhist practices galvanized opposition to his leadership. In August 1963, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. replaced Frederick Nolting as the U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam. Days after his arrival in South Vietnam, Lodge reported that several South Vietnamese generals sought the assent of the U.S. government to their plan of removing Diem from power. The Kennedy administration was split regarding not just the removal of Diem, but also their assessment of the military situation and the proper U.S. role in the country. After the State Department sent a diplomatic cable to Lodge that ordered him to pressure Diem to remove military authority from his brother, Ngô Đình Nhu, or face potential withdrawal of U.S. support and removal from power, Kennedy instructed Lodge to offer covert assistance to a coup d'état, excluding assassination. On November 1, 1963, a junta of senior military officers executed the coup which led to the arrest and assassinations of Diem and Nhu on November 2.\nBy November 1963, there were 16,000 American military personnel in South Vietnam, up from Eisenhower's 900 advisors; more than one hundred Americans had been killed in action and no final policy decision was made. In the aftermath of the aborted coup in September 1963, the Kennedy administration reevaluated its policies in South Vietnam. Kennedy rejected the full-scale deployment of ground soldiers but also the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. Historians disagree on whether the U.S. military presence in Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964. Fueling the debate are statements made by Secretary of Defense McNamara in the 2003 documentary film The Fog of War that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election, and comments made by Kennedy administration White House Counsel and speechwriter Ted Sorensen in a 2008 memoir suggesting that Kennedy was undecided about what policy direction to take.\nOn October 11, 1963, Kennedy signed NSAM 263 ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year following the third recommendation of the McNamara–Taylor mission report, which concluded that the training program for the South Vietnamese military had sufficiently progressed to justify the withdrawal. However, NSAM 263 also approved the first recommendation of the report to continue providing support to South Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism and until the Viet Cong was suppressed, while the third recommendation suggested that even if the majority of the U.S. military objective was completed by the end of 1965 that continued presence of U.S. training personnel in more limited numbers could be necessary if the insurgency was not suppressed.\n\nWest Berlin speech\nIn 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet aggression to the east as well as the impending retirement of West German Chancellor Adenauer. At the same time, French President Charles de Gaulle was trying to build a Franco-West German counterweight to the American and Soviet spheres of influence. To Kennedy's eyes, this Franco-German cooperation seemed directed against NATO's influence in Europe.\nTo reinforce the U.S. alliance with West Germany, Kennedy travelled to West Germany and West Berlin in June 1963. On June 26, Kennedy toured West Berlin, culminating in a public speech at the city hall in front of hundreds of thousands of enthusiastic Berliners. He reiterated the American commitment to Germany and criticized communism and was met with an ecstatic response from the massive audience. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: \"Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from leaving us.\" The speech is known for its famous phrase \"Ich bin ein Berliner\" (\"I am a Berliner\").\n\nMiddle East\nKennedy ended the arms embargo that the Truman and Eisenhower administrations had enforced on Israel in favor of increased security ties, becoming the founder of the U.S.-Israeli military alliance. Describing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the first to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' between the U.S. and Israel. In 1962, the Kennedy administration sold Israel a major weapon system, the Hawk antiaircraft missile. Historians differ as to whether Kennedy pursued security ties with Israel primarily to shore up support with Jewish-American voters, or because of his admiration of the Jewish state.\nIn December 1961, Abd al-Karim Qasim's Iraqi government passed Public Law 80, which restricted the partially American-controlled Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC)'s concessionary holding to those areas in which oil was actually being produced (namely, the fields at Az Zubair and Kirkuk), effectively expropriating 99.5% of the IPC concession. British and U.S. officials demanded that the Kennedy administration place pressure on the Qasim regime. In April 1962, the State Department issued new guidelines on Iraq that were intended to increase American influence. Meanwhile, Kennedy instructed the CIA—under the direction of Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt Jr.—to begin making preparations for a military coup against Qasim.\nThe anti-imperialist and anti-communist Iraqi Ba'ath Party overthrew and executed Qasim in a violent coup on February 8, 1963. Despite persistent rumors that the CIA orchestrated the coup, declassified documents and the testimony of former CIA officers indicate that there was no direct American involvement. The Kennedy administration was pleased with the outcome and ultimately approved a $55-million arms deal for Iraq.\n\nIreland\nDuring his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland beginning on June 26, 1963, Kennedy accepted a grant of armorial bearings from the Chief Herald of Ireland, received honorary degrees from the National University of Ireland and Trinity College Dublin, attended a State Dinner in Dublin, and was conferred with the freedom of the towns and cities of Wexford, Cork, Dublin, Galway, and Limerick. He visited the cottage at Dunganstown, near New Ross, County Wexford, where his ancestors had lived before emigrating to America.\nKennedy was the first foreign leader to address the Houses of the Oireachtas, the Irish parliament. Kennedy later told aides that the trip was the best four days of his life.\n\nAmerican University speech\nOn June 10, 1963, Kennedy, at the high point of his rhetorical powers, delivered the commencement address at American University. Also known as \"A Strategy of Peace\", not only did Kennedy outline a plan to curb nuclear arms, but he also \"laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time when the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race.\" Kennedy also announced that the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, and that the U.S. had postponed planned atmospheric tests.\n\nNuclear Test Ban Treaty\nTroubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. In response, the United States conducted tests five days later. Shortly afterwards, new U.S. satellites began delivering images that made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the arms race. Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the Soviet Union perceived itself to be at parity.\nIn July 1963, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a treaty with the Soviets. The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation to Andrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections to verify compliance.\nUltimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate approved the treaty on September 23, 1963, and Kennedy signed it on October 7, 1963. France was quick to declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defenses.\n\nDomestic policy\nNew Frontier\nKennedy called his domestic proposals the \"New Frontier\". However, Kennedy's small margin of victory in the 1960 election, his lack of deep connections to influential members of Congress, and his administration's focus on foreign policy hindered the passage of New Frontier policies.\nIn 1961, Kennedy prioritized passing five bills: federal assistance for education, medical insurance for the elderly, housing legislation, federal aid to struggling areas, and an increase in the federal minimum wage. Kennedy's bill to increase the federal minimum wage to $1.25 an hour passed in early 1961, but an amendment inserted by conservative leader from Georgia, Carl Vinson, exempted laundry workers from the law. Kennedy also won passage of the Area Redevelopment Act and the Housing Act of 1961. The Area Redevelopment Act, a $394 million program, provided federal funding to economically struggling regions (primarily in Appalachia), while the Housing Act of 1961 provided funds for urban renewal and public housing and authorized federal mortgage loans to those who did not qualify for public housing. Kennedy proposed a bill providing for $2.3 billion in federal educational aid to the states, with more money going to states with lower per capita income. Though the Senate passed the education bill, it was defeated in the House by a coalition of Republicans, Southern Democrats, and Catholics. Kennedy's health insurance bill, which would have paid for hospitalization and nursing costs for the elderly, failed to pass either house of Congress. A bill that would have established the Department of Urban Affairs and Housing was also defeated.\nIn 1962, Kennedy won approval of the Manpower Development and Training Act, a three-year program aimed at retraining workers displaced by new technology. Its impact on structural unemployment, however, was minimal. At the urging of his sister Eunice, Kennedy made intellectual disabilities a priority for his administration. In 1963, Congress passed the Community Mental Health Act, which provided funding to local mental health community centers and research facilities.\nTrade policy included both domestic and foreign policy. The 1962 Trade Expansion Act passed Congress by wide majorities. It authorized the president to negotiate tariff reductions on a reciprocal basis of up to 50 percent with the European Common Market. The legislation paved the way for the Kennedy Round of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade negotiations, concluding on June 30, 1967, the last day before expiration of the Act.\n\nTaxes\nWalter Heller, who served as the chairman of the CEA, advocated for a Keynesian-style tax cut designed to help spur economic growth, and Kennedy adopted this policy. The idea was that a tax cut would stimulate consumer demand, which in turn would lead to higher economic growth, lower unemployment, and increased federal revenues. To the disappointment of liberals like John Kenneth Galbraith, Kennedy's embrace of the tax cut shifted his administration's focus away from the proposed old-age health insurance program and other domestic expenditures. In January 1963, Kennedy proposed a tax cut that would reduce the top marginal tax rate from 91 to 65 percent, and lower the corporate tax rate from 52 to 47 percent. The predictions according to the Keynesian model indicated the cuts would decrease income taxes by about $10 billion and corporate taxes by about $3.5 billion. The plan included reforms designed to reduce the impact of itemized deductions, as well as provisions to help the elderly and handicapped. Republicans and many Southern Democrats opposed the bill, calling for simultaneous reductions in expenditures, but debate continued throughout 1963. Three months after Kennedy died, Johnson pushed the plan through Congress. The Revenue Act of 1964 lowered the top individual rate to 70 percent, and the top corporate rate to 48 percent.\n\nEconomy\nKennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keep interest rates down and to encourage growth of the economy. He presided over the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his first budget in 1961 resulted in the nation's first non-war, non-recession deficit. The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in one when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably throughout his administration. Despite low inflation and interest rates, the GDP had grown by an average of only 2.2% per annum during the Eisenhower administration (scarcely more than population growth at the time), and it had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in office.\nThe economy turned around and prospered during Kennedy's presidency. The GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963, while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased. Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales increased by 40%. This sustained rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until around 1969.\nKennedy was proud that his Labor Department helped keep wages steady in the steel industry, but was outraged in April 1962 when Roger Blough, the president of U.S. Steel, quietly informed Kennedy that his company would raise prices. In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy began a price-fixing investigation against U.S. Steel, and President Kennedy convinced other steel companies to rescind their price increases until finally even U.S. Steel, isolated and in danger of being undersold, agreed to rescind its own price increase. An editorial in The New York Times praised Kennedy's actions and stated that the steel industry's price increase \"imperil[ed] the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation.\" Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of Budget reported the price increase would have caused a net gain for the GDP as well as a net budget surplus. The stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election in 1960, dropped 10% shortly after the administration's action on the steel industry took place.\n\nCivil rights movement\nKennedy verbally supported civil rights during his 1960 presidential campaign; he telephoned Coretta Scott King, wife of Martin Luther King Jr., who had been jailed while trying to integrate a department store lunch counter. Robert Kennedy called Georgia Governor Ernest Vandiver and obtained King's release from prison, which drew additional Black support to his brother's candidacy. Recognizing that conservative Southern Democrats could block legislation, Kennedy did not introduce civil rights legislation on taking office. He needed their support to pass his economic and foreign policy agendas, and to support his reelection in 1964. Kennedy did appoint many Blacks to office, including civil rights attorney Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Court of Appeals.\nKennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern Whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, and he distanced himself from it. As articulated by Robert Kennedy, the administration's early priority was to \"keep the president out of this civil rights mess.\" Civil rights movement participants, mainly those on the front line in the South, viewed Kennedy as lukewarm, especially concerning the Freedom Riders. In May 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality, led by James Farmer, organized integrated Freedom Rides to test a Supreme Court case ruling that declared segregation on interstate transportation illegal. The Riders were repeatedly met with mob violence, including by federal and state law enforcement officers. Kennedy assigned federal marshals to protect the Riders rather than using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents. Kennedy feared sending federal troops would stir up \"hated memories of Reconstruction\" among conservative Southern whites. The Justice Department then petitioned the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to adhere to federal law. By September 1961, the ICC ruled in favor of the petition.\nOn March 6, 1961, Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925, which required government contractors to \"take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.\" It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity.\nIn September 1962, James Meredith enrolled at the all-White University of Mississippi but was prevented from entering. In response, Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals. The Ole Miss riot of 1962 left two dead and dozens injured, prompting Kennedy to send in 3,000 troops to quell the riot. Meredith did finally enroll in class. Kennedy regretted not sending in troops earlier and he began to doubt whether the \"evils of Reconstruction\" he had been taught or believed were true. On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signed Executive Order 11063, which prohibited racial discrimination in federally supported housing.\n\nOn June 11, 1963, Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor George Wallace blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two Black students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from attending. Wallace moved aside only after being confronted by Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and the Alabama National Guard, which had just been federalized by order of the president. That evening Kennedy gave his famous Report to the American People on Civil Rights speech on national television and radio, launching his initiative for civil rights legislation—to provide equal access to public schools and other facilities, and greater protection of voting rights.\nHis proposals became part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The day ended with the murder of an NAACP leader, Medgar Evers, in Mississippi. As Kennedy had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leader Carl Albert called to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrats and Republicans. When Arthur Schlesinger Jr. complimented Kennedy on his remarks, Kennedy bitterly replied, \"Yes, and look at what happened to area development the very next day in the House.\" He then added, \"But of course, I had to give that speech, and I'm glad that I did.\" On June 16, The New York Times published an editorial which argued that while Kennedy had initially \"moved too slowly and with little evidence of deep moral commitment\" in regards to civil rights he \"now demonstrate[d] a genuine sense of urgency about eradicating racial discrimination from our national life.\"\n\nA crowd of over 250,000, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. Kennedy initially opposed the march, fearing it would have a negative effect on the prospects for the civil rights bills pending in Congress. These fears were heightened just prior to the march when FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover presented Kennedy with reports that some of King's close advisers, specifically Jack O'Dell and Stanley Levison, were communists. When King ignored the administration's warning, Robert Kennedy authorized the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones \"on a trial basis, for a month or so,\" Hoover extended the clearance so his men were \"unshackled\" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy.\nThe Department of Justice was assigned to coordinate the federal government's involvement in the March on Washington on August 28; several hundred thousand dollars to were channeled to the six sponsors of the March. To ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and the president personally edited speeches that were inflammatory and collaborated on all aspects related to times and venues. Thousands of troops were placed on standby. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was considered a \"triumph of managed protest,\" and not one arrest relating to the demonstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt that the March was a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill.\nThree weeks later on Sunday, September 15, a bomb exploded at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four Black children had died in the explosion, and two others were shot to death in the aftermath. Due to this resurgent violence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critically endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of Kennedy. He called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the following day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get it out of the House committee. Gaining Republican support, Senator Everett Dirksen promised the legislation would be brought to a vote preventing a Senate filibuster. On July 2, 1964, the guarantees Kennedy proposed in his June 1963 speech became federal law, when President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act.\n\nStatus of women\nDuring the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy endorsed the concept of equal pay for equal work. In December 1961, Kennedy signed an executive order creating the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women to advise him on issues concerning the status of women. Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. The commission's final report was issued in October 1963; it documented the legal and cultural discrimination women in America faced and made several policy recommendations to bring about change. On June 10, 1963, Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which amended the Fair Labor Standards Act and abolished wage disparity based on sex.\n\nCrime\nUnder the leadership of the attorney general, the Kennedy administration shifted the focus of the Justice Department, the FBI, and the IRS to organized crime. Kennedy won congressional approval for five bills (i.e., Federal Wire Act of 1961) designed to crack down on interstate racketeering, gambling, and the transportation of firearms.\nOn March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law a bill abolishing the mandatory death penalty for first degree murder in the District of Columbia, the only remaining jurisdiction in the United States with such a penalty. The death penalty has not been applied in D.C. since 1957 and has now been abolished.\n\nAgriculture\nKennedy had relatively little interest in agricultural issues, but he sought to remedy the issue of overproduction, boost the income of farmers, and lower federal expenditures on agriculture. Under the direction of Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman, the administration sought to limit the production of farmers, but these proposals were generally defeated in Congress. To increase demand for domestic agricultural products and help the impoverished, Kennedy launched a pilot Food Stamp program and expanded the federal school lunch program.\n\nNative American relations\nConstruction of the Kinzua Dam flooded 10,000 acres (4,000 hectares) of Seneca nation land that they had occupied under the Treaty of 1794, and forced 600 Seneca to relocate to Salamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by the American Civil Liberties Union to halt the project, but he declined, citing a critical need for flood control. He expressed concern about the plight of the Seneca and directed government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assistance to mitigate their displacement.\n\nSpace policy\nIn the aftermath of the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, NASA proposed a crewed lunar landing by the early 1970s. Funding for the program, known as the Apollo program, was far from certain as Eisenhower held an ambivalent attitude. Early in his presidency, Kennedy was poised to dismantle the crewed space program, but he postponed any decision out of deference to Vice President Johnson, who had been a strong supporter of the program in the Senate. With Jerome Wiesner, Johnson was given a major role in overseeing the administration's space policy, and at Johnson's recommendation Kennedy appointed James E. Webb to head NASA.\nIn Kennedy's State of the Union address in 1961, he suggested international cooperation in space. Khrushchev declined, as the Soviets did not wish to reveal the status of their rocketry and space capabilities. In April 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind by the Soviet Union. Less than a month later, Alan Shepard became the first American to travel into space, strengthening Kennedy's confidence in NASA. The following year, John Glenn, aboard the Mercury craft Friendship 7, became the first American to orbit the Earth.\nIn the aftermath of Gagarin's flight, as well as the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy felt pressured to respond to the perceived erosion of American prestige. He asked Johnson to explore the feasibility of beating the Soviets to the Moon. Though he was concerned about the program's costs, Kennedy agreed to Johnson's recommendation that the U.S. commit to a crewed lunar landing as the major objective of the space program. In a May 25 speech to Congress, Kennedy declared,\n\n... I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. Full text \n\nThough Gallup polling showed that many in the public were skeptical of the necessity of the Apollo program, members of Congress were strongly supportive in 1961 and approved a major increase in NASA's funding. Webb began reorganizing NASA, increasing its staffing level, and building two new centers: a Launch Operations Center for the large Moon rocket northwest of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, and a Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston. Kennedy took the latter occasion as an opportunity to deliver another speech promoting the space effort on September 12, 1962, in which he said:\n\n No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard. Full text \nOn November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for reasons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified. On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death, Apollo 11 landed the first crewed spacecraft on the Moon.\n\nJudicial appointments\nIn 1962, Kennedy appointed justices Byron White and Arthur Goldberg to the Supreme Court. Additionally, Kennedy appointed 21 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to the United States district courts.\n\nAssassination\nKennedy was assassinated in Dallas at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time on November 22, 1963. He was in Texas on a political trip to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation) and conservative John Connally. Traveling in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza, he was shot once in the back, the bullet exiting via his throat, and once in the head.\n\nKennedy was taken to Parkland Hospital, where he was pronounced dead 30 minutes later, at 1:00 p.m. He was 46 years old. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested for the murder of police officer J. D. Tippit and was subsequently charged with Kennedy's assassination. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a patsy, and was shot dead by Jack Ruby on November 24, before he could be prosecuted. Ruby was arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction but died of cancer on January 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was being set.\nPresident Johnson quickly issued an executive order to create the Warren Commission—chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren—to investigate the assassination. The commission concluded that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy and that Oswald was not part of any conspiracy. These conclusions are disputed by many. A Gallup Poll in November 2013 showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought that Oswald did it alone. In 1979, the U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded, with one third of the committee dissenting, \"that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of a conspiracy.\" The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of the conspiracy. This conclusion was based largely on audio recordings of the shooting. Subsequently, investigative reports from the FBI and a specially appointed National Academy of Sciences Committee determined that \"reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a second gunman.\" The Justice Department concluded \"that no persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a conspiracy\".\n\nFuneral\nKennedy's body was brought back to Washington. On November 23, six military pallbearers carried the flag-draped coffin into the East Room of the White House, where he lay in repose for 24 hours. Then, the coffin was carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night, hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket, with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state.\nKennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, at St. Matthew's Cathedral in Washington, D.C. The Requiem Mass was led by Cardinal Richard Cushing, then the Archbishop of Boston. It was attended by approximately 1,200 guests, including representatives from over 90 countries. After the service, Kennedy was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia.\n\nPersonal life, family, and reputation\nThe Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, three ambassadors, and multiple other representatives and politicians. While a congressman, Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel in 1951, at which point he became close with his then 25-year-old brother Robert, as well as his 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25,000-mile (40,000 km) trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends. Robert would eventually serve as his brother's attorney general and closest presidential advisor; he would later run for president in 1968 before his assassination, while another Kennedy brother, Ted, ran for president in 1980. Kennedy's nephew and Robert's son, Robert Jr., ran for president in 2024.\n\nWife and children\nKennedy met his wife, Jacqueline Lee \"Jackie\" Bouvier, when he was a congressman. Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a dinner party. They were married on September 12, 1953, at St. Mary's Church in Newport, Rhode Island. The newlyweds honeymooned in Mexico, before settling in their new home, Hickory Hill in McLean, Virginia. In 1956, they sold their Hickory Hill estate to Kennedy's brother Robert, and bought a townhouse in Georgetown. The Kennedys also resided at an apartment in Boston, their legal residence during John's congressional career, and a summer home in Cape Cod, Massachusetts.\nAfter a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956 (their daughter Arabella), their daughter Caroline was born in 1957. John Jr., nicknamed \"John-John\" by the press as a child, was born in late November 1960, 17 days after his father was elected. John Jr. died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed. In August 1963, Jackie gave birth to a son, Patrick. However, he died after two days due to complications from birth.\n\nPopular image\nKennedy and his wife were younger than the presidents and first ladies who preceded them, and both were popular in the media culture in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcast live and made good use of the medium. In 1961, the Radio-Television News Directors Association presented Kennedy with its highest honor, the Paul White Award, in recognition of his open relationship with the media.\nThe Kennedys invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the White House lawn, they established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool with 10 other children inside the home.\nVaughn Meader's First Family comedy album, which parodied the president, the first lady, their family, and the administration, sold about four million copies.\n\nHealth\nDespite a privileged youth, Kennedy was plagued by childhood diseases, including whooping cough, chicken pox, measles, and ear infections. These ailments compelled him to spend a considerable amount of time convalescing. Three months prior to his third birthday, in 1920, Kennedy came down with scarlet fever, a highly contagious and life-threatening disease, and was admitted to Boston City Hospital.\n\nDuring his years at Choate, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated with his emergency hospitalization in 1934 at Yale New Haven Hospital, where doctors suspected leukemia. While sick, he became a passionate reader and also a fatalist. In June 1934, he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota; the ultimate diagnosis was colitis. After withdrawing from Princeton University, Kennedy was hospitalized for observation at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. He then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand outside Benson, Arizona under Jack Speiden.\nYears after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, when he was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The London Clinic with Addison's disease. Davis estimated that Kennedy would not live for another year, while Kennedy hoped he could live for ten. In 1966, White House physician Janet Travell revealed that Kennedy also had hypothyroidism. The presence of two endocrine diseases raises the possibility that Kennedy had autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2.\nKennedy suffered from chronic severe back pain, for which he had surgery. His condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat back pain during the 1961 Vienna Summit. The combination included hormones, animal organ cells, steroids, vitamins, enzymes, and amphetamines, and possible side effects included hyperactivity, hypertension, impaired judgment, nervousness, and mood swings. Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by three doctors, one of whom, Max Jacobson, at first was unknown to the other two, as his mode of treatment was controversial and used for the most severe bouts of back pain.\nInto late 1961, disagreements existed among Kennedy's doctors concerning the balance of medication and exercise. Kennedy preferred the former because he was short on time and desired immediate relief. The president's primary White House physician, George G. Burkley, set up gym equipment in the White House basement, where Kennedy did stretching exercises thrice weekly. Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime. Burkley realized that treatments by Jacobson and Travell, including excessive use of steroids and amphetamines, were medically inappropriate, and took action to remove Kennedy from their care.\n\n \nIn 2002, Robert Dallek wrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health based on a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from 1955 to 1963, including X-rays and prescription records from Travell. According to Travell's records, during his presidential years Kennedy suffered from high fevers; stomach, colon, and prostate issues; abscesses; high cholesterol; and adrenal problems. Travell kept a \"Medicine Administration Record\", cataloging Kennedy's medications: injected and ingested corticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treatments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections and an abscess; and Tuinal to help him sleep.\n\nAffairs and friendships\nKennedy was single in the 1940s while having relationships with Danish journalist Inga Arvad and actress Gene Tierney. During his time as a senator, he had an affair with Gunilla von Post, who later wrote that the future president tried to end his marriage to be with her before having any children with his wife. Kennedy was also reported to have had affairs with Marilyn Monroe, Judith Campbell, Mary Pinchot Meyer, Marlene Dietrich, White House intern Mimi Alford, and his wife's press secretary, Pamela Turnure. There have been several conspiracy theories surrounding the deaths of Monroe and Meyer, alleging that Kennedy may have had a part in their deaths.\nThe full extent of Kennedy's relationship with Monroe (who in 1962 famously sang \"Happy Birthday, Mr. President\" at Kennedy's birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden) is not known, though it has been reported that they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while he was staying at Bing Crosby's house. Furthermore, people at the White House switchboard noted that Monroe had called Kennedy during 1962. J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received reports about Kennedy's indiscretions. These included an alleged tryst with an East German spy, Ellen Rometsch. According to historian Michael Beschloss, in July 1963, Hoover reportedly informed Robert Kennedy about the affair with a woman \"suspected as a Soviet intelligence agent, someone linked to East German intelligence.\" Robert reportedly took the matter sufficiently seriously to raise it with leading Democratic and Republican figures in Congress. Former Secret Service agent Larry Newman recalled \"morale problems\" that the president's indiscretions engendered within the Secret Service.\nKennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supporters. According to Reeves, this included \"the logistics of Kennedy's liaisons ... [which] required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians.\" Kennedy believed that his friendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from public revelations about his sex life.\n\nSports\nKennedy was a fan of Major League Baseball's Boston Red Sox and the National Basketball Association's Boston Celtics. Growing up on Cape Cod, Kennedy and his siblings developed a lifelong passion for sailing. He also took up golf; playing regularly at the Hyannisport Club in Massachusetts and the Palm Beach Country Club in Florida.\n\nReligion\nKennedy was the first Catholic elected to the presidency. During his childhood, he attended St. Aidan's Church in Brookline, Massachusetts, where he was baptized on June 19, 1917.\n\nHistorical evaluations and legacy\nPresidency\nHistorians and political scientists tend to rank Kennedy as an above-average president, and he is usually the highest-ranking president who served less than one full term. A 2014 survey from The Washington Post of 162 members of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Kennedy 14th highest overall among the 43 persons who have been president, including then-president Barack Obama. The survey found Kennedy to be the most overrated U.S. president. A 2017 C-SPAN survey has Kennedy ranked among the top ten presidents. A 2023 Gallup, Inc. survey showed Kennedy with a retrospective approval rating of 90 percent, the highest of all U.S. presidents in recent history. Assessments of his policies are mixed. Many of Kennedy's legislative proposals were passed after his death, during the Johnson administration, and Kennedy's death gave those proposals a powerful moral component.\nKennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King Jr. and Mother Teresa) in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. In 1961, he was awarded the Laetare Medal by the University of Notre Dame, considered the most prestigious award for American Catholics. He was posthumously awarded the Pacem in Terris Award (Latin: Peace on Earth) and the Presidential Medal of Freedom.\n\nCamelot\nThe term \"Camelot\" is often used to describe his presidency, reflecting both the mythic grandeur accorded Kennedy in death and powerful nostalgia for that era of American history. According to Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, the most popular theme surrounding Kennedy's legacy is its replay of the legend of King Arthur and Camelot from Arthurian Literature. In an interview following Kennedy's death, his widow Jacqueline mentioned his affection for the Broadway musical Camelot and quoted its closing lines: \"Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief, shining moment that was known as Camelot.\" Critics, especially historians, have mocked the Camelot myth as a distortion of Kennedy's actions, beliefs, and policies. However, in the public memory, the years of Kennedy's presidency are still seen as a brief, brilliant, and shining moment.\n\nMemorials and eponyms\nExamples of the extensive list include:\n\nIdlewild Airport in Queens, New York City, renamed John F. Kennedy International Airport on December 24, 1963\nNASA Launch Operations Center in Merritt Island, Florida named the John F. Kennedy Space Center on November 29, 1963.\nUSS John F. Kennedy (CV-67), U.S. Navy aircraft carrier ordered in April 1964, launched May 1967, decommissioned August 2007; nicknamed \"Big John\"\nKennedy half dollar, first minted in 1964\nJohn F. Kennedy School of Government, part of Harvard University, renamed in 1966\nJohn F. Kennedy Federal Building in the Government Center section of Boston, opened in 1966\nJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial, opened in 1970 in Dallas\nNational cultural center was named John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in 1964, opened in 1971 in Washington, D.C.\nJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum on Columbia Point in Boston; opened in 1979\nStatue of John F. Kennedy by Isabel McIlvain on the grounds of the Massachusetts State House in Boston; dedicated on May 29, 1990.\n\nWorks\nBooks\nKennedy, John F. (1940). Why England Slept. W. Funk. ISBN 978-1-44-084990-9.\nKennedy, John F. (1956). Profiles in Courage. Harper & Brothers. ISBN 978-0-06-095544-1.\nKennedy, John F. (1958). A Nation of Immigrants. Anti-Defamation League. ISBN 978-0-06-144754-9.\n\nSelect speeches\nSee also\nCultural depictions of John F. Kennedy\nElectoral history of John F. Kennedy\nHistory of the United States (1945–1964)\nKennedy Doctrine\nLincoln–Kennedy coincidences urban legend\nList of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots\nPresidential transition of John F. Kennedy\nPresidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps\n\"Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy\" retort by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, 1988 VP debate\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCitations\nWorks cited\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nJohn F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum\nJohn Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nJohn F. Kennedy: A Resource Guide – the Library of Congress\nExtensive Essays on JFK with shorter essays on his cabinet and First Lady – Miller Center of Public Affairs\nKennedy Administration from Office of the Historian, United States Government Printing Office\nWorks by or about John F. Kennedy at the Internet Archive\nWorks by John F. Kennedy at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nJohn F. Kennedy at Curlie\nWorks by John F. Kennedy at Project Gutenberg\nKennedy Convocation Collection at the Amherst College Archives & Special Collections, documenting one of his last visits before his assassination\nUnited States Congress. \"John F. Kennedy (id: K000107)\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.",
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"paragraph_text": "Robert Sargent Shriver Jr. (November 9, 1915 – January 18, 2011) was an American diplomat, politician, and activist. He was a member of the Shriver family by birth, and a member of the Kennedy family through his marriage to Eunice Kennedy. Shriver was the driving force behind the creation of the Peace Corps, and founded the Job Corps, Head Start, VISTA, Upward Bound, and other programs as the architect of the 1960s War on Poverty. He was the Democratic Party's nominee for vice president in the 1972 presidential election.\nBorn in Westminster, Maryland, Shriver attended Yale University, then Yale Law School, graduating in 1941. An opponent of U.S. entry into World War II, he helped establish the America First Committee but volunteered for the United States Navy before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. During the war, he served in the South Pacific, participating in the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. After being discharged from the navy, he worked as an assistant editor for Newsweek and met Eunice Kennedy, marrying her in 1953.\nHe worked on the 1960 presidential campaign of his brother-in-law, John F. Kennedy, and helped establish the Peace Corps after Kennedy's victory. After Kennedy's assassination, Shriver served in the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson and helped establish several anti-poverty programs as director of the Office of Economic Opportunity from October 16, 1964, to March 22, 1968. He also served as the United States Ambassador to France from 1968 to 1970. In 1972, Democratic vice presidential nominee Thomas Eagleton resigned from the ticket, and Shriver was chosen as his replacement. The Democratic ticket of George McGovern and Shriver lost in a landslide election defeat to Republican President Richard Nixon and Vice President Spiro Agnew. Shriver briefly sought the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination but dropped out of the race after the first set of primaries.\nAfter leaving office, he resumed the practice of law, becoming a partner with Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson. He also served as president of the Special Olympics and was briefly a part-owner of the Baltimore Orioles. He was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003 and died in Bethesda, Maryland, in 2011.\n\nEarly life and education\nRobert Sargent Shriver Jr. was born in Westminster, Maryland, the younger of two sons. Shriver's parents Robert Sargent Shriver Sr. and Hilda, who had also been born with the surname Shriver, were second cousins. His elder brother was Thomas Herbert Shriver. Shriver was a member of the Shriver family that has been in Maryland since 1721 and have occupied the Union Mills Homestead. His grandfather, Thomas Herbert Shriver, guided J. E. B. Stuart to the battle of Gettysburg when Thomas was just seventeen years of age. He was also a descendant of David Shriver, who signed the Maryland Constitution and Bill of Rights at Maryland's Constitutional Convention of 1776.\nHe spent his high school years at Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut, which he attended on a full scholarship. In his freshman year at Canterbury, he befriended future brother-in-law President John F. Kennedy. He was on Canterbury's baseball, basketball, and football teams, became the editor of the school's newspaper, and participated in choral and debating clubs. On June 9, 2023, Shriver was inducted into the Canterbury School Athletic Hall of Fame for all three sports. After graduating from The Browning School in 1934, Shriver spent the summer in Germany as part of The Experiment in International Living, returning in the fall of 1934 to enter Yale University, where he was a brother in the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, as well as a member of Yale's Scroll and Key society.\n\nMilitary career\nAn early opponent of American involvement in World War II, Shriver was a founding member of the America First Committee, an organization started in 1940 by a group of Yale Law School students, also including future President Gerald Ford and future Supreme Court Justice Potter Stewart, which tried to keep the US out of the European war. Nevertheless, Shriver volunteered for the US Navy before the attack on Pearl Harbor and said he had a duty to serve his country even if he disagreed with its policies. He spent five years on active duty, mostly in the South Pacific, serving aboard the USS South Dakota (BB-57), reaching the rank of lieutenant commander (O-4). He was awarded a Purple Heart for wounds he received during the bombardment of Guadalcanal.\n\nFamily life\nShriver's relationship with the Kennedys began when he was working as an assistant editor at Newsweek after his discharge from the Navy. He met Eunice Kennedy at a party in New York, and shortly afterwards, family patriarch Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. asked him to look at diary entries written by his eldest son, Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., who had died in a plane crash while he was on a military mission during World War II. Shriver was later hired to manage the Merchandise Mart, part of Kennedy's business empire, in Chicago, Illinois.\nAfter a seven-year courtship, Shriver married Eunice Kennedy on May 23, 1953, at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City. She was the third daughter of Joseph Kennedy Sr. and Rose Kennedy.\nThey had five children: Robert Sargent \"Bobby\" Shriver III (born April 28, 1954), Maria Owings Shriver (born November 6, 1955), Timothy Perry Shriver (born August 29, 1959), Mark Kennedy Shriver (born February 17, 1964), and Anthony Paul Kennedy Shriver (born July 20, 1965). The Shrivers were married for 56 years, and often worked together on projects.\nShriver was admitted to practice law in the District of Columbia, Illinois, and New York, and at the US Supreme Court.\nA devout Catholic, Shriver attended daily Mass and always carried a rosary of well-worn wooden beads. He was critical of abortion and was a signatory to \"A New Compact of Care: Caring about Women, Caring for the Unborn\", which appeared in The New York Times in July 1992 and stated that \"To establish justice and to promote the general welfare, America does not need the abortion license. What America needs are policies that responsibly protect and advance the interest of mothers and their children, both before and after birth.\"\n\nPublic service and political career\n1950s\nIn May 1954, Shriver was appointed to the Chicago Board of Education by Chicago mayor Martin H. Kennelly. On October 26, 1955, Shriver was chosen to serve as president of the Chicago Board of Education by a vote of the board. Shriver would serve in the position of president for five years, resigning from the position on October 10, 1960. At the time he became president of the board, he was the second-youngest individual to hold that office, being only 39. At the time, Chicago Public Schools was the second-largest school district in the United States.\nShriver also served as director of the Catholic Interracial Council, a group created to advocate for desegregation in Chicago schools.\nShriver considered several runs for statewide office. His first consideration was for the Democratic nomination in the 1956 Illinois gubernatorial election. Shriver had been courted by many Chicago Democrats, including Mayor Richard J. Daley, but ultimately chose to stay out of the election. The primary was won by Cook County Treasurer Herbert C. Paschen who would be forced to withdraw as the nominee after becoming embroiled in scandals surrounding his work as Treasurer. District Court Judge Richard B. Austin, was chosen as the replacement and went on to narrowly lose the election to incumbent Governor William Stratton.\n\n1960s\nIn 1960, Shriver once again received serious courting by Democratic leaders in both Chicago and across the state to enter the Democratic primary for the 1960 Illinois gubernatorial election. Shriver even met with Mayor Daley and the Cook County Democratic Committee to gauge a possible run at Daley's urging. However his father-in-law, Joseph P. Kennedy, told Shriver he would not be able to run or else he could seriously cripple the Presidential campaign of his brother-in-law, John F. Kennedy. His father-in-law cited the oversaturation of Catholic candidates in Illinois could cost the Democrats the state in November (Kennedy, Shriver, and Daley were all Catholic).\nWhen John F. Kennedy ran for president, Shriver worked as a political and organization coordinator in the Wisconsin and West Virginia primaries. During Kennedy's presidential term, Shriver founded and served as the first director of the Peace Corps from March 22, 1961, to February 28, 1966.\nShriver has been credited with convincing a hesitant Kennedy to contact Coretta Scott King after her husband, prominent civil rights activist Martin Luther King, was jailed for civil disobedience in Georgia in October 1960. Kennedy's phone call to Coretta Scott King was credited with helping to strengthen black support for Kennedy's candidacy.\nAfter Kennedy's assassination, Shriver continued to serve as Director of the Peace Corps and served as Special Assistant to President Lyndon Johnson. Under Johnson, he created the Office of Economic Opportunity and served as its first director. He is known as the \"architect\" of the Johnson administration's \"War on Poverty\". Hired by President Johnson to be the \"salesman\" for Johnson's War on Poverty initiative, Shriver initially was \"not interested in hearing about community action proposals.\" The Job Corps movement was more consistent with his goals. Thus, soon after his appointment, Shriver \"moved quickly to reconsider the proposed anti-poverty initiative.\"\nShriver founded numerous social programs and organizations, including Head Start, VISTA, Job Corps, Community Action, Upward Bound, Foster Grandparents, Legal Services, the National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (now the Shriver Center), Indian and Migrant Opportunities and Neighborhood Health Services, in addition to directing the Peace Corps. He was active in the Special Olympics, which was founded in 1968 by his wife Eunice.\nShriver was awarded the Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award in 1967. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in terris is Latin for 'Peace on Earth'.\nIn 1964 Shriver was considered one of the primary finalists on Johnson's shortlist to be vice president. After weighing the benefits of Shriver as the second spot on the ticket, Johnson ultimately chose Hubert Humphrey. Shriver again considered running for Governor of Illinois in the 1964 Illinois gubernatorial election. However, he demurred after being asked by President Johnson to stay on and continue leading the creation of many of the aforementioned War on Poverty programs that would become part of the Great Society.\nIn 1968, Shriver was once again seriously courted by Illinois Democrats for both the 1968 Illinois gubernatorial election against increasingly unpopular incumbent Governor Otto Kerner, Jr. and the 1968 United States Senate election in Illinois against incumbent Republican Everett Dirksen. Shriver expressed little interest in serving in the Senate, not wanting to be overshadowed by his brothers-in-law Ted Kennedy and specifically Robert Kennedy, who he had expected to run for president in 1972. To move Shriver toward a run, Daley pitched to Illinois Democratic leaders and Shriver on recruiting Illinois State Treasurer Adlai E. Stevenson III to run for the Senate seat with Shriver running for Governor. Shriver even received Johnson's blessing to make the run as part of Daley's \"Dream Ticket\", should he choose to do so. However, when Stevenson spoke out against the Vietnam War, Daley rejected Stevenson's candidacy and again tried to recruit Shriver for the Senate seat. Johnson had offered Shriver the post of U.S. Ambassador to France, but asked for time to consider the offer, during which he considered his potential candidacy. When Stevenson lost Daley's support for the Senate seat and began trying to recruit Shriver again, Shriver decided to accept Johnson's offer of the Ambassadorship.\nShriver served as U.S. Ambassador to France from 1968 to 1970, becoming a quasi-celebrity among the French for bringing what Time magazine called \"a rare and welcome panache\" to the normally sedate world of international diplomacy. Upon returning to the United States in 1970, Shriver was speculated to be considering challenging incumbent Democratic Governor Marvin Mandel for the Democratic nomination for the 1970 Maryland gubernatorial election, reports he did nothing to dissuade despite Mandel's sizable campaign fund and being the state's first Jewish Governor. Mandel had been elected by the Maryland Legislature to finish out the term Spiro Agnew had been elected to in 1966, but resigned from after being elected Vice President in 1968. After traveling the state to gauge the support a potential candidacy might have, Shriver met with Mandel in the Governor's office. After emerging from the meeting, Shriver declined to be a candidate. Mandel recalled years later, \"We had a long discussion, and when it was over, he wasn't a candidate.\"\n\nVice Presidential candidacy\nDuring the 1972 Democratic National Convention in Miami Beach, Florida, George McGovern considered Shriver as a vice presidential candidate, but his campaign was unable to reach Shriver, who was at the time visiting Moscow, Soviet Union. McGovern then selected Thomas Eagleton instead, who later resigned from the Democratic ticket following revelations of past mental health treatments. Shriver replaced Eagleton on the ticket. The McGovern-Shriver ticket lost to Republican incumbents Richard Nixon and Spiro Agnew.\n\nPresidential candidacy\nShriver unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1976. In the months before the primaries began, political observers thought that Shriver would draw strength from legions of former colleagues from the Peace Corps and the War on Poverty programs, and he was even seen as an inheritor of the Kennedy legacy, but neither theory proved true. His candidacy was short-lived and he returned to private life.\n\nLife after politics\nShriver was a partner of the Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson law firm in Washington, D.C., where he specialized in international law and foreign affairs, beginning in 1971. He retired as partner in 1986 and was then named of counsel to the firm.\nIn 1981, Shriver was appointed to the Rockefeller University Council, an organization devoted exclusively to research and graduate education in the biomedical and related sciences.\nIn 1984, he was elected president of Special Olympics by the board of directors; as president, he directed the operation and international development of sports programs around the world. Six years later, in 1990, he was appointed chairman of the board of Special Olympics.\nHe was an investor in the Baltimore Orioles along with his eldest son Bobby Shriver, Eli Jacobs, and Larry Lucchino from 1989 to 1993.\n\nIllness and death\nShriver was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease in 2003. In 2004, his daughter, Maria, published a children's book, What's Happening to Grandpa?, to help explain Alzheimer's to children. The book gives suggestions on how to help and to show love to an elderly person with the disease. In July 2007, Shriver's son-in-law, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, speaking in favor of stem-cell research, said that Shriver's Alzheimer's disease had advanced to the point that \"Today, he does not even recognize his wife.\" Maria Shriver discusses her father's worsening condition in a segment for the four-part 2009 HBO documentary series The Alzheimer's Project called Grandpa, Do You Know Who I Am?, including describing a moment when she decided to stop trying to correct his various delusions.\nOn August 11, 2009, Shriver's wife of 56 years, Eunice, died at the age of 88. He attended her wake and funeral in Centerville and Hyannis, Massachusetts. Two weeks later, on August 29, 2009, he attended the funeral of her brother Ted Kennedy in Boston, Massachusetts.\nShriver died on January 18, 2011, in Suburban Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, at age 95. Shriver's family released a statement calling him \"a man of giant love, energy, enthusiasm, and commitment\" who \"lived to make the world a more joyful, faithful, and compassionate place.\" President Barack Obama also released a statement, calling Shriver \"one of the brightest lights of the greatest generation\". Aaron S. Williams, the director of the Peace Corps, said in a statement, \"The entire Peace Corps community is deeply saddened by the passing of Sargent Shriver.\" He further noted that Shriver \"served as our founder, friend, and guiding light for the past 50 years\" and that \"his legacy of idealism will live on in the work of current and future Peace Corps volunteers.\" He is buried alongside his wife Eunice at St. Francis Xavier Cemetery in Centerville, Massachusetts.\n\nLegacy\nIn 1968, he was awarded the Laetare Medal by the University of Notre Dame, the oldest and most prestigious award for American Catholics.\nIn 1993, Shriver received the Franklin D. Roosevelt Freedom From Want Award. On August 8, 1994, Shriver received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian honor, from President Bill Clinton.\nIn December 1993, the University of Maryland, Baltimore County created the Shriver Center in honor of Shriver and his wife. The center serves as the university's civic engagement, and applied learning organization. The Shriver Center also is home to the Shriver Peaceworker Program and the Shriver Living Learning Community.\nThe Job Corps dedicated a center to his name in 1998 – the \"Shriver Job Corps Center\" – located in Devens, Massachusetts. The National Clearinghouse for Legal Services (renamed the National Center on Poverty Law in 1995) was renamed the Shriver Center in 2002 and each year awards a Sargent Shriver Award for Equal Justice.\nSargent Shriver Elementary School, located in Silver Spring, Maryland, is named after him.\nIn January 2008, a documentary film about Shriver aired on PBS, titled American Idealist: The Story of Sargent Shriver.\nThe Kennedy Shriver Aquatic Center in Bethesda, Maryland, is named after him and Eunice Kennedy Shriver.\nFollowing his death, Daniel Larison wrote:\n\nShriver was an admirable, principled, and conscientious man who respected the dignity and sanctity of human life, and he also happened to be a contemporary and in-law of Kennedy. Not only did Shriver represent a \"link\" with JFK, but he represented a particular culture of white ethnic Catholic Democratic politics that has been gradually disappearing for the last fifty years. A pro-life Catholic, Shriver had been a founding member of the America First Committee, and more famously he was also on the 1972 antiwar ticket with George McGovern. In short, he represented much of what was good in the Democratic Party of his time.\n\nElectoral history\n1972 United States presidential election\n\nRichard Nixon/Spiro Agnew (R) (inc.) – 47,168,710 (60.7%) and 520 electoral votes (49 states carried)\nGeorge McGovern/Sargent Shriver (D) – 29,173,222 (37.5%) and 17 electoral votes (1 state and D.C. carried)\nJohn Hospers/Theodora Nathan (Libertarian) – 3,674 (0.00%) and 1 electoral vote (Republican faithless elector)\nJohn G. Schmitz/Thomas J. Anderson (AI) – 1,100,868 (1.4%) and 0 electoral votes\nLinda Jenness/Andrew Pulley (Socialist Workers) – 83,380 (0.1%)\nBenjamin Spock/Julius Hobson (People's) – 78,759 (0.1%)\n1976 Democratic presidential primaries\n\nJimmy Carter – 6,235,609 (39.27%)\nJerry Brown – 2,449,374 (15.43%)\nGeorge Wallace – 1,955,388 (12.31%)\nMo Udall – 1,611,754 (10.15%)\nHenry M. Jackson – 1,134,375 (7.14%)\nFrank Church – 830,818 (5.23%)\nRobert Byrd – 340,309 (2.14%)\nSargent Shriver – 304,399 (1.92%)\nUnpledged – 283,437 (1.79%)\nEllen McCormack – 238,027 (1.50%)\nFred R. Harris – 234,568 (1.48%)\nMilton Shapp – 88,254 (0.56%)\nBirch Bayh – 86,438 (0.54%)\nHubert Humphrey – 61,992 (0.39%)\nTed Kennedy – 19,805 (0.13%)\nLloyd Bentsen – 4,046 (0.03%)\nTerry Sanford – 404 (0.00%)\n\nPortrayals in film\nThe film Too Young the Hero (1988), about the life of Calvin Graham, features a scene during World War II in which Graham (played by Ricky Schroder) meets Shriver (played by Carl Mueller).\nAl Conti portrays Shriver in the 1983 miniseries Kennedy.\nHe is played by David De Beck in the 2018 film Chappaquiddick.\n\nSee also\nList of United States political appointments across party lines\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nStossel, Scott (2004). Sarge: The life and times of Sargent Shriver. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978-1-58834-127-3.\nShriver, Mark (2012). A Good Man: Rediscovering My Father, Sargent Shriver. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 978-0805095302.\n\nExternal links\n\nSargent Shriver Peace Institute\nAppearances on C-SPAN\nFBI file on Sargent Shriver\nSargent Shriver National Center on Poverty Law\nVideo: Sargent Shriver delivering a speech about the Peace Corps in 1965\nSargent Shriver at Find a Grave",
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] | The National Peace Corps Association was founded in 1979 by a United States politician. This founder then appointed the very first director of the Peace Corps, his brother-in-law. What is the first name of this director? | [] | Robert | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Condor (possibly from Quechua for condor) is a mountain in the Andes of Peru, about 5,200 metres (17,060 ft) high. It is located in the Arequipa Region, Caylloma Province, Choco District. It lies in the Chila mountain range north of the Colca River. Condor is situated at the Umaranra valley. Its stream flows to the Collpamayo (possibly from Quechua for \"salpeter river\") whose waters feed the Colca River.\n\n\n== References ==",
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"paragraph_text": "Mount Rainier ( ray-NEER), also known as Tahoma, is a large active stratovolcano in the Cascade Range of the Pacific Northwest in the United States. The mountain is located in Mount Rainier National Park about 59 miles (95 km) south-southeast of Seattle. With a summit elevation of 14,399.6 ft (4,389 m), it is the highest mountain in the U.S. state of Washington, the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States, and the tallest in the Cascade Volcanic Arc.\nDue to its high probability of an eruption in the near future and proximity to a major urban area, Mount Rainier is considered one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, and it is on the Decade Volcano list. The large amount of glacial ice means that Mount Rainier could produce massive lahars that could threaten the entire Puyallup River valley and other river valleys draining Mount Rainier, including the Carbon, White, Nisqually, and Cowlitz (above Riffe Lake). According to the United States Geological Survey, \"about 80,000 people and their homes are at risk in Mount Rainier's lahar-hazard zones.\"\nBetween 1950 and 2018, 439,460 people climbed Mount Rainier. Approximately 84 people died in mountaineering accidents on Mount Rainier from 1947 to 2018.\n\nName\nThe many Indigenous peoples who have lived near Mount Rainier for millennia have many names for the mountain in their various languages.\n\nLushootseed speakers have several names for Mount Rainier, including xʷaq̓ʷ and təqʷubəʔ. xʷaq̓ʷ means \"sky wiper\" or \"one who touches the sky\" in English. The word təqʷubəʔ means \"snow-covered mountain\". təqʷubəʔ has been anglicized in many ways, including 'Tacoma' and 'Tacobet'.\nCowlitz speakers call the mountain təx̣ʷúma or təqʷúmen. Sahaptin speakers call the mountain Tax̱úma, which is borrowed from Cowlitz.\nAnother anglicized name is Pooskaus.\nGeorge Vancouver named Mount Rainier in honor of his friend, Rear Admiral Peter Rainier. The map of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804–1806 refers to it as \"Mt. Regniere\". Although Rainier had been considered the official name of the mountain, Theodore Winthrop referred to the mountain as \"Tacoma\" in his posthumously published 1862 travel book The Canoe and the Saddle. For a time, both names were used interchangeably, although residents of the nearby city of Tacoma preferred Mount Tacoma.\nIn 1890, the United States Board on Geographic Names declared that the mountain would be known as Rainier. Following this in 1897, the Pacific Forest Reserve became the Mount Rainier Forest Reserve, and the national park was established three years later. Despite this, there was still a movement to change the mountain's name to Tacoma and Congress was still considering a resolution to change the name as late as 1924.\n\nGeographical setting\nMount Rainier is the tallest mountain in Washington and the Cascade Range. This peak is located just east of Eatonville and just southeast of Tacoma and Seattle. Mount Rainier is ranked third of the 128 ultra-prominent mountain peaks of the United States. Mount Rainier has a topographic prominence of 13,210 ft (4,026 m), which is greater than that of K2, the world's second-tallest mountain, at 13,189 ft (4,020 m). On clear days it dominates the southeastern horizon in most of the Seattle-Tacoma metropolitan area to such an extent that locals sometimes refer to it simply as \"the Mountain\". On days of exceptional clarity, it can also be seen from as far away as Corvallis, Oregon (at Marys Peak), and Victoria, British Columbia.\nWith 26 major glaciers and 36 sq mi (93 km2) of permanent snowfields and glaciers, Mount Rainier is the most heavily glaciated peak in the lower 48 states. The summit is topped by two volcanic craters, each more than 1,000 ft (300 m) in diameter, with the larger east crater overlapping the west crater. Geothermal heat from the volcano keeps areas of both crater rims free of snow and ice, and has formed the world's largest volcanic glacier cave network within the ice-filled craters, with nearly 2 mi (3.2 km) of passages.\nA small crater lake about 130 by 30 ft (39.6 by 9.1 m) in size and 16 ft (5 m) deep, the highest in North America with a surface elevation of 14,203 ft (4,329 m), occupies the lowest portion of the west crater below more than 100 ft (30 m) of ice and is accessible only via the caves.\nThe Carbon, Puyallup, Mowich, Nisqually, and Cowlitz Rivers begin at eponymous glaciers of Mount Rainier. The sources of the White River are Winthrop, Emmons, and Fryingpan Glaciers. The White, Carbon, and Mowich join the Puyallup River, which discharges into Commencement Bay at Tacoma; the Nisqually empties into Puget Sound east of Lacey; and the Cowlitz joins the Columbia River between Kelso and Longview.\n\nSubsidiary peaks\nThe broad top of Mount Rainier contains three named summits. The highest of these named sub-summits is known as the Columbia Crest, at a recently determined height of 14,389.2 ft (4,386 m). The second highest named summit is Point Success, 14,158 ft (4,315 m), at the southern edge of the summit plateau, atop the ridge known as Success Cleaver. It has a topographic prominence of about 138 ft (42 m), so it is not considered a separate peak. The lowest of the three named summits is Liberty Cap, 14,112 ft (4,301 m), at the northwestern edge, which overlooks Liberty Ridge, the Sunset Amphitheater, and the dramatic Willis Wall. Liberty Cap has a prominence of 492 ft (150 m), and so would qualify as a separate peak under most strictly prominence-based rules. A prominence cutoff of 400 ft (122 m) is commonly used in Washington state.\nHigh on the eastern flank of Mount Rainier is a peak known as Little Tahoma Peak, 11,138 ft (3,395 m), an eroded remnant of the earlier, much higher, Mount Rainier. It has a prominence of 858 ft (262 m), and it is almost never climbed in direct conjunction with Columbia Crest, so it is usually considered a separate peak. If considered separately from Mount Rainier, Little Tahoma Peak would be the third highest mountain peak in Washington.\n\nHeight\nWhile the aforementioned Columbia Crest had long been believed to be the highest point on Mount Rainier, at 14,411 ft (4,392 m), a 2024 survey by Eric Gilbertson and Josh Spitzberg, utilizing a differential GPS unit and the NGVD of 1929, determined Columbia Crest's elevation, with a 0.1 ft (0.03 m) range of error, to be 14,389.2 ft (4,386 m). This revealed that the Crest, a permanent icecap, had melted down by about 21.8 ft (6.6 m) since 1999. Meanwhile, they discovered that a nearby point on Mount Rainier's Southwest Rim, with a solid rock surface as opposed to snow, had an elevation of 14,399.6 ft (4,389 m), within a 0.1 ft (0.03 m) range of error, making it the new highest point of the volcano and about 11.4 ft (3.5 m) lower than the previously accepted height of Mount Rainier.\n\nGeology\nMount Rainier is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc that consists of lava flows, debris flows, and pyroclastic ejecta and flows. Its early volcanic deposits are estimated at more than 840,000 years old and are part of the Lily Formation (about 2.9 million to 840,000 years ago). The early deposits formed a \"proto-Rainier\" or an ancestral cone prior to the present-day cone. The present cone is more than 500,000 years old.\nThe volcano is highly eroded, with glaciers on its slopes, and appears to be made mostly of andesite. Rainier likely once stood even higher than today at about 16,000 ft (4,900 m) before a major debris avalanche and the resulting Osceola Mudflow approximately 5,000 years ago.\nIn the past, Rainier has had large debris avalanches, and has also produced enormous lahars (volcanic mudflows), due to the large amount of glacial ice present. Its lahars have reached all the way to Puget Sound, a distance of more than 30 mi (48 km). Around 5,000 years ago, a large chunk of the volcano slid away and that debris avalanche helped to produce the massive Osceola Mudflow, which went all the way to the site of present-day Tacoma and south Seattle. This massive avalanche of rock and ice removed the top 1,600 ft (500 m) of Rainier, bringing its height down to around 14,100 ft (4,300 m). About 530 to 550 years ago, the Electron Mudflow occurred, although this was not as large-scale as the Osceola Mudflow.\nAfter the major collapse approximately 5,000 years ago, subsequent eruptions of lava and tephra built up the modern summit cone until about as recently as 1,000 years ago. As many as 11 Holocene tephra layers have been found.\nSoils on Mount Rainier are mostly gravelly ashy sandy loams developed from colluvium or glacial till mixed with volcanic tephra. Under forest cover their profiles usually have the banded appearance of a classic podzol but the E horizon is darker than usual. Under meadows a thick dark A horizon usually forms the topsoil.\n\nModern activity and threat\nThe most recent recorded volcanic activity was between 1820 and 1854, but many eyewitnesses reported eruptive activity in 1858, 1870, 1879, 1882, and 1894 as well. Additionally, the Smithsonian Institution's volcanism project records the last volcanic eruption as 1450 CE. The volcano has had a VEI of 2, 3, and 4 at least nine times.\nSeismic monitors have been placed in Mount Rainier National Park and on the mountain itself to monitor activity. An eruption could be deadly for all living in areas within the immediate vicinity of the volcano and effects from an eruption could be noticed from Vancouver, British Columbia to San Francisco, California because of the massive amounts of ash blasting out of the volcano into the atmosphere.\nMount Rainier is located in an area that itself is part of the eastern rim of the Pacific Ring of Fire. This includes mountains and calderas like Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak in California, Crater Lake, Three Sisters, and Mount Hood in Oregon, Mount St. Helens, Mount Adams, Glacier Peak, and Mount Baker in Washington, and Mount Cayley, Mount Garibaldi, Silverthrone Caldera, and Mount Meager in British Columbia. Many of the above are dormant, but could return to activity, and scientists on both sides of the border gather research of the past eruptions of each in order to predict how mountains in this arc will behave and what they are capable of in the future, including Mount Rainier. Of these, two have erupted since the beginning of the twentieth century: Lassen in 1915 and St. Helens in 1980 and 2004. However, past eruptions in this volcanic arc have multiple examples of sub-plinian eruptions or higher: Crater Lake's last eruption as Mount Mazama was large enough to cause its cone to collapse, and Mount Rainier's closest neighbor, Mount St. Helens, produced the largest recorded eruption in the continental United States when it erupted in 1980. Statistics place the likelihood of a major eruption in the Cascade Range at 2–3 per century.\n\nMount Rainier is listed as a Decade Volcano, or one of the 16 volcanoes on Earth with the greatest likelihood of causing loss of life and property if eruptive activity resumes. If Mount Rainier were to erupt as powerfully as Mount St. Helens did in its May 18, 1980 eruption, the effect would be cumulatively greater, because of the far more massive amounts of glacial ice locked on the volcano compared to Mount St. Helens, the vastly more heavily populated areas surrounding Rainier, and the fact that Mount Rainier is almost twice the size of St. Helens. Lahars from Rainier pose the most risk to life and property, as many communities lie atop older lahar deposits. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), about 150,000 people live on top of old lahar deposits of Rainier. Not only is there much ice atop the volcano, the volcano is also slowly being weakened by hydrothermal activity. According to Geoff Clayton, a geologist with a Washington State Geology firm, RH2 Engineering, a repeat of the 5000-year-old Osceola Mudflow would destroy Enumclaw, Orting, Kent, Auburn, Puyallup, Sumner and all of Renton. Such a mudflow might also reach down the Duwamish estuary and destroy parts of downtown Seattle, and cause tsunamis in Puget Sound and Lake Washington. Rainier is also capable of producing pyroclastic flows and expelling lava. A 2012 Washington State Department of Natural Resources estimate showed that a significant lahar could cause up to $40 billion in damage downriver.\nAccording to Kevin Scott, a scientist with the USGS:\n\nA home built in any of the probabilistically defined inundation areas on the new maps is more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a lahar than by fire... For example, a home built in an area that would be inundated every 100 years, on the average, is 27 times more likely to be damaged or destroyed by a flow than by fire. People know the danger of fire, so they buy fire insurance and they have smoke alarms, but most people are not aware of the risks of lahars, and few have applicable flood insurance.\n\nThe volcanic risk is somewhat mitigated by lahar warning sirens and escape route signs in Pierce County, part of the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System, which was implemented by the USGS in 1998, and has been maintained by Pierce County since. The more populous King County is also in the lahar area, but has no zoning restrictions due to volcanic hazard. More recently (since 2001) funding from the federal government for lahar protection in the area has dried up, leading local authorities in at-risk cities like Orting to fear a disaster similar to the Armero tragedy. To prevent against such tragedies, authorities downriver from Rainier have conducted large-scale evacuation exercises in 2019 and 2024. The most recent of these exercises, conducted on March 21, 2024, involved the Puyallup, Sumner-Bonney Lake, Orting, White River, and Carbonado School Districts. During the exercise, emergency operations centers in the cities of Puyallup, Bonney Lake, and Buckley were activated to help the movement of school students and staff.\n\nSeismic background\nTypically, up to five earthquakes are recorded monthly near the summit. Swarms of five to ten shallow earthquakes over two or three days take place from time to time, predominantly in the region of 13,000 feet (4 km) below the summit. These earthquakes are thought to be caused by the circulation of hot fluids beneath Mount Rainier. Presumably, hot springs and steam vents within Mount Rainier National Park are generated by such fluids. Seismic swarms (not initiated with a mainshock) are common features at volcanoes, and are rarely associated with eruptive activity. Rainier has had several such swarms; there were days-long swarms in 2002, 2004, and 2007, two of which (2002 and 2004) included M 3.2 earthquakes. A 2009 swarm produced the largest number of events of any swarm at Rainier since seismic monitoring began over two decades earlier. Further swarms were observed in 2011 and 2021.\n\nGlaciers\nGlaciers are among the most conspicuous and dynamic geologic features on Mount Rainier. They erode the volcanic cone and are important sources of streamflow for several rivers, including some that provide water for hydroelectric power and irrigation. Together with perennial snow patches, the 29 named glacial features cover about 30.41 square miles (78.8 km2) of the mountain's surface in 2015 and have an estimated volume of about 0.69 cubic miles (2.9 km3).\nGlaciers flow under the influence of gravity by the combined action of sliding over the rock on which they lie and by deformation, the gradual displacement between and within individual ice crystals. Maximum speeds occur near the surface and along the centerline of the glacier. During May 1970, Nisqually Glacier was measured moving as fast as 29 inches (74 cm) per day. Flow rates are generally greater in summer than in winter, probably due to the presence of large quantities of meltwater at the glacier base.\nThe size of glaciers on Mount Rainier has fluctuated significantly in the past. For example, during the last ice age, from about 25,000 to about 15,000 years ago, glaciers covered most of the area now within the boundaries of Mount Rainier National Park and extended to the perimeter of the present Puget Sound Basin.\nBetween the 14th century and 1850, many of the glaciers on Mount Rainier advanced to their farthest extent downvalley since the last ice age. Many advances of this sort occurred worldwide during this time period known to geologists as the Little Ice Age. During the Little Ice Age, the Nisqually Glacier advanced to a position 650 to 800 ft (200 to 240 m) downvalley from the site of the Glacier Bridge, Tahoma and South Tahoma Glaciers merged at the base of Glacier Island, and the terminus of Emmons Glacier reached within 1.2 mi (1.9 km) of the White River Campground.\n\nRetreat of the Little Ice Age glaciers was slow until about 1920 when retreat became more rapid. The Williwakas Glacier was noted as extinct during the 1930s. Between the height of the Little Ice Age and 1950, Mount Rainier's glaciers lost about one-quarter of their length. Beginning in 1950 and continuing through the early 1980s, however, many of the major glaciers advanced in response to relatively cooler temperatures of the mid-century. The glaciers and snowfields of Mount Rainier also lost volume during this time, except for the Frying Pan and Emmons glaciers on the east flank and the small near-peak snowfields; the greatest volume loss was concentrated from ~1750 m (north) to ~2250 m (south) elevation. The largest single volume loss is from the Carbon Glacier, although it is to the north, due to its huge area at <2000 m elevation. The Carbon, Cowlitz, Emmons, and Nisqually Glaciers advanced during the late 1970s and early 1980s as a result of high snowfalls during the 1960s and 1970s.\nSince the early-1980s, however, many glaciers have been thinning and retreating and some advances have slowed. In a study using data from 2021, National Park Service scientists removed Stevens Glacier from its inventory of Mount Rainier glaciers due to its dwindling size and lack of evidence that it was moving. Using satellite data in 2022, researchers at Nichols College determined that both Pyramid and Van Trump glaciers had also ceased to exist with only fragments of ice remaining. A significant decline had been noted between 2015 and 2022.\nThe glaciers on Mount Rainier can generate mudflows through glacial outburst floods not associated with an eruption. The South Tahoma Glacier generated 30 floods in the 1980s and early 1990s, and again in August 2015.\n\nHistory\nFor thousands of years, the area surrounding Mount Rainier has been inhabited by several Indigenous peoples, who traditionally hunted and gathered animals and plants in Mount Rainier's forests and high elevation meadows. These peoples and their modern-day descendants are represented today by the members of the federally-recognized tribes which surround the mountain, including the Nisqually Indian Tribe, the Cowlitz Indian Tribe, the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation, the Puyallup Tribe of Indians, and the Muckleshoot Indian Tribe, among others in the area. The archaeological record of human use of the mountain dates to over 8,500 years before present (BP). Sites related to seasonal use of Mount Rainier and its landscapes are reflected in chipped stone tool remains and settings suggesting functionally varied uses including task-specific sites, rockshelters, travel stops, and long-term base camps. Their distribution on the mountain suggest primary use of subalpine meadows and low alpine habitats that provided relatively high resource abundance during the short summer season. Evidence suggests that there existed a tradition of Native Americans setting fire to areas of the region each year as a way to encourage meadow development.\nThe first Europeans to reach the Pacific Northwest were the Spanish who arrived by sea in 1774 led by Juan Perez. The next year, under the direction of Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, a boat was sent ashore to Destruction island. Upon landing, the crew was attacked and killed by the local indigenous population. Although attempts were made in 1792 to create a permanent Spanish settlement at Neah Bay, the project was unsuccessful and by 1795, Spain had given up on the region. Although not documented anywhere, it is likely that Spanish sailors first observed Mount Rainier while sailing in the Strait of Juan de Fuca.\nUpon reaching what would become California in 1579, Sir Francis Drake claimed the entire northwest coast of North America for England. This claim to the coast of the Pacific Northwest was not further explored until in 1778 Captain James Cook sailed the coastline of modern-day Washington and British Columbia, stimulating a subsequent increase in English ships coming to the area as part of the fur trade. On July 22, 1793, Sir Alexander Mackenzie of the British Northwest Fur Company reached the Pacific Ocean via overland route that crossed the Rocky Mountains.\nThe first American, John Ledyard, reached the region aboard Captain Cook's ship in 1778. By 1787, six Americans from Boston formed a company which began trading along the northwest coast. The Lewis and Clark overland expedition reached the northwest coast in 1805 and observed Mount Rainier for the first time in the Spring of 1806.\nThe first documented sighting of Mt. Rainier by a European was by the crew of Captain George Vancouver on May 7, 1792, during the Vancouver Expedition (1790–1795). On May 8, 1792, Vancouver gave the name of Mt. Rainier to the observed peak in homage to Vancouver's friend Rear Admiral Peter Rainier.\nAt the outset of the 19th century, the region where Mt. Rainier was located was claimed by Spain, the U.S., Russia, and Great Britain, with most claims being based on instances of early naval exploration of the region's coast. Spain relinquished all remaining claims to the Pacific Northwest that had not already been handed over with the Louisiana Purchase in 1819 with the purchase and cession of Florida by the United States. In 1824, Russia ceded all land claims south of parallel 54°40′ north to the United States as part of the Russo-American Treaty. In 1818, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a treaty, agreeing upon the joint settlement and occupation of the Oregon country which consisted of the territory north of 42°N latitude, south of 54°40′N latitude, and west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. The 1846 Oregon Treaty between the United States and United Kingdom set new borders between British and American territory along today's approximate borders. In 1853, the land between the Columbia river and the border with British Canada was organized into the Washington Territory, which was the administrative status of the region at the time of the first successful ascent of Mount Rainier.\nIn 1833, William Fraser Tolmie explored the area looking for medicinal plants. Hazard Stevens and P. B. Van Trump received a hero's welcome in the streets of Olympia after their successful summit climb in 1870. The first female ascent was made in 1890 by Fay Fuller, accompanied by Van Trump and three other teammates.\nDescending from the summit in 1883, James Longmire discovered a mineral spring; this ultimately led to his establishment of a spa and hotel, drawing other visitors to the area to seek the benefits of the spring. Later, the headquarters of the national park would be established at Longmire, until flooding caused them to be relocated to Ashford. The area also became the site of features like a museum, a post office, and a gas station, with additions like a library and a gift shop soon following; many of these buildings were ultimately nominated to the national historic register of historic places. Longmire remains the second most popular place in the park. In 1924, a publication from the park described the area:\n\n\"A feature at Longmire Springs of great interest to everyone is the group of mineral springs in the little flat to the west of National Park Inn. There are some forty distinct springs, a half dozen of which are easily reached from the road. An analysis of the waters show that they all contain about the smae [sic] mineral salts but in slightly differing proportions. All the water is highly carbonated and would be classed as extremely \"hard\". Certain springs contain larger amounts of soda, iron and sulphur, giving them a distinct taste and color.\"\nJohn Muir climbed Mount Rainier in 1888, and although he enjoyed the view, he conceded that it was best appreciated from below. Muir was one of many who advocated protecting the mountain. In 1893, the area was set aside as part of the Pacific Forest Reserve in order to protect its physical and economic resources, primarily timber and watersheds.\nCiting the need to also protect scenery and provide for public enjoyment, railroads and local businesses urged the creation of a national park in hopes of increased tourism. On March 2, 1899, President William McKinley established Mount Rainier National Park as America's fifth national park. Congress dedicated the new park \"for the benefit and enjoyment of the people\" and \"... for the preservation from injury or spoliation of all timber, mineral deposits, natural curiosities, or wonders within said park, and their retention in their natural condition.\"\nOn June 24, 1947, Kenneth Arnold reported seeing a formation of nine unidentified flying objects over Mount Rainier. His description led to the term \"flying saucers\".\nIn 1998, the United States Geological Survey began putting together the Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System to assist in the emergency evacuation of the Puyallup River valley in the event of a catastrophic debris flow. It is now run by the Pierce County Department of Emergency Management. Tacoma, at the mouth of the Puyallup, is only 37 mi (60 km) west of Rainier, and moderately sized towns such as Puyallup and Orting are only 27 and 20 mi (43 and 32 km) away, respectively.\nMount Rainier appears on four distinct United States postage stamp issues. In 1934, it was the 3-cent issue in a series of National Park stamps, and was also shown on a souvenir sheet issued for a philatelic convention. The following year, in 1935, both of these were reprinted by Postmaster General James A. Farley as special issues given to officials and friends. Because of complaints by the public, \"Farley's Follies\" were reproduced in large numbers. The second stamp issue is easy to tell from the original because it is imperforate. Both stamps and souvenir sheets are widely available.\nThe Washington state quarter, which was released on April 11, 2007, features Mount Rainier and a salmon.\n\nClimbing\nMountain climbing on Mount Rainier is difficult, involving traversing the largest glaciers in the U.S. south of Alaska. Most climbers require two to three days to reach the summit, with a success rate of approximately 50%, with weather and physical conditioning of the climbers being the most common reasons for failure. About 8,000 to 13,000 people attempt the climb each year, about 90% via routes from Camp Muir on the southeast flank, and most of the rest ascend Emmons Glacier via Camp Schurman on the northeast. Climbing teams require experience in glacier travel, self-rescue, and wilderness travel. All climbers who plan to climb above the high camps, Camp Muir and Camp Schurman, are required to purchase a Mount Rainier Climbing Pass and register for their climb.\nAdditionally, solo climbers must fill out a solo climbing request form and receive written permission from the park superintendent before attempting to climb.\n\nClimbing routes\nAll climbing routes on Mount Rainier require climbers to possess some level of technical climbing skill. This includes ascending and descending the mountain with the use of technical climbing equipment such as crampons, ice axes, harnesses, and ropes. Difficulty and technical challenge of climbing Mount Rainier can vary widely between climbing routes. Routes are graded in NCCS Alpine Climbing format.\nThe normal route to the summit of Mount Rainier is the Disappointment Cleaver Route, YDS grade II-III. As climbers on this route have access to the permanently established Camp Muir, it sees the significant majority of climbing traffic on the mountain. This route is also the most common commercially guided route. The term \"cleaver\" is used in the context of a rock ridge that separates two glaciers. The reason for naming this cleaver a \"disappointment\" is unrecorded, but it is thought to be due to climbers reaching it only to recognize their inability to reach the summit. An alternative route to the Disappointment Cleaver is the Ingraham Glacier Direct Route, grade II, and is often used when the Disappointment Cleaver route cannot be climbed due to poor route conditions.\nThe Emmons Glacier Route, grade II, is an alternative to the Disappointment Cleaver route and poses a lower technical challenge to climbers. The climbers on the route can make use of Camp Schurman (9,500 ft), a glacial camp site. Camp Schurman is equipped with a solar toilet and a ranger hut.\nThe Liberty Ridge Route, grade IV, is a considerably more challenging and objectively dangerous route than the normal route to the summit. It runs up the center of the North Face of Mount Rainier and crosses the very active Carbon Glacier. First climbed by Ome Daiber, Arnie Campbell and Jim Burrow in 1935, it is listed as one of the Fifty Classic Climbs of North America by Steve Roper and Allen Steck. This route only accounts for approximately 2% of climbers on the mountain, but approximately 25% of its deaths.\n\nDangers and accidents\nAbout two mountaineering deaths each year occur because of rock and ice fall, avalanche, falls, and hypothermia. These incidents are often associated with exposure to very high altitude, fatigue, dehydration, and/or poor weather. 58 deaths on Mount Rainier have been reported from 1981 to 2010. Approximately 7 percent of mountaineering deaths and 6 percent of mountaineering accidents in the United States are attributed to Mount Rainier.\nThe first known climbing death on Mount Rainier was Edgar McClure, a professor of chemistry at the University of Oregon, on July 27, 1897. During the descent in darkness, McClure stepped over the edge of the rock and slid to his death on a rocky outcrop. The spot is now known as McClure Rock.\nWilli Unsoeld, who reached the summit of Mount Everest in 1963, was killed, along with an Evergreen State College student, in an avalanche on Mount Rainier in 1979. He had climbed the mountain over 200 times.\nThe worst mountaineering accident on Mount Rainier occurred in 1981, when ten clients and a guide died in an avalanche/ice fall on the Ingraham Glacier.\nThis was the largest number of fatalities on Mount Rainier in a single incident since 32 people were killed in a 1946 plane crash on the South Tahoma Glacier.\nIn one of the worst disasters on the mountain in over thirty years, six climbers—two guides, and four clients—were killed on May 31, 2014, after the climbers fell 3,300 feet (1,000 m) while attempting the summit via the Liberty Ridge climbing route. Low-flying search helicopters pinged the signals from the avalanche beacons worn by the climbers, and officials concluded that there was no possible chance of survival. Searchers found tents and clothes along with rock and ice strewn across a debris field on the Carbon Glacier at 9,500 ft (2,900 m), possible evidence for a slide or avalanche in the vicinity where the team went missing, though the exact cause of the accident is unknown. The bodies of three of the client climbers were spotted on August 7, 2014, during a training flight and subsequently recovered on August 19, 2014. The bodies of the fourth client climber and two guides were never found.\n\nOutdoor recreation\nIn addition to climbing, hiking, backcountry skiing, photography, and camping are popular activities in the park. Hiking trails, including the Wonderland Trail—a 93-mile (150 km) circumnavigation of the peak, provide access to the backcountry. Popular for winter sports include snowshoeing and cross-country skiing.\n\nClimate\nThe summit of Mount Rainier has an ice cap climate (Köppen climate classification: EF)\n\nEcology\nMount Rainier's protected status as a national park protects its primeval Cascade ecosystem, providing a stable habitat for many species in the region, including endemic flora and fauna that are unique to the area, such as the Cascade red fox and Mount Rainier lousewort. The ecosystem on the mountain is very diverse, owing to the climate found at different elevations. Scientists track the distinct species found in the forest zone, the subalpine zone, and the alpine zone. They have discovered more than one thousand species of plants and fungi. The mountain is also home to 65 species of mammals, 5 reptiles, 182 birds, 14 amphibians, and 14 species of native fish, in addition to an innumerable amount of invertebrates.\n\nFlora\nMount Rainier has regularly been described as one of the best places in the world to view wildflowers. In the subalpine region of the mountain, the snow often stays on the ground until summer begins, limiting plants to a much shorter growing season. This produces dramatic blooms in areas like Paradise. In 1924, the flowers were described by naturalist Floyd W. Schmoe:\n\nMount Rainier National Park is perhaps better known the world over for these wonderful flowers than for any one feature. The mountains, the glaciers, the cascading streams and the forests may be equalled if one looks far away enough, but no park has been so favored in the way of wild flowers.\nForests on the mountain span from as young as 100 years old to sections of old growth forest that are calculated to be 1000 years or more in age. The lower elevation consists mainly of western red-cedar, Douglas fir, and western hemlock. Pacific silver fir, western white pine, Alaska yellow cedar, and noble fir are found further up the mountain. In the alpine level, Alaskan yellow cedar, subalpine fir, and mountain hemlock grow.\n\nFauna\nThe mountain supports a wide variety of animal life, including several species that are protected on the state or federal level, like the Northern Spotted Owl. Efforts are also being made to reintroduce native species that had locally been hunted to extinction, like the Pacific fisher. There are sixty-five types of mammals living on the mountain, including cougars, mountain goats, marmots, and elk. Common reptiles and amphibians include garter snakes, frogs, and salamanders. There are many types of birds found throughout the different elevations on the mountain, but while some live there all year, many are migratory. Salmon and trout species use the rivers formed by the glaciers, and though the lakes stopped being stocked in 1972, thirty lakes still have reproducing populations.\n\nSee also\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nMount Rainier National Park (also used as a reference)\n\"Mount Rainier Volcano Lahar Warning System\". Volcano Hazards Program. United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on January 19, 2008. Retrieved October 30, 2008.\nMt. Rainier Eruption Task Force (pdf)\nMount Rainier stream drainage Archived April 27, 2012, at the Wayback Machine\nMount Rainier Trail Descriptions\n\"Mount Rainier\". SummitPost.org. Retrieved May 7, 2011.\nMount Rainier National Park at Curlie\nDoughton, Sandi (September 26, 2014), \"Under Rainier's crater, a natural laboratory like no other\", The Seattle Times: contains images and videos of the summit caves\n\nUniversity of Washington libraries and digital collections\nLawrence Denny Lindsley Photographs, Landscape and nature photography of Lawrence Denny Lindsley, including photographs of scenes around Mount Rainier.\nThe Mountaineers Collection, Photographic albums and text documenting the Mountaineers official annual outings undertaken by club members from 1907 to 1951, includes 3 Mt. Rainier albums (ca. 1912, 1919, 1924).\nHenry M. Sarvant Photographs, photographs by Henry Mason Sarvant depicting his climbing expeditions to Mt. Rainier and scenes of the vicinity from 1892 to 1912.\nAlvin H. Waite Photographs Photographs of Mt. Rainier by Alvin H. Waite, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.",
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] | What is the difference in elevation between Mount Rainier and Condor Mountain? What is the answer in feet? | [] | 2,689 feet. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Hannah Arendt (, US also ; German: [ˌhana ˈaːʁənt] ; born Johanna Arendt; 14 October 1906 – 4 December 1975) was a German-American historian and philosopher. She was one of the most influential political theorists of the 20th century.\nHer works cover a broad range of topics, but she is best known for those dealing with the nature of wealth, power and evil, as well as politics, direct democracy, authority, tradition and totalitarianism. She is also remembered for the controversy surrounding the trial of Adolf Eichmann, for her attempt to explain how ordinary people become actors in totalitarian systems, which was considered by some an apologia, and for the phrase \"the banality of evil.\" Her name appears in the names of journals, schools, scholarly prizes, humanitarian prizes, think-tanks, and streets; appears on stamps and monuments; and is attached to other cultural and institutional markers that commemorate her thought.\nHannah Arendt was born to a Jewish family in Linden (now a district of Hanover, Germany) in 1906. When she was three, her family moved to the East Prussian capital of Königsberg for her father's health care. Paul Arendt had contracted syphilis in his youth but was thought to be in remission when Arendt was born. He died when she was seven. Arendt was raised in a politically progressive, secular family, her mother being an ardent Social Democrat. After completing secondary education in Berlin, Arendt studied at the University of Marburg under Martin Heidegger, with whom she engaged in a romantic affair that began while she was his student. She obtained her doctorate in philosophy at the University of Heidelberg in 1929. Her dissertation was titled Love and Saint Augustine, and her supervisor was the existentialist philosopher Karl Jaspers.\n\nHannah Arendt married Günther Stern in 1929 but soon began to encounter increasing antisemitism in the 1930s Nazi Germany. In 1933, the year Adolf Hitler came to power, Arendt was arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo for performing illegal research into antisemitism. On release, she fled Germany, living in Czechoslovakia and Switzerland before settling in Paris. There she worked for Youth Aliyah, assisting young Jews to emigrate to the British Mandate of Palestine. She was stripped of her German citizenship in 1937. Divorcing Stern that year, she then married Heinrich Blücher in 1940. When Germany invaded France that year she was detained by the French as an alien. She escaped and made her way to the United States in 1941 via Portugal. She settled in New York, which remained her principal residence for the rest of her life. She became a writer and editor and worked for the Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, becoming an American citizen in 1950. With the publication of The Origins of Totalitarianism in 1951, her reputation as a thinker and writer was established, and a series of works followed. These included the books The Human Condition in 1958, as well as Eichmann in Jerusalem and On Revolution in 1963. She taught at many American universities while declining tenure-track appointments. She died suddenly of a heart attack in 1975, at the age of 69, leaving her last work, The Life of the Mind, unfinished.\n\nEarly life and education (1906–1929)\nFamily\nHannah Arendt was born Johanna Arendt in 1906, in the Wilhelmine period. Her secular and educated Jewish family lived comfortably in Linden, Prussia (now a part of Hanover). They were merchants of Russian extraction from Königsberg. Her grandparents were members of the Reform Jewish community. Her paternal grandfather, Max Arendt, was a prominent businessman, local politician, and leader of the Königsberg Jewish community, a member of the Central Organization for German Citizens of Jewish Faith (Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens). Like other members of the Centralverein he primarily saw himself as German, disapproving of Zionist activities including Kurt Blumenfeld, a frequent visitor and later one of Hannah's mentors. Her lifelong best-friend, Anne Mendehlsohn, was likewise connected to a dynasty of philosophers and musicians. Of Max Arendt's children, Paul Arendt was an engineer and Henriette Arendt a policewoman and social worker.\nHannah was the only child of Paul and Martha Arendt (née Cohn), who were married on 11 April 1902. She was named after her paternal grandmother. The Cohns had originally come to Königsberg from nearby Russian territory of Lithuania in 1852, as refugees from antisemitism, and made their living as tea importers, J. N. Cohn & Company being the largest business in the city. The Arendts reached Germany from Russia a century earlier. Hannah's extended family contained many more women, who shared the loss of husbands and children. Hannah's parents were more educated and politically more to the left than her grandparents. The young couple were Social Democrats, rather than the German Democrats that most of their contemporaries supported. Paul Arendt was educated at the Albertina (University of Königsberg). Though he worked as an engineer, he prided himself on his love of Classics, with a large library that Hannah immersed herself in. Martha Cohn, a musician, had studied for three years in Paris.\nIn the first four years of their marriage, the Arendts lived in Berlin, and were supporters of the socialist journal Socialist Monthly Bulletins (Sozialistische Monatshefte). At the time of Hannah's birth, Paul Arendt was employed by an electrical engineering firm in Linden, and they lived in a frame house on the market square (Marktplatz). They moved back to Königsberg in 1909 because of Paul's deteriorating health. He suffered from chronic syphilis and was institutionalized in the Königsberg psychiatric hospital in 1911. For years afterward, Hannah had to have annual WR tests for congenital syphilis. He died on 30 October 1913, when Hannah was seven, leaving her mother to raise her. They lived at Hannah's grandfather's house at Tiergartenstraße 6, a leafy residential street adjacent to the Königsberg Tiergarten, in the predominantly Jewish neighborhood of Hufen. Although Hannah's parents were non-religious, they were happy to allow Max Arendt to take Hannah to the Reform synagogue. She also received religious instruction from the rabbi, Hermann Vogelstein, who would come to her school for that purpose. Her family moved in circles that included many intellectuals and professionals. It was a social circle of high standards and ideals. As she recalled it:\n\nMy early intellectual formation occurred in an atmosphere where nobody paid much attention to moral questions; we were brought up under the assumption: Das Moralische versteht sich von selbst, moral conduct is a matter of course.\n\nThis time was a particularly favorable period for the Jewish community in Königsberg, an important center of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment). Arendt's family was thoroughly assimilated (\"Germanized\") and she later remembered: \"With us from Germany, the word 'assimilation' received a 'deep' philosophical meaning. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it.\" Despite these conditions, the Jewish population lacked full citizenship rights, and although antisemitism was not overt, it was not absent. Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering overt antisemitism as an adult. She came to greatly identify with Rahel Varnhagen, the Prussian socialite who desperately wanted to assimilate into German culture, only to be rejected because she was born Jewish. Arendt later said of Varnhagen that she was \"my very closest woman friend, unfortunately dead a hundred years now.\"\n\nIn the last two years of the First World War, Hannah's mother organized social democratic discussion groups and became a follower of Rosa Luxemburg as socialist uprisings broke out across Germany. Luxemburg's writings would later influence Hannah's political thinking. In 1920, Martha Cohn married Martin Beerwald, an ironmonger and widower of four years, and they moved to his home, two blocks away, at Busoldstrasse 6, providing Hannah with improved social and financial security. Hannah was 14 at the time and acquired two older stepsisters, Clara and Eva.\n\nEducation\nEarly education\nHannah Arendt's mother, who considered herself progressive, brought her daughter up on strict Goethean lines. Among other things this involved the reading of Goethe's complete works, summed up as Was aber ist deine Pflicht? Die Forderung des Tages (And just what is your duty? The demands of the day). Goethe, was then considered the essential mentor of Bildung (education), the conscious formation of mind, body and spirit. The key elements were considered to be self-discipline, constructive channeling of passion, renunciation and responsibility for others. Hannah's developmental progress (Entwicklung) was carefully documented by her mother in a book, she called Unser Kind (Our Child), measuring her against the benchmark of what was then considered normale Entwicklung (\"normal development\").\nArendt attended kindergarten from 1910 where her precocity impressed her teachers and enrolled in the Szittnich School, Königsberg (Hufen-Oberlyzeum), on Bahnstraße in August 1913, but her studies there were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I, forcing the family to temporarily flee to Berlin on 23 August 1914, in the face of the advancing Russian army. There they stayed with her mother's younger sister, Margarethe Fürst, and her three children, while Hannah attended a girl's Lyzeum school in Berlin-Charlottenburg. After ten weeks, when Königsberg appeared to be no longer threatened, the Arendts were able to return, where they spent the remaining war years at her grandfather's house. Arendt's precocity continued, learning ancient Greek as a child, writing poetry in her teenage years, and starting both a Graecae (reading group for studying classical literature) and philosophy club at her school. She was fiercely independent in her schooling and a voracious reader, absorbing French and German literature and poetry (committing large amounts to heart) and philosophy. By the age of 14, she had read Kierkegaard, Jaspers' Psychologie der Weltanschauungen and Kant's Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Critique of Pure Reason). Kant, whose hometown was also Königsberg, was an important influence on her thinking, and it was Kant who had written about Königsberg that \"such a town is the right place for gaining knowledge concerning men and the world even without travelling\".\nArendt attended the Königin-Luise-Schule for her secondary education, a girls' Gymnasium on Landhofmeisterstraße. Most of her friends, while at school, were gifted children of Jewish professional families, generally older than her, and went on to university education. Among them was Ernst Grumach, who introduced her to his girlfriend, Anne Mendelssohn, who would become a lifelong friend. When Anne moved away, Ernst became Arendt's first romantic relationship.\n\nHigher education (1922–1929)\nBerlin (1922–1924)\nArendt was expelled from the Luise-Schule in 1922, at the age of 15, for leading a boycott of a teacher who insulted her. Her mother sent her to Berlin to Social Democrat family friends. She lived in a student residence and audited courses at the University of Berlin (1922–1923), including classics and Christian theology under Romano Guardini. She successfully sat the entrance examination (Abitur) for the University of Marburg, where Ernst Grumach had studied with Martin Heidegger (appointed as a professor in 1923). Her mother had engaged a private tutor, and her aunt Frieda Arendt, a teacher, also helped, while Frieda's husband Ernst Aron provided financial tuition assistance.\n\nMarburg (1924–1926)\nIn Berlin, Guardini had introduced her to Kierkegaard, and she resolved to make theology her major field. At Marburg (1924–1926) she studied classical languages, German literature, Protestant theology with Rudolf Bultmann and philosophy with Nicolai Hartmann and Heidegger. She arrived in the fall in the middle of an intellectual revolution led by the young Heidegger, of whom she was in awe, describing him as \"the hidden king [who] reigned in the realm of thinking\".\nHeidegger had broken away from the intellectual movement started by Edmund Husserl, whose assistant he had been at University of Freiburg before coming to Marburg. This was a period when Heidegger was preparing his lectures on Kant, which he would develop in the second part of his Sein und Zeit (Being and Time) in 1927 and Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik (1929). In his classes, he and his students struggled with the meaning of \"Being\" as they studied Aristotle's and Plato's Sophist concept of truth, to which Heidegger opposed the pre-Socratic term ἀλήθεια. Many years later Arendt would describe these classes, how people came to Marburg to hear him, and how, above all he imparted the idea of Denken (\"thinking\") as activity, which she qualified as \"passionate thinking\".\nArendt was restless, finding her studies neither emotionally nor intellectually satisfying. She was ready for passion, finishing her poem Trost (Consolation, 1923) with the lines:\n\nDie Stunden verrinnen,Die Tage vergehen,Es bleibt ein GewinnenDas bloße Bestehen.\n(The hours run down.The days pass on.One achievement remains:merely being alive.)\nHer encounter with Heidegger represented a dramatic departure from the past. He was handsome, a genius, romantic, and taught that thinking and \"aliveness\" were but one. The 18-year-old Arendt then began a long romantic relationship with the 35-year-old Heidegger, who was married with two young sons. Arendt later faced criticism for this because of Heidegger's support for the Nazi Party after his election as rector at Freiburg University in 1933. Nevertheless, he remained one of the most profound influences on her thinking, and he would later relate that she had been the inspiration for his work on passionate thinking in those days. They agreed to keep the details of the relationship a secret while preserving their letters. The relationship was unknown until Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At the time of publishing, Arendt and Heidegger were deceased but Heidegger's wife, Elfride, was still alive. The affair was not well known until 1995, when Elzbieta Ettinger gained access to the sealed correspondence and published a controversial account that was used by Arendt's detractors to cast doubt on her integrity. That account, which caused a scandal, was subsequently refuted.\nAt Marburg, Arendt lived at Lutherstraße 4. Among her friends was Hans Jonas, a Jewish classmate. Another fellow student of Heidegger's was Jonas' friend, the Jewish philosopher Günther Siegmund Stern, who would later become her first husband. Stern had completed his doctoral dissertation with Edmund Husserl at Freiburg, and was now working on his Habilitation thesis with Heidegger, but Arendt, involved with Heidegger, took little notice of him at the time.\n\nDie Schatten (1925)\nIn the summer of 1925, while home at Königsberg, Arendt composed her sole autobiographical piece, Die Schatten (The Shadows), a \"description of herself\" addressed to Heidegger. In this essay, full of anguish and Heideggerian language, she reveals her insecurities relating to her femininity and Jewishness, writing abstractly in the third person. She describes a state of \"Fremdheit\" (alienation), on the one hand an abrupt loss of youth and innocence, on the other an \"Absonderlichkeit\" (strangeness), the finding of the remarkable in the banal. In her detailing of the pain of her childhood and longing for protection she shows her vulnerabilities and how her love for Heidegger had released her and once again filled her world with color and mystery. She refers to her relationship with Heidegger as \"Eine starre Hingegebenheit an ein Einziges\" (\"an unbending devotion to a unique man\"). This period of intense introspection was also one of the most productive of her poetic output, such as In sich versunken (Lost in Self-Contemplation).\n\nFreiburg and Heidelberg (1926–1929)\nAfter a year at Marburg, Arendt spent a semester at Freiburg, attending the lectures of Husserl. In 1926 she moved to the University of Heidelberg, completing her dissertation in 1929 under Karl Jaspers. Jaspers, a friend of Heidegger, was the other leading figure of the then-new and revolutionary Existenzphilosophie. Her thesis was titled Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin: Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation (On the concept of love in the thought of Saint Augustine: Attempt at a philosophical interpretation). She remained a lifelong friend of Jaspers and his wife, Gertrud Mayer, developing a deep intellectual relationship with him. At Heidelberg, her circle of friends included Hans Jonas, who had also moved from Marburg to study Augustine, working on his Augustin und das paulinische Freiheitsproblem. Ein philosophischer Beitrag zur Genesis der christlich-abendländischen Freiheitsidee (1930), and also a group of three young philosophers: Karl Frankenstein, Erich Neumann and Erwin Loewenson. Other friends and students of Jaspers were the linguists Benno von Wiese and Hugo Friedrich (seen with Hannah, below), with whom she attended lectures by Friedrich Gundolf at Jaspers' suggestion and who kindled in her an interest in German Romanticism. She also became reacquainted, at a lecture, with Kurt Blumenfeld, who introduced her to Jewish politics. At Heidelberg, she lived in the old town (Altstadt) near the castle, at Schlossberg 16. The house was demolished in the 1960s, but the one remaining wall bears a plaque commemorating her time there.\n\nOn completing her dissertation, Arendt turned to her Habilitationsschrift, initially on German Romanticism, and thereafter an academic teaching career. However 1929 was also the year of the Depression and the end of the golden years (Goldene Zwanziger) of the Weimar Republic, which was to become increasingly unstable over its remaining four years. Arendt, as a Jew, had little if any chance of obtaining an academic appointment in Germany. Nevertheless, she completed most of the work before she was forced to leave Germany.\n\nCareer\nGermany (1929–1933)\nBerlin-Potsdam (1929)\nIn 1929, Arendt met Günther Stern again, this time in Berlin at a New Year's masked ball, and began a relationship with him. Within a month she had moved in with him in a one-room studio, shared with a dancing school in Berlin-Halensee. Then they moved to Merkurstraße 3, Nowawes, in Potsdam and were married there on 26 September. They had much in common and the marriage was welcomed by both sets of parents. In the summer, Hannah Arendt successfully applied to the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft for a grant to support her Habilitation, which was supported by Heidegger and Jaspers among others, and in the meantime, with Günther's help was working on revisions to get her dissertation published.\n\nWanderjahre (1929–1931)\nAfter Arendt and Stern were married, they began two years of what Christian Dries refers to as the Wanderjahre (years of wandering) with the ultimately fruitless aim of having Stern accepted for an academic appointment. They lived for a while in Drewitz, a southern neighborhood of Potsdam, before moving to Heidelberg, where they lived with the Jaspers. After Heidelberg, where Stern completed the first draft of his Habilitation thesis, the two then moved to Frankfurt where Stern hoped to finish his writing. There, Arendt participated in the university's intellectual life, attending lectures by Karl Mannheim and Paul Tillich, among others. The couple collaborated intellectually, writing an article together on Rilke's Duino Elegies (1923) and both reviewing Mannheim's Ideologie und Utopie (1929). The latter was Arendt's sole contribution to sociology. In both her treatment of Mannheim and Rilke, Arendt found love to be a transcendent principle \"Because there is no true transcendence in this ordered world, one also cannot exceed the world, but only succeed to higher ranks\". In Rilke she saw a latter day secular Augustine, describing the Elegies as the letzten literarischen Form religiösen Dokumentes (ultimate form of religious document). Later, she would discover the limitations of transcendent love in explaining the historical events that pushed her into political action. Another theme from Rilke that she would develop was the despair of not being heard. Reflecting on Rilke's opening lines, which she placed as an epigram at the beginning of their essay\n\nWer, wenn ich schriee, hörte mich denn aus der Engel Ordnungen?\n(Who, if I cried out, would hear me among the angelic orders?)\nArendt and Stern begin by stating:\n\nThe paradoxical, ambiguous, and desperate situation from which standpoint the Duino Elegies may alone be understood has two characteristics: the absence of an echo and the knowledge of futility. The conscious renunciation of the demand to be heard, the despair at not being able to be heard, and finally the need to speak even without an answer–these are the real reasons for the darkness, asperity, and tension of the style in which poetry indicates its own possibilities and its will to form\nArendt also published an article on Augustine (354–430) in the Frankfurter Zeitung to mark the 1500th anniversary of his death. She saw this article as forming a bridge between her treatment of Augustine in her dissertation and her subsequent work on Romanticism. When it became evident Stern would not succeed in obtaining an appointment, the Sterns returned to Berlin in 1931.\n\nReturn to Berlin (1931–1933)\nIn Berlin, where the couple initially lived in the predominantly Jewish area of Bayerisches Viertel (Bavarian Quarter or \"Jewish Switzerland\") in Schöneberg, Stern obtained a position as a staff-writer for the cultural supplement of the Berliner Börsen-Courier, edited by Herbert Ihering, with the help of Bertold Brecht. There he started writing using the pen name Günther Anders, i.e. \"Günther Other\". Arendt assisted Günther with his work, but the shadow of Heidegger hung over their relationship. While Günther was working on his Habilitationsschrift, Arendt had abandoned the original subject of German Romanticism for her thesis in 1930, and turned instead to Rahel Varnhagen and the question of assimilation. Anne Mendelssohn had accidentally acquired a copy of Varnhagen's correspondence and excitedly introduced her to Arendt, donating her collection to her. A little later, Arendt's work on Romanticism led her to a study of Jewish salons and eventually to those of Varnhagen. In Rahel, she found qualities she felt reflected her own, particularly those of sensibility and vulnerability. Rahel, like Hannah, found her destiny in her Jewishness. Hannah Arendt would come to call Rahel Varnhagen's discovery of living with her destiny as being a \"conscious pariah\". This was a personal trait that Arendt had recognized in herself, although she did not embrace the term until later.\nBack in Berlin, Arendt found herself becoming more involved in politics and started studying political theory, and reading Marx and Trotsky, while developing contacts at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik. Despite the political leanings of her mother and husband she never saw herself as a political leftist, justifying her activism as being through her Jewishness. Her increasing interest in Jewish politics and her examination of assimilation in her study of Varnhagen led her to publish her first article on Judaism, Aufklärung und Judenfrage (\"The Enlightenment and the Jewish Question\", 1932). Blumenfeld had introduced her to the \"Jewish question\", which would be his lifelong concern. Meanwhile, her views on German Romanticism were evolving. She wrote a review of Hans Weil's Die Entstehung des deutschen Bildungsprinzips (The Origin of German Educational Principle, 1930), which dealt with the emergence of Bildungselite (educational elite) in the time of Rahel Varnhagen. At the same time she began to be occupied by Max Weber's description of the status of Jewish people within a state as Pariavolk (pariah people) in his Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (1922), while borrowing Bernard Lazare's term paria conscient (conscious pariah) with which she identified. In both these articles she advanced the views of Johann Herder. Another interest of hers at the time was the status of women, resulting in her 1932 review of Alice Rühle-Gerstel's book Das Frauenproblem in der Gegenwart. Eine psychologische Bilanz (Contemporary Women's Issues: A psychological balance sheet). Although not a supporter of the women's movement, the review was sympathetic. At least in terms of the status of women at that time, she was skeptical of the movement's ability to achieve political change. She was also critical of the movement, because it was a women's movement, rather than contributing with men to a political movement, and abstract rather than striving for concrete goals. In this manner she echoed Rosa Luxemburg. Like Luxemburg, she would later criticize Jewish movements for the same reason. Arendt consistently prioritized political over social questions.\nBy 1932, faced with a deteriorating political situation, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings. She wrote, asking him to deny that he was attracted to National Socialism. Heidegger replied that he did not seek to deny the rumors (which were true), and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged. As a Jew in Nazi Germany, Arendt was prevented from making a living and discriminated against and confided to Anne Mendelssohn that emigration was probably inevitable. Jaspers had tried to persuade her to consider herself as a German first, a position she distanced herself from, pointing out that she was a Jew and that \"Für mich ist Deutschland die Muttersprache, die Philosophie und die Dichtung\" (For me, Germany is the mother tongue, philosophy and poetry), rather than her identity. This position puzzled Jaspers, replying \"It is strange to me that as a Jew you want to be different from the Germans\".\nBy 1933, life for the Jewish population in Germany was becoming precarious. Adolf Hitler became Reichskanzler (Chancellor) in January, and the Reichstag was burned down (Reichstagsbrand) the following month. This led to the suspension of civil liberties, with attacks on the left, and, in particular, members of the Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (German Communist Party: KPD). Stern, who had communist associations, fled to Paris, but Arendt stayed on to become an activist. Knowing her time was limited, she used the apartment at Opitzstraße 6 in Berlin-Steglitz that she had occupied with Stern since 1932 as an underground railway way-station for fugitives. Her rescue operation there is now recognized with a plaque on the wall.\n\nArendt had already positioned herself as a critic of the rising Nazi Party in 1932 by publishing \"Adam-Müller-Renaissance?\" a critique of the appropriation of the life of Adam Müller to support right wing ideology. The beginnings of anti-Jewish laws and boycott came in the spring of 1933. Confronted with systemic antisemitism, Arendt adopted the motiv \"If one is attacked as a Jew one must defend oneself as a Jew. Not as a German, not as a world citizen, not as an upholder of the Rights of Man.\" This was Arendt's introduction of the concept of Jew as Pariah that would occupy her for the rest of her life in her Jewish writings. She took a public position by publishing part of her largely completed biography of Rahel Varnhagen as \"Originale Assimilation: Ein Nachwort zu Rahel Varnhagen 100 Todestag\" (\"Original Assimilation: An Epilogue to the One Hundredth Anniversary of Rahel Varnhagen's Death\") in the Kölnische Zeitung on 7 March 1933 and a little later also in Jüdische Rundschau. In the article she argues that the age of assimilation that began with Varnhagen's generation had come to an end with an official state policy of antisemitism. She opened with the declaration:\n\nToday in Germany it seems Jewish assimilation must declare its bankruptcy. The general social antisemitism and its official legitimation affects in the first instance assimilated Jews, who can no longer protect themselves through baptism or by emphasizing their differences from Eastern Judaism.\nAs a Jew, Arendt was anxious to inform the world of what was happening to her people in 1930–1933. She surrounded herself with Zionist activists, including Kurt Blumenfeld, Martin Buber and Salman Schocken, and started to research antisemitism. Arendt had access to the Prussian State Library for her work on Varnhagen. Blumenfeld's Zionistische Vereinigung für Deutschland (Zionist Federation of Germany) persuaded her to use this access to obtain evidence of the extent of antisemitism, for a planned speech to the Zionist Congress in Prague. This research was illegal at the time. Her actions led to her being denounced by a librarian for anti-state propaganda, resulting in the arrest of both Arendt and her mother by the Gestapo. They served eight days in prison but her notebooks were in code and could not be deciphered, and she was released by a young, sympathetic arresting officer to await trial.\n\nExile: France (1933–1941)\nParis (1933–1940)\nOn release, realizing the danger she was now in, Arendt and her mother fled Germany following the established escape route over the Ore Mountains by night into Czechoslovakia and on to Prague and then by train to Geneva. In Geneva, she made a conscious decision to commit herself to \"the Jewish cause\". She obtained work with a friend of her mother's at the League of Nations' Jewish Agency for Palestine, distributing visas and writing speeches.\nFrom Geneva the Arendts traveled to Paris in the autumn, where she was reunited with Stern, joining a stream of refugees. While Arendt had left Germany without papers, her mother had travel documents and returned to Königsberg and her husband. In Paris, she befriended Stern's cousin, the Marxist literary critic and philosopher Walter Benjamin and also the Jewish French philosopher Raymond Aron.\nArendt was now an émigrée, an exile, stateless, without papers, and had turned her back on the Germany and Germans of the Nazizeit. Her legal status was precarious and she was coping with a foreign language and culture, all of which took its toll on her mentally and physically. In 1934 she started working for the Zionist-funded outreach program Agriculture et Artisanat, giving lectures and organizing clothing, documents, medications and education for Jewish youth seeking to emigrate to the British Mandate of Palestine, mainly as agricultural workers. Initially she was employed as a secretary, and then office manager. To improve her skills she studied French, Hebrew and Yiddish. In this way she was able to support herself and her husband. When the organization closed in 1935, her work for Blumenfeld and the Zionists in Germany brought her into contact with the wealthy philanthropist Baroness Germaine Alice de Rothschild (born Halphen, 1884–1975), wife of Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild, becoming her assistant. In this position she oversaw the baroness' contributions to Jewish charities through the Paris Consistoire, although she had little time for the family as a whole.\nLater in 1935, Arendt joined Youth Aliyah (Youth immigration), an organization similar to Agriculture et Artisanat that was founded in Berlin on the day Hitler seized power. It was affiliated with Hadassah, which later saved many from the Holocaust, and there Arendt eventually became Secretary-General (1935–1939). Her work with Youth Aliyah also involved finding food, clothing, social workers and lawyers, but above all, fund raising. She made her first visit to British Mandate of Palestine in 1935, accompanying one of these groups and meeting with her cousin Ernst Fürst there. With the Nazi annexation of Austria and invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1938, Paris was flooded with refugees, and she became the special agent for the rescue of the children from those countries. In 1938, Arendt completed her biography of Rahel Varnhagen, although this was not published until 1957. In April 1939, following the devastating Kristallnacht pogrom of November 1938, Martha Beerwald realized her daughter would not return and made the decision to leave her husband and join Arendt in Paris. One stepdaughter had died and the other had moved to England, Martin Beerwald would not leave and she no longer had any close ties to Königsberg.\n\nHeinrich Blücher\nIn 1936, Arendt met the self-educated Berlin poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher in Paris. Blücher had been a Spartacist and then a founding member of the KPD, but had been expelled due to his work in the Versöhnler (Conciliator faction). Although Arendt had rejoined Stern in 1933, their marriage existed in name only, with their having separated in Berlin. She fulfilled her social obligations and used the name Hannah Stern, but the relationship effectively ended when Stern, perhaps recognizing the danger better than she, emigrated to America with his parents in 1936. In 1937, Arendt was stripped of her German citizenship and she and Stern divorced. She had begun seeing more of Blücher, and eventually they began living together. It was Blücher's long political activism that began to move Arendt's thinking towards political action. Arendt and Blücher married on 16 January 1940, shortly after their divorces were finalized.\n\nInternment and escape (1940–1941)\nOn 5 May 1940, in anticipation of the German invasion of France and the Low Countries that month, the military governor of Paris issued a proclamation ordering all \"enemy aliens\" between 17 and 55 who had come from Germany (predominantly Jews) to report separately for internment. The women were gathered together in the Vélodrome d'Hiver on 15 May, so Hannah Arendt's mother, being over 55, was allowed to stay in Paris. Arendt described the process of making refugees as \"the new type of human being created by contemporary history ... put into concentration camps by their foes and into internment camps by their friends\". The men, including Blücher, were sent to Camp Vernet in southern France, close to the Spanish border. Arendt and the other women were sent to Camp Gurs, to the west of Gurs, a week later. The camp had earlier been set up to accommodate refugees from Spain. On 22 June, France capitulated and signed the Compiègne armistice, dividing the country. Gurs was in the southern Vichy controlled section. Arendt describes how, \"in the resulting chaos we succeeded in getting hold of liberation papers with which we were able to leave the camp\", which she did with about 200 of the 7,000 women held there, about four weeks later. There was no Résistance then, but she managed to walk and hitchhike north to Montauban, near Toulouse where she knew she would find help.\nMontauban had become an unofficial capital for former detainees, and Arendt's friend Lotta Sempell Klembort was staying there. Blücher's camp had been evacuated in the wake of the German advance, and he managed to escape from a forced march, making his way to Montauban, where the two of them led a fugitive life. Soon they were joined by Anne Mendelssohn and Arendt's mother. Escape from France was extremely difficult without official papers; their friend Walter Benjamin had taken his own life after being apprehended trying to escape to Spain. One of the best-known illegal routes operated out of Marseilles, where Varian Fry, an American journalist, worked to raise funds, forge papers and bribe officials with Hiram Bingham, the American vice-consul there.\nFry and Bingham secured exit papers and American visas for thousands, and with help from Günther Stern, Arendt, her husband, and her mother managed to secure the requisite permits to travel by train in January 1941 through Spain to Lisbon, Portugal, where they rented a flat at Rua da Sociedade Farmacêutica, 6b. They eventually secured passage to New York in May on the Companhia Colonial de Navegação's S/S Guiné II. A few months later, Fry's operations were shut down and the borders sealed.\n\nNew York (1941–1975)\nWorld War II (1941–1945)\nUpon arriving in New York City on 22 May 1941 with very little, Hannah's family received assistance from the Zionist Organization of America and the local German immigrant population, including Paul Tillich and neighbors from Königsberg. They rented rooms at 317 West 95th Street and Martha Arendt joined them there in June. There was an urgent need to acquire English, and it was decided that Hannah Arendt should spend two months with an American family in Winchester, Massachusetts, through Self-Help for Refugees, in July. She found the experience difficult but formulated her early appraisal of American life, Der Grundwiderspruch des Landes ist politische Freiheit bei gesellschaftlicher Knechtschaft (The fundamental contradiction of the country is political freedom coupled with social slavery).\nOn returning to New York, Arendt was anxious to resume writing and became active in the German-Jewish community, publishing her first article, \"From the Dreyfus Affair to France Today\" (in translation from her German) in July 1941. While she was working on this article, she was looking for employment and in November 1941 was hired by the New York German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau and from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a political column for it, covering antisemitism, refugees and the need for a Jewish army. She also contributed to the Menorah Journal, a Jewish-American magazine, and other German émigré publications.\n\nArendt's first full-time salaried job came in 1944, when she became the director of research and executive director for the newly emerging Commission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, a project of the Conference on Jewish Relations. She was recruited \"because of her great interest in the Commission's activities, her previous experience as an administrator, and her connections with Germany\". There she compiled lists of Jewish cultural assets in Germany and Nazi occupied Europe, to aid in their recovery after the war. Together with her husband, she lived at 370 Riverside Drive in New York City and at Kingston, New York, where Blücher taught at nearby Bard College for many years.\n\nPost-war (1945–1975)\nIn July 1946, Arendt left her position at the Commission on European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction to become an editor at Schocken Books, which later published some of her works. In 1948, she became engaged with the campaign of Judah Magnes for a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. She famously opposed the establishment of a Jewish nation-state in Palestine and initially also opposed the establishment of a binational Arab-Jewish state. Instead, she advocated for the inclusion of Palestine into a multi-ethnic federation. Only in 1948 in an effort to forestall partition did she support a binational one-state solution. She returned to the Commission in August 1949. In her capacity as executive secretary, she traveled to Europe, where she worked in Germany, Britain and France (December 1949 to March 1950) to negotiate the return of archival material from German institutions, an experience she found frustrating, but provided regular field reports. In January 1952, she became secretary to the Board, although the work of the organization was winding down and she was simultaneously pursuing her own intellectual activities; she retained this position until her death. Arendt's work on cultural restitution provided further material for her study of totalitarianism.\nIn the 1950s Arendt wrote The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), The Human Condition (1958) followed by On Revolution (1963). Arendt began corresponding with the American author Mary McCarthy, six years her junior, in 1950 and they soon became lifelong friends. In 1950, Arendt also became a naturalized citizen of the United States. The same year, she started seeing Martin Heidegger again, and had what the American writer Adam Kirsch called a \"quasi-romance\", lasting for two years, with the man who had previously been her mentor, teacher, and lover. During this time, Arendt defended him against critics who noted his enthusiastic membership in the Nazi Party. She portrayed Heidegger as a naïve man swept up by forces beyond his control, and pointed out that Heidegger's philosophy had nothing to do with National Socialism. She suspected that loyal followers of Horkheimer and Adorno in Frankfurt were plotting against Heidegger. For Adorno she had a real aversion: \"Half a Jew and one of the most repugnant men I know\". According to Arendt, the Frankfurt School was willing, and quite capable of doing so, to destroy Heidegger: \"For years they have branded anti-Semitism on anyone in Germany who opposes them, or have threatened to raise such an accusation\".\nIn 1961 she traveled to Jerusalem to report on Eichmann's trial for The New Yorker. This report strongly influenced her popular recognition, and raised much controversy (see below). Her work was recognized by many awards, including the Danish Sonning Prize in 1975 for Contributions to European Civilization.\nA few years later she spoke in New York City on the legitimacy of violence as a political act: \"Generally speaking, violence always rises out of impotence. It is the hope of those who have no power to find a substitute for it and this hope, I think, is in vain. Violence can destroy power, but it can never replace it.\"\n\nTeaching\nArendt taught at many institutions of higher learning from 1951 onwards, but, preserving her independence, consistently refused tenure-track positions. She was a visiting scholar at the University of Notre Dame, University of California, Berkeley, Princeton University (where she was the first woman to be appointed a full professor in 1959) and Northwestern University. She also taught at the University of Chicago from 1963 to 1967, where she was a member of the Committee on Social Thought, Yale University, where she was a fellow and the Center for Advanced Studies at Wesleyan University (1961–62, 1962–63). From 1967 she was a professor at the New School for Social research in Manhattan, New York City.\nShe was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1962 and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in 1964. In 1974, Arendt was instrumental in the creation of Structured Liberal Education (SLE) at Stanford University. She wrote a letter to the president of Stanford to persuade the university to enact Stanford history professor Mark Mancall's vision of a residentially-based humanities program. At the time of her death, she was University Professor of Political Philosophy at The New School.\n\nRelationships\nIn addition to her affair with Heidegger, and her two marriages, Arendt had close friendships. Since her death, her correspondence with many of them has been published, revealing much information about her thinking. To her friends she was both loyal and generous, dedicating several of her works to them. Freundschaft (friendship) she described as being one of \"tätigen Modi des Lebendigseins\" (the active modes of being alive), and, to her, friendship was central both to her life and to the concept of politics. Hans Jonas described her as having a \"genius for friendship\", and, in her own words, \"der Eros der Freundschaft\" (love of friendship).\nHer philosophy-based friendships were male and European, while her later American friendships were more diverse, literary, and political. Although she became an American citizen in 1950, her cultural roots remained European, and her language remained her German \"Muttersprache\" (mother tongue). She surrounded herself with German-speaking émigrés, sometimes referred to as \"The Tribe\". To her, wirkliche Menschen (real people) were \"pariahs\", not in the sense of outcasts, but in the sense of outsiders, unassimilated, with the virtue of \"social nonconformism ... the sine qua non of intellectual achievement\", a sentiment she shared with Jaspers.\nArendt always had a beste Freundin (best friend [female]). In her teens she had formed a lifelong relationship with her Jugendfreundin, Anne Mendelssohn Weil (\"Ännchen\"). After she emigrated to America, Hilde Fränkel, Paul Tillich's secretary and mistress, filled that role until the latter died in 1950. After the war, Arendt was able to return to Germany and renew her relationship with Weil, who made several visits to New York, especially after Blücher's death in 1970. Their last meeting was in Tegna, Switzerland in 1975, shortly before Arendt's death. With Fränkel's death, Mary McCarthy became Arendt's closest friend and confidante.\n\nFinal illness and death\nHeinrich Blücher had survived a cerebral aneurysm in 1961 and remained unwell after 1963, sustaining a series of heart attacks. On 31 October 1970, he died of a massive heart attack. A devastated Arendt had previously told Mary McCarthy, \"Life without him would be unthinkable\". Arendt was also a heavy smoker and was frequently depicted with a cigarette in her hand. She sustained a near-fatal heart attack while lecturing in Scotland in May 1974, and although she recovered, she remained in poor health afterward and continued to smoke. On the evening of 4 December 1975, shortly after her 69th birthday, she had a further heart attack in her apartment while entertaining friends, and was pronounced dead at the scene. Her ashes were buried alongside those of Blücher at Bard College, in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York in May 1976.\nAfter Arendt's death the title page of the final part of The Life of the Mind (\"Judging\") was found in her typewriter, which she had just started, consisting of the title and two epigraphs. This has subsequently been reproduced in the edited version of her Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy.(see image).\n\nWork\nArendt wrote works on intellectual history as a political theorist, using events and actions to develop insights into contemporary totalitarian movements and the threat to human freedom presented by scientific abstraction and bourgeois morality. Intellectually, she was an independent thinker, a loner, not a \"joiner,\" separating herself from schools of thought or ideology. In addition to her major texts she published anthologies, including Between Past and Future (1961), Men in Dark Times (1968) and Crises of the Republic (1972). She also contributed to many publications, including The New York Review of Books, Commonweal, Dissent and The New Yorker. She is perhaps best known for her accounts of Adolf Eichmann and his trial, because of the intense controversy that it generated.\n\nPolitical theory and philosophical system\nWhile Arendt never developed a systematic political theory and her writing does not easily lend itself to categorization, the tradition of thought most closely identified with Arendt is that of civic republicanism, from Aristotle to Tocqueville. Her political concept is centered around active citizenship that emphasizes civic engagement and collective deliberation. She believed that no matter how bad, government could never succeed in extinguishing human freedom, despite holding that modern societies frequently retreat from democratic freedom with its inherent disorder for the relative comfort of administrative bureaucracy. Some have claimed her political legacy is her strong defence of freedom in the face of an increasingly less than free world. She does not adhere to a single systematic philosophy, but rather spans a range of subjects covering totalitarianism, revolution, the nature of freedom and the faculties of thought and judgment.\nWhile she is best known for her work on \"dark times\", the nature of totalitarianism and evil, she imbued this with a spark of hope and confidence in the nature of mankind:\n\nThat even in the darkest of times we have the right to expect some illumination, and that such illumination might well come less from theories and concepts than from the uncertain, flickering, and often weak light that some men and women, in their lives and their works, will kindle under almost all circumstances and shed over the time span that was given to them. Men in Dark Times (1968)\n\nLove and Saint Augustine (1929)\nArendt's doctoral thesis, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin. Versuch einer philosophischen Interpretation (Love and Saint Augustine. Towards a philosophical interpretation), was published in 1929 and attracted critical interest, although an English translation did not appear until 1996. In this work she combined approaches of both Heidegger and Jaspers. Arendt's interpretation of love in the work of Augustine deals with three concepts, love as craving or desire (Amor qua appetitus), love in the relationship between man (creatura) and creator (Creator – Creatura), and neighborly love (Dilectio proximi). Love as craving anticipates the future, while love for the Creator deals with the remembered past. Of the three, dilectio proximi or caritas is perceived as the most fundamental, to which the first two are oriented, which she treats as vita socialis (social life) – the second of the Great Commandments (or Golden Rule) \"Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself\" uniting and transcending the former. Augustine's influence (and Jaspers' views on his work) persisted in Arendt's writings for the rest of her life.\n\nSome of the leitmotifs of her canon were apparent, introducing the concept of Natalität (Natality) as a key condition of human existence and its role in the development of the individual, developing this further in The Human Condition (1958). She explained that the construct of natality was implied in her discussion of new beginnings and man's elation to the Creator as nova creatura. The centrality of the theme of birth and renewal is apparent in the constant reference to Augustinian thought, and specifically the innovative nature of birth, from this, her first work, to her last, The Life of the Mind.\nLove is another connecting theme. In addition to the Augustinian loves expostulated in her dissertation, the phrase amor mundi (love of the world) is one often associated with Arendt and both permeates her work and was an absorbing passion throughout her work. She took the phrase from Augustine's homily on the first epistle of St John, \"If love of the world dwell in us\". Amor mundi was her original title for The Human Condition (1958), the subtitle of Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography (1982), the title of a collection of writing on faith in her work and is the newsletter of the Hannah Arendt Center at Bard College.\n\nThe Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)\nArendt's first major book, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), examined the roots of Stalinism and Nazism, structured as three essays, \"Antisemitism\", \"Imperialism\" and \"Totalitarianism\". Arendt argues that totalitarianism was a \"novel form of government,\" that \"differs essentially from other forms of political oppression known to us such as despotism, tyranny and dictatorship\" in that it applied terror to subjugate mass populations rather than just political adversaries. Arendt also maintained that Jewry was not the operative factor in the Holocaust, but merely a convenient proxy because Nazism was about terror and consistency, not merely eradicating Jews. Arendt explained the tyranny using Kant's phrase \"radical evil\", by which their victims became \"superfluous people\". In later editions she enlarged the text to include her work on \"Ideology and Terror: A novel form of government\" and the Hungarian Revolution, but then published the latter separately.\nCriticism of Origins has often focused on its portrayal of the two movements, Hitlerism and Stalinism, as equally tyrannical.\n\nRahel Varnhagen: The Life of a Jewess (1957)\nArendt's Habilitationsschrift on Rahel Varnhagen was completed while she was living in exile in Paris in 1938, but not published till 1957, in the United Kingdom by East and West Library, part of the Leo Baeck Institute. This biography of a 19th-century Jewish socialite, formed an important step in her analysis of Jewish history and the subjects of assimilation and emancipation, and introduced her treatment of the Jewish diaspora as either pariah or parvenu. In addition it represents an early version of her concept of history. The book is dedicated to Anne Mendelssohn, who first drew her attention to Varnhagen. Arendt's relation to Varnhagen permeates her subsequent work. Her account of Varnhagen's life was perceived during a time of the destruction of German-Jewish culture. It partially reflects Arendt's own view of herself as a German-Jewish woman driven out of her own culture into a stateless existence, leading to the description \"biography as autobiography\".\n\nThe Human Condition (1958)\nIn what is arguably her most influential work, The Human Condition (1958), Arendt differentiates political and social concepts, labor and work, and various forms of actions; she then explores the implications of those distinctions. Her theory of political action, corresponding to the existence of a public realm, is extensively developed in this work. Arendt argues that, while human life always evolves within societies, the social part of human nature, political life, has been intentionally realized in only a few societies as a space for individuals to achieve freedom. Conceptual categories, which attempt to bridge the gap between ontological and sociological structures, are sharply delineated. While Arendt relegates labor and work to the realm of the social, she favors the human condition of action as that which is both existential and aesthetic. Of human actions, Arendt identifies two that she considers essential. These are forgiving past wrong (or unfixing the fixed past) and promising future benefit (or fixing the unfixed future).\nArendt had first introduced the concept of \"natality\" in her Love and Saint Augustine (1929) and in The Human Condition starts to develop this further. In this, she departs from Heidegger's emphasis on mortality. Arendt's positive message is one of the \"miracle of beginning\", the continual arrival of the new to create action, that is to alter the state of affairs brought about by previous actions. \"Men\", she wrote \"though they must die, are not born in order to die but in order to begin\". She defined her use of \"natality\" as:\n\nThe miracle that saves the world, the realm of human affairs, from its normal, \"natural\" ruin is ultimately the fact of natality, in which the faculty of action is ontologically rooted. It is, in other words, the birth of new men and the new beginning, the action they are capable of by virtue of being born.\nNatality would go on to become a central concept of her political theory, and also what Karin Fry considers its most optimistic one.\n\nBetween Past and Future (1954...1968)\nBetween Past and Future is an anthology of eight essays written between 1954 and 1968, dealing with a variety of different but connected philosophical subjects. These essays share the central idea that humans live between the past and the uncertain future. Man must permanently think to exist, but must learn thinking. Humans have resorted to tradition, but are abandoning respect for this tradition and culture. Arendt tries to find solutions to help humans think again, since modern philosophy has not succeeded in helping humans to live correctly.\n\nOn Revolution (1963)\nArendt's book On Revolution presents a comparison of two of the main revolutions of the 18th century, the American and French Revolutions. She goes against a common impression of both Marxist and leftist views when she argues that France, while well-studied and often emulated, was a disaster and that the largely ignored American Revolution was a success. The turning point in the French Revolution occurred when the leaders rejected their goals of freedom to focus on compassion for the masses. In the United States, the founders never betray the goal of Constitutio Libertatis. Arendt believes the revolutionary spirit of those men had been lost, however, and advocates a \"council system\" as an appropriate institution to regain that spirit.\n\nMen in Dark Times (1968)\nThe anthology of essays Men in Dark Times presents intellectual biographies of some creative and moral figures of the 20th century, such as Walter Benjamin, Karl Jaspers, Rosa Luxemburg, Hermann Broch, Pope John XXIII, and Isak Dinesen.\n\nCrises of the Republic (1972)\nCrises of the Republic was the third of Arendt's anthologies, consisting of four essays. These related essays deal with contemporary American politics and the crises it faced in the 1960s and 1970s. \"Lying in Politics\" looks for an explanation behind the administration's deception regarding the Vietnam War, as revealed in the Pentagon Papers. \"Civil Disobedience\" examines the opposition movements, while the final \"Thoughts on Politics and Revolution\" is a commentary, in the form of an interview on the third essay, \"On Violence\". In \"On Violence\" Arendt substantiates that violence presupposes power which she understands as a property of groups. Thus, she breaks with the predominant conception of power as derived from violence.\n\nThe Life of the Mind (1978)\nArendt's last major work, The Life of the Mind remained incomplete at the time of her death in 1975, but marked a return to moral philosophy. The outline of the book was based on her graduate level political philosophy class, Philosophy of the Mind, and her Gifford Lectures in Scotland. She conceived of the work as a trilogy based on the mental activities of thinking, willing, and judging. Her most recent work had focused on the first two, but went beyond this in terms of vita activa. Her discussion of thinking was based on Socrates and his notion of thinking as a solitary dialogue between oneself, leading her to novel concepts of conscience.\nArendt died suddenly five days after completing the second part, with the first page of Judging still in her typewriter, and McCarthy then edited the first two parts and provided some indication of the direction of the third. Arendt's exact intentions for the third part are unknown but she left several manuscripts (such as Thinking and Moral Considerations, Some Questions on Moral Philosophy and Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy) relating to her thoughts on the mental faculty of Judging. These have since been published separately.\n\nCollected works\nAfter Arendt died in 1975, her essays and notes have continued to be collected, edited and published posthumously by friends and colleagues, mainly under the editorship of Jerome Kohn, including those that give some insight into the unfinished third part of The Life of the Mind. Some dealt with her Jewish identity. The Jew as Pariah: Jewish Identity and Politics in the Modern Age (1978), is a collection of 15 essays and letters from the period 1943–1966 on the situation of Jews in modern times, to try and throw some light on her views on the Jewish world, following the backlash to Eichmann, but proved to be equally polarizing. A further collection of her writings on being Jewish was published as The Jewish Writings (2007). Her work on moral philosophy appeared as Lectures on Kant's Political Philosophy (1982) and Responsibility and Judgment (2003), and her literary works as Reflections on Literature and Culture (2007).\nOther work includes the collection of forty, largely fugitive, essays, addresses, and reviews covering the period 1930–1954, titled Essays in Understanding 1930–1954: Formation, Exile, and Totalitarianism (1994). These presaged her monumental The Origins of Totalitarianism, in particular On the Nature of Totalitarianism (1953) and The Concern with Politics in Contemporary European Philosophical Thought (1954). However these attracted little attention. However after a new version of Origins of Totalitarianism appeared in 2004 followed by The Promise of Politics in 2005 there appeared a new interest in Arendtiana. This led to a second series of her remaining essays, Thinking Without a Banister: Essays in Understanding, 1953–1975, published in 2018. Her notebooks which form a series of memoirs, were published as Denktagebuch in 2002.\n\nCorrespondence\nSome further insight into her thinking is provided in the continuing posthumous publication of her correspondence with many of the important figures in her life, including Karl Jaspers (1992), Mary McCarthy (1995), Heinrich Blücher (1996), Martin Heidegger (2004), Alfred Kazin (2005), Walter Benjamin (2006), Gershom Scholem (2011) and Günther Stern (2016). Other correspondences that have been published include those with women friends such as Hilde Fränkel and Anne Mendelssohnn Weil (see Relationships).\n\nArendt and the Eichmann trial (1961–1963)\nIn 1960, on hearing of Adolf Eichmann's capture and plans for his trial, Hannah Arendt contacted The New Yorker and offered to travel to Israel to cover it when it opened on 11 April 1961. Arendt was anxious to test her theories, developed in The Origins of Totalitarianism, and see how justice would be administered to the sort of man she had written about. Also she had witnessed \"little of the Nazi regime directly\" and this was an opportunity to witness an agent of totalitarianism first hand. The offer was accepted and she attended six weeks of the five-month trial with her young Israeli cousin, Edna Brocke. On arrival she was treated as a celebrity, meeting with the trial chief judge, Moshe Landau, and the foreign minister, Golda Meir. In her subsequent 1963 report, based on her observations and transcripts, and which evolved into the book Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, Arendt coined the phrase \"the banality of evil\" to describe the Eichmann phenomenon. She, like others, was struck by his very ordinariness and the demeanor he exhibited of a small, slightly balding, bland bureaucrat, in contrast to the horrific crimes he stood accused of. He was, she wrote, \"terribly and terrifyingly normal.\" She examined the question of whether evil is radical or simply a function of thoughtlessness, a tendency of ordinary people to obey orders and conform to mass opinion without a critical evaluation of the consequences of their actions. Arendt's argument was that Eichmann was not a monster, contrasting the immensity of his actions with the very ordinariness of the man himself. Eichmann, she stated, not only called himself a Zionist, having initially opposed the Jewish persecution, but also expected his captors to understand him. She pointed out that his actions were not driven by malice, but rather blind dedication to the regime and his need to belong, to be a \"joiner.\"\nOn this, Arendt would later state \"Going along with the rest and wanting to say 'we' were quite enough to make the greatest of all crimes possible\". What Arendt observed during the trial was a bourgeois sales clerk who found a meaningful role for himself and a sense of importance in the Nazi movement. She noted that his addiction to clichés and use of bureaucratic morality clouded his ability to question his actions, \"to think\". This led her to set out her most debated dictum: \"the lesson that this long course in human wickedness had taught us – the lesson of the fearsome, word-and-thought-defying banality of evil.\" By stating that Eichmann did not think, she did not imply lack of conscious awareness of his actions, but by \"thinking\" she implied reflective rationality, that was lacking.\nArendt was critical of the way the trial was conducted by the Israelis as a \"show trial\" with ulterior motives other than simply trying evidence and administering justice. Arendt was also critical of the way Israel depicted Eichmann's crimes as crimes against a nation-state, rather than against humanity itself. She objected to the idea that a strong Israel was necessary to protect world Jewry being again placed where \"they'll let themselves be slaughtered like sheep,\" recalling the biblical phrase. She portrayed the prosecutor, Attorney General Gideon Hausner, as employing hyperbolic rhetoric in the pursuit of Prime Minister Ben-Gurion's political agenda. Arendt, who believed she could maintain her focus on moral principles in the face of outrage, became increasingly frustrated with Hausner, describing his parade of survivors as having \"no apparent bearing on the case\". She was particularly concerned that Hausner repeatedly asked \"why did you not rebel?\" rather than question the role of the Jewish leaders. On this point, Arendt argued that during the Holocaust some of them cooperated with Eichmann \"almost without exception\" in the destruction of their own people. These leaders, notably M. C. Rumkowski, constituted the Jewish Councils (Judenräte). She had expressed concerns on this point prior to the trial. She described this as a moral catastrophe. While her argument was not to allocate blame, rather she mourned what she considered a moral failure of compromising the imperative that it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. She describes the cooperation of the Jewish leaders in terms of a disintegration of Jewish morality: \"This role of the Jewish leaders in the destruction of their own people is undoubtedly the darkest chapter in the whole dark story\". Widely misunderstood, this caused an even greater controversy and particularly animosity toward her in the Jewish community and in Israel. For Arendt, the Eichmann trial marked a turning point in her thinking in the final decade of her life, becoming increasingly preoccupied with moral philosophy.\n\nReception\nArendt's five-part series \"Eichmann in Jerusalem\" appeared in The New Yorker in February 1963 some nine months after Eichmann was hanged on 31 May 1962. By this time his trial was largely forgotten in the popular mind, superseded by intervening world events. However, no other account of either Eichmann or National Socialism has aroused so much controversy. Before its publication, Arendt was considered a brilliant humanistic original political thinker. Her mentor, Karl Jaspers, however, had warned her about a possible adverse outcome, \"The Eichmann trial will be no pleasure for you. I'm afraid it cannot go well\". On publication, three controversies immediately occupied public attention: the concept of Eichmann as banal, her criticism of the role of Israel and her description of the role played by the Jewish people themselves.\nArendt was profoundly shocked by the response, writing to Karl Jaspers \"People are resorting to any means to destroy my reputation ... They have spent weeks trying to find something in my past that they can hang on me\". Now she was being called arrogant, heartless and ill-informed. She was accused of being duped by Eichmann, of being a \"self-hating Jewess\", and even an enemy of Israel. Her critics included The Anti-Defamation League and many other Jewish groups, editors of publications she was a contributor to, faculty at the universities she taught at and friends from all parts of her life. Her friend Gershom Scholem, a major scholar of Jewish mysticism, broke off relations with her, publishing their correspondence without her permission. Arendt was criticized by many Jewish public figures, who charged her with coldness and lack of sympathy for the victims of the Holocaust. Because of this lingering criticism neither this book nor any of her other works were translated into Hebrew until 1999. Arendt responded to the controversies in the book's Postscript.\nAlthough Arendt complained that she was being criticized for telling the truth – \"what a risky business to tell the truth on a factual level without theoretical and scholarly embroidery\" – the criticism was largely directed to her theorizing on the nature of mankind and evil and that ordinary people were driven to commit the inexplicable not so much by hatred and ideology as ambition, and inability to empathize. Equally problematic was the suggestion that the victims deceived themselves and complied in their own destruction. Prior to Arendt's depiction of Eichmann, his popular image had been, as The New York Times put it \"the most evil monster of humanity\" and as a representative of \"an atrocious crime, unparalleled in history\", \"the extermination of European Jews\". As it turned out Arendt and others were correct in pointing out that Eichmann's characterization by the prosecution as the architect and chief technician of the Holocaust was not entirely credible.\nWhile much has been made of Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, Ada Ushpiz, in her 2015 documentary Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt, placed it in a much broader context of the use of rationality to explain seemingly irrational historical events.\n\nKein Mensch hat das Recht zu gehorchen\nIn an interview with Joachim Fest in 1964, Arendt was asked about Eichmann's defense that he had made Kant's principle of the duty of obedience his guiding principle all his life. Arendt replied that that was outrageous and that Eichmann was misusing Kant, by not considering the element of judgement required in assessing one's own actions – \"Kein Mensch hat bei Kant das Recht zu gehorchen\" (No man has, according to Kant, the right to obey), she stated, paraphrasing Kant. The reference was to Kant's Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft (Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason 1793) in which he states:\n\nDer Satz 'man muß Gott mehr gehorchen, als den Menschen' bedeutet nur, daß, wenn die letzten etwas gebieten, was an sich böse (dem Sittengesetz unmittelbar zuwider) ist, ihnen nicht gehorcht werden darf und soll (The saying, \"We must hearken to God, rather than to man,\" signifies no more than this, viz. that should any earthly legislation enjoin something immediately contradictory of the moral law, obedience is not to be rendered)\nKant clearly defines a higher moral duty than rendering merely unto Caesar. Arendt herself had written in her book \"This was outrageous, on the face of it, and also incomprehensible, since Kant's moral philosophy is so closely bound up with man's faculty of judgment, which rules out blind obedience.\" Arendt's reply to Fest was subsequently corrupted to read Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen (No one has the right to obey), which has been widely reproduced, although it does encapsulate an aspect of her moral philosophy.\nThe phrase Niemand hat das Recht zu gehorchen has become one of her iconic images, appearing on the wall of the house in which she was born (see Commemorations), among other places. A fascist bas-relief on the Palazzo degli Uffici Finanziari (1942), in the Piazza del Tribunale, Bolzano, Italy celebrating Mussolini, read Credere, Obbedire, Combattere (Believe, Obey, Combat). In 2017 it was altered to read Hannah Arendt's original words on obedience in the three official languages of the region.\nThe phrase has been appearing in other artistic work featuring political messages, such as the 2015 installation by Wilfried Gerstel, which has evoked the concept of resistance to dictatorship, as expressed in her essay \"Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship\" (1964).\n\nList of selected publications\nViews\nIn 1961, while covering the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, Arendt wrote a letter to Karl Jaspers that Adam Kirsch described as reflecting \"pure racism\" toward Sephardic Jews from the Middle East and Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe. She wrote:\n\nFortunately, Eichmann's three judges were of German origin, indeed the best of German Jewry. [Attorney General Gideon] Hausner is a typical Galician Jew, still European, very unsympathetic... boring... constantly making mistakes. Probably one of those people who don't know any language. Everything is organized by a police force which gives me the creeps, speaks only Hebrew, and looks Arabic. Some downright brutal types among them. They would obey any order. And outside the doors, the oriental mob, as if one were in Istanbul or some other half-Asiatic country.\nAlthough Arendt remained a Zionist both during and after World War II, she made it clear that she favored the creation of a Jewish-Arab federated state in British Mandate of Palestine (now Israel and the Palestinian territories), rather than a purely Jewish state. She believed that this was a way to address Jewish statelessness and to avoid the pitfalls of nationalism.\n\nAccusations of racism\nIt was not just Arendt's analysis of the Eichmann trial that drew accusations of racism. In her 1958 essay in Dissent titled Reflections on Little Rock she expressed opposition to desegregation following the 1957 Little Rock Integration Crisis in Arkansas. As she explains in the preface, for a long time the magazine was reluctant to print her contribution, so far did it appear to differ from the publication's liberal values. Eventually it was printed alongside critical responses. Later The New Yorker would express similar hesitancy over the Eichmann papers. So vehement was the response that Arendt felt obliged to defend herself in a sequel. The debate over this essay has continued since. William Simmons devotes a whole section of his 2011 text on human rights (Human Rights Law and the Marginalized Other) to a critique of Arendt's position and in particular on Little Rock. While many critics feel she was fundamentally racist, many of those who have defended Arendt's position have pointed out that her concerns were for the welfare of the children, a position she maintained throughout her life. She felt that white children were being thrown into a racially disharmonious \"jungle\" to serve a broader political strategy of forcible integration.\nWhile over time Arendt conceded some ground to her critics, namely that she argued as an outsider, she remained committed to her central critique that children should not be thrust into the front-lines of geopolitical conflict.\n\nFeminism\nEmbraced by feminists as a pioneer in a world dominated by men up to her time, Arendt did not call herself a feminist and would be very surprised to hear herself described as a feminist, remaining opposed to the social dimensions of Women's Liberation, urging independence, but always keeping in mind Vive la petite différence! On becoming the first woman to be appointed a professor at Princeton in 1953, the media were much engaged in this exceptional achievement, but she never wanted to be seen as an exception, either as a woman (an \"exception woman\") or a Jew, stating emphatically \"I am not disturbed at all about being a woman professor, because I am quite used to being a woman\". In 1972, discussing women's liberation, she observed \"the real question to ask is, what will we lose if we win?\". She rather enjoyed what she saw as the privileges of being feminine as opposed to feminist, \"Intensely feminine and therefore no feminist\", stated Hans Jonas. Arendt considered some professions and positions unsuitable for women, particularly those involving leadership, telling Günter Gaus \"It just doesn't look good when a woman gives orders\". Despite these views, and having been labelled \"anti-feminist\", much space has been devoted to examining Arendt's place in relation to feminism. In the last years of her life, Virginia Held noted that Arendt's views evolved with the emergence of a new feminism in America in the 1970s to recognize the importance of the women's movement.\n\nCritique of human rights\nIn The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt devotes a lengthy chapter (The Decline of the Nation-State and the End of the Rights of Man) to a critical analysis of human rights, in what has been described as \"the most widely read essay on refugees ever published\". Arendt is not skeptical of the notion of political rights in general, but instead defends a national or civil conception of rights. Human rights, or the Rights of Man as they were commonly called, are universal, inalienable, and possessed simply by virtue of being human. In contrast, civil rights are possessed by virtue of belonging to a political community, most commonly by being a citizen. Arendt's primary criticism of human rights is that they are ineffectual and illusory because their enforcement is in tension with national sovereignty. She argued that since there is no political authority above that of sovereign nations, state governments have little incentive to respect human rights when such policies conflict with national interests. This can be seen most clearly by examining the treatment of refugees and other stateless people. Since the refugee has no state to secure their civil rights, the only rights they have to fall back on are human rights. In this way Arendt uses the refugee as a test case for examining human rights in isolation from civil rights.\nArendt's analysis draws on the refugee upheavals in the first half of the 20th century along with her own experience as a refugee fleeing Nazi Germany. She argued that as state governments began to emphasize national identity as a prerequisite for full legal status, the number of minority resident aliens increased along with the number of stateless persons whom no state was willing to recognize legally. The two potential solutions to the refugee problem, repatriation and naturalization, both proved incapable of solving the crisis. Arendt argued that repatriation failed to solve the refugee crisis because no government was willing to take them in and claim them as their own. When refugees were forcibly deported to neighboring countries, such immigration was deemed illegal by the receiving country, and so failed to change the fundamental status of the migrants as stateless. Attempts at naturalizing and assimilating refugees also had little success. This failure was primarily the result of resistance from both state governments and the majority of citizens, since both tended to see the refugees as undesirables who threatened their national identity. Resistance to naturalization also came from the refugees themselves who resisted assimilation and attempted to maintain their own ethnic and national identities. Arendt contends that neither naturalization nor the tradition of asylum was capable of handling the sheer number of refugees. Instead of accepting some refugees with legal status, the state often responded by denaturalizing minorities who shared national or ethnic ties with stateless refugees.\nArendt argues that the consistent mistreatment of refugees, most of whom were placed in internment camps, is evidence against the existence of human rights. If the notion of human rights as universal and inalienable is to be taken seriously, the rights must be realizable given the features of the modern liberal state. She concluded \"The Rights of Man, supposedly inalienable, proved to be unenforceable–even in countries whose constitutions were based upon them–whenever people appeared who were no longer citizens of any sovereign state\". Arendt contends that they are not realizable because they are in tension with at least one feature of the liberal state—national sovereignty. One of the primary ways in which a nation exercises sovereignty is through control over national borders. State governments consistently grant their citizens free movement to traverse national borders. In contrast, the movement of refugees is often restricted in the name of national interests. This restriction presents a dilemma for liberalism because liberal theorists typically are committed to both human rights and the existence of sovereign nations.\nIn one of her most quoted passages, she puts forward the concept that human rights are little more than an abstraction:\n\nThe conception of human rights based upon the assumed existence of a human being as such broke down at the very moment when those who professed to believe in it were for the first time confronted with people who had indeed lost all other qualities and specific relationships – except that they were still human. The world found nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of being human.\n\nIn popular culture\nSeveral authors have written biographies that focus on the relationship between Hannah Arendt and Martin Heidegger. In 1999, the French feminist philosopher Catherine Clément wrote a novel, Martin and Hannah, speculating on the triangular relationship between Heidegger and the two women in his life, Arendt and Heidegger's wife Elfriede Petri. In addition to the relationships, the novel is a serious exploration of philosophical ideas, that centers on Arendt's last meeting with Heidegger in Freiburg in 1975. The scene is based on Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's description in Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World (1982), but reaches back to their childhoods, and Heidegger's role in encouraging the relationship between the two women. The novel explores Heidegger's embrace of Nazism as a proxy for that of Germany and, as in Arendt's treatment of Eichmann, the difficult relationship between collective guilt and personal responsibility. Clément also brings Hannah's other mentor and confidante, Karl Jaspers, into the matrix of relationships.\nIn 2012 the German film, Hannah Arendt, directed by Margarethe von Trotta was released. The film, with Barbara Sukowa in the title role, depicted the controversy over Arendt's coverage of the Eichmann trial in The New Yorker and her subsequent book, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, in which she was widely misunderstood as defending Eichmann and blaming Jewish leaders for the Holocaust. In 2015, the filmmaker Ada Ushpiz produced a documentary on Hannah Arendt, Vita Activa: The Spirit of Hannah Arendt. In the 2023 TV series Transatlantic, Arendt is portrayed by Alexa Karolinski.\n\nLegacy\nHannah Arendt is considered one of the most influential political philosophers of the 20th century. In 1998 Walter Laqueur stated \"No twentieth-century philosopher and political thinker has at the present time as wide an echo\", as philosopher, historian, sociologist and also journalist. Arendt's legacy has been described as a cult. In a 2016 review of a documentary about Arendt, the journalist A. O. Scott describes Hannah Arendt as \"of unmatched range and rigor\" as a thinker, although she is primarily known for the series of articles known as Eichmann in Jerusalem that she wrote for The New Yorker, and in particular for the one phrase \"the banality of evil\".\nShe shunned publicity, never expecting, as she explained to Karl Jaspers in 1951, to see herself as a \"cover girl\" on the newsstands. In Germany, there are tours available of sites associated with her life.\nThe study of the life and work of Hannah Arendt, and of her political and philosophical theory is described as Arendtian. In her will she established the Hannah Arendt Bluecher Literary Trust as the custodian of her writings and photographs. Her personal library was deposited at Bard College at the Stevenson Library in 1976, and includes approximately 4,000 books, ephemera, and pamphlets from Arendt's last apartment as well as her desk (in McCarthy House). The college has begun archiving some of the collection digitally, which is available at The Hannah Arendt Collection. Most of her papers were deposited at the Library of Congress and her correspondence with her German friends and mentors, such as Heidegger, Blumenfeld and Jaspers, at the Deutsches Literaturarchiv in Marbach. The Library of Congress listed more than 50 books written about her in 1998, and that number has continued to grow, as have the number of scholarly articles, estimated as 1000 at that time.\nHer life and work is recognized by the institutions most closely associated with her teaching, by the creation of Hannah Arendt Centers at both Bard (Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities) and The New School, both in New York State. In Germany, her contributions to understanding authoritarianism is recognised by the Hannah-Arendt-Institut für Totalitarismusforschung (Hannah Arendt Institute for the Research on Totalitarianism) in Dresden. There are Hannah Arendt Associations (Hannah Arendt Verein) such as the Hannah Arendt Verein für politisches Denken in Bremen that awards the annual Hannah-Arendt-Preis für politisches Denken (Hannah Arendt Prize for Political Thinking) established in 1995. In Oldenburg, the Hannah Arendt Center at Carl von Ossietzky University was established in 1999, and holds a large collection of her work (Hannah Arendt Archiv), and administers the internet portal HannahArendt.net (A Journal for Political Thinking) as well as a monograph series, the Hannah Arendt-Studien. In Italy, the Hannah Arendt Center for Political Studies is situated at the University of Verona for Arendtian studies.\nIn 2017 a journal, Arendt Studies, was launched to publish articles related to the study of the life, work, and legacy of Hannah Arendt. Many places associated with her, have memorabilia of her on display, such as her student card at the University of Heidelberg (see image). 2006, the centennial of her birth, saw commemorations of her work in conferences and celebrations around the world.\nOf the many photographic portraits of Arendt, that taken in 1944 by Fred Stein (see image), whose work she greatly admired, has become iconic, and has been described as better known than the photographer himself, having appeared on a German postage stamp.(see image) Among organizations that have recognized Arendt's contributions to civilization and human rights, is the United Nations Refugee Agency (UNHCR).\n\nContemporary interest\nThe rise of nativism, such as the election of Donald Trump in the United States, and concerns regarding an increasingly authoritarian style of governance has led to a surge of interest in Arendt and her writings, including radio broadcasts and writers, including Jeremy Adelman and Zoe Williams, to revisit Arendt's ideas to seek the extent to which they inform our understanding of such movements, which are being described as \"Dark Times\". At the same time Amazon reported that it had sold out of copies of The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951). Michiko Kakutani has addressed what she refers to as \"the death of truth\". In her 2018 book, The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump, she argues that the rise of totalitarianism has been founded on the violation of truth. She begins her book with an extensive quote from The Origins of Totalitarianism:\n\nThe ideal subject of totalitarian rule is not the convinced Nazi or the convinced communist, but people for whom the distinction between fact and fiction (i.e., the reality of experience) and the distinction between true and false (i.e., the standards of thought) no longer exist.\nKakutani and others believed that Arendt's words speak not just events of a previous century but apply equally to the contemporary cultural landscape populated with fake news and lies. She also draws on Arendt's essay \"Lying in Politics\" from Crises in the Republic pointing to the lines:\n\nThe historian knows how vulnerable is the whole texture of facts in which we spend our daily life; it is always in danger of being perforated by single lies or torn to shreds by the organized lying of groups, nations, or classes, or denied and distorted, often carefully covered up by reams of falsehoods or simply allowed to fall into oblivion. Facts need testimony to be remembered and trustworthy witnesses to be established in order to find a secure dwelling place in the domain of human affairs\nArendt drew attention to the critical role that propaganda plays in gaslighting populations, Kakutani observes, citing the passage:\n\nIn an ever-changing, incomprehensible world the masses had reached the point where they would, at the same time, believe everything and nothing, think that everything was possible and that nothing was true . ... The totalitarian mass leaders based their propaganda on the correct psychological assumption that, under such conditions, one could make people believe the most fantastic statements one day, and trust that if the next day they were given irrefutable proof of their falsehood, they would take refuge in cynicism; instead of deserting the leaders who had lied to them, they would protest that they had known all along that the statement was a lie and would admire the leaders for their superior tactical cleverness\nArendt took a broader perspective on history than merely totalitarianism in the early 20th century, stating \"the deliberate falsehood and the outright lie have been used as legitimate means to achieve political ends since the beginning of recorded history.\" Contemporary relevance is also reflected in the increasing use of the phrase, attributed to her, \"No one has the right to obey\" to reflect that actions result from choices, and hence judgement, and that we cannot disclaim responsibility for that which we have the power to act upon. In addition those centers established to promote Arendtian studies continue to seek solutions to a wide range of contemporary issues in her writing.\nArendt's teachings on obedience have also been linked to the controversial psychology experiments by Stanley Milgram, that implied that ordinary people can easily be induced to commit atrocities. Milgram himself drew attention to this in 1974, stating that he was testing the theory that Eichmann like others would merely follow orders, but unlike Milgram she argued that actions involve responsibility.\nArendt's theories on the political consequences of how nations deal with refugees have remained relevant and compelling. Arendt had observed first hand the displacement of large stateless and rightsless populations, treated not so much as people in need than as problems to solve, and in many cases, resist. She wrote about this in her 1943 essay \"We refugees\". Another Arendtian theme that finds an echo in contemporary society is her observation, inspired by Rilke, of the despair of not being heard, the futility of tragedy that finds no listener that can bring comfort, assurance and intervention. An example of this being gun violence in America and the resulting political inaction.\nIn Search of the Last Agora, an illustrated documentary film by Lebanese director Rayyan Dabbous about Hannah Arendt's 1958 work The Human Condition, was released in 2018 to mark the book's 50th anniversary. Screened at Bard College, the experimental film is described as finding \"new meaning in the political theorist's conceptions of politics, technology and society in the 1950s\", particularly in her prediction of abuses of phenomena unknown in Arendt's time, including social media, intense globalization, and obsessive celebrity culture.\n\nCommemorations\nHannah Arendt's life and work continue to be commemorated in many different ways, including plaques (Gedenktafeln) indicating places she has lived. Public places and institutions bear her name, including schools. There is also a Hannah Arendt Day (Hannah Arendt Tag) in her birthplace. Objects named after her vary from asteroids to trains and she has been commemorated in stamps. Museums and foundations include her name.\n\nSee also\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nHannah Arendt: \"Zur Person\". Full Interview (with English subtitles) (in German). Stack Altoids. 28 October 1964. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021 – via YouTube.\n\"Hannah Arendt Contributions\". The New York Review of Books. Retrieved 11 August 2018.",
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"paragraph_text": "Bard College is a private liberal arts college in the hamlet of Annandale-on-Hudson, in the town of Red Hook, in New York State. The campus overlooks the Hudson River and Catskill Mountains within the Hudson River Historic District—a National Historic Landmark.\nFounded in 1860, the institution consists of a liberal arts college and a conservatory, as well as eight graduate programs offering over 20 graduate degrees in the arts and sciences. The college has a network of over 35 affiliated programs, institutes, and centers, spanning twelve cities, five states, seven countries, and four continents.\n\nHistory\nOrigins and early years\nDuring much of the nineteenth century, the land since owned by Bard was mainly composed of several country estates. These estates were called Blithewood, Bartlett, Sands, Cruger's Island, and Ward Manor/Almont.\nIn 1853, John Bard and Margaret Bard purchased a part of the Blithewood estate and renamed it Annandale. John Bard was the grandson of Samuel Bard, a prominent doctor, a founder of Columbia University's medical school, and physician to George Washington. John Bard was also the nephew of John McVickar, a professor at Columbia University. The family had strong connections with the Episcopal Church and Columbia.\n\nThe following year, in 1854, John and Margaret established a parish school on their estate in order to educate the area's children. A wood-frame cottage, known today as Bard Hall, served as a school on weekdays and a chapel on weekends. In 1857, the Bards expanded the parish by building the Chapel of the Holy Innocents next to Bard Hall. During this time, John Bard remained in close contact with the New York leaders of the Episcopal Church. The church suggested that he found a theological college.\nWith the promise of outside financial support, John Bard donated the unfinished chapel, and the surrounding 18 acres (7.3 ha), to the diocese in November 1858. In March 1860, St. Stephen's College was founded. In 1861, construction began on the first St. Stephen's College building, a stone collegiate gothic dormitory called Aspinwall, after early trustee John Lloyd Aspinwall, brother of William Henry Aspinwall. During its initial years, the college relied on wealthy benefactors, like trustee Cornelius Vanderbilt, for funding.\nThe college began taking shape within four decades. In 1866, Ludlow Hall, an administrative building, was erected. Preston Hall was built in 1873 and used as a refectory. A set of four dormitories, collectively known as Stone Row, were completed in 1891. And in 1895, the Greek revival Hoffman Memorial Library was built. The school officially changed its name to Bard College in 1934 in honor of its founder.\n\nGrowth and secularization\nIn the 20th century, social and cultural changes amongst New York's high society would bring about the demise of the great estates. In 1914, Louis Hamersley purchased the fire-damaged Ward Manor/Almont estate and erected a Tudor style mansion and gatehouse, or what is today known as Ward Manor. Hamersley expanded his estate in 1926 by acquiring the abandoned Cruger's Island estate. That same year, after Hamersley's combined estate was purchased by William Ward, it was donated to charity and served as a retirement home for almost four decades.\nBy the mid-1900s, Bard's campus significantly expanded. The Blithewood estate was donated to the college in 1951, and in 1963, Bard purchased 90 acres (36 ha) of the Ward Manor estate, including the main manor house. The rest of the Ward Manor estate became the 900-acre (360 ha) Tivoli Bays nature preserve.\nIn 1919, Bernard Iddings Bell became Bard's youngest president at the age of 34. His adherence to classical education, decorum, and dress eventually clashed with the school's push towards Deweyism and secularization, and he resigned in 1933.\nIn 1928, Bard merged with Columbia University, serving as an undergraduate school similar to Barnard College. Under the agreement, Bard remained affiliated with the Episcopal Church and retained control of its finances. The merger raised Bard's prestige; however, it failed to provide financial support to the college during the Great Depression. So dire was Bard's financial situation that in 1932, then-Governor of New York and College trustee Franklin D. Roosevelt sent a telegram to the likes of John D. Rockefeller Jr., George Eastman and Frederick William Vanderbilt requesting donations for the college.\nOn May 26, 1933, Donald Tewksbury, a Columbia professor, was appointed dean of the college. Although dean for only four years, Tewksbury had a lasting impact on the school. Tewksbury, an educational philosopher, had extensive ideas regarding higher education. While he was dean, Tewksbury steered the college into a more secular direction and changed its name from St. Stephen's to Bard. He also placed a heavy academic emphasis on the arts, something atypical of colleges at the time, and set the foundations for Bard's Moderation and Senior Project requirement. While Tewksbury never characterized Bard's curriculum as \"progressive,\" the school would later be considered an early adopter of progressive education. In his 1943 study of early progressive colleges, titled General Education in the Progressive College, Louis T. Benezet used Bard as one of his three case studies.\nDuring the 1940s, Bard provided a haven for intellectual refugees fleeing Europe. These included Hannah Arendt, the political theorist, Stefan Hirsch, the precisionist painter; Felix Hirsch, the political editor of the Berliner Tageblatt; the violinist Emil Hauser; the linguist Hans Marchand; the noted psychologist Werner Wolff; and the philosopher Heinrich Blücher.\nArendt is buried at Bard, alongside her husband Heinrich Blücher, as is eminent novelist Philip Roth.\nIn 1944, as a result of World War II, enrollment significantly dropped putting financial stress on the college. In order to increase enrollment, the college became co-educational, thereby severing all ties with Columbia. The college became an independent, secular, institution in 1944. Thus enrollment more than doubled, from 137 students in 1944, to 293 in 1947. In the 1950s, with the addition of the Blithewood estate and Tewksbury Hall, the college would increase its enrollment by 150 students.\n\nLate twentieth and early twenty-first century\nDonald Fagen and Walter Becker's experiences at Bard prompted them to write the 1973 song \"My Old School\" for their rock group, Steely Dan. The song was motivated by the 1969 drug bust at Bard in which the college administration colluded. The DA involved was G. Gordon Liddy of Watergate notoriety. Fagen wrote another Steely Dan song, \"Rikki Don't Lose That Number\", about novelist, artist and former Bard faculty spouse Rikki Ducornet.\nIn 2020, Bard College and Central European University became the founding members of the Open Society University Network, a collaborative global education initiative endowed with US$1 billion. As part of this new initiative, the college received a US$100 million gift from the Open Society Foundations which ranks among the largest financial contributions to a U.S. institution in recent history. In 2021, philanthropist George Soros made a $500 million endowment pledge to Bard College. It is one of the largest pledges of money ever made to higher education in the United States.\nIn June 2021, Bard College was declared an \"undesirable institution\" in Russia, becoming the first international higher education organization to be branded with this designation. Bard president Botstein hypothesized that this tag was due their association with and funding from the Open Society Foundations which was also classified as undesirable in Russia and related conspiracy theories about George Soros.\n\nCollege leaders\nAt various times, the leaders of the college have been titled president, warden or dean. They are listed below:\n\nGeorge Franklin Seymour (1860–1861)\nThomas Richey (1861–1863)\nRobert Brinckerhoff Fairbairn (1863–1898)\nLawrence T. Cole (1899–1903)\nThomas R. Harris (1904–1907)\nWilliam Cunningham Rodgers (1909–1919)\nBernard Iddings Bell (1919–1933)\nDonald George Tewksbury (1933–1937)\nHarold Mestre (1938–1939)\nCharles Harold Gray (1940–1946)\nEdward C. Fuller (1946–1950)\nJames Herbert Case Jr. (1950–1960)\nReamer Kline (1960–1974)\nLeon Botstein (1975–Present)\n\nCampus\nThe campus of Bard College is in Annandale-on-Hudson, a hamlet in Dutchess County, New York, United States, in the town of Red Hook. It contains more than 70 buildings with a total gross building space of 1,167,090 sq ft (108,426 m2) and was listed as a census-designated place in 2020. Campus buildings represent varied architectural styles, but the campus remains heavily influenced by the Collegiate Gothic and Postmodern styles.\nBard's historic buildings are associated with the early development of the college and the history of the Hudson River estates (see Bard College History). During a late twentieth-century building boom, the college embraced a trend of building signature buildings designed by prominent architects like Venturi, Gehry, and Viñoly.\nIn January 2016, Bard purchased Montgomery Place, a 380-acre (150 ha) estate adjacent to the Bard campus, with significant historic and cultural assets. The estate consists of a historic mansion, a farm, and some 20 smaller buildings. The college purchased the property from Historic Hudson Valley, the historical preservation organization that had owned Montgomery Place since the late 1980s. The addition of this property brings Bard's total campus size to nearly 1,000 acres (400 ha) along the Hudson River in Annandale-on-Hudson, New York.\nIn late 2023, Bard purchased 260 acres of land adjacent to the Montgomery Place campus in Barrytown, which used to be the campus of the Unification Theological Seminary. The property, originally owned by the Livingston and later Aspinwall families, features a mansion designed by William Appleton Potter. It was acquired by the De La Salle Brothers in 1928, who completed a large seminary and normal institute there in 1931. In turn, the property was sold in 1974 to the Unification Church. Bard intends to use the space to provide new studios for the Center for Human Rights and the Arts and administrative offices for the Open Society University Network (OSUN), of which Bard is a founding member. The purchase of the property brings Bard's total acreage to 1260 acres (510 ha).\nThe area around the campus first appeared as a census-designated place (CDP) in the 2020 Census, with a population of 358.\nThe college has an amount of housing for faculty members. School-age dependents in this faculty housing are in the Red Hook Central School District (the CDP is within this school district).\n\nAcademics\nRankings and awards\nIn its 2022-2023 edition of college rankings, U.S. News & World Report ranked Bard 60th overall, 5th in \"Most Innovative Schools\", tied at 38th for \"Best Undergraduate Teaching\", tied at #70 in \"Top Performers on Social Mobility\", tied at #19 in \"First-Year Experiences\", and 19th for \"Best Value\" out of 210 \"National Liberal Arts Colleges\" in the United States.\nBard's Master of Fine Arts program was ranked one of ten most influential Master of Fine Arts programs in the world by Artspace Magazine in 2023.\nBard has been named a top producer of U.S. Fulbright Scholars. Many Bard alumni have also been named Watson Fellows, Critical Language Scholarship recipients, Davis Projects for Peace winners, Rhodes Scholars, Marshall Scholars, and Peace Corps fellows, among other postgraduate awards.\n\nUndergraduate programs\nIn the undergraduate college, Bard offers Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. There are 23 academic departments that offer over 40 major programs, as well as 12 interdisciplinary concentrations. The college was the first in the nation to offer a human rights major. Its most popular undergraduate majors, based on 2021 graduates, were:\n\nSocial Sciences (140)\nFine/Studio Arts (106)\nEnglish Language and Literature/Letters (81)\nBiological and Physical Sciences (80)\nIn the three weeks preceding their first semester, first-year students attend the Language and Thinking (L&T) program, an intensive, writing-centered introduction to the liberal arts. The interdisciplinary program, established in 1981, aims to \"cultivate habits of thoughtful reading and discussion, clear articulation, accurate self-critique, and productive collaboration.\" The program covers philosophy, history, science, poetry, fiction, and religion. In 2011, the core readings included works by Hannah Arendt, Franz Kafka, Frans de Waal, Stephen Jay Gould, Clifford Geertz, M. NourbeSe Philip, and Sophocles.\nThe capstone of the Bard undergraduate experience is the Senior Project, commonly referred to as SPROJ amongst its students. As with moderation, this project takes different forms in different departments. Many students write a paper of around eighty pages, which is then, as with work for moderation, critiqued by a board of three professors. Arts students must organize a series of concerts, recitals, or shows, or produce substantial creative work; math and science students, as well as some social science students, undertake research projects.\n\nUndergraduate admissions\nFor the academic year 2022-2023, Bard's acceptance rate stands at 46%. Out of the total 6,482 students who applied, 2,982 were admitted to the school. For the 2022-2023 academic year 447 students enrolled representing a yield rate of 15%. Admission trends note a 25% increase in applications in the 2022-2023 academic year. Bard does not require applicants to submit SAT or ACT test scores in order to apply. As an alternative, applicants may take an examination composed of 19 essay questions in four categories: Social Studies; Languages and Literature; Arts; and Science, Mathematics, and Computing, with applicants required to complete three 2,500-word essays covering three of the four categories. For admitted students who submitted test scores, 50% had an SAT score between 1296 and 1468 or an ACT score between 28 and 33, with a reported average GPA of 3.79. Admissions officials consider a student's GPA a very important academic factor. Honors, AP, and IB classes are important, an applicant's high school class rank is considered, and letters of recommendation are considered very important for admissions officials at Bard.\n\nGraduate programs\nBard College offers a range of postgraduate degree programs, including the Bard MFA, Bard Graduate Center, Center for Curatorial Studies, Center for Human Rights and the Arts, Center for Environmental Policy, Bard MBA in Sustainability, Levy Economics Institute, and the Master of Arts in Teaching.\n\nBard MFA\nMilton Avery Graduate School of the Arts is a nontraditional graduate school for interdisciplinary study in the visual and creative arts. The program takes place over two years and two months, with students residing on campus during three consecutive summers, and two winter sessions of independent study completed off campus. Notable artists and writers that have been affiliated with the Bard MFA as faculty and visiting artists include Marina Abramovic, Eileen Myles, Paul Chan, Robert Kelly, Tony Conrad, Okkyung Lee, Yto Barrada, Carolee Schneemann, Lynne Tillman, and Ben Lerner.\n\nBard Graduate Center\nThe Bard Graduate Center: Decorative Arts, Design History, Material Culture is a graduate research institute and gallery located in New York City. Established in 1993, the institute offers a two-year MA program and a PhD program that began in 1998. The institute's facilities include a gallery space at 18 West 86th Street and an academic building with a library at 38 West 86th Street.\n\nCenter for Curatorial Studies\nThe Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College (CCS Bard) established in 1990, is a museum and research center dedicated to the study of contemporary art and exhibition practices from the 1960s to the present. In 1994, CCS Bard launched its (MA) Master of Arts in Curatorial Studies program. The center also hosts public events throughout the year including lectures and panel discussions on topics in contemporary art.\nThe museum, spanning an area of 55,000 square feet, offers a variety of exhibitions accessible to the general public throughout the year. It houses two distinct collections, the CCS Bard Collection and the Marieluise Hessel collection, which has been loaned to CCS Bard on a permanent basis. Artists such as Keith Haring, Julian Schnabel, Wolfgang Tillmans, Stephen Shore, and Cindy Sherman, among numerous others, are featured within these collections.\nThe CCS Bard Library is a research collection for contemporary art with a focus on post-1960s contemporary art, curatorial practice, exhibition histories, theory, and criticism. in 2023 historian Robert Storr donated over 25,000 volumes to the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, nearly doubling the total collection size to 63,000 volumes. Other noteworthy contributors include Louise Bourgeois, Yto Barrada, Leon Golub, Jenny Holzer, Gerhard Richter, and Rachel Whiteread.\nIn 2022 CCS Bard received $50 million from a $25 million donation from the Gochman Family Foundation to form a Center for American and Indigenous Studies at CCS Bard and a matching donation of $25 million from George Soros. This followed two 2021 gifts of $25 million, one from Marieluise Hessel and a matching donation from Soros.\n\nCenter for Human Rights & the Arts\nThe Center for Human Rights & the Arts at Bard College is an interdisciplinary research institution dedicated to exploring the intersection of art and human rights. The center is affiliated with the Open Society University Network (OSUN). The center's flagship initiative is the Master of Arts program in Human Rights & the Arts. The center includes initiatives such as resident research fellowships, research grants, artist commissions, public talks, accessible publications, and a biennial arts festival organized in partnership with the Fisher Center at Bard and other OSUN institutions and art venues worldwide.\n\nCenter for Environmental Policy\nThe Center for Environmental Policy (CEP) at Bard College is a research institution offering a range of graduate degree programs focused on environmental policy, climate science, and environmental education. The CEP offers a series of graduate degrees including the Master of Science in Environmental Policy and Master of Education. In addition to these individual degree programs, CEP offers dual-degree options that allow students to combine their environmental studies with programs in law or business.\n\nLevy Economics Institute\nLevy Economics Institute is a public policy think tank focused on generating public policy responses to economic problems. Through research, analysis, and informed debate, the institute aims to enable scholars and leaders from business, labor, and government to collaborate on common interest issues. The institute's findings are disseminated globally through various channels, including publications, conferences, seminars, congressional testimony, and partnerships with other nonprofits. Its research encompasses a wide range of topics, including stock-flow consistent macro modeling, fiscal policy, monetary policy and financial structure, financial instability, income and wealth distribution, financial regulation and governance, gender equality and time poverty, and immigration/ethnicity and social structure. The Levy Economics Institute is particularly known for its research in heterodox economics, with a focus on Post-Keynesian and Marxian economics. It is additionally recognized as the leading research center for the study of Modern Monetary Theory (MMT). Notable individuals that have been affiliated with the Levy Economics Institute as professors, directors, and economists include Joseph Stiglitz, Hyman Minsky, William Julius Wilson, L. Randall Wray, Jan Kregel, Bruce C. Greenwald, Dimitri B. Papadimitriou, Lakshman Achuthan, Warren Mosler, Stephanie Kelton, Bill Mitchell, and Pavlina R. Tcherneva.\n\nEndowment\nBard has access to multiple, distinct endowments. Bard, along with Central European University, is a founding member of the Open Society University Network, endowed with $1 billion from philanthropist George Soros, which is a network of universities to operate throughout the world to better prepare students for current and future global challenges through integrated teaching and research. Bard maintains its own endowment of approximately $412 million. In July 2020, Bard received a gift of $100 million from the Open Society Foundations, which will dispense $10 million yearly over a period of ten years. In April 2021, Bard received a $500 million endowment challenge grant from George Soros. Once matched, on a five-year timeline, Bard will have an endowment of more than $1 billion.\n\nPrograms, centers, and associated institutes\nBard has developed several innovative graduate programs and research institutes, including the Milton Avery Graduate School of the Arts, the Levy Economics Institute which began offering a Masters of Science in Economic Theory and Policy in 2014, the Center for Curatorial Studies and Art in Contemporary Culture, the Bard Center for Environmental Policy, the Bard College Conservatory of Music, the ICP-Bard Program in Advanced Photographic Studies in Manhattan, the Master of Arts in Teaching Program (MAT), the Bard College Clemente Program, and the Bard Graduate Center in Manhattan.\n\nIn 1990, Bard College acquired, on permanent loan, art collector Marieluise Hessel's substantial collection of important contemporary artwork. In 2006, Hessel contributed another $8 million (USD) for the construction of a 17,000-square-foot addition to Bard's Center for Curatorial Studies building, in which the collection is exhibited.\nThe Bard Prison Initiative (BPI) provides a liberal arts degree to incarcerated individuals (prison education) in five prisons in New York State, and enrolls nearly 200 students. Since federal funding for prison education programs was eliminated in 1994, BPI is one of only a small number of programs of its kind in the country.\nBard awards the Bard Fiction Prize annually to \"a promising emerging writer who is an American citizen aged 39 years or younger at the time of application\". The prize is $30,000 and an appointment as writer-in-residence at the college.\nThe Hannah Arendt Center for Politics and Humanities is located at Bard College. The center hosts an annual public conference, offers courses, runs various related academic programs, and houses research fellows.\nIn February 2009, Bard announced the first dual degree program between a Palestinian university and an American institution of higher education. The college entered into a collaboration with Al-Quds University involving an honors college, a master's program in teaching and a model high school.\nIn accordance with AlQuds-Bard requirements, students are not allowed to decide their major during the first year of their studies; instead, as a liberal arts college, students are advised to diverge in different classes that would allow them to decide what program they would like to take interest in as in the following year. Students are encouraged to look upon different classes to help them decide the subject they would mostly enjoy studying. Bard gives students the opportunity to dissect different programs before committing to a specific major. As a policy, throughout a student's undergraduate years, they must distribute their credits among different courses so that they can liberally experience the different courses Bard has to offer.\nIn June 2011, Bard officially acquired the Longy School of Music in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in November 2011, Bard took ownership of the European College of Liberal Arts in Berlin, Germany, to become Bard College Berlin.\nIn 2013, Bard entered into a comprehensive agreement with Soochow University in Suzhou, China, that will include a joint program between the Soochow University School of Music and the Bard College Conservatory of Music, exploration leading to the establishment of The Bard College Liberal Arts Academy at Soochow University, and student exchange.\nIn 2020, Bard announced that through the new Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Advanced Achievement Scholars program the college will offer admission to high school juniors within 120 miles from the college based on an essay process based on the popular Bard Entrance Exam, first launched in 2013.\n\nStudent life\nOver 120 student clubs are financed through Bard's Convocation Fund, which is distributed once a semester by an elected student body and ratified during a public forum. Bard College has one print newspaper, the Bard Free Press, which was awarded a Best in Show title by the Associated Collegiate Press in 2013. In 2003, the Bard Free Press won Best Campus Publication in SPIN Magazine's first annual Campus Awards. Student-run literary magazines include the semiannual Lux, The Moderator, and Sui Generis, a journal of translations and of original poetry in languages other than English. The Draft, a human rights journal, the Bard Journal of the Social Sciences, Bard Science Journal, and Qualia, a philosophy journal, are also student-published. Bard Papers is a privately funded literary magazine operated jointly between faculty and students.\nOther prominent student groups include: the International Students Organization (ISO), Afropulse, Latin American Student Organization (LASO), Caribbean Student Association (CSA), Asian Student Organization (ASO), Bard Musical Theatre Company (BMTC), Black Student Organization (BSO), Anti-Capitalism Feminist Coalition, Body Image Discussion Group, Self-Injury Support and Discussion, Bard Film Committee, Queer Student Association, Trans Life Collective, The Scale Project, Student Labor Dialogue, Bard Debate Union, Bard Model UN, Surrealist Training Circus, Bard Bike Co-Op, Bard Bars, Bard POC Theater Ensemble, and college radio station WXBC. WXBC was founded in 1947. In 2006, WXBC was nominated for \"Station of the Year\" and \"Biggest Improvement\" in the CMJ College Radio Awards.\nBard has a strong independent music scene considering its isolation and size. The college's Old Gym was once a popular location for concerts and parties in the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s. In 2004, the Old Gym was shut down and in spring 2006 transformed into a student-run theater by students Brel Froebe, Julie Rossman, and Kell Condon. Many activities that once took place there, occur in the smaller SMOG building. SMOG is primarily used as a music venue featuring student-run bands.\n\nAthletics\nBard College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Raptors are a member of the Liberty League. Prior conference affiliations include the Skyline Conference and the former Hudson Valley Athletic Conference. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball and squash. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, squash, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.\nOne of the more popular club sports on campus is rugby. Bard College Rugby Football Club fields men's and women's teams that compete in the Tristate Conference, affiliated with National Collegiate Rugby. Additional club sports include: ultimate frisbee, fencing, and equestrian.\n\nAlumni and faculty\nNotable alumni\nNotable alumni of Bard include fraternal songwriters Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman, comedian and actor Chevy Chase (1968); Walter Becker and Donald Fagen of Steely Dan (1969); actors Blythe Danner (1965), Adrian Grenier, Gaby Hoffmann,, Mia Farrow (did not graduate) Jonah Hill (did not graduate), Ezra Miller (did not graduate), Griffin Gluck (Did Not Graduate) and Larry Hagman (did not graduate); filmmakers Gia Coppola, Todd Haynes (MFA), Sadie Bennings (MFA), and Lana Wachowski (did not graduate); photographer Herb Ritts; actor and director Christopher Guest; songwriter Billy Steinberg; theater director Anne Bogart; screenwriter Howard E. Koch; writer David Cote; comedians Adam Conoverand Raphael Bob-Waksberg; fashion designer Tom Ford (did not graduate), classical composer Bruce Wolosoff; journalist Ronan Farrow; writer and social theorist Albert Jay Nock; Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys (did not graduate); and artists Tschabalala Self, and Frances Bean Cobain (did not graduate).\n\nNotable faculty\nAmong the college's most well-known former faculty are Toni Morrison, Heinrich Blücher, Hannah Arendt, Roy Lichtenstein, Mary McCarthy,. Arthur Penn,, Nathan Thrall, Vik Muniz, Mitch Epstein, Larry Fink, John Ashbery, Richard Teitelbaum, Mary Lee Settle (part time),, Andre Aciman, Orhan Pamuk, Chinua Achebe, Charles Burnett, Bill T. Jones., and Alexander Soros. Notable current faculty, as of 2024, include Stephen Shore, An-My Lê, Neil Gaiman, Jeffrey Gibson Gilles Peress, John Ryle, Tan Dun, Walid Raad, Daniel Mendelsohn,Thomas Chatterton Williams, Hua Hsu, Kobena Mercer, Joseph O’Neill, Ian Buruma, Judy Pfaff, Joan Tower, Walter Russell Mead, Nayland Blake, Nuruddin Farah, Mona Simpson,Sky Hopinka (MFA Faculty), Masha Gessen (visiting writer), Kelly Reichardt (artist in residence), Francine Prose (writer in residence), Susan Weber, Lauren Cornell, Ann Lauterbach, Valeria Luiselli, and Tschabalala Self (visiting artist in residence).\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nOfficial athletics website",
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] | As of 2020, who is the longest-serving president of the university where Hannah Arendt is buried? | [] | Leon Botstein | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Kwon Bo-ah (Korean: 권보아; born November 5, 1986), known professionally as BoA and often referred to as the \"Queen of K-pop\", is a South Korean singer, songwriter, dancer, producer, and actress. \nBorn and raised in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea, BoA was discovered by SM Entertainment talent agents when she accompanied her older brother, a music video director, to a talent search in 1998. She was trained for two years and made her debut with ID; Peace B (2000). BoA has since released twenty studio albums, including ten in Korean, nine in Japanese, and one in English. On television, she appeared as a judge on the reality competition show K-pop Star (2011–2013), as an actress on the television drama Listen to Love (2016), as a host for the second season of Produce 101 (2017), and as a coach for the third season of The Voice of Korea (2020).\nWith the release of her debut Japanese studio album, Listen to My Heart (2002), BoA became the first South Korean pop star to break through in Japan following the fall of barriers that had restricted the import and export of entertainment between the countries since the end of World War II. Her Japanese albums Valenti (2003) and Best of Soul (2005) went on to sell over one million copies each according to Oricon; the latter of which remained the last album to do so by a non-Japanese artist for 16 years. Her self-titled English album (2009) became the first record by a K-pop artist to appear on the Billboard 200, debuting at number 127.\nBoA has sold over ten million albums throughout her career and is one of only three female artists with six consecutive number-one studio albums on the Oricon Albums Chart since her debut, alongside Japanese singers Ayumi Hamasaki and Hikaru Utada. She is the recipient of numerous awards in South Korea and Japan, including eight MAMA Awards, six SBS Music Awards, five Japan Record Awards, and five Japan Gold Disc Awards. In 2013, Mnet included her in their Legend 100 Artists list of the most influential artists in South Korea.\n\nLife and career\n2000–2003: Debut and commercial success in South Korea and Japan\nKwon Bo-ah was born on November 5, 1986. At the age of eleven, BoA accompanied her older brother to an SM Entertainment talent search. Though her brother was the one who auditioned as a break-dancer, SM talent scouts instead took notice of BoA and offered her a contract on the same night as the auditions. Her parents initially opposed the notion of BoA leaving school to enter the entertainment business but eventually consented at her older brothers' persuasion. She has said that her early influence as a singer was Seo Taiji.\nBoA underwent two years of training (involving vocal, dance, English, and Japanese lessons), and at the age of thirteen she released her debut album ID; Peace B in South Korea on August 25, 2000. The album was moderately successful; it entered the Top 10 of the South Korean charts and sold around 156,000 units. Meanwhile, her Korean record label, SM Entertainment, made arrangements with Japanese label Avex Trax to launch her music career in Japan. She was forced to quit school to prepare and in early 2001, BoA released her first mini-album, Don't Start Now; it sold around 90,000 units. After its release, she took a hiatus from the Korean music industry to focus on the Japanese market at which time she worked to solidify her skills in Japanese.\nBoA began her Japanese music career singing at the Avex-owned club Velfarre. Her debut Japanese album, Listen to My Heart, was released on March 13, 2002. The album was a breakthrough in BoA's career, becoming an RIAJ-certified million-seller and debuted atop the Oricon, the first album by a Korean artist to do so. It was promoted with several singles: the Top 20 hit \"ID; Peace B\" (originally from the eponymous album), \"Amazing Kiss\", \"Kimochi wa Tsutawaru\", the Top 5 hit \"Listen to My Heart\", and the Top 10 \"Every Heart: Minna no Kimochi\". After the September 11, 2001 attacks, BoA recorded the charity single \"The Meaning of Peace\" with Kumi Koda as part of Avex's Song Nation project to raise funds for charity. From 2001 to 2007, BoA hosted Beat it BoA's World, a radio program on the Japan FM Network.\nAfter the release of Listen to My Heart, BoA released her second Korean studio album, No. 1, a month later on April 12, 2002. The album sold around 544,853 units and became the fourth-best-selling record of the year in South Korea. Jumping into the World (a Japanese re-release of the mini-album Don't Start Now) and the Japanese single \"Don't Start Now\" were released a month later on the same day. At the end of the year, BoA released her second Korean mini-album Miracle.\nBoA's second Japanese studio album, Valenti (January 2003), became her best-selling album, with over 1,249,000 copies sold. Three singles preceded its release: \"Valenti\", which peaked at the number-two position on the Oricon chart, \"Kiseki / No.1\" and \"Jewel Song / Beside You: Boku o Yobu Koe\", both which also peaked at the number-three position. In support of the album, BoA launched BoA 1st Live Tour Valenti, her first Japanese concert tour. Later in the same year, BoA released her third Korean-language studio album, Atlantis Princess on May 30, 2003, and then released a mini-album Shine We Are! on December 4, 2003. The former was the fifth-best-selling South Korean record of the year with around 345,000 units sold; the latter sold around 58,000 units.\n\n2004–2008: New image, foray into China, and creative control\nHer third Japanese studio album, Love & Honesty (January 2004) was a musical \"change in direction\": it contained a rock-dance song (\"Rock with You\") and \"harder\" R&B. Though the album failed to match Valenti in sales, it topped the Oricon chart for two weeks and became RIAJ-certified triple-platinum. In support of the album, BoA held a tour, Live Concert Tour 2004: Love & Honesty, spanning nine performances and attracted approximately 105,000 attendants. In contrast with 1st Live Tour, which \"emphasized exotic Asian design\", the Love & Honesty tour had an \"outer-space, sci-fi\" theme; among the props were a three-storey-high space ship and the robot Asimo. Her first compilation album, Best of Soul (February 2005), however, sold over a million copies, making BoA the first non-Japanese Asian singer to have two million-selling albums in Japan. It remained the last album by a foreign artist to have sold over a million copies in Japan for 16 years, until BTS in 2021.\nBoA reinvented her image for her fourth and fifth Korean albums, My Name (June 2004) and Girls on Top (June 2005), shedding the \"cute\" and \"youthful\" style that had characterized previous years and adopted a more \"sexy\" and \"sultry\" look. The sales of BoA's Korean albums began to decline: My Name sold 191,000 units and became the eleventh-best-selling South Korean album in 2004 while Girls on Top ranked fourteenth in 2005 with 113,000 units sold. In September 2004, BoA instigated controversy in Japan when she donated ₩50 million to a memorial project for Korean independence activist and nationalist An Jung-geun.\nHer fourth Japanese studio album, Outgrow, (February 2006) reached the number-one spot on the Oricon chart for its first week of release, making it her fourth consecutive original Japanese album to do so. With 220,000 copies sold, it became her lowest-selling first-week debut for a studio album at that point. \"Do the Motion\", the first single from the album, reached the top spot, making her the fourth non-Japanese Asian to have a number-one single on the Oricon charts. \"Merry Christmas from BoA\" (2005), the album's last single, was the singer's first digital single. That May, BoA renewed her contract with SM Entertainment until 2012. At the time it was noted that she had a shareholding in the company of 100,000 (Approximately worth $1m USD). She performed \"Everlasting\", the image song for Roman Polanski's Oliver Twist (2005 film). She also voiced Heather the possum in the Korean and Japanese version of the animated film Over the Hedge. On September 21, 2006, she released her first digital single in Korea, a Korean version of \"Key of Heart\". In support of Outgrow, BoA launched a special Zepp tour, B0A The Live, on September 29, 2006, which lasted until October 29. She staged her first Christmas concert on December 7, 2006.\nThree singles preceded BoA's fifth Japanese studio album, Made in Twenty (January 2007): the Top 3 \"Nanairo no Ashita (Brand New Beat)/Your Color,\" the Top 10 \"Key of Heart\", and the No. 2 hit \"Winter Love\". The album, which contained R&B and dance songs as well as ballads, debuted at the top of the weekly Oricon charts, making the album her sixth in a row to do so (including one compilation). Having previously compose the song \"No More Make Me Sick\" for Made in Twenty, BoA assumed creative control over her sixth Japanese album, The Face (February 2008). The album debuted at the top of the weekly Oricon charts, making BoA one of only two artists in Japan to have six consecutive studio albums top the Oricon weekly charts (the other is Ayumi Hamasaki, who has eight consecutive number-one albums). On June 9, 2008, BoA and nine other artists from around the world recorded an English cover of Wei Wei's \"Dedication of Love\". Produced by Roald Hoffmann and Brian Alan, the single was used to raise funds for victims of the Sichuan earthquake. But due to a tight schedule, BoA was pulled back from this project. Korean jewelry brand Ramee also released, \"Ramee by BoA\", a line of jewelry designed by the singer herself.\n\n2008–2012: American expansion and return to Asia\nOn September 2, 2008, it was announced that BoA would make her American debut under a new subsidiary label, SM Entertainment USA. Hoping to become a \"world-renowned entertainer\" in the vein of Janet Jackson, BoA's debut American single \"Eat You Up\", was produced by Thomas Troelsen, and released on October 21, 2008. It charted at No. 9 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. To promote the single, BoA performed \"Eat You Up\" as well as other songs at YouTube's Tokyo Live concert, and performed in New York City on December 3, 2008, as well as the Jingle Ball at the Anaheim Honda Center on December 6, 2008. The following year, she released \"Eien/Universe/Believe in Love\" and was also featured in Ravex's single \"Believe in Love\".\nBoA's self-titled English album was released in the U.S. on March 17 and featured tracks by producers Bloodshy and Avant as well as a duet with Sean Garrett. Her second Japanese compilation album, Best & USA was released on March 18 tying together a compilation of recent hits in Japan with her English-language debut. Though she stated that \"[i]t has always been my dream to debut in America,\" she found English tougher to learn than Japanese and despite living in West Beverly Hills, found it difficult to make friends. BoA later headlined the San Francisco Pride Festival on June 28, 2009, alongside Solange Knowles and The Cliks, where she also performed the song \"Energetic\" for the first time in public, in addition to \"Eat You Up\" and \"I Did It for Love\". On August 31, SM USA released BoA Deluxe, a repackaged version of her debut English album. The album contained two new tracks and the radio edit version of \"Energetic\".\n\nWith her U.S. career struggling to gain traction, BoA returned to East Asia to release her seventh Japanese album, Identity (February 2010). Promoted by the singles \"Bump Bump!\" featuring Verbal from M-Flo and \"Mamoritai: White Wishes\" (December 2009), the album only charted at No. 4, selling 37,606 copies in its first week. With little promotion from her label, it ended her run of six consecutive No. 1 albums, suggesting that it would be impossible for her to sustain her career in three territories simultaneously. Her first Korean album in five years, Hurricane Venus, was released on August 5, 2010, and sold 55,776 units making it the 22nd best selling album in South Korea for 2010. She also represented South Korea and performed at the 7th Asia Song Festival, organized by Korea Foundation for International Culture Exchange, at the Seoul Olympic Stadium.\nBoA made her Hollywood movie debut in the dance film Make Your Move 3D, playing the character Aya opposite Derek Hough. Although production ended in 2011, the film was released in 2013. The movie received mixed reviews, with Inkoo Kang of the Los Angeles Times praising the choreography but stating that \"[w]henever actor Derek Hough and BoA stop leaping and twirling, [it] is an underwritten mess.\" To celebrate the 10th anniversary of her Japanese debut, BoA released \"Milestone\", which ranked at No. 4 on the Oricon Weekly Music-DVD charts. She also held her 10th anniversary concert on December 10–11 at Tokyo International Forum.\nFollowing the concert, BoA shifted her activities to her native county, joining the judging panel on SBS's audition program K-pop Star as a representative of S.M. Entertainment, alongside Yang Hyun-suk from YG Entertainment and Park Jin-young from JYP Entertainment. BoA received praise for her ability as a judge with her insightful comments and discerning eyes, and also sang the theme song \"One Dream\". For her seventh Korean album, Only One (July 2012), BoA wrote and composed its title track, while its dance steps choreographed by NappyTabs, who has previously worked with BoA in Cobu. Upon its release, \"Only One\" achieved an all-kill on several music charts. She followed this up with the second \"The Shadow\", was released August 18, 2012. Additionally, she recorded the song \"Lookin'\" featuring The Quiett for Hyundai's 'Premium Younique Lifestyle' campaign.\n\n2013–2015: Music production, television role, and 15th anniversary\nBoA launched her first Korean tour with BoA Special Live 2013: Here I Am tour at the Olympic Hall, and released the song \"Disturbance\", which she wrote and composed, to commemorate her first concert tour in South Korea. In September 2013, BoA starred in KBS' two-episode drama special Expect to Date alongside Choi Daniel and Im Si-wan, her full first role in a drama, following a string of cameo appearances. She received praise for her acting performance. She also participated in Infinity Challenge's bi-annual song festival and was paired with Leessang's Gil, with the two co-produced the song \"G.A.B\". In March 2014, BoA was appointed as a de facto creative director in S.M. Entertainment, alongside labelmate Kangta; she was placed in charge of mental care of artists who debut at a young age.\nThe singles for BoA's eighth Japanese album, Who's Back? (September 2014), were released over a span of four years prior to the album's release:\"Woo Weekend\" and \"I See Me\" in 2010, \"Milestone\" in 2011, Only One\", \"Tail of Hope\" and \"Message / Call My Name\" in 2013, and \"Shout It Out\" and \"Masayume Chasing\" in 2014. To promote the album, she embarked on her BoA Live Tour 2014 Who's Back? tour in September, her first Japanese tour in four years. After the tour concluded, BoA starred in her first Korean film, Big Match alongside Lee Jung-jae and Shin Ha-kyun though a Japanese single \"Fly\" was released on December 3, 2014.\nHer eighth Korean album Kiss My Lips (May 2015) became her first entirely self-written, self-produced album, working alongside American producers The Underdogs and Stereotypes. The single \"Who Are You\" (feat. Gaeko) was released prior to the album's unveiling, along with its accompanying music video, which starred EXO's Sehun as the male lead. The rest of the album was unveiled on May 12 along with an official music video of the eponymous title track. Billboard called the singer a promising songwriter despite moments of musical blandness.\nIn July, she performed at the BoA Special Live 2015: Nowness to commemorate her 15th anniversary. The concert took place on August 22 and 23 at the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in South Korea, making BoA the first female idol to hold a solo concert at the venue. This was followed by BoA Special Live 2015: Nowness in Japan which took place on December 11, 2015, at Tokyo International Forum Hall-A. Her 15th anniversary in Japan the following year was celebrated in a similar fashion, including the release of the song \"Lookbook\", and a 15th anniversary edition of BoA's Japanese Winter hit, \"Meri Kuri\". As part of S.M. Entertainment's special winter project, Winter Garden, BoA released a digital single entitled \"Christmas Paradise\".\n\n2016–present: Musical projects, television production, and acting debut\nOn January 12, 2016, BoA released an English-language single \"Make Me Complete\", which serves as the theme song for the Fuji TV special drama Ooku, starring Sawajiri Erika and Watanabe Mayu. In June, she collaborated with Korean rapper Beenzino for S.M. Entertainment's SM Station project. The duo released the single \"No Matter What\", which ranked atop five domestic charts. BoA worked with BeatBurger for another SM Station single titled \"Music Is Wonderful\", where she participated in the composing and writing of the track. From October to November 2016, BoA starred in JTBC's romance melodrama Listen to Love, returning to the small screen after three years.\nThe following year, BoA became one of the producers for Mnet's boy group survival reality show, Produce 101 Season 2, which aired from April 7 to June 16. BoA later released another song for SM Station, \"Spring Rain\", an R&B number produced by Kenzie. In May, BoA embarked on her BoA The live in Billboard Live Tour, held in Tokyo and Osaka. She also released the single \"Camo,\" a dance song with a heavy emphasis on bass and synthesizer sounds, which was a change in sound from her previous materials and produced by The Underdogs. In July, she released the Japanese single \"Right Here, Right Everywhere\" for the soundtrack of drama Yaneura no Koibito. She later starred in the film Autumn Sonata alongside Lee Hak-joo, playing a terminally ill patient.\n\nIn 2018, BoA returned to Japan and released her ninth Japanese album Watashi Konomama de Iinokana on February 14, 2018, followed by EP Unchained in March. To accompany the release of the EP, she embarked on the BoA The Live 2018: Unchained Tour from March 15 to April 4. People who attend the concerts received a copy of Unchained. On January 31, she released \"Nega Dola\", which served as a single for BoA's then-upcoming first extended play. The EP, One Shot, Two Shot, was released on February 20, alongside its titular lead single and the song's music video. The EP peaked at number six at the South Korean Gaon Album Chart and number seven at the Billboard World Albums Chart. On October 24, she released her ninth Korean album Woman alongside a lead single of the same name. The album peaked at number six at the Gaon Album Chart, number eleven at the Billboard World Albums Chart.\nOn June 4, 2019, she released the single \"Feedback\", which features rapper Nucksal, alongside the song's music video. BoA embarked on her #Mood Tour, which had six dates in Japan and two dates in Seoul, from September to October 2019. On October 23, she released a new Japanese single, \"Wishing Well\", which she earlier debuted on the tour. On December 11, 2019, she released her second extended play Starry Night.\nIn May 2020, BoA was featured as one of the coaches for the third season of The Voice of Korea, alongside Dynamic Duo, Sung Si-kyung, and Kim Jong-kook. On December 1, 2020, she released her tenth Korean album Better. SpoTV News shared BoA to join as a judge for Mnet Dance program \"Street Woman Fighter\". It is a female dance crew competition premiering in August 2021. On November 5, 2021, BoA released the Japanese single, \"My Dear\", to commemorate her 20th anniversary.\nBoA was revealed as a member of the supergroup Got the Beat on December 27, 2021. The group debuted on January 3, 2022. To celebrate her 20th anniversary, BoA released the Japanese compilation album The Greatest on May 30, 2022. On November 8, 2022, BoA announced her third EP Forgive Me along with the title track on the same name on November 22, 2022. In 2024, BoA appeared in the drama Marry My Husband, where she played Oh Yu-ra. Her performance in the drama was met with negative reviews.\n\nImage and artistry\nBoA lists hip hop as her main musical influence, though she also enjoys R&B. Her favorite musicians are Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Justin Timberlake, and Ne-Yo; as a result, much of BoA's music is either dance-pop or R&B. Because she also sings ballads, she is often compared to Japanese singers Namie Amuro and Ayumi Hamasaki. Her debut album, ID; Peace B, contained urban pop, \"slickly produced\" ballads, and \"upbeat dance tunes\". As her career went on, she began experimenting with different styles: Valenti contained mostly ballads; Love and Honesty was an experiment with \"harder\" R&B and rock music. \nThough her earlier releases were marked by a \"cute\" and \"youthful\" style, BoA began to present a more \"mature\" image starting from the album My Name. In a Talk Asia interview, Anjali Rao noted that some felt that My Name marked the beginning of BoA's decline in popularity and asked if the public would always see the singer as \"Little Baby BoA\"; BoA replied, \"So while I apologize to those people who still want the baby BoA, in fact, what can I do? I just keep growing up! I can't stop that from happening.\"\nThe Face was influenced by electropop and included \"happy spring\" songs (\"Sweet Impact\" and \"Bad Drive\"), a guitar-driven \"groovy dance\" song (\"Lose Your Mind\"), and ballads. Because the composition and writing of BoA's songs is handled mostly by her staff, BoA has been criticized as being a \"manufactured pop star\". In response to such criticism, BoA said that \"if one person were to force their own will on something, then things that should have gone right could easily go wrong\" and that she is \"not all that unhappy with the expression that [she is] a manufactured star. In a way, that is true. Because SM Entertainment created the environment and all the surrounding conditions, [she is] able to be successful in the way [she is] now.\" She later assumed creative control with The Face, while Kiss My Lips became her first entirely self-written, self-produced album.\nBoA has collaborated with high-profile artists. Among the Japanese artists she has performed with are the hip hop group M-Flo (for the single \"The Love Bug\"), pop singer Kumi Koda, and house DJ Mondo Grosso. She has performed with Western artists: the song \"Flying Without Wings\" from her album Next World was a collaboration with Irish band Westlife covering the original song; the Bratz single \"Show Me What You Got\" was performed with Howie D of the American band Backstreet Boys. She also worked with Akon, singing the song \"Beautiful\", which was featured on the Japanese release of his third album, Freedom. Other artists she has collaborated with are Soul'd Out, Dabo, Verbal (of M-Flo), Rah-D, Seamo, TVXQ, Yutaka Furakawa (of the band Doping Panda), and Crystal Kay (for her single \"After Love: First Boyfriend/Girlfriend\"). American rock band Weezer covered \"Meri Kuri\" on the Japanese version of their album Weezer.\n\nCultural impact and legacy\nBoA is regarded as one of South Korea's most influential and prominent singers and is widely referred to as the \"Queen of K-pop\", in recognition of her contributions in spearheading the Korean wave into Japan. BoA's success in the Japanese market has been deemed a catalyst in the Japanese interest in Korean pop music beginning in the early 2000s, when the two countries began promoting cultural exchanges since the end of World War II. Music critics have recognized BoA for improving \"civil relations between the Korean and Japanese public through her music and appearances in Japanese radio and television\", with Oxford Political Review noting \"BoA's role in strengthening Japan-South Korea ties as a cultural envoy\". In Alisa Freedman's Introducing Japanese Pop Culture, BoA was noted for \"herald[ing] a new phase of Japanese engagement with Korean singers\", registering \"remarkable success during the first half of the 2000s in Japan\". She highlighted that the timing of her success coincided with several political and cultural developments; these of which include the implementation of Korea's Open-Door Policy, the Korea Japan 2002 FIFA World Cup, and the popularity of the drama series Winter Sonata. Freedman evaluated BoA's career path and localization strategies in Japan for having set \"the first trend\" of the Korean wave into the country.\nVox hailed BoA as \"one of South Korea's best-known exports\" in the years after her debut while The Korea Times called BoA \"the forerunner of the new generation of idols who popularized K-pop in Japan and elsewhere.\" In 2004, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism honored BoA with the Asian Cultural Exchange Merit Award for her contributions in raising the status of K-pop throughout Asia. The Diplomat stated that BoA \"paved the way\" for future K-pop artists \"to later captivate Japanese fans despite souring relations between Seoul and Tokyo.\" Music critic Lim Jin-mo wrote that BoA \"opened many doors for pop acts from her country in the second largest music market in the world\", acting \"as a figurehead for breakthroughs in Japan for South Korean acts\" and became \"a pivotal figure in K-pop's history\". Yim Hyun-su from The Korea Herald viewed her for \"forever changing the landscape of South Korea's music industry\". In 2016, she was honored with the Presidential Commendation at the Korean Popular Culture and Arts Awards for her contributions to the spread of the Korean wave, and for laying \"the foundation for the revival of K-pop\". \n\nIn 2013, 50 music experts, professors and critics organized by Mnet named BoA one of the 100 most influential artists in South Korean music. \"No. 1\" was ranked number 27 in a 2006 Gallup Korea survey of 100 all-time favorite Korean songs and was included in Mnet's Legend 100 list of popular Korean songs since the 1960s. In 2021, a panel of 35 music experts organized by Melon and Seoul Shinmun ranked \"No. 1\" and \"Atlantis Princess\" number 1 and number 93 in their list of the greatest K-pop songs of all time. Critic Rhian Daly for The Forty-Five ranked \"Atlantis Princess\" number 1 in her list of the best K-pop songs of all-time. Rolling Stone ranked \"No. 1\" at number 18 in their list of the greatest songs in the history of K-pop, writing it represents \"her most emblematic crossover hit\".\nBoA has been cited by many artists in the South Korean music industry as an influence and role model, including Aespa, Girls' Generation's Taeyeon, Sunny, Tiffany, Hyoyeon, Seohyun, Shinee's Key, Exo's Sehun, Red Velvet's Irene, Ailee, Chungha, Yukika Teramoto, Kwon Eun-bi, Baek A-yeon, Mamamoo's Solar, f(x)'s Luna, Kiss of Life's Natty, Lovelyz's Kei, and Billlie's Tsuki. Aespa's Giselle said in a Rolling Stone interview that \"Everyone knows her. She's not just famous — she's a legend\".\n\nOther ventures\nEndorsements\nBecause of her wide appeal, BoA has appeared in advertisements for many brands. Among the brands she has promoted are Olympus, Lotte, Nike, L'Oréal, Japanese cosmetic company Kosé, Skechers, Audio-Technica, GM Daewoo and L'Occitane. Several of her songs have been used in affiliation with television shows. \"Every Heart: Minna no Kimochi\" was used as the ending theme for the anime InuYasha; \"Beside You: Boku o Yobu Koe\" was used as the opening theme for the anime Monkey Typhoon; \"Key of Heart\" was the theme song for the Japanese release of Over the Hedge; \"Your Color\" was the theme song of the video game Ninety-Nine Nights; \"Mamoritai: White Wishes\" was the theme song of the video game Tales of Graces. \"Tail of Hope\" was used as the theme for the Japanese drama Hakui no Namida, and \"Masayume Chasing\" was used as the 15th opening theme song for the anime Fairy Tail.\nIn 2007, Anycall (a Samsung brand) signed BoA, Xiah (of TVXQ), Tablo (of Epik High), and jazz pianist Jin Bora onto \"Anyband\", a band created specifically to promote Anycall. The band released only one single, \"AnyBand\". In December 2010, she recorded \"I See Me\" for to promote Audio Technica headphones in Japan. The song \"Woo Weekend\" was used to promote Disney on Ice's 25th Anniversary in Japan while \"Lookbook\" served as the ending theme for the NTV Kei program Tokui to Goto to Uruwashi no Shelley ga Konya Kurabete Mimashita. BoA served as ambassador for Asia Youth Day in 2014. In August 2017, it was announced that BoA was chosen as promotional ambassador for Jeju Biennale, an inaugural international art event on the resort island of Jeju. In Her widespread popularity has also made her a \"cultural ambassador\"; she has represented South Korea in inter-Asian musical events and has appeared in an Oxford University Press-published English-language textbook.\n\nDiscography\nFilmography\nFilm\nTelevision series\nTelevision shows\nConcerts and tours\nConcert participation\n2002: SM China\n2003: SMTOWN Smile Concert 2003\n2007: 2007 SMTOWN Summer Concert\n2008: SMTown Live '08\n2009: BEST & USA Release Party: Thank Your For Your Support!\n2010–11: SMTown Live '10 World Tour\n2012–13: SMTown Live World Tour III\n2014–2015: SM Town Live World Tour IV\n2016: SM Town Live World Tour V\n2017: SM Town Live World Tour VI\n2022: SM Town Live 2022: SMCU Express at Kwangya\n2022: SM Town Live 2022: SMCU Express\n2023: SM Town Live 2023: SMCU Palace at Kwangya\n\nAwards and nominations\nSee also\nContemporary culture of South Korea\nKorean Wave\nJ-pop\n\nFootnotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nBoA at IMDb",
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"paragraph_text": "ID; Peace B is the debut Korean-language studio album by South Korean singer BoA, released on August 25, 2000 by SM Entertainment. It saw moderate levels of success in South Korea upon its release, peaking at number 16 on the Recording Industry Association of Korea's monthly album chart in October 2000. The album sold 156,354 copies in 2000 and was the 59th best-selling album of the year. The album was released on May 29, 2002 in Japan, where it reached number 30 on the Oricon Albums Chart.\n\nProduction and lyrics\nThe song \"Sara\" is about a cat, \"I'm Sorry\" is about the tragedy of loving the lover of her older sister, and \"ID; Peace B\" is about the generation gap due to the use of the internet.\n\nTrack listing\nCharts\nRelease history\n\n\n== References ==",
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"paragraph_text": "BTS (Korean: 방탄소년단; RR: Bangtan Sonyeondan; lit. Bulletproof Boy Scouts), also known as the Bangtan Boys, is a South Korean boy band formed in 2010. The band consists of Jin, Suga, J-Hope, RM, Jimin, V, and Jungkook, who co-write or co-produce much of their material. Originally a hip hop group, they expanded their musical style to incorporate a wide range of genres, while their lyrics have focused on subjects including mental health, the troubles of school-age youth and coming of age, loss, the journey towards self-love, individualism, and the consequences of fame and recognition. Their discography and adjacent work has also referenced literature, philosophy and psychology, and includes an alternate universe storyline.\nBTS debuted in 2013 under Big Hit Entertainment with the single album 2 Cool 4 Skool. BTS released their first Korean and Japanese-language studio albums, Dark & Wild and Wake Up respectively, in 2014. The group's second Korean studio album, Wings (2016), was their first to sell one million copies in South Korea. By 2017, BTS had crossed into the global music market and led the Korean Wave into the United States, becoming the first Korean ensemble to receive a Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for their single \"Mic Drop\", as well as the first act from South Korea to top the Billboard 200 with their studio album Love Yourself: Tear (2018). In 2020, BTS became the fastest group since the Beatles to chart four US number-one albums in less than two years, with Love Yourself: Answer (2018) becoming the first Korean album certified Platinum by the RIAA; in the same year, they also became the first all-South Korean act to reach number one on both the Billboard Hot 100 and Billboard Global 200 with their Grammy-nominated single \"Dynamite\". Follow-up releases \"Savage Love\", \"Life Goes On\", \"Butter\", and \"Permission to Dance\" made them the fastest act to earn four US number-one singles since Justin Timberlake in 2006.\nAs of 2023, BTS is the best-selling musical act in South Korean history according to the Circle Chart, having sold in excess of 40 million albums. Their studio album Map of the Soul: 7 (2020) is the fourth best-selling album of all time in South Korea, as well as the first in the country to surpass both four and five million registered sales. They are the first non-English-speaking and Asian act to sell out concerts at Wembley Stadium and the Rose Bowl (Love Yourself World Tour, 2019), and were named the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry's (IFPI) Global Recording Artist of the Year for both 2020 and 2021. The group's accolades include multiple American Music Awards, Billboard Music Awards, Golden Disc Awards, and nominations for five Grammy Awards. Outside of music, they have addressed three sessions of the United Nations General Assembly and partnered with UNICEF in 2017 to establish the Love Myself anti-violence campaign. Featured on Time's international cover as \"Next Generation Leaders\" and dubbed the \"Princes of Pop\", BTS has also appeared on Time's lists of the 25 most influential people on the internet (2017–2019) and the 100 most influential people in the world (2019), and in 2018 became the youngest recipients of the South Korean Order of Cultural Merit for their contributions in spreading the Korean culture and language.\nOn June 14, 2022, the group announced a scheduled pause in group activities to enable the members to complete their 18 months of mandatory South Korean military service, with a reunion planned for 2025. Jin, the eldest member, enlisted on December 13, 2022; the others followed in 2023.\n\nName\nBTS stands for the Korean phrase Bangtan Sonyeondan (Korean: 방탄소년단; Hanja: 防彈少年團), which translates literally to 'Bulletproof Boy Scouts'. According to member J-Hope, the name signifies the group's desire \"to block out stereotypes, criticisms, and expectations that aim on adolescents like bullets\". In Japan, they are known as Bōdan Shōnendan (防弾少年団). In July 2017, BTS announced that their name would also stand for \"Beyond the Scene\" as part of their new brand identity. This extended the meaning of their name to encompass the idea of growth \"from a boy to an adult who opens the doors that are facing forward\".\n\nHistory\n2010–2014: Formation and early years\nBTS was formed in 2010, after Big Hit Entertainment CEO Bang Si-hyuk wanted to form a hip hop group around RM (Kim Nam-joon), an underground rapper well known on the music scene in Seoul. At the time, physical album sales were on the decline and digital revenues were not yet high enough to compensate. Seeing a need for diversified income streams, Bang decided to form an idol group instead, because of the potential for live concert performances and passionate support from fans of such groups. Many trainees refused to become part of an idol group, but J-Hope, RM, and Suga remained. Bang chose to vary from the usual, highly regimented idol groups and create one where the members would be individuals rather than an ensemble and free to express themselves. Auditions were held in 2010 with plans to launch the following year. The band members lived together, practicing up to 15 hours a day, and first performed before a small crowd of industry insiders in 2013.\n\nBTS's representation by Big Hit, rather than one of the three agencies that dominated K-pop at the time, allowed the individual members leeway to express their individuality and have input into the music. On June 12, 2013, BTS released their debut single album 2 Cool 4 Skool, along with the lead single \"No More Dream\", neither of which sold particularly well at the time. On June 13, 2013, BTS made their stage debut on M Countdown with the single, \"No More Dream\". Nevertheless, according to Kathy Sprinkel in her book on BTS, that single was \"spotlighting young people's anxiety in the face of lofty parental expectations, sent shock waves through the K-pop ranks. Here was a musical act that wasn't pulling any punches. More specifically, they had a point of view, and they weren't afraid to take on topics that are considered taboo in South Korean society and elsewhere.\" The album reached the top five on South Korea's Gaon Music Chart. In 2 Cool 4 Skool, BTS employed an old-school hip-hop sound from the 1990s. The album's release was followed by appearances on Korean music shows, which caught the attention of reviewers and viewers.\nIn September 2013, BTS released the second entry in their \"school trilogy\": the EP, O!RUL8,2?. The album was released alongside the single \"N.O.\" Similarly to 2 Cool 4 Skool, the new release had a theme of students feeling under pressure and needing to sacrifice their dreams and aspirations. According to scholar Kyung Hyun Kim, many of BTS's earlier works such as \"N.O.\" and \"No More Dreams\" were \"expressions of rebellion against the establishment that tapped into Korean teenagers' frustrations with the country's educational system\" and, he stated, helped them build a fan base among young people in North America and Europe. That same month, BTS starred in their own variety show, SBS MTV's Rookie King Channel Bangtan, in which members parodied variety shows such as VJ Special Forces and MasterChef Korea. At the end of the year, BTS was recognized with several New Artist of the Year awards in South Korea.\n\n2014–2017\nSkool Luv Affair and first concert tour\nThe last entry in BTS \"school trilogy\", the Skool Luv Affair EP, was released in February 2014. The release topped the Gaon Album Chart, and appeared on Billboard's World Albums Chart for the first time, peaking at number three. The EP was supported by two singles: \"Boy in Luv\" and \"Just One Day\". Following Skool Luv Affair's release, BTS played at their first fan meeting in Seoul, selecting the name A.R.M.Y. for the fan club. In July 2014, BTS hosted a concert in West Hollywood, their first show in the United States, and in August, they appeared at KCON in Los Angeles.\nIn August 2014, BTS released the album Dark & Wild, which reached number two in South Korea. It was supported by two singles: \"Danger\" and \"War of Hormone\". The group embarked on their first concert tour, 2014 BTS Live Trilogy Episode II: The Red Bullet, which lasted from October to December 2014. The band launched their first Japanese studio album, Wake Up, in December 2014; the release peaked at number three on the Oricon Albums Chart. After the album's release, BTS held their 1st Japan Tour 2015 Wake Up: Open Your Eyes in February 2015. The Red Bullet Tour that had begun on October 17, 2014, in South Korea was resumed on June 6, 2015, in Malaysia and toured Australia, North America and Latin America before ending in Hong Kong that August. In all, the entire tour attracted 80,000 spectators at 18 cities in 13 countries.\n\nMainstream breakthrough and commercial success\nBTS experimented with other styles of music besides hip-hop in The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Pt. 1, released in 2015. BTS wanted to express the beauty and anxiousness of youth and settled on the title of \"花樣年華\" (Korean: 화양연화; RR: Hwayangyeonhwa), loosely interpreted to define \"youth\" metaphorically as \"the most beautiful moment in life\". The album served as an introduction to their youth trilogy, a triptych of albums dedicated to the struggles of young people. The single \"I Need U\" was a top-five hit in South Korea and garnered the group a win on SBS MTV's The Show. The second single \"Dope (Korean: 쩔어; RR: Jjeoreo; lit. It's awesome)\" reached number three on Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart and its music video was viewed over 100 million times on YouTube. The group began the world tour extension of their Red Bullet Tour in June, titled 2015 Live Trilogy Episode II: The Red Bullet, visiting cities throughout Asia, Oceania, North America, and Latin America. \"For You\", in Japanese, was released together with Japanese versions of \"War of Hormone\" and \"Let Me Know\" on June 17, 2015, and immediately topped Oricon's daily chart.\n\nIn November, BTS commenced their third concert tour, 2015 BTS LIVE \"The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: On Stage\", beginning with three sold-out shows in Seoul. The tour marked the debut of their fourth EP, The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 2, and was later extended to Japan. Thematically, the EP focused more on the serious and speculative aspects of youth, touching on the pursuit of success, loneliness, affection for their origins, and the suffering of the younger generation due to unfavorable conditions in current society. The album topped the weekly Gaon Album and Billboard World Albums charts. It also marked their first appearance on the Billboard 200 chart, making it for one week at number 171, and eight of the tracks appeared on Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart.\nTheir compilation album and the finale to their \"youth trilogy\", The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever was released on May 2, 2016. With 300,000 presold copies, it included three new singles: \"Epilogue: Young Forever\", \"Fire\", and \"Save Me\", which debuted in the top three spots on the Billboard World Digital Charts. The album topped the Gaon Album Chart in South Korea for two consecutive weeks and reached number 107 on the Billboard 200. The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever won Album of the Year at the 2016 Melon Music Awards. BTS embarked on their Asia tour extension, 2016 BTS LIVE \"The Most Beautiful Moment in Life On Stage: Epilogue\" from May to August 2016. Tickets for the 14 shows in 10 Asian cities sold out, some in as little as five seconds.\n\nIn September 2016, BTS released their second Japanese studio album Youth. The album sold 44,547 copies on the first day of its release, and charted 1st in the Oricon Daily Album Chart. The album was eventually certified Gold with sales of roughly over 100,000 in Japan. It was followed one month later in October, by their next studio album Wings, which combined the themes of youth presented in their previous \"youth trilogy\" with temptation and adversity. The album and its tracks, including the single \"Blood Sweat & Tears\" immediately rose to the top on eight music charts, including the Gaon Music Chart, and led the iTunes album charts in 23 countries. Wings opened at number 26 on the Billboard 200, with 16,000 album-equivalent units in the US for the week of its release, the best week ever there for a K-pop album. It became the best-selling album in Gaon Album Chart history.\n\nYou Never Walk Alone and Love Yourself: Her\nIn February 2017, BTS released the repackaged edition of Wings entitled You Never Walk Alone. The 700,000 pre-orders of it (an increase from the 500,000 pre-orders of Wings) helped break the record for most albums sold in a month in South Korea, as it reached 1.49 million copies by the end of its first month. The lead single was \"Spring Day\" and it won Best Song of the Year at the 2017 Melon Music Awards. BTS's second world tour, 2017 BTS Live Trilogy Episode III: The Wings Tour, began in February. On the tour, BTS played arenas in the US, such as New Jersey's Prudential Center and California's Honda Center. Tickets for the North American leg sold out within hours and two shows were added. After completing the North American leg, BTS attended the 24th Billboard Music Awards in May and won Top Social Artist, the first K-pop group to win a Billboard award. BTS fans cast over 300 million votes for the band and broke a six-year winning streak held by Justin Bieber, a performer with 100 million Twitter followers. This caused the international media to focus on the ability of BTS's fandom to propel the group to such a victory.\n\nBTS released a remake of Seo Taiji's \"Come Back Home\" (1995) in July 2017, giving it new lyrics but maintaining the theme of urging societal change. Later that year, BTS embarked on their \"Love Yourself\" album series, with theme of the enlightenment of self-love through the \"起承轉結\" (Korean: 기승전결; RR: Giseungjeongyeol) narrative sequence of \"beginning, development, turn, and conclusion.\" BTS released its first part, their fifth EP, Love Yourself: Her, on September 18. RM considered \"DNA\", the lead single from that album, as \"taking BTS to new ground. We tried to apply new grammar and perspectives.\" He said of the album, \"I believe it's going to be the starting point of a second chapter of our career; the beginning of our Chapter Two.\" Sonically, the EP served as \"a dual exploration of the group's electro-pop and hip-hop leanings\".\n\nLove Yourself: Her debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200. The album had 1,664,041 sales in May 2017 to lead the Gaon Chart, and was the first in 16 years to exceed 1.2 million copies sold since g.o.d's fourth album Chapter 4 (2001). \"DNA\" was released simultaneously with the EP, and its music video accumulated 21 million views in its first 24 hours. It became BTS's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100, charting at number 85, making them the first K-pop boy band to reach that chart. The single rose to number 67 the following week and became the highest-charting song on the Hot 100 for any K-pop group. A remix of \"Mic Drop\" from the album, featuring Desiigner, was released as a single and peaked at number 28, the first time a K-pop group had cracked the top forty. Both singles attained Gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in early 2018. \"Mic Drop\" achieved Platinum status in the US later that year.\nIn November 2017, BTS became the first K-pop group to perform at the American Music Awards. BTS won Artist of the Year at the 19th Mnet Asian Music Awards in December, winning for the second consecutive year. They released \"DNA\" and \"Mic Drop\" together with a new song \"Crystal Snow\" as a single album in Japan on December 6, 2017, though the songs were made digitally available elsewhere. It topped the Oricon Chart for the week of its release. It was the only album by a foreign artist to be certified Double Platinum in Japan in 2017.\nLater that month, they made their Japanese television prime time music show debut on Music Station Super Live, and ended the year by performing on Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve.\nIn 2017, BTS partnered with UNICEF on the \"Love Myself\" campaign, intended to help end violence, abuse, and bullying, and to promote self-esteem and well-being among young people. Both Big Hit and the group pledged money to promote the campaign, and BTS sold special \"Love Myself\" merchandise and set up dedicated booths at concert venues. The campaign was renewed in 2021, with UNICEF deeming it to have been successful.\n\n2018–2020\nLove Yourself album series\nBTS won major awards at the Golden Disc and Seoul Music Awards in January 2018. In March, the group premiered an eight-episode documentary titled Burn the Stage that offered a behind-the-scenes look at their 2017 Wings Tour, exclusively on YouTube Premium. Their third Japanese studio album, Face Yourself, was released on April 4, 2018, and quickly reached the top 5 of the U.S. iTunes Albums chart. A nine-minute short film, titled Euphoria: Theme of \"Love Yourself: Wonder\" and featuring the song \"Euphoria\", followed the next day as a prelude to the group's third Korean-language studio album, Love Yourself: Tear. BTS promoted Tear's May 18, 2018, release with an appearance at the 25th Billboard Music Awards two days later, where they made their initial BBMA performance with their single, \"Fake Love\". The group also won Top Social Artist for a second consecutive time. The album coincided with the \"轉\" or \"turn\" of the series, touching on the tortuous enlightenment of loving without being loved, the pains and sorrows of separation, and providing encouragement to those without dreams.\n\nLove Yourself: Tear debuted at number one its first week on the Billboard 200, becoming BTS's first number-one album in the US and the first K-pop album to top the US albums chart. It also became BTS's first top-10 release in Britain, reaching number eight on the UK Albums Chart. \"Fake Love\" became BTS's top-10 single on the Hot 100, the first time a song sung mostly in a language other than English had debuted in the top 10. BTS released their compilation album Love Yourself: Answer in August 2018. The album was supported by the single \"Idol\" and its alternative digital release featuring Nicki Minaj.\nLove Yourself: Answer sold over 1.9 million copies on the Gaon Album Chart in August 2018. The album became BTS's second number-one on the Billboard 200 and led to their highest US sales week in the country to that point with 185,000 album equivalent units. In November 2018, Love Yourself: Answer became the first Korean language album to be certified Gold by the RIAA. \"Idol\" and Love Yourself: Answer both received Platinum certifications in the US, with sales of more than 1 million.\n\nIn conjunction with Love Yourself: Answer's release in August 2018, BTS commenced their world tour, BTS World Tour: Love Yourself, with two concerts in the Seoul Olympic Stadium, which sold out in a matter of seconds, as did others of the 22 shows in 12 countries. In October, BTS released their collaboration with Steve Aoki \"Waste It on Me\", their first all-English language feature. For the final stop of the North American leg, the group performed at Citi Field in New York City, marking the first time a Korean act performed at a US stadium. According to StubHub, BTS was the second best-selling concert act outside the US, behind only Ed Sheeran. That October, BTS renewed their contract with Big Hit Entertainment through 2026.\nIn early November 2018, a popular Japanese music show cancelled BTS's performance, citing a T-shirt a member wore the year before, bearing a photograph of a mushroom cloud following the bombing of Nagasaki. In the same month, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC) stated that BTS owed an apology for that shirt, and for clothing and flags with Nazi symbolism. Big Hit Entertainment issued an apology, explaining that the images were not intended to be hurtful to the victims of Nazism or atomic bombings and that the group and management would take steps to prevent future mistakes. They also stated the flags were meant to be a commentary on the Korean school system. The apology was accepted by SWC and the Korean Atomic Bomb Victim Association. John Lie, in his scholarly article on BTS, opined that the Nazi incident showed that the group is not tightly controlled, as are other K-pop ensembles, whose every move seems scripted, and that the members have opinions and are not afraid to express them.\nAt the 20th Mnet Asian Music Awards, BTS won Artist of the Year and ranked number eight on Billboard's year-end Top Artist Chart and were also the number two act of the year in the Duo/Group ranking, only behind Imagine Dragons. They were also listed as one of the 50 most influential people by Bloomberg for their \"willingness to address social issues, mental health, and politics, despite being in a genre often painted as bubble gum pop\".\n\nMap of the Soul: Persona, stadium world tour and BTS World\nIn February 2019, BTS, for the first time, were presenters at the Grammy Awards. In April, Time named them one of the Time 100, the most influential people of 2019. Their EP, Map of the Soul: Persona, was released on April 12 with the single \"Boy with Luv\" (Korean: 작은 것들을 위한 시; RR: Jageun geotdeureul wihan si), featuring American singer Halsey. The EP's release was followed by a performance on Saturday Night Live, the first K-pop act to appear there. Map of the Soul: Persona became the first Korean-language album to reach the number one position in both the UK and Australia, and the group's third album to top the Billboard 200 in less than a year. Map of the Soul: Persona became the best-selling album ever in South Korea in terms of physical copies sold, with more than 3.2 million sales in less than a month. \"Boy with Luv\" debuted at number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 in April 2019, the highest placement ever for a K-pop song.\n\nFollowing their two wins at the 26th Billboard Music Awards in May, including for Top Duo/Group, BTS embarked on their world tour stadium extension, Love Yourself: Speak Yourself. Due to the demand, BTS added more shows after tickets for the first dates sold out within two hours. In the lead up to the release of their mobile game BTS World, in June 2019 BTS released \"Dream Glow\" featuring Charli XCX, \"A Brand New Day\" with Zara Larsson, and \"All Night\" with Juice Wrld. The group released the song \"Heartbeat\" with a music video from the game's official soundtrack, titled BTS World: Original Soundtrack. The soundtrack was certified Double Platinum by Gaon. On July 3, 2019, pre-orders for the single \"Lights\" crossed one million copies, marking the first time a foreign artist had accomplished this in Japan since Celine Dion in 1995. \"Lights\" debuted at number 81 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 for the chart issue date of July 8, 2019, and reached number one the following week. On August 8, 2019, \"Lights\" received Million certification from the RIAJ, denoting shipments of one million copies.\nLove Yourself: Her and Love Yourself: Tear both crossed 2 million copies in August. All three albums of the Love Yourself series have sold more than 2 million copies each in South Korea. Love Yourself: Tear gained silver certification by the BPI for sales in the UK, becoming their third album to do so following Love Yourself: Answer and Map of the Soul: Persona. For the final stop of their record-breaking Love Yourself: Speak Yourself World Tour, the group played Seoul's Olympic Stadium. BTS was the third top-grossing touring musical act of 2019. That same month, they released a remix version of the song \"Make It Right\" featuring Lauv. In November, BTS won three times at the 2019 American Music Awards, for Best Tour, Favorite Duo or Group – Pop/Rock, and Favorite Social Artist (the second consecutive year).\nIn December, they attended both the 2019 Melon Music Awards and the 2019 Mnet Asian Music Awards. In each case, they became the first group to sweep the four major awards. At the 34th Golden Disc Awards, BTS became the first artists in history to win grand prizes in both the physical and digital categories in a single year. Map of the Soul: Persona was named the second best-selling physical album of 2019 in the US by Nielsen Music behind Taylor Swift's Lover and was ranked sixth overall on the chart of Top 10 Albums (Total Sales) in the US. BTS wrapped 2019 as the fourth-highest-ranked group on Billboard's Top Billboard 200 Artists–Duo/Group ranking, behind Queen, Imagine Dragons and the Beatles. Map of the Soul: Persona was named as the third best-selling album of 2019 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), making BTS the first Korean artist to be listed on the Global Top 10 Album Chart in consecutive years. The IFPI named BTS as one of the best-selling artists of 2019 for a second consecutive year, making them the first non-English speaking act to achieve this.\n\nMap of the Soul: 7, \"Dynamite\" and Be\nIn January 2020, BTS released \"Black Swan\" along with a choreography art film performed by MN Dance Company of Slovenia as the first single from their album Map of the Soul: 7. Album distributor Dreamus reported that stock pre-orders of the album reached a record-breaking 4.02 million. Later that month, BTS performed at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards, making BTS the first Korean act to perform at the Grammys. Map of the Soul: 7 was released on February 21 to favorable reviews. The album was supported by the single \"On\" and an alternative digital release of it featuring Australian singer Sia. According to Gaon Chart, Map of the Soul: 7 sold over 4.1 million copies in nine days after its release, surpassing Map of the Soul: Persona to become the best-selling album in South Korean history and the first album to be certified quadruple million. The album debuted atop the US Billboard 200, making BTS the fastest group to earn four number one albums since the Beatles in 1966–1968. \"On\" debuted at number four on the Billboard Hot 100, giving BTS its first top-five hit, and the most Hot 100 top-10 entries of any Korean act, with three. BTS planned to support the Map of the Soul album series with a concert series, Map of the Soul Tour, beginning in April, but this was indefinitely postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.\nIn April 2020, BTS became the first K-pop artist to sell more than 20 million albums cumulatively, making them the best-selling artist in South Korean history. That month, amid the pandemic restrictions, BTS held a two-day online streaming concert event titled Bang Bang Con, where the group shared footage of past concerts on their YouTube channel. On June 7, BTS headlined YouTube's Dear Class of 2020 online graduation event, performing \"Boy with Luv\", \"Spring Day\", and \"Mikrokosmos\". Their commencement speeches highlighted their own graduations and offered \"messages of hope and inspiration for the class of 2020 in both Korean and English\". On June 14, BTS held an online live concert, Bang Bang Con: The Live, as part of the seventh anniversary of their debut. It garnered peak viewership of 756,000 live viewers in 107 countries and territories, setting the record for the largest audience for a paid virtual concert. On June 19, BTS released the Japanese single, \"Stay Gold\", from their fourth Japanese album, Map of the Soul: 7 – The Journey, which was released worldwide on July 14. It surpassed 564,000 copies in its first week, breaking the record for highest first week album sales by male foreign artists in Japan.\nBTS released their first English-language single, \"Dynamite\", on August 21. \"Dynamite\" debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, earning BTS their first chart topper and making them the first all-South Korean act to earn a number one single in the US. The single also topped Billboard's new Global 200 for the week ending September 24, as well as Global Excluding US charts, becoming the first single to top both simultaneously. \"Dynamite\" peaked at number five on the US Mainstream Top 40 and on the. Billboard Pop Singles chart, becoming their first Top 10 on each and the former the highest-charting entry by a Korean act. On August 31, BTS made their MTV Video Music Awards (VMAs) debut with the first live performance of \"Dynamite\" and won four awards: Best Group, Best Choreography, Best Pop Video, and Best K-pop (the last three for their music video for \"On\"). On October 14, they performed the single at the 2020 Billboard Music Awards and won the Top Social Artist award for a fourth consecutive year.\nOn October 2, 2020, BTS released a remix of Jawsh 685 and Jason Derulo's single \"Savage Love (Laxed – Siren Beat)\". It topped the Hot 100. On October 10 and 11, BTS hosted a two-day virtual pay-per-view concert at KSPO Dome in Seoul, called Map of the Soul ON:E, which drew 993,000 viewers from 191 countries and territories. On November 20, BTS released their fifth Korean studio album Be, led by the single \"Life Goes On\". \"Life Goes On\" debuted at number one on the Hot 100, BTS's third consecutive US number-one single in three months and the first song performed primarily in Korean to top the chart.\nOn November 24, 2020, BTS became the first Korean pop artists recognized by the Recording Academy when \"Dynamite\" received a nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards. The group won the Special International Music Award at the 62nd Japan Record Awards. Kim, in his book on the influence of Korean popular culture, suggested that 2020, the worst year in many people's lives, was a noteworthy one for Korean culture, with Parasite winning the Academy Award for Best Picture and BTS posting three number-one hits on the Billboard Global 200.\n\n2021–present\n\"Butter\", \"Permission to Dance\" and Proof\nOn March 4, 2021, the IFPI named BTS its Global Recording Artist of the Year for 2020, the first Asian and first non-English speaking act to top the ranking. BTS occupied three spots in the Global Album Sales Chart of 2020, with Map of the Soul: 7 at number one, Be (Deluxe Edition) at number two, and Map of the Soul: 7–The Journey at number eight. On the newly launched Global Album All Format Chart, Map of the Soul: 7 claimed first place and Be (Deluxe Edition) claimed fourth. On March 14, 2021, BTS performed \"Dynamite\" at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, becoming the first Korean nominee to perform, though they did not win the award. On April 1, BTS released \"Film Out\", the first single from their then-upcoming Japanese compilation album, BTS, the Best. BTS held a two-day online streaming event on their YouTube channel beginning April 17, titled Bang Bang Con 21, and aired three of their previous in-person concerts.\nOn May 21, BTS released their second English-language single, \"Butter\". It debuted at number one on the Hot 100—their fourth number one in nine months—making them the quickest act to achieve four chart-toppers since Justin Timberlake in 2006, and the fastest group since the Jackson 5 in 1970. Their next English-language single, \"Permission to Dance\", was released on July 9. It became BTS's eighth number-one on the Digital Songs chart, extending their record as the group with the most number-one entries on the ranking. On September 24, 2021, the band released the single \"My Universe\" with Coldplay. The single debuted at number one on the Hot 100, making it the first collaboration between two groups to debut at number one. The band held an online concert, titled Permission to Dance on Stage, on October 24, 2021, in Seoul. On November 23, \"Butter\" earned a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards. Between November 27 and December 2, BTS held their first live performances before an in-person audience since before the pandemic. The band played four sold-out shows at SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles as a continuation of their Permission to Dance on Stage concert series.\nOn January 15, 2022, a fictional webtoon based on BTS, titled 7Fates: Chakho, was released. The comic surpassed 15 million views globally in its first two days of availability and became the highest-viewed title ever launched by Webtoon. The band held three limited-capacity concerts at Seoul Olympic Stadium on March 10, 12 and 13—the largest music gatherings approved by the South Korean government since the pandemic restrictions were imposed—with a total audience of 45,000 people. On April 3, BTS performed \"Butter\" at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards, though the song did not win the award for which it was nominated. On April 8, the band earned seven nominations at the 2022 Billboard Music Awards and won three, making them the most-nominated and the most-awarded group in the show's history.\nOn June 10, 2022, BTS released their three-CD anthology album Proof. On June 14, during their ninth anniversary celebrations, the band announced a temporary suspension of group activities to focus on solo projects and other endeavors. Hybe Corporation, which owns Big Hit, clarified in subsequent statements that BTS was neither disbanding nor going on hiatus, but would be actively furthering their individual careers with the label's full support while still participating in group activities, including the filming of Run BTS. The incident caused Hybe Corporation's stock to decline rapidly, resulting in a decrease in market value of US$1.7 billion. On August 24, Billboard magazine reported that BTS would be performing in Busan on October 15 in a benefit concert in support of the city's efforts to have a World Exposition in 2030, participating under the banner Yet to Come.\n\nMilitary service and contract renewal\nIn spite of the announcement of the October 2022 benefit concert, Hybe Corporation's stock prices dropped to below its original IPO amid continuing market speculation about the implications of the upcoming mandatory military enlistment of the band's members. Under South Korean laws, all able-bodied males must complete between 18 and 21 months of military service, usually by age 28. Bloomberg News reported the concert as a success but also indicated that there were no further concert dates scheduled. It was estimated that if the band members completed their service, Hybe Corporation would lose nearly US$10 billion over ten years, with the loss to the South Korean economy at nearly US$39 billion.\nIn October 2022, Big Hit confirmed that Jin, the band's oldest member, aged 29, had withdrawn his enlistment deferral request. The other members planned to enlist later, with the group planning to reunite in 2025 following discharge. At the end of October 2022, BTS earned five nominations for the 2022 MAMA Awards, with the band members receiving eight further nominations as solo artists. On November 15, BTS earned three nominations at the 65th Annual Grammy Awards, including a nomination for Best Music Video for \"Yet to Come\". \"My Universe\" was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance, making BTS the only act to be nominated three years in a row in this category since its introduction in 2011. The band was also nominated for Album of the Year as featured artists on Coldplay's Music of the Spheres. Jin enlisted as an active duty soldier on December 13. On February 26, 2023, Big Hit announced that J-Hope had requested cancellation of the postponement of his military service.\nFollowing their scheduled separation, the band's BTS 'Yet to Come' in Busan concert film was released on February 1, 2023. During a trip to Spain, RM told EFE that BTS \"will come together again when we finish our military service, and we will look for new synergies between us to enter a second phase.\" Hybe chairman Bang Si-hyuk stated on March 15, 2023, that their comeback might not occur in 2025 since it was hard to target a specific date, and that they had not discussed their contract renewal yet. J-Hope enlisted as an active duty soldier on April 18. On May 12, BTS released a soundtrack \"The Planet\" for the South Korean animated series Bastions. To commemorate their tenth anniversary, the group released the song \"Take Two\" on June 9.\nOn September 20, 2023, Hybe confirmed through a press release that BTS would renew their exclusive contracts. The members will sign these agreements sequentially, considering their military service, after a board resolution with Big Hit Music, solidifying their commitment to future projects starting from 2025 onwards. Hybe expressed their anticipation for supporting BTS' group endeavors and pledged unwavering support to enhance their worldwide influence, ensuring the group's continuity even after completing their military service. On September 22, 2023, Suga enlisted as a social worker. RM and V enlisted on December 11, 2023, followed by Jimin and Jungkook on December 12. On June 12, 2024, Jin became the first BTS member to complete his mandatory military service and was officially discharged.\n\nArtistry\nInfluences\nBTS have cited Seo Taiji and Boys, Nas, Eminem, Kanye West, Drake, Post Malone, Charlie Puth, and Danger as musical inspirations. They have also cited Queen as an influence, saying they \"grew up watching videos of Live Aid\". During their concert at Wembley Stadium in London, Jin paid tribute to Queen by leading the crowd in a version of Freddie Mercury's \"ay-oh\" chant. \"Hip Hop Phile\" which was released when BTS's hip-hop concept was at its height, pays homage to the artists who influenced them, including the South Korean group Epik High, Jay-Z, Biggie, CL Smooth, and others.\nTheir 2016 album Wings was inspired by Hermann Hesse's coming of age novel, Demian. Their song \"Blood Sweat & Tears\" quotes Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and its music video features visual references to Herbert James Draper's The Lament for Icarus, Pieter Bruegel's Landscape with the Fall of Icarus, and Bruegel's The Fall of the Rebel Angels. Among the literary and other sources that have inspired their works are those by Haruki Murakami, Ursula K. Le Guin, Carl Jung, George Orwell and Nietzsche. The Love Yourself series was influenced by Erich Fromm's The Art of Loving, and their 2018 song \"Magic Shop\" from Love Yourself: Tear was inspired by James R. Doty's memoir Into the Magic Shop.\n\nMusical style\nSince their inception, BTS have emphasized hip hop as their musical base, largely due to the influence of RM and Suga's background as underground rappers; during early visits to the US, the group received mentoring from American rappers. Bang Si-hyuk previously acknowledged that K-pop as a whole draws from black music, and author Crystal S. Anderson stated, \"BTS's rising popularity in the US represents the continuation of the ways that K-pop functions as part of a global R&B tradition.\" T.K. Park and Youngdae Kim of Vulture deemed the track \"Outro: Her\" from Love Yourself: Her as the best example of the group's understanding of old-school hip hop, with raps inspired by Chuck D and Tupac and jazzy chords from the 1990s to create a classic hip hop sound.\n\nThe release of \"Blood Sweat & Tears\" in 2016 accelerated BTS's transition from a hip hop to a pop group. Park and Kim noted that the song draws from dancehall, reggaeton, and moombahton but opts for a \"baroque mysticism\" rather than the \"partylike atmosphere of its influences\". The group also began incorporating traditional Korean elements into their music. For example, their single \"Idol\" (2018) features an adlib from Pansori, a Korean form of operatic storytelling, and vocal imitations of the sounds of Korean janggu drums.\nWhile BTS maintains roots in hip hop, their sound has diversified. They first experimented with R&B, rock and jazz hip hop on Dark & Wild in 2014; EDM in their The Most Beautiful Moment in Life album series; moombahton and tropical house on Wings and You Never Walk Alone; future bass and Latin pop in their Love Yourself album series; slow-dance ballads, emo rap, Afro pop, funk, trap, pop rock, and hip pop in their Map of the Soul album series; and disco in their single \"Dynamite\". The band members have explored different genres on solo tracks, such as neo soul on V's \"Stigma\" and flowing R&B on Jimin's \"Lie\".\n\nLyrical themes\nSince their formation, BTS have believed that telling their own stories is the best way for the younger generation to relate to their music. Writing many of their own lyrics, the group discusses universal life experiences such as sadness and loneliness in their work and turn them into something lighter and more manageable. RM stated that BTS tries to avoid a preaching or reprimanding tone in their songs \"because that's not the way that we want to spread our message ... We're born with different lives, but you cannot choose some things. So we thought that love, the real meaning of it, starts with loving ourselves and accepting some ironies and some destinies that we have from the very start.\" When asked if it is difficult to write about things like mental health, Suga responded,We feel that people who have the platform to talk about those things really should talk more, because they say depression is something where you go to the hospital and you're diagnosed, but you can't really know until the doctor talks to you ... More and more, I think artists or celebrities who have a voice should talk about these problems and bring it up to the surface.\nThemes explored in BTS's discography range from exploring \"the troubles and anxieties of school-age youth\" to \"themes like love, friendship, loss, death, and more.\" Early BTS songs, such as \"No More Dream\" and \"N.O\" from their school trilogy, were described by Tamar Herman as motivated by personal experiences with South Korea's rigid approach to education and called for change to the educational system and societal expectations. The members' experiences with South Korean youth culture also inspired the songs \"Dope\" and \"Silver Spoon\" (Korean: 뱁새; RR: Baepsae) from their youth trilogy. These songs reference generational disparity and millennials giving up romantic relationships, marriage, children, proper employment, homes, and social life in the face of economic difficulties and societal ills while facing condemnation from the media and older generations. The group's label dubbed The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever, the conclusion to their youth trilogy, \"a special album that marks the conclusion of the epic journey of the series, containing the last stories told by young people who, despite an uncertain and insecure reality (The Most Beautiful Moment in Life Pt. 1) continue to surge forward (The Most Beautiful Moment in Life Pt. 2).\" Wings focused on mental health, criticisms of the K-pop \"idol\" scene, and delivering a female empowerment message. The Love Yourself series introduced new themes regarding youth culture in South Korea, including the excitement of love, pain of farewell, and enlightenment of self-love. According to Kathy Sprinkel, BTS's 2020 \"quarantine album\" Be \"chronicles the group's coming to terms with a suddenly new reality and offers support for their listeners going through the same upheaval and uncertainty\".\nBTS's lyrics have also addressed topics outside youth culture. The song \"Am I Wrong\" from Wings questioned societal apathy towards changing the status quo; the lyric \"We're all dogs and pigs / we become dogs because we're angry\" appeared to reference South Korean Ministry of Education official Na Hyang-wook, who advocated a caste system for the country and who reportedly described average people as \"dogs and pigs\". BTS released the song amid the 2016 South Korean political scandal that resulted in the impeachment of president Park Geun-hye. RM and Suga's personal struggles with mental health have inspired some of their music. \"Not Today\" from 2017's You Never Walk Alone is an anti-establishment anthem, urging \"all the underdogs in the world\" to keep fighting, and \"Spring Day\" honored the victims of the Sewol Ferry tragedy. Journalist Jeff Benjamin praised BTS in Fuse for \"speak[ing] honestly about topics they deem important, even in a conservative society\". Former South Korean president Moon Jae-in said: \"Each of the seven members sings in a way that is true to himself and the life he wants to live. Their melody and lyrics transcend regional borders, language, culture, and institutions.\"\n\nImpact\nOn April 29, 2019, Time magazine named BTS one of the 100 most influential people of the year, labeling them the \"Princes of Pop\". Billboard executive Silvio Pietroluongo compared the group's influence to that of the Beatles. MRC Data executive Helena Kosinski noted that \"although BTS weren't the first to open the doors to K-Pop worldwide, they were the first to become mainstream. They don't just appeal to young people but also to the 50s and 60s age demographic.\" The first non-English speaking artist to make the Global Artist Chart in 2018, BTS was the second best-selling artists worldwide across multiple media platforms, second only to Drake. In 2020, BTS became the first non-western and non-English speaking artist to be named IFPI's Global Recording Artist of the Year. In South Korea, BTS accounted for 41.9 percent of album sales in the first half of 2019, up from their market share of 25.3 percent the previous year.\nIn 2022, Youna Kim described BTS as having spearheaded the Korean Wave, representing the global expansion of Korean culture as effectively as Psy did in the previous decade and with the strength of influence that the Academy Award-winning South Korean film Parasite had in 2020. South Korea's central bank, the Bank of Korea, found in 2021 that BTS, including a \"ripple effect\" that included increased tourism to South Korea; increased interest in Korean culture, movies, and study of the Korean language; and added approximately US$5 billion per year to South Korea's economy, a growth of about 0.5 percent. A 2018 study showed that, on average, 800,000 foreigners per year had visited South Korea over the past four years for BTS-related reasons.\nWriters identified BTS as leaders even among other highly influential K-pop groups such as Girls' Generation, Super Junior, Exo, Twice, and Blackpink and note that BTS's success shows the importance of a strong, active fan base in the age of social media, where fan campaigning can be as important as musical quality to a song's success. The group has also distinguished themselves at the forefront of the business side of the K-pop industry by pursuing less restrictive contracts with their management company to maximize their artistic originality and creativity. With this newer approach to career management, BTS created closer ties to the South Korean youth and encourage individuality and authenticity among their audience.\n\nDiplomacy\nIn his 1990 essay Soft Power, political scientist Joseph Nye developed the concept of a second type of power different from traditional authoritarianism. Nye wrote, \"This second aspect of power – which occurs when one country gets other countries to want what it wants – might be called co-optive or soft power in contrast with the hard or command power of ordering others to do what it wants.\" Researchers such as Maud Quessard have applied the concept of soft power to BTS and their influence on entertainment diplomacy and international relations. Youna Kim and Maud Quessard all read the currency of soft power as including culture, political values, and foreign policy, which applies to BTS's ability to be co-optive in their approach to spreading their message of harmony, acceptance, and addressing life's setbacks via their broad appeal on the international stage.\n\nBTS was invited to address the United Nations General Assembly in New York in September 2018. That same year they performed in Paris before an audience of 400, including President Moon Jae-in and other officials, at the 2018 Korea-France Friendship Concert, a summit celebrating the friendly relations between France and South Korea. That year, BTS became the youngest recipients of the Order of Cultural Merit. Despite cultural medals traditionally being given to recipients with over 15 years of achievement, Moon recognized the group, five years into their career, for their contributions in spreading Korean culture and language worldwide. In September 2019, BTS were mentioned by Moon while announcing strategies for the content industries, for having pioneered innovative business models through direct communication with fans. In 2020, BTS received the James A. Van Fleet Award in recognition of their outstanding contributions to the promotion of US-Korea relations, the youngest honorees to receive the award. In July 2021, they were appointed Special Presidential Envoy for Future Generations and Culture by President Moon. In their role as envoys, they help to \"raise awareness on global agendas, such as sustainable development, to our future generations and to strengthen the nation's diplomatic power across the world\" and appear at international events such as the 76th United Nations General Assembly. On May 31, 2022, BTS visited US President Joe Biden at the White House to discuss the recent rise in anti-Asian hate crimes and discrimination.\n\nFandom\nAccording to Kyung Hyun Kim, BTS's rise was facilitated by a great increase in music video programming and consumption on YouTube and the coming of an idol empire, including merchandising of nonmusical products, games, and fantasy fiction, as well as an expansion of online music fandom. The group has a large, highly organized, online community of fans known as ARMY (Adorable Representative M.C. for Youth), which translates the group's lyrics and social media posts into other languages and matches charitable contributions of BTS's members. As of 2020, some 40 million ARMY members subscribe to the band's YouTube channel, with more than 30 million following the official BTS Twitter and Instagram accounts. The fan community helps generate BTS's number-one chart rankings via coordinated campaigns on streaming platforms, as well as pushes to feature BTS's music on radio stations and television. Some ARMY members may even surpass the group itself in influence among BTS fans.\n\nBTS interacted and engaged with their followers from their earliest days via social media, as well as via BTS Universe, an alternate storyline involving the members told through music videos, mobile games, books, short films, and more that gives fans room to theorize. Kim suggested that ARMY are drawn to BTS since the members are seen as underdogs, originating from the Korean countryside and a relatively minor Korean entertainment company, which allows young fans to identify with them. BTS's lyrics speak to social values, and fans respond by trying to improve the world. As a result, the fandom regularly embraces activism on charitable causes and socio-political issues such as refugee crises, racial discrimination, children's rights, climate change, and the COVID-19 pandemic. Feedback from ARMY to BTS affects the group's actions and lyrics; BTS has eliminated certain Korean words that sound like American racial slurs from their songs and ended collaboration with a Japanese producer when Korean ARMY members deemed his views extreme.\nPer South Korean author Jiyoung Lee, the relationship between BTS and ARMY is \"a mutual exchange between artists and their fans\" that is about more than merely \"ensuring the band's primacy\", but also \"extending the band's message of positivity into the world\". Lee opines that BTS and ARMY are \"a symbol of change in zeitgeist, not just of generational change\". The band members themselves agree and have long acknowledged their fans' role in their success. According to Sarah Keith, \"BTS embody a moment of generational transformation. ARMY represents a 'coming of age' for the young, in which cultural production and influence are global and meaningful, and where the youth are politically and socially engaged.\"\n\nOther ventures\nEndorsements\nBTS partnered with Puma beginning in 2015, initially as Puma Korea's brand ambassadors before expanding to global ambassadors in 2018, and promoting the remix of Puma's \"Turin\" and \"Sportstyle\" line worldwide. In 2019, BTS signed with Fila to endorse its sportswear. BTS has also served as global brand ambassadors for LG Electronics' smartphones, and Hyundai Motors' 2019 flagship SUV the \"Palisade\" and hydrogen fuel cell electric SUV, the \"Nexo\". BTS became global ambassadors of the electric street racing series Formula E to promote how electric vehicles can help combat climate change. In 2020, BTS partnered with Samsung Electronics, releasing a limited BTS-themed version of the Galaxy S20+ and Galaxy Buds+. As the first male pop group ever to collaborate with Dior, BTS sported ensembles from Kim Jones' Pre-Fall 2019 collection at their concert at Stade de France. The band became global brand ambassadors for Louis Vuitton in April 2021.\n\nPhilanthropy\nBTS are known for their philanthropic endeavors. Several members of the band have been inducted into prestigious donation clubs, such as the UNICEF Honors Club and the Green Noble Club, in acknowledgement of the size and frequency of their donations. They have also received awards for their donations, with one member receiving a Patron of the Arts Award for donations to the arts, and BTS as a whole receiving a UNICEF Inspire Award for their Love Myself campaign. They often donate privately, with their patronage later being made public by the organizations they support and the media. The band's efforts have motivated their fans to also engage in various charitable and humanitarian activities, and on occasion even match their donations.\n\nAccolades\nBTS have received numerous awards throughout their career. They have consecutively won the Billboard Music Award for Top Social Artist since 2017; are the only K-pop group to win Top Duo/Group, at the 2019 Billboard Music Awards; and are the most-awarded group in BBMA history as of 2022, with 12 wins overall. BTS are also the only K-pop group to win Favorite Duo or Group – Pop/Rock and Favorite Social Artist at the American Music Awards, and became the first Asian act in the show's history to win Artist of the Year in 2021. They are the first Korean pop act to receive a Grammy Award nomination, and the first Korean artist to be nominated for a Brit Award. With 30 awards overall, including a record four consecutive wins for Artist of the Year (Asia), BTS are the most-awarded foreign artist in the history of the Japan Gold Disc Awards. They have also received a total of 50 trophies at the MAMA Awards.\n\nMembers\nJin (진) – vocalist\nSuga (슈가) – rapper\nJ-Hope (제이홉) – rapper\nRM (알앰) – leader, rapper\nJimin (지민) – vocalist\nV (뷔) – vocalist\nJungkook (정국) – vocalist\n\nDiscography\nFilmography\nFilms\n\nBurn the Stage: The Movie (2018)\nLove Yourself in Seoul (2019)\nBring the Soul: The Movie (2019)\nBreak the Silence: The Movie (2020)\nBTS: Permission to Dance on Stage – LA (2022)\nBTS: Yet to Come in Cinemas (2023)\nOnline shows\n\nRun BTS (2015–present)\nBTS In the Soop (2020–2021)\n\nBibliography\nBeyond the Story (2023)\n\nConcert tours\nThe Red Bullet Tour (2014–2015)\nWake Up: Open Your Eyes Japan Tour (2015)\nThe Most Beautiful Moment in Life On Stage Tour (2015–2016)\nThe Wings Tour (2017)\nLove Yourself World Tour (2018–2019)\nMap of the Soul Tour (2020; cancelled)\nPermission to Dance on Stage (2021–2022)\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nAnderson, Crystal S. (2020). Soul in Seoul: African American Popular Music and K-pop. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-3009-8.\nHunt, Robert; McKelvey, Fenwick (2019). \"Algorithmic Regulation in Media and Cultural Policy: A Framework to Evaluate Barriers to Accountability\". Journal of Information Policy. 9: 307–335. doi:10.5325/jinfopoli.9.2019.0307. JSTOR 10.5325/jinfopoli.9.2019.0307. S2CID 213521720.\nJin, Dal Yong (2022). \"Transnational Cultural Power of BTS: Digital Fan Activism in the Social Media Era\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 142–154. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nJu, Hyunshik. \"Premediating a Narrative of Growth: BTS, Digital Media, and Fan Culture\". Popular Entertainment Studies: 19–33. ISSN 1837-9303. Archived from the original on March 21, 2022. Retrieved June 7, 2022.\nKeith, Sarah (2022). \"BTS as Cultural Ambassadors\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 152–167. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nKim, Kyung Hyun (2021). Hegemonic Mimicry: Korean Popular Culture of the Twenty-first Century. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-1-4780-1358-7.\nKim, Kyung Hyun (2022). \"BTS and the World Music Industry\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 107–117. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nKim, Youna (2022). \"Introduction: Popular Culture and Soft Power in the Social Media Age\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 1–38. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nKim, Young-dae (2019a). BTS–The Review: A Comprehensive Look at the Music of BTS. Translated by H.J. Chung. RH Korea. ISBN 978-8-925-56582-8.\nLie, John (2022). \"BTS, the Highest Stage of K-Pop\". In Kim, Youna (ed.). The Soft Power of the Korean Wave: Parasite, BTS and Drama. Routledge. pp. 118–128. ISBN 978-1-00310-248-9.\nQuessard, Maud (2020). \"Entertainment Diplomacy\". In Balzacq, Thierry; Charillon, Frédéric; Ramel, Frédéric (eds.). Global Diplomacy: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 279–296. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28786-3_21. ISBN 978-3-03028-785-6. S2CID 211355635.\nShapiro, Marc (2018). Burn the Stage: The Rise of BTS and Korean Boy Bands. Riverdale Avenue Books. ISBN 978-1-62601-490-9.\nSprinkel, Katy (2021). BTS: One. Triumph Books. ISBN 978-1-64125-643-8.\n\nFurther reading\nSuk-Young Kim, ed. (2023). \"Part V: The Band That Surprised the World\". The Cambridge Companion to K-Pop. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-94478-6.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website",
"title": "BTS"
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"paragraph_text": "Park Ji-min (Korean: 박지민; born October 13, 1995), known mononymously as Jimin, is a South Korean singer, songwriter and dancer. In 2013, he made his debut as a member of the South Korean boy band BTS, under the record label Big Hit Entertainment.\nJimin has released three solo tracks under BTS' name—\"Lie\" in 2016, \"Serendipity\" in 2017, and \"Filter\" in 2020—all of which have charted on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart. He released his first credited solo song, the digital track \"Promise\", which he co-wrote, in 2018 and recorded the duet \"With You\" with Ha Sung-woon for the soundtrack for the TvN drama Our Blues in 2022. Jimin released his debut solo album, Face in 2023, which debuted at number one in South Korea and Japan and number two on the US Billboard 200, making him the highest-charting Korean solo artist on the latter chart. The album's single \"Like Crazy\" became the first song by a Korean solo artist to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 in history. Jimin also became the first Korean solo artist to top the Billboard Artist 100 chart. In 2024, he released his second album, Muse, and its lead single \"Who\", which debuted at number one on the Billboard Global 200.\n\nEarly life and education\nPark Ji-min was born on October 13, 1995, in Geumjeong District, Busan, South Korea. He is of the Milyang Park clan. His immediate family includes his mother, father, and younger brother. \nWhen he was a child, he attended Busan's Hodong Elementary School and Yonsan Middle School. In middle school, he attended Just Dance Academy, where he learned popping and locking. Prior to becoming a trainee, Jimin studied contemporary dance at Busan High School of Arts and was a top student in the modern dance department. A teacher suggested that he join an entertainment company, leading him to Big Hit Entertainment. Once he passed the auditions in 2012, he transferred to Korean Arts High School, graduating in 2014.\nJimin graduated from Global Cyber University in August 2020 with a major in Broadcasting and Entertainment. He was awarded the President's Award, the school's highest honor. As of 2021, he is enrolled at Hanyang Cyber University, pursuing a Master of Business Administration in Advertising and Media.\n\nCareer\n2013–present: BTS\nJimin was the last Big Hit trainee to be added to the lineup that would eventually become BTS. Of the band's seven members, he spent the shortest period of time—six months—as a trainee prior to debuting. On June 13, 2013, he debuted as a vocalist and dancer in BTS with the song \"No More Dream\" from their first single 2 Cool 4 Skool. Under the band's name, he released three solo songs: \"Lie\", \"Serendipity\", and \"Filter\". \"Lie\" was released in 2016, as part of the band's second Korean studio album, Wings. It was described as stunning and dramatic, conveying dark undertones and emotions in line with the overall concept of the album. In contrast, \"Serendipity\", from the band's Love Yourself: Her (2017) extended play (EP), was soft and sensual, expressing the joy, conviction, and curiosity of love. \"Filter\", a track from BTS' 2020 studio album Map of the Soul: 7, had a Latin pop flair, with lyrics reflecting the different sides of Jimin that he shows to the world and those around him. Jimin additionally co-wrote and co-produced another track included on that album, \"Friends\", which was later featured in the Marvel Studios film Eternals.\n\"Serendipity\" and \"Lie\" both surpassed fifty million streams on Spotify in 2018, followed shortly thereafter by the former's full length version from BTS' Love Yourself: Answer (2018) compilation album, which achieved the milestone in early 2019. Jimin became the first Korean artist to have three solo tracks accumulate over 50 million streams each, surpassing Psy, who previously crossed the 50 million streams mark twice with \"Gangnam Style\" (2012) and \"Gentleman\" (2013). Both songs were also the only solos by a BTS member included in the Official Charts Company's (OCC) list of the top 20 most streamed BTS songs in the United Kingdom as of October 2018, ranking at number 17 and 19 respectively. In April 2019, the list was expanded to reflect the top 40, and both tracks were the highest ranked solos included that year, at numbers 18 and 20 respectively.\nIn May 2019, Jimin became the first BTS member to have a solo music video achieve 100 million views on YouTube when \"Serendipity\" surpassed the milestone. He remained the only BTS member with multiple solo songs in the January 2020 update of the OCC's top 40 list: \"Lie\" and \"Serendipity\" were the second and third most-streamed solos, at numbers 24 and 29 respectively, with the full-length version of the latter at number 38. The following month, Jimin earned his first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 with \"Filter\", which debuted at number 87 on the chart, as well his first number one on the World Digital Song Sales chart. The song set the record for the biggest streaming debut among all Korean songs on Spotify, accruing over 2.2 million streams in its first 24 hours of release, and went on to become the fastest Korean solo in the platform's history to surpass 20–60 million streams. It was also the only solo album track by BTS to receive a Song of the Year nomination at the Gaon Chart Music Awards. In March 2021, \"Filter\" became the 15th BTS song to spend a full year on Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart. It was the longest-charting Korean song released in 2020 on the ranking, having spent 80 weeks on the chart as of the issue dated October 9, 2021.\nJimin was awarded the fifth-class Hwagwan Order of Cultural Merit in 2018, alongside his bandmates, by the President of South Korea, Moon Jae-in, for their contributions to the promotion of Korean culture. Three years later, Moon appointed him Special Presidential Envoy for Future Generations and Culture, alongside his bandmates, to help \"lead the global agenda for future generations\" and \"expand South Korea's diplomatic efforts and global standing\" in the international community.\n\n2014–present: Solo work\nIn 2014, Jimin collaborated with bandmate Jungkook on a song called \"Christmas Day\", a Korean rendition of Justin Bieber's \"Mistletoe\"; Jimin wrote the Korean lyrics himself. The two collaborated again in 2017, on a cover of Charlie Puth's \"We Don't Talk Anymore\" featuring Selena Gomez. Jungkook previously released a solo version of the song in February, and the two prepared the duet as a special gift to the band's fandom, releasing it on June 2, during BTS' fourth anniversary celebrations. Teen Vogue wrote that \"adding Jimin's voice to the mix makes the rendition all the more lovely\", while the Canadian outlet Flare magazine stated that \"it honestly might be better than the original\". Elite Daily described the cover as \"nothing short of flawless\".\nJimin appeared on several variety shows such as Hello Counselor, Please Take Care of My Refrigerator, and God's Workplace in 2016. He also served as a special MC on domestic television music programs such as Show! Music Core and M Countdown. In December 2016, he participated in a dance duet at the KBS Song Festival with Taemin from Shinee.\nOn December 30, 2018, Jimin released \"Promise\", his first credited song as a solo artist, for free on BTS' SoundCloud page. It earned the biggest 24-hour debut in SoundCloud history with 8.5 million streams, surpassing previous record holder Drake's \"Duppy Freestyle\" which received 4.9 million streams, and would go on to become the most streamed song on the platform by December 2021, with over 300 million streams. Described by Billboard as a \"mellow pop ballad\", the song was composed by Jimin and Big Hit producer Slow Rabbit, who also produced the track, and features lyrics written by Jimin and bandmate RM. Jimin released his second solo song \"Christmas Love\", about his childhood memories of the holidays, on December 24, 2020. In 2022, he contributed the single \"With You\", a duet with Ha Sung-woon, to the soundtrack of the TvN drama Our Blues; the single was released on April 24.\nIn January 2023, Jimin co-wrote and featured on the single \"Vibe\" by Taeyang. His first official solo project since BTS announced an increased focus on individual music endeavors a year prior, the single earned Jimin his debut entry on the Billboard Hot 100 as a solo artist, at number 76. He was announced as a global ambassador for Dior later that month, and for Tiffany & Co. in March. \"Promise\" and \"Christmas Love\" were made available on streaming platforms worldwide as official singles under Jimin's name on March 6. His debut solo album Face was released on March 24. It set several chart and sales records, debuting at number one in South Korea and Japan, and number two in the US, making Jimin the highest-charting Korean solo artist of all time on the Billboard 200. The album's two singles, \"Set Me Free Pt. 2\" and \"Like Crazy\", released on March 17 and 24 respectively, both entered the Hot 100: the former debuted at number 30, while the latter debuted at number one, making Jimin the first South Korean solo artist in history to top the chart. The album's release led Jimin to become the first Korean solo artist to reach number one on the Billboard Artist 100. In May, he appeared as a featured artist, alongside Jvke and Muni Long, on the single \"Angel Pt. 1\" by Kodak Black and NLE Choppa, as part of the soundtrack for the film Fast X. The digital single \"Closer Than This\" was released on December 22, shortly after Jimin enlisted in the South Korean Army. Originally recorded during the production of Face, it is a song dedicated to the BTS fandom in gratitude for their support.\nBig Hit announced an eight-episode travel reality series, Are You Sure?!, featuring Jimin and Jungkook on July 2, 2024. Available for streaming exclusively on Disney+, the premiere episode aired August 8, with subsequent episodes following weekly through September 19. The label released Jimin's second solo album, Muse, on July 19, while he was carrying out his mandatory military service. It was supported by the singles \"Smeraldo Garden Marching Band\" and \"Who\". \"Who\" became Jimin's first song to debut atop both of Billboard's global charts.\n\nArtistry\nJimin's vocals have been described as delicate and sweet. He is regarded as an exceptional dancer among the members of BTS and in K-pop in general, often praised for his \"smooth and elegant movements\" and charm on stage. In the documentary Burn the Stage released in 2018, Jimin addressed his perfectionism. In 2023, Jimin stated that as a pop artist, he \"aims to excel at both dancing and singing and perform a diverse range of musical genres and themes\" while \"taking a healthy and sustainable approach to do so\".\nHe has cited singer Rain as an inspiration and one of the reasons why he wanted to become a singer and performer.\n\nImpact and influence\nIn 2016, Jimin was ranked as the 14th most popular idol in an annual survey conducted by Gallup Korea. He subsequently ranked seventh in 2017, and then consecutively ranked first in 2018 and 2019, as the only idol to top the survey for two consecutive years. In 2018, Jimin was the ninth most-tweeted about celebrity and the eighth most-tweeted about musician globally. He was named the 17th best boy band member in history by The Guardian. From January to May 2018, Jimin won the monthly \"Top K-Pop Artist–Individual\" award for Peeper x Billboard, a collaboration between the Peeper social media app and Billboard Korea that collects fan votes for their favorite K-pop artists. The prize was a donation to UNICEF in his name.\nThe Cultural Conservation Society awarded Jimin a plaque of appreciation in 2019, for performing buchaechum, a traditional Korean fan dance, during the 2018 Melon Music Awards and helping spread the dance outside of Korea. In October 2021, he became the first idol to spend 34 consecutive months atop the brand reputation ranking for individual boy group idols and the only one to top the overall ranking for three consecutive years.\nJimin is often cited as a role model by various idols in the K-pop industry, many of whom try to emulate his style of dance, mannerisms, and stage presence; media outlets have called him the \"Idol of Idols\", \"Idol's Bible\", and \"Rookies' Bible\". Artists who have cited him as an influence include Arthur of Kingdom, Bic of MCND, Kim Si-hun of BDC, Woochul of Newkidd, Hyunjin of Stray Kids, Wooyoung of Ateez, Lim Se-jun of Victon, Huening Kai and Beomgyu of Tomorrow X Together, and Ni-ki and Jay of Enhypen. British internet personality Oli London underwent 15 cosmetic surgeries by 2020 to resemble Jimin.\nJimin has also been acknowledged beyond the K-pop industry. In 2019, Award-winning director and photographer Gus Van Sant named Jimin as the artist he wished to work with.\nIn 2021, Olympic figure skater Yuzuru Hanyu shared being a BTS fan and mentioned Jimin as a source of inspiration for his dance movements on the rink. In 2023, Ryan Gosling gifted Jimin the guitar his character Ken used in the movie Barbie. Gosling gave Jimin the custom guitar as homage for jimin's Permission to Dance outfit serving as inspiration for one of the outfits Gosling wore for his role as Ken.\nForbes Korea included Jimin on the Forbes Korea Power Celebrity 40 for 2024, at number seven, making him the highest ranking K-pop soloist and second-highest ranking soloist on the list.\n\nPhilanthropy\nJimin is a supporter of education and the arts. From 2016 to 2018, he covered uniform expenses of students at his alma mater, Busan Hodong Elementary School. After the school's closing was announced, he donated summer and winter middle school uniforms to the final graduates and gifted autographed albums to the entire student body. In early 2019, Jimin donated ₩100 million (US$85,810.58) to the Busan Department of Education to help support students from low income families. Of the total, ₩30 million (US$25,743.17) went to his alma mater, Busan Arts High School. In July 2020, he donated ₩100 million (US$84,726.68) to the Jeonnam Future Education Foundation to fund the creation of a scholarship fund for talented students from South Jeolla Province who were struggling financially.\nIn July 2021, Jimin donated ₩100 million (US$87,416.41) to Rotary International to help polio patients. As with previous donations, the benefaction was made privately but became public in September, when the Go-seong Rotary Club displayed a banner thanking him for the donation. He was announced as a member of the Green Noble Club, a group of major donors to the Green Umbrella Children's Foundation who have contributed ₩100 million or more, on October 12.\nIn September 2022, Jimin made a donation to the Gangwon Provincial Office of Education. In February 2023, he donated ₩100 million (US$87,416.41) through the Korean UNICEF Committee toward emergency relief for children affected by the Turkey–Syria earthquake. In March, he donated ₩100 million (US$87,416.41) to the North Chungcheong Provincial Office of Education to fund books and reading education programs for students. In August, Jimin participated in the \"Hometown Love Donation System\", a program allowing non-residents to donate to support welfare in the district of Nam-gu, Busan. He donated the maximum allowed donation amount of ₩5 million (US$4,370.82) and proceeded to re-donate his campaign's donor return gifts to people in need in the region. In February 2024, Jimin was inducted in the Nam-gu Hometown Love Donation System Donor Hall of Fame for his contribution to the district welfare programs. In May, he made a donation of ₩100 million (US$87,416.41) to the South Gyeongsang Provincial Office of Education to create a scholarship for underprivileged students.\n\nPersonal life\nJimin used to live in Hannam-dong, Seoul, South Korea, with his bandmates. In 2021, he purchased a property in the area worth ₩5.9 billion (US$5.16 million).\n\nHealth\nIn 2017, during BTS' Wings Tour, Jimin was unable to participate in the show in Macau due to neck and shoulder cramping. The following year, while in London for the Love Yourself World Tour, he withdrew from the band's scheduled performance on The Graham Norton Show because of \"severe muscle pain in his neck and back\", according to a statement released by Big Hit Entertainment.\nIn 2022, Jimin was hospitalized after having abdominal pain and a mild sore throat. He underwent appendicitis surgery on January 31, and received a positive COVID-19 diagnosis.\n\nMilitary service\nOn November 22, 2023, Big Hit announced through Weverse that Jimin, along with bandmates RM, V, and Jungkook, had started the enlistment process to carry out his mandatory military service. He enlisted as an active duty soldier on December 12 at the Army 5th Division Recruit Training Center in Yeoncheon. He completed his five weeks of basic training in January 2024, placing first as an outstanding trainee and received the Best trainee commendation award from the Division Commander, taking an oath as the representative of all trainees in his unit. He was then appointed to an Artillery Unit in the 5th Infantry Division.\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\nSingles\nAs lead artist\nAs featured artist\nOther charted songs\nOther songs\nWriting credits\nAll song credits are adapted from the Korea Music Copyright Association's database, unless otherwise noted.\n\nFilmography\nTelevision\nMusic videos\nJimin also appeared in the short film Lie released in September 2016 in promotion of BTS' fourth studio album Wings.\n\nAwards and nominations\nWorld records\nNotes\nReferences\n\n\n== External links ==",
"title": "Jimin"
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] | What BTS member turned 5 years old the soonest after BoA's first album was released? | [] | Jimin | [] | true |
90 | [
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"paragraph_text": "There are 30 stadiums in use by Major League Baseball (MLB) teams. The oldest ballpark is Fenway Park in Boston, home of the Boston Red Sox, which opened in 1912. The newest stadium is Globe Life Field in Arlington, Texas, home of the Texas Rangers, which opened in 2020. Two ballparks were built in the 1910s, two in the 1960s, one in the 1970s, one in the 1980s, seven in the 1990s, thirteen in the 2000s, three in the 2010s, and one in the 2020s. Twenty-five ballparks have natural grass surfaces, while five have artificial turf. Eight ballparks do not have corporate naming rights deals: Angel Stadium, Dodger Stadium, Fenway Park, Kauffman Stadium, Nationals Park, Oriole Park at Camden Yards, Wrigley Field, and Yankee Stadium.\n\nStadiums\nLegend:\n\n † Denotes stadium with a fixed roof\n ‡ Denotes stadium with a retractable roof\n\nFuture ballparks\nNotes\nSee also\nList of former Major League Baseball stadiums\nList of Major League Baseball spring training stadiums\nList of U.S. baseball stadiums by capacity\nList of U.S. stadiums by capacity\nList of baseball parks by capacity\nList of Nippon Professional Baseball stadiums\nList of current National Football League stadiums\nList of National Hockey League arenas\nList of Major League Soccer stadiums\nList of National Basketball Association arenas\nLists of stadiums\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nBallparks. Munsey & Suppes\nBallpark Digest. August Publications\nBallparks of Baseball—The Fields of Major League Baseball\nBaseballParks.com. Joe Mock. Grand Slam Enterprises, Inc.\nClem's Baseball—Our National Pastime—& Its \"Green Cathedrals\". Andrew G. Clem",
"title": "List_of_current_Major_League_Baseball_stadiums"
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"paragraph_text": "Rogers Centre (originally SkyDome) is a retractable roof stadium in downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada, situated at the base of the CN Tower near the northern shore of Lake Ontario. Opened in 1989 on the former Railway Lands, it is home to the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball (MLB). As well as being improved over the decades, in between the 2022/23 and 2023/24 MLB offseasons, the stadium was renovated by upgrading the sports facilities and hospitality whilst reducing the capacity for baseball games. While it is primarily a sports venue, the stadium also hosts other large events such as conventions, trade fairs, concerts, travelling carnivals, circuses and monster truck shows.\nPreviously, the stadium was also home to the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League (CFL) and the Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL) played an annual game at the stadium as part of the Bills Toronto Series from 2008 to 2013. The stadium served as the site of both the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2015 Pan American Games (renamed the Pan-Am Dome or Pan-Am Ceremonies Venue due to sponsorship regulations).\nThe stadium was renamed \"Rogers Centre\" following the 2005 purchase of the stadium by Rogers Communications, the corporation that also owns the Toronto Blue Jays. The venue is noted for being the first stadium to have a fully retractable motorized roof, as well as for the 348-room hotel attached to it with 70 rooms overlooking the field. It is the last North American major-league stadium built to accommodate both football and baseball.\n\nHistory\nBackground and design\nThe idea of building a domed stadium can be traced back to the bid that Toronto lost to Montreal as the Canadian candidate city for the 1976 Summer Olympics. In the proposal, an 80,000–100,000 seat complex would be part of the planned Harbour City development on the site of Maple Leaf Stadium.\nThe contemporary impetus for building an enclosed sports venue in Toronto came following the Grey Cup game in November 1982, held at the outdoor Exhibition Stadium. The game, in which the hometown Toronto Argonauts (also known as the Argos) were making their first Grey Cup appearance since 1971, was played in a driving rainstorm that left most of the crowd drenched, leading the media to call it \"the Rain Bowl\". As many of the seats were completely exposed to the elements, thousands watched the game from the concession section. To make a bad experience even worse, the washrooms overflowed. In attendance that day was Bill Davis, the Premier of Ontario, and the poor conditions were seen by the largest television audience in Canada (over 7.862 million viewers) to that point. The following day, at a rally for the Argos at Toronto City Hall, tens of thousands of people who attended the game began to chant, \"We want a dome! We want a dome!\"\nSeven months later, in June 1983, Davis formally announced a three-person committee would look into the feasibility of building a domed stadium at Exhibition Place. The committee consisted of Paul Godfrey, Larry Grossman and former Ontario Hydro chairman Hugh Macaulay.\nThe committee examined various projects, including a large indoor stadium at Exhibition Place with an air-supported dome, similar to BC Place in Vancouver. In 1985, an international design competition was launched to design a new stadium, along with selection of a site. Some of the proposed sites included Exhibition Place, Downsview Airport, and York University. The final site was at the base of the CN Tower not far from Union Station, a major railway and transit hub. The Railway Lands were a major Canadian National Railway rail switching yard encompassing the CNR Spadina Roundhouse (the desolate downtown lands were part of a master plan for revitalizing the area, which includes CityPlace). Ultimately, the Robbie/Allen concept won because it provided the largest roof opening of all the finalists, and it was the most technically sound.\nThe stadium was designed by architect Rod Robbie and structural engineer Michael Allen and was constructed by the EllisDon Construction company of London, Ontario and the Dominion Bridge Company of Lachine, Quebec. The stadium's construction lasted about 2+1⁄2 years, from October 1986 to May 1989. The approximate cost of construction was C$570 million ($1.2 billion in 2023 dollars) which was paid for by the federal government, Ontario provincial government, the City of Toronto, and a large consortium of corporations.\n\nFinancing\nThe stadium was funded by a public–private partnership, with the government paying the largest percentage of the cost. The initial cost of $150 million was greatly underestimated, as the final cost was C$570 million ($1.2 billion in 2023 dollars). Two levels of government (Metro Toronto and provincial) each initially contributed $30 million ($63 million in 2023 dollars). This does not include the value of the land that the stadium sits on, which was owned by the Canada Lands Company (a Crown corporation of Canada) and the City of Toronto and was leased for $900,000 a year through 2088. Canada's three main breweries (Labatt's, Molson, and Carling O'Keefe) and the Toronto Blue Jays each paid $5 million ($10.5 million in 2023 dollars) to help fund the stadium. An additional 26 other Canadian corporations (selected by invitation only) also contributed $5 million, for which they received one of the 161 Skyboxes with four parking spaces (for ten years, with an opportunity for renewal) and a 99-year exclusive option on stadium advertising. The initial cost of leasing a Skybox ranged from $150,000 to $225,000 ($315,040 to $472,560 in 2023 dollars) a year in 1989 – plus the cost of tickets for all events.\nThe then unusual financing structure created controversy. First of all, there was no public tender for supplies and equipment. Secondly, companies that paid the $5 million fee, such as Coca-Cola, TSN and CIBC, received 100 percent stadium exclusivity, including advertising rights, for the life of their contract that could be extended up to 99 years. Third, the contracts were not put up for bid, meaning there was some doubt the contracts were made at a market rate: Pepsi stated at the time that had it known the terms of the contract it would have paid far more than $5 million for the rights. Local media like NOW Magazine called the amount charged to the companies \"scandalously low\".\n\nConstruction\nConstruction of the Ontario Stadium Project was spearheaded by lead contractor EllisDon. Several factors complicated the construction: The lands housed a functioning water pumping station that needed to be relocated, the soil was contaminated from a century of industrial use, railway buildings needed to be torn down or moved, and the site was rich with archaeological finds. One of the most complex issues was moving the John Street pumping station across the street to the south of the stadium. Foundations to the stadium were being poured even as the facility (in the infield area) continued to function, as construction on its new location had yet to be completed.\nBecause the stadium was the first of its kind in the world, the architects and engineers kept the design simple (by using a sturdy dome shape) and used proven technologies to move the roof. It was important the design would work and be reliable as to avoid the various problems that plagued Montreal's Olympic Stadium. The 31-storey-high roof consists of four panels: one (on the north end) is fixed in place and the other three are moved by electrically driven 'train' engines, that run on high-strength railway rails. The roof, which takes 20 minutes to open, was made out of steel trusses covered by corrugated steel cladding, which in turn is covered by a single-ply PVC membrane.\nBecause of its location south of the major railway corridor, new pedestrian connections had to be built; the infrastructure was part of the reason for the high cost of the stadium. The SkyWalk is an approximately 500-metre (1,600 ft) enclosed walkway that leads from the base of the CN Tower and via a bridge connects to Union Station (and is part of the Path network). The John Street cable-stayed bridge was built to provide north–south passage over the rail tracks, linking Front Street with the stadium.\nConstruction at the site, which at one time was south of the shoreline, unearthed over 1,500 artifacts. These included a 200-year-old French cannon used as ballast for a ship, cannonballs, pottery and a telescope. The stadium was completed two months late, having been planned to open for the first regular season game of the 1989 Toronto Blue Jays season; the team played the first two months of its home schedule at Exhibition Stadium that year.\n\nNaming\nThe official name prior to and during construction was the 'Ontario Stadium Project' but was widely referred to in local media as simply 'the Dome' or 'Toronto Domed stadium'. As completion neared the name \"SkyDome\" was chosen as part of a province-wide \"name the stadium\" contest in 1987. Sponsored by the Toronto Sun, ballots were offered for people to submit their suggested name, with lifetime seats behind home plate to all events at the stadium (including concerts) as the prize. Over 150,000 entries were received with 12,897 different names. The selection committee narrowed it down to four choices: \"Towerdome\", \"Harbourdome\", \"SkyDome\", and simply \"the Dome\". The judges' final selection was SkyDome. Premier David Peterson drew the prize-winning entry of Kellie Watson from a lottery barrel containing the over-2,000 entries that proposed \"SkyDome\". At the press conference announcing the name, Chuck Magwood, president of the Stadium Corporation of Ontario (Stadco), the crown corporation created to run SkyDome, commented: \"The sky is a huge part of the whole roof process. The name has a sense of the infinite and that's what this is all about.\" Kellie Watson received lifetime seating of choice at SkyDome, which is still honoured after the stadium was renamed to Rogers Centre, under new ownership.\n\nOpening\nThe stadium officially opened on June 3, 1989, and hosted an official grand opening show: \"The Opening of SkyDome: A Celebration\", broadcast on CBC Television the following evening hosted by Brian Williams. With a crowd of over 50,000 in attendance, the event included appearances by Alan Thicke, Oscar Peterson, Andrea Martin of SCTV, impressionist André-Philippe Gagnon and rock band Glass Tiger. The roof was ceremonially \"opened\" by Ontario Premier David Peterson (no relation to Oscar) with a laser pen. The roof's opening exposed the crowd to a downpour of rain. Despite audible chants of \"close the roof\", Magwood insisted the roof remain fully open.\n\nFinancial problems and fallout\nThe stadium became a thorn in the side of David Peterson's Ontario Liberal government for repeated cost overruns. After the Liberals were defeated by the NDP in the 1990 Ontario election, a review by the new Bob Rae government in October 1990 revealed Stadco's debt meant the Dome would have to be booked 600 days a year to turn a profit, almost twice as many days as there are days in a calendar year. The stadium income was only $17 million in its first year of operations, while debt service was $40 million. It was determined the abrupt late inclusion by Stadco of a hotel and health club added an additional $112 million to the cost of the building.\nAs the province slipped into a recession, Rae appointed University of Toronto professor Bruce Kidd and Canadian Auto Workers President Bob White to the Stadco board to help deal with the stadium's growing debt, but the original $165 million debt had increased to $400 million by 1993. Stadco became a political liability, and in March 1994, the Ontario government paid off all outstanding Stadco debts from the government treasury and sold the stadium for $151 million to a private consortium that included Labatt Breweries, the Blue Jays' owner.\nIn November 1998, the stadium, which Labatt then owned as 49 percent of total, filed for bankruptcy protection, triggered after disastrous Skybox renewal numbers. Most of the 161 Skybox tenants had signed on for 10-year leases; a marked decrease in interest in the stadium's teams and the construction of the Air Canada Centre, which hosted the Toronto Maple Leafs and Toronto Raptors, resulted in few renewals for Skybox leases. That same month, the Blue Jays re-signed for an additional ten years in the facility.\nIn April 1999, Sportsco International LP bought the stadium out of bankruptcy protection for $80 million.\n\nPurchase and renaming\nIn November 2004, Rogers Communications, parent company of the Blue Jays, acquired SkyDome, excluding the attached SkyDome hotel, which had been sold to Renaissance for a reported $31 million in 1999, from Sportsco for about $25 million – roughly four percent of the cost of construction.\nOn February 2, 2005, Ted Rogers, President and CEO of Rogers Communications, announced a three-year corporate contract to change the name of SkyDome to Rogers Centre. The name change remains controversial and is unpopular with many fans, most of whom continue to refer to it as SkyDome in opposition to increased commercialism from the purchase of naming rights. One example is a 25,000-name petition started by TTC bus driver Randy Rajmoolie. A baseball diamond in Toronto's Trinity Bellwoods Park is officially named SkyDome after the stadium's former and popular name.\n\nAfter the purchase, Rogers refurbished the stadium by, among other things, replacing the Jumbotron with a Daktronics video display, and erecting other new monitors, including several built into the outfield wall. They also installed a new FieldTurf artificial playing surface.\nIn May 2005, the Toronto Argonauts agreed to three five-year leases at Rogers Centre, which could have seen the Argonauts play out of Rogers Centre up to and including 2019. The team had the option to leave at the end of each of the three lease agreements. Proposed plans to lock Rogers Centre into its baseball configuration permanently in order to install a natural grass surface forced the Argonauts to relocate to BMO Field before the 2016 season.\nIn November 2005, Rogers Centre received a complete makeover to \"open\" the 100 Level concourse to the playing field and convert 43 luxury boxes to \"party suites\". This required some seats to be removed, which decreased overall capacity.\nIn April 2006, Rogers Centre became one of the first buildings of its size to adopt a completely smoke-free policy in Canada, anticipating an act of provincial legislature that required all Ontario public places to go smoke-free by June 1, 2006.\nAlcohol was not available to patrons of Rogers Centre on April 7, 2009, as the Alcohol and Gaming Commission of Ontario imposed the first of a three-day alcohol suspension at the stadium for \"infractions (that) took place at certain past events\", according to the press release.\n\nImprovements\nSignificant improvements to the facility since opening in 1989 include:\n\nExterior roof lighting that can be programmed for themes and events.\nThe Blue Jays clubhouse was substantially renovated, including a larger training room, an open concept lounge and personal lockers. In total, the clubhouse expanded from 12,000 to 24,000 square feet (1,100 to 2,200 m2).\nMain level concourse expansion, making the space brighter, more fan-friendly with expanded wheelchair seating.\nThe FieldTurf was upgraded to AstroTurf Gameday Grass for 2010.\nThe main video board was upgraded in 2005, from a JumboTron to a modern Daktronics video board, measuring 33 by 110 feet (10 by 34 m).\n\nJays Shop – Stadium Edition, was expanded to an 8,000-square-foot (740 m2) retail space along the main concourse (2007).\nTwo video boards were built into the outfield fence that each measure 10 by 65 feet (3 by 20 m). These boards provide player stats, out-of-town scores and other information related to the game and league.\nA continuous, ribbon-style video board was installed on the facing of the 300 Level, providing statistics and scores.\nInstallation of 150 new 42-inch (1.07 m) flat-screen video monitors in the main- and second-level concourses, bringing the number of stadium monitors to around 300.\nUpgrade of the entire field lighting system in a two-month conversion process with all 840 of the 2,000-watt bowl lights replaced.\nA centre-field porch (later named the WestJet Flight Deck) in the 200 Level was added following the removal of the windows of the former Windows Restaurant (2013, $2 million).\nThe AstroTurf Gameday Grass was upgraded to AstroTurf Gameday Grass 3D Extreme for the 2015 season.\nA full dirt infield was installed for 2016; for the previous six seasons, Rogers Centre was the only MLB ballpark with sliding pits.\nA two-year, $10 million roof upgrade, completed for the 2017 season, updated the aging OT network and control system to speed up the opening and closing process, reduce monitoring staff requirements, and added a rooftop weather station to better predict incoming weather systems.\nA new AstroTurf field was installed prior to the 2021 season. The new turf is attached to the floor, so the stands will no longer be able to be rolled and will be permanently locked into baseball configuration.\nFurther lighting and video board upgrades were made for the 2022 season.\n\n2020s renovations\nThe stadium underwent a major $400 million upgrade to its interior over two phases during the 2022–2023 and 2023–2024 offseasons, with the idea of extending the ballpark's shelf life by another 10–15 years. Following the renovation, capacity of the stadium was reduced to 39,150.\n\n2022–2023\nThe first phase of the renovations was designed by Populous and involved re-orienting outfield seats to face home plate, raising bullpens, adjusting the outfield dimensions to be asymmetrical, adding social spaces with bars in the outfield sections of the 500 Level (the highest level), and removing some seats to widen all remaining seats, thereby reducing capacity to 41,500 attendees. The 2023 Blue Jays home opener was moved a few days later to accommodate the first phase of the renovation.\n\n2023–2024\nThe second phase involved re-orienting the infield seats to face home plate, the addition of cupholders to the seats in the 100 Level, as well as reducing the size of foul territory, improving the dugouts for the Blue Jays and their opponents, and the addition of LED backstop advertising to cover the entire backstop, which is much more visible during television broadcasts. The 2024 Blue Jays home opener was also moved a few days later to accommodate the second phase of the renovation.\n\nProposed replacement\nRogers Communications and Brookfield Asset Management have reportedly discussed replacing Rogers Centre with a smaller, baseball-specific stadium plus residential towers, office buildings, retail stores and public space. The new venue would be constructed on the southern end of the current stadium and adjacent parking lots, while the mixed-use development would be built on the northern portion of the site. An alternate site has also been considered for a new baseball park, at Quayside in Toronto's east end next to Lake Ontario. In July 2022, the Blue Jays announced that they had opted to undertake a major two-phased renovation of the stadium during the 2022–23 and 2023–24 offseasons to extend its lifespan, but still intended to pursue a new stadium or rebuild of the Rogers Centre within 10 to 12 years.\n\nStadium features\nThe venue was the first major team sports stadium in North America with a functional, fully retractable roof (Montreal's Olympic Stadium also had a retractable roof, but due to operational issues, it was replaced with a permanent fixed roof). The roof is composed of four panels and covers an area of 345,000 square feet (32,100 m2). The two middle panels slide laterally to stack over the north semi-circular panel, and then the south semi-circular panel rotates around the stadium and nests inside the stack. It takes 20 minutes for the roof to open or close. It is not possible to move the roof in cold weather because the mechanism that closes the roof could fail in cooler weather.\n\nThe original AstroTurf installation was replaced with FieldTurf from 2005 to 2010. The FieldTurf took about 40 hours to remove for events such as concerts or trade shows, as it used 1,400 trays that needed to be stacked and transported off the field. Prior to the 2010 baseball season, to reduce the amount of time required to convert the playing field, a new, roll-based version of AstroTurf was installed. Similar to FieldTurf, the installation uses a sand- and rubber-based infill within the synthetic fibres. Rogers Centre is one of five venues in Major League Baseball that use artificial turf (the others are Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida, LoanDepot Park in Miami, Globe Life Field in Arlington, Texas, and Chase Field in Phoenix, Arizona) and was the last venue to use \"sliding pits\" before switching to a full dirt infield for the 2016 baseball season. Before the Argonauts moved out, the pitcher's mound could be lowered or raised hydraulically when converting from baseball to football (or vice versa).\nThe use of natural grass was long thought to be unfeasible since the stadium was designed as a closed structure with a roof that opens, and as such, the interior was not intended or built to deal with weather, including low temperatures and drainage. As of the 2020 season, they are one of two teams to have never played a home game on grass at their main stadium (the Tampa Bay Rays played some home games in 2007 and 2008 at Champion Stadium in Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, and during the 2020 and much of the 2021 seasons, due to travel restrictions amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the Toronto Blue Jays were playing most of their home games at their AAA affiliate's home stadium of Sahlen Field in Buffalo, New York with the Blue Jays also playing home games in TD Ballpark in Dunedin, Florida, during the first two months of the 2021 season). Along with Tropicana Field, the Rogers Centre warning track consists of brown turf, which does not provide any tactile differences from the rest of the field.\nHowever, the Blue Jays have long explored the possibility of converting the Rogers Centre to a natural grass surface, and plans were examined in order to install a grass field by 2018 to allow enough time for research and growing of the sod. Installing grass would require digging up the floor, adding a drainage system, and installing 30 cm (1 ft) of dirt. The stadium would need to be permanently locked into its baseball configuration; the lower stands, which roll into position for football, would be permanently fixed in position for baseball. The plan became more definite when Rogers renewed the Argonauts' lease through 2017, but ruled out any further extensions; in May 2015, it was announced the Argonauts would move to BMO Field for the 2016 season. The Blue Jays subsequently confirmed the Argonauts' early departure would not accelerate their own plans to install grass in 2018, though it did allow for a dirt infield to be installed for the 2016 season. However, it does not appear likely the field will be converted to natural grass, as no further announcements for replacing the surface have been made since, and the field continues to retain its artificial surface.\nThere are a total of 5,700 club seats and 161 luxury suites at the Rogers Centre. The complex had a Hard Rock Café restaurant until December 2009 when the restaurant closed after its lease expired. The Toronto Marriott City Centre Hotel is also within Rogers Centre with 70 rooms, and a restaurant and bar called the Sportsnet Grill overlooks the field. The Blue Jays in partnership with theScore Bet announced plans in April 2022 to create a new premium branded flagship sports bar and restaurant that would be open 365 days a year at the Rogers Centre and provide sports betting lines, including for daily fantasy sports.\nOver $5 million of artwork was commissioned in 1989 ($10.5 million in 2023 dollars):\n\nThe Audience – by Michael Snow is a collection of larger-than-life depictions of fans above the northeast and northwest entrances. Painted gold, the sculptures show fans in various acts of celebration.\nA Tribute to Baseball – by Lutz Haufschild, above the Southeast and Southwest entrances of Gate 5.\nThe Art of the Possible – by Mimi Gellman, inside along the north side of the concourse on the 100 Level. The glass and steel sculpture incorporates the signatures of 2,000 builders of SkyDome, and is a tribute to their work. Some of the artifacts found during excavation, such as musket balls and pottery, have also been included. The brightly illuminated sculpture became an issue to baseball players when the stadium first opened. The bright lights were considered a distraction to batters.\nSalmon Run – by Susan Schelle, outside by the Southeast entrance in Bobbie Rosenfeld Park; it is a large fountain with various stainless steel salmon cutouts.\nSpiral Fountain – by Judith Schwarz.\nThe stadium's parking lot is located under the stadium itself. The underground parking lot is divided into four sections (Sun, Moon, Star, and Cloud) and the ramps within the stadium correspond to these sections, while the fifth section, the Hotel Zone, is reserved for hotel uses by the Toronto Marriott City Centre Hotel directly above this section.\n\nSeating capacity\nRogers Centre video board\nThe Rogers Centre video board is 33 feet (10 m) high and 110 feet (34 m) across. The panel is made up of modular LED units that can be replaced unit by unit, and can be repaired immediately should it be damaged during an event. Originally, this screen was a Sony Jumbotron, which was the largest in North America at the time of the stadium's opening, but it has since been replaced a few times. There are also two ribbon boards made up of LED that run along the East and West sides of the stadium interior. Each board is 434 feet (132 m) long by 3.5 feet (1.1 m) high. In addition, two video boards make up parts of the left and right outfield walls while the stadium is in baseball configuration. These are 65 feet (20 m) wide by nearly 10 feet (3.0 m) high.\nThe main video board was upgraded again for the 2022 Blue Jays season, this time by using more modern technology and adding four \"wings\", two on each side of the central part of the main video board with the lower wings on each side being wider, making the main video board no longer rectangular. This was to accommodate the windows of the hotel behind the main video board.\nThe video board and the stadium played host to several serial television events, including the series finales for Cheers and Star Trek: The Next Generation, along with live coverage of the funeral of Princess Diana in 1997.\n\nStadium usage\nBaseball\nThe Blue Jays have won two World Series championships at Rogers Centre, hosting Games 3, 4, and 5 of the 1992 World Series and Games 1, 2, and 6 of the 1993 World Series at the stadium, then known as SkyDome, with Game 3 of the 1992 series the first World Series game ever played in Canada. The stadium also hosted the 1991 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. The 1991 American League Championship Series was the first Major League Baseball playoff series played entirely indoors with the first two games at the Metrodome in Minneapolis and the final three at SkyDome.\nGames in the first round of the 2009 World Baseball Classic were played at the Rogers Centre.\n\nBasketball\nBesides baseball, Rogers Centre was the original home of the National Basketball Association's Toronto Raptors, who played at the venue from November 1995 to February 1999, while the Air Canada Centre (later renamed Scotiabank Arena) was being planned and built. It proved to be somewhat problematic as a basketball venue, even considering it was only a temporary facility. For instance, many seats theoretically in line with the court were so far away that fans needed binoculars to see the action. Other seats were so badly obstructed that fans sitting there could only watch the game on the replay boards. For most games, Rogers Centre seated 22,900 people. However, the Raptors sometimes opened the 500 Level, which is the stadium's uppermost level, when popular opponents came to town, such as the Chicago Bulls when Michael Jordan was a member of the team, expanding capacity to 29,000 and held over 36,000 attendees at one point.\n\nFootball\nRogers Centre hosted Canadian football from opening in 1989 to 2015, as the Argonauts moved to BMO Field in 2016. In November 2007, it hosted the 95th Grey Cup, its first since 1992 and third all-time. It was the 56th Grey Cup hosted by the city of Toronto since the championship's inception in 1909.\nFrom 1989 to 2003, SkyDome hosted the Vanier Cup championship of Canadian Interuniversity Sport (later renamed U Sports in 2016) football.\nIn 1994, then-part owner of SkyDome Labatt considered purchasing a National Football League and a Major League Soccer team to play at the stadium.\nThe International Bowl, an NCAA college football game between two American schools – one from the Big East Conference and one from the Mid-American Conference – has been played at Rogers Centre four times. The Big East school has won all four bowl games. On January 6, 2007, the University of Cincinnati Bearcats defeated the Western Michigan University Broncos, 27–24. The Scarlet Knights of Rutgers University won the second bowl game in the series on January 5, 2008, by beating the Cardinals of Ball State University, 52–30. The Bulls of the University at Buffalo, a school within a ninety-minute drive of Rogers Centre, lost the third International Bowl to the University of Connecticut Huskies, 38–20. On January 2, 2010, the University of South Florida Bulls beat the Huskies of Northern Illinois University, 27–3.\nRogers Centre was also the venue for the 43rd Vanier Cup on Friday, November 23, 2007, just two days before Grey Cup Sunday. It was the 16th Vanier Cup hosted at the venue, returning after a three-year absence in which it was hosted by Hamilton, Ontario (2004 and 2005) and Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (2006). It was the 40th Vanier Cup hosted by Toronto since that championship's inception in 1965.\n\nThe National Football League's Buffalo Bills announced its intentions to play five \"home\" games (and three pre-season games) in Rogers Centre in October 2007, so beginning the Bills Toronto Series; the first of these regular-season games took place on December 7 of the 2008 season versus the Miami Dolphins. It marked the first time an NFL team has established a \"home\" stadium outside the United States for regular-season games. The Bills played a preseason game against the Pittsburgh Steelers at Rogers Centre on August 14, 2008; the Toronto Series was played every year through the 2013 season.\n\nSoccer\nFrom the mid-2000s, soccer matches have been regularly held in SkyDome / Rogers Centre; they had been rarely played at the venue when its AstroTurf surface had been in place.\nOn June 8, 2005, an international soccer friendly between Serbia and Montenegro and Italy took place, ending in a 1–1 draw.\nOn May 25, 2010, the stadium hosted a friendly soccer match between Italy's ACF Fiorentina and Juventus FC with Fiorentina winning 1–0.\nOn July 16, 2010, the stadium hosted a friendly soccer match between England's Manchester United F.C. and Scotland's Celtic F.C. Manchester United F.C. defeated Celtic F.C. with a score of 3–1. The match was played on a temporary grass surface harvested from Burford, Ontario and transported via 18 tractor-trailers.\nOn July 21, 2012, the stadium hosted the friendly between Toronto FC and Liverpool F.C., a match that finished in a 1–1 draw.\nOn November 19, 2013, Rogers Centre hosted a friendly soccer match between Brazil and Chile, a match that finished in a 2–1 victory for the Brazilian side.\n\nMotorsports\nHaving originated in 1980 at Exhibition Stadium, the Toronto Supercross moved to the Rogers Centre upon its opening in 1989. The event was held annually through 1996 before going on hiatus. It was revived as a part of the FIM World Supercross GP series in 2004 and joined the AMA Supercross Championship after the two series fully merged in 2008. The event ran until 2014 and returned for 2016 and 2017.\nOn January 16, 1993, the stadium hosted the Skydome Grand Prix featuring the USAC National Midget Car Series. The night of racing featured NASCAR stars John Andretti, Kenny Irwin Jr., Tony Stewart and Indianapolis 500 winner Tom Sneva racing on an 1/6 mile oval track and was broadcast across Canada on TSN.\nOn January 16, 1993, the stadium hosted the Skydome Grand Prix featuring the USAC National Midget Car Series. The night of racing featured NASCAR stars John Andretti, Kenny Irwin Jr., Tony Stewart and Indianapolis 500 winner Tom Sneva racing on a 1/6 mile oval track and was broadcast across Canada on TSN.\n\nOther sports\nRogers Centre has also hosted exhibition cricket, gaelic football, hurling, Australian rules football and tennis.\nIt hosted the 1993 IAAF World Indoor Track and Field Championships.\nOn May 31, 1997, the venue hosted a post-Olympic track and field event that pitted Olympic track champions Donovan Bailey and Michael Johnson, in a 150 m race billed as a competition for the title of the \"World's Fastest Man\". Bailey won the race, completing it in a time of 15 seconds and winning the $1.5 million prize. Johnson pulled up lame at the 110 m mark claiming a quadriceps injury.\nRogers Centre is the site of several major high school and collegiate sporting competitions, such as the Prentice Cup for baseball. Since 2008, the Rogers Centre is the host of the Greater Toronto high schools' Metro Bowl.\nOn April 30, 2011, UFC 129 was hosted at Rogers Centre, in the first major mixed martial arts event to ever be held in Ontario after the province lifted a ban on prizefighting. Due to overwhelming demand for tickets (with the initial slate of 42,000 selling in around half an hour), the UFC and Rogers Centre reconfigured the event for 55,000 tickets. The event broke a UFC attendance record set at UFC 124 in Montreal, and also set records for the largest single-day gate revenue in both UFC (surpassing UFC 66 by at least double) and Rogers Centre history.\nFor the 2015 Pan American Games, the Rogers Centre was used for the opening and closing ceremonies.\n\nProfessional wrestling\nWWE has hosted WrestleMania at Rogers Centre twice. WrestleMania VI was held on April 1, 1990, with the main event being a title vs title match which saw the WWF Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior defeat the WWF World Heavyweight Champion Hulk Hogan, set the SkyDome attendance record of 67,678. The attendance record was broken when 68,237 attended WrestleMania X8 on March 17, 2002, the main event seeing Triple H win the Undisputed WWF Championship from Canadian Chris Jericho.\nIn February 1999, the stadium hosted a taping for the February 13, 1999, episode of Raw (a special Saturday-night airing of Raw due to USA Network's coverage of the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show), featuring Stone Cold Steve Austin being defeated by Mr. McMahon in a gauntlet match against The Corporation. It had the largest crowd in Raw history, with a reported attendance of 41,432.\n\nConcerts\nThe stadium has several concert configurations, including smaller Theatre (capacity 5,000 to 7,000) and Concert Hall (formerly SkyTent; capacity 10,000 to 25,000). Due to the stadium's design and building materials, the acoustics are poor, and the loudness/quality can vary greatly around the stadium. Its popularity with artists and fans has diminished over the years, and the Scotiabank Arena now hosts most major concerts. The SkyTent, a group of acoustical curtain sails hoisted on rigging above the floor, helps reduce sound distortion and improve sound quality by dampening reverberations around the stadium.\n\nSoon after its opening, the stadium became a popular venue for large-scale rock concerts and is the largest indoor concert venue in Toronto. Artists have included Bruce Springsteen, U2 with two concerts in 2009, as well as their concert in 2011, all part of their 360° Tour. Bon Jovi performed two sellout shows on July 20 and 21, 2010, at Rogers Centre as part of The Circle Tour. Bruce Springsteen performed on August 24, 2012, during his Wrecking Ball World Tour in front of 39,000 attendees.\nThe Rolling Stones played two sold-out concerts at the stadium: on December 4, 1989, during the Steel Wheels Tour and on September 26, 2005, during their highest-grossing tour A Bigger Bang Tour. Rogers Centre has been a venue for large electronic dance music events. During 2013, the stadium hosted two electronic dance music events, including two sold-out shows on Swedish House Mafia's One Last Tour, and Sensation.\nOne of the more notable concerts, as shown in the documentary Truth or Dare, was Madonna's 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour show. The touring show had become extremely controversial, due to the risqué visuals and performances. When the concert arrived in Toronto, police were alerted the show might violate local obscenity laws. The police were on site for the concert and threatened charges without changes. The show went on as planned, however, without any legal action taken. Later, she performed two concerts at the stadium again during The Girlie Show World Tour in 1993.\nGuns N' Roses performed at Rogers Centre on July 16, 2016, during their Not in This Lifetime... Tour in front of 48,016 attendees with Billy Talent. Metallica also played a sold-out show at the stadium as part of their WorldWired Tour on July 16, 2017, with special guests Avenged Sevenfold and Volbeat. Shawn Mendes headlined his first stadium show to a sold-out crowd on September 6, 2019, at Rogers Centre during his Shawn Mendes: The Tour.\nTaylor Swift will perform at Rogers Centre from November 14 to 23, 2024 as part of The Eras Tour, making her the first artist to schedule six shows on a single tour.\n\nOther uses\nRogers Centre contains 143,000 sq ft (13,300 m2) of exhibition space, allowing it to host a variety of events year-round.\nDisney on Ice and circuses have used the venue.\nIt is home to several annual auto shows, with the Canadian International AutoShow in February and Importfest in October.\nThe Opening Ceremonies of the XVI International AIDS Conference were held at Rogers Centre on August 13, 2006.\nIt has also hosted many public speakers, including appearances by the Dalai Lama, Christian evangelist Billy Graham, Nelson Mandela, and for a book reading with J. K. Rowling and Margaret Atwood.\nIn addition to being a venue that hosts sports, concerts and other events, the Rogers Centre also houses the head offices of a number of businesses. The Toronto Blue Jays have its office headquarters in the building and until 2008, the Toronto Argonauts did as well. It is also the home of the head offices of Ticketmaster Canada and Zuffa Canada, the former also having the main Ticketmaster outlet (ticket centre) for eastern Canada, at the south end of the building beside Gate 9.\nIn addition, the building contains the Toronto Renaissance Hotel, a Premier Fitness/Health Club, (formerly) a Hard Rock Cafe (now John Street Terrace), and (formerly) Windows Restaurant (now WestJet Flight Deck). From 2006 until its closure in 2009, the Hard Rock Cafe only opened when there was a performance in the building. On non-event days, there are daily tours of the Rogers Centre.\n\nAttendance records\nWorld Wrestling Federation's WrestleMania X8 attracted the largest paid crowd to SkyDome. The March 17, 2002, event gathered 68,237 fans. WrestleMania VI held the previous record of 67,678 on April 1, 1990.\nMajor League Baseball: The 1991 All-Star Game on July 9 attracted 52,383 spectators.\nBilly Graham Mission Ontario Youth Rally: This meeting, on June 10, 1995, is conceivably the most attended event in the stadium's history. The attendance of 72,500 was boosted by performances by several Christian music groups, and by extensive seating on the field. There were as many as 30,000 people outside, watching the event on screens around the stadium.\nToronto Blue Jays: A crowd of 52,268 attended game five of the 1992 World Series, which Toronto lost 7–2 to the Atlanta Braves. The smallest crowd for a Jays game occurred in April 2010, when 10,314 watched Toronto win 8–1 against the Kansas City Royals.\nCanadian Football League: 54,088 packed the SkyDome to watch the 1989 Grey Cup Game between the Saskatchewan Roughriders and the Hamilton Tiger-Cats.\nToronto Argonauts: The 1991 Eastern Division Final played against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers drew a crowd of 50,386. The smallest crowd for an Argonauts game occurred on July 13, 2001, when 11,041 people watched Toronto lose 30–16 against Winnipeg\nNational Football League: 55,799 fans filled the Rogers Centre to see the Buffalo Bills defeat the Dallas Cowboys 9–7 in an American Bowl exhibition game on August 12, 1995.\nToronto Raptors: A March 24, 1996, game against the Chicago Bulls drew a crowd of 36,131. For this game, the basketball venue was reconfigured to accommodate more fans due to the popularity of the visiting team, which basketball superstar Michael Jordan played for during this time. The expansion Raptors handed the record-setting Bulls one of their ten defeats that season, winning 109–108.\nSoccer: A July 31, 2004, soccer game between Celtic F.C. and AS Roma drew 50,158.\nMixed martial arts: UFC 129 sold 55,000 tickets for the highest single-day event gate in the stadium's history and set new world records for the sport.\n\nTimeline\n1986 – October 3 – SkyDome's ground is broken.\n1987 – June 3 – The stadium is officially named \"SkyDome\".\n1989 – June 2 – Dress rehearsal for opening ceremony, family/friends of volunteer performers invited to attend. First unofficial \"wave\" performed at SkyDome.\n1989 – June 3 – SkyDome officially opens, hosting a live opening night gala.\n1989 – June 5 – SkyDome plays host to its first Blue Jays game. The Blue Jays lose 5–3 to the Milwaukee Brewers.\n1989 – June 5 – Fred McGriff hits the first home run at SkyDome.\n1989 – June 7 – John Cerutti records the first Blue Jays win at SkyDome, beating the Brewers 4–2.\n1989 – June 8 – Rod Stewart performs the first concert at SkyDome.\n1989 – July 12 – The stadium plays host to its first Argonauts game, a 24–15 loss to the Hamilton Tiger-Cats.\n1989 – July 17 – First Doubleheader at Skydome and the Jays win both games beating the Angels.\n1989 – Athletics' Jose Canseco hits a home run into the fifth deck of SkyDome, off Toronto Blue Jays' pitcher Mike Flanagan. It is an estimated 480-foot (150 m) shot, although one journalist estimated it to be at least 500 feet.\n1989 – November 5 – Rest of the World defeats West Indies by 11 runs in longest game (cricket) hosted by SkyDome\n1989 – November 26 – The Saskatchewan Roughriders defeat the Hamilton Tiger-Cats 43–40 in the 77th Grey Cup.\n1990 – April 1 – WrestleMania VI saw the then SkyDome attendance record of 67,678.\n1990 – The MLB single season attendance record is broken with 58 sellouts and a season total crowd of 3,885,284.\n1991 – July 9 – The stadium is the host of the MLB All-Star Game.\n1992 – The Calgary Stampeders defeat the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 24–10 in the 80th Grey Cup.\n1992 – The first World Series game outside the United States is played at SkyDome, as the Blue Jays host the Atlanta Braves in game three of the 1992 World Series.\n\n1993 – October 23 – The Blue Jays win their second straight World Series championship when Toronto outfielder Joe Carter hits a walk-off home run against Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams.\n1995 – June 22 – During a game against the Milwaukee Brewers, two acoustic panels fall off the inner ceiling in the seventh inning, injuring seven fans. The game is not stopped.\n1995 – July 9 – A worker dies when installing lights for a computer show (falling 7.6 metres (25 ft))\n1998 – November – Several dignitaries, including Prime Minister of Canada Jean Chrétien, honour the visiting South African president Nelson Mandela.\n1998 – November – SkyDome files for bankruptcy protection.\n1998 – SkyDome is purchased out of bankruptcy by Sportsco.\n2001 – April 12 – A scheduled Blue Jays' game against the Kansas City Royals is cancelled due to the retractable roof jamming during a test run, damaging the roof and sending debris crashing to the field below.\n2001 – August 3 – The retractable roof is ordered closed in the third inning of a Toronto Blue Jays' game against the Baltimore Orioles at the request of home plate umpire Tim Welke, as a swarm of thousands of aphids descends on SkyDome.\n2001 – Oct 5 – The second doubleheader at SkyDome and the Jays win both games again beating the Cleveland Indians.\n2002 – March 17 – WrestleMania X8 sets the SkyDome attendance record of 68,237.\n2005 – February 2 – Rogers Communications buys the stadium and renames it Rogers Centre.\n\n2007 – November 25 – Rogers Centre plays host to the 95th Grey Cup, the first in Toronto in 15 years. The Saskatchewan Roughriders defeat the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 23–19 in the game.\n2008 – August 14 – Rogers Centre plays host to a pre-season National Football League game between the Buffalo Bills and Pittsburgh Steelers, the first of a five-year lease deal that sees the Bills playing occasional home games in Toronto.\n2011 – April 30 – Rogers Centre holds its first UFC event, UFC 129. It is the first to be held in a stadium and was the biggest MMA event in North America at that time.\n2011 – June 25 – Rogers Centre successfully holds the first International Indian Film Academy Awards event in North America.\n2012 – November 25 – The Toronto Argonauts defeat the Calgary Stampeders in the 100th Grey Cup 35–22. Johnny Reid headlined a special Kick-Off Show, and half time performers include internationally renowned Canadian singers Justin Bieber, Carly Rae Jepsen, Marianas Trench, and Gordon Lightfoot.\n2015 – July 10 – Rogers Centre holds the opening ceremony of the 2015 Pan American Games.\n\n2015 – July 26 – Rogers Centre holds the closing ceremony of the 2015 Pan American Games.\n2015 - November 6 - The last Argonauts game hosted at Rogers Centre before the team's move to BMO Field in the next season. The Argonauts won against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers with a score of 21–11.\n2016 – October 4 – Rogers Centre opens its roof for the first time in Blue Jays postseason history during the American League Wild Card Game against the Baltimore Orioles.\n2018 – April 16 – A scheduled Blue Jays' game against the Kansas City Royals is cancelled due to the retractable roof having a hole as a result of the mid-April 2018 ice storm.\n2018 – April 17 – The third doubleheader in Blue Jays history at Rogers Centre and the Blue Jays would remain unbeaten in doubleheaders at Rogers Centre as they beat Royals 11–3 in Game 1 and 5–4 in Game 2.\n2020–21 – The Blue Jays are forced to relocate their home games to Sahlen Field in Buffalo, New York and TD Ballpark in Dunedin, Florida on a temporary basis for the 2020 season and the start of the following season as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the closure of the Canada–United States border.\n2021 – July 30 – The first Blue Jays game back at Rogers Centre since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic was against the Kansas City Royals.\n2023 - April 6 - The Blue Jays unveil Phase 1 of Rogers Centre renovations, focusing on outfield improvements.\n\nFacts and figures\nBaseball firsts\nOpening day (June 5, 1989)\nReference: Retrosheet: Skydome firsts\n\nBatting\nPitching\nStadium-related\nThe stadium roof has a patent, preventing its design from being easily copied: U.S. Patent #4676033. The patent was officially filed on May 1, 1986, and published June 30, 1987, to dome designers, architect Rod Robbie and structural engineer Michael Allen.\nThe original mascot of the stadium was a turtle by the name of Domer. Domer has not been widely used since the mid-1990s, although he did make a return on June 6, 2014, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Rogers Centre.\nWhen the retractable roof is open, people standing on the observation deck of the nearby CN Tower can look down on the field.\nOver 50 million people have visited SkyDome/Rogers Centre.\nWhen the roof is open, 91 percent of the seats and 100 percent of the field is open to the sky, covering an area of 3.2 hectares (7.9 acres).\nThe roof weighs 10,000 tonnes (11,000 short tons) and is held together by 250,000 bolts.\nThe stadium's inward-looking hotel rooms have regular two-way windows, yielding instances of what some could consider indecent exposure and leading to nicknames such as \"SexDome\" and \"Exhibitionist Stadium\". When SkyDome first opened, a couple engaging in sexual intercourse was televised on the scoreboard Jumbotron during a baseball game, thanks to illumination from stadium lighting despite the room's lights being off. Days later, a man was caught masturbating during a game in full view of the packed stands. The man, later tracked down by a Sports Illustrated reporter, calmly said, \"I thought they were one-way windows.\" Patrons now have to sign contracts stipulating they will not perform any lewd acts within view of the stadium. The last reported such instance occurred in 1996. Occasionally, broadcasts will zoom into humorous instances from these hotel rooms, such as a pillow fight during the 1992 World Series.\nWhen the stadium first opened, the Toronto Transit Commission was worried about the challenge of moving the large crowds. As a way to streamline the entry to the subway and to encourage public transit use to the stadium, all tickets for the first 30 days also worked as a Metropass, which was the commission's monthly pass.\nThe stadium corporation has been requested to help in the planning of other venues from the U.S., the Netherlands, England, Australia, New Zealand, to Singapore, China and Germany (Source: Rogers Centre Press release).\nIt was the most expensive stadium in both the Canadian Football League and Major League Baseball, constructed at a price of C$570 million (C$1.2 billion in 2023 dollars). This record was passed by the New Yankee Stadium at a cost of US$1.5 billion. If Montreal's Olympic Stadium (which was formerly the home field of the Expos, only used for CFL playoff games since the late 2000s and MLS playoff games since the mid-2010s) were counted, it would take the title, with a 1976 cost of C$1.6 billion (C$3.36 billion in 2023 dollars).\nBecause of the orientation of the baseball playing field at Rogers Centre, when a player is at bat, the direction he is facing looks farther to the west than at any other Major League Baseball park.\nRogers Centre has hosted regular-season games of five of the six major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada throughout the stadium's history; all but a National Hockey League (NHL) game, despite the Toronto Maple Leafs being in the NHL.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe stadium is the setting of the climax in the 2022 Pixar animated film Turning Red, in which the fictional boy band 4*Town performs a large-scale concert during which the stadium is partially destroyed. As the Toronto-set film's time period is set in 2002, the stadium is referred to by its original SkyDome name.\nThe exterior part of the venue has been used in M. Night Shyamalan's 2024 film, Trap, which was renamed \"Tanaka Arena\" for the story's outline, hosting a Lady Raven concert, who is the movie's popstar.\n\nSee also\nList of Canadian Football League stadiums\nList of current Major League Baseball stadiums\nList of stadiums in Canada\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website",
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"paragraph_text": "Chase Field, formerly Bank One Ballpark, is a retractable-roof stadium in Downtown Phoenix, Arizona. It is the ballpark of Major League Baseball's Arizona Diamondbacks. It opened in 1998, the year the Diamondbacks debuted as an expansion team. Chase Field was the first stadium built in the United States with a retractable roof over a natural grass playing surface, although it has used artificial turf since 2019.\n\nHistory\nThe park was built during a wave of new, baseball-only parks in the 1990s. Although nearly all of those parks were open-air, it was taken for granted that a domed stadium was a must for a major-league team to be viable in the Phoenix area. Phoenix is by far the hottest major city in North America; the average high temperature during baseball's regular season is 99.1 °F (37.3 °C), and game-time temperatures well above 100 °F (38 °C) are common during the summer.\n\nStadium funding\nIn the spring of 1994, the Maricopa County Board of Supervisors approved a 0.25 percent increase in the county sales tax to pay for their portion of the stadium funding. That happened during a huge county budget deficit and lack of funding for other services. The sales tax was very unpopular with local citizens, who were not permitted to vote on funding a baseball stadium with general sales tax revenue (use of public subsidies for stadium projects was prohibited by a 1989 referendum). The issue was so controversial and divisive that, in August 1997, Maricopa County Supervisor Mary Rose Wilcox was shot and injured while leaving a county board meeting by Larry Naman, a homeless man, who attempted to argue in court that her support for the tax justified his attack. In May 1998, Naman was found guilty of attempted first-degree murder.\nThe cost of the stadium was estimated at $279 million in 1995, but cost overruns, in part because of rising prices for steel and other materials, pushed the cost to $364 million. As part of the stadium deal, the Diamondbacks were responsible for all construction costs over $253 million. The extra expenses, combined with the Diamondbacks and the other expansion franchise, the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, not being allowed to share in national MLB revenue for their first five years of operations, left the Diamondbacks in a less-than-desirable financial situation, which came back to haunt team founder and managing partner Jerry Colangelo and his group.\n\nSince 1996\nConstruction on the park began in 1996, and was finished just before the Diamondbacks' first season, in 1998. It was the third MLB stadium to have a retractable roof and the first in the United States (at the time, only Toronto's SkyDome (Rogers Centre) and Montreal's Olympic Stadium had them; others since are Minute Maid Park in Houston, American Family Field in Milwaukee, Globe Life Field in Arlington, T-Mobile Park in Seattle, and LoanDepot Park in Miami). It was also the first ballpark to feature natural grass in a retractable roof stadium.\nThe stadium hosted Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 of the 2001 World Series between the Arizona Diamondbacks and the New York Yankees. The Diamondbacks won all four home games, winning the title in seven games, and thus denying the Yankees a fourth consecutive championship. It was only the third time that the home team won all games of a World Series, with the other two instances occurring in 1987 and 1991, both by the Minnesota Twins.\nIn March 2006, Chase Field played host to three first-round games of the World Baseball Classic.\nChase Field hosted the Major League Baseball All-Star Game in 2011.\nChase Field hosted the 2017 National League Wild Card Game between the Diamondbacks and Colorado Rockies. This was the D-Backs' first appearance in the postseason as a Wild Card team. The D-Backs won 11–8 and advanced to the 2017 NLDS against the Los Angeles Dodgers but were swept in three games. Game 3 was held at Chase Field, when the D-Backs lost 3–1.\n\nChase Field has a swimming pool located in right-center field, which is rented to patrons as a suite holding 35 guests for $3,500 per game during the 2011 season. Mark Grace was the first player to hit a home run into the pool. Besides baseball, the pool has been used by Monster Jam's Jim Koehler to continue his tradition of swimming after Freestyle. The pool which opened with the stadium in 1998, was redesigned in the offseason leading up to the 2005 season. \nThe ballpark featured a dirt strip between home plate and the pitcher's mound until 2019. This dirt strip, sometimes known as the \"keyhole\", was very common in old-time ballparks up to 1938. The dirt strip was removed when synthetic turf was installed and since then, Comerica Park is the only park to have one.\nThe park's foul territory is somewhat larger than that for most ballparks built in the 1990s. With 80% of the seats in foul territory, the upper deck is one of the highest in the majors. The park's suites are tucked far under the third deck, which keeps the upper deck closer to the action, with the exception of the Dugout Suites which sit next to the home and visitor's dugouts.\nBefore the 2008 season began, a HD scoreboard was installed beyond center field, replacing the original. The new scoreboard is 46 ft (14 m) high and 136 ft (41 m) wide and cost $14 million. It is the fifth-largest HD screen in Major League Baseball behind Kauffman Stadium. The screen at Kauffman is larger in area and is square but Chase Field's screen is wider and rectangular.\nPremium seating includes 4,400 club seats, 57 suites, 6 party suites, Executive suite, batters box suite, two dugout suites, and a swimming pool.\nThe Diamondbacks and St. Louis Cardinals game on September 24, 2019, was the longest game in Chase Field's history. It lasted six hours and 53 minutes, involving 19 innings.\nOn October 12, 2018, the Diamondbacks announced that they would replace their natural grass surface with a synthetic surface from Shaw Sports Turf for the 2019 season. In 2019, leaked images of a potential new stadium by architectural firm MEIS Architects were briefly online before being removed by the firm.\nThe stadium hosted the third, fourth and fifth games of the 2023 World Series between the Diamondbacks and the Texas Rangers.\n\nNaming rights\nThe stadium was called Bank One Ballpark when Bank One of Chicago, Illinois, purchased naming rights for $100 million over 30 years. After Bank One merged with New York-based JPMorgan Chase & Co. in 2005, Chase assumed the naming rights and the stadium's name was changed to Chase Field.\n\nOther events\nThe stadium hosts occasional concerts and international soccer games. For football and soccer, the field is set up with the end lines perpendicular to the third-base line and temporary bleachers added on the east side.\n\nInternational baseball tournaments\nChase Field has hosted first-round games in the 2006 and 2013 World Baseball Classic tournaments, and hosted first round games in the 2023 tournament, from March 11, 2023, to March 15, 2023, which was postponed from 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nCollege sports\nThe organizers of the Insight.com Bowl moved the game from Arizona Stadium in Tucson to Phoenix beginning in 2000, and Chase Field became the game's host. In 2006, the bowl game moved to Sun Devil Stadium, to replace the Fiesta Bowl, which moved to State Farm Stadium in Glendale. The football configuration lacked any nets behind the goalposts or the dugout behind the south end zone. The final Insight Bowl played at Chase was between the hometown Arizona State Sun Devils and the Rutgers Scarlet Knights. The bowl, called the Guaranteed Rate Bowl, returned to Chase Field in January 2016 due to construction underway at Sun Devil Stadium.\nChase Field has staged nine women's college basketball games. The second game, played on December 18, 2006, was shortened by rain with four minutes and 18 seconds remaining and Arizona State leading Texas Tech 61–45. Venue staff closed the roof in an effort to finish the game, but officials deemed the court unsafe. In 2000, ASU played the Tennessee Volunteers at the same facility.\nIn 2006, Chase Field was the site of an annual \"Challenge at Chase\", a college baseball game between Arizona State and University of Arizona that lasted two years. The Arizona Wildcats won both contests in 2006 and 2007.\n\nConcerts\nBull riding\nIn February 2006, the Professional Bull Riders hosted a Built Ford Tough Series bull riding event at this venue. Chris Shivers won this event with a total score of 181.5 points (out of a possible 200) on two bulls, including an impressive 93.75 (out of 100) points on Taylor Made bucking bull, Smokeless Wardance, in the short-go round. During the long-go round, the roof was closed, but during the short-go, the roof was opened.\n\nSupercross\nThe stadium has hosted Monster Energy Supercross rounds from 1999 to 2015. Monster Jam came to Chase Field every year in late January about two weeks after Monster Energy Supercross. Both events moved to the University of Phoenix Stadium in 2016.\n\nWrestling\nWWE hosted the Royal Rumble at Chase Field on January 27, 2019, marking nearly 16 years that a WWE event was held at a baseball stadium since WrestleMania XIX at Safeco Field in Seattle and the first Royal Rumble to be held outdoors.\n\nInternational women's soccer\nRoof and cooling system\nChase Field's roof is opened or closed depending on the game-time temperature. Even with the roof closed, the park's windows allow enough sunlight to play in daylight without overheating the stadium. The roof takes about 4½ minutes to open or close at a cost of $2–$3.\nWhile the ballpark had a grass surface, the roof would be kept open to expose the turf to sunlight. When necessary, it would be closed three hours before game time using two 200-horsepower motors triggered from a control room in the upper deck above left-center field. A massive HVAC system then dropped the temperature inside the park to about 78 °F (25.5 °C) by the time the gates opened. The chilled-water system, which has cooling power sufficient for 2,500 homes of 2,000 square feet (190 m2), also serves more than 30 buildings in downtown Phoenix. The cooling plant, located in a separate building next to the ballpark, freezes water overnight to reduce daytime electricity demand. Originally, the HVAC system did not cool above row 25 of the upper level, exposing fans in the higher rows to the brunt of Phoenix' oppressive summer heat. Subsequent improvements kept virtually all of the facility in air-conditioned comfort.\n\n Following the introduction of a synthetic playing surface, the roof is kept mostly closed and is opened only on game days when weather permits, greatly reducing the facility's demand on the HVAC system.\n\nTransportation\nChase Field is served by westbound Valley Metro Light Rail's Washington at 3rd Street station and eastbound Jefferson at 3rd Street station.\n\nClimate\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nStadium site on MLB.com\nOfficial Site Archived July 13, 2016, at the Wayback Machine\nStadium picture\nChase Field Page at S&E News\nChase Field Seating Chart",
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"paragraph_text": "T-Mobile Park is a retractable roof stadium in Seattle, Washington, United States. It is the ballpark of Major League Baseball's Seattle Mariners and has a seating capacity of 47,929. It is in Seattle's SoDo neighborhood, near the western terminus of Interstate 90. It is owned and operated by the Washington State Major League Baseball Stadium Public Facilities District. The first game at the stadium was played on July 15, 1999.\nDuring the 1990s, the suitability of the Mariners' original stadium—the Kingdome—as an MLB facility came under question, and the team's ownership group threatened to relocate the team. In September 1995, King County voters defeated a ballot measure to secure public funding for a new baseball stadium. Shortly thereafter, the Mariners' first appearance in the MLB postseason and their victory in the 1995 American League Division Series (ALDS) revived public desire to keep the team in Seattle. As a result, the Washington State Legislature approved an alternate means of funding for the stadium with public money. The site, just south of the Kingdome, was selected in September 1996 and construction began in March 1997. The bonds issued to finance the stadium were retired on October 1, 2011, five years earlier than anticipated.\nT-Mobile Park is also used for amateur baseball events, including the Washington Interscholastic Activities Association high school state championships and one Washington Huskies game per season. Major non-baseball events that have been held at T-Mobile Park include the 2001 Seattle Bowl and WrestleMania XIX in 2003, which attracted the stadium's record attendance of 54,097.\nThe stadium was originally named Safeco Field under a 20-year naming-rights deal with Seattle-based Safeco Insurance. T-Mobile acquired the naming rights on December 19, 2018, and the name change took effect on January 1, 2019.\n\nLocation and transportation\nT-Mobile Park is in the SoDo district of downtown Seattle, bounded by Dave Niehaus Way (a block of 1st Avenue S.) to the west, Edgar Martínez Drive (formerly S. Atlantic Street) to the south, Royal Brougham Way to the north, and BNSF railroad tracks to the east.\nParking is available at the stadium's parking garage across Edgar Martínez Drive, the Lumen Field garage to the North, and other privately operated lots in the area. Sounder commuter rail serves nearby King Street Station. T-Mobile Park is also served by the 1 Line of Sound Transit's Link light rail system and local King County Metro and Sound Transit Express bus routes at the nearby Stadium station.\nA dedicated ride-hailing lot opened in June 2023 along 3rd Avenue; it cost $2.8 million to construct and opened ahead of the 2023 MLB All-Star Game.\n\nHistory\nOn March 30, 1994, county executive Gary Locke appointed a task force to assess the need for a new baseball stadium to replace the rapidly deteriorating Kingdome. Many feared that the Mariners would leave Seattle if a new stadium was not built. In January 1995, the 28-member task force recommended to the King County Council that the public should be involved in financing the stadium. The task force concluded that a sales tax increase of 0.1% (to 8.3%) would be sufficient to fund the stadium. King County held a special election on September 19, asking the public for this sales tax increase; the measure led early, but was narrowly defeated by one-fifth of one percent.\nOn October 14, a special session of the state legislature authorized a different funding package for a new stadium that included a food and beverage tax in King County restaurants and bars, car rental surcharge in King County, a ballpark admissions tax, a credit against the state sales tax, and sale of a special stadium license plate. Nine days later, the King County Council approved the funding package, and established the Washington State Major League Baseball Stadium Public Facilities District to own the ballpark and oversee design and construction. Taxpayer suits opposing the legislative actions and the taxes failed in the courts.\nInitial concepts for the new stadium, developed under the working name of New Century Park, were unveiled by architecture firm HOK in March 1995. The design included a retractable roof split into four sections and a seating capacity of 45,000 seats on four levels. On September 9, 1996, the site was selected for the new stadium, just south of the Kingdome. In late fall, several members of the King County Council wrote a letter to the Seattle Mariners, requesting a postponement of the projected $384.5-million stadium project.\n\nConstruction officially began in 1997, with a groundbreaking ceremony on March 8 featuring Mariners star Ken Griffey Jr. The construction, overseen by chief financial officer (and former team president and minority owner) Kevin Mather, continued through the beginning of the 1999 season. Its first game was on July 15, immediately after the All-Star break; the Mariners lost 3–2 to the San Diego Padres with 44,607 in attendance. Longtime team broadcaster Dave Niehaus threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the game to Tom Foley, the former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives.\nThe naming rights were sold in June 1998 to Seattle-based Safeco Insurance, which paid $40 million for a 20-year deal. The 2018 season was the last played under this name, and the Safeco signage was removed from the ballpark beginning that November. The naming rights were awarded to T-Mobile, whose U.S. headquarters are based in nearby Bellevue on December 19, which paid $87.5 million for an agreement that will last 25 years, and the name change officially took effect on January 1, 2019.\nKen Griffey Jr. returned to Safeco Field in 2007 with the Cincinnati Reds (where he had been traded after the 1999 season) to a hero's welcome. In commemoration of Griffey's achievements with the team, the Mariners unveiled a new poster that declared Safeco Field \"The House That Griffey Built.\"\nThe Mariners moved the fences at Safeco Field closer to home plate before the 2013 season \"to create an environment that is fair for both hitters and pitchers,\" according to General Manager Jack Zduriencik. Safeco Field had been considered one of the most pitcher-friendly ballparks in the majors since it opened. The center field scoreboard and ad panels were replaced with an 11,435 square foot (1,062.3 m2) board during renovations, becoming the largest among all stadium scoreboards in the major leagues at the time.\nAfter the 2017 season, the field surface, in place since the stadium opened in 1999, underwent its first full replacement. The infield and foul territory were redone in 2012, but the outfield had not been replaced before the resodding.\nOn January 1, 2024, the National Hockey League (NHL) hosted the 2024 NHL Winter Classic, where the Seattle Kraken won over the Vegas Golden Knights 3–0.\n\nFeatures\nThere previously was technology that allowed spectators to monitor special game-time features with Nintendo DS receivers.\n\nLayout\nThere are five main levels to the stadium: Field (or Street), Main Concourse (100 level – 20,634 seats), Club Level (200 level – 4,585 seats), Suite Level (1,945 seats), and Upper Concourse (300 level – 15,955 seats). Two bleacher sections are above left field and below the center field scoreboard, with 3,706 seats. The Broadcast Center (press box) is on the Club Level and sub-level between it and the Main Level. As the field is approximately at street level, entry into any of the main gates requires visitors to ascend a flight of stairs, escalator, or elevator to access the main concourse, with the exception of the Right Field Entry, which opens onto the main concourse. Stairs, escalators, elevators, and ramps around the park provide access to all levels.\n\nSeating capacity\nFood service\nT-Mobile Park has an extensive food and beverage selection above and beyond the traditional ballpark fare of hot dog, pizza, soda, and beer. Concession stands selling traditional ballpark fare are plentiful on the main and upper concourses. Food courts behind home plate on the main concourse, as well as in \"The 'Pen\" (known as the Bullpen Market until a major 2011 remodel) on the street level inside the Center Field gate, sell items such as sushi, burritos, teriyaki, stir-fries, pad thai, garlic fries, crepes, health food, seafood, and barbecue. An extensive selection of beer can also be found in those locations, as well as on the upper concourse. Patrons could previously order food with a Nintendo DS app called Nintendo Fan Network.\n\nRetractable roof\nIn the open position, the roof rests over the BNSF Railway tracks that bound the stadium to the east, with part of it hanging over the stands in right field. This has the effect of echoing the whistles from passing trains into the stadium. Train horns were often heard inside the stadium throughout the 2000s, but abated significantly when an overpass was built for Royal Brougham Way, the street that bounds the stadium to the north which previously crossed the tracks. When the roof covers the field it does not cause the stadium to be fully enclosed with walls or windows unlike other stadiums with retractable roofs, which allows the wind and temperatures to still impact the game with the roof closed.\nThe roof covers approximately 9 acres (3.6 ha) and weighs 22 million pounds (10,000,000 kg). It moves with 128 wheels that move along rails on the north and south side of the ballpark. The top of the roof is 269 feet (82 m) above field level, while the bottom is 217 feet (66 m) high. The roof takes 10 to 20 minutes to open and is moved 300 to 500 times per year, mostly to manage the stadium's grass. The Mariners play an average of 17 to 18 games per season with the roof closed, the least among MLB ballparks with retractable roofs. From 1999 to 2014, the team had a 91–82 (.526) record in games with the roof closed and a 58–46 (.558) record in games where the roof moves.\n\nScoreboards\nT-Mobile Park features a manual scoreboard, the second-largest HD video display scoreboard in MLB, a color LED out-of-town scoreboard, and LED ribbon boards along the terraces. The main scoreboard, which replaced the original monochrome scoreboard and separate video screen above the center field bleachers before the 2013 season, is more than 11,000 square feet (1,000 m2) in area. The board can be used either all at once, such as for live action or video replays, or split into sections for displaying information such as statistics and advertisements.\n\nMariners Hall of Fame\nCo-located with the Baseball Museum of the Pacific Northwest, the Mariners Hall of Fame features bronze plaques of the eleven inducted members: Alvin Davis (1997), Broadcaster Dave Niehaus (2000), Jay Buhner (2004), Edgar Martínez (2007), Randy Johnson (2012), Dan Wilson (2012), Ken Griffey Jr. (2013), Lou Pinella (2014), Jamie Moyer (2015), Ichiro Suzuki (2022), and Félix Hernández (2023). The plaques describe their contributions to the franchise, as well as murals and television screens showing highlights of their careers with the Mariners.\n\nThe 'Pen\nThe 'Pen, known for sponsorship purposes as \"The T-Mobile 'Pen\", is a standing-room only area adjacent to the bullpens, where spectators can watch relief pitchers warm up before entering the game.\nWhen the stadium opened during the 1999 season, the area was called the \"Bullpen Market\". In 2013, the Mariners' vice president of ballpark operations described the Bullpen Market as a dark and unwelcoming place that needed a remodel to be more attractive to fans.\nPrior to the 2011 season, the Mariners brought in three celebrity chefs to introduce special concession stands with exclusive food options. In the first season under its new branding, per-capita fan spending in The 'Pen increased by 87% from the previous season. In 2013, Edgar's Cantina, named for Hall of Fame Mariners player Edgar Martínez, opened. Sports Business Journal called The 'Pen \"one of the liveliest social scenes in Major League Baseball\" in 2013, when fan spending in The 'Pen had risen 42% year over year, which a team spokeswoman credited primarily to Edgar's Cantina.\nLocal Mexican restaurant Poquitos opened a stand in The 'Pen during the 2017 season, and quickly gained national fame for selling chapulines, toasted grasshoppers, at every game. Poquitos sold over 900 orders of chapulines at the first three home games, at $4.00 for a 4-US-fluid-ounce (120 ml) cup.\nIn 2019, the Mariners opened The 'Pen two and a half hours before the first pitch of Mariners home games, offering happy hour specials to encourage fans to arrive early. As many as 3,000 fans come to The 'Pen during each game.\nThe 'Pen attracts large and often rowdy crowds due to its food and drink options. On April 13, 2013, a man was injured and required reconstructive surgery after a fight broke out over a table in The 'Pen. Two men turned themselves in, one of whom faced a felony assault charge. A team spokesperson said that the Mariners assign more uniformed police officers, private security guards, and alcohol enforcement officials to The 'Pen during special events, such as College Night.\n\nArtwork\nT-Mobile Park and its adjoining parking garage feature extensive public art displays, including:\n\n\"The Tempest\", a chandelier made of 1,000 resin baseball bats above the home plate entry. A companion 27-foot diameter compass rose mosaic at the home plate rotunda captures a number of elements in the history of baseball. It was created by Linda Beaumont, Stuart Keeler, and Michael Machnic.\n\"Quilts\" depicting each MLB team logo, made from recycled metal including license plates from the respective teams' states (or the province of Ontario in the case of the Toronto Blue Jays, or the District of Columbia in the case of the Washington Nationals). The collection also includes references to the history of baseball in the Pacific Northwest.\nStainless steel cutouts of players in various poses while catching, batting, fielding, and pitching, integrated into the fences at the stadium's four main gates.\nSix Pitches, a series of metal sculptures depicting hands gripping baseballs for various types of pitches along the west facade of the garage.\nA 9-foot-tall (2.7 m) bronze baseball glove, The Mitt by Gerard Tsutakawa, that has become an icon for T-Mobile Park.\nThe Defining Moment, a mural by Thom Ross depicting Edgar Martínez's famed \"The Double\".\nChildren's Hospital Wishing Well, which features a bronze statue of a child in batting position, and includes a geyser effect that was used at the end of the national anthem.\nPorcelain enamel on steel flag-mounted banner-panels depicting \"Positions of the Field\".\n\nStatues\nA bronze statue of Mariners broadcaster Dave Niehaus (1935–2010) was unveiled on September 16, 2011. The statue captures the broadcaster honored by the Baseball Hall of Fame with the Ford C. Frick Award in 2008, and who broadcast 5,284 Mariners games over 34 seasons (1977–2010), at a desk, behind a microphone, wearing headphones with his Mariners scorebook in front of him. His scorebook is opened to the box score for Game 5 of the 1995 American League Division Series, when Edgar Martínez hit \"The Double\". There is an empty seat next to the statue, so fans can sit next to Niehaus and pose for photos. His longtime broadcast partner Rick Rizzs presided over a private ceremony to unveil the statue. The Dave Niehaus Broadcast Center is on the Club Level behind home plate. When Niehaus died, his headset and microphone were placed by his empty seat in the Broadcast Center as a tribute.\nIn April 2017, a statue of Ken Griffey Jr. by sculptor Lou Cella was unveiled outside the Home Plate Entrance to the ballpark. After the 2017 season, the bat was broken off in an attempt to steal it, but a bystander from the office building across the street ran down the perpetrator and recovered the bat, which was subsequently reattached.\nA bronze statue of Martínez, also made by Cella, was installed in August 2021 on the south side of the stadium near Griffey's statue.\n\nNotable events\nMajor League Baseball\nOn April 21, 2012, Chicago White Sox pitcher Philip Humber pitched the 21st perfect game in Major League Baseball history against the Mariners in his second start of the season. It was the 3rd perfect game in White Sox history joining Charlie Robertson in 1922 and Mark Buehrle in 2009.\nNearly 4 months later on August 15, 2012, Mariners pitcher Félix Hernández pitched the 23rd perfect game in Major League Baseball history and the first perfect game in Mariners history. This marked the second perfect game and third no-hitter at the park, all of which occurred in the 2012 season.\nThe stadium has hosted the Major League Baseball All-Star Game twice: in 2001 as Safeco Field and 2023 as T-Mobile Park. The 2001 edition was won by the American League—featuring eight players from the Mariners—in front of 47,364 spectators. The 2023 edition was won by the National League with 47,159 in attendance. The event used nearby Lumen Field for several events, including a fan festival and the MLB player draft.\n\nMinor league baseball\nThe stadium has been temporarily used by local minor league teams for playoff games when their normal venues were unavailable. The Tacoma Rainiers played their 2010 Pacific Coast League playoff semifinal games at then-Safeco Field while Cheney Stadium underwent off-season renovations. The Rainiers won their series and advanced to the PCL Championship, which was played entirely on the road due to Safeco Field being unavailable.\nThe Everett AquaSox of the Class A Northwest League played one game in the 2016 playoffs against the Spokane Indians at Safeco Field. The move was arranged after a rainstorm rendered the outfield at Everett Memorial Stadium unusable for several days.\n\nCollege baseball\nOn May 4, 2007, an NCAA Pacific-10 Conference baseball attendance record was set when the Washington Huskies hosted defending National Champion Oregon State in front of 10,421 spectators. Washington won the game, 6–2.\n\nCollege football\nThe stadium hosted the 2001 Seattle Bowl, the first edition of the short-lived Seattle Bowl college football game, on December 27, 2001. Georgia Tech defeated 11th-ranked Stanford, 24–14, before 30,144 fans.\n\nSoccer\nThe stadium hosted several soccer matches before the opening of Lumen Field, which was designed for soccer. To prepare for soccer matches, the field has to be sodded to cover and replace the dirt infield.\nOn March 2, 2002, the United States men's national soccer team played Honduras in a friendly match, winning 4–0 in front of a then-record crowd of 38,534. The stadium hosted four matches during the 2002 CONCACAF Women's Gold Cup in November, including two matches featuring the United States women's national soccer team, as part of qualification for the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup. The first U.S. match, against Panama, had an attendance of 21,522; the second match, against Costa Rica, was attended by 10,079 fans.\nSeattle Sounders FC, a Major League Soccer team that plays at adjacent Lumen Field, once drafted plans to play a 2018 CONCACAF Champions League match at then-Safeco Field due to a potential scheduling conflict.\n\nWrestling\nOn March 30, 2003, the stadium hosted WrestleMania XIX, which set an all-time record attendance for the facility of 54,097.\n\nIce hockey\nThe 2024 NHL Winter Classic on January 1 was held at T-Mobile Park and was contested by the Seattle Kraken and the Vegas Golden Knights. The Kraken won 3–0 in front of 47,313 spectators.\n\nConcerts\nOther\nThe stadium was the home to the Microsoft annual employee meeting until 2012, attracting over 20,000 employees.\nBernie Sanders held a rally for his 2016 presidential campaign on March 25.\nThe stadium hosted Nitro Circus Live on September 16, 2017.\nOn September 15, 2018, Russell M. Nelson, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, along with his wife, Wendy Watson Nelson, and Second Counselor Henry B. Eyring, held a devotional that was attended by 49,089 church members, friends, and members of the community.\nSeveral local high schools and universities have held graduation ceremonies at the stadium. Issaquah High School's class of 2000 was the first to graduate at the stadium.\n\nSee also\nRick \"The Peanut Man\" Kaminski\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nStadium site on MLB.com\nVideo of Safeco Field – shows the roof open and close in time lapse\nSafeco Field Seating Chart\nESPN Review",
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"paragraph_text": "Minute Maid Park, nicknamed \"The Juice Box\", is a retractable roof stadium in Houston, Texas, United States. It opened in 2000 and is the home ballpark of the Houston Astros of Major League Baseball. The ballpark has a seating capacity of 41,168, which includes 5,197 club seats and 63 luxury suites with a natural grass playing field. It was built as a replacement for the Astrodome, the first domed sports stadium ever built, which opened in 1965.\n\nHistory\nUnion Station and pre-ballpark era\nIn 1909, during the time when West End Park was Houston's premier residential area, the Houston Belt and Terminal Railway Company commissioned the design of a new union station for the city from New York City-based architects Warren and Wetmore. The location called for the demolition of several structures of Houston prominence. Horace Baldwin Rice's residence and Adath Yeshurun Congregation's synagogue among other structures were removed.\n\nWith an original estimated cost of US$1 million, Union Station was constructed by the American Construction Company for an eventual total of five times that amount. Exterior walls were constructed of granite, limestone, and terracotta, while the interior used an extensive amount of marble. It was completed and opened on March 1, 1911. At the time, Houston, with 17 railways, was considered the main railroad hub of the Southern United States. This is also evident by the Seal of Houston, which prominently features a locomotive. Two more floors were added the following year.\nThe station served as the main inter-city passenger terminal for Houston for over seven decades thereafter. Passenger rail declined greatly after World War II, and the last regularly-scheduled train, the Lone Star, moved its service to Houston's current Amtrak station on July 31, 1974. With this move, the building became only office space for the HB&T as well as the Missouri Pacific Railroad.\nOn November 10, 1977, the building was added to the National Register of Historic Places by the National Park Service.\n\nPlanning and funding\nIn August 1995, Astros owner Drayton McLane, then leasing the Astrodome from Harris County, commented to the Houston Chronicle that he was not in the market for a new ballpark. In reference to Pittsburgh's Three Rivers Stadium and Cincinnati's Riverfront Stadium, McLane noted, \"[...] I remember when those were built in the 1970s and those were as good a stadiums as there were. They were the most modern stadiums in the world, and now they're saying they're all bad. That they can't make a go of it without a new stadium. It helps, but there are other things involved.\"\nLater that year, Houston's NFL franchise and joint-tenant of the Astrodome, the Houston Oilers, announced they were leaving to Nashville, Tennessee in order to have a new stadium built for the team there. Citing a lack of adequate luxury boxes, in October, Astros vice-president Bob McClaren claimed that renovations to the Astrodome would help increase revenue. Drayton McLane pointed toward Astrodome renovations as necessary, saying, \"It's 30 years old and not a lot of money has been spent to remodel it.\" According to the organization, the team was in danger of being sold to a Virginia businessman who was expected to move the Astros to the Washington D.C. area because of poor revenue.\nIn June 1996, University of Houston alumnus, BMC Software and San Diego Padres owner, John J. Moores, who wanted to own the next NFL franchise in Houston, met with Texas State Senator Mario Gallegos, Jr., and other local Hispanic leaders in regard to the future of a football-only Astrodome and a new baseball-only ballpark in Downtown Houston. Meanwhile, Harris County Judge Robert Eckels pieced together a plan to build a new ballpark next to the Astrodome in the Astrodomain. The Astros echoed the Astrodomain location sentiment because they believed construction time would be shorter. Eckels, who convinced then Mayor Bob Lanier of the lack of viability for the ballpark in a downtown location, was quoted as saying, \"They keep telling me about these miracles in other cities, but it doesn't work in Houston [...] If we are going to put this stadium some place, let's stick with a proven place.\" This plan was considered to be nearly finalized when the Astros and Harris County agreed to a US$250 million county-funded stadium whose overrun costs would be funded by the Astros.\n\nIn August 1996, Houston's Union Station received a US$2 million grant from the Texas Transportation Commission for renovation in a separate project. Plans for the new ballpark's location drastically changed by September mostly in response to Enron Chairman Kenneth Lay's input and pledge to substantially contribute to funding if placed downtown. It was at this time where the Union Station location was proposed by Lay. Upon an agreement among all of the leadership entities, the idea of a retractable roof stadium was confirmed for the new ballpark. A November referendum was planned for Harris County residents to approve the deal.\nThe Harris County referendum that took place on November 5, 1996, to help fund the ballpark passed by a narrow margin of 51% to 49%. In response to the referendum, during the 75th Texas Legislature Texas State Senator John Whitmire of Houston sponsored a bill supported by five of the six area Harris County senators that would create the Harris County-Houston Sports Authority. With companion House Bill 92 authored by Houston-born Representative Kim Brimer voted upon and adopted by both chambers, the authorization for creation of a sports authority was approved. It was signed into law by Governor George W. Bush on June 2, 1997. The Harris County-Houston Sports Authority would assist in financing for the new ballpark as well as allow for renovation of the Astrodome by allowing for special county-wide taxation of rental cars, tickets, parking, and hotel use.\nIn June 1997, with the ability to create a sports authority signed into law, concurrent votes of the Harris County Commissioners' Court and the Houston City Council to establish the Harris County-Houston Sports Authority on effective September 1, 1997. Its chairman and 12 other directors were jointly appointed by the Mayor of Houston and Harris County Judge. The institution remains in existence today.\nThe ballpark was named \"Enron Field\" after a $100 million, 30-year naming rights deal was made with Enron on April 7, 1999. After the Enron scandal of 2001, the Astros and the now-bankrupt Enron came to an agreement to end the deal and rename the stadium in February 2002.\n\nDesign and construction\nEarly stadium sketches from Kansas City-based HOK Sport (now Populous) using the working title \"The Ballpark at Union Station\" were released to the public on October 11, 1996, where Astros President Tal Smith was open about his suggestions for the stadium including the location of the flagpole in center field and a traditional dirt path from the pitcher's mound to home plate. While the dirt path was not implemented, the flagpole idea became known as \"Tal's Hill\" and remained a signature feature of the ballpark until 2016.\nThe design of the new park integrated the former Union Station building's main concourse, reutilizing the space for a clubhouse, cafe, team store, and office space. A large model train was also included within the park's design as an homage to the station.\nIn late 1997, it was announced that local Brown & Root would manage construction of the stadium, while Populous with Walter P. Moore would design it. The electrification of Minute Maid Park's retractable roof was developed by VAHLE, Inc.\nGroundbreaking for Enron Field was on October 30, 1997. Its groundbreaking ceremony was attended by Enron CEO Kenneth Lay, Houston Mayor Bob Lanier, Astros owner Drayton McLane, Harris County Judge Robert Eckles, Harris County Commissioner El Franco Lee, and Harris County-Houston Sports Authority Chairman Jack Rains.\nStatues of longtime Astros players Jeff Bagwell and Craig Biggio are located in the exterior of the ballpark in a space known as The Plaza at Minute Maid Park. The two former teammates are depicted playing baseball with each other. The plaza also displays pennants for all Astros division and league championships, as well as two World Series titles. There are also several plaques to commemorate notable Astros and their achievements.\n\nOpening and current use\nThe ballpark was first inaugurated with a preseason game against the New York Yankees on March 30, 2000, with naming rights sold to the Houston energy and financial trading company Enron in a 30-year, $100 million deal. However, Astros management faced a public relations problem when the energy corporation went bankrupt in 2001 due to a financial scandal. Quickly wanting to distance themselves from Enron, Astros ownership asked to prematurely end naming rights, but Enron refused. On February 5, 2002, Astros ownership filed a motion with the court overseeing the company's bankruptcy to force Enron to make an immediate decision on the matter. By February 27, the two entities agreed to end the naming rights, and settled with the Astros paying $2.1 million to Enron. Without a naming rights agreement in place, the ballpark became officially known as \"Astros Field\".\nThe Astros sold naming rights of the ballpark in 2002 to locally based Coca-Cola subsidiary Minute Maid for $100 million over 30 years. Its official name was then changed to \"Minute Maid Park\".\n\nAlterations\nIn 2004, the Astros launched Wi-Fi throughout the ballpark, allowing fans to use the Internet while attending a game for a fee. In addition, the ballpark was the first major sports facility to use a separate video board exclusively for closed captioning for the hearing impaired of PA system and video board content, rather than appearing along the bottom of the main board.\n\nIn 2006, the Chick-fil-A cows were unveiled on the fair poles, saying EAT MOR FOWL, and the cows have Astros caps on. If an Astros player hits the pole, all fans in attendance get a coupon for a free chicken sandwich from Chick-fil-A. Hunter Pence is the first and second Astros player to ever hit the left field \"Fowl Pole\" when he did it twice in the 2007 season. Ty Wigginton became the third Astro to hit the left field pole on September 16, 2007. Kazuo Matsui hit the right field fair pole on August 3, 2009, with a two-run homer in the sixth inning to beat the Giants. Carlos Lee hit the left field pole on July 28, 2010, giving the Astros an 8–1 win against the Cubs. Two days later, Jeff Keppinger hit the left field pole to help the Astros win, 5–0, against the Brewers. In the 2023 Major League Baseball postseason (October 7th, 2023), Yordan Álvarez hit a solo home run to the right field pole which made the game 6-4.\nAfter the 2008 season, the Astros' groundskeepers began installing 2.3 acres (9,300 m2) of a new turfgrass playing surface at Minute Maid Park. The Astros also became one of the first to use the new Chemgrass, later known as AstroTurf after its first well-publicized use at the Houston Astrodome in 1966.\nIn honor of longtime Astros broadcaster Milo Hamilton, the City of Houston officially renamed a portion of the Ballpark District to the \"Hall of Fame District\", and the portion of Hamilton Avenue that runs within that district to \"Milo Hamilton Way\" on April 8, 2009.\nFor the 2011 season, the park added a large Daktronics HD screen nicknamed \"El Grande\" replacing the original one in right field. At 54 feet (16 m) high and 124 feet (38 m) wide, it is the fourth largest scoreboard in Major League Baseball, behind T-Mobile Park (home of the Seattle Mariners), Progressive Field (home of the Cleveland Guardians), and Kaufmann Stadium (home of the Kansas City Royals). The old screen was taken out and replaced by billboards. Additionally, a smaller HD screen was added on the far left field wall. The ring of advertisement screens around the park were replaced in favor of HD ribbon boards.\nAfter the Astros reverted to their original colors and logo in 2013, much of Minute Maid Park was repainted to navy and orange from brick red. Signs with the previous logo and colors were also replaced. More than 4,500 US gallons (17,000 L) of paint were used and over 1,000 signs were replaced.\nIn June 2015 the Astros announced Tal's Hill would be removed in a major renovation project during the 2015-2016 offseason, to be replaced with additional seating, concessions, and escalators for fans. This would result in center field dimensions of 436 feet (then the longest in MLB) being reduced to 409 feet. In addition, seating sections 256, 257, and 258 in the outfield mezzanine would be removed. However, the project had to be postponed due to the Astros' unexpected American League Wild Card championship and subsequent postseason appearance, along with the stadium's offseason event schedule. The renovation was completed during the 2016-2017 offseason. The flagpoles became out of play.\nIn April 2022, Minute Maid Park received Amazon's \"Just Walk Out\" technology for two of its concession stands, becoming the first MLB stadium to incorporate cashierless stores.\n\nMajor events\nOn October 9, 2005, Minute Maid Park hosted the then-longest postseason game in Major League Baseball history, both in terms of time and number of innings. The Astros defeated the Atlanta Braves 7–6 in a game lasting 18 innings, which took 5 hours and 50 minutes to play. The time record was beaten by Game 3 of the 2018 World Series, which went 18 innings and lasted 7 hours and 20 minutes.\nOn October 25, 2005, Minute Maid Park hosted the first World Series game ever played in Texas, and the longest World Series game ever played, which the Astros lost to the eventual World Series champion Chicago White Sox 7–5 in 14 innings; this game lasted 5 hours and 41 minutes. The following night, the White Sox won their third title—and first in 88 years—at Minute Maid Park.\nOn September 30, 2007, in Craig Biggio's last game of his career, Minute Maid Park hit the highest attendance in its 8-year history by selling 43,823 tickets, 107% of its capacity.\nOn April 5, 2010, Opening Day of 2010, Minute Maid Park surpassed its highest attendance total once again by selling 43,836 tickets, 13 more tickets than its previous record.\nThe Astros transferred to the American League for the 2013 season, resulting in the designated hitter rule coming into effect at Minute Maid Park. The last pitcher to bat at an MLB game in Houston was Astros pitcher Bud Norris until May 11, 2021, when Shohei Ohtani of the Los Angeles Angels started on the mound and batted second in the lineup.\nIn his third start as an Astro, pitcher Mike Fiers threw the stadium's first no-hitter in a 3–0 victory over the Los Angeles Dodgers on August 21, 2015.\nIn late October 2017 the Astros hosted three World Series games against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Astros would go on to win the 2017 World Series, winning 2 of 3 games in Houston and 2 of 4 games in Los Angeles.\nIn late October 2019, the Astros hosted four games of the World Series versus the Washington Nationals. While the Astros won all three away games, they lost all four games played at Minute Maid Park.\nIt was one of two hosts (Globe Life Field being the other) for the 2020 NLDS. Atlanta swept Miami 3–0 to advance to the NLCS.\nThree games of the 2021 World Series were held at Minute Maid Park, with the Braves winning Games 1 and 6 (they also won Games 3 and 4 at Truist Park in Atlanta) to claim their fourth World Series championship. Houston's only home victory came in Game 2.\nGames 1, 2 and 6 of the 2022 World Series were held at Minute Maid Park. The Astros won their second World Series championship in Game 6, marking the fourth time a World Series championship was hoisted at the park and the first time the Astros won on their home field. Houston also won Game 2, as well as two of three games at Citizens Bank Park against the Philadelphia Phillies.\nPool B and the quarterfinals of the 2026 World Baseball Classic will take place at the stadium.\n\nNon-baseball events\nSoccer\nWhile primarily a baseball venue, Minute Maid Park can adequately host sports such as soccer and both codes of rugby. The venue can also play host to large-scale music concerts. It is not large enough to comfortably accommodate American football. However, the opening of BBVA Compass Stadium four blocks southeast on Texas Avenue for the MLS's Houston Dynamo in 2012 has effectively made its use for future soccer games moot.\nIts debut as a soccer venue happened during the 2006 edition of the CONCACAF Champions Cup. The stadium hosted the first leg of the quarterfinal between Portmore United of Jamaica (the \"home\" team) and Club América of Mexico.\n\nProfessional wrestling\nMinute Maid Park hosted the 2020 Royal Rumble on January 26, one of the promotion's four annual flagship professional wrestling events. This was the first time it has hosted a WWE pay-per-view event.\n\nConcerts\nPaul McCartney, RBD, Jay-Z, Beyoncé, Taylor Swift, Eagles, Madonna, Bad Bunny, Lady Gaga and Red Hot Chili Peppers have all performed at Minute Maid Park.\n\nTV\nThe nationally syndicated TV talk show Rachael Ray held a mass wedding at the park following Hurricane Ike for 40 couples who were unable to get married after a company they paid to hold the weddings went bankrupt. Comedian Jeffrey Ross served as best man for all 40 couples. The ceremony was aired as part of a special episode of the talk show on November 21, 2008.\n\nOther events\nThe stadium also is the host of the Houston College Classic college baseball tournament, part of the winter fan festival held in February. The tournament features local schools the University of Houston and Rice University every year, a pair of major conference schools, alternating between Big 12 members University of Texas at Austin, Texas Tech University, Baylor University and SEC member Texas A&M University, as well as two other teams from around the country.\nOn May 9, 2015, Canelo Alvarez fought James Kirkland in the first boxing match fought in the stadium. Alvarez defeated Kirkland via knockout in the third round.\nThe University of Houston–Downtown also holds their commencement ceremony in Minute Maid Park.\nMinute Maid Park hosted a cricket match on November 11, 2015, the second in a series of three Cricket All-Stars matches played by retired greats of the game. Shane Warne's Warne's Warriors clinched the series 2–0. Keeping with the naming conventions from the previous match at Minute Maid Park, the ends were named after Nolan Ryan and José Cruz, two players that have their numbers retired by the Astros.\nOn January 30, 2017, the stadium hosted Super Bowl Opening Night for Super Bowl LI at nearby NRG Stadium.\nFrom 2017 until 2020, the park hosted the final rounds of the Houston leg of the FIRST Championship. To avoid damaging the field while the Astros were in season, the competition fields were built on a stage over the infield dirt between first and third base.\n\nFeatures\nTal's Hill\nUntil 2016, center field featured a 90-foot (27 m) wide incline called Tal's Hill, named for former team president Tal Smith. The incline was inspired by similar features that used to exist at Crosley Field and Fenway Park. There was a flagpole in play on the incline, an element inspired by Yankee Stadium before its remodeling in the mid-'70s, and Tiger Stadium as well. Milwaukee Brewers player Richie Sexson once hit a ball off the flagpole. There was a mark there until the 2011 season, when the pole was repainted. The hill and the flagpole were scheduled to be removed following the 2015 season, but remained in place due to an unexpected playoff run.\nWhile Crosley Field's infamous left field terrace, which was half as steep (only 15°) as Tal's Hill (30°), was a natural feature of the site on which the park was located, Tal's Hill was purely decorative. On June 4, 2015, the Astros announced that they would be removing Tal's Hill as part of a $15 million renovation for the 2016 season. The center field fence was to be moved in from 436 feet (133 m) (which from 2000 to 2016 was the longest in baseball) to 409 feet (125 m) from home plate, but the center field renovations were delayed until after the 2016 season, due at least in part to the 2015 playoffs cutting into planned construction time.\n\nUnion Station\nThe largest entrance to the park is inside what was once Houston's Union Station, and the left-field side of the stadium features a railway as homage to the site's history. The train moves along an 800-foot (240 m) length of track on top of the length of the exterior wall beyond left field when the Astros take the field during the first inning, when an Astros player hits a home run, and when the Astros win a game. It is driven by Bobby Vásquez, who goes by the name Bobby Dynamite. The train is an upscaled replica of the General 4-4-0 and is pulled by a cable which is operated by the driver. The engine's tender is filled with giant oranges in reference to Minute Maid's most famous product, orange juice. Prior to Minute Maid buying the stadium's naming rights, the tender was filled with logs.\nIn a challenge to home run hitters, former Astros owner Drayton McLane's office window, located in the old Union Station and directly above the Crawford Boxes, is made of glass and a sign below the window is marked 422 ft (129 m) from home plate.\n\nCrawford Boxes\nThe Crawford Boxes are a section of seating in Minute Maid Park running parallel to Crawford Street in downtown Houston, Texas. They are located in left field and span sections 100 through 104 (with all but the latter in fair territory).\nThe home-plate-to-fence measurement there is only 315 feet (96 meters), one of the shortest in Major League Baseball. Home runs must clear a 19-foot wall in front of the elevated boxes which houses the hand-operated out-of-town scoreboard, displaying the day's other games.\nLandry's, a restaurant group, had bought the naming rights to the Crawford Boxes in 2003, which ran various promotions for its restaurants there.\n\nOther features\nGames are typically played with the roof open only in April and May before the Houston summer heat arrives. In the first twenty seasons of the park (2000-2019), the Astros played 1,614 games at home and played with the roof open for the whole game for 1,103 of them (for the 2017-2019 postseason games alone, they played all home games with the roof closed).\n\nThere is a manually-operated out-of-town scoreboard in left, below the Crawford Boxes.\nThe ballpark features 19,201 seats on the lower level, 7,132 seats on the second level, 880 seats on the suite level, and 13,750 seats on the upper level.\n\nThe \"Phillips 66 Home Run Porch\" is located in left-center field over the field of play. It features a classic gasoline pump that displays the total number of Astros home runs hit since the park opened.\nThe stadium can be fully air-conditioned when required.\n\nGround rules\nUnder the Minute Maid Park ground rules, both Tal's Hill and the flagpole were considered in play. If a ball hit the flagpole on the hill and stayed in the field of play, it was in play. If it went out of the field of play (over the fence), it was a home run. The Hill was criticized numerous times owing to the incline having the potential to cause injury to fielders unused to it. However, there was never an injury to any player in relation to Tal's Hill.\n\nTransportation access\nMinute Maid Park is located in Downtown Houston in a centralized area of the city, and accessible via a short driving distance on Interstate 10 (Katy Freeway/East Freeway), Interstate 69 (Southwest Freeway/Eastex Freeway), and Interstate 45 (Gulf Freeway/North Freeway). Street parking, garage parking, and private lot parking are available, with an estimated 25,000 spots within walking distance to the ballpark. Taxi cabs and pedicabs are also commonly found near the surrounding ballpark area.\nPublic transportation allows for accessibility via bus or light rail service. The METRORail light rail system has a station located one block south of Minute Maid Park, Convention District Station, served by the Green and Purple lines. The Red Line also serves the ballpark at Preston Station, six blocks to the west.\n\nHurricane Harvey\nIn 2017, the park and the entire city suffered from the devastation of Hurricane Harvey, which flooded many parts of the city with several feet of rain over four days. The Astros reported that despite water entering into the service levels of the stadium, Minute Maid Park remained in \"good condition\" when the storm cleared out. The lingering effects of Harvey forced the Astros to move their series against the Texas Rangers to Tropicana Field in St. Petersburg, Florida. The Astros returned to Houston on Friday, September 1 to help the initial recovery efforts. Minute Maid Park hosted the city's first post-Harvey sporting event, and the park's first double-header the next day in an interleague game against the New York Mets.\n\nReferences\nSources\nMinute Maid Park: Facts and Figures. Accessed May 24, 2006.\nBallpark Digest Visit to Minute Maid Park\nRyan, Jeff (July 21, 2003). \"Dangers of the diamond: TSN picks the nine biggest ballpark obstacles—from the brightest lights to the most unusual landscaping—in the majors - Baseball\". The Sporting News. Retrieved February 28, 2007.\nAstros Daily - Your best source for news and information on the Houston Astros\n\nExternal links\n\nStadium site on MLB.com\nMinute Maid Park Seating Chart\nLevine, Zachary. \"Astros looking at the bigger picture.\" Houston Chronicle. October 8, 2010.\nMinute Maid Park facts and figures\nBaseball Pilgrimages\nBallparks of Baseball",
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"paragraph_text": "American Family Field is a retractable roof stadium in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Located southwest of the intersection of Interstate 94 and Brewers Boulevard, it is the ballpark of Major League Baseball's Milwaukee Brewers. It opened in 2001 as a replacement for Milwaukee County Stadium. The stadium was previously called Miller Park as part of a $40 million naming rights deal with Miller Brewing Company, which expired at the end of 2020.\nAmerican Family Field features North America's only fan-shaped convertible roof, which can open and close in less than 10 minutes. Large panes of glass allow natural grass to grow, augmented with heat lamp structures wheeled out across the field during the off-season.\nThe stadium opened in 2001 at a cost of $392 million. Between 1996 and 2000, taxpayers paid $609 million for the construction costs through higher sales taxes. In 2023, Wisconsin lawmakers entered into an agreement with the Milwaukee Brewers to spend nearly half a billion dollars of public funds on stadium renovations.\n\nConstruction\nAmerican Family Field was one of the largest construction projects in Wisconsin history. It was built with US$290 million of public funds from a 0.1% sales tax that began January 1, 1996, and ended on March 31, 2020. The tax was applied on purchases in Milwaukee County and four surrounding counties: Ozaukee, Racine, Washington, and Waukesha. The tax was controversial, in part because of the notion of using public funds for a privately owned sports team. The state senator who cast the deciding vote in the funding bill, George Petak of Racine, lost a recall election based on his vote for the stadium.\nOn November 9, 1996, groundbreaking took place in a parking lot behind County Stadium. Originally scheduled to open in 2000, American Family Field's construction was delayed after three construction workers were killed in an accident on July 14, 1999. A Lampson Transi-lift crane (nicknamed \"Big Blue\") brought in to build the roof collapsed while lifting a 450-ton roof section during windy conditions. A camera crew was filming construction of the stadium on that day and captured the collapse on video as it occurred. Repair work and an investigation forced the Brewers to stay in County Stadium for one more year, until 2001. There was some talk of having the Brewers move to American Family Field in the middle of 2000, but it was determined that too many issues would need to be resolved for it to be a realistic possibility.\nThe stadium was previously called Miller Park as part of a $40 million naming rights deal with Miller Brewing Company which expired at the end of 2020. Madison-based American Family Insurance purchased the naming rights in a new 15-year deal.\n\nStructural challenges\nThe unconventional fan-shaped retractable roof has not been without complications. Major elements of the pivot system behind home plate and the outfield roof track have been replaced, even after the crane incident.\nAt the end of the 2006 season, the roof's bogie system was replaced at a cost of over $13 million. The 10 new, 24-foot-long (7.3 m), 60 horsepower (45 kW) bogies were paid for with money from the settlement between the stadium district and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of America. Six of the bogies weigh 66 short tons (59 long tons; 60 t), while the four others weigh 49 short tons (44 long tons; 44 t). The work was completed by lifting sections of the roof approximately 6 inches (15 cm) with Enerpac hydraulic lifts, while a 300-short-ton (270-long-ton; 270 t) crane replaced the bogies individually. \"The bogies will last for the life of the facility,\" said Mike Duckett, executive director of the then named Miller Park stadium district. The project was completed by the start of the 2007 season.\n\nAdditions\nIn time for the 2006 season there were three additions to the stadium. Two sets of LED scoreboards were added. One replaced the formerly manually operated \"out of town\" scoreboards along the left and right field walls with a new set of LED scoreboards along the left-field wall. The new \"out of town\" scoreboards show the score of every Major League game on that day. A second-tier marquee scoreboard was also added along the bottom of the 300-level of the stadium stretching from foul pole to home plate to foul pole, with the portion closest to the foul lines used to provide open captions of announcements from the public address system and advertisements. The section of the second-tier scoreboard above home plate displays statistics for those unable to see the main scoreboard above the center-field wall. The final addition to American Family Field for the 2006 season was the addition of a field-level picnic area in the corner of right-field. The picnic area has a capacity of 75 and provides a place for fans to watch the game in a leisurely setting and be within feet of the right-fielder. Known first as the Mercedes-Benz Field Haus, the picnic area's name was changed to AirTran Airways Landing Zone in 2009, and to the ATI Club in 2012. In 2017, due to a contract dispute between ATI and the Brewers, it was apparently billed as the Right Field Patio until gaining its sponsorship as the Aurora Health Care Bullpen in 2018.\nIn 2009, American Family Field's outfield was replaced with \"Lo-Mo\" Kentucky bluegrass just like the infield was the prior year. The new turf, common in other ballparks around baseball, is denser and has a sand base, instead of the sand and clay mix under the original grass. The turf yields truer hops and fewer instances in which the baseball skips under an outfielder's glove than the previous turf.\nDuring the off-season between 2010 and 2011, the stadium's original centerfield scoreboard (a smaller videoboard atop a larger black and amber message display board) was replaced by a full-length and full color Daktronics 1080p HD display board which was the ninth-largest screen among MLB stadiums as of 2012, along with a public address/sound system upgrade. By 2023, the relative screen size had dropped to 20th among the 30 MLB teams.\nIn late 2023, Wisconsin Governor Tony Evers signed into effect a bill totaling $500 million of taxpayer money to allow for repairs, ensuring the team remains in Milwaukee until 2050, despite threats of relocation by the MLB. Debuting in the 2024 season, American Family Field had many renovations done with the most notable changes being in center and right field, with a 12,077 square feet board in center, and a 2,840 square feet board in right. The Brewers partnered with ANC in order to provide the 8mm LED displays. The center field board ranks 3rd in the majors for overall size behind the New York Mets and Cleveland Guardians. The new center field board is over double the size of the old board at 5,940 square feet. LED displays were also added on the dugout and behind home plate. The 3rd Street Market Hall, a popular food hall and event venue in downtown Milwaukee, opened with four restaurants in the right field loge level. These vendors include: Kompali Tacos, Smokin' Jack's BBQ, Kawa (Asian fusion), and Anytime Arepa (Venezuelan). The team store in left field was also renovated.\nThe team also announced new parking technology in collaboration with the Interstate Parking Company, based out of Milwaukee. The goal of this partnership is to speed up the time it takes for parking at American Family Field, which can be up to an hour during the busiest times. Visitors may purchase parking in advance at a discounted rate, or may pay when they arrive via QR codes across the stadium grounds. Parking ambassadors aid in the parking process.\nPlans for future improvements include a $25 million winterization of the stadium as well as improvements to the roof, elevators, suites, and other parts of the ballpark.\n\nSensory friendly\nIn June 2022 the Milwaukee Brewers major league baseball team announced that they would create a quiet area at American Family Field known as a sensory friendly area. The area was equipped with \"sensory bags\" to accommodate those with sensory processing disorders. The sensory bags will contain noise-cancelling headphones, a fidget toy, verbal cue cards and a weighted lap pad.\n\nAttendance\nFrom the year American Family Field opened in 2001, the Brewers have averaged 31,783 fans per game, or 2,574,423 per season, while placing 11th out of 30 franchises in total attendance, despite having only eight winning seasons through the 2019 season, and having won only two MLB playoff series in just five total series appearances, and having the smallest market size of any Major League city. In 2011, the Brewers set a franchise record of 3,071,373, and beginning in 2004 they have attracted at least two million fans—an ongoing streak of 15 consecutive years, the 12th longest in Major League history. Prior to American Family Field, the previous such consecutive streak in Milwaukee baseball history was four years, from 1954 to 1957. Since 2007, except for the required reduced attendance in 2020 & 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Brewers have drawn at least 2.5 million fans in 13 of 15 seasons, and have only had one season (2016), where they didn't average 30,000+ fans per game.\n\nNote: For the 2020 season, fans were not allowed in MLB stadiums due to the COVID-19 pandemic. For 2021, fans were allowed to attend, but for part of the season, it was with reduced capacity.\n\nAttractions\nBernie Brewer, the team mascot, has a club house above the left field seats. Following every Brewers home run and victory, Bernie Brewer slides into a home plate shaped platform (The Kalahari \"Splash Zone\" was discontinued for the 2012 season). This is different from his old home at Milwaukee County Stadium, where Bernie slid into a giant mug of beer in center field which had been sponsored over the years by Pabst, Miller, and Sentry Foods. During the home run celebration, a short burst of fireworks is shot out from the top of the center field scoreboard, and above Bernie's club house, the call words of Brewers' radio announcer Bob Uecker are illuminated, \"Get Up, Get Up, Get Outta Here, Gone!\"\nThe Hank the Dog mascot made his debut on September 13, 2014. Hank the real dog was found wandering the field at the Spring training complex in Maryvale, Arizona, on February 17, 2014. He was named after former Brewer and Braves great Hank Aaron. He would soon become an international sensation.\nThe Barrelman mascot made his debut on April 6, 2015. The barrelman served as the team's primary logo from 1970 to 1977.\nThe Johnsonville Sausage Race occurs during each game in the middle of the 6th inning; it was moved from the bottom of the 6th inning to enable the sausages to create more excitement for the fans as the Brewers prepared to bat. The current \"racing sausages\" are the Bratwurst, the Polish, the Italian, the Hot Dog and the Chorizo. The chorizo sausage (to salute the region's growing Latino population) was added on July 29, 2006, for one race, and became a full-time participant in 2007.\nDuring the 7th inning stretch, in addition to \"Take Me Out to the Ballgame\", fans at American Family Field sing \"Roll Out the Barrel\", in salute to Milwaukee's beer-making history.\nThe Brewers have also set statues of legendary Milwaukee players Robin Yount and Hank Aaron outside the front entrance of American Family Field, as well as a statue of former team owner and MLB commissioner Bud Selig and one for Brewers longtime radio broadcaster Bob Uecker. An additional sculpture of Uecker was added to the highest point of seats in the ballpark, in reference to Uecker's famed Miller Lite commercial where he says, \"I must be in the front row\", and he's placed at the highest point of the ballpark instead.\nAnother sculpture, Teamwork by Omri Amrany, honors three Iron Workers Local 8 members killed during the construction of the stadium.\nHelfaer Field is a youth baseball facility located outside American Family Field. The infield is laid out upon the former footprint of the County Stadium infield, albeit in smaller Little League-compliant dimensions. The groundbreaking ceremony was held in August 2001. It was named in honor of the Evan and Marion Helfaer Foundation, which was founded in 1974. Evan Helfaer was an original investor in the Brewers.\nThe American Family Field Walk of Fame was created in 2001 to honor both the Milwaukee Brewers and the Milwaukee Braves. It is located outside American Family Field on the plaza near the home plate entrances. Its most recent additions were former Brewers first baseman Prince Fielder in 2022, starting pitcher Ben Sheets in 2023, and outfielder Ryan Braun in 2024.\nThe Brewers Wall of Honor was created in 2014 to commemorate Brewers players, coaches and executives who meet a set criteria based on service to the club or career accomplishments. It is located outside American Family Field on an exterior wall near the Hot Corner entrance. Brewers TV announcer Bill Schroeder became the 59th honoree on July 17, 2015.\nThe Selig Experience is an exhibit to honor former Brewers owner and retired MLB commissioner Allan H. (Bud) Selig. It opened on May 29, 2015.\n\nNotable events\nBaseball\nOn opening day April 6, 2001, President George W. Bush and MLB Commissioner Bud Selig had first pitch honors for the stadium. The park hosted the 2002 MLB All-Star Game, which ended infamously in a tie.\n\nNon-Brewer games\nIn April 2007, snow storms in northern Ohio caused the Cleveland Indians to postpone their home opening series against the Seattle Mariners and forced the Indians to find a different location for their home series against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. Major League Baseball took advantage of American Family Field's roof and moved the Indians-Angels series to Milwaukee. All seats were sold for $10 apiece, and attendance was 52,496 for the three games. The series was a reminder to many of the 1989 film Major League, which featured scenes filmed in Milwaukee County Stadium, though the film was about a fictionalized Cleveland Indians team. The first game of the series was played on the same day that the film's \"Wild Thing Edition\" was released on DVD. When Joe Borowski came in to close for the Indians, the song \"Wild Thing\" was played over the PA system, in an homage to the film. Also, the Indians' mascot Slider slid down Bernie Brewer's slide following Indians home runs. These games were the first to be played under American League rules in Milwaukee since 1997 (the Brewers' final season in the AL). Some Milwaukee fans commemorated the occasion by making unofficial t-shirts that said, \"The Cleveland Indians of Milwaukee; Established 1989, Re-established 2007.\"\nHurricane Ike's landfall in Houston forced the Chicago Cubs and Houston Astros to play a two-game series at American Family Field on Sunday, September 14 and Monday, September 15, 2008. The park became the first neutral site in Major League history to host a no-hitter, when Carlos Zambrano of the Chicago Cubs threw the first no-hitter in the history of the park against the Houston Astros on Sunday, September 14, 2008. The next day, his teammate Ted Lilly, took a no-hitter into the 7th inning.\n\nBowling\nAmerican Family Field hosted the 2007 United States Bowling Congress Masters finals on Sunday, October 28, 2007. The playing surface was fitted with four bowling lanes for the tournament.\n\nConcerts\nSoccer\nDuring the 2014 All-Star break, American Family Field hosted an untelevised international friendly match between Swansea City and Chivas of Guadalajara on July 16, 2014. The soccer pitch was laid out in a first baseline-to-left field configuration, with a narrower width than a standard soccer pitch due to the constraints of the field. The teams played to a 1–1 draw in front of about 31,000 in attendance.\nDuring the 2015 All-Star Break, American Family Field hosted a friendly between Mexican side Club Atlas and English Premier League side Newcastle United on July 14, 2015. Club Atlas won the match 2–1.\nAfter a three-year hiatus, American Family Field once again hosted a friendly match between Mexican sides C.F. Pachuca and Club León. Pachuca won the match 3–1.\n\nBasketball\nOn November 11, 2022, the University of Wisconsin Badgers hosted a basketball doubleheader at American Family Field called the \"Brew City Battle\". The event featured the Wisconsin Badgers men's team playing against the Stanford University Cardinal and the Wisconsin Badgers women's team playing against the Kansas State Wildcats. The Badgers beat the Cardinal 60 to 50 in the men's game while they lost 63 to 77 in the women's game against the Wildcats.\n\nMovie premiere\nOn August 11, 2012, American Family Field hosted an event called \"Field of Honor: A Salute to the Greatest Generation\". Over 30,000 tickets were sold for the event, which included the premiere showing of Honor Flight, a documentary detailing the Honor Flight movement, where veterans of World War II are flown into Washington, D.C., on commercial flights via donations and non-profit organizations in order to visit the National World War II Memorial in person.\n\nArctic Tailgate\nThe Arctic Tailgate is an annual event where fans camp outside American Family Field the day before single game tickets are sold, which is usually the last weekend of February. (It is delayed or moved into the stadium's heated concourse if the temperatures are well below 0 °F (−18 °C) for the safety of fans.) The tradition is said to have started as early as the 1990s where Brewers fans would try to be the first to acquire tickets for Opening Day. Since 2006, the Brewers have made it an official event, even providing the waiting fans coffee, hot chocolate, and doughnuts in the morning, discounts on tickets for the first week of games in the season, as well as a free lunch consisting of a hot dog, chips, and a soda, eaten in a heated tent afterwards. Over 101,000 tickets were sold for the 2015 Arctic Tailgate.\n\nIn film\nAmerican Family Field was also a major filming location for the motion picture Mr. 3000, which centered on a fictional Brewers player played by comedian Bernie Mac.\n\nClimate\nPhoto gallery\nSee also\nList of baseball parks in Milwaukee\nList of NCAA Division I baseball venues\nTeamwork, a memorial sculpture at the stadium\nSelig Monument, a sculpture in tribute to Bud Selig\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nAmerican Family Field\nSoutheast Wisconsin Professional Baseball Park District",
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"paragraph_text": "LoanDepot Park (officially stylized as loanDepot park, and named Marlins Park until 2021) is a retractable roof stadium located in Miami, Florida, United States. It is the ballpark of Major League Baseball's Miami Marlins. It is located on 17 acres (6.9 ha) on the site of the former Miami Orange Bowl in Little Havana about 2 miles (3 km) west of Downtown Miami. Construction was completed in March 2012 for the 2012 season.\nLoanDepot Park was LEED certified as the greenest MLB park in 2012. The building is the sixth MLB stadium to have a retractable roof. With a seating capacity of 37,442, it is the third-smallest stadium in Major League Baseball by official capacity, and the smallest by actual capacity.\nThe facility hosted a second-round pool of the 2013 World Baseball Classic, a first-round pool of the 2017 World Baseball Classic, the 2017 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, and the championship game of the 2023 World Baseball Classic. The park also hosts soccer matches, fundraising galas, and other events during the winter. It also hosted the Miami Beach Bowl from 2014 through 2016.\nThe stadium is designed in a neomodern form of baseball architecture.\n\nHistory\nPlanning\nPrior to the construction of LoanDepot Park, the Marlins played home games at what was originally known as Joe Robbie Stadium in Miami Gardens, which was known by a number of different names during the Marlins' tenure there. Joe Robbie Stadium was built in 1987 as home to the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL), and was designed as a multi-purpose stadium built primarily for football, but its design also accommodated baseball and soccer. Dolphins founder Joe Robbie believed it was a foregone conclusion that MLB would come to South Florida, so he wanted the stadium designed to make any necessary renovations for baseball as seamless as possible. The Marlins arrived in 1993 and during their time at the stadium, the Marlins drew more than 3 million people in their inaugural season and also won two World Series titles, in 1997 and 2003. The stadium continues to be home to the Dolphins, and since 2008, the Miami Hurricanes from the University of Miami.\nAfter the Marlins began play, multiple issues were soon raised regarding the unsuitability of Joe Robbie Stadium for professional baseball. Among those cited were the poor seat and sight-line configuration for baseball viewing, references to Miami's NFL team such as the logos and color scheme remaining visible in the stadium despite being in baseball configuration, and poor fan environment due to the distance of the action in relation to the seats. The climate in Miami during baseball season was not conducive for the sport and the audience, as games were often either played in 95 °F (35 °C) heat or would be rained out, owing to the tropical climate in South Florida. These were suspected by the Florida Marlins for having poor fan attendance, as well as players’ performance at home games. By 2004, the Florida Marlins were the only team in baseball playing in an NFL-configured sporting stadium.\nAfter original owner Wayne Huizenga claimed he lost more than $30 million on the team, he sold the Marlins in early 1999 to John W. Henry. Thereafter, the Marlins began a concerted effort to get their own baseball-only venue. Henry's vision included a retractable roof, believed by this time to be essential due to South Florida's climate and baseball's summertime schedule. Several ideas were explored on where a new ballpark should be built. The team's desire to leave their original home made for an awkward business relationship over leasing issues with Huizenga, who continued to own the then-named Pro Player Stadium. By January 2002, Henry's stadium proposals were effectively scrapped when MLB Commissioner Bud Selig engineered a three-franchise ownership swap—Henry left to own the Boston Red Sox, while Montreal Expos owner Jeffrey Loria took over the Marlins.\nLoria and president David Samson continued the search for a new, baseball-only retractable-roof ballpark. The Marlins' second World Series championship in 2003 created some local exuberance for a new ballpark. Then, in January 2004, the City of Miami proposed building a baseball-only stadium for the Marlins at the site of the Miami Orange Bowl that would adjoin the existing football stadium along its northern flank.\nIn December 2004, Miami's NFL team notified the Marlins of its intention to terminate the lease at Joe Robbie Stadium by 2010, potentially leaving the Marlins without a stadium to host its home games. In the ensuing years between 2004 and 2009, the Marlins negotiated with local and state officials regarding funding the construction of a baseball-specific stadium before the termination of its lease at Joe Robbie Stadium. In 2005, Marlins owner Jeffrey Loria and president David Samson failed to come to an agreement with local and state officials regarding the funding of a baseball-specific stadium. Subsequently, the Marlins explored relocation options in the ensuing years from Las Vegas, Portland, and San Antonio. The specter of relocation pushed Charlie Crist, then Governor of Florida and other local mayors to release statements in favor of public funding for the new stadium. \nAfter the Marlins explored other options, including at the former site of the Miami Arena, in August 2007, the Miami Hurricanes announced they were leaving the Orange Bowl, which made the newly-vacant site the most attractive option for local governments.\n\nPublic funding and groundbreaking\nIn February 2008, the Miami city commission and the Miami-Dade county commission came to an initial agreement to fund the new stadium. The Orange Bowl was subsequently demolished in March 2008 to make way for the new ballpark. A delay in the public funding of the ballpark was caused by a lawsuit filed in the Miami-Dade circuit court by a local car dealer, upon which the circuit court judge ruled in favor of the Marlins in November 2008. That following March in 2009, both the city and the county commission finalized approval for the sale of bonds for funding of the stadium, along with the Florida Marlins to be renamed the Miami Marlins upon the opening of the new stadium. Construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony in July 2009. The total cost of construction for the ballpark was estimated to be $634 million, with 80% of that funded by the city and the county. Due to the structure of the bonds financed over 40 years, it was estimated that the principal and the interest paid by the city and county would accrue to $2.4 billion over the lifetime of the bonds. Between 2009 and 2010, a series of leaked documents from Major League Baseball showed a disparity between the Marlins’ intake in MLB revenue sharing compared to the operating costs of the franchise, suggesting a willful misrepresentation of the Marlins’ profit margins under the Loria ownership as well as Loria and Samson's mismanagement of the Marlins in order to leverage the local government to provide a lion's share of the funding for the stadium. During the 2011–12 offseason, Mayor of Miami Regalado publicized details of the contract and expressed concern regarding certain clauses dedicated to the parking facilities and the maintenance of the stadium. Marlins Park began operations on April 4, 2012, for Opening Day of the 2012 season.\n\nNew ownership and further changes\nIn 2017, the Loria ownership announced its intention to sell the Miami Marlins. A group of investors led by Derek Jeter and Bruce Sherman took over the Marlins organization in August 2017. Changes to the stadium, including a new color scheme, moving the Home Run sculpture, and obtaining naming rights to the stadium were achieved during the Jeter regime.\nOn March 31, 2021, the Marlins announced that it had sold naming rights to Marlins Park to LoanDepot, renaming the facility LoanDepot Park; terms of the agreement were not disclosed. The naming rights to the stadium reportedly brings $10 million per annum to the Marlins.\n\nDesign\nContemporary architecture\nLoanDepot Park has the distinction of being the first MLB park designed in what stadium planners are calling the \"contemporary\" architectural style. The architecture is intended to make a statement about the present-day culture of the city in which the stadium stands. It rejects the nostalgic idiom of the 20 consecutive new (plus three renovated) retro ballparks that opened in the two decades after Camden Yards was built. Owner Jeffrey Loria, who spearheaded the design, wanted his building to be \"different and experimental.\" Loria said, \"I thought it was time for baseball to be innovative.\"\nIn early 2008, Loria was in London at the same time as some architects from Populous who were there on another project. The group met in a hotel lobby to begin discussing design ideas. Loria described the meeting:\n\nWhen it all started, the architects came to me and asked what I had envisioned. Was I looking to have a retro stadium? Did we have that in mind? I said, \"No retro, no art-deco, no looking back. Miami is a spectacular city, looking ahead. We need to be looking forward. I'd like to see us build a great, 'contemporary' building.\"\nWe had to think about some kind of design for it and what it might look like ... I really did not want it to be just another ballpark. I wasn't interested in a 1970s or '80s doughnut ... I wanted it to be a statement of what Miami is all about—a contemporary city. Miami is an important American city and architecture makes your city great. The idea was to create something very contemporary.\nLoria then sketched his idea of a round building on a napkin and told the architects to bring him back some real drawings. Exec architect Earl Santee, who was present at the meeting, said, \"Mr. Loria told us to make a piece of art.\"\nThe architects returned to their Kansas City offices and began brainstorming in April 2008. \"We were waiting for a client willing to break the [retro] mold\", said Greg Sherlock, the project's lead designer at Populous. Loria \"sort of let us do our thing and explore something unique. We knew from the beginning that this was going to be something new and different.\" As a result, classic elements such as redbrick, limestone, and muted forest-green seats or fences, would not be found anywhere in Marlins Park. Any visible steel trusses would be functionally required to be that way, unlike retro-style trusses which tend to be exposed and bare for aesthetics. According to Sherlock, the structure would convey \"that a ballpark doesn't necessarily have to be bricks and steel to translate a message about its location. It can be interpreted in a fresh way.\" The stadium would also not be symmetrical like the \"cookie-cutter\" stadiums of the pre-Camden, modern era.\nPopulous began conducting feasibility studies for their \"primary design objectives.\" The top objective was creating \"a ballpark that is quintessentially Miami,\" which meant, according to a list of adjectives that the architects drew up: \"palms, destination, diverse, recreation, and beach.\" A similar list was drawn up for the Little Havana neighborhood around the future park: \"Cuba, pastels, canopies, organic, and everything is unique.\" They created a presentation for the Marlins tailored to Loria's background in the art business with concepts such as \"the site is a gallery space with the ballpark representing gallery walls\", and \"pure art ... pure color ... pure baseball.\" Four different initial designs were presented, all of which were stark departures from previous ballpark architecture. Both the Marlins' and Populous' favorite choice was a design of an angular white-curves-and-glass facade—a metaphor for the \"water merging with land\" landscape of the Miami area—which was close to what eventually became the final design.\n\"For the first time, you can embrace art and architecture and baseball in one building form,\" Santee said. \"It's not just the art in the building, but the building itself is a piece of art.\"\n\"If you're looking for a label, I'd say 'contemporary',\" Sherlock said. As well:\n\nIn this particular case, we didn't adopt anything stylistically. It's sculpture quality, and with sculpture, there are no rules. We wanted an experience that connects the fan experience to the city of Miami and its people and its climate and culture.\n\n\"All about Miami\"\nThe ballpark is intended to embody Miami so much that its emblematic features would look out-of-place if they were put in other cities.\n\"We used Miami as an excuse to do things that other cities couldn't get away with,\" team President David Samson said. \"Everywhere you look, it's things that if they were anywhere else, people would say, 'You can't do that.' In Miami, people say, 'Oh, that's Miami.' You have to take advantage where you are.\"\n\n\"Marlins Park is all about Miami,\" said Sherlock. The exterior is a sculptural monument consisting of gleaming white stucco, steel, aluminum, and glass. The inclining elliptical form avoids creating many rigid, right angles. Angled, cantilevered pedestrian ramps also form elegant geometric shapes. \"It's consistent with the essence of the buildings that are down here – white plaster and graceful forms, which are somewhat of an abstraction of the look and feel of Miami Deco\", Sherlock continued. Even the parking-garage walls are tiled in Miami-Deco pastels that connect with Little Havana.\nAs visitors walk from the outside in, they step right on metaphors for Miami's topography, including concrete pavers that in general are either green or blue (\"grass\" or \"sea\"). They walk past landscaping that evokes the \"beach\"—there's even sand—in places. There's cobalt-blue glass at eye level (\"ocean\"), the stucco and concrete (\"land\" or \"buildings\"), and the paler blue-gray glass at the upper levels (\"sky\"). The seats are also cobalt-blue, facing the naturally green, Bermuda grass field.\nWhen Marlins fans first realized that the original colors of the team would not appear on the seats in the new stadium—and ultimately not on the new uniforms either—some angrily started a petition known as \"Project Teal.\" But Samson said it was necessary to ignore fans' complaints: \"I think any time you do something new and different, the knee-jerk reaction from bloggers or people who post comments is negative. But we have blinders on. This ballpark would have never been built if we had listened to the negativity.\"\n\nLoria, a notable art dealer, took the four bright primary colors off the palette of the late Catalan surrealist, Joan Miró, to conveniently label different zones around the park—green (outfield), red (third-base line), yellow (first-base line) and blue (behind home plate). \"If you look carefully, in those sections, they dissolve into the next color, and the colors mix,\" Loria said. Wide open plazas at the east and colorful west ends of the building, as well as a 360° concourse inside called the Promenade encourages fans to walk around—and to intermingle at stops such as the bars or the bobblehead museum. Dazzling colors are found throughout the interior, including fluorescent lime-green fences, and in modernist & contemporary works of art—including the much-debated animatronic home-run sculpture—that relate to baseball and Miami.\n\"My idea was to have people use their eyes and encourage them to use their eyes,\" said Loria. \"We wanted a ballpark filled with great baseball, great entertainment, and occasionally, some images to be seen and enjoyed. It's not about an art gallery. But it's about images relating to the game. There are a few of them in the park.\"\nA nightclub featuring loud music and a swimming pool just beyond the left field fence brings a touch of South Beach into the park. Taste of Miami food court includes such local cuisine as Cuban sandwiches, pork sandwiches, and stone crabs. There's even an aquarium inside the walls of home plate backstop containing live, tropical fish.\nLoanDepot Park pays tribute to the two football stadiums closely associated with the team's stadium history. It transfers over \"The Bermuda Triangle\" quirk of what was then Sun Life Stadium's outfield fence as a nod to their team's early years. However, instead of straight lines, the new \"triangle\" is a wave-like shape that smoothly curves upwardly around the base of the large home-run sculpture, making the nook appear necessary to the design of the asymmetrical fence. The height of the tall wall varies from 10 to 16 feet (3.0 to 4.9 m). There are also commemorations to the beloved old Orange Bowl both inside and outside of the park.\nA critical design point addresses the tropical climate of South Florida. Fans are provided with the comfort they longed for at Sun Life Stadium with a 5.27-acre (2.13 ha) retractable roof, retractable-glass wall panels that offer a panoramic view of Downtown Miami, and a huge air-conditioning system. The stadium is also said to be designed to withstand strong hurricanes.\n\"If our ballpark would speak, its first words would be, '¡Hola, Miami!,'\" Loria said during a new-era ceremony.\n\nTechnology and going green\nInstead of framing new technology with nostalgic elements as in retro parks, LoanDepot Park emphasizes the future. Besides electronic mixed-media artwork, technology is also unmistakably used for commercial purposes. As a way to market to Latino fans, many digital menu boards on the concession stands continuously switch from English to Spanish and back. Also, there are no hand-operated advertisement signs; ads are all computerized.\n\nSantee explains:It's really just how technology is everywhere. You don't see any static ad panels in this building. It's all video-based, IPTV-based. It's all connected. The technology is the blood of the building. It flows through every vein, every piece of building.\nWhat it means is that [stadium operators] could run a third-inning (concession) special and it would pop up ... You could have the whole building with one sponsor for one moment, if you wanted to. Or you could do zones. It gives them maximum flexibility for however they want to present their partners as well as themselves.\nAs part of its forward-thinking design, the venue is an efficient, environmentally-friendly green building in its use of materials, waste, and operation. The selection of building materials included sealants, paint, and adhesives with low VOC (volatile organic compounds) to maximize good indoor-air quality. A white rubber membrane lining the roof reflects rays to reduce \"heat-island effect.\" The extensive glass facade allows in natural light during the day and reduces reliance on artificial light. The suites are built with replenishable bamboo paneling instead of hardwood. Most construction waste was hauled away to recycling centers during the building phase.\nPalm trees and other native plant species around the building encourage biodiversity. Levy Restaurants, which runs some of the kitchens, gets most of its fresh-food supply directly from local farms that are within a 100-mile (160 km) radius of the stadium. Approximately 6 million US gallons (23,000,000 L) of water a year are saved with the use of 249 waterless urinals.\nAn early aim of the new ballpark was to become the first retractable-roof ballpark to be Silver Certified by Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). On May 25, 2012, Marlins Park surpassed that goal by officially becoming the first MLB stadium—and the first retractable-roof stadium in any sport—to achieve LEED Gold Certification, anointing the facility as the most sustainable ballpark in MLB. The LEED-NC (New Construction) rating system credited the stadium with 40 points toward certification, the highest total of any LEED-certified park in the majors—the retro-contemporary ballparks of Oracle Park, Target Field and Nationals Park are the only others to achieve LEED certification.\nAlthough they were publicly seeking silver, Loria had privately challenged engineers to shoot for the higher gold certification. The most difficult aspect of achieving gold, though—and one the design team had doubt it would be able to accomplish—was concerning the energy required to operate the retractable roof. Populous thought renewable energy would be a part of the sustainability equation but the park opened without solar panels. However, engineers optimized lighting, mechanical controls, and electrical aspects enough to achieve a 22.4% reduction in energy usage, which exceeded the 14% required for certification.\nThe U.S. Green Building Council noted an innovation which earned the facility three credits: Throughout areas of the stadium, including the clubhouses, the floor is made of a synthetic pouring made from recycled Nike shoes. The Council presented Loria with a plaque to signify the entire gold-certification achievement.\nRick Fedrizzi, President, CEO and Founding Chair of U.S. Green Building Council stated:\n\nA lot of people have often thought this [LEED Gold Certification] is an award. I'd like to think about this as 'the organization has earned its Ph. D,' because earning one of these is not an easy task. The team that's up here did some amazing things to bring this plaque to the building.\n\"It was our desire from the onset to not only build America's greatest new ballpark, but also its most environmentally friendly,\" said Loria.\n\nProblems with grass and retractable roof\nSince sod was first laid down in early February 2012, the grass has had difficulty growing under the frequently-closed roof. Planners had selected a strain of Bermuda grass—named Celebration—for its reputation of doing well in the shade. Even so, with the grass receiving only about 4 hours per day of sunlight, some of the sod kept turning brown. The worst-affected area is in deep right field where patches of dead sod have been replaced multiple times. Grow lights are pointed by groundskeepers on the area to nurse it to health on non-game days. As of 2014, the Bermuda grass has been replaced with Platinum TE Paspalum. Paspalum is better able to tolerate shaded areas.\nDuring the first months of games played at the new park, at least four leaks showed themselves in the retractable roof. Fans sitting in at least four seating sections still got wet under the drippy roof on rainy days. Leaks have progressively appeared under different spots as stadium workers kept plugging them by opening up the roof panels and patching the joints.\nSamson said it will take time to work out the kinks:\n\nWe knew going in that other retractable-roof ballparks had to make adjustments for one or two years to get their field right. We hoped that we'd get it right the first time. So far it's not right. We're going to keep working and find a way to make it better.\n\n2016 renovation\nIn time for the start of the 2016 MLB season, the park underwent a $500,000 renovation, mainly to lower and move in the outfield walls. The changes were studied and enacted after Marlins players complained to president David Samson that their long balls were not resulting in as many doubles or home runs as in other parks. Since 2012, the park has logged the second fewest home runs of all Major League ballparks, behind San Francisco's Oracle Park. The renovation, engineered by the Populous architectural firm that designed the original park, eliminated the \"Bermuda Triangle\" in center field and reduced the length from home plate to the center field wall from 418 feet (127 m) to 407 feet (124 m). The walls around the outfield were lowered from heights up to 13 feet (4.0 m) to as low as 6 feet (1.8 m), which will allow outfielders to make leaping grabs for long balls. The dimensions down the left- and right-field lines and in the power alleys were not altered, retaining the park's reputation as a pitcher's park.\n\n2020 changes\nOn December 4, 2019, the team announced that the field surface would be converted to Shaw Sports B1K, an artificial turf surface installed by the Arizona Diamondbacks for Chase Field in 2019, and for the Texas Rangers in their new Globe Life Field. Also, the team announced that the center- and right-center field fences would be moved in, with the center-field fence being moved from 407 to 400 feet (124 to 122 m), and the right-center field fence being moved from 392 to 387 feet (119 to 118 m). The changes came after only 173 home runs were hit in 2019, which was the third-lowest mark in the league that season.\n\nFeatures\nThe Marlins' front office commissioned several works of art and other notable features around the stadium.\n\nRetractable roof and outfield glass panels: The retractable roof consists of 8,300 tons of steel. The Marlins covered it with a white membrane because \"we want to make sure we're not absorbing heat in the roof\", said Claude Delorme, the Marlins executive vice president/ballpark development. Separate retractable glass panels offer uninterrupted views of the downtown Miami skyline, and also allow in a natural breeze when they are open. The six panels are a combined 240 feet (73 m) long and 60 feet (18 m) high. An air-conditioning system will cool the average temperature to 75 °F (24 °C) with the roof and glass panels closed. The Marlins expect for the roof to be closed for about 70 of the 81 home games and likely to remain open on some dry nights in April, when the weather is not too hot. It takes approximately 14½ minutes to open the roof, and 7–8 minutes to open the transparent outfield panels.\nHome run sculpture: Red Grooms designed a 65 and 75 feet (20 and 23 m) tall sculpture displayed behind the left center field wall, consisting of a tropical scene with clouds, flamingos, seagulls, marlins, and palm trees. Marlins home runs activate the sculpture, resulting in motion, a light show, and water blasts. It was budgeted at $2.5 million with funding provided by the county's Art in Public Places department. The piece is unnamed; the Miami Herald invited its readers to submit nickname ideas for the sculpture, with \"the Marlinator\" as the winner. The sculpture sparked heated conversation among Miami-Dade taxpayers well before the park opened and has since continued. The Miami Herald reported that many fans thought it was \"tacky\" or \"ugly\", while others felt it captured the \"essence of Miami\". Marlins players wondered if the upcoming sculpture could cause a distraction to left-handed batters. However, MLB officials have approved the batter's eye (after a separate area in dead center was repainted from fluorescent green to black) and so far, the sculpture has not been an issue for hitters. In 2018, after Derek Jeter took over as team CEO under a new ownership group, it was widely expected that the new ownership would seek permission to remove the unpopular sculpture as part of a larger series of operational changes; In October 2018, the Miami Art in Public Places trust voted to move the sculpture from the ballpark to the outdoor plaza; it was to be replaced by a new, multi-level standing room area. The sculpture is now located outside of the park.\nAquatic home plate backstop: (2012–2020) Dual bulletproof aquariums serve as a home-plate backstop. They were built on each side of home plate and are positioned to prevent any disruption to players on the field. The aquarium to the right of home plate (when looking from the pitcher's mound) measures 34 feet (10 m) long and 36 inches (91 cm) high and holds over 600 US gallons (2,300 L) of seawater, while the aquarium to the left is 24 feet (7.3 m) in length and holds 450 US gallons (1,700 L) of water. Each aquarium was constructed using a durable fiberglass structure, while crystal-clear acrylic panels 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) thick are used for the viewing windows that run the entire length of the aquariums. To safeguard the exhibits from impacts, Lexan was installed in front and in back of the acrylic panels to protect the aquariums from foul balls, errant pitches or any other unexpected contact. The fish tanks were removed after the 2020 season after the protective glass was proven to be ineffective.\nClevelander Bar and swimming pool (2012–2019): The Clevelander was a South Beach-themed nightclub that takes its name from a 100-year-old Miami institution. It held approximately 240 guests and offered a variety of food selections, entertainment (dancers, DJs and body painting), field-level seating, and a swimming pool. The poolside bar and grill was available on gamedays for private events for groups, on a per-game basis. The Clevelander and its swimming pool were removed from the park beginning 2020.\nBobblehead museum: A display showcases hundreds of bobblehead dolls from all over baseball, jiggling in unison.\nCommemorative marker: Daniel Arsham and Snarkitecture were commissioned to design a work to commemorate the former Miami Orange Bowl, which was demolished to make way for the new stadium. The piece uses the letters from the original \"Miami Orange Bowl\" sign as the basis for the 10-foot-tall (3.0 m) orange concrete letters rearranged across the east plaza so that they form new words as visitors move around them. They spell out both \"ORANGE BOWL\" and \"GAME WON\", for example.\nParking complex and trolley service: The stadium is surrounded by four main parking garages along with six other lots, with a combined capacity of about 5,600 vehicles. The garages extend the contemporary design of the park with walls of pastel, Miami-Deco tiles. Garages are conveniently color-coded with pennant banners to match their corresponding color quadrants of the stadium: blue for home plate, yellow for first base, red for third base, and green for center field. In addition to the main commemorative marker, three mosaic panels from the old Orange Bowl hang on the facade of the southwestern garage, and a few of the old bowl's plastic seats punctuate a small plaza in front of the parking structure, as a nod to the past. As final public art project, large-scale bit-map paintings of children peering through a ballpark chain-link fence are being installed on the garages. Parking tickets are pre-purchased like seating tickets, raising the probability that parking spaces could be sold out even before game day. Due to the limited public transportation at LoanDepot Park, free trolleys shuttle fans to and from the Downtown Miami Civic Center or a nearby train station on game days only.\nEntrance/West Plaza paving: Pathways paved on the west entrance plaza of the stadium are created by Venezuelan-born and Parisian-based kinetic-op artist Carlos Cruz-Diez. It's entitled Chromatic Induction in a Double Frequency and uses 1-inch tiles to form a rhythmic pattern that perceptibly changes for visitors as they walk on it and at times almost seems to vibrate.\nColumn illumination: Daniel Arsham and Snarkitecture were also selected for the lighting of the four super columns which support the retractable roof. The lighting is designed to give the illusion of the columns being concealed and revealed through programmable LEDs that fade up and down the columns in subtly shifting patterns, evoking the rhythm of a human breath.\nModern and contemporary artist replicas: A large, ceramic-tile reproduction of a Joan Miró mural (1930s) is on a promenade wall behind home plate. A reprint of pop culture artist Roy Lichtenstein's painting of \"The Manager\" (1962) is displayed near the main concourse. A nearly 40-foot (12 m) reprint of Kenny Scharf's mixed media work \"Play Ball!\" (2011) is in a corner behind the team store.\nSports & The Arts graphics: In addition to other artwork, California-based consultant \"Sports & The Arts\" was retained to curate the photography and wall and column graphics components. Nearly 500 pieces of photography and over 15,000 square feet (1,400 m2) of wall and column treatments were planned.\n\nNotable baseball events\nMarlins Park hosted Pool 2 during the second round of the 2013 World Baseball Classic on March 12–16, 2013.\nIn September 2013, Henderson Álvarez pitched a no-hitter against the Detroit Tigers, recording four strikeouts and one walk. The game was scoreless up to the 9th inning. In the bottom of 9th, with the Marlins at bat and the bases loaded, Luke Putkonen surrendered the game-winning run by unleashing a wild pitch, allowing Marlins right fielder Giancarlo Stanton to score from 3rd base. This no-hitter was unusual in that it ended with a walk-off wild pitch. This was the first no-hitter to be pitched at Marlins park, with the next no-hitter being pitched by Marlins pitcher Edinson Vólquez in June 2017.\nThe Marlins and their fans experienced the first rain delay at Marlins Park on April 6, 2015. During a sold-out Opening Day game against the Atlanta Braves, a shower moved over the stadium with the roof open. The bottom of the 2nd inning was interrupted for 16 minutes while the roof was closed; the field, however, was sufficiently wet to cause players to slip several times during the remainder of the game, a 2–1 Braves victory.\nOn June 20, 2016, Marlins Park saw the most-ever home runs hit in one game at the park, with eight in a 5–3 win by the Colorado Rockies over the Marlins. This also set a Major League record for solo home runs accounting for all the scoring in a game, surpassing the previous record of five.\nFrom March 9 to 13, 2017, Marlins Park hosted Pool C in the four-pool, first round of the 2017 World Baseball Classic.\nMarlins Park hosted the 2017 Major League Baseball All-Star Game in July 2017. This was the first time the Miami Marlins hosted the midsummer classic, after the 2000 All-Star Game was moved to Atlanta.\nFrom March 11 to 20, 2023, it hosted Pool D and the knockout rounds of the 2023 World Baseball Classic. The championship game was held on March 21. It will also host Pool D, the quarterfinals, and the championship game of the 2026 World Baseball Classic.\n\nNon-baseball events\nCollege football\nThe Miami Beach Bowl college football bowl game was played at Marlins Park every December from 2014 through 2016. The bowl was moved to Frisco, Texas for 2017 and is now known as the Frisco Bowl.\nOn November 23, 2019, the FIU Panthers upset the Miami Hurricanes 30–24 in a nonconference football game.\n\nSoccer\nThe stadium hosted its first non-baseball event when Venezuela and Nigeria national teams played a match on November 14, 2012. The field was configured for soccer by covering the infield dirt, placing one goal near the Marlins' dugout on the third-base side and the other in front of the visitors' bullpen in right field.\nIn January 2013, Marlins Park began hosting the Miami Soccer Challenge as part of a three-year partnership with Global Football Challenge.\n\nInternational soccer matches\nConcerts\nOther events\nThe stadium was scheduled to host the 22nd annual World Music Awards on December 22, 2012, but the event was canceled due to logistical and multiple visa issues, as well as the stated intent to observe the national mourning of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.\nOn April 20, 2013, the park hosted \"America's Night of Hope\" with Joel and Victoria Osteen, an annual stadium event for Joel Osteen Ministries.\nOn January 21–22, 2017, it hosted the Race of Champions, an all-star racecar competition.\nJennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony headlined “One Voice: Somos Live! A Concert For Disaster Relief” a benefit concert to raise money for Feeding America, Save the Children, Habitat for Humanity, United Way, UNICEF, and Unidos for Puerto Rico in the wake of natural disasters in Puerto Rico, as well as the southern United States, Mexico, and other areas of the Caribbean on October 14, 2017. The benefit concert was broadcast on Telemundo and Univision.\nMarlins Park has hosted Monster Jam events since February 2018 as part of their stadium championship tours.\nJehovah's Witnesses hosted the \"Love Never Fails\" convention at the stadium on May 24–26 and July 5–7, 2019.\nTemporary seating was erected in center field for Opening Night of Super Bowl LIV on January 27, 2020.\nKanye West hosted a listening party for his album Donda 2 in February 2022.\n\nBallpark firsts\nNotable and technical firsts\nConstruction gallery\nSee also\nKaseya Center, an arena in Downtown Miami for the Miami Heat of the NBA, which opened December 1999\nHard Rock Stadium, located in Miami Gardens, home of the NFL's Miami Dolphins and Miami Hurricanes for college football, and former home of the Marlins, which opened August 1987\nMiami Orange Bowl, football stadium, which opened in 1937 and was demolished in 2008 to make room for LoanDepot Park. Former home of the annual Orange Bowl post-season college-football game, as well as the NFL's Miami Dolphins and college football's Miami Hurricanes. Site of Super Bowls II, III, V, X, and XIII. Also frequently used for soccer and concerts.\nAmerant Bank Arena, an arena in Sunrise, Florida for the Florida Panthers of the NHL, which opened October 1998.\nMiami Arena, a multi-purpose arena, which opened in 1988 and was demolished in 2008. Former home of the NBA's Miami Heat and the NHL's Florida Panthers.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nLoanDepot Park Official Homepage\nLoanDepot Park Aerial video with roof in open position",
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"paragraph_text": "Globe Life Field is a retractable roof stadium in Arlington, Texas, United States. It is the home ballpark of Major League Baseball's Texas Rangers. It is located just south of the Rangers' former home ballpark, Globe Life Park (originally known as The Ballpark in Arlington and renamed Choctaw Stadium after the Rangers' departure and subsequent reconfiguration).\n\nHistory\nBackground\nOn May 20, 2016, the Rangers announced that they would vacate Globe Life Park. The new stadium was to be constructed in a public/private partnership and have a retractable roof. The ballpark was approved on the following Election Day. HKS, Inc. was announced as the architect on January 5, 2017.\nOn January 31, 2019, the Rangers announced that the playing surface of Globe Life Field would be carpeted with synthetic grass supplied by Shaw Sports Turf, making them one of only five major league teams to play their home games on artificial turf.\nThe Rangers cited weather as the reason why attendance at Globe Life Park was lower than in other baseball stadiums in major metropolitan areas, as the area is prone to high temperatures and frequent rain, and also why the venue, despite being barely two decades old, was wearing out far more quickly than ballparks of a similar age such as Jacobs Field and Coors Field. Therefore, the Rangers proposed that their new ballpark be constructed with a retractable roof. Unlike its predecessors, the new stadium's center field faces northeast rather than southeast.\nA new shopping mall, a Loews Hotel, and a ballpark village were planned to go along with the new stadium. After the Rangers left Globe Life Park, it was then to be renovated for football and soccer use and renamed Choctaw Stadium.\nThe plans to build the stadium generated a mixed reaction. The new stadium offers a more comfortable environment to watch baseball but extended existing taxes used to pay for AT&T Stadium. According to The Dallas Morning News, \"The deal calls for the city to issue $500 million in bonds to help pay for the stadium. A half-cent of sales tax, 2% hotel occupancy tax and 5% car rental tax would pay off those bonds over an estimated 30 years. Voters also approved a ticket tax of up to 10% and parking tax of up to $3 at the new stadium. That money would be used for some of the Rangers' portion of the debt, which was criticized by the opposition campaign.\"\nOn December 14, 2019, a section of the roof caught fire while under construction.\n\nOpening\nGlobe Life Field was originally scheduled to open on March 23, 2020, but because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the start of the 2020 Major League Baseball season was delayed for several months. Globe Life Field opened for a high-school graduation on May 29, 2020.\nOn July 24, 2020, the Rangers hosted their first regular-season game against the Colorado Rockies, which they won 1-0. The Rangers played two exhibition games against the Rockies on July 21 and 22 at Globe Life Field. Joey Gallo hit the first home run at the stadium on July 26.\n\n2020 MLB postseason\nBecause of the COVID-19 pandemic in Texas, Major League Baseball announced on September 15, 2020, that it would implement a playoff \"bubble\" starting with the second round of the playoffs. Globe Life Field and Minute Maid Park in Houston shared the 2020 National League Division Series second-round playoff series, with one series in Houston and the other in Arlington. The 2020 National League Championship Series and the 2020 World Series were played exclusively at Globe Life Field. MLB allowed fans to attend games at Globe Life during the NLCS and World Series.\n\nNaming rights\nGlobe Life and Accident Insurance Company owns the naming rights for the facility through 2048.\n\nDimensions\nThe marked dimensions of Globe Life Field pay extensive homage to Rangers history, honoring all of the team's retired numbers plus key seasons in team history.\n\nNotable events\nMLB\nAll 6 games of the 2020 World Series were held at Globe Life Field, making it the first and so far only venue to host a World Series without its tenant playing in the Series; this was due to the COVID-19 pandemic necessitating a neutral ground for the series. The stadium saw Joe Musgrove throw the first no-hitter in San Diego Padres history against the Rangers on April 9th, 2021. Games 1 and 2 of the 2023 World Series (which the Rangers would end up winning in 5 games for their first championship) were hosted at the stadium. The stadium also hosted the 2024 Major League Baseball All-Star Game.\n\nNational Finals Rodeo\nThe Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association held the 2020 National Finals Rodeo (NFR) at Globe Life Field instead of its usual location in Las Vegas due to the COVID-19 pandemic and Nevada's state-mandated health restrictions.\n\nCollege football\nOn November 6, 2021, the ballpark hosted a college football game for the first time when Army and Air Force played in the Lockheed Martin Commanders' Classic. The Black Knights bested the Falcons, 21–14, in overtime. The day prior to the football game, the ballpark also hosted its first-ever boxing matches, with the boxing teams of each academy squaring off; Air Force won 6 bouts to 4.\nGlobe Life Field's football configuration has the end zones at left field and first base.\n\nConcerts\nProfessional wrestling\nOn August 15, 2024, the American professional wrestling promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW) announced that the 2025 edition of their annual All In pay-per-view event, entitled \"All In: Texas\", would be held at Globe Life Field on July 12, marking the first professional wrestling event held at the stadium.\n\nSee also\nList of ballparks by capacity\nList of current Major League Baseball stadiums\nLists of stadiums\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial Site",
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] | What is the average distance for the left field line in MLB stadiums with a retractable roof as of August 2024? Round to the nearest whole number. | [] | 331 feet | [] | true |
49 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Since Alaska's admission to the Union in January 1959, it has participated in 16 United States presidential elections, always having 3 electoral votes. In the 1960 presidential election, Alaska was narrowly won by the Republican Party's candidate and incumbent vice president Richard Nixon, defeating the Democratic Party's candidate John F. Kennedy by a margin of just 1.88% (1,144 votes). In the 1964 presidential election, the Democratic Party's candidate Lyndon B. Johnson won Alaska in a national Democratic landslide victory. Since the 1964 election, Alaska has been won by the Republican Party in every presidential election.\nRonald Reagan, the Republican candidate in the 1984 presidential election, won Alaska by 36.78%, which remains the largest margin of victory in the state's history. Ross Perot, the independent candidate in the 1992 presidential election, received the highest vote share (28.43%) ever won by a third-party candidate in Alaska. Various news organizations have characterized Alaska as a safe Republican state. No Republican has won the presidency without carrying Alaska since its statehood in 1959 due to Lyndon B. Johnson being the only Democrat candidate to ever carry the state. Alaska is tied with Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma for the longest Republican voting streak for any state in recent political history, from 1968 to present.\n\nPresidential elections\nGraph\nThe following graph shows the margin of victory of the winner over the runner-up in the 16 presidential elections Alaska participated.\n\nSee also\nElections in Alaska\nList of United States presidential election results by state\n\nNotes\nReferences\n\n\n== Works cited ==",
"title": "United_States_presidential_elections_in_Alaska"
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"paragraph_text": "Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was an American politician who served as the 38th president of the United States from 1974 to 1977. He previously served as the leader of the Republican Party in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1965 to 1973, and as the 40th vice president under President Richard Nixon from 1973 to 1974. Ford succeeded to the presidency when Nixon resigned in 1974, but was defeated for election to a full term in 1976. Ford remains the only person to serve as president without winning an election for president or vice president.\nFord was born in Omaha, Nebraska and raised in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He attended the University of Michigan, where he played for the school's football team, before eventually attending Yale Law School. Afterward, he served in the U.S. Naval Reserve from 1942 to 1946. Ford began his political career in 1949 as the U.S. representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district, serving in this capacity for nearly 25 years, the final nine of them as the House minority leader. In December 1973, two months after Spiro Agnew's resignation, Ford became the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment. After the subsequent resignation of Nixon in August 1974, Ford immediately assumed the presidency.\nDomestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation and a recession. In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a presidential pardon to Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. Foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president. Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, which marked a move toward détente in the Cold War. With the collapse of South Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War essentially ended. In the 1976 Republican presidential primary, Ford defeated Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination, but narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic candidate, Jimmy Carter.\nFollowing his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party, but his moderate views on various social issues increasingly put him at odds with conservative members of the party in the 1990s and early 2000s. He also set aside the enmity he had felt towards Carter following the 1976 election and the two former presidents developed a close friendship. After experiencing a series of health problems, he died in Rancho Mirage, California in 2006. Surveys of historians and political scientists have ranked Ford as a below-average president, though retrospective public polls on his time in office were more positive.\n\nEarly life\nFord was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. He was the only child of Dorothy Ayer Gardner and Leslie Lynch King Sr., a wool trader. His paternal grandfather was banker and businessman Charles Henry King, and his maternal grandfather was Illinois politician and businessman Levi Addison Gardner. Ford's parents separated just sixteen days after his birth and his mother took the infant Ford with her to Oak Park, Illinois, where her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, Clarence Haskins James lived. From there, she moved to the home of her parents in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Gardner and King divorced in December 1913, and she gained full custody of her son. Ford's paternal grandfather paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930.\nFord later said that his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. In a biography of Ford, James M. Cannon wrote that the separation and divorce of Ford's parents was sparked when, a few days after Ford's birth, Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife, infant son, and Ford's nursemaid. Ford later told confidants that his father had first hit his mother when she had smiled at another man during their honeymoon.\nAfter living with her parents for two and a half years, on February 1, 1917, Gardner married Gerald Rudolff Ford, a salesman in a family-owned paint and varnish company. Though never formally adopted, her young son was referred to as Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr. from then on; the name change, including the anglicized spelling \"Rudolph\", was formalized on December 3, 1935. He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mother's second marriage: Thomas Gardner \"Tom\" Ford (1918–1995), Richard Addison \"Dick\" Ford (1924–2015), and James Francis \"Jim\" Ford (1927–2001).\nFord was involved in the Boy Scouts of America, and earned that program's highest rank, Eagle Scout. He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency. Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School, where he was a star athlete and captain of the football team. In 1930, he was selected to the All-City team of the Grand Rapids City League. He also attracted the attention of college recruiters.\n\nCollege and law school\nFord attended the University of Michigan, where he played center and linebacker for the school's football team and helped the Wolverines to two undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933. In his senior year of 1934, the team suffered a steep decline and won only one game, but Ford was still the team's star player. In one of those games, Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota—the eventual national champion—to a scoreless tie in the first half. After the game, assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan said, \"When I walked into the dressing room at halftime, I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them. Ford and [Cedric] Sweet played their hearts out. They were everywhere on defense.\" Ford later recalled, \"During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics, I often thought of the experiences before, during, and after that game in 1934. Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation, take action, and make every effort possible despite adverse odds.\" His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player, with one assistant coach noting, \"They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause.\"\nDuring Ford's senior year, a controversy developed when Georgia Tech said that it would not play a scheduled game with Michigan if a Black player named Willis Ward took the field. Students, players and alumni protested, but university officials capitulated and kept Ward out of the game. Ford was Ward's best friend on the team, and they roomed together while on road trips. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision, but he eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play.\nIn 1934, Ford was selected for the Eastern Team on the Shriner's East–West Shrine Game at San Francisco (a benefit for physically disabled children), played on January 1, 1935. As part of the 1935 Collegiate All-Star football team, Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All-Star Game at Soldier Field. In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career, the University of Michigan retired Ford's No. 48 jersey in 1994. With the blessing of the Ford family, it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13.\nThroughout life, Ford remained interested in his school and football; he occasionally attended games. Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices; at one point, he asked to join the players in the huddle. Before state events, Ford often had the Navy band play the University of Michigan fight song, \"The Victors,\" instead of \"Hail to the Chief.\"\nFord graduated from Michigan in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. He turned down offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League. Instead, he took a job in September 1935 as the boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University and applied to its law school.\nFord hoped to attend Yale Law School beginning in 1935. Yale officials at first denied his admission to the law school because of his full-time coaching responsibilities. He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School. That year he was also promoted to the position of junior varsity head football coach at Yale. While at Yale, Ford began working as a model. He initially worked with the John Robert Powers agency before investing in the Harry Conover agency, with whom he modelled until 1941.\nWhile attending Yale Law School, Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr., and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act. The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee, a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II. His introduction into politics was in the summer of 1940 when he worked for the Republican presidential campaign of Wendell Willkie.\nFord graduated in the top third of his class in 1941, and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter. In May 1941, he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend, Philip W. Buchen.\n\nU.S. Naval Reserve\nFollowing the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, Ford enlisted in the Navy. He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13, 1942. On April 20, he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis, Maryland. After one month of training, he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills, ordnance, gunnery, first aid, and military drill. In addition, he coached all nine sports that were offered, but mostly swimming, boxing, and football. During the year he was at the Preflight School, he was promoted to Lieutenant, Junior Grade, on June 2, 1942, and to lieutenant, in March 1943.\n\nSea duty\nAfter Ford applied for sea duty, he was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey (CVL-26), at New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey. From the ship's commissioning on June 17, 1943, until the end of December 1944, Ford served as the assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey. While he was on board, the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944. In 1943, the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts, and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng, Papua New Guinea in 1943. During the spring of 1944, the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas, Western Carolines, and northern New Guinea, as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After an overhaul, from September to November 1944, aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island, participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus, and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro.\nAlthough the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces, the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by Typhoon Cobra that hit Admiral William Halsey's Third Fleet on December 18–19, 1944. The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon. The Monterey was damaged by a fire, which was started by several of the ship's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck. Ford was serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck and was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart H. Ingersoll. The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again.\nAfter the fire, the Monterey was declared unfit for service. Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre-Flight School at Saint Mary's College of California, where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945. From the end of April 1945 to January 1946, he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command, Naval Air Station, Glenview, Illinois, at the rank of lieutenant commander.\nFord received the following military awards: the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with nine 3⁄16\" bronze stars (for operations in the Gilbert Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Marshall Islands, Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids, Hollandia, Marianas, Western Carolines, Western New Guinea, and the Leyte Operation), the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3⁄16\" bronze stars (for Leyte and Mindoro), and the World War II Victory Medal. He was honorably discharged in February 1946.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives (1949–1973)\nAfter Ford returned to Grand Rapids in 1946, he became active in local Republican politics, and supporters urged him to challenge Bartel J. Jonkman, the incumbent Republican congressman. Military service had changed his view of the world. \"I came back a converted internationalist\", Ford wrote, \"and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed, dedicated isolationist. And I thought he ought to be replaced. Nobody thought I could win. I ended up winning two to one.\"\nDuring his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked. Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.\nFord was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding Michigan's 5th congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in The New York Times described him, Ford \"saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career.\" Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee. Ford described his philosophy as \"a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy.\" He voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a \"Congressman's Congressman\".\nIn the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become Speaker of the House, which he called \"the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be the head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind ... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives\".\n\nWarren Commission\nOn November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission, a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of accused assassin Lee Harvey Oswald. He and Earl Warren also interviewed Jack Ruby, Oswald's killer. According to a 1963 FBI memo that was released to the public in 2008, Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director, Cartha DeLoach, about the panel's activities. In the preface to his book, A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission, Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions.\n\nHouse Minority Leader (1965–1973)\nIn 1964, Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party, secured another term as president and took 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives. Following the election, members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new minority leader. Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve; after consulting with his family, he agreed. After a closely contested election, Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as minority leader. The members of the Republican caucus that encouraged and eventually endorsed Ford to run as the House minority leader were later known as the \"Young Turks\". One of the members of the Young Turks was congressman Donald H. Rumsfeld from Illinois's 13th congressional district, who later on would serve in Ford's administration as the chief of staff and secretary of defense.\nWith a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the \"Great Society\". During the first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.\nIn 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the 1966 midterm elections produced a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans. This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House, but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs.\nFord's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public knowledge after he spoke from the floor of the House and questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion. The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of having played \"too much football without a helmet\".\nAs minority leader in the House, Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen, in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson's policies. Many in the press jokingly called this \"The Ev and Jerry Show.\" Johnson said at the time, \"Jerry Ford is so dumb he can't fart and chew gum at the same time.\" The press, used to sanitizing Johnson's salty language, reported this as \"Gerald Ford can't walk and chew gum at the same time.\"\nAfter Richard Nixon was elected president in November 1968, Ford's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda. Congress passed several of Nixon's proposals, including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969. Another high-profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act. Passed in 1972, the act established a revenue sharing program for state and local governments. Ford's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress, and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor (compared with 185 against).\nDuring the eight years (1965–1973) that Ford served as minority leader, he received many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality.\n\nVice presidency (1973–1974)\nFor the past decade, Ford had been unsuccessfully working to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber so that he could become House Speaker. He promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976. However, on October 10, 1973, Spiro Agnew resigned from the vice presidency. According to The New York Times, Nixon \"sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement.\" The advice was unanimous. House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later, \"We gave Nixon no choice but Ford.\" Ford agreed to the nomination, telling his wife that the vice presidency would be \"a nice conclusion\" to his career. Ford was nominated to take Agnew's position on October 12, the first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented. The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27. On December 6, the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35. After the confirmation vote in the House, Ford took the oath of office as vice president.\nFord became vice president as the Watergate scandal was unfolding. On August 1, 1974, Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him to prepare for the presidency. At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president's residence in Washington, D.C. However, \"Al Haig asked to come over and see me\", Ford later said, \"to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.' And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house.'\"\n\nPresidency (1974–1977)\nSwearing-in\nWhen Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford automatically assumed the presidency, taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House. This made him the only person to become the nation's chief executive without being elected to the presidency or the vice presidency. Immediately afterward, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech that was broadcast live to the nation, noting the peculiarity of his position. He later declared that \"our long national nightmare is over\".\n\nNominating Rockefeller\nOn August 20, Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated. Rockefeller's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush. Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, such as Henry Kissinger. Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both the House and Senate. Some, including Barry Goldwater, voted against him.\n\nPardon of Nixon\nOn September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311, which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president. In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation \"is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must.\"\nFord's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a \"corrupt bargain\" had been struck between the two men, in which Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon. According to Bob Woodward, Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared. Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the 1976 presidential election, an observation with which Ford agreed. In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a \"profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act\" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's \"credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence\". On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting president since Abraham Lincoln to testify before the House of Representatives.\nIn the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as \"my predecessor\" or \"the former president.\" When Ford was pressed on the matter on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent Fred Barnes recalled that he replied \"I just can't bring myself to do it.\"\nAfter Ford left the White House in January 1977, he privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States, a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt. In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon. In presenting the award to Ford, Senator Edward Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon, but later decided that history had proven Ford to have made the correct decision.\n\nDraft dodgers and deserters\nOn September 16 (shortly after he pardoned Nixon), Ford issued Presidential Proclamation 4313, which introduced a conditional amnesty program for military deserters and Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada. The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of two years service for those who had served less than two years of honorable service in the military. The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a presidential pardon and a change in military discharge status. Full pardon for draft dodgers came in the Carter administration.\n\nAdministration\nWhen Ford assumed office, he inherited Nixon's Cabinet. During his brief administration, he replaced all members except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon. Political commentators have referred to Ford's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 as the \"Halloween Massacre\". One of Ford's appointees, William Coleman—the Secretary of Transportation—was the second Black man to serve in a presidential cabinet (after Robert C. Weaver) and the first appointed in a Republican administration.\nFord selected George H. W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975.\nFord's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld. In 1975, Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest-ever Secretary of Defense. Ford chose a young Wyoming politician, Richard Cheney, to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff; Cheney became the campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign.\n\nMidterm elections\nThe 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place in the wake of the Watergate scandal and less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections, taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats. This was one more than the number needed (290) for a two-thirds majority, the number necessary to override a presidential veto or to propose a constitutional amendment. Perhaps due in part to this fact, the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson was President of the United States (1865–1869). Even Ford's former, reliably Republican House seat was won by a Democrat, Richard Vander Veen, who defeated Robert VanderLaan. In the Senate elections, the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100-seat body.\n\nDomestic policy\nInflation\nThe economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. One of the first acts the new president took to deal with the economy was to create, by Executive Order on September 30, 1974, the Economic Policy Board. In October 1974, in response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public and asked them to \"Whip Inflation Now\". As part of this program, he urged people to wear \"WIN\" buttons. At the time, inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy, more so than growing unemployment; there was a belief that controlling inflation would help reduce unemployment. To rein in inflation, it was necessary to control the public's spending. To try to mesh service and sacrifice, \"WIN\" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption. On October 4, 1974, Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress; as a part of this speech he kicked off the \"WIN\" campaign. Over the next nine days, 101,240 Americans mailed in \"WIN\" pledges. In hindsight, this was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick which had no way of solving the underlying problems. The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one-year, five-percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals. This plan would also take $4.4 billion out of the budget, bringing federal spending below $300 billion. At the time, inflation was over twelve percent.\n\nBudget\nThe federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was president. Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting, Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. Ford expressed \"strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children\" according to the official White House press release for the bill signing.\nThe economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier. The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment, which reached nine percent in May 1975. In January 1975, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation. Ford was criticized for abruptly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction. In Congress, the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $22.8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts. In March 1975, Congress passed, and Ford signed into law, these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975. This resulted in a federal deficit of around $53 billion for the 1975 fiscal year and $73.7 billion for 1976.\nWhen New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975, Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford's support for a federal bailout. The incident prompted the New York Daily News' famous headline \"Ford to City: Drop Dead\", referring to a speech in which \"Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for 'a federal bail-out of New York City'\".\n\nSwine flu\nFord was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized; health officials announced that \"swine flu\" was the cause. Soon after, public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated. Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, some 25% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976.\n\nEqual rights and abortion\nFord was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, issuing Presidential Proclamation no. 4383 in 1975:\n\nIn this Land of the Free, it is right, and by nature it ought to be, that all men and all women are equal before the law.\nNow, therefore, I, Gerald R. Ford, President of the United States of America, to remind all Americans that it is fitting and just to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment adopted by the Congress of the United States of America, in order to secure legal equality for all women and men, do hereby designate and proclaim August 26, 1975, as Women's Equality Day.\nAs president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported \"a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice\". This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade, which he opposed. Ford came under criticism when First Lady Betty Ford entered the debate over abortion during an August 1975 interview for 60 Minutes, in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a \"great, great decision\". During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice.\n\nForeign policy\nFord continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the Nixon administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT). The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon's visit to China was reinforced by Ford's own visit in December 1975. The Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords with the Soviet Union in 1975, creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch, an independent non-governmental organization created to monitor compliance which later evolved into Human Rights Watch.\nFord attended the inaugural meeting of the Group of Seven (G7) industrialized nations (initially the G5) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada. Ford supported international solutions to issues. \"We live in an interdependent world and, therefore, must work together to resolve common economic problems,\" he said in a 1974 speech.\nIn November 1975, Ford adopted the global human population control recommendations of National Security Study Memorandum 200 – a national security directive initially commissioned by Nixon – as United States policy in the subsequent NSDM 314. The plan explicitly states the goal was population control and not improving the lives of individuals despite instructing organizers to \"emphasize development and improvements in the quality of life of the poor\", later explaining the projects were \"primarily for other reasons\". Upon approving the plan, Ford stated \"United States leadership is essential to combat population growth, to implement the World Population Plan of Action and to advance United States security and overseas interests\". Population control policies were adopted to protect American economic and military interests, with the memorandum arguing that population growth in developing countries resulted with such nations gaining global political power, that more citizens posed a risk to accessing foreign natural resources while also making American businesses vulnerable to governments seeking to fund a growing population, and that younger generations born would be prone to anti-establishment behavior, increasing political instability.\n\nIndonesia and East Timor\nAs South Vietnam collapsed, an anti-communist Indonesia was seen as essential by the United States. Good relations with the Indonesian government were considered more important than the decolonization process in East Timor. The Ford administration gave the Suharto regime in Indonesia economic and military support, even as it invaded East Timor and committed a genocide that killed close to a third of the population. One day prior to the invasion, Ford and Kissinger met with Suharto, and they assured him that relations with Indonesia would remain strong regardless of Indonesia's actions and that it would not object to the annexation of East Timor.\n\nMiddle East\nIn the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises. The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July 1974, causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. In mid-August, the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford, concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front, vetoed the bill. A second bill was then passed by Congress, which Ford also vetoed, fearing that it might impede negotiations in Cyprus, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until December 10, 1974, provided Turkey would not send American supplies to Cyprus. U.S. military aid to Turkey was suspended on February 5, 1975.\n\nIn the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict, although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress. Ford considered it \"stalling\" and wrote, \"Their [Israeli] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell.\" During Kissinger's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975, a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal, prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, which included:\n\nI wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of the negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations. I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region, including our relations with Israel, with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected. You will be notified of our decision.\nOn March 24, Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of the administration's policies in the Middle East. In practical terms, \"reassessment\" meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel. For six months between March and September 1975, the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel. Rabin notes it was \"an innocent-sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American-Israeli relations\". The announced reassessments upset the American Jewish community and Israel's well-wishers in Congress. On May 21, Ford \"experienced a real shock\" when seventy-six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be \"responsive\" to Israel's request for $2.59 billion (equivalent to $14.67 billion in 2023) in military and economic aid. Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized. It was, since the September 1974 ban on arms sales to Turkey, the second major congressional intrusion upon the President's foreign policy prerogatives. The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli \"war of nerves\" or \"test of wills\". After much bargaining, the Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II) was formally signed on September 1, and aid resumed.\n\nVietnam\nOne of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease-fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American prisoners of war. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.\nThe agreements were negotiated by US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese Politburo member Lê Đức Thọ. South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in the final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement. However, anti-war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords.\nIn December 1974, months after Ford took office, North Vietnamese forces invaded the province of Phuoc Long. General Trần Văn Trà sought to gauge any South Vietnamese or American response to the invasion, as well as to solve logistical issues, before proceeding with the invasion.\nAs North Vietnamese forces advanced, Ford requested Congress approve a $722 million aid package for South Vietnam (equivalent to $4.09 billion in 2023), funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration. Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin. Senator Jacob K. Javits offered \"...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid\". President Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country. Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave a speech at Tulane University. In that speech, he announced that the Vietnam War was over \"...as far as America is concerned\". The announcement was met with thunderous applause.\n1,373 U.S. citizens and 5,595 Vietnamese and third-country nationals were evacuated from the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon during Operation Frequent Wind. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act. The 1975 Act appropriated $455 million (equivalent to $2.58 billion in 2023) toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees. In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in the years that followed.\n\nMayaguez incident\nNorth Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters. The main crisis was the Mayaguez incident. In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia, Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters. Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the Mayaguez sailors were being released. In the operation, two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down, and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded, while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed. Despite the American losses, the operation was seen as a success in the United States, and Ford enjoyed an 11-point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath. The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall in Washington, D.C.\nSome historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot. But work by Andrew Gawthorpe, published in 2009, based on an analysis of the administration's internal discussions, shows that Ford's national security team understood that the seizure of the vessel was a local, and perhaps even accidental, provocation by an immature Khmer government. Nevertheless, they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia.\n\nAssassination attempts\nFord was the target of two assassination attempts during his presidency. In Sacramento, California, on September 5, 1975, Lynette \"Squeaky\" Fromme, a follower of Charles Manson, pointed a Colt .45-caliber handgun at Ford and pulled the trigger at point-blank range. As she did, Larry Buendorf, a Secret Service agent, grabbed the gun, and Fromme was taken into custody. She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison; she was paroled on August 14, 2009, after serving 34 years.\nIn reaction to this attempt, the Secret Service began keeping Ford at a more secure distance from anonymous crowds, a strategy that may have saved his life seventeen days later. As he left the St. Francis Hotel in downtown San Francisco, Sara Jane Moore, standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street, fired a .38-caliber revolver at him. The shot missed Ford by a few feet. Before she fired a second round, retired Marine Oliver Sipple grabbed at the gun and deflected her shot; the bullet struck a wall about six inches above and to the right of Ford's head, then ricocheted and hit a taxi driver, who was slightly wounded. Moore was later sentenced to life in prison. She was paroled on December 31, 2007, after serving 32 years.\n\nJudicial appointments\nSupreme Court\nIn 1975, Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas. Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, appointed by President Nixon. During his tenure as House Republican leader, Ford had led efforts to have Douglas impeached. After being confirmed, Stevens eventually disappointed some conservatives by siding with the Court's liberal wing regarding the outcome of many key issues. Nevertheless, in 2005 Ford praised Stevens. \"He has served his nation well,\" Ford said of Stevens, \"with dignity, intellect and without partisan political concerns.\"\n\nOther judicial appointments\nFord appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts.\n\n1976 presidential campaign\nFord reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976, but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination. Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam, for signing the Helsinki Accords, and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal. (Negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter, who eventually signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.) Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries, including North Carolina, Texas, Indiana, and California, but failed to get a majority of delegates; Reagan withdrew from the race at the Republican Convention in Kansas City, Missouri. The conservative insurgency did lead to Ford dropping the more liberal Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in favor of U.S. senator Bob Dole of Kansas.\nIn addition to the pardon dispute and lingering anti-Republican sentiment, Ford had to counter a plethora of negative media imagery. Chevy Chase often did pratfalls on Saturday Night Live, imitating Ford, who had been seen stumbling on two occasions during his term. As Chase commented, \"He even mentioned in his own autobiography it had an effect over a period of time that affected the election to some degree.\"\nFord's 1976 election campaign benefitted from his being an incumbent president during several anniversary events held during the period leading up to the United States Bicentennial. The Washington, D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was presided over by the President and televised nationally. On July 7, 1976, the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom, which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service network. The 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts gave Ford the opportunity to deliver a speech to 110,000 in Concord acknowledging the need for a strong national defense tempered with a plea for \"reconciliation, not recrimination\" and \"reconstruction, not rancor\" between the United States and those who would pose \"threats to peace\". Speaking in New Hampshire on the previous day, Ford condemned the growing trend toward big government bureaucracy and argued for a return to \"basic American virtues\".\n\nTelevised presidential debates were reintroduced for the first time since the 1960 election. As such, Ford became the first incumbent president to participate in one. Carter later attributed his victory in the election to the debates, saying they \"gave the viewers reason to think that Jimmy Carter had something to offer\". The turning point came in the second debate when Ford blundered by stating, \"There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford Administration.\" Ford also said that he did not \"believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union\". In an interview years later, Ford said he had intended to imply that the Soviets would never crush the spirits of eastern Europeans seeking independence. However, the phrasing was so awkward that questioner Max Frankel was visibly incredulous at the response.\n\nIn the end, Carter won the election, receiving 50.1% of the popular vote and 297 electoral votes compared with 48.0% and 240 electoral votes for Ford.\n\nPost-presidency (1977–2006)\nThe Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided. Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing president, saying, \"For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land.\"\nAfter leaving the White House, the Fords moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children.\nHe continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986. Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former president's advance obituary, an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication. In 1979, Ford published his autobiography, A Time to Heal (Harper/Reader's Digest, 454 pages). A review in Foreign Affairs described it as, \"Serene, unruffled, unpretentious, like the author. This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs, but there are no surprises, no deep probings of motives or events. No more here than meets the eye.\"\nDuring the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el-Sadat in 1981. Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, visited the Fords' home frequently. Ford and Carter served as honorary co-chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the Continuity of Government Commission in 2002.\nLike Presidents Carter, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton, Ford was an honorary co-chair of the Council for Excellence in Government, a group dedicated to excellence in government performance, which provides leadership training to top federal employees. He also devoted much time to his love of golf, often playing both privately and in public events with comedian Bob Hope, a longtime friend. In 1977, he shot a hole in one during a Pro-am held in conjunction with the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic at Colonial Country Club in Memphis, Tennessee.\nIn 1977, Ford established the Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy at Albion College in Albion, Michigan, to give undergraduates training in public policy. In April 1981, he opened the Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on the north campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan, followed in September by the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids.\nFord considered a run for the Republican nomination in 1980, forgoing numerous opportunities to serve on corporate boards to keep his options open for a rematch with Carter. Ford attacked Carter's conduct of the SALT II negotiations and foreign policy in the Middle East and Africa. Many have argued that Ford also wanted to exorcise his image as an \"Accidental President\" and to win a term in his own right. Ford also believed the more conservative Ronald Reagan would be unable to defeat Carter and would hand the incumbent a second term. Ford was encouraged by his former Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, as well as Jim Rhodes of Ohio and Bill Clements of Texas to make the race. On March 15, 1980, Ford announced that he would forgo a run for the Republican nomination, vowing to support the eventual nominee.\n\nAfter securing the Republican nomination in 1980, Ronald Reagan considered his former rival Ford as a potential vice-presidential running mate, but negotiations between the Reagan and Ford camps at the Republican National Convention were unsuccessful. Ford conditioned his acceptance on Reagan's agreement to an unprecedented \"co-presidency\", giving Ford the power to control key executive branch appointments (such as Kissinger as Secretary of State and Alan Greenspan as Treasury Secretary). After rejecting these terms, Reagan offered the vice-presidential nomination instead to George H. W. Bush. Ford did appear in a campaign commercial for the Reagan-Bush ticket, in which he declared that the country would be \"better served by a Reagan presidency rather than a continuation of the weak and politically expedient policies of Jimmy Carter\". On October 8, 1980, Ford said former President Nixon's involvement in the general election potentially could negatively impact the Reagan campaign: \"I think it would have been much more helpful if Mr. Nixon had stayed in the background during this campaign. It would have been much more beneficial to Ronald Reagan.\"\nOn October 3, 1980, Ford cast blame on Carter for the latter's charges of ineffectiveness on the part of the Federal Reserve Board due to his appointing of most of its members: \"President Carter, when the going gets tough, will do anything to save his own political skin. This latest action by the president is cowardly.\"\nFollowing the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan, Ford told reporters while appearing at a fundraiser for Thomas Kean that criminals who use firearms should get the death penalty in the event someone is injured with the weapon.\nIn September 1981, Ford advised Reagan against succumbing to Wall Street demands and follow his own agenda for the economic policies of the US during an appearance on Good Morning America: \"He shouldn't let the gurus of Wall Street decide what the economic future of this country is going to be. They are wrong in my opinion.\" During a news conference on October 20, 1981, Ford stated that stopping the Reagan administration's Saudi arms package could have a large negative impact to American relations in the Middle East.\nOn March 24, 1982, Ford offered an endorsement of President Reagan's economic policies while also stating the possibility of Reagan being met with a stalemate by Congress if not willing to compromise while in Washington.\nFord founded the annual AEI World Forum in 1982, and joined the American Enterprise Institute as a distinguished fellow. He was also awarded an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University on March 23, 1988.\nDuring an August 1982 fundraising reception, Ford stated his opposition to a constitutional amendment requiring the US to have a balanced budget, citing a need to elect \"members of the House and Senate who will immediately when Congress convenes act more responsibly in fiscal matters.\" Ford was a participant in the 1982 midterm elections, traveling to Tennessee in October of that year to help Republican candidates.\nIn January 1984, a letter signed by Ford and Carter and urging world leaders to extend their failed effort to end world hunger was released and sent to Secretary-General of the United Nations Javier Pérez de Cuéllar.\nIn 1987, Ford testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee in favor of District of Columbia Circuit Court judge and former Solicitor General Robert Bork after Bork was nominated by President Reagan to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Bork's nomination was rejected by a vote of 58–42.\nIn 1987, Ford's Humor and the Presidency, a book of humorous political anecdotes, was published.\nBy 1988, Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit, Nova Pharmaceutical, The Pullman Company, Tesoro Petroleum, and Tiger International, Inc. Ford also became an honorary director of Citigroup, a position he held until his death.\nIn October 1990, Ford appeared in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania with Bob Hope to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the birth of former president Dwight D. Eisenhower, where the two unveiled a plaque with the signatures of each living former president.\nIn April 1991, Ford joined former presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and Jimmy Carter, in supporting the Brady Bill. Three years later, he wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives, along with Carter and Reagan, in support of the assault weapons ban.\nAt the 1992 Republican National Convention, Ford compared the election cycle to his 1976 loss to Carter and urged attention be paid to electing a Republican Congress: \"If it's change you want on Nov. 3, my friends, the place to start is not at the White House but in the United States' Capitol. Congress, as every school child knows, has the power of the purse. For nearly 40 years, Democratic majorities have held to the time-tested New Deal formula, tax and tax, spend and spend, elect and elect.\" (The Republicans would later win both Houses of Congress at the 1994 mid-term elections.)\n\nIn April 1997, Ford joined President Bill Clinton, former president Bush, and Nancy Reagan in signing the \"Summit Declaration of Commitment\" in advocating for participation by private citizens in solving domestic issues within the United States.\nOn January 20, 1998, during an interview at his Palm Springs home, Ford said the Republican Party's nominee in the 2000 presidential election would lose if the party turned ultra-conservative in their ideals: \"If we get way over on the hard right of the political spectrum, we will not elect a Republican President. I worry about the party going down this ultra-conservative line. We ought to learn from the Democrats: when they were running ultra-liberal candidates, they didn't win.\"\nIn the prelude to the impeachment of President Clinton, Ford conferred with former president Carter and the two agreed to not speak publicly on the controversy, a pact broken by Carter when answering a question from a student at Emory University.\nIn October 2001, Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican Party by stating that gay and lesbian couples \"ought to be treated equally. Period.\" He became the highest-ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians, stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti-gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters. He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition, which The New York Times described as \"a group of prominent Republicans, including former President Gerald R. Ford, dedicated to making sexual orientation a non-issue in the Republican Party\".\nOn November 22, 2004, New York Republican governor George Pataki named Ford and the other living former presidents (Carter, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center.\nIn a pre-recorded embargoed interview with Bob Woodward of The Washington Post in July 2004, Ford stated that he disagreed \"very strongly\" with the Bush administration's choice of Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction as justification for its decision to invade Iraq, calling it a \"big mistake\" unrelated to the national security of the United States and indicating that he would not have gone to war had he been president. The details of the interview were not released until after Ford's death, as he requested.\n\nHealth issues\nOn April 4, 1990, Ford was admitted to Eisenhower Medical Center for surgery to replace his left knee, orthopedic surgeon Robert Murphy saying, \"Ford's entire left knee was replaced with an artificial joint, including portions of the adjacent femur, or thigh bone, and tibia, or leg bone.\"\nFord suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital. In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage, California, for treatment of pneumonia. On April 23, 2006, President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour. This was Ford's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos, video footage, and voice recording.\nWhile vacationing in Vail, Colorado, Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath. On August 15 he was admitted to St. Mary's Hospital of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, for testing and evaluation. On August 21, it was reported that he had been fitted with a pacemaker. On August 25, he underwent an angioplasty procedure at the Mayo Clinic. On August 28, Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home. On October 13, he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake, the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan, but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend. The previous day, Ford had entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests; he was released on October 16. By November 2006, he was confined to a bed in his study.\n\nDeath and legacy\nFord died on December 26, 2006, at his home in Rancho Mirage, California, of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis. He had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves. At the time of his death, Ford was the longest-lived U.S. president, having lived 93 years and 165 days (45 days longer than Ronald Reagan, whose record he surpassed). He died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry S. Truman's death; he was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission.\nOn December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. president to lie in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol. A state funeral and memorial services were held at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., on Tuesday, January 2, 2007. After the service, Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan.\nScouting was so important to Ford that his family asked for Scouts to participate in his funeral. A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral. About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession, where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum.\nOne of the songs selected by Ford during the procession was the University of Michigan fight song, as it was a favorite of his that he preferred go be played during his presidency. After his death in December 2006, the University of Michigan Marching Band played the school's fight song for him one final time, for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan.\nThe State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection, replacing Zachariah Chandler. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011, in the Capitol Rotunda.\n\nPersonal life\nFamily\nWhen speaking of his mother and stepfather, Ford said that \"My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful. So I couldn't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing.\"\nFord had three half-siblings from the second marriage of Leslie King Sr., his biological father: Marjorie King (1921–1993), Leslie Henry King (1923–1976), and Patricia Jane King (1925–1980). They never saw one another as children, and he did not know them at all until 1960. Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17, when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth. That year his biological father, whom Ford described as a \"carefree, well-to-do man who didn't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son\", approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant. The two \"maintained a sporadic contact\" until Leslie King Sr.'s death in 1941.\n\nOn October 15, 1948, Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer (1918–2011) at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids; it was his first and only marriage and her second marriage. She had previously been married and, after a five‐year marriage, divorced from William Warren.\nOriginally from Grand Rapids herself, she had lived in New York City for several years, where she worked as a John Robert Powers fashion model and a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company. At the time of their engagement, Ford was campaigning for what would be his first of 13 terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives. The wedding was delayed until shortly before the election because, as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford, \"Jerry Ford was running for Congress and wasn't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced exdancer.\"\nThe couple had four children: Michael Gerald, born in 1950, John Gardner (known as Jack) born in 1952, Steven Meigs, born in 1956, and Susan Elizabeth, born in 1957.\n\nCivic and fraternal organizations\nFord was a member of several civic and fraternal organizations, including the Junior Chamber of Commerce (Jaycees), American Legion, AMVETS, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Sons of the Revolution, Veterans of Foreign Wars, and was an alumnus of Delta Kappa Epsilon at Michigan.\n\nFreemasonry\nFord was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30, 1949. He later said in 1975, \"When I took my obligation as a master mason—incidentally, with my three younger brothers—I recalled the value my own father attached to that order. But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States.\" Ford was made a 33° Scottish Rite Mason on September 26, 1962. In April 1975, Ford was elected by a unanimous vote Honorary Grand Master of the International Supreme Council, Order of DeMolay, a position in which he served until January 1977. Ford received the degrees of York Rite Masonry (Chapter and Council degrees) in a special ceremony in the Oval Office on January 11, 1977, during his term as President of the United States.\nFord was also a member of the Shriners and the Royal Order of Jesters; both being affiliated bodies of Freemasonry.\n\nPublic image\nFord is the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice president. The choice of Ford to fill the vacant vice-presidency was based on Ford's reputation for openness and honesty. \"In all the years I sat in the House, I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part-true and part-false. He never attempted to shade a statement, and I never heard him utter an unkind word\", said Martha Griffiths.\nThe trust the American public had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by his pardon of Nixon. Nonetheless, many grant in hindsight that he had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought.\nIn spite of his athletic record and remarkable career accomplishments, Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy, likable, and simple-minded everyman. Henry Kissinger described him as \"as close to a normal human being as we'll ever get in that office\". Other pieces of the everyman image were attributed to his inevitable comparison with Nixon, his Midwestern stodginess, and his self-deprecation.\nAn incident in 1975, when Ford tripped while exiting Air Force One in Austria, was famously and repeatedly parodied by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live, cementing Ford's image as a klutz. Additionally, an incident in April 1976, when Ford bit into a still shuck-wrapped tamale, a culinary faux pas, made national news and contributed to the image of Ford as a chronic bumbler. The incident has become a cautionary tale about the hazards of eating on the campaign trail.\nFord has notably been portrayed in two television productions which included a central focus on his wife: the Emmy-winning 1987 ABC biographical television movie The Betty Ford Story, and the 2022 Showtime television series The First Lady.\n\nHonors\nForeign honors\nEstonia:\n First Class of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (January 7, 1997)\nFord received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970, as well as the Silver Buffalo Award, from the Boy Scouts of America.\nIn 1974, he also received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award. In 1985, he received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAA's highest honor. In 1992, the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Ford its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service and his subsequent government service. In 1999, Ford was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars. Also in 1999, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton. In 2001, he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiencing over Watergate.\nThe following are named after Ford:\n\nThe Ford House Office Building in the U.S. Capitol Complex, formerly House Annex 2.\nGerald R. Ford Freeway (Nebraska)\nGerald R. Ford Freeway (Michigan)\nGerald Ford Memorial Highway, I-70 in Eagle County, Colorado\nGerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan\nGerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan\nGerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan\nGerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan\nGerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy, Albion College\nUSS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78)\nGerald R. Ford Middle School, Grand Rapids, Michigan\nPresident Gerald R. Ford Park in Alexandria, Virginia, located in the neighborhood where Ford lived while serving as a Representative and Vice President\nPresident Ford Field Service Council, Boy Scouts of America The council where he was awarded the rank of Eagle Scout. Serves 25 counties in Western and Northern Michigan with its headquarters located in Grand Rapids, Michigan.\n\nSee also\nList of Freemasons\nList of members of the American Legion\nList of presidents of the United States\nList of presidents of the United States by previous experience\nPresidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nPrimary sources\nExternal links\nOfficial sites\nGerald R. Ford Presidential Library and Museum\nGerald R. Ford Presidential Foundation\n\nMedia coverage\nGerald Ford collected news and commentary at The New York Times\nAppearances on C-SPAN\n\"Life Portrait of Gerald R. Ford\", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, November 22, 1999\n\nOther\n\nUnited States Congress. \"Gerald Ford (id: F000260)\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.\nGerald Ford: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress.\nEssays on Gerald Ford, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs\nWorks by or about Gerald Ford at the Internet Archive\nWorks by Gerald Ford at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) \nGerald Ford at IMDb \nWorks by Gerald Ford at Project Gutenberg",
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] | As of 2024, at the time of his birth, what was the middle name of the U.S. president who won Alaska, graduated from Yale University, and had a son named Michael? | [] | Lynch | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Connor Andrew McDavid (born January 13, 1997) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre and captain of the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League (NHL). Born and raised in Richmond Hill, Ontario, the Oilers selected him first overall in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. McDavid is often regarded as one of the best players in the world, and his offensive dominance has drawn comparisons to players such as Sidney Crosby.\nMcDavid spent his childhood playing ice hockey against older children. Coached by his father, McDavid won four Ontario Minor Hockey Association championships with the York Simcoe Express, but he left the team in 2011 to join the Toronto Marlboros of the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL). There, McDavid was named the GTHL Player of the Year and the winner of the Tim Adams Memorial Trophy. He was granted exceptional player status in 2012 by Hockey Canada, which allowed him to begin playing junior ice hockey at the age of 15. The Erie Otters of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL) selected him first overall in that year's draft, and he played there until 2015. McDavid's OHL career concluded with a 2014–15 season in which he recorded 120 points and received a number of OHL and Canadian Hockey League (CHL) awards, including the Red Tilson Trophy, Wayne Gretzky 99 Award, and CHL Player of the Year awards. McDavid also represented Canada at several international competitions during this time, winning gold medals at the 2013 IIHF World U18 Championships and 2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships.\nAfter finishing his junior hockey career, McDavid joined the Oilers for their 2015–16 season. Despite missing three months of his rookie season due to a fractured clavicle, he was named to the NHL All-Rookie Team and was a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy. The following year, the Oilers appointed 19-year-old McDavid the youngest captain in NHL history. Recording 100 points during the 2016–17 season, at the age of 20, McDavid became the second youngest player to win the Art Ross Trophy for the leading scorer in the NHL. He was also awarded the Hart Memorial Trophy, Ted Lindsay Award, and was selected to the NHL First All-Star Team. Although the Oilers missed the Stanley Cup playoffs during the next two seasons, McDavid scored 41 goals in consecutive years. He injured his knee in the final game of the 2018–19 season but underwent a nonsurgical rehabilitation process that allowed him to return in time for the start of the 2019–20 season. In 2020–21, despite the COVID-19 pandemic shortening the NHL season to only 56 games, McDavid recorded 100 points for the fourth time in his career. In 2023–24, McDavid captained the Oilers to the Stanley Cup Finals, their first since 2006. McDavid went on to win the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player in the 2024 Stanley Cup playoffs, becoming only the sixth player, and first since Jean-Sébastien Giguère in 2003, to win the award despite not winning the Stanley Cup.\nHe is a four-time NHL First Team All-Star, a five-time recipient of the Art Ross Trophy, a four-time winner of the Ted Lindsay Award, a three-time recipient of the Hart Memorial Trophy, and the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy winner for 2022–23 as the league's leading goal-scorer. His opponents have praised his speed on the ice, and McDavid has won Fastest Skater at the NHL All-Star Skills Competition four times. He is one of only two players – after fellow Oilers captain Wayne Gretzky in 1982 – to unanimously win the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's most valuable player.\n\nEarly life\nMcDavid was born on January 13, 1997, in Richmond Hill, Ontario. His mother, Kelly, played one year of recreational ice hockey as a child before turning her attention towards skiing, while his father, Brian, was a high school ice hockey player and dedicated Boston Bruins fan. McDavid began playing hockey around the age of three, practicing on rollerblades in the family basement. He began playing organized youth hockey the next year, as his parents lied about his age to allow him to play with five-year-olds. When he was six, the local youth hockey association in his hometown of Newmarket forbade McDavid to play against older children, and his parents, believing that he would be \"bored out of his mind\" in house league hockey, enrolled him in an Aurora, Ontario, hockey program. From there, he won four Ontario Minor Hockey Association championships with the York Simcoe Express, a team coached by his father. In 2009, McDavid participated in the Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with his York Simcoe team, which also featured future professional ice hockey player Sam Bennett.\nIn 2011, McDavid left the Express for the Toronto Marlboros of the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL), the team that he and his father had defeated in the previous year's Ontario Hockey Federation championship. The decision came at a social cost, as he lost many of the friends that he had made with York Simcoe. He won the GTHL Player of the Year Award in 2012 after scoring 33 goals and recording 39 assists in 33 regular season games. McDavid added another 19 points (11 goals and eight assists) in seven OHL Cup games, the most by any player since Sam Gagner recorded 17 points in five games during the 2005 tournament. Although he received the Tim Adams Memorial Trophy as the tournament MVP, McDavid's team was defeated 2–1 in the OHL Cup final by the Mississauga Rebels.\n\nPlaying career\nJunior\nAlthough McDavid contemplated playing NCAA Division I hockey, he ultimately decided to enter the junior ice hockey circuit as an adolescent rather than waiting to begin a college career. McDavid applied for exceptional player status through Hockey Canada, and after passing through evaluations of his athleticism, academics, and maturity, he was allowed to enter the junior hockey draft at the age of 15 rather than 16. He was only the third Ontario Hockey League (OHL) player to be granted such an exception, following John Tavares in 2005 and Aaron Ekblad in 2011. On April 7, 2012, the Erie Otters selected McDavid first overall in the 2012 OHL Priority Selection, and he signed with the team that June. As the first overall selection in that year's OHL draft, McDavid was the recipient of the 2012 Jack Ferguson Award.\n\nMcDavid joined the Otters for the 2012–13 season, where he scored his first OHL goal on September 21, in an 8–2 loss to the London Knights. That October, he was named the OHL Rookie of the Month after recording at least one point in all 10 games he played. He took home the award again in November with a rookie-leading 17 points in 13 games. That same month, McDavid became the youngest OHL player ever to participate in the Subway Super Series. In January and February, the physical toll of moving from minor to junior hockey, as well as frustration playing for the last-place Otters, limited McDavid's effectiveness on the ice, and his scoring began to slow. On March 10, 2013, despite the Otters falling 6–4 to the Owen Sound Attack, McDavid picked up his 37th assist of the season, setting a franchise record for rookie assists. It was also his 62nd point of the season, tying with Tim Connolly for the most rookie points in Otters history. He went on to record four more points in the regular season, breaking Connolly's record. McDavid finished his rookie season with 25 goals and 41 assists in 63 regular season games, second in scoring to Nikolay Goldobin among all OHL rookies. In addition to being named to the OHL First All-Rookie Team, McDavid took home the 2013 Emms Family Award for OHL rookie of the year. He was also a finalist for CHL Rookie of the Year, a title which ultimately went to Valentin Zykov of the Baie-Comeau Drakkar.\nIn contrast to their poor finish during the previous season, the Otters opened the 2013–14 season with 25 points in their first 15 games, including a 10-game winning streak. During this stretch, McDavid personally had five goals and 28 points, three points behind OHL leader and teammate Connor Brown. He was named the OHL Player of the Month in October and received another Subway Super Series selection, appearing as the youngest player in the tournament for the second year in a row. After experiencing two consecutive four-point outings in an 11–2 win against the Plymouth Whalers and 6–1 victory over the Windsor Spitfires in March, McDavid was named both the OHL and CHL Player of the Week. Later that week, his 25th goal of the season helped the Otters to reach 100 points as a team for the first time since 2001. He finished the regular season fourth in the OHL with 99 points (28 goals and 71 assists) in 56 games. His 20 penalty minutes, meanwhile, were the lowest among the top 12 scorers in the league, and McDavid was awarded the William Hanley Trophy for the most sportsmanlike player in the OHL. With a 92 per cent average at McDowell High School, McDavid both won the 2014 Bobby Smith Trophy for the OHL's Scholastic Player of the Year and was named the 2014 CHL Scholastic Player of the Year. He was also named to the OHL Second All-Star Team alongside Otters defenceman Adam Pelech and coach Kris Knoblauch. The Otters, meanwhile, finished the regular season second in the OHL, and McDavid added an additional four goals and 19 points in 14 postseason games before Erie fell to the Guelph Storm in the Western Conference finals.\n\nThe Otters named McDavid their captain for the 2014–15 season during training camp. McDavid recorded at least one point in all but one of the first 18 games of the season and led the OHL with 51 points before breaking his hand in a fight with Bryson Cianfrone of the Mississauga Steelheads on November 11. McDavid had already recorded a goal and assist at the time of his injury, giving him a Gordie Howe hat trick, but was forced to miss both the Subway Super Series and several regular season games. He missed six weeks of the regular OHL season, first to injury and then international competition, before returning on January 8 for a 4–3 defeat from the Sarnia Sting. Shortly after his return, McDavid was named the captain of Team Cherry at the 2015 CHL/NHL Top Prospects Game; teammate Dylan Strome was selected to captain Team Orr. After recording his first OHL hat-trick on February 25 against the Guelph Storm, McDavid recorded his 100th point of the season with a goal and assist against the Owen Sound Attack. He was the fourth OHL player that season to reach 100 points, doing so in only 38 games due to his injury, and was named OHL Player of the Month for February. He finished the regular season with 44 goals and 120 points in 47 games, with at least one point in all but two of those games, and he led the OHL with a +60 plus–minus rating.\nAt the end of the 2014–15 season, McDavid received a number of awards from the OHL and CHL. In addition to winning the Bobby Smith Trophy and CHL Scholastic Player of the Year for the second consecutive year, he was also named to the OHL First All-Star Team, received the Red Tilson Trophy for the most outstanding player in the OHL, the CHL Player of the Year title, and the CHL Top Draft Prospect Award. Although the Otters were defeated in the J. Ross Robertson Cup finals by the Oshawa Generals, McDavid recorded 21 goals and 49 points in 20 postseason games, including two goals and six points in five championship series games, and received the Wayne Gretzky 99 Award for the most valuable player in the OHL playoffs. With five individual OHL awards in his three-year career, McDavid also finished his junior hockey tenure as the most decorated player in league history. Altogether, McDavid had 285 points in his career with the Otters, 24 fewer than franchise leader Brad Boyes, and led the franchise with 188 assists.\n\nProfessional (2015–present)\n2015–2020: Injury–shortened rookie season, starting Oilers captaincy, team disappointments\nThe Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League (NHL), who were coming off of a 24–44–14 season, selected McDavid first overall in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. On July 3, 2015, he signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the team; the total deal was worth $11.3 million, including up to $3.775 million annually in bonus incentives. He made his NHL debut on October 9, 2015, nearly scoring twice but stopped by Brian Elliott both times in a 3–1 loss to the St. Louis Blues. His first goal came five days later in his third NHL game, when McDavid scored on Kari Lehtonen in the second period of a 4–2 loss to the Dallas Stars. On November 3, in his 13th NHL game, McDavid suffered a fractured left clavicle after a collision into the boards with Brandon Manning and Michael Del Zotto of the Philadelphia Flyers. At the time of the injury, he had five goals and 12 points through those 13 games. He missed a total of 37 games with the injury, by which point the Oilers had fallen well out of playoff contention, but returned on February 3 with a goal and two assists in Edmonton's 5–1 victory over the Columbus Blue Jackets. On February 11, while facing his hometown Toronto Maple Leafs, McDavid was involved in all five of the Oilers' points: in addition to scoring twice, he also had assists on every part of Jordan Eberle's hat trick. That single-game performance helped boost McDavid to tenth overall in NHL rookie scoring at that point, despite playing in only his 19th game of the 2015–16 season. Despite appearing in only 45 games due to injury, McDavid finished his rookie season with 16 goals and 32 assists, fourth in rookie scoring. He was third place in Calder Memorial Trophy voting, behind Shayne Gostisbehere of the Philadelphia Flyers and winner Artemi Panarin of the Chicago Blackhawks, and all three players were named to the 2015–16 NHL All-Rookie Team.\nOn October 5, 2016, the Oilers named McDavid their captain for the 2016–17 season. At 19 years and 266 days old, McDavid became the youngest captain in NHL history, unseating Gabriel Landeskog, who was 20 days older when he became captain of the Colorado Avalanche in September 2012. After a 10-game goal drought early in the season, McDavid recorded his first NHL hat-trick on November 19 in a 5–2 victory over the Dallas Stars. The following month, on December 18, 2016, he scored his first shootout goal against Ben Bishop to defeat the Tampa Bay Lightning 3–2. With two assists against the New Jersey Devils on January 13, McDavid became the first player to reach 50 points during the 2016–17 season. Five days later, he recorded his 100th NHL point with an assist on Zack Kassian's goal against the Florida Panthers. He reached the milestone in only 92 games, following Wayne Gretzky (61 games) and Blair MacDonald (85) as the third-fastest Oiler to reach 100 career points. With a league-leading 16 goals and 56 points halfway through the season, McDavid earned his first NHL All-Star Game selection in 2017, playing on the same line as Anaheim Ducks rival forward Ryan Kesler for the Pacific Division team. He also won Fastest Skater at the NHL All-Star Skills Competition with a time of 13.02 seconds. In the final regular season game of the year, McDavid recorded two assists to finish the season with 100 points. In doing so, he became the youngest player (just four months past his 20th birthday) to win the Art Ross Trophy for the NHL scoring leader since a 19-year-old Sidney Crosby won in the 2006–07 season. Playing in all 82 games of the season, McDavid recorded 30 goals and 70 assists for 100 points, with at least one point in 59 games and a 14-game point streak to close out the regular season.\nThe Oilers ended a 10-year playoff drought on March 29, 2017, when they defeated the Los Angeles Kings to clinch a berth in the 2017 playoffs. McDavid scored his first NHL postseason goal short-handed in the Oilers' 2–0 shutout win over the San Jose Sharks in the opening-round series. Edmonton defeated the Sharks in six games of the best-of-seven series and went on to face the Anaheim Ducks in the second round. That series went to seven games, with the Oilers falling 2–1 in the winner-takes-all match. McDavid added five goals and nine points in 13 playoff games before elimination. Once the Stanley Cup playoffs concluded, McDavid was honoured at the 2017 NHL Awards with the Hart Memorial Trophy for the most valuable player in the NHL, the Ted Lindsay Award for the most outstanding player as decided by the National Hockey League Players' Association, and a selection to the NHL First All-Star Team at centre.\nOn July 5, 2017, McDavid signed an eight-year, $100 million contract extension with the Oilers, which went into effect at the beginning of the 2018–19 season. His second hat-trick, meanwhile, came in the first game of the 2017–18 season, when McDavid scored every Edmonton goal in their 3–0 shutout of the Calgary Flames. With a team-leading 14 goals and 45 points by the halfway point of the season, McDavid won the fan vote to captain the Pacific Division at the 2018 NHL All-Star Game, his second such selection. He successfully defended his Fastest Skater title at the Skills Competition, completing the course in 13.454 seconds to narrowly defeat Brayden Point of the Tampa Bay Lightning. On February 5, shortly after the All-Star Game, McDavid had his first NHL four-goal game with a 6–2 win over the Lightning, breaking Edmonton's 0-for-17 power play cold streak in the process. McDavid's third hat-trick of the season came on February 18, when he broke both the Oilers' six-game losing streak and the Colorado Avalanche's 10-game at-home winning streak. While the Oilers finished the season well outside of playoff contention, finishing 17 points behind the Avalanche in the wild-card race, McDavid set career highs with 41 goals and 108 points along with 67 assists, and he led the NHL with 84 even-strength points. Although his team's poor performance left McDavid out of serious contention for the Hart Trophy, he became the first player to receive the Art Ross Trophy in back-to-back years since Jaromír Jágr in 2000 and 2001. McDavid additionally took home the Ted Lindsay Award and was named to the NHL First All-Star Team.\nWith a point in all nine of the Oilers' first goals of the 2018–19 season, McDavid broke Adam Oates's record, set in 1986–87, when Oates was involved in the Detroit Red Wings' first seven goals of the season. With an overtime goal against Chicago Blackhawks goaltender Cam Ward on October 28, McDavid became the first Oiler to record at least 17 points through the first 10 games of an NHL season since Mark Messier in 1989–90. On December 13, with two assists in his 240th NHL game, McDavid became the ninth player to reach 300 points before his 22nd birthday and tied Evgeni Malkin of the Pittsburgh Penguins as the 21st century NHL player to reach the milestone in the fewest games. While serving as the Pacific Division captain at his third consecutive NHL All-Star Game, McDavid set an NHL record with his third Fastest Skater victory, defeating Jack Eichel and Mathew Barzal with a speed of 13.378 seconds. On February 22, McDavid received a two-game suspension from the NHL Department of Player Safety for what was deemed an illegal check to the head of New York Islanders defenceman Nick Leddy. He finished the season with a career-tying 41 goals, as well as a career-high 75 assists and 116 points, and he came in third behind Sidney Crosby and Nikita Kucherov in Hart Trophy voting. McDavid also received his third NHL First All-Star Team selection, finishing ahead of Crosby in voting for centre. On April 6, 2019, the final game of the season, McDavid crashed into the Calgary Flames' net at a velocity of over 40 km/h (25 mph), slamming his left knee into the post. He was diagnosed with a complete tear of the posterior cruciate ligament and popliteus muscle, tears to both the medial and lateral meniscus, and a tibial plateau fracture. With the Oilers already eliminated from possible playoff contention, McDavid elected not to undergo surgery but to participate in an extensive rehabilitation program that would allow him to return in time for the beginning of the 2019–20 season. The season also saw significant developments for the Oilers as a team, with general manager Peter Chiarelli sacked midway through in January 2019 after years of criticism for his inability to assemble a competitive team around McDavid. Subsequently, Ken Holland was hired as the team's new general manager.\nMcDavid started the 2019–20 season as the NHL First Star of the Week with 12 points through the first five games of the year, all of which the Oilers came back from behind to win. With the first goal of his hat-trick against the Anaheim Ducks on November 10, McDavid reached 400 NHL points in 306 games, joining Sidney Crosby as the only other active NHL player to reach the milestone in that many games. It was also 64 days before his 23rd birthday, making McDavid the eighth player to record 400 points before turning 23. Five days later, McDavid recorded another hat-trick as part of a career-high six-point game against the Colorado Avalanche. Although he reached 50 points on December 1 in a 3–2 win against the Vancouver Canucks, McDavid's scoring pace began to slow after his pair of hat tricks: he recorded 48 points in the first 25 games of the season but only 10 in the next nine, a stretch which also included four pointless outings. McDavid made his fourth All-Star Game appearance in 2020 as captain of the Pacific Division. He was kept from a fourth consecutive Fastest Skater win by Mathew Barzal, who finished the course in 13.175 seconds, ahead of McDavid's 13.215-second lap.\nWith their February 9 outing against the Nashville Predators, during which Draisaitl scored twice and McDavid had an assist, the pair became the first teammates to reach 30 goals and 80 points apiece in 55 games since Mario Lemieux and Jaromír Jágr with the Pittsburgh Penguins during the 1996–97 season. McDavid injured his knee in a collision with Dante Fabbro during the second period of that game, and although the knee itself did not suffer any serious damage, MRI scans revealed a quadriceps injury. He missed six games before returning on February 23 for a three-point outing in the Oilers' 4–2 victory over the Los Angeles Kings. By the time that the NHL indefinitely suspended the season on March 12 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, McDavid had 34 goals, 63 assists and 97 points in 64 games. When the NHL returned to play that July for the 2020 playoffs, McDavid was one of 31 skaters that the Oilers took into their quarantine bubble. He added an additional five goals and nine points in four postseason games before the Chicago Blackhawks eliminated the Oilers in the qualifying round. That included a postseason hat-trick in Game 2 to help the Oilers to a 6–3 win.\n\n2020–present: Rising team contention, Rocket Richard Trophy win and Conn Smythe Trophy\nOn January 14, 2021, in the second game of the pandemic-shortened 2020–21 season, McDavid scored the first hat-trick of any player that year as the Oilers won 5–2 against the Vancouver Canucks. With eight goals and 14 assists in the first 11 games of the season, McDavid joined Wayne Gretzky as the only Oilers in history to reach 20 points in 11 games during back-to-back seasons, a feat for which he was named the NHL North Division Star of the Month for January. His 500th career point came on an assist against the Winnipeg Jets on February 17. The point came in McDavid's 369th NHL game, tying Sidney Crosby as the eighth-fastest player to reach the milestone. Four days later, he had a natural hat-trick and a five-point game in a 7–1 rout of the Calgary Flames. He won the North Division Star of the Month again for March after recording 23 points in 14 games, including an 11-game point streak between March 6 and 29. On May 9, 2021, in only the 53rd game of the pandemic-shortened season, McDavid reached his 100th point of the year in a four-point outing against the Canucks. He was the first player to reach the milestone in so few games since Mario Lemieux during the 1995–96 season. He finished the season with 33 goals and a league-leading 72 assists for a league-leading 105 points in all 56 games, 21 more than runner-up and teammate Leon Draisaitl, and took home his third career Art Ross Trophy. At the end of the regular season, he was named to his fourth NHL First All-Star Team, won his third Ted Lindsay Award, and joined Wayne Gretzky as the only players in the 97-year history of the award to win the Hart Memorial Trophy by unanimous selection.\nThe Oilers were unexpectedly swept by the Winnipeg Jets in the first round of the 2021 playoffs, with McDavid recording only one goal and three assists in the four-game series. The officiating standards during the playoffs subsequently became a public point of contention, with McDavid joining many fans and commentators in saying that referees allowed the Jets' players to foul him with impunity. It was noted that McDavid did not draw a single penalty during the series against the Jets, and had only drawn one in the preceding year's playoff series against the Chicago Blackhawks. McDavid asked that referees \"call the rule book, that's what it's there for.\"\n\nMcDavid began the 2021–22 season on a 17-game point streak, which came to an end on November 23, 2021, in a 4–1 loss to the Dallas Stars. It was the eighth-longest point streak to begin a season in NHL history and the third-longest for the Oilers, behind Wayne Gretzky's 51- and 30-game streaks in 1983–84 and 1982–83, respectively. While the Oilers started the season with a franchise-best 9–1 record, McDavid and Draisaitl became the first pair of Edmonton teammates to individually reach 20 points within the first 10 games of the season since Gretzky and Jari Kurri in 1984–85. After an excellent start to the season, both the Oilers and McDavid began suffering a marked decline in results, culminating in a 2–11–2 stretch of games in December and January. By early February they had dropped out of a playoff spot. Amidst extensive media discussion of the Oilers' lack of depth scoring and questionable goaltending, general manager Holland fired coach Dave Tippett and replaced him with Jay Woodcroft, previously the coach of the Oilers AHL affiliate Bakersfield Condors.\nMcDavid was once again selected as the captain of the Pacific Division team at the 2022 NHL All-Star Game, where he was upset by Jordan Kyrou of the St. Louis Blues in the Fastest Skater competition. The Oilers recovered their form under Woodcroft, finishing the season in second place in the Pacific Division to qualify for the playoffs after posting the third-best points percentage in the league after the coaching change with a 26–9–3 record. McDavid finished the season with 44 goals, 79 assists and 123 points in 80 games to secure his fourth career Art Ross Trophy. This point total was eight points more than runner-up Johnny Gaudreau of the Calgary Flames and Jonathan Huberdeau of the Florida Panthers, who both finished with 115 points. McDavid was again named a finalist for both the Hart Trophy and the Ted Lindsay Award.\nThe Oilers advanced in the 2022 playoffs to meet the Los Angeles Kings, seen as favourites to advance beyond the first round for only the second time in McDavid's career. The Kings proved a greater challenge than many had expected, and after five games led the series 3–2. With the Oilers facing elimination in Game 6 in Los Angeles, McDavid led the team to victory, posting a goal and two assists in a game-leading 24:02 minutes of ice time to force Game 7. Two days later, McDavid had a primary assist on Cody Ceci's game-winning goal, before burying a backhand shot in the final minutes to secure a 2–0 Oilers win and clinch the series. McDavid's four goals and 10 assists led the league in the first round of the playoffs, and he became only the second player in history to record six multi-point games in a single playoff series. The Oilers drew the Calgary Flames in the second round, the first playoff \"Battle of Alberta\" in 31 years. With two goals and four assists in the first two games of the second round, McDavid hit 20 career playoff points in the fewest games of any player in 30 years. McDavid scored the series-clinching goal in overtime in Game 5 to send the Oilers to the Western Conference Final for the first time since 2006. The Oilers were ultimately defeated by the top-seeded Colorado Avalanche, the eventual Stanley Cup champions, in a four game sweep, bringing the postseason to an end. With 10 goals and 23 assists for a total of 33 points, he led all players in scoring in the 2022 playoffs. He became the first player since Peter Forsberg in 2002 to first in scoring without playing in the final round.\nOn October 12, 2022, during the Oilers' 2022–23 season opener against the Vancouver Canucks, McDavid scored a hat-trick and increased his total career points to 700. This made him the sixth-fastest player in NHL history to reach the milestone, and the fastest player since the 1980s. In a season marked by increased scoring generally across the league, McDavid once again led the league in points from the beginning, this time while also scoring goals at the highest pace of his career thus far. On January 22, McDavid scored his 40th goal of the season in a win over the Vancouver Canucks, becoming the fastest NHL player to notch 40 goals in a season since Pavel Bure during the 1999–2000 season. McDavid reached 800 career points against the Philadelphia Flyers in a February 21 game, the fifth-fastest pace of any player in league history. That game was the first of four consecutive two-goal games that saw him reach the 50-goal mark for the first time in a single season on February 27. He notched a fifth consecutive two-goal game on March 1, becoming only the fifth player in league history to do so. With a goal and an assist in a game against the Ottawa Senators on March 14, he reached 129 points on the season, surpassing Nikita Kucherov's 21st-century record set four years prior. He then reached the 60-goal mark for the first time in his career on March 22, scoring the game-winning goal in overtime against the Arizona Coyotes. He was only the fourth player to do so in the 21st century, and, in 72 games, reached it faster than anyone since Mario Lemieux in 1995-96. McDavid scored his 64th goal on April 8, which made him the sixth player in NHL history to hit the 150-point threshold, whilst leading the league in goals for the first time in his career. He finished the season with 64 goals and 153 points, winning his fifth (and third consecutive) Art Ross Trophy and, for the first time in his career, earning the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy for leading the NHL in goal-scoring. He was the first Oiler to win the Richard Trophy, and the first to lead the NHL in goals since Gretzky in 1986–87. His 64 goals were one short of Alexander Ovechkin's post-lockout record of 65 in the 2007–08 season. His 153 points were the most for a player since Lemieux in 1996, and the fourth-most for any player in NHL history, behind Gretzky, Lemieux and Steve Yzerman. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation dubbed it \"the season of the century.\" He was once again named finalist for both the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Ted Lindsay Award. Winning both awards, he finished the season with four individual player trophies. He received 195 of 196 first-place votes for the Hart Trophy, narrowly missing a second unanimous win.\nThe Oilers finished second in the Pacific Division and sixth in the league, qualifying for the 2023 playoffs. They drew the Los Angeles Kings in the first round for the second consecutive year, entering as the favourite to advance. The Oilers ousted the Kings in six games, with McDavid and Draisaitl again credited as dominant forces in the contest, and moved to face the Vegas Golden Knights in the second round. The second round matchup attracted media attention due to the presence of Jack Eichel on the Golden Knights roster, as Eichel had been drafted second overall in the same year as McDavid and was viewed at the time as a potential career rival, though the narrative had largely faded in the following years due to neither party's interest in establishing further tension, Eichel's original Buffalo Sabres team from 2015 to 2021 not achieving much success, and the Sabres being in a different division and conference than the Oilers. The Oilers were ultimately defeated by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Golden Knights in a six-game series, bringing their postseason to an end.\nIn the summer 2023 off-season, the Oilers hired Jeff Jackson, McDavid's longtime agent, to serve as the CEO of hockey operations. McDavid vowed that it would be \"Cup or bust\" for the team going into the 2023–24 season. The team had a \"disastrous\" start to the season, winning only two of their first ten games and sitting second-to-last in the NHL. McDavid missed games due to injury in this period, and at the same point was tied for 57th in league scoring. On November 12, the team fired coach Woodcroft and replaced him with Kris Knoblauch, who had previously been McDavid's coach with the Erie Otters. At the time of the coaching change, the Oilers had a 3–9–1 record. The Athletic remarked that the hirings of Jackson and Knoblauch \"have put the spotlight squarely on McDavid,\" given their prior relations to him. The team's fortunes soon revived under Knoblauch, and McDavid saw his scoring surge. On April 15, 2024, McDavid recorded his 100th assist of the 2023–24 season on a goal by Zach Hyman in a 9–2 win over the San Jose Sharks to become the first NHL player in over three decades and the fourth player in NHL history (alongside Wayne Gretzky, Mario Lemieux and Bobby Orr) to achieve the feat. After ending the season with 32 goals and 100 assists for 132 points in 76 games, McDavid and the Oilers would eliminate the Los Angeles Kings in the first round for the third straight season in five games, the Vancouver Canucks in seven games and the Dallas Stars in six games in the third round to help clinch the Oilers first appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals since 2006. After losing the first three games of the series against the Florida Panthers, McDavid led the team on a comeback to avert elimination with a historic scoring surge in the next two games. In game four, he registered his 32nd assist of the playoffs on a goal by Dylan Holloway, breaking Wayne Gretzky's record for most assists in one playoff year in an 8–1 victory. Following a dominant performance in which he scored four points during a 5-3 victory in the fifth game, McDavid achieved a historic feat by becoming the first player in NHL history to achieve back-to-back games with four points or more in the Stanley Cup Finals. Additionally, he also holds the record for most points accumulated over two games in the Stanley Cup Finals. The Oilers forced the series to seven games, but were ultimately defeated. McDavid was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the postseason. He was the sixth person from the losing finalist team to receive the award, only the second forward (after Reggie Leach in 1976) to do so, and the first person since Jean-Sébastien Giguère of the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in 2003.\n\nInternational play\nJunior\nMcDavid's international ice hockey career began with the 2013 World U-17 Hockey Challenge, where he led the sixth-place Team Ontario with nine points in five games, including two goals and an assist in their 7–6 tournament-ending loss to Team Pacific. Despite his team's disappointing performance, McDavid was named to the tournament all-star team. The next year, a 16-year-old McDavid was the youngest player in the 2013 IIHF World U18 Championships in Sochi. Playing for the Canada men's national under-18 ice hockey team, he skated on a line with Sam Reinhart and Sam Bennett, recording two goals and two assists in Canada's 4–1 opening-round win over Slovakia. He led the tournament in scoring with eight goals and 14 assists, including a hat-trick during Canada's 6–0 quarterfinal win over the Czech Republic. Canada defeated the United States team 3–2 in the gold medal match, breaking Team USA's four-year championship streak, and McDavid was named both the Best Forward and Tournament MVP after the win.\nIn 2014, McDavid became the sixth 16-year-old in history to join the Canadian junior team for that year's World Junior Ice Hockey Championship. Although McDavid recorded a goal and three assists in the tournament, he went pointless in the last three games and spent most of the bronze medal match, in which Canada fell 2–1 to Russia, on the bench. He rejoined the team for the 2015 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Canada, serving as an alternate captain and as the only 17-year-old on a team that was otherwise 19 years of age. Canada took the gold medal in the tournament, defeating Russia 5–4 in the championship match, and McDavid's 11 points (three goals and eight assists) tied Sam Reinhart and Nic Petan for first in the tournament. He was named to the media all-star team at the end of the championships.\n\nSenior\nMcDavid first joined the Canadian senior team for the 2016 IIHF World Championship in Russia. Although he had eight assists in the tournament, McDavid did not score a goal until the gold-medal match against Finland, who the Canadians shut out 2–0 to win the tournament. McDavid's was the only goal of the game until the final second, when Matt Duchene scored in an empty net. That same year, McDavid was named captain of Team North America, a team of Canadian and United States players aged 23 or under, at the 2016 World Cup of Hockey. Centreing a line with Auston Matthews and Mark Scheifele, McDavid had three assists in six games during the pre-tournament and round robin stages of the World Cup. Team North America was eliminated after the round-robin portion of the tournament, with Russia winning the tiebreaker. Two years later, McDavid was named captain of Team Canada at the 2018 IIHF World Championship in Denmark, where he recorded five goals and 13 points through the opening rounds of the tournament. With a 4–1 loss to the United States team in the bronze medal game, Canada finished the World Championship without a medal for the first time since 2014. McDavid, who was joined by Oilers teammates Ryan Nugent-Hopkins and Darnell Nurse, finished the tournament third in scoring with five goals and 17 points in 10 games. McDavid intended to play for Canada again at the 2019 IIHF World Championship, but suffered a leg injury at the end of the NHL season that kept him from participating.\nMcDavid was one of the first three players named to the Canadian roster for the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing, joining Sidney Crosby and Alex Pietrangelo. In December 2021, however, the NHL declared that no players would be allowed to participate in the Olympic Games, citing COVID-19 outbreaks throughout the league. McDavid, who had already missed a chance to participate in the 2018 Winter Olympics due to financial concerns from the NHL, was upset with the league's decision, saying, \"It's always been a dream of mine to play at the Olympics since I was a little kid. So to have that kind of squashed as we were getting close was disappointing.\"\n\nPlayer profile\nNicknamed \"McJesus\", McDavid is considered by fellow players, fans, and sportswriters to be one of the best players in the modern era of the NHL, with frequent comparisons to elite offensive players such as Sidney Crosby. Responding to a 2017 survey from the Associated Press, defenceman Seth Jones described McDavid as \"what Crosby was when he was 20\", while Boston Bruins goaltender Tuukka Rask said that McDavid \"just skates and he stick handles and it's something I've never seen before as a goalie\". Between 2016 and 2021, McDavid ranked first in TSN Hockey's preseason fan poll of the top 50 players in the NHL. The NHLPA also voted McDavid the best forward in the league in both 2019 and 2020. In 2021, McDavid joined Gretzky as the only players to unanimously win the Hart Memorial Trophy, as voted by members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association.\nThrough his first five seasons in the NHL, McDavid's 1.34 points per game have been on par with Crosby and Alexander Ovechkin. When asked by ESPN in 2016 what made McDavid such a strong player, several, including Auston Matthews, Ryan Getzlaf, Joe Thornton, and Brendan Gallagher, mentioned his speed on the ice. John Tavares praised McDavid's adaptability, while defenceman Cam Fowler said, \"I don't think there's a specific way to shut him down.\" In 2021, Gretzky praised McDavid's increased maturity and physicality compared to previous seasons, saying, \"His body language is that he doesn't want to lose, and it's infectious through the hockey club.\" Despite the praise for the offensive aspects of his game, McDavid has received criticism from sports journalists for his defensive elements, particularly his high rate of turning over the puck to his opponents while in the Oilers' defensive zone.\n\nPersonal life\nMcDavid met his wife, interior designer Lauren Kyle, in 2016 after they were set up on a blind date by Kyle's cousin and McDavid's then-teammate. The pair live with their dog, a miniature Bernedoodle named Lenard, and own a house together in Edmonton. After photos of the house were featured in EDify magazine in 2020 and video tour was recorded in 2021 for Architectural Digest, the minimalist design and the poor view of the Edmonton River Valley outside became an Internet meme. McDavid and Kyle became engaged on June 22, 2023, and got married on July 27, 2024, in Muskoka, Ontario. The wedding was featured in Vogue. Edmonton Oilers teammates Leon Draisaitl and Darnell Nurse were two of his groomsmen.\nAs a sports fan in Ontario, McDavid was a dedicated childhood fan of Mats Sundin and the Toronto Maple Leafs NHL team. He described his childhood bedroom as \"pretty embarrassing\" for its volume of Maple Leafs memorabilia. In 2023, he stated that he \"likes watching players more than teams\", and named the Maple Leafs and the Pittsburgh Penguins as the two teams he most enjoys watching for that reason. Outside of hockey, he supports the Toronto Blue Jays of Major League Baseball and threw out the ceremonial first pitch at a Blue Jays game in 2016.\nOn June 21, 2017, Electronic Arts revealed that McDavid would be the cover athlete for NHL 18, their annual installment of the NHL video game series. Additionally, McDavid's unique skating style inspired the Real Player Motion technology used in NHL 19, in which player size and other attributes affect their skating speed and power. In 2022, McDavid was one of several Canadian athletes to appear on boxes of Cheerios cereal as part of their \"Be the Cheer\" promotion, in which customers could write personalized messages to athletes competing at the Olympic Games. That same year, McDavid became the first active professional athlete to serve as a brand ambassador for sports betting company BetMGM.\n\nPhilanthropy\nMcDavid is involved in charitable efforts with Edmonton's indigenous community and has raised $85,000 to help indigenous children play sports. He is also involved in a shuttle program to help sick kids.\n\nCareer statistics\nRegular season and playoffs\nCareer statistics derived from Elite Prospects.\nBold indicates led league.Bold italics indicate NHL record.\n\nInternational\nAwards, honours, and records\nAwards and honours\nRecords\nMost individual awards given to any OHL player (5)\nYoungest captain in NHL history (19 years, 266 days at time of appointment)\nMost points on consecutive goals to begin an NHL season (9, in 2018–19 season)\nMost assists in one playoff year (34, 2024 NHL playoffs)\nOnly player to record back-to-back 4-point or more games in the Stanley Cup Finals (2024 Stanley Cup Finals)\nMost points over a two-game stretch in the Stanley Cup Finals (8, 2024 Stanley Cup Finals)\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nRobson, Dan (October 7, 2024). \"'The sun will rise': Connor McDavid's summer of healing\". The Athletic. Retrieved October 7, 2024.\n\nExternal links\n\nBiographical information and career statistics from NHL.com, or Eliteprospects.com, or Eurohockey.com, or Hockey-Reference.com, or The Internet Hockey Database\nConnor McDavid player profile at Ontario Hockey League",
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"paragraph_text": "The Stanley Cup is a trophy awarded annually to the playoff champion club of the National Hockey League (NHL) ice hockey league. It was donated by the Governor General of Canada Lord Stanley of Preston in 1892, and is the oldest professional sports trophy in North America. Inscribed the Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup, the trophy was first awarded to Canada's amateur ice hockey clubs who won the trophy as the result of challenge games and league play. Professional clubs came to dominate the competition in the early years of the twentieth century, and in 1913 the two major professional ice hockey organizations, the National Hockey Association (NHA), forerunner of the NHL, and the Pacific Coast Hockey Association (PCHA), reached a gentlemen's agreement in which their respective champions would face each other in an annual series for the Stanley Cup. After a series of league mergers and folds, it became the de facto championship trophy of the NHL in 1926, though it was nominally still subject to external challenge. After 1947, the Cup became the de jure NHL championship prize.\nFrom 1915 to the end of the 2023–24 season, the trophy has been won 108 times. 27 teams have won the cup, 22 of which are still active in the NHL. Prior to that, the challenge cup was held by nine teams. The Montreal Canadiens have won the Stanley Cup 24 times and made the Finals an additional 11 times. There were two years when the Stanley Cup was not awarded: 1919, because of the Spanish flu pandemic, and 2005, because of the 2004–05 NHL lockout.\nThe most recent winners of the Stanley Cup are the Florida Panthers, who won the 2024 Stanley Cup Finals.\n\nChallenge Cup era (1893–1914)\nThe origins of the Challenge era come from the method of play of the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada prior to 1893. From 1887 to 1893, the league did not play a round-robin format, but rather challenges between teams of the association that year, with the winner of the series being the 'interim' champion, with the final challenge winner becoming the league champion for the year. The Stanley Cup kept the tradition going, but added league championships as another way that a team could win the trophy. If a team in the same league as the current champion won the league championship, it would then inherit the Cup, without a challenge. The only time this rule was not followed was in 1904, when the Ottawa Senators club withdrew from its league, the CAHL. The trustees ruled that the Cup stayed with Ottawa, instead of the CAHL league champion.\nDuring the challenge cup period, none of the leagues that played for the trophy had a formal playoff system to decide their respective champions; whichever team finished in first place after the regular season won the league title. A playoff would only be played if teams tied for first-place in their leagues at the end of the regular season. Challenge games were played until 1912 at any time during hockey season by challenges approved and/or ordered by the Stanley Cup trustees. In 1912, Cup trustees declared that it was only to be defended at the end of the champion team's regular season.\nIn 1908, the Allan Cup was introduced as the trophy for Canada's amateurs, as the Stanley Cup became a symbol of professional hockey supremacy.\nThis table lists the outcome of all Stanley Cup wins, including successful victories and defenses in challenges, and league championships for the challenge era.\n\nNotes\n^ A. Although the Montreal Victorias won the AHAC title in 1895, the Stanley Cup trustees had already accepted a challenge from the 1894 Cup champion Montreal HC and Queen's University. As a compromise, the trustees decided that if the Montreal HC won the challenge match, the Victorias would become the Stanley Cup champions. The Montreals eventually won the game, 5–1, and their crosstown rivals were awarded the Cup.\n^ B. Intended to be a best-of-three series, Ottawa Capitals withdrew their challenge after the first game.\n^ C. The January 31 (a Saturday) game was tied 2–2 at midnight and the Mayor of Westmount refused to allow play to continue on Sunday. The game was played on February 2 (a Monday) and the January 31 game was considered to be void.\n^ D. For most of 1904, the Ottawa Hockey Club was not affiliated with any league.\n^ E. The Montreal Wanderers were disqualified as the result of a dispute. After game one ended tied at the end of regulation, 5–5, the Wanderers refused to play overtime with the current referee, and then subsequently refused to play the next game of the series in Ottawa.\n^ F. During the series, it was revealed that the Victoria club had not filed a formal challenge. A letter arrived from the Stanley Cup trustees on March 17, stating that the trustees would not let the Stanley Cup travel west, as they did not consider Victoria a proper challenger because they had not formally notified the trustees. However, on March 18, Trustee William Foran stated that it was a misunderstanding. PCHA president Frank Patrick had not filed a challenge because he had expected Emmett Quinn, president of the NHA to make all of the arrangements in his role as hockey commissioner, whereas the trustees thought they were being deliberately ignored. In any case, all arrangements had been ironed out and the Victoria challenge was accepted.\n\nSources\n\nColeman (1964)\nMontreal Gazette\nOttawa Citizen\nOttawa Journal\nWinnipeg Tribune\n\nNHA/NHL vs. PCHA/WCHL/WHL champions (1915–1926)\nSeveral days after the Victoria Aristocrats – Toronto Hockey Club series, Stanley Cup trustee William Foran wrote to NHA president Emmett Quinn that the trustees are \"perfectly satisfied to allow the representatives of the three pro leagues (NHA, PCHA, and Maritime) to make all arrangements each season as to the series of matches to be played for the Cup.\" The Maritime league did not challenge for the Cup in 1914, and folded after the 1915 season. The Stanley Cup championship finals alternated between the East and the West each year, with games played alternately under NHA or PCHA rules. The Cup trustees agreed to this new arrangement, because after the Allan Cup became the highest prize for amateur hockey teams in Canada, the trustees had become dependent on the top two professional leagues to bolster the prominence of the trophy.\nAfter the New Westminster Royals moved to Portland in the summer of 1914 becoming the Portland Rosebuds, an American-based team, the trustees issued a statement that the Cup was no longer for the best team in Canada, but now for the best team in the world. In March 1916, the Rosebuds became the first American team to play in the Stanley Cup championship final. In 1917, the Seattle Metropolitans became the first American team to win the Cup. After that season, the NHA suspended operations and the National Hockey League (NHL) took its place.\nIn 1919, the Spanish influenza epidemic forced the Montreal Canadiens and the Seattle Metropolitans to cancel their series tied at 2–2–1, marking the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded.\nThe format for the Stanley Cup championship changed in 1922, with the creation of the Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL). Now three leagues competed for the Cup and this necessitated a semi-final series between two league champions, with the third having a bye directly to the final. In 1924, the PCHA folded and only the Vancouver and Victoria teams entered the WCHL. With the loss of the PCHA, the championship reverted to a single series. After their win in 1925, the Victoria Cougars became the last team outside the NHL to win the Stanley Cup. For the 1925–26 season the WCHL was renamed the Western Hockey League (WHL). With the Victoria Cougars' loss in 1926, it would be the last time a non-NHL team competed for the Stanley Cup.\n\nNumbers in parentheses in the table indicate the number of times that team has appeared in the Stanley Cup Finals, as well as each respective teams' Stanley Cup Finals record to date.\n\nNHL champions (since 1927)\nWhen the WHL folded in 1926, its remaining assets were acquired by the NHL, making it the only remaining league with teams competing for the Cup. Other leagues and clubs have issued challenges, but from that year forward no non-NHL team has played for it, leading it to become the de facto championship trophy of the NHL. In 1947, the NHL reached an agreement with trustees P. D. Ross and Cooper Smeaton to grant control of the Cup to the NHL, allowing the league itself to reject challenges from other leagues that may have wished to play for the Cup. A 2006 Ontario Superior Court case found that the trustees had gone against Lord Stanley's conditions in the 1947 agreement. The NHL has agreed to allow other teams to play for the Cup should the league not be operating, as was the case in the 2004–05 NHL lockout.\nSince 1927, the league's playoff format, deciding which teams advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals, has changed multiple times. In some systems that were previously used, playoff teams were seeded regardless of division or conference. From 1942 to 1967 the Cup was competed for by the league's six teams, also known as the Original Six. For three seasons after the 1967 NHL Expansion, the Finals was competed between the East Division champion and the West Division champion. In 1971, the league returned to using playoff systems that allowed cross-over between the divisions and conferences. From 1982 to 2020, the Finals was played between the league's conference playoff champions; during that period the Campbell/Western champions went a combined 111–101 in the Finals against the Wales/Eastern champions (winning 20 of 38 series). In 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting travel restrictions along the Canada–United States border forced the league to temporarily realign the teams into four regional divisions with no conferences, and hold a divisional-based playoff format: the four divisional playoff champions advanced to the Stanley Cup Semifinals, and the winners of those series moved on to the Finals. The league then returned to the Eastern vs. Western Conference format in 2022.\n\nNumbers in parentheses in the table indicate the number of times that team has appeared in the Stanley Cup Finals, as well as each respective team's Stanley Cup Finals record to date.\nChampionships summary\n1927–1928: American Division vs. Canadian Division\n1929–1967, 1971–1981, 2021: Teams advanced to the Finals regardless of division or conference\n1968–1970: East Division vs. West Division\n1982–1993: Campbell Conference vs. Prince of Wales Conference\n1994–2020, 2022–: Eastern Conference vs. Western Conference\n\nAppearances\nChallenge Cup era (1893–1914)\nLegend: SC = successful Stanley Cup challenge or defense of championship (win); UC = unsuccessful Stanley Cup challenge or defense of championship (loss); Years in bold denote a Stanley Cup win.\n\nThe following 16 teams unsuccessfully challenged for a Stanley Cup only once: Berlin Dutchmen (1910), Dawson City Nuggets (1905), Halifax Crescents (1900), Moncton Victorias (1912), Montreal Canadiens (1914), New Glasgow Cubs (1906), Ottawa Capitals (1897), Ottawa Victorias (1908), Port Arthur Bearcats (1911), Smiths Falls (1906), Sydney Millionaires (1913), Toronto Marlboros (1904), Toronto Professionals (1908), Toronto Wellingtons (1902), Victoria Aristocrats (1914), Winnipeg Rowing Club (1904).\n\nStanley Cup Finals era (since 1915)\nActive teams\nIn the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by alphabetical order. In the \"Season(s)\" column, bold years indicate winning Stanley Cup Finals appearances. Unless marked otherwise, teams played in the NHL exclusively at the time they competed for the Stanley Cup.\n\nFive active teams have yet to make a Stanley Cup Finals appearance. Three of these teams have remained in the same location since their inceptions:\n\nColumbus Blue Jackets (23 seasons, 6 playoffs)\nMinnesota Wild (23 seasons, 13 playoffs, 1 division title)\nSeattle Kraken (3 seasons, 1 playoff)\nThe other two teams have relocated and have not made the Finals in either location:\n\nAtlanta Thrashers (11 seasons, 1 playoff, 1 division title) / Winnipeg Jets (13 seasons, 7 playoffs)\nWinnipeg Jets (original team) (17 seasons, 11 playoffs) / Phoenix/Arizona Coyotes (27 seasons, 9 playoffs, 1 division title)\nFive relocated teams that have won the Stanley Cup in their current locations and never in their former locations:\n\nQuebec Nordiques (16 seasons, 9 playoffs, 2 division titles) – won 3 Stanley Cups as Colorado Avalanche\nKansas City Scouts (2 seasons, never made playoff contention)/Colorado Rockies (6 seasons, 1 playoff) – won 3 Stanley Cups as New Jersey Devils\nCalifornia Golden Seals (9 seasons, 2 playoffs)/Cleveland Barons (2 seasons, never made playoff contention) – merged with Minnesota North Stars who lost twice in the Finals then won the Stanley Cup once as Dallas Stars\nAtlanta Flames (8 seasons, 6 playoffs) – won Stanley Cup once as Calgary Flames\nHartford Whalers (18 seasons, 8 playoffs, 1 division title) – won Stanley Cup once as Carolina Hurricanes\n\nDefunct teams\nListed after the team name is the name of the affiliated league(s) when the team competed for the Stanley Cup. A bold year denotes a Stanley Cup win.\n\nNotes\na The Montreal Canadiens and the Seattle Metropolitans appearance totals include the 1919 Stanley Cup Finals that ended with a no-decision because of the Spanish flu epidemic. It is not considered an official series win or loss by either team.\nb The franchise known today as the Toronto Maple Leafs won the Cup in 1918 as the Toronto Hockey Club (later engraved on the Stanley Cup as the Toronto Arenas in 1947), and in 1922 as the Toronto St. Patricks.\nc The Chicago Blackhawks were known as the Chicago Black Hawks prior to the 1986–87 season.\nd The Dallas Stars totals include two series losses as the Minnesota North Stars.\ne The Anaheim Ducks totals include one series loss as the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim.\nf The Ottawa Senators (1992–present) are named after the original Senators (1883–1934).\n\nSee also\nReferences\nGeneral\nSpecific\nExternal links\nList of winners of the Stanley Cup\nList of winning rosters of the Stanley Cup",
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"paragraph_text": "The 1996–97 Detroit Red Wings season was the 71st National Hockey League season in Detroit, Michigan. The highlight of the Red Wings season was winning the Stanley Cup, their first since 1955.\n\nOff-season\nOn July 23, 1996, Detroit Red Wings President Bill Evo resigned his position after serving just ten months at the team's helm. The Nickname \"Hockeytown\" was coined to launch the start of a five-year marketing campaign.\n\nRegular season\nThe \"HOCKEYTOWN\" logo, a Red Wings logo overlapped with the term \"HOCKEYTOWN,\" was shown over center ice starting this season and was still there as of 2022.\nA season highlight was Sergei Fedorov's five-goal performance on December 26, 1996, in a game against the Washington Capitals. The Red Wings won 5–4 in overtime. Fedorov's fifth goal of the game came at 2:39 of the overtime period.\nOn February 8, 1997, coach Scotty Bowman achieved his 1000th victory as an NHL head coach against his previous team, the Pittsburgh Penguins.\nOn March 26, 1997, the Red Wings–Avalanche brawl continued to fuel the rivalry between the teams. Detroit won that game 6–5 in overtime.\n\nSeason standings\nNote: CR = Conference rank; GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; Pts = Points Bolded teams qualified for the playoffs.\n\nDivisions: CEN – Central, PAC – Pacific\nbold – Qualified for playoffs; p – Won Presidents' Trophy\n\nPlayoffs\nThe Red Wings won the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals, their first Stanley Cup since the 1954–55 NHL season.\nSix days after winning the Stanley Cup, tragedy struck when defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov, defenseman Viacheslav Fetisov, and massage therapist Sergei Mnatsakanov were involved in a limousine accident. The driver, who later said he fell asleep, had a suspended license for previous drunk driving convictions.\n\nSchedule and results\nRegular season\nPlayoffs\nPlayer statistics\nScoring\nPosition abbreviations: C = Center; D = Defense; G = Goaltender; LW = Left wing; RW = Right wing\n† = Joined team via a transaction (e.g., trade, waivers, signing) during the season. Stats reflect time with the Red Wings only.\n‡ = Left team via a transaction (e.g., trade, waivers, release) during the season. Stats reflect time with the Red Wings only.\n\nGoaltending\nAwards and records\nAwards\nVladimir Konstantinov was the runner-up for the James Norris Memorial Trophy.\n\nMilestones\nTransactions\nRetirement\nDraft picks\nDetroit's picks at the 1996 NHL entry draft.\n\nNotes\nThe Red Wings acquired this pick as the result of a trade on April 4, 1995 that sent Mike Sillinger and Jason York to Anaheim in exchange for Stu Grimson, Mark Ferner and this pick.\nThe Red Wings third-round pick went to the Boston Bruins as the result of a trade on August 17, 1995 that sent David Shaw to Tampa Bay in exchange for this pick (80th overall).\nTampa Bay previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on August 17, 1995 that sent Marc Bergevin and Ben Hankinson to Detroit in exchange for Shawn Burr and this pick.\n\nNotes\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "1996%E2%80%9397_Detroit_Red_Wings_season"
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] | Who was team captain of the team that won the Stanley Cup the year Connor McDavid was born? | [] | Steve Yzerman | [] | true |
268 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The cent, the United States of America one-cent coin (symbol: ¢), often called the \"penny\", is a unit of currency equaling one-hundredth of a United States of America dollar. It has been the lowest face-value physical unit of U.S. currency since the abolition of the half-cent in 1857 (the abstract mill, which has never been minted, equal to a tenth of a cent, continues to see limited use in the fields of taxation and finance). \nThe first U.S. cent was produced in 1787, and the cent has been issued primarily as a copper or copper-plated coin throughout its history. Due to inflation, pennies have lost virtually all their purchasing power and are often viewed as an expensive burden to businesses, banks, government (especially mints) and the public in general.\nThe penny is issued in its current form as the Lincoln cent, with its obverse featuring the profile of President Abraham Lincoln since 1909, the centennial of his birth. From 1959 (the sesquicentennial of Lincoln's birth) to 2008, the reverse featured the Lincoln Memorial. Four different reverse designs in 2009 honored Lincoln's 200th birthday and a new, \"permanent\" reverse – the Union Shield – was introduced in 2010. The coin is 0.75 inches (19.05 mm) in diameter and 0.0598 inches (1.52 mm) in thickness. The current copper-plated zinc cent issued since 1982 weighs 2.5 grams, while the previous 95% copper cent still found in circulation weighed 3.11 g (see further below).\nThe U.S. Mint's official name for the coin is \"cent\" and the U.S. Treasury's official name is \"one cent piece\". The colloquial term penny derives from the British coin of the same name, which occupies a similar place in the British system. Pennies is the plural form (not to be confused with pence, which refers to the unit of currency).\nIn the early 2010s, the price of metal used to make pennies rose to a noticeable cost to the mint which peaked at more than 2¢, a negative seigniorage, for the $0.01 face-value coin. This pushed the mint to look for alternative metals again for the coin, and also brought the debate about eliminating the coin into more focus. As of 2022 there are no firm plans to do so.\n\nHistory of composition\nThe composition of the penny has varied over time:\n\nThe isotope composition of early coins spanning the period 1828 to 1843 reflects the copper from Cornish ores from England, while coins after 1850 reflect the Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan ores, a finding consistent with historical records.\nIn 1943, at the peak of World War II, zinc-coated steel cents were made for a short time because of war demands for copper. A few copper cents from 1943 were produced from 1942 planchets remaining in the bins. Similarly, some 1944 steel cents have been confirmed. From 1944 to 1946, salvaged ammunition shells made their way into the minting process, and it was not uncommon to see coins featuring streaks of brass or having a considerably darker finish than other issues.\nDuring the early 1970s, the price of copper rose to the point where the cent contained almost one cent's worth of copper. This led the Mint to test alternative metals, including aluminum and bronze-clad steel. Aluminum was chosen, and over 1.5 million samples of the 1974 aluminum cent were struck before ultimately being rejected.\nThe cent's composition was changed in 1982 because the value of the copper in the coin started to rise above one cent. Some 1982 cents used the 97.5% zinc composition, while others used the 95% copper composition. With the exception of 2009 bicentennial cents minted specifically for collectors, United States cents minted after 1982 have been zinc with copper plating. The bronze and copper cents can be distinguished from the newer zinc cents by dropping the coins on a solid surface, or by flipping them in the air with your thumb. The predominantly zinc coins make a lower-pitched \"clunk\" when hitting the surface, and make no sound when flipped in the air; while the copper coins produce a higher-pitched ringing sound. In addition, a full 50-cent roll of pre-1982/3 coins weighs 5.4 oz (150 g) compared to a post-1982–83 roll which weighs 4.4 oz (120 g).\n\nDesigns\nThe coin has gone through several designs over its two-hundred-year time frame. Until 1857 it was about the size of the current U.S. dollar coins (Susan B. Anthony through present dollars). Shown below are the different cent designs that have been produced; mintage figures can be found at United States cent mintage figures.\nLarge cents:\n\nFlowing Hair Chain 1793\nFlowing Hair Wreath 1793\nLiberty Cap 1793–1796\nDraped Bust 1796–1807\nClassic Head 1808–1814\nCoronet 1816–1839\nBraided Hair 1839–1857, 1868 (not a regular issue)\nSmall cents:\n\nFlying Eagle cent (1856–1858)\nIndian Head cent (1859–1909)\nLincoln cent (1909–present)\nLincoln Wheat (1909–1958)\nLincoln Memorial (1959–2008)\nLincoln Bicentennial 4 reverse designs (2009)\nLincoln Union Shield (2010–present)\nThroughout its history, the Lincoln cent has featured several typefaces for the date, but most of the digits have been old-style numerals, except with the 4 and 8 neither ascending nor descending. The only significant divergence is that the small 3 was non-descending (the same size as a 0, 1, or 2) in the early history, before switching to a descending, large 3 for the year 1934 and then permanently (as of 2014) in 1943. Similarly, the digit 5 was small and non-descending up to 1945.\n\nLincoln cent\nThe Lincoln cent is the current one-cent coin of the U.S. It was adopted in 1909 (which would have been Lincoln's 100th birthday), replacing the Indian Head cent. Its reverse was changed in 1959 from a wheat-stalks design to a design which includes the Lincoln Memorial (to commemorate Lincoln's sesquicentennial) and was replaced again in 2009 with four new designs to commemorate Lincoln's bicentennial. There are more one-cent coins produced than any other denomination, which makes the Lincoln cent a familiar item. In its lifespan, this coin has weathered both world wars, one of which temporarily changed its composition as part of the war effort. The obverse design is the longest produced for any circulating American coin.\n\nHistory\nWhen the Lincoln one-cent coin made its initial appearance in 1909, it marked a radical departure from the accepted styling of United States coinage, as it was the first regular coin to bear a portrait other than the mythical Liberty which appeared on most pre-1909 regular coins. Previously, a strong feeling had prevailed against using portraits on coins in the United States, but public sentiment stemming from the 100th anniversary celebration of Abraham Lincoln's birth proved stronger than the long-standing tradition.\nA variety of privately minted tokens bearing Lincoln's image circulated as one-cent pieces during Lincoln's presidency; legitimate coinage had become scarce during the Civil War. These early tokens undoubtedly influenced the denomination, appearance, size, and composition of Lincoln cents.\nTheodore Roosevelt, the 26th U.S. president, thought American coins were so common and uninspiring that he attempted to get the motto \"In God We Trust\" removed as offending religion. Roosevelt had the opportunity to pose for a young Lithuanian-born Jew, Victor David Brenner, who, since arriving nineteen years earlier in the United States had become one of the nation's premier medalists. Roosevelt had learned of Brenner's talents in a settlement house on New York City's Lower East Side and was immediately impressed with a bas-relief that Brenner had made of Lincoln, based on a Mathew Brady photograph. Roosevelt, who considered Lincoln the savior of the Union and the greatest Republican president, and who also considered himself Lincoln's political heir, ordered the new Lincoln cent to be based on Brenner's work and to be released just in time to commemorate Lincoln's 100th birthday in 1909. The likeness of President Lincoln on the obverse of the coin is an adaptation of a plaque Brenner created several years earlier which had come to the attention of President Roosevelt in New York.\nIn addition to the prescribed elements on U.S. coins—LIBERTY and the date—the motto In God We Trust appeared for the first time on a coin of this denomination. The United States Congress passed the Act of March 3, 1865, authorizing the use of this motto on U.S. coins, during Lincoln's tenure in office.\nEven though no legislation was required for the new design, approval of the Secretary of the Treasury was necessary to make the change. Franklin MacVeagh gave his approval on July 14, 1909, and not quite three weeks later, on August 2, the new coin was released to the public.\nIn 1918, after the controversy over Brenner's name and initials on the reverse had died down, his initials were placed on the obverse with no further controversy. They are to be found in minute form on the rim of the bust, just under the shoulder of Lincoln.\n\nWheat cent (1909–1958)\nA study of three potential reverses resulted in the approval of a very simple design bearing two wheatheads in memorial style. Between these, in the center of the coin, are the denomination and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, while curving around the upper border is the national motto, E Pluribus Unum, Latin for \"Out of Many, One\".\nThe original model bore Brenner's name on the reverse, curving along the rim below UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Before the coins were issued, however, the initials \"VDB\" were substituted because officials at the United States Mint felt the name was too prominent. After the coin was released, many protested that even the initials were conspicuous and detracted from the design. Because the coin was in great demand, and because to make a change would have required halting production, the decision was made to eliminate the initials entirely.\nThus in 1909 the U.S. had six different cents: the 1909 and 1909-S Indian Head cents, and four Lincoln coins: 1909 VDB, 1909-S VDB, 1909 and 1909-S. In all cases the Philadelphia mintages far exceeded the San Francisco issues. While the smallest mintage is the '09-S Indian, the '09-S VDB is the key Lincoln date, and hence is most valuable. Its mintage of 484,000 is only 1.7% of the plain V.D.B.\n\nLincoln Memorial cent (1959–2008)\nOn February 12, 1959, a revised reverse design was introduced as part of the 150th anniversary of Lincoln's birth. No formal competition was held. Frank Gasparro, then Assistant Engraver at the Philadelphia Mint, prepared the winning entry, selected from a group of 23 models that the engraving staff at the Mint had been asked to present for consideration. Again, only the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury was necessary to make the change because the design had been in use for more than the required 25 years. The imposing marble Lincoln Memorial provides the central motif, with the legends E Pluribus Unum and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA completing the design, together with the denomination. The initials \"FG\" appear on the right, near the shrubbery. This series is noteworthy for having the image of Abraham Lincoln both on the obverse and reverse, as his likeness can be discerned at the center of the memorial on the reverse.\n\nLincoln Bicentennial cents (2009)\nThe Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005 required that the cent's reverse be redesigned in 2009. This resulted in the mintage of four different coins showing scenes from Abraham Lincoln's life in honor of the bicentennial of his birth.\nThese four designs, unveiled September 22, 2008, at a ceremony held at the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., are:\n\nBirth and early childhood in Kentucky: this design features a log cabin and Lincoln's birth year 1809. It was designed by Richard Masters and sculpted by Jim Licaretz. This cent was released into circulation on Lincoln's 200th birthday, February 12, 2009, at a special ceremony at LaRue County High School in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln's birthplace. The mintage was extremely low compared to prior years (see Lincoln cent mintage figures). It has been nicknamed the \"Log Cabin Penny\".\nFormative years in Indiana: this design features a young Lincoln reading while taking a break from rail splitting. It was designed and sculpted by Charles Vickers. Nicknamed the \"Indiana Penny\", it was released on May 14, 2009.\nProfessional life in Illinois: this design features a young professional Lincoln standing before the Illinois State Capitol, in Springfield. It was designed by Joel Iskowitz and sculpted by Don Everhart. Nicknamed the \"Illinois Penny\", it was released on August 13, 2009.\nPresidency in Washington, D.C.: this design features the half-completed Capitol dome. It was designed by Susan Gamble and sculpted by Joseph Menna. This fourth cent was released to the public on November 12, 2009. U.S. Mint released collector's sets containing this design in copper prior to the public launch of this design in zinc.\nSpecial 2009 cents struck for sale in sets to collectors had the metallic copper content of cents minted in 1909 (95% copper, 5% tin and zinc). Those struck for circulation retained the normal composition of a zinc core coated with copper.\n\nUnion shield cent (2010–present)\nThe 2005 act that authorized the redesign for the Bicentennial stated that another redesigned reverse for the Lincoln cent will be minted which \"shall bear an image emblematic of President Lincoln's preservation of the United States of America as a single and united country\". Eighteen designs were proposed for the reverse of the 2010 cent. On April 16, 2009, the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) met and selected a design that showed 13 wheat sheaves bound together with a ring symbolizing American unity as one nation. Later this design was withdrawn because it was similar to coinage issued in Germany in the 1920s. The Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee later met and chose a design showing a Union shield with ONE CENT superimposed in a scroll; E Pluribus Unum was also depicted in the upper portion of the shield. In June 2009 the CFA met again and chose a design featuring a modern rendition of the American flag. As a part of the release ceremony for the last of the 2009 cents on November 12, the design for the 2010 cent was announced. The design chosen was the one that was chosen earlier by the CCAC. According to the Mint, the 13 stripes on the shield \"represent the states joined in one compact union to support the Federal government, represented by the horizontal bar above\". The Mint also noted that a shield was commonly used in paintings in the Capitol hallways painted by Constantino Brumidi, an artist in the Capitol active during the Lincoln Presidency. \nThe obverse of the cent was also changed to a modern rendition of Brenner's design. The new Union Shield design replaces the Lincoln memorial in use since 1959. The coin was designed by artist Lyndall Bass and sculpted by U.S. Mint sculptor-engraver Joseph Menna. In January 2010, the coins were released early in Puerto Rico; this was caused by a shortage of 2009-dated pennies on the island. The new design was released at a ceremony at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library in Springfield, Illinois on February 11, 2010. In 2017, cents minted in Philadelphia were struck with a \"P\" mintmark to celebrate the 225th anniversary of the U.S. Mint. 2017 is the only year that Philadelphia cents have had a mintmark. In 2019, the United States Mint, the West Point Mint minted pennies marked with a \"W\" mintmark which was only available with proof sets, wrapped separately from the proof set in its own United States Mint plastic wrap.\n\nCriticism of continued use\nProposals to eliminate\nIt has been suggested that the penny should be eliminated as a unit of currency for several reasons. As of 2024, about a quarter trillion pennies are estimated to be in circulation, or more than 700 pennies for each person the United States. Many Americans do not actually spend pennies, but rather only receive them in change at stores and proceed to store them at home, or perhaps return them to a bank for higher denomination currencies, or cash them in at coin counting kiosks. Most modern vending machines do not accept pennies, further diminishing their utility. In addition, the production cost now exceeds the face value of the coin, caused by increasing inflation. \nIn 2001 and 2006, for example, United States Representative Jim Kolbe (R) of Arizona introduced bills which would have stopped production of pennies (in 2001, the Legal Tender Modernization Act, and in 2006, the Currency Overhaul for an Industrious Nation [COIN] Act).\nIn anticipation of the business of melting down U.S. pennies and U.S. nickels for profit, the U.S. Mint, which is a part of the US Department of the Treasury, implemented new regulations on December 14, 2006, which criminalize the melting of pennies and nickels and place limits on export of the coins. Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 USD, imprisoned for a maximum of five years, or both.\n\nMetal content and manufacturing costs\nThe price of metal drives the cost to manufacture a cent. The Secretary of the Treasury has authority to alter the percentage of copper and zinc in the one-cent coin if needed due to cost fluctuations. For years, the Mint's production and shipping costs for cents have exceeded the face value of the coin (the Mint's fixed costs and overhead, however, are absorbed by other circulating coins). As a result, the U.S. Treasury loses tens of millions of dollars every year producing cents. For example, the loss in 2013 was $55 million.\n\nWhen copper reached a record high in February 2011, the melt value of a 95% copper cent was more than three times its face value. As of January 21, 2014, a pre-1982 cent contained 2.203 cents' worth of copper and zinc, making it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals for profit. In comparison, post-1982 copper-plated zinc cents have a metallurgical value of only 0.552 cent. Prior to 1982, the fluctuating price of copper periodically caused penny shortages, as people hoarded them for their perceived metallic value.\n\nToxicity\nZinc, a major component of U.S. cents minted after mid-1982, is toxic in large quantities. Swallowing such a coin, which is 97.5% zinc, can cause damage to the stomach lining because of the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach. Coins are the most commonly ingested foreign body in children but generally are allowed to pass spontaneously unless the patient is symptomatic. Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of U.S. pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia. It is also highly toxic in pet parrots and can often be fatal.\n\nSee also\n1909-S VDB Lincoln Cent\n1943 steel cent\n1943 copper cent\n1955 doubled-die cent\n1974 aluminum cent\nLarge cent (United States coin)\nLegal Tender Modernization Act\nMill (currency)\nPenny (Canadian coin)\nPenny debate in the United States\nRing cent\nTake a penny, leave a penny\nUnited States Mint coin production\nLincoln cent mintage figures\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nWeaver, Caity (September 1, 2024). \"America Must Free Itself from the Tyranny of the Penny\". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on September 1, 2024. Retrieved September 2, 2024.\n\nExternal links\n\nPenny | United States Mint\nExamination of claim that \"A U.S. penny costs more than a cent to manufacture\" on Snopes (2007).\nPennyFreeBiz Grass Roots effort by retailers and merchants to stop using the penny. (June 2007).",
"title": "Penny_(United_States_coin)"
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"paragraph_text": "A nickel is a five-cent coin struck by the United States Mint. Composed of cupronickel (75% copper and 25% nickel), the piece has been issued since 1866. Its diameter is 0.835 inches (21.21 mm) and its thickness is 0.077 inches (1.95 mm).\nThe silver half dime, equal to five cents, was issued from 1792 to 1873 before today's cupronickel version. The American Civil War caused economic hardship, driving gold and silver from circulation; in response, in place of low-value coins, the government at first issued paper currency. In 1865, Congress abolished the five-cent fractional currency note after Spencer M. Clark, head of the Currency Bureau (today the Bureau of Engraving and Printing), placed his own portrait on the denomination. After the successful introduction of two-cent and three-cent pieces without precious metal, Congress also authorized a five-cent piece consisting of base metal; the Mint began striking this version in 1866. The initial design of the Shield nickel was struck from 1866 until 1883, then was replaced by the Liberty Head nickel. The Buffalo nickel was introduced in 1913 as part of a drive to increase the beauty of American coinage.\nThe nickel is minted in its modern form as the Jefferson nickel, which was first introduced in 1938. In 2004 and 2005, special Jefferson nickel designs in honor of the bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition were issued. In 2006, the Mint reverted to using Jefferson nickel designer Felix Schlag's original reverse (or \"tails\" side), although a new obverse, by Jamie Franki, was substituted.\nDuring fiscal year 2020, it cost more than 7 cents to produce a nickel; the Mint is exploring the possibility of reducing cost by using less expensive metals. In 2018, over 1.26 billion nickels were produced at the Philadelphia and Denver mints.\n\nSilver half dime\nThe silver half disme (as the half dime, pronounced the same, was first called) was one of the denominations prescribed by the Mint Act of 1792; its weight and fineness were set by law. The first pieces under federal authority were half dimes, struck in 1792 in the cellar of John Harper, a saw maker; as the first federal mint was still under construction in Philadelphia, this took place locally at Sixth and Cherry Streets. The dies were engraved by Adam Eckfeldt, who a half-century later recalled that the silver for the half dimes was supplied by President George Washington, and that the 1,500 coins struck from the bullion were given to Washington's Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, for distribution to important people, both in the US and overseas. By legend, President Washington supplied silverware from his home, Mount Vernon, to provide bullion for the coins. In his annual message to Congress in late 1792, Washington noted the ongoing construction of a mint building and stated: \"There has also been a small beginning in the coinage of half dimes, the want of small coins in circulation calling the first attention to them.\"\nIn 1793, the newly established Philadelphia Mint began striking cents and half cents. Coinage of precious metal was delayed; Congress required the assayer and chief coiner to each post a security bond of $10,000, a huge sum in 1793. In 1794, Congress lowered the chief coiner's bond to $5,000, and the assayer's to $1,000; President Washington's appointees to those positions were thus able to qualify and take office. Subsequently, silver coinage began that year.\n\nThe half dime was originally struck from 1794 until 1805, though none were dated 1798, 1799, or 1804. By 1804, silver US coins were heavily exported, as they could be exchanged at par in the West Indies with heavier Spanish coins, which were then imported as bullion and deposited at the Mint for melting and restriking. In response, in 1804 the US stopped striking silver dollars; issuance of the half dime was discontinued from 1805 until 1829. In 1807, mint Director Robert Patterson in a letter explained to Jefferson (by then president) \"nearly the whole of our Silver Bullion (chiefly Spanish dollars) come through the Banks, and it is very seldom that they will consent to take any coin less than half dollars.\"\nBeginning in 1829, the silver five-cent piece was again struck; beginning in 1837, its fineness was increased from .8924 to .900. Also in 1837, the half dime's obverse design changed from one by William Kneass, depicting a bust of Liberty, to one that featured a seated Liberty by Christian Gobrecht; until its abolition in 1873, the half dime would bear modifications of this design. In 1851, it ceased to be the smallest US silver coin as a three cent piece was issued by the Mint.\n\nBirth of the nickel\nThe Civil War caused most American coins to vanish from circulation, with the gap filled by such means as merchant tokens, encased postage stamps, and United States fractional currency, issued in denominations as low as three cents. Although specie (gold or silver coins) was hoarded or exported, the copper-nickel cent, then the only base metal denomination being struck, also vanished. In 1864, Congress began the process of restoring coins to circulation by abolishing the three-cent note and authorizing bronze cents and two-cent pieces, with low intrinsic values, to be struck. These new coins initially proved popular, though the two-cent piece soon faded from circulation. On March 3, 1865, Congress passed legislation authorizing the Mint to strike three-cent pieces of 75% copper and 25% nickel.\nIn 1864, Congress authorized a third series of fractional currency notes. The five-cent note was to bear a depiction of \"Clark\", but Congress was appalled when the issue came out not with a portrait of William Clark, the explorer, but Spencer M. Clark, head of the Currency Bureau. According to numismatic historian Walter Breen, Congress's \"immediate infuriated response was to pass a law retiring the five-cent denomination, and another to forbid portrayal of any living person on federal coins or currency.\" Clark kept his job only because of the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase.\nMint Director James Pollock had been opposed to striking coins containing nickel, but in view of the initial success of the copper-nickel three-cent piece, he became an advocate of striking five-cent pieces in the same metals. In his 1865 report, Pollock wrote, \"From this nickel alloy, a coin for the denomination of five cents, and which would be a popular substitute for the five cent note, could easily be made ... [The five-cent coin should be struck in base metal] only until the resumption of specie payments ... in time of peace ... coins of inferior alloy should not be permitted to take the place permanently of silver in the coinage of pieces above the denomination of three cents.\"\nIndustrialist Joseph Wharton had a near-monopoly on the mining of nickel in the United States, and sought to promote its use in coinage. He was also highly influential in Congress. His friends there, though they had failed to obtain the metal's use for the two-cent piece, had been more successful with the base-metal three-cent coin. Pollock prepared a bill authorizing a five-cent coin of the same alloy as the three-cent piece, with a total weight not to exceed 60 grains (3.9 g). At the committee stage in the House of Representatives, the weight was amended to 77.19 grains (5.00 g), ostensibly to make the weight equal to five grams in the metric system but more likely so that Wharton could sell more nickel. This made the new coin heavy, in terms of weight per $.01 of face value, compared to the three-cent copper-nickel coin. The bill passed without debate on May 16, 1866. The new copper-nickel coin was legal tender for up to one dollar and would be paid out by the Treasury in exchange for coin of the United States, excluding the half cent, cent and two-cent. It was redeemable in lots of $100 for banknotes. Fractional currency in denominations of less than ten cents was withdrawn.\n\nShield nickel (1866–1883)\nIn anticipation of the approval of the new five-cent coin, the Mint's chief engraver, James B. Longacre, had begun preparing designs and pattern coins in 1865. After rejecting pieces showing deceased presidents George Washington (see Washington nickel) and Abraham Lincoln, Treasury Secretary Hugh McCulloch decided on a design similar to Longacre's two-cent piece, with a shield on the obverse and a numeral 5 surrounded by stars and rays on the reverse. This has come to be known as the Shield nickel.\nThe new coins proved difficult to produce; owing to the hardness of the planchet, the coins were not of high quality and the life of the striking dies was brief. The design was widely criticized; Wharton described the obverse as suggesting \"a tombstone surmounted by a cross and overhung by weeping willows.\" The American Journal of Numismatics described the Shield nickel as \"the ugliest of all known coins\". The rays were eliminated from the reverse design in 1867, in the hope of eliminating some of the production problems. The design change created confusion among the population—many people assumed that one design or the other was a counterfeit—and the Mint briefly considered abandoning the shield design entirely. After heavy production in its first years, by late 1869, enough nickels had been struck to meet the needs of commerce; fewer were coined in the following years.\nThe new coins tended to accumulate in the hands of merchants beyond the legal tender limit, but banks refused to accept them beyond the one-dollar maximum. Storeowners were forced to discount the coins to brokers. Postmasters, compelled by law to accept the coins, found that the Treasury would not accept them as deposits except in lots of $100, in accordance with the authorizing statute. In 1871, Congress alleviated the problem by passing legislation allowing the Treasury to redeem unlimited quantities of nickels and other low-denomination coins when presented in lots of not less than $20. It was not until 1933, long after the shield design passed from the scene, that the nickel was made legal tender without limit.\nHalf dimes continued to be struck, at both the Philadelphia and the San Francisco Mint, until the series was ended by the Coinage Act of 1873. Despite the abolition, the silver pieces continued to circulate in the West, where silver or gold coins were preferred, throughout the remainder of the 19th century. Improved economic conditions, combined with low silver prices, brought large quantities of hoarded silver coinage, including half dimes, into circulation beginning in April 1876. In late 1876, production of the Shield nickel was halted. No Shield nickels were struck in 1877 or 1878, excepting proof specimens for collectors. As the Treasury had a large stock of nickels in storage, only small numbers were struck over the next few years; full-scale production did not resume until December 1881.\n\nLiberty Head or \"V\" nickel (1883–1913)\nWith production of nickels lagging in the late 1870s, and with minimal strikings of the copper-nickel three-cent piece, Wharton sought to increase the use of nickel at the Mint. The bronze cent represented a major portion of the Mint's production, and Wharton began to lobby for the piece to be struck in copper-nickel, as it had been from 1857 until 1864. In 1881, this lobbying led Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Archibald Loudon Snowden to order Mint Engraver Charles Barber to produce uniform designs for a new cent, three-cent piece, and five-cent piece. Snowden required that the new coins depict the head of Liberty with the legend LIBERTY and the date, with the nickel's reverse to have a wreath of wheat, cotton, and corn around a Roman numeral \"V\" for \"5\", to denote the denomination. Under the proposal, the nickel would retain its weight of 5 grams (0.18 oz), but its diameter would be increased to 22 millimetres (0.87 in).\nBarber duly produced the required designs. Snowden eventually decided against a new cent or three-cent piece, but Barber continued work on the nickel, with the size adjusted to 21.21 millimetres (0.835 in). When specimens were sent to Washington for routine approval by Treasury Secretary Charles J. Folger, to Snowden's surprise, they were rejected. The secretary, on review of the coinage statutes, had realized that the laws required \"UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\" to appear on the reverse, not the obverse where Barber had placed it. Barber modified his design accordingly, and the coin was ready for striking in early 1883. However, by then, Shield nickels dated 1883 had already been coined. To ensure proof Shield pieces would not be hoarded for their rarity, Mint officials allowed their continued production for several months.\nCriminals soon realized that the new nickel, which lacked the word \"CENTS\", was close in size to the five-dollar gold piece, and if they were to plate the nickel with gold, it might be passed for five dollars. Some coins were even given a reeded edge by fraudsters, making them appear more like the gold coins. The Mint halted production of the new coins; production of Shield nickels continued. Barber was told to modify his work, which he did, moving other design elements to accommodate the word \"CENTS\" at the bottom of the reverse. The revised nickel was issued on June 26, 1883, the date on which production of the Shield nickel was finally stopped. The public promptly hoarded the \"centless\" nickels, believing the Treasury Department intended to recall them, and that they would become rare.\nThe Liberty Head nickel was heavily struck during its 30-year run, except during economic downturns in 1885–1886 and in 1894, when only small numbers were struck. In 1890, Congress ended production of the three-cent piece, leaving the five-cent coin as the only one in copper nickel. That year, Congress also allowed the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the redesign of United States coins, if the former design had been struck for at least 25 years. Although the nickel and silver dollar had been redesigned within the previous quarter-century, a provision in the latter act made them eligible for immediate redesign. In 1896, pattern nickels were struck for the first time since 1885, when experimental, holed coins had been tested; however, no redesign took place.\n\nGrowth of the nickel in commerce\nCoin-operated machines to vend food, for amusement, and for gambling became popular in the 1890s. Such machines could be placed on otherwise unused floor space in businesses, required little maintenance, and brought in money for owners. Beginning about 1898, coin-operated mechanical pianos also became popular. The Mills Novelty Company was a leading producer of such devices; by 1906 it was producing machines ranging from a mechanically played violin to fortune-telling devices. While some machines took cents or other denominations, the nickel was the coin of choice for these machines.\nAmong the innovations in business caused by the use of the nickel in coin-operated machines was the automat, in which patrons would serve themselves by inserting a coin (initially a nickel, though by the 1950s a higher denomination was needed) into a mechanism, turning a handle, and removing a sandwich or dessert. These restaurants were first established in Germany, but were popularized in the United States by, among other firms, Horn & Hardart. A type of business which took its name from the coin was the nickelodeon cinema, where a nickel bought admission to view a series of one-reel short films, generally about 12 minutes in length, which ran continuously from early afternoon until late at night, with the patron free to remain as long as he liked. Although another denomination gave the penny arcade its name, the nickel was commonly used there as well.\nFew nickels had circulated in the western states before the 1880s (people there preferred silver and gold coins); interest in the new Liberty Head design had led to increasing use of nickels there. Good economic conditions and high demand for nickels for use in coin-operated devices caused the piece to circulate throughout the nation by 1900. That year, Mint Director George E. Roberts called on Congress to quintuple the Mint's appropriation to purchase base metals for striking into nickels and cents. At the time, statutory restrictions permitted production of cents and nickels only at Philadelphia; Roberts' request that Congress allow striking at the other mints was granted in 1906. The Denver and San Francisco Mints began striking nickels in 1912.\n\n1913 Liberty Head nickel rarity\nThe Liberty Head nickel was replaced after 1912, and initially there was no indication that 1913-dated pieces with that design existed. In December 1919, a coin dealer, Samuel W. Brown, placed advertisements in coin publications, offering to buy 1913 Liberty Head nickels. The following August, Brown appeared at the annual American Numismatic Association (ANA) convention bearing such a piece. Brown claimed that a master die had been prepared for 1913 and that these pieces had been run off to test it. As it turned out, Brown possessed five coins, which he eventually sold. After spending fifteen years in the hands of the eccentric Col. E.H.R. Green, the famous Fort Worth, Texas, area collector, the coins were finally dispersed in 1943. Since then, they have had several owners each. Today, two are on public display—at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the ANA's Money Museum in Colorado Springs, while three are owned privately. The most recent sale of a 1913 Liberty Head nickel was in January 2010, when one sold for $3,737,500 in an auction.\nIt is uncertain how the 1913 nickels came to be made. The Mint's records show no production of 1913 Liberty head nickels, and none were authorized to be made. Dies were prepared in advance and sent to California for a 1913-S Liberty Head nickel coinage, but upon orders from Mint Director Roberts in December 1912 to end the old design, they were returned to Philadelphia. They were received by December 23, and were almost certainly destroyed routinely by early January. Brown had been an employee at the Philadelphia Mint (although this was not known until 1963) and many theories focus suspicion on him.\n\nBuffalo or Indian Head (1913–1938)\nPresident Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of American coins, and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to beautify them. Saint-Gaudens, before his death in 1907, designed a new eagle and double eagle, which entered circulation that year; the cent, quarter eagle, and half eagle were redesigned by other artists and were released into circulation by 1909. That year, Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels. Most of these coins featured the first president, George Washington. However, the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1, 1909, to be replaced by Abram Andrew.\nOn May 4, 1911, Eames MacVeagh, son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father:\n\n A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration, and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive sort. As possibly you are aware, it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration, as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty-five years. I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation.\n\nSoon after the MacVeagh letter, Andrew announced that the Mint would solicit new designs for the nickel. Sculptor James Earle Fraser, who had been an assistant to Saint-Gaudens, approached the Mint, and rapidly produced concepts and designs. Mint Director George Roberts, who had returned to office in place of Andrew, initially favored a design featuring Lincoln, but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other. Secretary MacVeagh wrote, \"Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo.\" In July 1912, news of the new nickel became public, and coin-operated machine manufacturers sought information. Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, maker of counterfeit detectors, feared the new nickel would not be passed by his devices. Hobbs demanded various changes to the design, to which the artist was reluctant to agree.\nThe Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections in 1913. On February 3, Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin, and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs representatives. On the fifth, following the conference, which ended with no agreement, Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten-page letter, complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company, and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close. Secretary MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14. Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made. MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing, and issued a letter the following day. The secretary noted that no other firm had complained, that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold, and that the changes demanded—a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Native American's cheekbone—would affect the artistic merit of the piece. MacVeagh concluded, \"You will please, therefore, proceed with the coinage of the new nickel.\"\nThe coins were officially released to circulation on March 4, 1913, and quickly gained positive comments for depicting truly American themes. However, The New York Times stated in an editorial that \"The new 'nickel' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ...[it] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny, and will be an abomination when old and dull.\" The Numismatist, in March and May 1913 editorials, gave the new coin a lukewarm review, suggesting that the Native American's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse.\nDies for the new design proved to break quickly. Barber made proposed revisions, which Fraser approved after being sent samples. These changes enlarged the legend \"FIVE CENTS\" and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground. According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives, the changes to what are known as Type II nickels (with the originals Type I) actually decreased the die life. A problem not addressed was the exposure of the date to wear; many Buffalo nickels today have the date worn away.\nIn January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design, to feature early president Thomas Jefferson on the obverse, and Jefferson's home, Monticello on the reverse. The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938 at the Denver Mint, the only mint to strike them that year.\n\nDesign and name\nThe identities of the models for the Native American on the obverse and for the bison on the reverse are not known with certainty. Fraser stressed that the Native American was a type, rather than based on a specific individual, and identified various Native Americans as models, not always consistently, including Iron Tail, (Oglala Lakota) Two Moons, (Northern Cheyenne) and Big Tree (of the Kiowa people). There have been other claimants, the most prominent being John Big Tree, a Seneca, who made many public appearances as the \"nickel Indian\" until his death in 1967. Fraser recounted that the animal on the reverse was an American bison, Black Diamond, whom he stated lived at the Bronx Zoo, and also described the model simply as a bison at the Bronx Zoo. However, Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo, but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo (both facilities are in New York City) until the animal was sold and slaughtered in 1915. The placement of the horns on the still-extant mounted head of Black Diamond differs from that of the bison on the nickel.\nFrom its inception, the coin was referred to as the \"Buffalo nickel\", reflecting the common name for the bison. The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation, Coin World, calls it an Indian head nickel, while R.S. Yeoman's Red Book refers to it as \"Indian Head or Buffalo\".\n\nJefferson nickel (1938–present)\nWhen the Buffalo nickel had been struck for 25 years and could be replaced without an act of Congress, the Mint moved quickly to replace it. Although the Fraser design is popular today among numismatists, it did not enjoy that status in 1938, and there was no public outcry at the decision. In January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for the new nickel design, with the winner to receive a prize of $1,000. Anticipating the 1943 bicentennial of Jefferson's birth, competitors were to place his portrait on the obverse, and a depiction of his house Monticello on the reverse.\nOn April 24, Felix Schlag was announced as the winner. His design featured the portrayal of Jefferson which would be used on the nickel until 2004, closely conforming to the former president's bust by sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, which is to be found in Boston's Museum of Fine Arts. However, the model differs from the nickel that was struck for circulation because it featured a view of Monticello from an angle, and a style of lettering officials did not like; Schlag was required to change both. Either through a misunderstanding or an oversight, Schlag did not include his initials in the design; they would not be added until 1966. Production began on October 3, 1938; they were released into circulation on November 15. According to contemporary accounts, the Jefferson nickel was initially hoarded, and it was not until 1940 that it was commonly seen in circulation.\nWith the entry of the United States into World War II, nickel became a critical war material, and the Mint sought to reduce its use of the metal. On March 27, 1942, Congress authorized a nickel made of 50% copper and 50% silver, but gave the Mint the authority to vary the proportions, or add other metals, in the public interest. The Mint's greatest concern was in finding an alloy that would use no nickel, but still satisfy counterfeit detectors in vending machines. An alloy of 56% copper, 35% silver and 9% manganese proved suitable, and this alloy began to be coined into nickels from October 1942. In the hope of making them easy to sort out and withdraw after the war, the Mint struck all \"war nickels\" with a large mint mark appearing above Monticello. The mint mark P for Philadelphia was the first time that mint's mark had appeared on a U.S. coin. The pre-war composition returned in 1946; all nickels struck since then have been in 75% copper and 25% nickel.\nIn 1966, a small change was made to the design to add the initials of the designer (FS) to the obverse, underneath Jefferson's portrait. In commemoration of that change, two specimen 1966 nickels with the initials were struck and presented to him. Coins struck at any mint between 1965 and 1967 lack mint marks, which were omitted as the Mint replaced the silver circulating coins with copper-nickel. Beginning in 1968, mint marks were again used, and on the nickel were moved to the lower part of the obverse, to the right of Jefferson's bust. From 1971, no nickels were struck for circulation in San Francisco—the 1971-S was the first nickel struck in proof only since 1878.\n\nWestward Journey commemoratives (2004–2005)\nThe Mint had struck circulating commemorative coins for the United States Bicentennial, giving quarters, half dollars, and dollars struck in 1975 and 1976 a dual date, \"1776–1976\". After Canada issued a successful series of quarters in 1992 honoring its provinces and territories, the Mint obtained congressional permission to issue a series of US quarters honoring American states; they began to be issued in 1999. In 2002, the Mint began to consider redesigning the nickel in honor of the upcoming bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Representative Eric Cantor (R-VA) did not wish to see Monticello (located in his home state) moved permanently off the nickel. The resultant \"American 5-Cent Coin Design Continuity Act of 2003\", was signed into law by President George W. Bush on April 23, 2003. Under its terms, the Treasury Secretary could vary the nickel's designs in honor of the 200th anniversary of the Expedition and of the Louisiana Purchase, but the nickel would again feature Jefferson and Monticello beginning in 2006. Unless Congress acts again, every future five-cent coin will feature Jefferson and Monticello.\n\nThe Mint used Schlag's obverse in 2004, with two new reverse designs. Mint sculptor-engraver Norman E. Nemeth's adaptation of an Indian Peace Medal struck for Jefferson was the first new design, followed by a depiction by Mint sculptor-engraver Al Maletsky of a keelboat like that used by the Expedition. The 2005 obverse was struck during that year only, with a design by sculptor Joe Fitzgerald based on Houdon's bust of Jefferson. The legend \"LIBERTY\" on the obverse was traced from Jefferson's handwriting in drafting the Declaration of Independence; as the word is never capitalized in that document, Fitzgerald borrowed a capital L from Jefferson's other writings. The reverse for the first half of the year depicted an American bison, recalling the Buffalo nickel and designed by Jamie Franki. The reverse for the second half showed a coastline and the words \"Ocean in view! O! The Joy!\", from a journal entry by William Clark, co-leader of the Expedition. Clark had actually written the word as \"ocian\", but the Mint modernized the spelling.\nAnother Franki design has, since 2006, been used for the obverse, depicting a view of Jefferson from the front (rather than in profile) based on an 1800 study by Rembrandt Peale, and includes \"Liberty\" in Jefferson's script. According to Acting Mint Director David Lebryk, \"The image of a forward-facing Jefferson is a fitting tribute to [his] vision.\" The reverse beginning in 2006 was again Schlag's Monticello design, but newly sharpened by Mint engravers. As Schlag's obverse design, on which his initials were placed in 1966, is no longer used, his initials were placed on the reverse to the right of Monticello.\n\nIncrease in metal values\nIn the first decade of the 21st century, commodity prices for copper and nickel, which make up the five-cent coin, rose dramatically, pushing the cost of manufacturing a nickel from 3.46 cents in fiscal year 2003 to 10.09 cents in fiscal year 2012. By comparison, a Canadian nickel (which is primarily made of steel) still costs less than its face value to produce as of 2019. In response, Mint Director Henrietta Fore in 2004 asked Congress to fund research into lower-cost alternatives to present coinage metals. Although the initiative lapsed when she left office in 2005, in 2010, Congress passed the Coin Modernization, Oversight, and Continuity Act (CMOCA), directing the Mint to explore alternatives to the present compositions of the six denominations, from cent to dollar. In 2011, the Mint awarded a contract to study the issue to Concurrent Technologies Corporation of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The report in response to the legislation declared that there is no material that would reduce the one-cent coin's manufacturing cost to below one cent, so it was removed from consideration. The report requested additional time to study the issue, ensuring the continuation, for the present, of the existing coinage metals. The Mint expected demand for nickels in commerce to increase from 840 million needed in Fiscal Year 2011 to 1.08 billion in 2015.\nMeanwhile, in an attempt to avoid losing large quantities of circulating nickels to melting, the United States Mint introduced new interim rules on December 14, 2006, that criminalized the melting and export of pennies (which as of 2013 cost 1.83 cents to produce) and nickels. Violators of these rules can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000, five years imprisonment, or both. The rules were finalized on April 17, 2007. The melt value of a nickel for some time was more than five cents, including nearing over one-and-a-half times its face value in May 2007. Since then, the supply and demand of the coin's composition metals have stabilized. A nickel's melt value fell below its face value from late 2008 through mid-2010, and more recently again from late mid-2012. In February 2014, it was reported that the Mint was conducting experiments to use copper-plated zinc (the same composition used for the United States 1 cent coin) for the nickel.\nIn December 2014, the Mint released its next Biennial report in response to the CMOCA. In it, the Mint declared that plated zinc products did not hold up to steam/wear tests and were rejected for U.S. coins other than the penny. Materials considered \"feasible\" for the 5-cent coin were nickel-plated steel, multi-ply-plated steel, and potentially another copper/nickel alloy, this time with ~77% copper, ~20% nickel, and ~3% manganese. Further testing was recommended to explore even less expensive alloys that would not require changes to vending machines (as the steel-based materials would require). In February 2023, the melt value of a nickel coin exceeded 135% of its face value.\n\nProposals for abolition\nDue to its low value, the inconvenience of carrying and counting, and the fact that it costs more to make than it is worth, various commentators have proposed eliminating the nickel along with the penny.\n\nSee also\nCanadian nickel\nHobo nickel\nNorth Carolina 1861 5 cents banknote\nRing nickel\nUnited States Mint coin production\nUnited States nickel mintage figures\n\nNotes\nBibliography\nBowers, Q. David (2006). A Guide Book of Shield and Liberty Head Nickels. Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7948-1921-7.\nBowers, Q. David (2007). A Guide Book of Buffalo and Jefferson Nickels. Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7948-2008-4.\nBreen, Walter (1988). Walter Breen's Complete Encyclopedia of U.S. and Colonial Coins. New York, N.Y.: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-14207-6.\nBurdette, Roger W. (2007). Renaissance of American Coinage, 1909–1915. Great Falls, Va.: Seneca Mill Press. ISBN 978-0-9768986-2-7.\nCoin World Almanac (3rd ed.). Sidney, Ohio: Amos Press. 1977. ASIN B004AB7C9M.\nHobson, Walter (1971). Historic Gold Coins of the World. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co. ISBN 978-0-385-08137-5.\nLange, David W. (2006). History of the United States Mint and its Coinage. Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7948-1972-9.\nMontgomery, Paul; Borckardt, Mark; Knight, Ray (2005). Million Dollar Nickel. Irvine, Ca.: Zyrus Press. ISBN 978-0-9742371-8-3.\nPeters, Gloria; Mohon, Cynthia (1995). The Complete Guide to Shield & Liberty Head Nickels. Virginia Beach, Va.: DLRC Press. ISBN 978-1-880731-52-9.\nRichardson, William Allen, ed. (1891). Supplement to the revised statutes of the United States. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office.\nTaxay, Don (1983). The U.S. Mint and Coinage (reprint of 1966 ed.). New York, N.Y.: Sanford J. Durst Numismatic Publications. ISBN 978-0-915262-68-7.\nYeoman, R.S. (2017). A Guide Book of United States Coins (The Official Red Book) (71st ed.). Atlanta, Ga.: Whitman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7948-4506-3.\n\nOther sources\nAnderson, Gordon T. (November 6, 2003). \"U.S. to get two new nickels\". CNN Money. Retrieved June 24, 2012.\nBardes, Herbert C. (July 24, 1966). \"Nickel designer gains his place\". The New York Times. p. 85. Retrieved April 7, 2011. (subscription required)\nDeisher, Beth (April 16, 2012). \"U.S. must summon the courage to retire 1-cent denomination\". Coin World. p. 15.\nFrazier, Joseph (August 5, 2005). \"New nickel recalls historic moment\". The Register-Guard. Eugene, Ore. AP. p. C7. Retrieved April 7, 2011.\nGilkes, Paul (January 4, 2012). \"Cent, 5¢ demand on rebound during FY2011\". Coin World. p. 4.\nGilkes, Paul (December 31, 2012). \"Mint wants more time to study compositions\". Coin World. p. 1.\nOrosz, Joel J. (June 2012). \"The five founding fathers of the United States Mint\". The Numismatist. American Numismatic Association.\nPorterfield, Walden R. (March 3, 1970). \"The Billion Dollar Profile\". The Milwaukee Journal. p. 16. Retrieved November 21, 2010.\n\"US unveils forward-looking nickel\". BBC. October 6, 2005. Retrieved April 8, 2011.\n\"Rare U.S. coin fetches over US$3.7 million at auction\". The China Post. January 1, 2010. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2012.\n\"Jefferson nickels\". Collectors Weekly. Retrieved April 12, 2011.\n\"U.S. Code, Title 31, Section 5112\". Cornell University Law School. Archived from the original on November 23, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2011.\nUnited States Mint (c. 2009). \"50 States Quarters Report\" (PDF). United States Mint Financial Department. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 10, 2016. Retrieved October 18, 2011.\n\"Nation to get newly designed nickels\" (Press release). United States Mint. April 24, 2003. Retrieved April 7, 2011.\n\"The 2004 Westward Journey nickel series designs\". United States Mint. Archived from the original on April 11, 2016. Retrieved April 7, 2011.\n\"The 2005 Westward Journey nickel series designs\". United States Mint. Archived from the original on August 21, 2011. Retrieved April 7, 2011.\n\"The 2006 Westward Journey nickel series designs\". United States Mint. Retrieved April 8, 2011.\n\"United States Mint Moves Limits Exportation & Melting of Coins\" (Press release). United States Mint. April 17, 2007. Retrieved November 10, 2018.\n\"Va. legislators want to keep their nickel back\". USA Today. AP. July 23, 2002. Retrieved April 7, 2011.\n\nExternal links\n\nUS Mint Unveils Dramatic New Nickel Designs for 2005 Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, from the Mint's website",
"title": "Nickel_(United_States_coin)"
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"paragraph_text": "The dime, in United States usage, is a ten-cent coin, one tenth of a United States dollar, labeled formally as \"one dime\". The denomination was first authorized by the Coinage Act of 1792.\nThe dime is the smallest in diameter and is the thinnest of all U.S. coins currently minted for circulation, being 0.705 inches (17.91 millimeters) in diameter and 0.053 in (1.35 mm) in thickness. The obverse of the current dime depicts the profile of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the reverse has an olive branch, a torch, and an oak branch, from left to right respectively.\nThe word dime comes from the Old French disme (Modern French dîme), meaning \"tithe\" or \"tenth part\", from the Latin decima [pars]. The dime is currently the only United States coin in general circulation that is not denominated in terms of dollars or cents. As of 2011, the dime cost 5.65 cents to produce.\n\nHistory\nThe Coinage Act of 1792 established the dime (spelled \"disme\" in the legislation), cent, and mill as subdivisions of the dollar equal to 1⁄10, 1⁄100 and 1⁄1000 dollar respectively.\nThe first known proposal for a decimal-based coinage system in the United States was made in 1783 by Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and David Rittenhouse. Hamilton, the nation's first Secretary of the Treasury, recommended the issuance of six such coins in 1791, in a report to Congress. Among the six was a silver coin, \"which shall be, in weight and value, one-tenth part of a silver unit or dollar\".\nFrom 1796 to 1837, dimes were composed of 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper, the value of which required the coins to be physically very small to prevent their commodity value from being worth more than face value. Thus dimes are made small and thin. The silver percentage was increased to 90.0% with the introduction of the Seated Liberty dime; the use of a richer alloy was offset by reducing the diameter from 18.8 millimeters (0.740 inches) to its current figure of 17.9 millimeters (0.705 inches).\nWith the passage of the Coinage Act of 1965, the dime's silver content was removed. Dimes from 1965 to the present are struck from a clad metal composed of outer layers of 75% copper and 25% nickel alloy, bonded to a pure copper core. Pre-1965 dimes followed Gresham's law and vanished from ordinary currency circulation at face value. Most now trade as informal bullion coins known as junk silver, priced at some multiple of face value, which price follows the spot price of silver on commodity markets.\nStarting in 1992, the U.S. Mint began issuing Silver Proof Sets annually, which contain dimes composed of the pre-1965 standard of 90% silver and 10% copper, then switched to .999 fine silver from 2019 onward. These sets are intended solely for collectors and are not meant for general circulation.\n\nDesign history\nSince its introduction in 1796, the dime has been issued in six different major types, excluding the 1792 \"disme\". The name for each type (except for the Barber dime) indicates the design on the coin's obverse.\n\nDraped Bust 1796–1807\nCapped Bust 1809–1837\nSeated Liberty 1837–1891\nBarber 1892–1916\nWinged Liberty Head (Mercury) 1916–1945\nRoosevelt 1946–present\n\n\"Disme\" (1792)\nThe Coinage Act of 1792, passed on April 2, 1792, authorized the mintage of a \"disme\", one-tenth the silver weight and value of a dollar. The composition of the disme was set at 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper. In 1792, a limited number of dismes were minted but never circulated. Some of these were struck in copper, indicating that the 1792 dismes were in fact pattern coins. The first dimes minted for circulation did not appear until 1796, due to a lack of demand for the coin and production problems at the United States Mint.\n\nDraped Bust (1796–1807)\nThe first dime to be circulated was the Draped Bust dime, in 1796. It featured the same obverse and reverse as all other circulating coins of the time, the so-called Draped Bust/Small Eagle design. This design was the work of then-Chief Engraver Robert Scot. The portrait of Liberty on the obverse was based on a Gilbert Stuart drawing of prominent Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham, wife of noted American statesman William Bingham. The reverse design is of a small bald eagle surrounded by palm and olive branches, and perched on a cloud. Since the Coinage Act of 1792 required only that the cent and half cent display their denomination, Draped Bust dimes were minted with no indication of their value.\nAll 1796 dimes have 15 stars on the obverse, representing the number of U.S. states then in the Union. The first 1797 dimes were minted with 16 stars, reflecting Tennessee's admission as the 16th state. Realizing that the practice of adding one star per state could quickly clutter the coin's design, U.S. Mint Director Elias Boudinot ordered a design alteration, to feature just 13 stars (for the original Thirteen Colonies). Therefore, 1797 dimes can be found with either 13 or 16 stars.\nAlso designed by Robert Scot, the Heraldic Eagle reverse design made its debut in 1798. The obverse continued from the previous series, but the eagle on the reverse was changed from the widely criticized \"scrawny\" hatchling to a scaled-down version of the Great Seal of the United States. The Draped Bust/Heraldic Eagles series continued through 1807 (although no dimes dated 1799 or 1806 were minted). Both Draped Bust designs were composed of 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper.\n\nCapped Bust (1809–1837)\nThe Draped Bust design was succeeded by the Capped Bust, designed by Mint Assistant Engraver John Reich. Both the obverse and reverse were changed extensively. The new reverse featured a bald eagle grasping three arrows (symbolizing strength) and an olive branch (symbolizing peace). Covering the eagle's breast is a U.S. shield with six horizontal lines and 13 vertical stripes. Also on the reverse is the lettering \"10C,\" making it the only dime minted with the value given in cents (subsequent issues are inscribed with the words \"ONE DIME\"). The lack of numeric value markings on subsequent dime coins causes some confusion amongst foreign visitors, who may be unaware of the value of the coin. Also, the Capped Bust dime was the first dime to have its value written on the coin. Previous designs of the dime had no indication of its value, the way people determined its value was by its size \nCapped Bust dimes minted through 1828 are known as the Large type. This is partially because they were struck without a restraining collar, which gave them a broader appearance. In 1828, Chief Engraver William Kneass introduced the close collar method of coining (which automated the process of placing reeds on a coin's edge). In addition to standardizing the diameter of coins, the new method allowed the Mint to produce thicker coins. To maintain a standard weight and alloy, the diameter of most coins was reduced. In particular, the dime was reduced in diameter from 18.8 to 18.5 millimeters. This new Capped Bust dime, which began production in 1828, is known as the Small type. There are 123 varieties known of Capped Bust Dimes.\n\nSeated Liberty (1837–1891)\nChristian Gobrecht completed the design of the Seated Liberty dime, whose obverse was used with every circulating silver U.S. coin of the period. Mint Director Robert Maskell Patterson requested a new coin design, to be reminiscent of the Britannia image found on coinage of the United Kingdom. Chief Engraver William Kneass drew the original sketches, but suffered a stroke and was too ill to finish them or to oversee preparation of the dies. The task then fell to Gobrecht, who was promoted to Second Engraver.\nThe obverse features an image of Liberty sitting on a rock, wearing a dress and holding a staff with a liberty cap on top. Her right hand is balancing a shield with the inscription \"LIBERTY.\" The reverse featured the inscription \"ONE DIME,\" surrounded by a wreath. All Seated Liberty dimes contain 90% silver and 10% copper, and are 17.9 millimeters (0.705 inch) in diameter. This size and metal composition would continue until 1965, when silver was permanently removed from circulating dimes.\nThere were several minor varieties during the Seated Liberty's run. The initial design (1837) had no stars on the obverse and, further, the dates were minted in a Large Date and Small Date variety. These two types can be distinguished by noting the \"3\" and the \"7\" in the date. In the Large Date variety, the \"3\" has a pointed serif at top, and the horizontal element of the \"7\" is straight. In the Small Date variety, the \"3\" has a rounded serif, and there is small a knob, or bulge, in the \"7\" horizontal element. Only the Philadelphia Mint made both varieties. The Small Date is slightly rarer. The New Orleans Mint also made the Seated Liberty Dime in this year, but only in the Small Date variety.\nThirteen stars (symbolizing the 13 original colonies) were added to the perimeter of the obverse in 1838. These were replaced with the legend \"United States of America,\" which was moved from the reverse in mid-1860. At the same time, the laurel wreath on the reverse was changed to a wreath of corn, wheat, maple, and oak leaves and expanded nearly to the rim of the coin. This reverse design continued through the end of the series in 1891 and was changed only slightly in 1892, when the Barber dime debuted. Another variety is the 1838–40 dime minted with no drapery underneath the left elbow of Liberty.\n\nArrows at the date in 1853 and 1873 indicated changes made in the coin's mass (from 2.67 grams to 2.49 grams in 1853, then to 2.50 grams in 1873). The first change was made in response to rising silver prices, while the latter alteration was brought about by the Mint Act of 1873 which, in an attempt to make U.S. coinage the currency of the world, added a small amount of mass to the dime, quarter, and half-dollar to bring their weights in line with fractions of the French 5-franc piece. The change also ensured the quarter dollar (which is valued 2.5 times the dime) weighed 2.5 times the dime (6.25g), and the half dollar (twice the value of the quarter dollar) weighed twice what the quarter dollar weighed (12.5g). In this way, a specific weight of these coins, no matter the mixture of denominations, would always be worth the same. This relation in weight and value continued in the cupronickel coins from 1965 on.\nThis produced the greatest rarities in the Seated Dime Series, the 1873 and 1874 Carson City Dimes, with arrows and the unique 1873 Carson City Dime without arrows.\n\nBarber (1892–1916)\nThe Barber dime is named for its designer, Charles E. Barber, who was Chief Engraver of the U.S. Mint from 1879 to 1917. The design was shared with the quarter and half-dollar of the same period. Extensive internal politics surrounded the awarding of the design job, which had initially been opened to the public. A four-member committee (which included Barber), appointed by then-Mint Director James Kimball, accorded only two of more than 300 submissions an honorable mention. Kimball's successor, Edward O. Leech, decided to dispense with the committees and public design competitions and simply instructed Barber to develop a new design. It has been speculated that this is what Barber had wanted all along.\nThe Barber dime, as with all previous dimes, featured an image of Liberty on the obverse. She is wearing a Phrygian cap, a laurel wreath with a ribbon, and a headband with the inscription \"LIBERTY\". This inscription is one of the key elements used in determining the condition of Barber dimes. Liberty's portrait was inspired by two sources—French coins and medals of the period, as well as ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. The obverse also contains the long-used 13 stars (for the 13 colonies) design element. The reverse contained a wreath and inscription almost identical to the one used on the final design of the Seated Liberty dime. Dimes were produced at all four of the mints that operated during the period. While circulated coins of the entire series are readily available to collectors there is one outstanding rarity, the 1894-S Barber Dime. Twenty-four were minted, with 9 currently known.\n\nWinged Liberty Head (\"Mercury\") (1916–1945)\nAlthough most commonly referred to as the \"Mercury\" dime, the Winged Liberty Head does not depict the Roman messenger god. The obverse figure is a depiction of the mythological goddess Liberty wearing a Phrygian cap, a classic Western symbol of liberty and freedom, with its wings intended to symbolize freedom of thought. Designed by noted sculptor Adolph A. Weinman, the Winged Liberty Head dime is considered by many to be one of the most beautiful U.S. coin designs ever produced. The composition (90% silver, 10% copper) and diameter (17.9 millimeters) of the \"Mercury\" dime was unchanged from the Barber dime.\nWeinman (who had studied under Augustus Saint-Gaudens) won a 1915 competition against two other artists for the design job, and is thought to have modeled his version of Liberty on Elsie Kachel Stevens, wife of noted poet Wallace Stevens. The reverse design, a fasces juxtaposed with an olive branch, was intended to symbolize America's readiness for war, combined with its desire for peace. Although the fasces was later officially adopted by Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party, the symbol was also common in American iconography and has generally avoided any stigma associated with its usage in wartime Italy.\n\nFranklin D. Roosevelt (1946–present)\nSoon after the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in April 1945, legislation was introduced by Virginia Congressman Ralph H. Daughton that called for the replacement of the Mercury dime with one bearing Roosevelt's image. The dime was chosen to honor Roosevelt partly due to his efforts in the founding of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (later renamed the March of Dimes), which originally raised money for polio research and to aid victims of the disease and their families.\nDue to the limited amount of time available to design the new coin, the Roosevelt dime was the first regular-issue U.S. coin designed by a Mint employee in more than 40 years. Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock was chosen, as he had already designed a Mint presidential medal of Roosevelt. Sinnock's first design, submitted on October 12, 1945, was rejected, but a subsequent one was accepted on January 6, 1946. The dime was released to the public on January 30, 1946, which would have been Roosevelt's 64th birthday. Sinnock's design placed his initials (\"JS\") at the base of Roosevelt's neck, on the coin's obverse. His reverse design elements of a torch, olive branch, and oak branch symbolized, respectively, liberty, peace, and strength.\nControversy immediately ensued, as strong anti-Communist sentiment in the United States led to the circulation of rumors that the \"JS\" engraved on the coin was the initials of Joseph Stalin, placed there by a Soviet agent in the mint. The Mint quickly issued a statement denying this, confirming that the initials were indeed Sinnock's. The same rumor arose after the release of the Sinnock designed Franklin half dollar in 1948.\n\nAnother controversy surrounding Sinnock's design involves his image of Roosevelt. Soon after the coin's release, it was claimed that Sinnock borrowed his design of Roosevelt from a bas relief created by African American sculptor Selma Burke, unveiled at the Recorder of Deeds Building in Washington, D.C. in September 1945. Sinnock denied this and stated that he simply utilized his earlier design on the Roosevelt medal.\nWith the passage of the Coinage Act of 1965, the composition of the dime changed from 90% silver and 10% copper to a clad \"sandwich\" of pure copper inner layer between two outer layers of cupronickel (75% copper, 25% nickel) alloy giving a total composition of 91.67% Cu and 8.33% Ni. This composition was selected because it gave similar mass (now 2.268 grams instead of 2.5 grams) and electrical properties (important in vending machines)—and most importantly, because it contained no precious metal.\nThe Roosevelt dime has been minted every year, beginning in 1946. Through 1955, all three mints, Philadelphia, Denver, and San Francisco produced circulating coinage; production at San Francisco ended in 1955, resuming in 1968 with proof coinage only. Through 1964 \"D\" and \"S\" mintmarks can be found to the left of the torch. From 1968, the mintmarks have appeared above the date. None were used in 1965–67, and Philadelphia did not show a mintmark until 1980 (in 1982, an error left the \"P\" off a small number of dimes, which are now valuable). To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the design, the 1996 mint sets included a \"W\" mintmarked dime made at the West Point Mint. A total of 1,457,000 dimes were issued in the sets, making it the lowest mintage Roosevelt dime up to that time. Since then, the \"P\" mint mark 2015 reverse proof dime and \"W\" mint mark 2015 proof dime, minted at Philadelphia and West Point for inclusion in the March of Dimes collector set, have the lowest mintages with 75,000 pieces struck for each.\n\nSee also\n1792 half disme\nBrother, Can You Spare a Dime?, a popular song of the Great Depression\nDime store, also known as a \"five and dime\"\nDime novel, later known as dime store novel\nMarch of Dimes\n\"Stop on a dime\"\nUnited States Mint coin production\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial specifications for all U.S. legal tender coins Archived 2009-11-11 at the Wayback Machine",
"title": "Dime_(United_States_coin)"
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"paragraph_text": "The quarter, formally known as the quarter dollar, is a denomination of currency in the United States valued at 25 cents, representing one-quarter of a dollar. Adorning its obverse is the profile of George Washington, while its reverse design has undergone frequent changes since 1998. Since its initial production in 1796, the quarter dollar has held a significant place in American numismatics, with consistent production since 1831.\nIt has a diameter of 0.955 inch (24.26 mm) and a thickness of 0.069 inch (1.75 mm). Its current version is composed of two layers of cupronickel (75% copper, 25% nickel) clad on a core of pure copper. With the cupronickel layers comprising 1/3 of total weight, the coin's overall composition is therefore 8.33% nickel, 91.67% copper. Its weight is 0.1823 troy oz. or 0.2000 avoirdupois oz. (5.670 grams).\n\nDesigns before 1932\nThe choice of a quarter-dollar as a denomination, as opposed to the 1⁄5 or the 20-cent piece that is more common elsewhere, originated with the practice of dividing Spanish milled dollars into eight wedge-shaped segments, which gave rise to the name \"piece of eight\" for that coin. \"Two bits\" (that is, two eighths of a piece of eight) is a common nickname for a quarter.\nFrom 1796 the quarter was minted with 0.2377 oz. (6.739 g) of 89.24% fine silver (.2121 oz. [6.014 g] fine silver), revised to 90% fine silver from 1838 to 1964. It weighed 0.2357 oz. (6.682 g) from 1838, 0.2194 oz. (6.22 g) from 1853, and 0.2204 oz. (6.25 g) from 1873 to 1964. Six designs, five regular and one commemorative, have been issued until 1930:\n\nDraped Bust 1796–1807\nDraped Bust, Small Eagle 1796\nDraped Bust, Heraldic Eagle 1804–1807\nCapped Bust 1815–1838\nCapped Bust (Large Size), With Motto 1815–1828\nCapped Bust (Small Size), No Motto 1831–1838\nSeated Liberty 1838–1891\nSeated Liberty, No Motto 1838–1865\nSeated Liberty, With Motto 1866–1891\nBarber 1892–1916\nIsabella quarter commemorative 1893\nStanding Liberty 1916–1930\nStanding Liberty (Type 1) 1916–1917 (featured an image of Liberty with one of her breasts exposed)\nStanding Liberty (Type 2 or Type 2a) 1917–1924\nStanding Liberty (Type 3 or Type 2b) 1925–1930\n\nWashington quarter\nThe original version of the Washington quarter issued from 1932 to 1998 was designed by sculptor John Flanagan. The obverse depicted George Washington facing left, with \"Liberty\" above the head, the date below, and \"In God We Trust\" in the left field. The reverse depicted an eagle with wings outspread perches on a bundle of arrows framed below by two olive branches.\nIt was minted in 0.2204 oz. (6.25 g) of 90% fine silver until 1964, when rising silver prices forced the change into the present-day cupronickel-clad-copper composition, which was also called the \"Johnson Sandwich\" after then-president Lyndon B. Johnson.\n\nAs of 2011, it cost 11.14 cents to produce each coin.\n\nRegular issue Washington quarters:\n\nSilver quarters, 1932–1964\nClad composition quarter, 1965–1998\n50 State quarters, 1999–2008\nDistrict of Columbia and United States Territories quarters, 2009\nAmerica the Beautiful quarters, 2010–2021\nWashington Crossing the Delaware, 2021\nAmerican Women quarters, 2022–2025\nSemiquincentennial quarters, 2026\nYouth Sports quarters, 2027–2030\nCommemorative and bullion issue Washington quarters:\n\nUnited States Bicentennial coinage quarter in clad & 40% silver, 1975–1976 (all were dated 1776–1976)\nSilver proof set quarter, 1992–1998\nAmerica the Beautiful silver bullion coins in 5-ounce silver, 2010–2021\n\nUS states and territories quarters, 1999–2009\nIn 1999, the 50 State quarters program of circulating commemorative quarters began. These have a modified Washington obverse and a different reverse for each state, ending the former Washington quarter's production completely. On January 23, 2007, the House of Representatives passed H.R. 392 extending the state quarter program one year to 2009, to include the District of Columbia and the five inhabited U.S. territories: Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the United States Virgin Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The bill passed through the Senate, and was signed into legislation by President George W. Bush as part of Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 110–161: the Consolidated Appropriations Act (text) (PDF), on December 27, 2007. The typeface used in the state quarter series varies a bit from one state to another, but is generally derived from Albertus.\n\nAmerica the Beautiful quarters, 2010–2021\nOn June 4, 2008, the America's Beautiful National Parks Quarter Dollar Coin Act of 2008, H.R. 6184, was introduced to the House of Representatives. On December 23, 2008, President Bush signed the bill into law as Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 110–456 (text) (PDF). The America the Beautiful quarters program began in 2010 and ended in 2021, lasting 12 years and depicting a natural or historic site for each state and territory.\n\n2021: Return of the original obverse, new legislation\nFollowing the conclusion of the America the Beautiful quarter series in 2021, Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin had the option of ordering a second round of 56 quarters, but did not do so by the end of 2018 as required in the 2008 legislation.\nThe quarter's design for 2021 therefore reverted to Flanagan's original obverse design, paired with a new reverse rendition of Washington crossing the Delaware River on the night of December 25, 1776. In October 2019, the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee (CCAC) met to consider designs, with the final choice made by Mnuchin. On December 25, 2020, the Mint announced the successful design, by Benjamin Sowards as sculpted by Michael Gaudioso. This quarter was released into circulation on April 5, 2021, and was minted until the end of 2021.\nThe Circulating Collectible Coin Redesign Act of 2020 (Pub. L.Tooltip Public Law (United States) 116–330 (text) (PDF)) established three new series of quarters for the next decade. From 2022 to 2025, the Mint may produce up to five coins each year featuring prominent American women, with a new obverse design of Washington. In 2026, there will be up to five designs representing the United States Semiquincentennial. From 2027 to 2030, the Mint may produce up to five coins each year featuring youth sports. The obverse will also be redesigned in 2027, and even after 2030 is still to depict Washington.\n\nAmerican Women Quarters\nThe American Women Quarters Program will issue up to five new reverse designs each year from 2022 to 2025 featuring the accomplishments and contributions made in various fields by women to American history and development. The obverse features Laura Gardin Fraser's portrait of George Washington originally intended for the first Washington quarter in 1932.\n\nCollecting silver Washington quarters\nThe \"silver series\" of Washington quarters spans from 1932 to 1964; during many years in the series it will appear that certain mints did not mint Washington quarters for that year. No known examples of quarters were made in 1933, San Francisco abstained in 1934 and 1949, and stopped after 1955, until it resumed in 1968 by way of making proofs. Denver did not make quarters in 1938. Proof examples from 1936 to 1942 and 1950 to 1967 were struck at the Philadelphia Mint; in 1968, proof production was shifted to the San Francisco Mint. The current rarities for the Washington quarter \"silver series\" are:\nBranch mintmarks are D = Denver, S = San Francisco. Coins without mintmarks were all made at the main Mint in Philadelphia. This listing is for business strikes, not proofs:\n\n1932-D\n1932-S\n1934 – with Doubled Die Obverse (DDO)\n1935-D\n1936-D\n1937 – with Doubled Die Obverse (DDO)\n1937-S\n1938-S\n1939-S\n1940-D\n1942-D – with Doubled Die Obverse (DDO)\n1943 – with Doubled Die Obverse (DDO)\n1943-S – with Doubled Die Obverse (DDO)\n1950-D/S Over mintmark (coin is a 1950-D, with underlying S mintmark)\n1950-S/D Over mintmark (coin is a 1950-S, with underlying D mintmark)\nThe 1940-D, 1936-D and the 1935-D coins, as well as many others in the series, are considerably more valuable than other quarters. This is not due to their mintages, but rather because they are harder to find in high grades (a situation referred to as \"condition rarity\"). Many of these coins are worth only melt value in low grades. Other coins in the above list are expensive because of their extremely low mintages, such as the 1932 Denver and San Francisco issues. The overstruck mintmark issues are also scarce and expensive, especially in the higher grades; even so they may not have the same popularity as overdates found in pre-Washington quarter series.\nThe 1934 Philadelphia strike appears in two versions: one with a light motto [for \"In God We Trust\"], which is the same as that used on the 1932 strikings, and the other a heavy motto seen after the dies were reworked. Except in the highest grades, the difference in value between the two is minor.\nThe mint mark on the coin is located on the reverse beneath the wreath on which the eagle is perched, and will either carry the mint mark \"D\" for the Denver Mint, \"S\" for the San Francisco Mint, or be blank if minted at the Philadelphia Mint.\n\nCollecting clad Washington quarters\nThe copper-nickel clad Washington quarter was first issued in 1965 and as part of the switch, the Denver mintmark was added in 1968, which did not reappear on any US coin denomination until 1968. For the first three years of clad production, in lieu of proof sets, specimen sets were specially sold as \"Special Mint Sets\" minted at the San Francisco mint in 1965, 1966, and 1967 (Deep Cameo versions of these coins are highly valued because of their rarity).\nCurrently, there are few examples in the clad series that are valued as highly as the silver series but there are certain extraordinary dates or variations. The deep cameo versions of proofs from 1965 to 1971 and 1981 Type 2 are highly valued because of their scarcity, high grade examples of quarters from certain years of the 1980s (such as 1981–1987) because of scarcity in high grades due to high circulation and in 1982 and 1983 no mint sets were produced making it harder to find mint state examples, and any coin from 1981 to 1994 graded in MS67 is worth upwards of $1000.\nThe mint mark on the coin is currently located on the obverse at the bottom right hemisphere under the supposed date. In 1965–1967 cupro-nickel coins bore no mint mark; quarters minted in 1968–1979 were stamped with a \"D\" for the Denver mint, an \"S\" for the San Francisco mint (proof coins only), or blank for Philadelphia. Starting in 1980, the Philadelphia mint was allowed to add its mint mark to all coins except the one-cent piece. Twenty-five-cent pieces minted from 1980 onwards are stamped with \"P\" for the Philadelphia mint, \"D\" for the Denver mint, or \"S\" for San Francisco mint.\nUntil 2012 the \"S\" mint mark was used only on proof coins, but beginning with the El Yunque (Puerto Rico) design in the America the Beautiful quarters program, the US Mint began selling (at a premium) uncirculated 40-coin rolls and 100-coin bags of quarters with the San Francisco mint mark. These coins were not included in the 2012 or later uncirculated sets or the three-coin ATB quarter sets (which consisted of an uncirculated \"P\" and \"D\" and proof \"S\" specimen) and no \"S\" mint-marked quarters are being released into circulation, so that mintages will be determined solely by direct demand for the \"S\" mint-marked coins.\nIn 2019, the West Point Mint released two million of each of the five designs that year with a \"W\" mint mark for general circulation, in a move intended to spur coin collecting. This was continued in 2020, which turned out to be the final year of the \"W\" mint marked quarters as no quarters with the mint mark have been produced since.\n\nSee also\n50 State quarters (1999–2008)\nAmerica the Beautiful quarters (2010–2021)\nAmerica the Beautiful silver bullion coins, 5 troy ounce silver bullion coins based on America the Beautiful quarters\nDC and US Territories quarters (2009)\nQuarter (Canadian coin)\nUnited States Mint coin production\nUnited States Bicentennial coinage (1975–1976)\nUnited States quarter mintage figures\nWashington quarter\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial specifications Archived November 11, 2009, at the Wayback Machine\nhttp://www.usmint.gov/faqs/circulating_coins/index.cfm?action=faq_circulating_coin Archived May 30, 2014, at the Wayback Machine\nhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040813033020/http://acoin.com/regularissue/regular25c.htm\nUS Quarters by year and type. Histories, photos, and more.\nExtensive quarter coin knowledge Coin specifications for all quarter coins",
"title": "Quarter_(United_States_coin)"
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"paragraph_text": "The half dollar, sometimes referred to as the half for short or 50-cent piece, is a United States coin worth 50 cents, or one half of a dollar. In both size and weight, it is the largest circulating coin currently minted in the United States, being 1.205 inches (30.61 millimeters) in diameter and 0.085 in (2.16 mm) in thickness, and is twice the weight of the quarter. The coin's design has undergone a number of changes throughout its history. Since 1964, the half dollar depicts the profile of President John F. Kennedy on the obverse and the seal of the president of the United States on the reverse.\nAlthough seldom used today, half-dollar coins were once common in circulation and saw regular use alongside other denominations of US coinage, but have become uncommon in general circulation for several reasons. Half-dollars were produced in fairly large quantities until the year 2002, when the U.S. Mint reduced production of the coin and ceased minting them for regular circulation. As a result of its decreasing usage, many pre-2002 half dollars remain in Federal Reserve vaults, prompting the change in production. Presently, collector half dollars can be ordered directly from the U.S. Mint, and circulated half dollars minted from 1971-2001 are generally available at most American banks and credit unions. Beginning In 2021, half dollars were again produced for general circulation.\n\nCirculation\nHalf-dollar coins saw heavy circulation until the mid 1960s. For many years, they were (and in many areas still are) commonly used by gamblers at casinos and other venues with slot machines. Rolls of half dollars may still be kept on hand in cardrooms for games requiring 50-cent antes or bring-in bets, for dealers to pay winning naturals in blackjack, or where the house collects a rake in increments. Additionally, some concession vendors at sporting events distribute half-dollar coins as change for convenience.\nBy the early 1960s, the rising price of silver neared the point where the bullion value of U.S. silver coins would exceed face value. In 1965, the U.S. introduced layered-composition coins made of a pure copper core sandwiched between two cupronickel outer faces. The silver content of dimes and quarters was eliminated, but the Kennedy half-dollar, introduced in 1964, contained silver (reduced from 90% in 1964 to 40% from 1965 to 1970). Even with its reduced silver content, the half dollar attracted widespread interest from speculators and coin collectors, which led to extensive hoarding of half dollars dated 1970 and earlier. In 1971, the composition of the half was changed to match that of the clad dimes and quarters, and with an increase in production, the coin saw a moderate increase in usage; however, by this time many businesses and the public had begun to lose interest in the half dollar and gradually, its usage began to wane. By the end of the 1970s, the half dollar had become uncommon in circulation. Merchants stopped ordering half dollars from their banks, and many banks stopped ordering half dollars from the Federal Reserve, and the U.S. mints sharply reduced production of the coins.\nFrom 2001-2020, half dollars were minted only for collectors, due to large Federal Reserve and government inventories of pre-2001 coins; this was primarily due to a lack of demand and large quantity returns of halves from casinos that switched to using \"coin-less\" slot machines. Eventually, the reserve supply of halves began to run low and in 2021, the mint resumed production of half dollars for general circulation. \nModern-date half dollars can be purchased in proof sets, mint sets, rolls, and bags from the U.S. Mint, and existing inventory circulation pieces can be obtained or ordered through most U.S. banks and credit unions. All collector issues since 2001 have had much lower mintages than in previous years. Although intended only for collectors, 2001-2020 half dollars can often be found in circulation.\n\nAspects of early history\nOn December 1, 1794, the first half dollars, approximately 5,300 pieces, were delivered. Another 18,000 were produced in January 1795 using dies of 1794, to save the expense of making new ones. Another 30,000 pieces were struck by the end of 1801. The coin had the Heraldic Eagle, based on the Great Seal of the United States on the reverse. 150,000 were minted in 1804 but struck with dies from 1803, so no 1804 specimens exist, though there were some pieces dated 1805 that carried a \"5 over 4\" overdate.\nIn 1838, half-dollar dies were produced in the Philadelphia Mint for the newly established New Orleans Mint, and ten test samples of the 1838 half dollars were made at the main Philadelphia mint. These samples were put into the mint safe along with other rarities like the 1804 silver dollar. The dies were then shipped to New Orleans for the regular production of 1838 half dollars. However, New Orleans production of the half dollars was delayed due to the priority of producing half dimes and dimes. The large press for half-dollar production was not used in New Orleans until January 1839 to produce 1838 half dollars, but the reverse die could not be properly secured, and only ten samples were produced before the dies failed. Rufus Tyler, chief coiner of the New Orleans mint, wrote to Mint Director Patterson of the problem on February 25, 1839. The Orleans mint samples all had a double stamped reverse as a result of this production problem and they also showed dramatic signs of die rust, neither of which are present on the Philadelphia produced test samples. While eight Philadelphia minted samples survive to this day, there is only one known New Orleans minted specimen with the tell-tale double stamped reverse and die rust. This is the famous coin that Rufus Tyler presented to Alexander Dallas Bache (great grandson of Benjamin Franklin) in the summer of 1839 and was later purchased in June 1894 by A. G. Heaton, the father of mint mark coin collecting. The 1838 Philadelphia-produced half dollars are extremely rare, with two separate specimens having sold for $632,500 in Heritage auctions in 2005 and 2008 respectively. The sole surviving Orleans minted 1838 is one of the rarest of all American coins. In 1840, this mint produced nearly 180,000 half dollars.\nIn 1861, the New Orleans mint produced coins for three different governments. A total of 330,000 were struck under the United States government, 1,240,000 for the State of Louisiana after it seceded from the Union, and 962,633 after it joined the Confederacy. Since the same die was used for all strikings, the output looks identical. However the Confederate States of America actually minted four half dollars with a CSA (rather than USA) reverse and the obverse die they used had a small die crack. Thus \"regular\" 1861 half dollars with this crack probably were used by the Confederates for some of the mass striking.\nThere are two varieties of Kennedy half dollars in the proof set issues of 1964. Initially, the die was used with accented hair, showing deeper lines than the president's widow, Jacqueline Kennedy, preferred. New dies were prepared to smooth out some of the details. It is estimated that about 1 to 3% (40,000 to 100,000) of the proof halves are of the earlier type, making them somewhat more expensive for collectors.\n\nList of designs\nList of early commemorative issues\nSee also\n\nUnited States Mint coin production\n1814 platinum half dollar\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Half_dollar_(United_States_coin)"
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"paragraph_text": "The dollar coin is a United States coin with a face value of one United States dollar. Dollar coins have been minted in the United States in gold, silver, and base metal versions. Dollar coins were first minted in the United States in 1794.\nWhile true gold dollars are no longer minted, the Sacagawea, Presidential, and American Innovation dollars are sometimes referred to as golden dollars because of their color. As with several other denominations of U.S. coinage, golden dollars are similar in diameter and color to their Canadian counterpart (known as the \"loonie\", which predates the Sacagawea dollar by thirteen years). However, unlike the 11-sided Canadian dollar coins, U.S. \"golden dollar\" coins are round.\nDollar coins have never been popular in circulation since their inception. Despite efforts by the U.S. government to promote their use to save the cost of printing one dollar bills, the Anthony Dollar, the Sacagawea Dollar and the Presidential Dollar Series are all seldom seen in circulation, since most Americans prefer to use the dollar bill. For this reason, since December 11, 2011, the Mint has not produced dollar coins for general circulation, and all dollar coins produced after that date have been specifically for collectors. These collector coins can be ordered directly from the Mint, while pre-2012 circulation dollars can be obtained from most U.S. banks.\n\nPopularity\nOne-dollar coins, both in silver and base-metal forms, have never been popular in circulation from the 19th century to the present, despite several attempts to increase their usage since the 1970s, for various reasons:\n\nFrom 1792 to 1803 the $1 coin compared favorably with the Spanish dollar and was accepted at par for overseas purchases. Its coinage was suspended in 1803 since it did not remain long in domestic circulation.\nDuring the 1850s California gold rush the silver dollar of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) was internationally worth more than the gold dollar of 23.22 grains (1.505 g) and was therefore exported (see Gresham's law). Likewise, the gold dollar of 1849–1889 was a tiny coin measuring only 13–15 millimetres (0.51–0.59 in) in diameter, making it difficult to grasp and easy to lose, a serious problem when one dollar was about a day's wage.\nWhile substantial numbers of silver Morgan dollars were minted from 1878 pursuant to the Bland-Allison Act, there also existed an option to hold silver certificates fully backed by silver dollars kept in reserves. The majority of citizens, therefore, opted to use silver certificates while most silver dollars languished inside treasury and bank vaults.\nSucceeding base-metal $1 coins minted from 1971 onwards did not circulate widely as well, the most important reason being the continued circulation of the $1 bill.\n\nThe copper-nickel clad Eisenhower dollar minted from 1971 to 1978 was not popular due to its large size relative to its gradually diminishing value;\nThe smaller-sized Susan B. Anthony dollar coin minted from 1979 to 1981 and again in 1999, was highly unpopular because they were often mistaken for quarters, due to their nearly equal size, color and reeded edge;\nSacagawea dollars and Presidential dollar coins have been issued since 2000. These coins have a distinct weight, gold color, and smooth edge. Despite these remedies, golden dollars continue to circulate poorly since the $1 bill continues to be produced.\nThe non-acceptance of $1 coins in the United States contrasts with the practice in most other developed countries where denominations of similar value exist only in coins; for example, the lowest-value pound sterling, euro and Japanese yen notes are the £5 note, €5 note and 1000 yen note respectively; each is worth more than US$5. These high-value coins (such as the €2 coin, Canadian \"toonie\" or 5 Swiss francs) have largely succeeded because of the removal (or lack) of their corresponding paper issues, whereas the U.S. government has taken no action to remove the $1 bill. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) has stated that discontinuing the dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin would save the U.S. government approximately $5.5 billion over thirty years primarily through seigniorage. The Federal Reserve has refused to order the coin from the mint for distribution citing a lack of demand, according to ex-Mint director Philip Diehl in November 2012.\nWhatever the reason, a U.S. Mint official claimed in a November 2012 meeting that most of the 2.4 billion dollar coins minted in the previous five years were not in circulation.\nIn 2019, the GAO re-estimated the cost of replacing the $1 bill and found for the first time that it would cause the government to lose between $611 million and $2.6 billion because physical money was being used less, resulting in dollar bills remaining in circulation longer compared to the 2011 analysis.\n\nMint marks\nThe list below is of all mint marks used on the dollar coin:\n\nC: Charlotte, North Carolina (gold coins only; 1838–1861).\nCC: Carson City, Nevada (1870–1893).\nD: Dahlonega, Georgia (gold coins only; 1838–1861).\nD: Denver, Colorado (1906 to date).\nO: New Orleans, Louisiana (1838–1861; 1879–1909).\nP: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (produced from 1793 to date, mint mark introduced in 1979).\nS: San Francisco, California (1854 to date).\nW: West Point, New York (1984 to date).\n\nHistory\nEarly dollar coins\nBefore the American Revolutionary War, coins from many European nations circulated freely in the American colonies, as did coinage issued by the various colonies. Chief among these were the Spanish silver dollar coins (also called pieces of eight or eight reales) minted in Mexico and other colonies with silver mined from North, Central and South American mines. These coins, along with others of similar size and value, were in use throughout the colonies, and later the United States, and were legal tender until 1857.\nIn 1776, several thousand pewter Continental Currency coins were minted. Although unconfirmed, many numismatists believe these to have been pattern coins of a proposed silver dollar coin authorized by the Continental Congress to prop up the rapidly failing Continental Currency—the first attempt by the fledgling U.S. at paper currency. Several examples were also struck in brass and silver, but a circulating coin was not produced, in large part because of the financial difficulties of running the Revolutionary War. The Continental Currency dollar coin bears the date 1776, and while its true denomination is not known, it is generally the size of later dollars, and the name has stuck. The failure of the Continental Currency exacerbated a distrust of paper money among both politicians and the population at large. The letters of Thomas Jefferson indicate that he wished the United States to eschew paper money and instead mint coins of similar perceived value and worth to those foreign coins circulating at the time.\n\nThe Coinage Act of 1792 authorized the production of dollar coins from silver. The United States Mint produced silver dollar coins from 1794 to 1803, then ceased regular production of silver dollars until 1836. The first silver dollars, precisely 1,758 of them, were coined on October 15, 1794, and were immediately delivered to Mint Director David Rittenhouse for distribution to dignitaries as souvenirs. Thereafter, until 1804, they were struck in varying quantities. There are two obverse designs: Flowing Hair (1794–1795) and Draped Bust (1795–1804). There are also two reverse designs used for the Draped Bust variety: small eagle (1795–1798) and heraldic eagle (1798–1804). Original silver dollars from this period are highly prized by coin collectors and are exceptionally valuable, and range from fairly common to incredibly rare. Because of the early practice of hand engraving each die, there are dozens of varieties known for all dates between 1795 and 1803.\nIt is also one of only two denominations (the other being the cent) minted every year from its inception during the first decade of mint operation. Though a new Spanish dollar or 8-real minted after 1772 theoretically contained 417.7 grains of silver of fineness 130/144 (or 377.1 grains fine silver), reliable assays of the period confirmed a fine silver content of 370.95 grains (24.037 g) for the average Spanish dollar in circulation. \n\nThe new US silver dollar of 371.25 grains (24.057 g) therefore compared favorably and was received at par with the Spanish dollar for foreign payments, and in 1803 President Thomas Jefferson halted new silver dollars made out of the US Mint's limited resources since it failed to stay in domestic circulation. The less-exportable half dollar therefore became the largest US-made silver coin in domestic use for the next several decades. It was only after Mexican independence in 1821 when their peso's fine silver content of 377.1 grains was firmly upheld, which the US later had to compete with using a heavier Trade dollar coin of 378.0 grains (24.49 g) fine silver.\n\nThe 1804 dollar\nThe 1804 dollar is one of the rarest and most famous coins in the world. Its creation was the result of a simple bookkeeping error, but its status as a highly prized rarity has been established for nearly a century and a half. The silver dollars reported by the mint as being struck in 1804 were dated 1803. (With die steel being very expensive in the early 19th century, dies were used until they were no longer in working condition. This is why many early U.S. coins exhibit various kinds of die cracks, occlusions, cuds, clash marks, and other late-state die wear. Nearly every coin the U.S. struck from 1793 to 1825 has an example that was struck in a year other than that which it bears.) No dollars bearing the date 1804 were ever struck in 1804, though this was unknown to mint officials at the time the 1804 dollar came to be.\nThe 1804 silver dollar was actually produced in 1834, when the U.S. Department of State decided to produce a set of U.S. coins to be used as gifts to rulers in Asia in exchange for trade advantages. Since 1804 was the last recorded year of mintage for both the dollar and $10 Eagle, it was decided that the set would contain examples of those coins dated 1804, as well as the other denominations currently being produced. Mint officials, not realizing that the 19,000+ dollars recorded as being produced in 1804 were all dated 1803, proceeded to make new dies bearing the date 1804. Only 15 silver dollars with the date of 1804 are known to exist; in 1999, one of them sold at auction for more than $4 million. There are 8 Class I dollars, struck in 1834 for the aforementioned sets, 1 Class II dollar, struck over an 1857 Swiss Shooting Thaler (and now residing in the U.S. Coin Collection at the Smithsonian Institution), and 6 Class III dollars, struck surreptitiously sometime between 1858 and 1860 to meet collector demand for the coin.\n\nSeated Liberty dollar (1836–1873)\nSeated Liberty dollars were introduced in 1836 and were minted in lesser quantities than the sparsely minted Gobrecht dollar that preceded it. The dollars were used in general circulation until 1873. The production of large numbers of U.S. gold coins (The first $1 and $20 gold coins were minted in 1849) from the new California mines lowered the price of gold, thereby increasing the value of silver. By 1853, the value of a U.S. silver dollar contained in gold terms, $1.04 of silver, equal to $38.09 today. With the Mint Act of 1853, all U.S. silver coins, except for the U.S. silver dollar and new 3-cent coin, were reduced by 6.9% as of weight with arrows on the date to denote reduction. The U.S. silver dollar continued to be minted in very small numbers mainly as a foreign trade coin with the Orient.\nThe international trading partners did not like the fact that U.S. coins were reduced in weight. The use of much more common half dollars became problematic since merchants would have to separate higher value pre-1853 coins from the newer reduced ones. From 1853 onward, trade with Asia was typically done with Mexican coins that kept their weight and purity in the 19th century. This ended in 1874 when the price of silver dropped so that a silver dollar had less than $1.00 worth of silver in it (because of huge amounts of silver coming from the Nevada Comstock Lode mines). By 1876, all silver coins were being used as money and by 1878, gold was at par with all U.S. paper dollars. Beginning in 1878, huge amounts of the Morgan silver dollars were produced but few were used as money. The size was too large to carry on business so Silver Certificates were used instead. The mint made the coins, placed them in their vaults, and issued the Silver Certificates instead. This is the reason so many Morgan and Peace dollars can be purchased in AU or UNC condition (near perfect) since they sat in bank or U.S. Treasury vaults most of the time.\nEach Seated Liberty dollar is composed of 0.77344 troy oz of silver. They were minted at Philadelphia, New Orleans, Carson City, and San Francisco. A silver dollar would be worth $1 in silver if the price of silver is $1.29 per troy ounce. The current silver price (January 29, 2021) is $27.03 per troy ounce so a silver dollar is worth, in melt value of about US$20.90.\n\nGold dollar coins (1849–1889)\nThe gold dollar was produced from 1849 to 1889. 1849 to 1853 gold dollar coins were 13 mm across and are called Type I. Type II gold dollars were thinner but larger at 15 mm diameter and were produced from 1854 to 1855. The most common gold dollar is the Type III, struck from 1856 until 1889. Production of US$1 gold dollars was high until the Civil War and by 1863, only the larger value gold coins were produced in large quantities. Most gold coins produced from 1863 and onward were produced for imports to pay for enormous amounts of war material and interest on some U.S. Government bonds. Many of these coins from the Civil War and after (silver coins included) are in excellent condition since they saw very limited circulation with greenbacks and postage currency taking their place.\nComposed of 90% pure gold, it was the smallest denomination of gold currency ever produced by the United States federal government. When the U.S. system of coinage was originally designed there had been no plans for a gold dollar coin, but in the late 1840s, two gold rushes later, Congress was looking to expand the use of gold in the country's currency. The gold dollar was authorized by the Act of March 3, 1849, and the Liberty Head type began circulating soon afterward. Because of the high value of gold, the gold dollar is the smallest coin in the history of U.S. coinage.\n\nTrade dollar (1873–1885)\nThe trade dollar was produced in response to other Western powers, such as Great Britain, Spain, France, and particularly Mexico, to compete with these trade coins for use in trade in Asia. While the previous Spanish dollar of 370.95 grains (24.037 g) contained less fine silver than the standard dollar coin of 371.25 grains (24.057 g), Mexican pesos minted after Mexican independence contained a full 377.1 grains (24.44 g) of fine silver.\nThe American trade dollar therefore had to contain more silver, at 420 grains of 90% fine silver, fine content 378.0 grains (24.49 g), or 0.44 g more fine silver than the regular circulation Seated Liberty Dollars and Morgan Dollars. Most trade dollars ended up in China during their first two years of production, where they were very successful. Many of them exhibit holes or chopmarks which are counterstamps from Asian merchants to verify the authenticity of the coins. Many trade coins of the western powers and large silver coins from China, Korea, and Japan also bear these chopmarks. While most chopmarked coins are generally worth less than those without, some of the more fascinating chopmarks can give the coin a modest premium.\nTrade dollars did not circulate in the United States initially, but were legal tender for up to $5. Things changed, however, in 1876, when the price of silver spiraled downward as western producers dumped silver on the market, making the trade dollar worth more at face value than its silver content. That resulted in trade dollars pouring back into the United States, as they were bought for as little as the equivalent of 80 US cents in Asia, and were then spent at $1 in the United States. This prompted Congress to revoke their legal tender status, and restrict their coinage to exportation demand only. However, this did not stop unscrupulous persons from buying trade dollars at bullion value, and using them for payment as $1 to unsuspecting workers and merchants.\nProduction of the trade dollar was officially discontinued for business strikes in 1878, and thereafter from 1879 to 1885, produced only as proof examples of the coin. The issues of 1884 and 1885 were produced surreptitiously and were unknown to the collecting public until 1908.\nIn February 1887, all non-mutilated, non-chopmarked outstanding trade dollars were made redeemable to the United States Treasury for $1, and approximately 8 million of them were turned in.\n\nMorgan dollar (1878–1904, 1921, 2021-present)\nMorgan silver dollars, all composed of 90% silver and 10% copper (slightly less silver than sterling silver, 92.5%) containing 26.73 g (0.859 ozt) of pure silver, were struck between 1878 and 1904, with a minting in 1921 and a commemorative minting in 2021. The 1921-dated coins are the most common, and there exists a substantial collector market for pristine, uncirculated specimens of the rarer dates and mint marks. Morgan dollars are second only to Lincoln Cents in collector popularity. The coin is named after George T. Morgan, its designer. Morgan dollars were minted at Philadelphia (no mint mark), New Orleans (\"O\" mint mark), San Francisco (\"S\" mint mark), Carson City (\"CC\" mint mark), and (in 1921 only) Denver (\"D\" mint mark). The mint mark is found on the reverse below the wreath, above the \"O\" in \"DOLLAR\". Production of the Morgan Dollar began again in 2021 and US Mint officials announced an intention to continue producing them in 2023 and beyond.\n\nPeace dollar (1921–1928, 1934–1935, 2021-present)\nIntroduced in December 1921 and having the same ratio of silver-to-copper as the Morgan dollar, the Peace dollar, designed by medalist Anthony de Francisci, was promulgated to commemorate the signing of formal peace treaties between the Allied forces and Germany and Austria. These treaties officially ended the Allies' World War I hostilities with these two countries. In 1922 the Mint made silver dollar production its top priority, causing other denominations to be produced sparingly if at all that year. Production ceased temporarily after 1928; original plans called for only a one-year suspension, but this was extended by the Great Depression. Mintage resumed in 1934, but for only two years.\nIn May 1965, 316,000+ Peace dollars were minted, all at the Denver Mint and dated 1964-D; however, plans for completing this coinage were abandoned, and most of those already minted were melted, with two known trial strike specimens being preserved (for assay purposes) until 1970, when they too were melted, and none released either for circulation or collection purposes. It is rumored that one or more pieces still exist, most notably any examples obtained by key members of Congress, the president, or mint officials. However, this coin, much like the 1933 $20 gold double eagle (aside from the \"exception\", sold in 2002 for over $7 million and the 10 found later), is illegal to own and would be subject to confiscation.\nMinting of the Peace Dollar began again in 2021. US Mint officials have announced an intention to continue minting Peace Dollars in 2023 and beyond.\n\nRelease of dollars by the U.S. Treasury: the GSA sale\nBecause of the size and weight of the dollar coins, they circulated minimally throughout their history, except in the West (especially at casinos in the early-to-mid-20th century, where they were commonly used both at the tables and at slot machines.) As a result, the coins were generally shipped to Washington and stored in the vaults of the U.S. Treasury; at times these stores numbered into the hundreds of millions.\nThey were very popular as Christmas gifts, however, and from the 1930s to the early 1960s, many bags were annually released to banks nationwide to be distributed as presents. In November 1962, during this annual distribution, it was discovered that there were some rare and valuable dates, still sealed in their original mint bags, all in uncirculated condition, among the millions of dollar coins still in the Treasury vaults. Collectors/investors/dealers lined up to purchase them in $1,000 bags, trading silver certificates for the coins. Before this event, the great rarity of the Morgan series was 1903-O, which was by far the most expensive of the entire set. It was discovered that there were millions of this specific date and mint in the Treasury vaults; an estimated 84% of the entire mintage sat in these bags, untouched for 60 years, all in uncirculated condition. While still relatively expensive in circulated grades, uncirculated examples can be had for a modest amount over common dates.\nOn March 25, 1964, Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon announced that Silver Certificates would no longer be redeemable for silver dollars. Subsequently, another act of Congress dated June 24, 1967, provided that Silver Certificates could be exchanged for silver bullion for a period of one year, until June 24, 1968.\nFollowing this, the Treasury inventoried its remaining stock of dollar coins and found approximately 3,000 bags containing 3 million coins. Many of the remaining coins were Carson City mint dollars, which even then carried a premium. The coins were placed in special hard plastic holders and the General Services Administration (GSA) was given authorization to sell them to the public in a series of mail-bid sales. Five sales were conducted in 1973 and 1974, but sales were poor, and the results unspectacular. There was much complaining among the coin-buying public, many stating that the United States government should not be in the \"coin business\", especially considering that the government had spent little more than a dollar to mint and store each coin. After these sales, more than a million coins were still left unsold.\nThese sat again until 1979–1980, where, amidst an extraordinarily volatile precious metals market (the attempt by the 3 Hunt brothers to corner the silver market), the remaining coins were sold under chaotic conditions. The GSA, having published minimum bids in November 1979, announced on January 2, 1980, that those minimum bids were no longer valid, and that prospective bidders would have to \"call in\" to a toll-free number to get current minimum bids. Then, on February 21, 13 days after the bidding process officially began, the maximum number of coins per bidder was changed from 500 to 35. Many bidders, under these confusing conditions, ended up with no coins at all. Complaints again flooded into Congress, but the damage had already been done, and the last silver dollars held by the United States Treasury were gone.\nOver the years, many of these GSA dollars have been broken out of their special holders for purposes of grading or otherwise, and now GSA dollars still in the unbroken original holders carry a small premium. Some third-party grading companies have begun to grade coins still in their GSA holders, as a means of preservation, though this is not without controversy.\n\nEisenhower dollar (1971–1978)\nFrom 1971 to 1978, the U.S. Mint issued dollar coins with the obverse depicting President Dwight David Eisenhower and the reverse the insignia of the Apollo 11 Moon landing, both designed by Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro. The 1976 Bicentennial commemorative design, produced in 1975 and 1976, featured the Liberty Bell and the Moon on the reverse (designed by Dennis R. Williams) while retaining the Eisenhower obverse, and the dual dates 1776–1976. The Eisenhower dollars minted for general circulation contained no silver or gold but were instead composed of the same copper-nickel clad composition used for the dime, quarter, and half dollar. This made the circulation coins extremely resistant to wear and, like the smaller denominations, they still retain a good deal of shine even when subject to mass usage.\nFrom 1971 through 1976, the Mint also produced dollars composed of 40% silver aimed at the collector market. The 1971–1974 issues appeared in brown boxes or blue packages, depending on whether they were proof or uncirculated. Somewhat different Bicentennial sets were produced in the following two years. All issues remain very common.\nThe coins were never very popular, primarily because of their large size and weight which made them inconvenient to carry, and the fact that very few vending machines were designed to accept them. They saw the greatest use in casinos, and one-dollar tokens in many United States casinos still approximate the size and weight of the coins. Prior to the withdrawal of the coins, which remain legal tender (and are sometimes available at banks by request), many casinos did not strike their own tokens, but instead used the Eisenhower dollar.\n\nSusan B. Anthony dollar (1979–1981; 1999)\nFrom 1979 to 1981, and again in 1999, the Mint produced Anthony Dollars depicting women's suffrage activist Susan B. Anthony (also designed by Frank Gasparro). Anthony thus became the first historical female person portrayed on circulating U.S. coinage. Many earlier circulating coins had featured images of women via allegorical figures such as Peace or Liberty; Spain's Queen Isabella appeared on the 1893 Columbian Exposition quarter dollar but the coin was not intended for general circulation. The Anthony dollars, like the Eisenhower dollars, were made from a copper-nickel clad. The 1981 coins were issued for collectors only but occasionally show up in circulation.\nThe Anthony dollar, because of its color, size, and design, was often confused with the quarter. It was never popular and production was suspended after 1981. In 1999, it was struck again when Treasury reserves of the coin were low and the Sacagawea dollar was still a year away from production. While reserves of the coins were high, the coins were most often seen in vending machines, transit systems, and post offices.\n\nAmerican Silver Eagle (1986–present)\nThe American Silver Eagle is the official silver bullion coin of the United States. It was designed by Adolph A. Weinman and John Mercanti and it was first released by the United States Mint on November 24, 1986. It is struck only in the one troy ounce size, which has a nominal face value of one dollar and is guaranteed to contain one troy ounce of 99.9% pure silver. It is authorized by Title II of Public Law 99-61 (Liberty Coin Act, approved July 9, 1985) and codified as 31 U.S.C. § 5112(e)-(h). Its content, weight, and purity are certified by the United States Mint. In addition to the bullion version, the United States Mint has produced a proof version and an uncirculated version for coin collectors. The Silver Eagle has been produced at three mints: the Philadelphia Mint, the San Francisco Mint, and the West Point Mint. The American Silver Eagle bullion coin may be used to fund Individual Retirement Account investments.\n\nSacagawea dollar (2000–present)\nThe Sacagawea dollar was authorized by Congress in 1997 because the supply of Anthony dollars in inventory since their last mintage in 1981 was soon expected to be depleted. These coins have a copper core clad in manganese brass. Delays in increasing Sacagawea dollar production led to a final 1999-dated mintage of Susan B. Anthony dollars. Dollar coins are used infrequently in general commerce. They used to be given as change by United States Postal Service (USPS) stamp vending machines, which created a relatively small but significant demand, but the USPS eliminated all those machines by 2011. They were also used in certain subway and public transit systems, such as the Boston subway and New York City Subway ticketing machines.\nIn 1998, the U.S. Mint conducted a limited design competition for the new dollar, inviting 23 artists to submit designs portraying Sacagawea on the obverse (\"heads\") side and an American bald eagle on the reverse (\"tails\") side. In November 1998, an exhibit of 123 submitted designs was held at the Casa Italiana Hall in Washington, D.C., to solicit public and private comment. Design concepts were submitted in the form of drawings, renderings, sculpture, and die-struck prototypes.\nThe obverse was designed by artist Glenna Goodacre. Since no verifiable image of Sacagawea exists, Goodacre used Randy'L He-dow Teton, a University of New Mexico college student and a Shoshone Indian, as a model for the coin.\nThere are approximately 1 billion Sacagawea coins in circulation and about 250 million in reserve. The U.S. Mint greatly reduced production of Sacagawea dollars after the 2001 minting, citing sufficient inventory. From 2002 to 2008, the Sacagawea dollar was still minted for collectors and was available in uncirculated rolls, mint sets, and proof sets, but it was not released for general circulation again until the introduction of the Native American series in 2009.\nThe Mint took great care to create the coin with the same size, weight, and electromagnetic properties as the Anthony dollar, but with a golden color. Unlike most other coins in circulation, the selected alloy has a tendency to tarnish quite severely in circulation, as is the case with most brasses, resulting in a loss of the golden shine, except on raised areas where the \"patina\" is more frequently rubbed off. While some consider the blackening an undesirable quality, the Mint suggests the uneven tarnishing effect gives the coins an \"antique finish\" that \"accentuate[s] the profile and add[s] a dimension of depth to the depiction of Sacagawea and her child\".\nThe coin featured a plain edge through 2008, but starting in 2009, incused lettering was applied. The year and mint mark moved from the coin's obverse (front) to its edge.\nAs of 2022, dollar coins are not widely encountered in U.S. commerce, except in vending machines for rides on mass transit, some pay and display machines, some laundromats, and old-fashioned slot machines. On the other hand, the Sacagawea dollar has achieved popularity in El Salvador, Ecuador, and Panama, where the U.S. dollar is also the official currency.\n\nNative American series\nWith the passage of the Native American $1 Coin Act on September 20, 2007, the U.S. Mint began designing a series of Sacagawea dollars with modified reverses to further commemorate \"Native Americans and the important contributions made by Indian tribes and individual Native Americans to the development of the United States and the history of the United States\". Four designs were to be minted, each for one year from 2009 to 2012. The first Native American series coin was released in January 2009 and had a reverse that depicted a Native American woman sowing seeds of the Three Sisters, symbolizing the Indian tribes' contributions to agriculture.\nLike the Presidential Dollar, the year of issue, mint mark, and motto E Pluribus Unum are found on the edge of the coin instead of on the obverse or reverse, which allows for more room for the design. Unlike the Presidential $1 coins from before 2009, \"In God We Trust\" remains on the obverse and the vacant space on the edge lettering has been taken up by thirteen stars, symbolizing the Thirteen Colonies. Also, unlike any other denomination of circulating U.S. coinage (but in common with the Presidential $1 coins), the value is inscribed in numerals on the reverse. The act passed by Congress requires that 20% of the total dollar coins minted in any year during the Presidential $1 Coin Program be Sacagawea dollars bearing the new design.\nIn January 2010, the second reverse design in the series was released which has the theme of \"Government\" and the \"Great Tree of Peace\". The 2010 Sacagawea reverse depicts the Hiawatha Belt and five arrows bound together representing unity with the inscription \"Haudenosaunee\", a synonym for the Iroquois Confederacy meaning \"People of the Longhouse\". Another inscription is found along the lower edge of the reverse spelling \"Great Law of Peace\" (an English translation of Gayanashagowa, the Iroquois Confederacy constitution). The Great Law of Peace was used as a model for the Constitution of the United States. The four links on the belt are meant to symbolize four of the five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, namely the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga and Seneca Nations. The Eastern White Pine tree in the middle of the belt represents the fifth Nation, the Onondaga, and is a depiction of the Tree of Peace.\n\nPresidential Dollar Coins (2007–2016; 2020)\nIn December 2005, Congress decided to create a new series of $1 coins that would honor the former U.S. presidents. In 2007, Presidential coins of four different designs were produced. Another four designs will be produced each year, honoring the presidents in order of service. (Grover Cleveland is on two coins since he served two non-consecutive terms.) The Presidential $1 Coin Act is intended to create renewed interest in dollar coins, like that seen during the 50 State Quarters program. At least one-third of all dollar coins produced are still Sacagawea coins, with the remaining coins making up the four presidential coins produced annually. Under federal law (31 U.S.C. § 5112), no coins may be issued featuring a living president, or a president who died less than two years earlier.\nThe presidential dollar coin is the same size and composition as the Sacagawea dollar. \"In God We Trust\", the issue year, and the mint mark appear on the edge. The first dollar, honoring George Washington, was released into circulation on February 15, 2007.\nHowever, H.R. 2764 became law on December 26, 2007, which moved \"In God We Trust\" from the edge to the obverse.\nA common minting error on this coin, estimated at 80,000, from a mintage of 300,000,000 coins, is the omission of the edge lettering causing a plain outside edge. Because the omission includes the words \"In God We Trust\", some in the popular media have dubbed it the \"godless\" coin. A false (although at one time widely reported) error is the report that the edge lettering is upside down. The edge lettering does not occur at the same time as the minting of the coins, allowing for the natural occurrence of the lettering in either orientation, except Proof Coins where the date and lettering are all \"right-side-up\".\nBecause of budget constraints and increasing stockpiles of these relatively unpopular coins, the production of new presidential dollar coins for circulation was suspended on December 11, 2011, by U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy F. Geithner. Further minting of these coins was reserved solely for collectors.\n\nAmerican Innovation Dollar Coins (2018–2032)\nOn July 20, 2018, then-President Donald Trump signed the American Innovation $1 Coin Act into law. The program calls for the release of four new coins each year from 2019 through 2032 \"to honor innovation and innovators by issuing $1 coins for each of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the five U.S. territories – Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands\". An introductory coin, commemorating George Washington signing the country's first patent into law, was released in December 2018. The coins are currently only being minted for collectors.\n\nDesigns\nSee also\nModern United States commemorative coins\nUnited States $1 Coin Act of 1997\nUnited States Mint coin production\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nThe Comprehensive U. S. Silver Dollar Encyclopedia by John W. Highfill, ISBN 0-9629900-0-0\nComprehensive Catalog and Encyclopedia of Morgan and Peace Dollars, ISBN 978-0-9660168-2-6\nFinancial Impact of Issuing the New $1 Coin Archived June 9, 2019, at the Wayback Machine, GAO/GGD-00-111R, April 7, 2000.\nNew coin unlikely change?, Steve Cranford, Charlotte Business Journal, July 21, 2000.\nElizabeth White (December 14, 2005). \"New coins will depict dead former presidents\". The Boston Globe. Retrieved March 13, 2009.\nBarbara Hagenbaugh (December 15, 2005). \"Dollar coin series will feature presidents\". USA Today. Retrieved March 13, 2009.\n\nExternal links\n\nExhibition: Legendary Coins & Currency (National Museum of American History) Archived June 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine\nUnited States Mint",
"title": "Dollar_coin_(United_States)"
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"paragraph_text": "The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\n\nPresidents\nSee also\nActing President of the United States\nFounding Fathers of the United States\nList of vice presidents of the United States\nPresident of the Continental Congress\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nExternal links\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote",
"title": "List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"
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] | Which president featured on a U.S. coin in 1972 served the longest as President of the United States of America? | [] | Franklin Delano Roosevelt (12 years). | [] | true |
13 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Barbara Ellen Kingsolver (born April 8, 1955) is a Pulitzer Prize-winning American novelist, essayist, and poet. Her widely known works include The Poisonwood Bible, the tale of a missionary family in the Congo, and Animal, Vegetable, Miracle, a nonfiction account of her family's attempts to eat locally. In 2023, she was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction for the novel Demon Copperhead. Her work often focuses on topics such as social justice, biodiversity, and the interaction between humans and their communities and environments.\nKingsolver has received numerous awards, including the Dayton Literary Peace Prize's Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award 2011 and the National Humanities Medal. After winning for The Lacuna in 2010 and Demon Copperhead in 2023, Kingsolver became the first author to win the Women's Prize for Fiction twice. Since 1993, each one of her book titles have been on the New York Times Best Seller list.\nKingsolver was raised in rural Kentucky, lived briefly in the Congo in her early childhood, and she currently lives in Appalachia. Kingsolver earned degrees in biology, ecology, and evolutionary biology at DePauw University and the University of Arizona, and worked as a freelance writer before she began writing novels. In 2000, the politically progressive Kingsolver established the Bellwether Prize to support \"literature of social change\".\n\nBiography\nKingsolver was born in 1955 in Annapolis, Maryland, the daughter of Wendell Roy Kingsolver and Virginia Lee (née Henry) Kingsolver, but grew up in Carlisle, Kentucky. When Kingsolver was seven, her father, a physician, took the family to Léopoldville, Congo (now Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo).\nAfter graduating from high school, Kingsolver attended DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana, on a music scholarship, studying classical piano. She changed her major to biology after realizing that \"classical pianists compete for six job openings a year, and the rest of [them] get to play 'Blue Moon' in a hotel lobby\".\nKingsolver was involved in activism on her campus, and took part in protests against the Vietnam War. In 1977, Kingsolver graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a Bachelor of Science, and moved to France for a year. In 1980, she enrolled in graduate school at the University of Arizona, where she earned a master's degree in ecology and evolutionary biology.\nIn 1985, Kingsolver married Joseph Hoffmann, and gave birth to their daughter Camille in 1987. During the first First Gulf War, she moved with her daughter to Tenerife in the Canary Islands for a year, mostly due to her frustration over America's military involvement. After returning to the United States in 1992, she separated from her husband.\nIn 1994, Kingsolver was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Letters from her alma mater, DePauw University. That same year, she married Steven Lee Hopp, an ornithologist, and their daughter Lily was born in 1996. In 2004, Kingsolver moved with her family to a farm in Washington County, Virginia. In 2008, she received an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Duke University, where she delivered a commencement address entitled \"How to Be Hopeful\".\nIn the late 1990s, Kingsolver was a founding member of the Rock Bottom Remainders, a rock-and-roll band made up of published writers. Other band members included Amy Tan, Matt Groening, Dave Barry, and Stephen King, and they played for one week during the year. Kingsolver played the keyboard, but is no longer an active member of the band.\nIn a 2010 interview with The Guardian, Kingsolver said, \"I never wanted to be famous, and still don't… the universe rewarded me with what I dreaded most\". She said she created her own website just to compete with a plethora of fake ones \"as a defense to protect my family from misinformation\".\nKingsolver lives in the Appalachia area of the United States. She said in 2020 that rural America is generally regarded by artistic elites with \"a profound antipathy\".\n\nWriting career\nKingsolver began her full-time writing career in the mid-1980s as a science writer for the University of Arizona, which eventually led to freelance feature writing, including many cover stories for the local alternative weekly, the Tucson Weekly. She began her career in fiction writing after winning a short-story contest in a local Phoenix newspaper.\nKingsolver's first novel, The Bean Trees, was published in 1988, and told the story of a young woman who leaves Kentucky for Arizona, adopting an abandoned child along the way; she wrote it at night while pregnant with her first child and struggling with insomnia. Her next work of fiction, published in 1990, was Homeland and Other Stories, a collection of short stories on a variety of topics exploring various themes from the evolution of cultural and ancestral lands to the struggles of marriage.\nThe novel Animal Dreams was also published in 1990, followed by Pigs in Heaven, the sequel to The Bean Trees, in 1993. Every book that Kingsolver has written since Pigs in Heaven has been on The New York Times Best Seller list.\nThe Poisonwood Bible, published in 1998, is one of her best-known works; it chronicles the lives of the wife and daughters of a Baptist missionary on a Christian mission in Africa. Although the setting of the novel is somewhat similar to Kingsolver's own childhood in the Democratic Republic of Congo (then \"the Democratic Republic of Zaire\"), the novel is not autobiographical. The novel was chosen as an Oprah's Book Club selection.The Poisonwood Bible won the National Book Prize of South Africa and was shortlisted for both the Pulitzer Prize and PEN/Faulkner Award.\nHer next novel, published in 2000, was Prodigal Summer, set in southern Appalachia. In 2000, she was awarded the National Humanities Medal by the U.S. President Bill Clinton.\nKingsolver wrote a Los Angeles Times opinion piece following the U.S. bombing of Afghanistan in the wake of the September 11 attacks, which received widespread criticism for conflating innocent Afghans with the Taliban regime. She wrote, \"I feel like I'm standing on a playground where the little boys are all screaming at each other, 'He started it!' and throwing rocks that keep taking out another eye, another tooth. I keep looking around for somebody's mother to come on the scene saying, 'Boys! Boys! Who started it cannot possibly be the issue here. People are getting hurt.'\" By some accounts, she was \"denounced as a traitor,\" but rebounded from these accusations and later wrote about them.\nStarting in April 2005, Kingsolver and her family spent a year making every effort to eat food produced as locally as possible. Living on their farm in rural Virginia, they grew much of their own food and obtained most of the rest from their neighbors and other local farmers. Kingsolver, her husband, and her elder daughter chronicled their experiences of that year in the book Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life, published in 2007. Although exceptions were made for staple ingredients not available locally, such as coffee and olive oil, the family grew vegetables, raised livestock, made cheese, and preserved much of their harvest. Animal, Vegetable, Miracle won the 2008 James Beard Foundation Award.\nKingsolver returned to novel-writing with The Lacuna, published in 2009. Kingsolver received her first Women's Prize for Fiction for the novel in 2010. The Lacuna won the 2010 Orange Prize for Fiction. Flight Behavior was published in 2012. It explores environmental themes and highlights the potential effects of global warming on the monarch butterfly.\nIn 2011, Kingsolver was the first ever recipient of the Dayton Literary Peace Prize Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award. The newly named award to celebrate the U.S. diplomat who played an instrumental role in negotiating the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. In 2014, Kingsolver was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the Library of Virginia. The award recognizes outstanding and long-lasting contributions to literature by a Virginian. In 2018 the Library of Virginia named her one of the Virginia Women in History.\nUnsheltered was published in 2018 and follows two families in Vineland, New Jersey with one in the 1800s and the other in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy. Her latest book, published in 2022, is Demon Copperhead. The novel was inspired by David Copperfield and is set in southern Appalachia, deliong with the effects of the opioid crisis on the region's families. In 2023, Demon Copperhead received the 2023 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction alongside Hernan Diaz's Trust, the first time the award was shared in its history.\nKingsolver is also a published poet and essayist. Two of her essay collections, High Tide in Tucson (1995) and Small Wonder (2003), have been published, and an anthology of her poetry was published in 1998 under the title Another America. Her essay \"Where to Begin\" appears in the anthology Knitting Yarns: Writers on Knitting (2013), published by W. W. Norton & Company. Her prose poetry also accompanied photographs by Annie Griffiths Belt in a 2002 work titled Last Stand: America's Virgin Lands.\nHer major nonfiction works include her 1990 publication Holding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983 and 2007's Animal, Vegetable, Miracle, a description of eating locally. She has also been published as a science journalist in periodicals such as Economic Botany on topics such as desert plants and bioresources.\n\nBellwether Prize\nIn 2000, Kingsolver established the Bellwether Prize for Fiction. Named for the bellwether, the literary prize supports writers whose works support positive social change. The award is given to a U.S. citizen for a previously unpublished work of fiction that addresses issues of social justice. The Bellwether Prize is awarded in even-numbered years and includes guaranteed major publication and a cash prize of US$25,000, fully funded by Kingsolver. She has stated that she wanted to create a literary prize to \"encourage writers, publishers, and readers to consider how fiction engages visions of social change and human justice\".\nIn May 2011, the PEN American Center announced it would take over administration of the prize, to be known as the PEN/Bellwether Prize for Socially Engaged Fiction.\n\nLiterary style and themes\nKingsolver has written novels in both the first-person and third-person narrative styles, and she frequently employs overlapping narratives.\nKingsolver often writes about places and situations with which she is familiar; many of her stories are based in places she has lived, such as Central Africa, Arizona, and Appalachia. She has stated that her novels are not autobiographical, although there are often commonalities between her life and her work. Her work is often strongly idealistic and has been called a form of activism.\nHer characters are frequently written around struggles for social equality, such as the hardships faced by undocumented immigrants, the working poor, and single mothers. Other common themes in her work include the balancing of individuality with the desire to live in a community, and the interaction and conflict between humans and the ecosystems in which they live. Kingsolver has been said to use prose and engaging narratives to make historical events, such as the Congo's struggles for independence, more interesting and engaging for the average reader.\n\nAwards and honors\n1993 Los Angeles Times Book Prize (for Pigs in Heaven)\n2000 National Humanities Medal\nArizona Civil Liberties Union Award\n2008 James Beard Foundation award for Writing on Food (for Animal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life)\n2010 Women's Prize for Fiction (for The Lacuna)\n2011 Dayton Literary Peace Prize's Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award\n2014 Lifetime Achievement Award by the Library of Virginia.\n2018 Virginia Women in History\n2021 Inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters for Literature\n2022 James Tait Black Prize for Fiction (for Demon Copperhead)\n2023 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction (for Demon Copperhead)\n2023 Women's Prize for Fiction (for Demon Copperhead) and the first to receive it twice\n2024 National Book Foundation's 2024 Medal for Distinguished Contributions to American Letters (DCAL)\n\nWorks\nFiction\nThe Bean Trees, 1988, 1st UK edition 1989, Limited edition (200) 1992\nHomeland and Other Stories, 1989\nAnimal Dreams, 1990\nPigs in Heaven, 1993\nThe Poisonwood Bible, 1998\nProdigal Summer, 2000\nThe Lacuna, 2009\nFlight Behavior, 2012\nUnsheltered, 2018\nDemon Copperhead, 2022\n\nEssays\nHigh Tide in Tucson: Essays from Now or Never, 1995, also: Limited edition (150) 1995\nSmall Wonder: Essays, 2002\n\nPoetry\nAnother America, 1992\nHow to Fly (In Ten Thousand Easy Lessons), 2020\n\nNonfiction\nHolding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983, 1989, ISBN 9780875461564\nLast Stand: America's Virgin Lands, 2002 (with photographer Annie Griffiths Belt) ISBN 9780792269090\nAnimal, Vegetable, Miracle: A Year of Food Life, 2007 (with Steven L. Hopp and Camille Kingsolver) ISBN 9780062653055\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nAuthor page on HarperCollins\nOfficial page of \"Animal, Vegetable, Miracle\"",
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"paragraph_text": "The Poisonwood Bible (1998), by Barbara Kingsolver, is a best-selling novel about a missionary family, the Prices, who in 1959 move from the U.S. state of Georgia to the village of Kilanga in the Belgian Congo, close to the Kwilu River. \nThe novel's title refers to Bible errata. The father of the family creates his own \"misprint\" of the Bible. He concludes his sermons with the Kikongo expression \"Tata Jesus is bängala\" with the intent of saying \"Jesus is most precious\". In his hurried mispronunciation, he actually says \"Jesus is poisonwood\".\n\nPlot\nOrleanna Price, the mother of the family, narrates the introductory chapter in five of the novel's seven sections. The narrative then alternates among the four daughters, with a slight preference for the voice of the most conflicted one, Leah. The four girls increasingly mature and develop differently as each adapts to African village life and the political turmoil that overtakes the Belgian Congo in the 1960s.\nThe Price family packs up their belongings for their flight to the Congo, where they are going to spend a year as the family of a missionary. However, shortly before leaving, they are informed that they are limited to 44 pounds of luggage per person. The Southern Baptist Mission League suggests they solve this problem by leaving for the airport wearing many layers of clothing, hiding household items among the layers of clothes to lighten their luggage.\nThe Price daughters – Rachel, Leah, Adah and Ruth May – and their mother, Orleanna, and father, Nathan, attend their first church service in the village of Kilanga, and they realize how different their culture is from that of the Congo. For example, 14-year-old Leah helps her father plant a \"demonstration garden\"; it immediately receives criticism from Mama Tataba, whom the family has engaged as a live-in maid, and the garden does poorly due to the inappropriate climate. Nathan tries to hold an impromptu Easter celebration in hopes of baptizing numerous people, but he is unable to carry this out, as the river along the village, where he plans to hold the baptism, is infested with crocodiles.\nLeah and her twin Adah begin to spy on Eeben Axelroot, the pilot who conveyed the family to Kilanga, and Nathan tries to convince Congolese men, one by one, to convert to Christianity. Meanwhile, five-year-old Ruth May befriends the village children. She finds out about Axelroot's business with the diamonds after breaking her arm.\nAfter Mama Tataba departs, an orphan boy named Nelson becomes the family servant. Nathan and Leah go to Leopoldville (present day Kinshasa) to witness what is going on with the independence in the Congo. Methuselah (a parrot the Prices adopted from the previous missionary) dies, and Adah finds his feathers. Ruth May becomes very sick and lies in bed for the majority of the day. Leah begins to spend a lot of time with Anatole, Kilanga's teacher, discussing topics such as justice and the Congo. Leah wants to participate in the hunt, which upsets the village elders, as it would go against their custom, but she eventually is allowed to participate and even hunts an antelope.\nThe girls all gather together in the morning to check out the chicken coop. Inside they find footprints and a green mamba snake. A scream and gasp is heard from Ruth May, who has been bitten by the snake. The girls watch her turn cold and blue before she dies. Orleanna becomes filled with guilt over Ruth May's death, and takes the other children away, leaving her arrogant husband to fend for himself. With Anatole's help, they eventually reach safety.\nThe remaining Price sisters go through many different life changes: Adah dedicates herself to getting a scientific education back home (she is hemiplegic and wants to learn more about the condition); Leah marries Anatole and they start a family together; Rachel remains perceptive but vain and distrustful of men, goes through a string of marriages, and starts a business; and Nathan dies in his unsuccessful mission: killed by a mob of Kilanga's villagers when they blame him for a crocodile attack on a boat of children.\nThe story ends with a final chapter from Ruth May reflecting on her sisters and mother attempting to visit her grave, but not being able to find it, and a woman telling them a place named Kilanga never existed. She watches her sisters and her mother, and has seen how they have matured; she has matured as well. Through her death, she finally is able to understand the Congolese term muntu, which describes the concept of unity and how all life is connected in some way. She understands that she is muntu, and a part of all that is around her. Ruth May only wants her mother to understand the concept and for her to move on. She asks for her mother to forgive herself and not live with the guilt anymore.\n\nMajor characters\nThe Prices\nOrleanna Price – Nathan's wife, and the mother of their four daughters. Born in Mississippi, she is deferential to her husband, but independent-minded.\nNathan Price – Orleanna's husband. An evangelical (Southern Baptist) minister and a World War II veteran from Georgia, determined to \"save Africa for Jesus\". He feels guilt for having survived the war while his comrades died.\nRachel Price (15 at start of the novel) – the oldest Price girl; blonde and self-centered, she is obsessed with her looks and American consumer culture.\nLeah Price (14 at start of the novel) – Adah's tomboyish twin; intelligent, self-confident, competitive, and tenacious. The most outspoken of the women, Leah is prone to dogmatism and concerned with her own salvation.\nAdah Price (14 at start of the novel) – Leah's twin, hemiplegic from birth. Silent, but witty, she is brilliant in math and languages, but is envious of her twin. She is also skeptical, sarcastic, envious, and prone to self-pity. She likes to think about things backwards as well as forwards, and is fond of palindromes.\nRuth May Price (5 at the start of the novel) – the youngest Price girl; she is playful, independent, adventurous, perceptive, and inquisitive.\nOther characters\nThe Underdowns – Belgian mission chiefs who welcome and send supplies to the Prices.\nEeben Axelroot – a corrupt Afrikaner mercenary pilot.\nAnatole Ngemba – the village teacher; an orphan, his fluency in English allows him to be an interpreter for Nathan's sermons.\nBrother Fowles – a New Yorker; the Prices' predecessor on the mission. Married to Céline, a local woman.\nMama Tataba – a village woman, formerly employed by Fowles, who works for the Prices. Best known and celebrated for her prestigious quote, 'You got to be make hills'.\nTata Ndu – the chief of Kilanga.\nTata Kuvudundu – the spiritual leader of the village.\nNelson – an orphaned village boy; he is Anatole's student who works for the Prices. He is forced to sleep outside in the chicken coop.\nMethuselah – a parrot left by Brother Fowles; it is excellent at imitating human speech.\n\nReception and awards\nAccording to Book Marks, based on mostly American publications, the book received \"rave\" reviews based on five critic reviews, with three being \"rave\" and two being \"positive\". \nWriting in The New York Times, Michiko Kakutani called the book \"powerful\", but said the social allegories were at times \"heavy-handed\".\nJohn Mullan, reviewing the book in British newspaper The Guardian, said the book was \"remarkable not just for its story, but also for its narrative form\".\nThe Poisonwood Bible was selected for Oprah's Book Club in 1999. Additionally that year, the book was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in fiction. It won the 2000 Boeke Prize.\nIn March 2016, the book was discussed on BBC Radio 4's A Good Read.\n\nAdaptations\nIn March 2019, Bond Group Entertainment – a production company launched by actress Amy Adams and her manager Stacy O'Neil – secured a first-look deal with HBO to develop a TV adaptation of Kingsolver's novel. Adams and O’Neil will executive produce the limited series, while Anya Epstein and Kingsolver are writing the screenplay.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nBarbara Kingsolver talks about The Poisonwood Bible on the BBC's World Book Club\n\nSee also\n\nCongo Crisis\nCongo River\nDemocratic Republic of the Congo\nPatrice Lumumba",
"title": "The_Poisonwood_Bible"
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"paragraph_text": "The Belgian Congo (French: Congo belge, pronounced [kɔ̃ɡo bɛlʒ]; Dutch: Belgisch-Congo) was a Belgian colony in Central Africa from 1908 until independence in 1960 and became the Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville). The former colony adopted its present name, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), in 1964.\nColonial rule in the Congo began in the late 19th century. King Leopold II of the Belgians attempted to persuade the Belgian government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexploited Congo Basin. Their ambivalence resulted in Leopold establishing a colony himself. With support from a number of Western countries, Leopold achieved international recognition of the Congo Free State in 1885. By the turn of the century, the violence used by Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and a ruthless system of economic exploitation led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did by creating the Belgian Congo in 1908.\nBelgian rule in the Congo was based on the \"colonial trinity\" (trinité coloniale) of state, missionary and private-company interests. The privileging of Belgian commercial interests meant that large amounts of capital flowed into the Congo and that individual regions became specialised. On many occasions, the interests of the government and of private enterprise became closely linked, and the state helped companies to break strikes and to remove other barriers raised by the indigenous population. The colony was divided into hierarchically organised administrative subdivisions and run uniformly according to a set \"native policy\" (politique indigène). This differed from the practice of British and French colonial policy, which generally favoured systems of indirect rule, retaining traditional leaders in positions of authority under colonial oversight.\nDuring the 1940s and 1950s, the Belgian Congo experienced extensive urbanisation and the colonial administration began various development programs aimed at making the territory into a \"model colony\". One result saw the development of a new middle-class of Europeanised African \"évolués\" in the cities. By the 1950s, the Congo had a wage labour force twice as large as that in any other African colony.\nIn 1960, as the result of a widespread and increasingly radical pro-independence movement, the Belgian Congo achieved independence, becoming the Republic of the Congo under Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Poor relations between political factions within the Congo, the continued involvement of Belgium in Congolese affairs, and the intervention by major parties (mainly the United States and the Soviet Union) during the Cold War led to a five-year-long period of war and political instability, known as the Congo Crisis, from 1960 to 1965. This ended with the seizure of power by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu in November 1964.\n\nCongo Free State\nUntil the later part of the 19th century, few Europeans had ventured into the Congo Basin. The rainforest, swamps and accompanying malaria and other tropical diseases, such as sleeping sickness, made it a difficult environment for European exploration and exploitation. In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium organized the International African Association with the cooperation of the leading African explorers and the support of several European governments for the promotion of the exploration and colonization of Africa. After Henry Morton Stanley had explored the region in a journey that ended in 1878, Leopold courted the explorer and hired him to help his interests in the region.\nLeopold II had been keen to acquire a colony for Belgium even before he ascended to the throne in 1865. The Belgian civil government showed little interest in its monarch's dreams of empire-building. Ambitious and stubborn, Leopold decided to pursue the matter on his own account.\nEuropean rivalry in Central Africa led to diplomatic tensions, in particular with regard to the Congo Basin, which no European power had claimed. In November 1884, Otto von Bismarck convened a 14-nation conference (the Berlin Conference) to find a peaceful resolution to the Congo situation. Though the Berlin Conference did not formally approve the territorial claims of the European powers in Central Africa, it did agree on a set of rules to ensure a conflict-free partitioning of the region. The rules recognised (inter alia) the Congo Basin as a free-trade zone. But Leopold II emerged triumphant from the Berlin Conference and his single shareholder \"philanthropic\" organization received a large share of territory (2,344,000 km2 (905,000 sq mi)) to be organized as the Congo Free State.\nThe Congo Free State operated as a corporate state, privately controlled by Leopold II through a non-governmental organization, the International African Association. The state included the entire area of the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, and existed from 1885 until 1908, when the government of Belgium reluctantly annexed the area. Under Leopold II's administration, the Congo Free State became a humanitarian disaster. The lack of accurate records makes it difficult to quantify the number of deaths caused by the ruthless exploitation and the lack of immunity to new diseases introduced by contact with European colonists – like the 1889–1890 influenza pandemic, which caused millions of deaths on the European continent, including Prince Baudouin of Belgium, who died in 1891. William Rubinstein wrote: \"More basically, it appears almost certain that the population figures given by Hochschild are inaccurate. There is, of course, no way of ascertaining the population of the Congo before the twentieth century and estimates like 20 million are purely guesses. Most of the interior of the Congo was literally unexplored if not inaccessible.\" Leopold's Force Publique, a private army that terrorized natives to work as forced labour for resource extraction, disrupted local societies and killed and abused natives indiscriminately. The Force Publique also became involved in the Congo–Arab War against African and Arab slavers like Zanzibari/Swahili strongman Tippu Tip.\nFollowing the 1904 Casement Report on misdeeds and conditions, European (British included) and American press exposed the conditions in the Congo Free State to the public in the early 1900s. In 1904 Leopold II was forced to allow an international parliamentary commission of inquiry entry to the Congo Free State. By 1908, public pressure and diplomatic manoeuvres led to the end of Leopold II's personal rule and to the annexation of the Congo as a colony of Belgium, known as the \"Belgian Congo\".\n\nBelgian Congo\nOn 18 October 1908, the Belgian Parliament voted in favour of annexing the Congo as a Belgian colony. A majority of the socialists and the radicals firmly opposed this annexation and reaped electoral benefits from their anti-colonialist campaign, but some believed that the country should annex the Congo and play a humanitarian role to the Congolese population. Eventually, two Catholic MPs and half of the Liberal MPs joined the socialists in rejecting the Colonial Charter (forty-eight votes against) and nearly all the Catholics and the other half of the Liberal MP's approved the charter (ninety votes for and seven abstentions). This way, on 15 November 1908 the Belgian Congo became a colony of the Belgian Kingdom. This was after King Leopold II had given up any hope of excluding a vast region of the Congo from the government's control by attempting to maintain a substantial part of the Congo Free State as a separate crown property.\nWhen the Belgian government took over the administration in 1908, the situation in the Congo improved in certain respects. The brutal exploitation and arbitrary use of violence, in which some of the concessionary companies had excelled, were curbed. The crime of \"red rubber\" was put to a stop. Article 3 of the new Colonial Charter of 18 October 1908 stated that: \"Nobody can be forced to work on behalf of and for the profit of companies or privates\", but this was not enforced, and the Belgian government continued to impose forced labour on the indigenous people of the area, albeit by less obvious methods.\nThe transition from the Congo Free State to the Belgian Congo was a turning point, but it was also marked by a considerable continuity. The last Governor-General of the Congo Free State, Baron Wahis, remained in office in the Belgian Congo, and the majority of Leopold II's administration with him. While conditions were improved somewhat relative to rule under King Leopold, reports by doctors such as Dr. Raingeard show the low importance the Belgian government placed on healthcare and basic education of the natives. Opening up the Congo and its natural and mineral riches for the Belgian economy remained the motive for colonial expansion.\n\nGovernment\nThe governance of the Belgian Congo was outlined in the 1908 Colonial Charter. Executive power rested with the Belgian Minister of Colonial Affairs, assisted by a Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial). Both resided in Brussels. The Belgian Parliament exercised legislative authority over the Belgian Congo.\n\nThe highest-ranking representative of the colonial administration residing in the Belgian Congo was the Governor-General. From 1886 until 1926, the Governor-General and his administration were posted in Boma, near the Congo River estuary. From 1923, the colonial capital moved to Léopoldville, some 300 km further upstream in the interior. Initially, the Belgian Congo was administratively divided into four provinces: Congo-Kasaï, Equateur, Orientale, and Katanga, each presided over by a Vice-Governor-General. An administrative reform in 1932 increased the number of provinces to six, while \"demoting\" the Vice-Governors-General to provincial Governors.\n\nThe territorial service was the true backbone of the colonial administration. The colony was divided into four provinces (six after the administrative reforms of 1933). Each province was in turn divided into a few districts (24 districts for the whole Congo) and each district into a handful of territories (some 130–150 territories in all; some territories were merged or split over time). A territory was managed by a territorial administrator, assisted by one or more assistants. The territories were further subdivided into numerous \"chiefdoms\" (chefferies), at the head of which the Belgian administration appointed \"traditional chiefs\" (chefs coutumiers). The territories administered by one territorial administrator and a handful of assistants were often larger than a few Belgian provinces taken together (the whole Belgian Congo was nearly 80 times larger than the whole of Belgium and was roughly twice the size of Germany and France combined). The territorial administrator was expected to inspect his territory and to file detailed annual reports with the provincial administration.\nIn terms of the legal system, two systems co-existed: a system of European courts and one of indigenous courts (tribunaux indigènes). These indigenous courts were presided over by the traditional chiefs but had only limited powers and remained under the firm control of the colonial administration. In 1936 it was recorded that there were 728 administrators controlling the Congo from Belgium. Belgians living in the Congo had no say in the government and the Congolese did not either. No political activity was permitted in the Congo whatsoever. Public order in the colony was maintained by the Force Publique, a locally recruited army under Belgian command. It was only in the 1950s that metropolitan troops—i.e., units of the regular Belgian army—were posted in the Belgian Congo (for instance in Kamina).\nThe colonial state—and any authority exercised by whites in the Congo—was often referred to by the Congolese as bula matari (\"break rocks\"), one of the names originally given to Stanley. He had used dynamite to crush rocks when paving his way through the lower-Congo region. The term bula matari came to signify the irresistible and compelling force of the colonial state.\n\nInternational conflicts\nThe Belgian Congo was directly involved in the two world wars. During World War I, an initial stand-off between the Force Publique and the German colonial army in German East Africa (Tanganyika) turned into open warfare with a joint Anglo-Belgian invasion of German colonial territory in 1916 and 1917 during the East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander of the Force Publique, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, had assembled an army of 15,000 men supported by local bearers – Reybrouck indicated that during the war no less than 260,000 native bearers were called upon – and advanced to Kigali (now the capital of Rwanda). Kigali was taken by 6 May 1916, and the army went on to take Tabora (now part of Tanzania) on 19 September after heavy fighting. In 1917, after Mahenge (now in Tanzania) had been conquered, the army of the Belgian Congo, by now 25,000 men, occupied one-third of German East Africa.\nAfter World War I, under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded control of the western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium, and Ruanda-Urundi would go on to become a League of Nations mandate territory, under Belgian administration. These areas did not become part of the Belgian Congo. Ruanda-Urundi would later become independent as the nations of Rwanda and Burundi, and the Belgian-controlled portions of German East Africa would join the nation of Tanganyika, followed by Tanzania.\nDuring World War II, the Belgian Congo served as a crucial source of income for the Belgian government in exile in London after the occupation of Belgium by the Nazis. Following the occupation of Belgium by the Germans in May 1940, the Belgian Congo declared itself loyal to the Belgian government in exile in London. The Belgian Congo and the rest of the Free Belgian forces supported the war on the Allied side in the Battle of Britain with 28 pilots in the RAF (squadron 349) and in the Royal South African Air Force (350 Squadron) and in Africa. The Force Publique again participated in the Allied campaigns in Africa. Belgian Congolese forces (with Belgian officers) notably fought against the Italian colonial army in Italian East Africa, and were victorious in Asosa, Bortaï and in the Siege of Saïo under Major-general Auguste-Eduard Gilliaert during the second East African campaign of 1940–1941. On 3 July 1941, the Italian forces (under General Pietro Gazzera) surrendered when they were cut off by the Force Publique. A Congolese unit also served in the Far Eastern Theatre with the British army in the Burma campaign.\n\nEconomic policy\nThe economic exploitation of the Congo was one of the colonizer's top priorities. An important tool was the construction of railways to open up the mineral and agricultural areas.\n\nWorld War I\nRubber had long been the main export of the Belgian Congo, but its importance fell in the early 20th century from 77% of exports (by value) to only 15% as British colonies in Southeast Asia like British Malaya began to farm rubber. New resources were exploited, especially copper mining in Katanga province. The Belgian-owned Union Minière du Haut-Katanga, which would come to dominate copper mining, used a direct rail line to the sea at Beira. World War I increased demand for copper, and production soared from 997 tons in 1911 to 27,462 tons in 1917, then fell off to 19,000 tons in 1920. Smelters operated at Lubumbashi. Before the war the copper was sold to Germany; but the British purchased all the wartime output, with the revenues going to the Belgian government in exile. Diamond- and gold-mining also expanded during the war. The British firm of Lever Bros. greatly expanded the palm oil business during the war, and output of cocoa, rice and cotton increased. New rail and steamship lines opened to handle the expanded export traffic. During the First World War (1914–1918), the system of \"mandatory cultivation\" (cultures obligatoires) was introduced, forcing Congolese peasants to grow certain cash crops (cotton, coffee, groundnuts) destined as commodities for export. Territorial administrators and state agronomists had the task of supervising and, if necessary, sanctioning those peasants who evaded the hated mandatory cultivation.\n\nInterbellum\nTwo distinct periods of investment in the Congo's economic infrastructure stand out during the period of Belgian rule: the 1920s and the 1950s.\n\nIn 1921, the Belgian government provided 300 million francs of loans to the Belgian Congo, to fund public infrastructure projects in support of the boom of the private companies in the colony. The Belgian government also privatised many of the government-owned companies that were active in the colony (the Kilo-Moto mines, La Société Nationale des transport fluviaux,..). After the First World War, priority was given to investments in transport infrastructure (such as the rail lines between Matadi and Léopoldville and Elisabethville and Port Francqui). From 1920 to 1932, 2,450 km of railroads were constructed. The government also invested heavily in harbour infrastructure in the cities of Boma, Matadi, Leopoldville and Coquilhatville. Electricity and waterworks in the main cities were also funded. Airports were built and a telephone line was funded that connected Brussels with Leopoldville. The government accounted for about 50% of the investments in the Belgian Congo; commercial companies accounted for the other 50%. The mining industry—with the Union Minière du Haut Katanga (U.M.H.K.) as a major player—, attracted the majority of private investments (copper and cobalt in Katanga, diamonds in Kasai, gold in Ituri). This allowed, in particular, the Belgian Société Générale to build up an economic empire in the Belgian Congo. Huge profits were generated by the private companies and for a large part siphoned off to European and other international shareholders in the form of dividends.\n\nDuring the economic boom of the 1920s, many young Congolese men left their often impoverished rural villages and were employed by companies located near the cities; the population of Kinshasa nearly doubled from 1920 to 1940, and the population of Elizabethville grew from approximately 16,000 in 1923, to 33,000 in 1929. The necessary work-force was recruited by specialised recruiting firms (Robert Williams & Co, Bourse du Travail Kasaï,..) and was in some cases supported by governmental recruiting offices (Office de Travail-Offitra,..). In Katanga the main labour force were seasonal migrant workers from Tanganyika, Angola, Northern Rhodesia, and after 1926, also from Ruanda-Urundi.\nIn many cases, this huge labour migration affected the economic viability of rural communities: many farmers left their villages, which resulted in labour shortages in these areas. To counter these problems, the colonial government used maximum quotas of \"able-bodied workers\" that could be recruited from every area in the Belgian Congo. In this way, tens of thousands of workers from densely populated areas were employed in copper mines in the sparsely populated south (Katanga). In agriculture, too, the colonial state forced a drastic rationalisation of production. The state took over so-called \"vacant lands\" (land not directly used by the local population) and redistributed the territory to European companies, to individual white landowners (colons), or to the missions. In this way, an extensive plantation economy developed. Palm-oil production in the Congo increased from 2,500 tons in 1914 to 9,000 tons in 1921, and to 230,000 tons in 1957. Cotton production increased from 23,000 tons in 1932 to 127,000 in 1939.\nThe mobilization of the African workforce in the capitalist colonial economy played a crucial role in spreading the use of money in the Belgian Congo. The basic idea was that the development of the Congo had to be borne not by the Belgian taxpayers but by the Congolese themselves. The colonial state needed to be able to levy taxes in money on the Congolese, so it was important that they could make money by selling their produce or their labour within the framework of the colonial economy.\n\nThe economic boom of the 1920s turned the Belgian Congo into one of the leading copper-ore producers worldwide. In 1926 alone, the Union Minière exported more than 80,000 tons of copper ore, a large part of it for processing in Hoboken (Belgium). In 1928 King Albert I visited the Congo to inaugurate the so-called 'voie national' that linked the Katanga mining region via rail (up to Port Francqui) and via river transport (from Port Francqui to Léopoldville) to the Atlantic port of Matadi.\n\nGreat Depression\nThe Great Depression of the 1930s affected the export-based Belgian Congo economy severely because of the drop in international demand for raw materials and agricultural products (for example, the price of peanuts fell from 1.25 francs to 25 centimes (cents)). In some areas, as in the Katanga mining region, employment declined by 70%. In the country as a whole, the wage labour force decreased by 72,000 and many such labourers returned to their villages. In Leopoldville, the population decreased by 33%, because of this labour migration. In order to improve conditions in the countryside, the colonial government developed the so-called \"indigenous peasantry programme\", aimed at supporting the development of a stronger internal market that was less dependent of fluctuations in export demand, but also to combat the disastrous effects of erosion and soil exhaustion brought about by the mandatory cultivation scheme. This policy began to be implemented on a large scale throughout the Congo after the Second World War, by the colonial government. The scheme aimed to modernize indigenous agriculture by assigning plots of land to individual families and by providing them with government support in the form of selected seeds, agronomic advice, fertilizers, etc. The National Institute for Agronomic Study of the Belgian Congo, established in 1934, with its large experimental fields and laboratories in Yangambe, played an important role in crop selection and in the popularization of agronomic research and know-how.\n\nWorld War II\nDuring World War II, industrial production and agricultural output increased drastically. The Congolese population bore the brunt of the \"war effort\" – for instance, through a reinforcement of the mandatory cultivation policy. After Malaya fell to the Japanese (January 1942), the Belgian Congo became a strategic supplier of rubber to the Allies. The Belgian Congo became one of the major exporters of uranium to the US during World War II (and the Cold War), particularly from the Shinkolobwe mine. The colony provided the uranium used by the Manhattan Project, including in atomic bombs dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.\n\nPost World War II\nAfter World War II, the colonial state became more active in the economic and social development of the Belgian Congo. An ambitious ten-year plan was launched by the Belgian government in 1949. It put emphasis on house building, energy supply, rural development and health-care infrastructure. The ten-year plan ushered in a decade of strong economic growth, from which, for the first time, the Congolese began to benefit on a substantial scale. At the same time, the economy had expanded and the number of Belgian nationals in the country more than doubled, from 39,000 in 1950 to more than 88,000 by 1960.\nIn 1953, Belgium granted the Congolese the right – for the first time – to buy and sell private property in their own names. In the 1950s a Congolese middle class, modest at first, but steadily growing, emerged in the main cities (Léopoldville, Elisabethville, Stanleyville, and Luluabourg).\nThere was rapid political development, forced by African aspirations, in the last years of the 1950s, culminating in the 1960 Belgian Congo general election.\n\nCivilising mission\nJustifications for colonialism in Africa, taking as a given that tribal wars, cannibalism, human sacrifice, display of human trophies, bigamy, and other \"primitive\" practices were common place, often invoked as a key argument the civilizing influence of the European culture. The civilizing mission in the Congo went hand-in-hand with the economic and educational development. Conversion to Catholicism, basic Western-style education, and improved health-care were objectives in their own right, but at the same time helped to transform what Europeans regarded as a primitive society into the Western capitalist model, in which workers who were disciplined and healthy, and who had learned to read and write, could be assimilated into labour market. Some of the first notable missions into Africa were conducted by David Livingstone and John M. Springer during the late 19th century into the early 20th century.\n\nEducation\nThe educational system was dominated by the Catholic Church—as was the case for the rest of Belgium at the time—and, in some rare cases, by Protestant churches. Curricula reflected Christian and Western values. Even in 1948, 99.6% of educational facilities were run by Christian missions. Indigenous schooling was mainly religious and vocational. Children received basic education such as learning how to read, write and some mathematics. The Belgian Congo was one of the few African colonies in which local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) were taught at primary school. Even so, language policies and colonial domination often went hand in hand, as evidenced by the preference given to Lingala—a semi-artificial language spread through its common use in the Force Publique—over more local (but also more ancient) indigenous languages such as Lomongo and others.\nIn 1940 the schooling rates of children between 6 and 14 years old was 12%, reaching 37% in 1954, one of the highest rates in sub-Saharan Africa. Secondary and higher education for the indigenous population were not developed until relatively late in the colonial period. Black children, in small numbers, began to be admitted to European secondary schools from 1950 onward. The first university in the Belgian Congo, the Catholic Jesuit Lovanium University, near Léopoldville, opened its doors to black and white students in 1954. Before the foundation of the Lovanium, the Catholic University of Louvain already operated multiple institutes for higher education in the Belgian Congo. The Fomulac (Fondation médicale de l'université de Louvain au Congo), was founded in 1926, with the goal of forming Congolese medical personnel and researchers specialized in tropical medicine. In 1932 the Catholic University of Louvain founded the Cadulac (Centres agronomiques de l'université de Louvain au Congo) in Kisantu. Cadulac was specialized in agricultural sciences and formed the basis for what was later to become Lovanium University. In 1956 a state university was founded in Elisabethville. Progress was slow though; until the end of the 1950s, no Congolese had been promoted beyond the rank of non-commissioned officer in the Force Publique, nor to a responsible position in the administration (such as head of bureau or territorial administrator).\nIn the late 1950s, 42% of the youth of school-going age was literate, which placed the Belgian Congo far ahead of any other country in Africa at the time. In 1960, 1,773,340 students were enrolled in schools around the Belgian Congo, of which 1,650,117 in primary school, 22,780 in post-primary school, 37,388 in secondary school and 1,445 in university and higher education. Of these 1,773,340 students, the majority (1,359,118) were enrolled in Catholic mission schools, 322,289 in Protestant mission schools and 68,729 in educational institutions organized by the state.\n\nHealth care\nHealth care, too, was largely supported by the missions, although the colonial state took an increasing interest. In 1906 the Institute of Tropical Medicine was founded in Brussels. The ITM was, and still is, one of the world's leading institutes for training and research in tropical medicine and the organisation of health care in developing countries. Endemic diseases, such as sleeping sickness, were all but eliminated through large-scale and persistent campaigns. \nIn 1925 medical missionary Dr. Arthur Lewis Piper was the first person to use and bring tryparsamide, the Rockefeller Foundation's drug to cure sleeping sickness, to the Congo. The health-care infrastructure expanded steadily throughout the colonial period, with a comparatively high availability of hospital beds relative to the population and with dispensaries set up in the most remote regions. In 1960 the country had a medical infrastructure that far surpassed any other African nation at that time. The Belgian Congo had 3,000 health care facilities, of which 380 were hospitals. There were 5.34 hospital beds for every 1000 inhabitants (1 for every 187 inhabitants). Great progress was also made in the fight against endemic diseases; the numbers of reported cases of sleeping sickness went from 34,000 cases in 1931 to 1,100 cases in 1959, mainly by eradicating the tsetse fly in densely populated areas. All Europeans and Congolese in the Belgian Congo received vaccinations for polio, measles and yellow fever. Vast disease prevention programmes were rolled out, aimed at eradicating polio, leprosy and tuberculosis. In the primary schools, disease prevention campaigns were implemented, and disease prevention classes were part of the curriculum.\n\nSocial inequality and racial discrimination\nThere was an \"implicit apartheid\". The colony had curfews for Congolese city-dwellers and similar racial restrictions were commonplace. Léopoldville's system of racist curfews was particularly notable and was used as a blueprint in other European colonies, such as nearby French Equatorial Africa. Though there were no specific laws imposing racial segregation and barring blacks from establishments frequented by whites, de facto segregation operated in most areas. For example, initially, the city centers were reserved to the white population only, while the black population was organized in cités indigènes (indigenous neighbourhoods called 'le belge'). Hospitals, department stores and other facilities were often reserved for either whites or blacks. In the Force Publique, black people could not pass the rank of non-commissioned officer. The black population in the cities could not leave their houses from 9 pm to 4 am. This type of segregation began to disappear gradually only in the 1950s, but even then the Congolese remained or felt treated in many respects as second-rate citizens (for instance in political and legal terms).\n\nBecause of the close interconnection between economic development and the 'civilizing mission', and because in practice state officials, missionaries and the executives of the private companies always lent each other a helping hand, the image has emerged that the Belgian Congo was governed by a \"colonial trinity\" of King-Church-Capital, encompassing the colonial state, the Christian missions, and the Société Générale de Belgique.\nThe paternalistic ideology underpinning colonial policy was summed up in a catchphrase used by Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans (1934–46): Dominer pour servir (\"Dominate to serve\"). The colonial government wanted to convey images of a benevolent and conflict-free administration and of the Belgian Congo as a true model colony. Only in the 1950s did this paternalistic attitude begin to change. In the 1950s the most blatant discriminatory measures directed at the Congolese were gradually withdrawn (among these: corporal punishment by means of the feared chicote—Portuguese word for whip). From 1953, and even more so after the triumphant visit of King Baudouin to the colony in 1955, Governor-General Léon Pétillon (1952–1958) worked to create a \"Belgian-Congolese community\", in which blacks and whites were to be treated as equals. Regardless, anti-miscegenation laws remained in place, and between 1959 and 1962 thousands of mixed-race Congolese children were forcibly deported from the Congo by the Belgian government and the Catholic Church and taken to Belgium.\nIn 1957, the first municipal elections open to black voters took place in a handful of the largest cities — Léopoldville, Élisabethville, and Jadotville.\n\nAbolition of slavery\nIn the Belgian Free State, the Belgians had freed thousands of men, women and children slaves from Swaihili Arab slave owners and slave traders in Eastern Congo in 1886-1892, enlisted them in the militia Force Publique or where given as prisoners to allied local chiefs, who in turn gave them as laborers for the Belgian conscript workers; when Belgian Congo was established, chattel slavery was legally abolished in 1910, but prisoners were nevertheless conscripted as force laborers for both public and private work projects.\n\nResistance\nCongolese opposition against colonialism was continuous, sustained and took many different forms. It became more likely as modern ideas and education spread. Armed risings occurred sporadically and localized until roughly the end of the Second World War (e.g., revolt of the Pende in 1931, mutiny in Luluabourg 1944). From the end of the Second World War until the late 1950s, the era of what colonial propaganda called a \"Pax belgica\" prevailed. Until the end of colonial rule in 1960, passive forms of resistance and expressions of an anti-colonial sub-culture were nevertheless manifold and widespread (e.g., Kimbanguism, after the 'prophet' Simon Kimbangu, who was imprisoned by the Belgians).\nApart from active and passive resistance among the Congolese, the colonial regime over time also elicited internal criticism and dissent. Already in the 1920s, certain members of the Colonial Council in Brussels (among them Octave Louwers) voiced criticism regarding the often brutal recruitment methods employed by the major companies in the mining districts. The stagnation of population growth in many districts—in spite of spectacular successes in the fight against endemic diseases such as sleeping sickness—was another cause for concern. Low birth rates in the countryside and the depopulation of certain areas were typically attributed to the disruption of traditional community life as a result of forced labour migration and mandatory cultivation. Response was often made that that had been the point of the policies, and pointed to the increase of population in the cities, as well as the improvement in health and lifespan due to modern medicine and living conditions. Many missionaries who were in daily contact with Congolese villagers, took their plight in the transition at heart and sometimes intervened on their behalf with the colonial administration (for instance in land property questions).\nThe missions and certain territorial administrators also played an important role in the study and preservation of Congolese cultural and linguistic traditions and artefacts. One example among many is that of Father Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990), who in 1937 created the periodical Aequatoria devoted to the linguistic, ethnographic and historical study of the Mongo people of the central Congo basin. The colonial state took an interest in the cultural and scientific study of the Congo, particularly after the Second World War, through the creation of the Institut pour la Recherche Scientifique en Afrique Centrale (IRSAC, 1948).\n\nToward independence\nIn the early 1950s, political emancipation of the Congolese elites, let alone of the masses, seemed like a distant event. But it was clear that the Congo could not forever remain immune from the rapid changes that, after the Second World War, profoundly affected colonialism around the world. The independence of the British, French and Dutch colonies in Asia shortly after 1945 had little immediate effect in the Congo, but in the United Nations pressure on Belgium (as on other colonial powers) increased. Belgium had ratified article 73 of the United Nations Charter, which advocated self-determination, and both superpowers put pressure on Belgium to reform its Congo policy; the Belgian government tried to resist what it described as 'interference' with its colonial policy.\nColonial authorities discussed ways to ameliorate the situation of the Congolese. Since the 1940s, the colonial government had experimented in a very modest way with granting a limited elite of so-called évolués more civil rights, holding out the eventual prospect of a limited amount of political influence. To this end \"deserving\" Congolese could apply for a proof of \"civil merit\", or, one step up, 'immatriculation' (registration), i.e., official evidence of their assimilation with European civilisation. To acquire this status, the applicant had to fulfill strict conditions (monogamous matrimony, evidence of good behaviour, etc.) and submit to stringent controls (including house visits). This policy was a failure. By the mid-1950s, there were at best a few thousand Congolese who had successfully obtained the civil merit diploma or been granted \"immatriculation\". The supposed benefits attached to it—including equal legal status with the white population—proved often more theory than reality and led to open frustration with the évolués. When Governor-General Pétillon began to speak about granting the native people more civil rights, even suffrage, to create what he termed a \"Belgo-Congolese community\", his ideas were met with indifference from Brussels and often with open hostility from some of the Belgians in the Congo, who feared for their privileges.\nIt became increasingly evident that the Belgian government lacked a strategic long-term vision in relation to the Congo. 'Colonial affairs' did not generate much interest or political debate in Belgium, so long as the colony seemed to be thriving and calm. A notable exception was the young King Baudouin, who had succeeded his father, King Leopold III, under dramatic circumstances in 1951, when Leopold III was forced to abdicate. Baudouin took a close interest in the Belgian Congo.\nOn his first state visit to the Belgian Congo in 1955, King Baudouin was welcomed enthusiastically by cheering crowds of whites and blacks alike, as captured in André Cauvin's documentary film, Bwana Kitoko. Foreign observers, such as the international correspondent of The Manchester Guardian or a Time journalist, remarked that Belgian paternalism \"seemed to work\", and contrasted Belgium's seemingly loyal and enthusiastic colonial subjects with the restless French and British colonies. On the occasion of his visit, King Baudouin openly endorsed the Governor-General's vision of a \"Belgo-Congolese community\"; but, in practice, this idea progressed slowly. At the same time, divisive ideological and linguistic issues in Belgium, which heretofore had been successfully kept out of the colony's affairs, began to affect the Congo as well. These included the rise of unionism among workers, the call for public (state) schools to break the missions' monopoly on education, and the call for equal treatment in the colony of both Belgian national languages: French and Dutch. Until then, French had been promoted as the unique colonial language. The Governor-General feared that such divisive issues would undermine the authority of the colonial government in the eyes of the Congolese, while also diverting attention from the more pressing need for true emancipation.\n\nPolitical organisation\nCongolese participation in the Second World War and news of changes in other colonies resulted in their organising to gain more power. As a result of the inability of the colonial government to introduce radical and credible changes, the Congolese elites began to organise themselves socially and soon also politically. In the 1950s, two markedly different forms of nationalism arose among the Congolese elites. The nationalist movement—to which the Belgian authorities, to some degree, turned a blind eye—promoted territorial nationalism, wherein the Belgian Congo would become one politically united state after independence.\nIn opposition to this was the ethno-religious and regional nationalism that took hold in the Bakongo territories of the west coast, Kasai and Katanga. The first political organisations were of the latter type. ABAKO, founded in 1950 as the Association culturelle des Bakongo and headed by Joseph Kasa-Vubu, was initially a cultural association that soon turned political. From the mid-1950s, it became a vocal opponent of Belgian colonial rule. Additionally, the organization continued to serve as the major ethno-religious organization for the Bakongo and became closely intertwined with the Kimbanguist Church, which was extremely popular in the lower Congo.\nIn 1955, Belgian professor Antoine van Bilsen published a treatise called Thirty Year Plan for the Political Emancipation of Belgian Africa. The timetable called for the gradual emancipation of the Congo over a 30-year period—the time Van Bilsen expected it would take to create an educated elite who could replace the Belgians in positions of power. The Belgian government and many of the évolués were suspicious of the plan—the former because it meant eventually giving up the Congo, and the latter because Belgium would continue to rule for another three decades. A group of Catholic évolués responded positively to the plan with a moderate manifesto in a Congolese journal called Conscience Africaine; they raised issues as to the extent of Congolese participation.\nIn 1957, by way of experiment, the colonial government organised the first municipal elections in three urban centres (Léopoldville, Elisabethville and Jadotville), in which Congolese people were allowed to stand for office and cast their vote. Events in 1957–58 led to a sudden acceleration in the demands for political emancipation. The independence of Ghana in 1957 and President De Gaulle's August 1958 visit to Brazzaville, the capital of the French Congo, on the other side of the Congo river to Léopoldville, in which he promised France's African colonies the free choice between a continued association with France or full independence, aroused ambitions in the Congo. The World Exhibition organised in Brussels in 1958 (Expo 58) proved another eye-opener for many Congolese leaders, who were allowed to travel to Belgium for the first time.\nIn 1958, the demands for independence radicalised quickly and gained momentum. A key role was played by the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC). First set up in 1956, the MNC was established in October 1958 as a national political party that supported the goal of a unitary and centralised Congolese nation. Its most influential leader was the charismatic Patrice Lumumba. In 1959, an internal split was precipitated by Albert Kalonji and other MNC leaders who favoured a more moderate political stance (the splinter group was deemed Mouvement National Congolais-Kalonji). Despite the organisational divergence of the party, Lumumba's leftist faction (now the Mouvement National Congolais-Lumumba) and the MNC collectively had established themselves as by far the most important and influential party in the Belgian Congo. Belgium vehemently opposed Lumumba's leftist views and had grave concerns about the status of their financial interests should Lumumba's MNC gain power.\n\nIndependence\nWhile the Belgian government was debating a programme to gradually extend the political emancipation of the Congolese population, it was overtaken by events. On 4 January 1959, a prohibited political demonstration organised in Léopoldville by ABAKO got out of hand. At once, the colonial capital was in the grip of extensive rioting. It took the authorities several days to restore order and, by the most conservative count, several hundred died. The eruption of violence sent a shockwave through the Congo and Belgium alike. On 13 January, King Baudouin addressed the nation by radio and declared that Belgium would work towards the full independence of the Congo \"without delay, but also without irresponsible rashness\".\n\nWithout committing to a specific date for independence, the government of prime minister Gaston Eyskens had a multi-year transition period in mind. They thought provincial elections would take place in December 1959, national elections in 1960 or 1961, after which administrative and political responsibilities would be gradually transferred to the Congolese, in a process presumably to be completed towards the mid-1960s. On the ground, circumstances were changing much more rapidly. Increasingly, the colonial administration saw varied forms of resistance, such as refusal to pay taxes. In some regions anarchy threatened. At the same time many Belgians resident in the Congo opposed independence, feeling betrayed by Brussels. Faced with a radicalisation of Congolese demands, the government saw the chances of a gradual and carefully planned transition dwindling rapidly.\nIn 1959, King Baudouin made another visit to the Belgian Congo, finding a great contrast with his visit of four years before. Upon his arrival in Léopoldville, he was pelted with rocks by black Belgo-Congolese citizens who were angry with the imprisonment of Lumumba, convicted because of incitement against the colonial government. Though Baudouin's reception in other cities was considerably better, the shouts of \"Vive le roi!\" were often followed by \"Indépendance immédiate!\" The Belgian government wanted to avoid being drawn into a futile and potentially very bloody colonial war, as had happened to France in Indochina and Algeria, or to the Netherlands in Indonesia. For that reason, it was inclined to give in to the demands for immediate independence voiced by the Congolese leaders. Despite lack of preparation and an insufficient number of educated elite (there were only a handful of Congolese holding a university degree at that time), the Belgian leaders hoped that they could handle what they said they wanted, and decided to let them have it. This became known as \"Le Pari Congolais\"—the Congolese bet.\nIn January 1960, Congolese political leaders were invited to Brussels to participate in a round-table conference to discuss independence. Patrice Lumumba was discharged from prison for the occasion. The conference agreed surprisingly quickly to grant the Congolese practically all of their demands: a general election to be held in May 1960 and full independence—\"Dipenda\"—on 30 June 1960. This was in response to the strong united front put up by the Congolese delegation.\n\nPolitical maneuvering ahead of the elections resulted in the emergence of three political alliances: a coalition of the federalistic nationalists consisting of six separatist parties or organizations, two of which were ABAKO and the MNC—Kalonji; the centralist MNC—Lumumba; and that of Moïse Tshombe, the strong-man of Katanga, who wanted to preserve the economic vitality of its area and the business interests of the Union Minière (as Kalonji did with respect to the diamond exploitations in Kasaï). The parliamentary elections resulted in a divided political landscape, with both the regionalist factions—chief among them ABAKO—and the nationalist parties such as the MNC, doing well. A compromise arrangement was forced through, with Kasa-vubu becoming the first president of the Republic of the Congo, and Lumumba its first head of government. As planned scarcely five months earlier, the hand-over ceremony by the Belgians took place on time on 30 June 1960 at the new residence of the Governor-General of the Belgian Congo in Léopoldville.\nOne week later, a rebellion broke out within the Force Publique against its officers, who were still predominantly Belgian. This was a catalyst for disturbances arising all over the Congo, mainly instigated by dissatisfied soldiers and radicalized youngsters. In many areas, their violence specifically targeted European victims. Within weeks, the Belgian military and later a United Nations intervention force evacuated the largest part of the more than 80,000 Belgians who were still working and living in the Congo.\n\nCongo Crisis and aftermath\nThe rebellion that had started in Thyssville in the Bas-Congo in July 1960 quickly spread to the rest of the Congo. In September 1960, the leaders split, with President Kasa-Vubu declaring prime minister Lumumba deposed from his functions, and vice versa. The stalemate was ended with the government's arrest of Lumumba. In January 1961, he was flown to the rich mining province of Katanga, which by that time had declared a secession from Léopoldville under the leadership of Moïse Tshombe (with active Belgian support). Lumumba was handed over to Katangan authorities, who executed him.\n\nIn 2002 Belgium officially apologised for its role in the assassination of Lumumba; the CIA has long been speculated of complicity, as they had seen Lumumba's politics were too far left. The Soviet Union during the Cold War years was active in expanding its influence in Africa against European powers, giving 'anti-colonialism' as a rationale for the increase of its power in the region. A series of rebellions and separatist movements seemed to shatter the dream of a unitary Congolese state at its birth. Although the nation was independent, Belgian paratroopers intervened in the Congo on various occasions to protect and evacuate Belgian and international citizens. The United Nations maintained a large peace-keeping operation in the Congo from late 1960 onward. The situation did not stabilise until 1964–65. Katanga province was re-absorbed and the so-called Simba Rebellion ended in Stanleyville (province Orientale). Shortly after that army colonel Joseph Désiré Mobutu ended the political impasse by seizing power in a coup d'état.\nMobutu had some support in the West, and in particular in the United States, because of his strong anti-communist stance. Initially his rule favored consolidation and economic development (e.g., by building the Inga dam that had been planned in the 1950s). In order to distance himself from the previous regime, he launched a campaign of Congolese \"authenticity\". The government abandoned the use of colonial place names in 1966: Léopoldville was renamed as Kinshasa, Elisabethville as Lubumbashi, Stanleyville as Kisangani. During this period, the Congo generally maintained close economic and political ties with Belgium. Certain financial issues had remained unresolved after independence (the so-called \"contentieux\"), for instance, the transfer of shares in the big mining companies that had been held directly by the colonial state. In 1970, on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of independence, King Baudouin paid an official state visit to the Congo.\nMobutu's régime became more radical during the 1970s. The Mouvement populaire de la Révolution (MPR), of which Mobutu was the président-fondateur, firmly established one-party rule. Political repression increased considerably. Mobutu renamed the Congo as the republic of Zaïre. The so-called \"Zaïrisation\" of the country in the mid-1970s led to an exodus of foreign workers and economic disaster. In the 1980s the Mobutu regime became a byword for mismanagement and corruption. Relations with Belgium, the former colonial power, went through a series of ups and downs, reflecting a steady decline in the underlying economic, financial and political interests. As there was no danger of the country falling into Soviet hands, the Western powers maintained a neutral stance.\n\nAfter the fall of the Soviet Union and end of the Cold War in the late 1980s, Mobutu lost support in the West. As a result, in 1990, he decided to end the one-party system and dramatically announced a return to democracy. But he dragged his feet and played out his opponents against one another to gain time. A bloody intervention of the Zaïrian Army against students on the Lubumbashi University Campus in May 1990 precipitated a break in diplomatic relations between Belgium and Zaïre. Pointedly, Mobutu was not invited to attend the funeral of King Baudouin in 1993, which he considered a grave personal affront.\nIn 1997 Mobutu was forced from power by a rebel force headed by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who declared himself president and renamed Zaïre as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Assassinated in 2001, Kabila was succeeded by his son Joseph Kabila. In 2006 Joseph Kabila was confirmed as president through the first nationwide free elections in the Congo since 1960. On 30 June – 2 July 2010, King Albert II and Yves Leterme, the Belgian Prime Minister, visited Kinshasa to attend the festivities marking the 50th anniversary of Congolese independence.\nCertain practices and traditions from the colonial period have survived into the independent Congolese state. It maintains a strong centralising and bureaucratic tendency, and has kept the organizational structure of the education system and the judiciary. The influence of the Congo on Belgium has been manifested mainly in economic terms: through the activities of the Union Minière (now Umicore), the development of a nonferrous metal industry, and the development of the Port of Antwerp and diamond industry. To this day, Brussels Airlines (successor of the former Sabena) has maintained a strong presence in the DRC. It was estimated that in 2010, more than 4,000 Belgian nationals were resident in the DRC, and the Congolese community in Belgium was at least 16,000 strong. The \"Matongé\" quarter in Brussels is the traditional focal point of the Congolese community in Belgium.\n\nCulture\nMusic\nIn popular music, Latin music such as rumba was introduced from Cuba in the 1930s and 1940s during the colonial era, and Latin music was played extensively in the Belgian Congo. In the 1950s, American jazz was also widely accepted as African jazz. In 1956, Franco formed OK Jazz (later renamed TPOK Jazz).\nJoseph Kabasele, also known as Le Grand Kallé (The Great Kallé), formed African Jazz. House bands became popular, and rumba congolaise were formed. Marlo Mashi is a musician of the same era. Congo's popular music evolved from continental rhythm, church music, Ghana's high life, and traditional Congo music.\n\nSee also\nArchives Africaines (Belgium), which keeps material related to Belgian Congo\nLes Belges dans l'Afrique Centrale\nDistricts of the Belgian Congo\nBelgian Congo in World War II\nPrime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo\nTintin in the Congo\n\nCitations\nReferences\nBibliography\nArnot, Frederick Stanley (1914). Missionary travels in central Africa. Bath : Office of Echoes of Service.\nCunningham, Richard (1973). The place where the world ends; a modern story of cannibalism and human courage. New York: Sheed and Ward. ISBN 978-0-83620-5435.\nHogg, Gary (1983). Cannibalism & Human Sacrifice. Coles publishing. pp. 18–24, 81.\nFreund, Bill (1998). The Making of Contemporary Africa: The Development of African Society since 1800 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-69872-3.\nPakenham, Thomas (1992). The Scramble for Africa: the White Man's Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 (13th ed.). London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-10449-2.\nRenders, Luc (2020). The Congo in Flemish Literature: An Anthology of Flemish Prose on the Congo, 1870s - 1990s. Leuven: Leuven University Press. ISBN 978-9462702172.\nTurner, Thomas (2007). The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality (2nd ed.). London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84277-688-9.\nVansina, Jan (2010). Being Colonized: The Kuba Experience in Rural Congo, 1880-1960. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299236441.\nVanthemsche, Guy (2012). Belgium and the Congo, 1885–1980. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19421-1.\nAfrica Missionaries : an honor roll of the missionaries of the Methodist Church in [Africa]. New York, NY: Board of Missions and Church Extension, the Methodist Church. 1945.\n\"Bishop John McKendree Springer\". United Methodist Communications. 2024. Retrieved 2 March 2024.\n\nHistoriography\nStanard, Matthew G. \"Belgium, the Congo, and Imperial Immobility: A Singular Empire and the Historiography of the Single Analytic Field,\"French Colonial History (2014) vol 15 -109.\nVanthemsche, Guy. 'The historiography of Belgian colonialism in the Congo\" in C Levai ed., Europe and the World in European Historiography (Pisa University Press, 2006), pp. 89–119. online\n\nIn French or Dutch\nBulletin Officiel du Congo belge (in French and Dutch), Brussels, 1908–1959 – via Académie royale des sciences d'outre-mer{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) \nBiographie Belge d'Outre-Mer (in French and Dutch), Brussels: Académie Royale des Sciences d'Outre-mer 1948–2015; 11 volumes online\nVictor Prévot (1961). \"L'œuvre belge au Congo\". L'Information géographique (in French). 25 (3): 93–100. doi:10.3406/ingeo.1961.2068 – via Persee.fr. \nNdaywel è Nziem, Isidore (1998). Histoire générale du Congo. Paris and Brussels: De Boeck & Larcier.\nStengers, Jean (2005). Congo, Mythes et réalités. Brussels: Editions Racines.\nVan Reybrouck, David (2010). Congo, Een geschiedenis. Amsterdam: De Bezige Bij.\n\nExternal links\n\nCana, Frank Richardson (1911). \"Congo Free State\" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 917–928.\nCana, Frank Richardson (1922). \"Belgian Congo\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 30 (12th ed.). pp. 428–429.",
"title": "Belgian_Congo"
}
] | One of Barbara Kingsolver's best known novels is about an American missionary family which moves to Africa. At the time, the country they move to was a Belgian colony. Which year did it become independent? | [] | 1960 | [] | true |
606 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Muhammad Ali (; born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr.; January 17, 1942 – June 3, 2016) was an American professional boxer and activist. Nicknamed \"the Greatest\", he is regarded as one of the most significant sports figures of the 20th century and is often regarded as the greatest heavyweight boxer of all time. He held the Ring magazine heavyweight title from 1964 to 1970. He was the undisputed champion from 1974 to 1978 and the WBA and Ring heavyweight champion from 1978 to 1979. In 1999, he was named Sportsman of the Century by Sports Illustrated and the Sports Personality of the Century by the BBC.\nBorn and raised in Louisville, Kentucky, he began training as an amateur boxer at age 12. At 18, he won a gold medal in the light heavyweight division at the 1960 Summer Olympics and turned professional later that year. He converted to Islam after 1961. He won the world heavyweight championship, defeating Sonny Liston in a major upset on February 25, 1964, at age 22. During that year, he denounced his birth name as a \"slave name\" and formally changed his name to Muhammad Ali. In 1967, Ali refused to be drafted into the military, owing to his religious beliefs and ethical opposition to the Vietnam War, and was found guilty of draft evasion and stripped of his boxing titles. He stayed out of prison while appealing the decision to the Supreme Court, where his conviction was overturned in 1971. He did not fight for nearly four years and lost a period of peak performance as an athlete. Ali's actions as a conscientious objector to the Vietnam War made him an icon for the larger counterculture of the 1960s generation, and he was a very high-profile figure of racial pride for African Americans during the civil rights movement and throughout his career. As a Muslim, Ali was initially affiliated with Elijah Muhammad's Nation of Islam (NOI). He later disavowed the NOI, adhering to Sunni Islam.\nHe fought in several historic boxing matches, including his highly publicized fights with Sonny Liston, Joe Frazier (including the Fight of the Century, the biggest boxing event up until then), the Thrilla in Manila, and his fight with George Foreman in The Rumble in the Jungle. Ali thrived in the spotlight at a time when many boxers let their managers do the talking, and he became renowned for his provocative and outlandish persona. He was famous for trash-talking, often free-styled with rhyme schemes and spoken word poetry, and has been recognized as a pioneer in hip hop. He often predicted in which round he would knock out his opponent. As a boxer, Ali was known for his unorthodox movement, fancy footwork, head movement, and rope-a-dope technique, among others.\nOutside boxing, Ali attained success as a spoken word artist, releasing two studio albums: I Am the Greatest! (1963) and The Adventures of Ali and His Gang vs. Mr. Tooth Decay (1976). Both albums received Grammy Award nominations. He also featured as an actor and writer, releasing two autobiographies. Ali retired from boxing in 1981 and focused on religion, philanthropy, and activism. In 1984, he made public his diagnosis of Parkinson's syndrome, which some reports attributed to boxing-related injuries, though he and his specialist physicians disputed this. He remained an active public figure globally, but in his later years made fewer public appearances as his condition worsened, and he was cared for by his family.\n\nEarly life\nCassius Marcellus Clay Jr. () was born on January 17, 1942, in Louisville, Kentucky. He had one brother. He was named after his father, Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr. (1912–1990), who had a sister and four brothers and who himself was named in honor of the 19th-century Republican politician and staunch abolitionist Cassius Marcellus Clay, also from the state of Kentucky. Clay's father's paternal grandparents were John Clay and Sallie Anne Clay; Clay's sister Eva claimed that Sallie was a native of Madagascar. He was a descendant of slaves of the antebellum South, and was predominantly of African descent, with Irish and English family heritage. His maternal great-grandfather, Abe Grady, emigrated from Ennis, County Clare, Ireland. DNA testing performed in 2018 showed that, through his paternal grandmother, Clay was a descendant of the former slave Archer Alexander, who had been chosen from the building crew as the model of a freed man for the Emancipation Memorial, and was the subject of abolitionist William Greenleaf Eliot's book, The Story of Archer Alexander: From Slavery to Freedom.\nHis father was a sign and billboard painter, and his mother, Odessa O'Grady Clay (1917–1994), was a domestic helper. Although Cassius Sr. was a Methodist, he allowed Odessa to bring up both Cassius Jr. and his younger brother, Rudolph \"Rudy\" Clay (later renamed Rahaman Ali), as Baptists. Cassius Jr. attended Central High School in Louisville. He was dyslexic, which led to difficulties in reading and writing, at school and for much of his life.\nHe grew up amid racial segregation. His mother recalled one occasion when he was denied a drink of water at a store: \"They wouldn't give him one because of his color. That really affected him.\" He was also strongly affected by the 1955 murder of Emmett Till, which led to young Clay and a friend taking out their frustration by vandalizing a local rail yard. He once told his daughter Hana, \"Nothing would ever shake me up (more) than the story of Emmett Till.\"\n\nAmateur career\nClay was first directed toward boxing by Louisville police officer and boxing coach Joe E. Martin, who encountered the 12-year-old fuming over a thief having taken his bicycle. He told the officer he was going to \"whup\" the thief. The officer told Clay he had better learn how to box first. Initially, Clay did not take up Martin's offer, but after seeing amateur boxers on a local television boxing program called Tomorrow's Champions, Clay was interested in the prospect of fighting. He then began to work with trainer Fred Stoner, whom he credits with giving him the \"real training\", eventually molding \"my style, my stamina and my system\". For the last four years of Clay's amateur career he was trained by boxing cutman Chuck Bodak.\nClay made his amateur boxing debut in 1954 against local amateur boxer Ronnie O'Keefe. He won by split decision. He went on to win six Kentucky Golden Gloves titles, two national Golden Gloves titles, an Amateur Athletic Union national title, and the light heavyweight gold medal in the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. Clay's amateur record was 100 wins with five losses. In his 1975 autobiography he recalled that shortly after his return from the Rome Olympics, he threw his gold medal into the Ohio River after he and a friend were refused service at a \"whites-only\" restaurant and fought with a white gang. The story was later disputed, and several of his friends, including Bundini Brown and photographer Howard Bingham, denied it. Brown told Sports Illustrated writer Mark Kram, \"Honkies sure bought into that one!\" Thomas Hauser's biography of Ali stated that Ali was refused service at the diner but that he lost his medal a year after he won it. Ali received a replacement medal at the Georgia Dome during the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where he lit the torch to start the Games.\n\nProfessional career\nEarly career\nClay made his professional debut on October 29, 1960, winning a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker. From then until the end of 1963, Clay amassed a record of 19–0 with 15 wins by knockout. He defeated boxers including Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff, LaMar Clark, Doug Jones, and Henry Cooper. Clay also beat his former trainer and veteran boxer Archie Moore in a 1962 match.\nThese early fights were not without trials. Clay was knocked down by both Sonny Banks and Cooper. In the Cooper fight, Clay was floored by a left hook at the end of round four and was saved by the bell, going on to win in the predicted fifth round due to Cooper's severely cut eye. The fight with Doug Jones on March 13, 1963, was Clay's toughest fight during this stretch. The number two and three heavyweight contenders respectively, Clay and Jones fought on Jones' home turf at New York's Madison Square Garden. Jones staggered Clay in the first round, and the unanimous decision for Clay was greeted by boos and a rain of debris thrown into the ring. Watching on closed-circuit TV, heavyweight champ Sonny Liston quipped that if he fought Clay he (Liston) might get locked up for murder. The fight was later named \"Fight of the Year\" by The Ring magazine.\nIn each of these fights, Clay vocally belittled his opponents and vaunted his abilities. He called Jones \"an ugly little man\" and Cooper a \"bum\". He said he was embarrassed to get in the ring with Alex Miteff and claimed that Madison Square Garden was \"too small for me\". Ali's trash talk was inspired by professional wrestler \"Gorgeous George\" Wagner's, after he saw George's talking ability attract huge crowds to events. In a 1969 interview he stated that he met with George in Las Vegas in 1961, that George told him that talking a big game would earn paying fans who either wanted to see him win or wanted to see him lose, thus Clay transformed himself into a self-described \"big-mouth and a bragger\".\nIn 1960, Clay left Moore's camp, partially due to Clay's refusal to do chores such as washing dishes and sweeping. To replace Moore, Clay hired Angelo Dundee to be his trainer. Clay had met Dundee in February 1957 during Clay's amateur career. Around this time, Clay sought longtime idol Sugar Ray Robinson to be his manager, but was rebuffed.\n\nWorld heavyweight champion\nFights against Liston\nBy late 1963, Clay had become the top contender for Sonny Liston's title. The fight was set for February 25, 1964, in Miami Beach. Liston was an intimidating personality, a dominating fighter with a criminal past and ties to the mob. Based on Clay's uninspired performance against Jones and Cooper in his previous two fights, and Liston's destruction of former heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson in two first-round knockouts, Clay was an 8:1 underdog. Despite this, Clay taunted Liston during the pre-fight buildup, dubbing him \"the big ugly bear\", claiming \"Liston even smells like a bear\" and \"I'm gonna give him to the local zoo after I whup him.\" Clay turned the pre-fight weigh-in into a circus, shouting at Liston that \"someone is going to die at ringside tonight.\" Clay's pulse rate was measured at 120, more than double his normal 54. Many of those in attendance thought Clay's behavior stemmed from fear, and some commentators wondered if he would show up for the bout.\nThe outcome of the fight was a major upset. At the opening bell, Liston rushed at Clay, seemingly angry and looking for a quick knockout. However, Clay's superior speed and mobility enabled him to elude Liston, making the champion miss and look awkward. At the end of the first round, Clay opened up his attack and hit Liston repeatedly with jabs. Liston fought better in round two, but at the beginning of the third round Clay hit Liston with a combination that buckled his knees and opened a cut under his left eye. This was the first time Liston had ever been cut. At the end of round four, Clay was returning to his corner when he began experiencing blinding pain in his eyes and asked his trainer, Angelo Dundee, to cut off his gloves. Dundee refused. It has been speculated that the problem was due to ointment used to seal Liston's cuts, perhaps deliberately applied by his corner to his gloves. Though unconfirmed, boxing historian Bert Sugar said that two of Liston's opponents also complained about their eyes \"burning\".\nDespite Liston's attempts to knock out a blinded Clay, Clay was able to survive the fifth round until sweat and tears rinsed the irritation from his eyes. In the sixth, Clay dominated, hitting Liston repeatedly. Liston did not answer the bell for the seventh round, and Clay was declared the winner by TKO. Liston stated that the reason he quit was an injured shoulder. Following the win, a triumphant Clay rushed to the edge of the ring and, pointing to the ringside press, shouted: \"Eat your words!\" He added, \"I am the greatest! I shook up the world. I'm the prettiest thing that ever lived.\"\nAt ringside post fight, Clay appeared unconvinced that the fight was stopped due to a Liston shoulder injury, saying that the only injury Liston had was \"an open eye, a big cut eye!\" When told by Joe Louis that the injury was a \"left arm thrown out of its socket,\" Clay quipped, \"Yeah, swinging at nothing, who wouldn't?\"\nIn winning this fight at the age of 22, Clay became the youngest boxer to take the title from a reigning heavyweight champion. However, Floyd Patterson remained the youngest to win the heavyweight championship, doing so at the age 21 during an elimination bout following Rocky Marciano's retirement. Mike Tyson broke both records in 1986 when he defeated Trevor Berbick to win the heavyweight title at age 20. The feat also made Clay the fastest boxer to win the championship (non-vacant) in the modern era, doing so in 20 bouts.\nSoon after the Liston fight, Clay changed his name to Cassius X, and then later to Muhammad Ali upon converting to the Nation of Islam. Ali then faced a rematch with Liston scheduled for May 1965 in Lewiston, Maine. It had been scheduled for Boston the previous November, but was postponed for six months due to Ali's emergency surgery for a hernia three days before. The fight was controversial. Midway through the first round, Liston was knocked down by a difficult-to-see blow the press dubbed a \"phantom punch\". Referee Jersey Joe Walcott did not begin the count immediately after the knockdown, as Ali refused to retreat to a neutral corner. Liston rose after he had been down for about 20 seconds, and the fight momentarily continued. However a few seconds later Walcott, having been informed by the timekeepers that Liston had been down for a count of 10, stopped the match and declared Ali the winner by knockout. The entire fight lasted less than two minutes.\nIt has since been speculated that Liston purposely dropped to the ground. Proposed motivations include threats on his life from the Nation of Islam, that he had bet against himself and that he \"took a dive\" to pay off debts. Slow-motion replays show that Liston was jarred by a chopping right from Ali, although it is unclear whether the blow was a genuine knockout punch.\n\nFight against Patterson\nAli defended his title against former heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson on November 22, 1965. Before the match, Ali mocked Patterson, who was widely known to call him by his former name Cassius Clay, as an \"Uncle Tom\", calling him \"The Rabbit\". Although Ali had the better of Patterson, who appeared injured during the fight, the match lasted 12 rounds before being called on a technical knockout. Patterson later said he had strained his sacroiliac. Ali was criticized in the sports media for appearing to have toyed with Patterson during the fight. Patterson biographer W. K. Stratton claims that the conflict between Ali and Patterson was not genuine but was staged to increase ticket sales and the closed-circuit viewing audience, with both men complicit in the theatrics. Stratton also cites an interview by Howard Cosell in which Ali explained that rather than toying with Patterson, he refrained from knocking him out after it became apparent Patterson was injured. Patterson later said that he had never been hit by punches as soft as Ali's. Stratton states that Ali arranged the second fight, in 1972, with the financially struggling Patterson to help the former champion earn enough money to pay a debt to the IRS.\n\nMain Bout\nAfter the Patterson fight, Ali founded his own promotion company, Main Bout. The company mainly handled Ali's boxing promotions and pay-per-view closed-circuit television broadcasts. The company's stockholders were mainly fellow Nation of Islam members, along with several others, including Bob Arum.\nAli and then-WBA heavyweight champion boxer Ernie Terrell had agreed to meet for a bout in Chicago on March 29, 1966 (the WBA, one of two boxing associations, had stripped Ali of his title following his joining the Nation of Islam). But in February Ali was reclassified by the Louisville draft board as 1-A from 1-Y, and he indicated that he would refuse to serve, commenting to the press, \"I ain't got nothing against no Viet Cong; no Viet Cong never called me nigger.\", although the second part is probably apocryphal. Amidst the media and public outcry over Ali's stance, the Illinois Athletic Commission refused to sanction the fight, citing technicalities.\nInstead, Ali traveled to Canada and Europe and won championship bouts against George Chuvalo, Henry Cooper, Brian London, and Karl Mildenberger.\nAli returned to the United States to fight Cleveland Williams at the Astrodome in Houston on November 14, 1966. The bout drew a record-breaking indoor crowd of 35,460 people. Williams had once been considered among the hardest punchers in the heavyweight division, but in 1964 he had been shot at point-blank range by a Texas policeman, resulting in the loss of one kidney and 3.0 metres (10 ft) of his small intestine. Ali dominated Williams, winning a third-round technical knockout in what some consider the finest performance of his career.\nAli fought Terrell in Houston on February 6, 1967. Terrell, who was unbeaten in five years and had defeated many of the boxers Ali had faced, was billed as Ali's toughest opponent since Liston; he was big, strong and had a three-inch reach advantage over Ali. During the lead up to the bout, Terrell repeatedly called Ali \"Clay\", much to Ali's annoyance. The two almost came to blows over the name issue in a pre-fight interview with Howard Cosell. Ali seemed intent on humiliating Terrell. \"I want to torture him\", he said. \"A clean knockout is too good for him.\" The fight was close until the seventh round, when Ali bloodied Terrell and almost knocked him out. In the eighth round, Ali taunted Terrell, hitting him with jabs and shouting between punches, \"What's my name, Uncle Tom ... what's my name?\" Ali won a unanimous 15-round decision. Terrell claimed that early in the fight Ali deliberately thumbed him in the eye, forcing him to fight half-blind, and then, in a clinch, rubbed the wounded eye against the ropes. Because of Ali's apparent intent to prolong the fight to inflict maximum punishment, critics described the bout as \"one of the ugliest boxing fights\". Tex Maule later wrote: \"It was a wonderful demonstration of boxing skill and a barbarous display of cruelty.\" Ali denied the accusations of cruelty but, for Ali's critics, the fight provided more evidence of his arrogance.\nAfter Ali's title defense against Zora Folley on March 22, he was stripped of his title due to his refusal to be drafted to army service. His boxing license was also suspended by the state of New York. He was convicted of draft evasion on June 20 and sentenced to five years in prison and a $10,000 fine. He paid a bond and remained free while the verdict was being appealed.\n\nDraft resistance\nAli registered for conscription in the United States military on his 18th birthday and was listed as 1-A in 1962. In 1964, he was reclassified as Class 1-Y (fit for service only in times of national emergency) after he failed the U.S. Armed Forces qualifying test because his writing and spelling skills were sub-standard, due to his dyslexia. (He was quoted as saying, \"I said I was the greatest, not the smartest!\") By early 1966, the army lowered its standards to permit soldiers above the 15th percentile and Ali was again classified as 1-A. This classification meant he was now eligible for the draft and induction into the U.S. Army at a time when the U.S. was involved in the Vietnam War, a war which put him further at odds with the white establishment.\nWhen notified of this status, Ali declared that he would refuse to serve in the army and publicly considered himself a conscientious objector. Ali stated: \"War is against the teachings of the Qur'an. I'm not trying to dodge the draft. We are not supposed to take part in no wars unless declared by Allah or The Messenger. We don't take part in Christian wars or wars of any unbelievers\". He also said, \"We are not to be the aggressor but we will defend ourselves if attacked.\" He stated: \"Man, I ain't got no quarrel with them Vietcong.\" Ali elaborated: \"Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go ten thousand miles from home and drop bombs and bullets on brown people in Vietnam while so-called Negro people in Louisville are treated like dogs and denied simple human rights?\" Ali antagonized the white establishment in 1966 by refusing to be drafted into the U.S. military, citing his religious beliefs and opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam War.\nOn April 28, 1967, Ali appeared in Houston for his scheduled induction into the U.S. Armed Forces, but he refused three times to step forward when his name was called. An officer warned him that he was committing a felony punishable by five years in prison and a fine of $10,000. Once more, Ali refused to budge when his name was called, and he was arrested. Later that same day, the New York State Athletic Commission suspended his boxing license and the World Boxing Association stripped him of his title. Other boxing commissions followed suit. Ali remained unable to obtain a license to box in any state for over three years. On June 4, 1967, in a first for sports professionals, a group of high-profile African-American athletes including Jim Brown, Bill Russell, and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, as well as one political leader, Carl Stokes, assembled with Ali at the Negro Industrial Economic Union in Cleveland for what became known as the \"Cleveland Summit\" or the \"Muhammad Ali Summit\". The meeting was organized by Brown for his peers to question Ali about the seriousness of his convictions, and to decide whether to support him, which they ultimately did.\n\nAt the trial on June 20, 1967, the jury found Ali guilty after only 21 minutes of deliberation of the criminal offense of violating the Selective Service laws by refusing to be drafted. After a Court of Appeals upheld the conviction, the case was reviewed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1971.\nAli remained free in the years between the Appellate Court decision and the Supreme Court ruling. As public opinion began turning against the war and the Civil Rights Movement continued to gather momentum, Ali became a popular speaker at colleges and universities across the country; this itinerary was rare if not unprecedented for a prizefighter. At Howard University, for example, he gave his popular \"Black Is Best\" speech to 4,000 cheering students and community intellectuals, after he was invited to speak by sociology professor Nathan Hare on behalf of the Black Power Committee, a student protest group.\nOn June 28, 1971, the Supreme Court of the United States in Clay v. United States overturned Ali's conviction by a unanimous 8–0 decision (Justice Thurgood Marshall recused himself, as he had been the U.S. Solicitor General at the time of Ali's conviction). The decision was not based on, nor did it address, the merits of Ali's claims per se. Rather, the Court held that since the appeal board gave no reason for the denial of a conscientious objector exemption to Ali, that it was therefore impossible to determine which of the three basic tests for conscientious objector status (offered in the Justice Department's brief) the appeal board relied on, and Ali's conviction must be reversed.\nIn a 1974 interview, Ali said, \"If they say stand and salute the flag I do that out of respect, because I'm in the country\". Ali would later say, \"If America was in trouble and real war came, I'd be on the front line if we had been attacked. But I could see that [the Vietnam War] wasn't right.\" He also said, \"Black men would go over there and fight, but when they came home, they couldn't even be served a hamburger.\"\n\nImpact of Ali's draft refusal\nAli's example inspired many black Americans and others. However, initially when he refused induction, he became arguably the most hated man in the country and received many death threats. People who supported Ali during this time were also threatened, including sports journalist Jerry Izenberg, whose columns defended Ali's decision not to serve. He wrote, \"Bomb threats emptied our office, making the staff stand out in the snow. My car windshield was smashed with a sledgehammer.\" The New York Times columnist William Rhoden wrote, \"Ali's actions changed my standard of what constituted an athlete's greatness. Possessing a killer jump shot or the ability to stop on a dime was no longer enough. What were you doing for the liberation of your people? What were you doing to help your country live up to the covenant of its founding principles?\"\nRecalling Ali's anti-war position, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar said: \"I remember the teachers at my high school didn't like Ali because he was so anti-establishment and he kind of thumbed his nose at authority and got away with it. The fact that he was proud to be a black man and that he had so much talent ... made some people think that he was dangerous. But for those very reasons I enjoyed him.\"\nCivil rights figures came to believe that Ali had an energizing effect on the freedom movement as a whole. Al Sharpton spoke of his bravery at a time when there was still widespread support for the Vietnam War:\n\nFor the heavyweight champion of the world, who had achieved the highest level of athletic celebrity, to put all of that on the line—the money, the ability to get endorsements—to sacrifice all of that for a cause, gave a whole sense of legitimacy to the movement and the causes with young people that nothing else could have done. Even those who were assassinated, certainly lost their lives, but they didn't voluntarily do that. He knew he was going to jail and did it anyway. That's another level of leadership and sacrifice.\nAli was honored with the annual Martin Luther King Award in 1970 by civil rights leader Ralph Abernathy, who called him \"a living example of soul power, the March on Washington in two fists\". Coretta Scott King added that Ali was \"a champion of justice and peace and unity\".\nIn speaking of the cost on Ali's career of his refusal to be drafted, his trainer Angelo Dundee said, \"One thing must be taken into account when talking about Ali: He was robbed of his best years, his prime years.\" Ali's promoter Bob Arum did not support Ali's choice at the time, but in 2016 Arum stated: \"when I look back at his life, and I was blessed to call him a friend and spent a lot of time with him, it's hard for me to talk about his exploits in boxing because as great as they were they paled in comparison to the impact that he had on the world. ... He did what he thought was right. And it turned out he was right, and I was wrong.\"\nAli's resistance to the draft was covered in the 2013 documentary The Trials of Muhammad Ali.\n\nNSA and FBI monitoring of Ali's communications\nIn a secret operation code-named \"Minaret\", the National Security Agency (NSA) intercepted the communications of leading Americans, including Ali, Senators Frank Church and Howard Baker, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., prominent U.S. journalists, and others who criticized the U.S. war in Vietnam. A review by the NSA of the Minaret program concluded that it was \"disreputable if not outright illegal\".\nIn 1971, Ali's Fight of the Century with Frazier was used by an activist group, the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI, to pull off a burglary at an FBI office in Pennsylvania; the anticipation for the fight was unlike anything else, so they believed the security would also be focused on the fight. This raid exposed the COINTELPRO operations that included illegal spying on activists involved with the civil rights and anti-war movements. One of the COINTELPRO targets was Ali, and their activities included the FBI gaining access to his records as far back as elementary school; one such record mentioned him loving art as a child.\n\nExile and comeback\nIn March 1966, Ali refused to be inducted into the armed forces. He was systematically denied a boxing license in every state and stripped of his passport. As a result, he did not fight from March 1967 to October 1970—from ages 25 to almost 29—as his case worked its way through the appeals process before his conviction was overturned in 1971.\n\nProtesting while exiled\nDuring this time of inactivity, as opposition to the Vietnam War began to grow and Ali's stance gained sympathy, he spoke at colleges across the nation, criticizing the Vietnam War and advocating African American pride and racial justice. Ali based himself in Chicago. According to most close to him, his Chicago years were formative.\nAt the time, Ali was widely condemned by the American media, with fears that his actions could potentially lead to mass civil disobedience. Despite this, Ebony magazine noted in the late 1960s that Ali's popularity had increased during this time, especially among black people.\n\nThe Super Fight\nWhile banned from sanctioned bouts, Ali settled a $1 million lawsuit against radio producer Murray Woroner by accepting $10,000 to appear in a privately staged fantasy fight against retired champion Rocky Marciano. In 1969 the boxers were filmed sparring for about 75 one-minute rounds; they produced several potential outcomes. A computer program purportedly determined the winner, based on data about the fighters, along with the opinions of approximately 250 boxing experts. Edited versions of the bout were shown in movie theaters in 1970. In the U.S. version Ali lost in a simulated 13th-round knockout, but in the European version Marciano lost due to cuts, also simulated.\nAli suggested that prejudice determined his defeat in the U.S. version; he was reported to have jokingly said, \"That computer was made in Alabama.\"\n\nReturn\nOn August 11, 1970, with his case still in appeal, Ali was granted a license to box by the City of Atlanta Athletic Commission. Leroy Johnson, Jesse Hill Jr. and Harry Pett had used their local political influence and set up the company House of Sports to organize the fight, underlining the influential power of Georgia's black politics in Ali's comeback. Ali's first return bout was against Jerry Quarry on October 26, resulting in a win after three rounds after Quarry was cut.\nA month earlier, a victory in federal court forced the New York State Boxing Commission to reinstate Ali's license. He fought Oscar Bonavena at Madison Square Garden in December, an uninspired performance that ended in a dramatic technical knockout of Bonavena in the 15th round. The win left Ali as a top contender against heavyweight champion Joe Frazier.\n\nFight against Joe Frazier\nAli and Frazier's first fight, held at the Garden on March 8, 1971, was nicknamed the \"Fight of the Century\", due to the tremendous excitement surrounding a bout between two undefeated fighters, each with a legitimate claim to be heavyweight champion. Veteran US boxing writer John Condon called it \"the greatest event I've ever worked on in my life\". The bout was broadcast to 36 countries; promoters granted 760 press passes.\nAdding to the atmosphere were the considerable pre-fight theatrics and name calling. Before the fight Frazier called Ali, \"Cassius Clay\", this angered Ali and he portrayed Frazier as a \"dumb tool of the white establishment\". \"Frazier is too ugly to be champ\", Ali said. \"Frazier is too dumb to be champ.\" Ali also frequently called Frazier an \"Uncle Tom\". Dave Wolf, who worked in Frazier's camp, recalled that, \"Ali was saying 'the only people rooting for Joe Frazier are white people in suits, Alabama sheriffs, and members of the Ku Klux Klan. I'm fighting for the little man in the ghetto.' Joe was sitting there, smashing his fist into the palm of his hand, saying, 'What the fuck does he know about the ghetto?'\"\nAli began training at a farm near Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1971 and, finding the country setting to his liking, sought to develop a real training camp in the countryside. He found a five-acre site on a Pennsylvania country road in the village of Deer Lake, Pennsylvania. On this site, Ali carved out what was to become his training camp, where he trained for all his fights from 1972 to the end of his career in 1981.\nThe Monday night fight lived up to its billing. In a preview of their two other fights, a crouching, bobbing and weaving Frazier constantly pressured Ali, getting hit regularly by Ali jabs and combinations, but relentlessly attacking and scoring repeatedly, especially to Ali's body. The fight was even in the early rounds, but Ali was taking more punishment than ever in his career up until that point. On several occasions in the early rounds, he played to the crowd and shook his head \"no\" after he was hit. In the later rounds—in what was the first appearance of the \"rope-a-dope strategy\"—Ali leaned against the ropes and absorbed punishment from Frazier, hoping to tire him. In the 11th round, Frazier connected with a left hook that wobbled Ali, but because it appeared that Ali might be clowning as he staggered backwards across the ring, Frazier hesitated to press his advantage, fearing an Ali counterattack. In the final round, Frazier knocked Ali down with a vicious left hook, which referee Arthur Mercante said was as hard as a man can be hit. Ali was back on his feet in three seconds. Nevertheless, Ali lost by unanimous decision, his first professional defeat.\n\nAfter his loss\nChamberlain challenge and Ellis fight\nIn 1971, basketball star Wilt Chamberlain challenged Ali to a fight, and a bout was scheduled for July 26. Although the seven-foot-two-inch-tall Chamberlain had formidable physical advantages over Ali—weighing 60 pounds more and able to reach 14 inches further—Ali was able to influence Chamberlain into calling off the bout by taunting him with calls of \"Timber!\" and \"The tree will fall\" during a shared interview. These statements of confidence unsettled his taller opponent, whom Los Angeles Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke had offered a record-setting contract, conditional on Chamberlain agreeing to abandon what Cooke termed \"this boxing foolishness\", and he did exactly that. To replace Ali's opponent, promoter Bob Arum quickly booked a former sparring partner of Ali's, Jimmy Ellis, who was a childhood friend from Louisville, Kentucky, to fight him. Ali won the bout through a technical knockout when the referee stopped the fight in the twelfth round.\n\nFights against Quarry, Patterson, Foster, Bugner and Norton\nAfter the loss to Frazier, Ali fought Jerry Quarry, had a second bout with Floyd Patterson and faced Bob Foster in 1972, winning a total of six fights that year. During two bouts he had in 1973 with Joe Bugner and Ken Norton, he wore a \"People's Choice\" robe which was given to him by Elvis Presley. In 1973 before his fight with Norton, Tom Cushman said Ali was \"gloriously overconfident. He didn't consider this guy a threat at all.\" But during the fight, either in the 2nd round according to most press reports, or the final round according to Norton, Norton broke Ali's jaw and inflicted by decision the second loss of his career. After considering retirement, Ali won a controversial decision against Norton in their second bout. This led to a rematch with Joe Frazier at Madison Square Garden on January 28, 1974; Frazier had recently lost his title to George Foreman.\n\nSecond fight against Joe Frazier\nAli was strong in the early rounds of the fight, and staggered Frazier in the second round. Referee Tony Perez mistakenly thought he heard the bell ending the round and stepped between the two fighters as Ali was pressing his attack, giving Frazier time to recover. However, Frazier came on in the middle rounds, snapping Ali's head in round seven and driving him to the ropes at the end of round eight. The last four rounds saw round-to-round shifts in momentum between the two fighters. Throughout most of the bout, however, Ali was able to circle away from Frazier's dangerous left hook and to tie Frazier up when he was cornered, the latter a tactic that Frazier's camp complained of bitterly. Judges awarded Ali a unanimous decision.\n\nWorld heavyweight champion (second reign)\nThe Rumble in the Jungle\nThe defeat of Frazier set the stage for a title fight against heavyweight champion George Foreman in Kinshasa, Zaire, on October 30, 1974—a bout nicknamed The Rumble in the Jungle. Foreman was considered one of the hardest punchers in heavyweight history. In assessing the fight, analysts pointed out that Joe Frazier and Ken Norton, who had given Ali four tough battles and won two of them, had both been devastated by Foreman in second-round knockouts. Ali was 32 years old and had lost speed and reflexes since his twenties. Contrary to his later persona, Foreman was at the time a brooding and intimidating presence. Almost no one associated with the sport, not even Ali's long-time supporter Howard Cosell, gave the former champion a chance of winning.\nAs usual, Ali was confident and colorful before the fight. He told interviewer David Frost, \"If you think the world was surprised when Nixon resigned, wait till I whup Foreman's behind!\" He told the press, \"I've done something new for this fight. I done wrestled with an alligator, I done tussled with a whale; handcuffed lightning, thrown thunder in jail; only last week, I murdered a rock, injured a stone, hospitalized a brick; I'm so mean I make medicine sick.\" Ali was wildly popular in Zaire, with crowds chanting \"Ali, bomaye\" (\"Ali, kill him\") wherever he went.\nAli opened the fight moving and scoring with right crosses to Foreman's head. Then, beginning in the second round, and to the consternation of his corner, Ali retreated to the ropes and invited Foreman to hit him while covering up, clinching and counterpunching, all while verbally taunting Foreman. The move, which would later become known as the \"Rope-a-dope\", so violated conventional boxing wisdom—letting one of the hardest hitters in boxing strike at will—that at ringside writer George Plimpton thought the fight had to be fixed. Foreman, increasingly angered, threw punches that were deflected and did not land squarely. Midway through the fight, as Foreman began tiring, Ali countered more frequently and effectively with punches and flurries, which electrified the pro-Ali crowd. In the eighth round, Ali dropped an exhausted Foreman with a combination at center ring; Foreman failed to make the count. Against the odds, and amidst pandemonium in the ring, Ali had regained the title by knockout. Reflecting on the fight, George Foreman later said: \"I thought Ali was just one more knockout victim until, about the seventh round, I hit him hard to the jaw and he held me and whispered in my ear: 'That all you got, George?' I realized that this ain't what I thought it was.\"\n\nIt was a major upset victory, after Ali came in as a 4–1 underdog against the previously unbeaten, heavy-hitting Foreman. The fight became famous for Ali's introduction of the rope-a-dope tactic. The fight was watched by a record estimated television audience of 1 billion viewers worldwide. It was the world's most-watched live television broadcast at the time.\n\nFights against Wepner, Lyle and Bugner\nAli's next opponents included Chuck Wepner, Ron Lyle, and Joe Bugner. Wepner, a journeyman known as \"The Bayonne Bleeder\", stunned Ali with a knockdown in the ninth round; Ali would later say he tripped on Wepner's foot. The fight inspired Sylvester Stallone to create the acclaimed film Rocky.\n\nThird fight against Joe Frazier\nAli then agreed to a third match with Joe Frazier in Manila. The bout, known as the \"Thrilla in Manila\", was held on October 1, 1975, in temperatures approaching 100 °F (38 °C). In the first rounds, Ali was aggressive, moving and exchanging blows with Frazier. However, Ali soon appeared to tire and adopted the \"rope-a-dope\" strategy, frequently resorting to clinches. During this part of the bout Ali did some effective counterpunching, but for the most part absorbed punishment from a relentlessly attacking Frazier. In the 12th round, Frazier began to tire, and Ali scored several sharp blows that closed Frazier's left eye and opened a cut over his right eye. With Frazier's vision now diminished, Ali dominated the 13th and 14th rounds, at times conducting what boxing historian Mike Silver called \"target practice\" on Frazier's head. The fight was stopped when Frazier's trainer, Eddie Futch, refused to allow Frazier to answer the bell for the 15th and final round, despite Frazier's protests. Frazier's eyes were both swollen shut. Ali, in his corner, winner by TKO, slumped on his stool, spent.\nAn ailing Ali said afterwards that the fight \"was the closest thing to dying that I know\", and, when later asked if he had viewed the fight on videotape, reportedly said, \"Why would I want to go back and see Hell?\" After the fight he cited Frazier as \"the greatest fighter of all times next to me\".\nAfter the third fight with Frazier, Ali considered retirement. He said, \"I'm sore all over. My arms, my face, my sides all ache. I'm so, so tired. There is a great possibility that I will retire. You might have seen the last of me. I want to sit back and count my money, live in my house and my farm, work for my people and concentrate on my family.\"\n\nLater career\nOn February 2, 1976, Ali defeated Jean-Pierre Coopman by 5th round knockout. The WBC Heavyweight title was not on the line for this fight. On April 30, 1976, Ali would fight Jimmy Young and win a controversial unanimous decision. Howard Cosell would remark that he had \"never seen Ali so off in his timing\" and when asked on his performance against Young in the post-fight interview, Ali stated that he was \"getting old\" and that he was \"preserving his energy\" for Ken Norton. On May 24, 1976, Ali defeated Richard Dunn, winning by 5th round technical knockout. The punch used to knock Dunn out was taught to Ali by Taekwondo Grandmaster Jhoon Rhee. Rhee called that punch the \"Accupunch\"; he learned it from Bruce Lee. The Dunn fight was the last time Ali would knock an opponent out in his boxing career.\nAli fought Ken Norton for the third time in September 1976. The bout, which was held at Yankee Stadium, resulted in Ali winning a controversial decision that ringside commentators had scored in favor of Norton. Afterwards, he announced he was retiring from boxing to practice his faith, having converted to Sunni Islam after falling out with the Nation of Islam the previous year.\nAfter returning to beat Alfredo Evangelista in May 1977, Ali struggled in his next fight against Earnie Shavers that September, getting pummeled a few times by punches to the head. Ali won the fight by another unanimous decision, but the bout caused his longtime doctor Ferdie Pacheco to quit after he was rebuffed for telling Ali he should retire. Pacheco was quoted as saying, \"the New York State Athletic Commission gave me a report that showed Ali's kidneys were falling apart. I wrote to Angelo Dundee, Ali's trainer, his wife and Ali himself. I got nothing back in response. That's when I decided enough is enough.\"\nIn February 1978, Ali faced Leon Spinks at the Hilton Hotel in Las Vegas. At the time, Spinks had only seven professional fights to his credit, and had recently fought a draw with journeyman Scott LeDoux. Ali sparred less than two dozen rounds in preparation for the fight and was seriously out of shape by the opening bell. He lost the title by split decision. A rematch occurred in September at the Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. 70,000 people attended the bout and paid a total of $6 million admission, making it the largest live gate in boxing history at that time. Ali won a unanimous decision in an uninspiring fight, with referee Lucien Joubert scoring rounds 10–4, judge Ernie Cojoe 10–4, and judge Herman Preis 11–4. This made Ali the first heavyweight champion to win the belt three times.\nFollowing this win, on July 27, 1979, Ali announced his retirement from boxing. His retirement was short-lived, however; Ali announced his comeback to face Larry Holmes for the WBC belt in an attempt to win the heavyweight championship an unprecedented fourth time. The fight was largely motivated by Ali's need for money. Boxing writer Richie Giachetti said, \"Larry didn't want to fight Ali. He knew Ali had nothing left; he knew it would be a horror.\"\nIt was around this time that Ali started struggling with vocal stutters and trembling hands. The Nevada Athletic Commission (NAC) ordered that he undergo a complete physical in Las Vegas before being allowed to fight again. Ali chose instead to check into the Mayo Clinic, who declared him fit to fight. Their opinion was accepted by the NAC on July 31, 1980, paving the way for Ali's return to the ring.\n\nFight stoppage vs. Larry Holmes\nOn October 2, 1980, Ali returned to the ring to fight Holmes at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Holmes, who fought under the nickname \"The Easton Assassin\", easily dominated Ali. After the tenth round, Angelo Dundee stepped into the ring and instructed the referee to stop the fight. It was the only time Ali ever lost by stoppage.\nImmediately after the fight, Ali was given painkillers and antidepressants, in violation of World Boxing Council rules prohibiting the administration of any drug before the postfight urinalysis.\nGiachetti called the fight \"awful...the worst sports event I ever had to cover\". Actor Sylvester Stallone was ringside for the fight and said that it was like watching an autopsy on a man who is still alive. The Holmes fight is said to have contributed to Ali's Parkinson's syndrome. Despite pleas to definitively retire, Ali fought one last time on December 11, 1981, in Nassau, Bahamas, against Trevor Berbick, losing a ten-round decision.\n\nExhibition bouts\nAli boxed both well-known boxers and celebrities from other walks of life, including Antonio Inoki, Michael Dokes, Sammy Davis Jr., Richard Pryor, Marvin Gaye, Burt Young, Lyle Alzado, Dave Semenko, and Puerto Rican comedian Jose Miguel Agrelot (with Iris Chacon acting as Agrelot's corner-woman).\n\nAli vs Inoki\nOn June 26, 1976, Ali participated in an exhibition bout in Tokyo against Japanese professional wrestler and martial artist Antonio Inoki. Ali was only able to land two jabs while Inoki's kicks caused two blood clots and an infection that almost resulted in Ali's leg being amputated, as a result of Ali's team insisting on rules restricting Inoki's ability to wrestle. Because of this, the fight has been criticized for causing Ali trouble healthwise, mostly in terms of movement, later down the line; Ferdie Pacheco stated \"Ali was still feeling the effects of his leg injury, and his mobility was not what it had been\". The match was not scripted and ultimately declared a draw. After Ali's death, The New York Times declared it his least memorable fight. Most boxing commentators at the time viewed the fight negatively and hoped it would be forgotten as some considered it a \"15-round farce\". Today it is considered by some to be one of Ali's most influential fights and CBS Sports said the attention the mixed-style bout received \"foretold the arrival of standardized MMA years later\". Ali and Inoki began a friendship after the fight.\n\nAli vs Alzado\nIn 1979, Ali fought an exhibition match against NFL player Lyle Alzado. The fight went 8 rounds and was declared a draw.\n\nAli vs Semenko\nAli fought NHL player, Dave Semenko in an exhibition on June 12, 1983. The match was officially a draw after going three rounds, but the Canadian Press reported Ali was not seriously trying for most of the bout, instead just toying with Semenko.\n\nPersonal life\nMarriages and children\nAli was married four times and had seven daughters and two sons. Ali was introduced to cocktail waitress Sonji Roi by Herbert Muhammad, who was to become Ali's long-time manager, and asked her to marry him after their first date. They married approximately one month later on August 14, 1964. They quarreled over Sonji's refusal to join the Nation of Islam. According to Ali, \"She wouldn't do what she was supposed to do. She wore lipstick; she went into bars; she dressed in clothes that were revealing and didn't look right.\" The marriage was childless and they divorced on January 10, 1966. Just before the divorce was finalized, Ali sent Sonji a note: \"You traded heaven for hell, baby.\" Ali's brother Rahaman said that she was Ali's only true love and the Nation of Islam made Ali divorce her and Ali never got over it.\nOn August 17, 1967, Ali married Belinda Boyd. In an interview with NBC 6, Boyd recounted meeting Ali when she was 10 years old at her hometown mosque. \"He said, 'Listen here little girl. This is my name. Imma be famous. You need to keep that 'cause it's gone be worth a lot of money,'\" Boyd said, mimicking Ali. \"You'll never be famous with that name. And, I walked away,\" Boyd said. Born into a Chicago family that had converted to the Nation Of Islam, she later changed her name to Khalilah Ali, though she was still called Belinda by old friends and family. They had four children: author and rapper Maryum \"May May\" (born 1968); twins Jamillah and Rasheda (born 1970); and Muhammad Ali Jr. (born 1972). Rasheda married Robert Walsh and has two sons: Biaggio Ali (born 1998), who is an amateur MMA fighter, and Nico Ali (born 2000), who is a professional boxer.\nAli was a resident of Cherry Hill, New Jersey in suburban Philadelphia in the early 1970s. At age 32 in 1974, Ali began an extramarital relationship with 16-year-old Wanda Bolton (who subsequently changed her name to Aaisha Ali) with whom he fathered another daughter, Khaliah (born June 1974). While still married to Belinda, Ali married Aaisha a year later in an Islamic ceremony that was not legally recognized. According to Khaliah, Aaisha and her mother lived at Ali's Deer Lake training camp alongside Belinda and her children. In January 1985, Aaisha sued Ali for unpaid palimony. The case was settled when Ali agreed to set up a $200,000 trust fund for Khaliah. In 2001 Khaliah was quoted as saying she believed her father viewed her as \"a mistake\". He had another daughter, Miya (born 1972), from an extramarital relationship with Patricia Harvell.\n\nBy the summer of 1977, his second marriage ended due to Ali's repeated infidelity, and he had married actress and model Veronica Porché. At the time of their marriage, they had a daughter, Hana, and Veronica was pregnant with their second child. Their second daughter, Laila Ali, was born in December 1977, and went on to become a professional boxer. By 1986, Ali and Porché were divorced due to Ali's continuous infidelity. Porché said of Ali's infidelity, \"It was too much temptation for him, with women who threw themselves at him. It didn't mean anything. He didn't have affairs – he had one-night stands. I knew beyond a doubt there were no feelings involved. It was so obvious, It was easy to forgive him.\"\nOn November 19, 1986, Ali married Yolanda \"Lonnie\" Williams. Lonnie first met Ali at the age of 6 when her family moved to Louisville in 1963. In 1982, she became Ali's primary caregiver and in return, he paid for her to attend graduate school at UCLA. Together they adopted a son, Asaad Amin (born 1986), when Asaad was five months old. In 1992, Lonnie incorporated Greatest of All Time, Inc. (G.O.A.T. Inc) to consolidate and license his intellectual properties for commercial purposes. She served as the vice president and treasurer until the sale of the company in 2006.\n\nAli then lived in Scottsdale, Arizona with Lonnie. In January 2007, it was reported that they had put their home in Berrien Springs, Michigan, which they had bought in 1975, up for sale and had purchased a home in eastern Jefferson County, Kentucky for $1,875,000. Both homes were subsequently sold after Ali's death with Lonnie living in their remaining home in Paradise Valley, Arizona. Lonnie converted to Islam from Catholicism in her late twenties.\nAli's daughter Laila was a professional boxer from 1999 until 2007, despite her father's previous opposition to women's boxing. In 1978, he said \"Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that.\" Ali still attended a number of his daughter's fights and later admitted to Laila he was wrong. Ali's daughter Hana is married to Bellator middleweight fighter Kevin Casey. Hana wrote about her father, \"His love for people was extraordinary. I would get home from school to find homeless families sleeping in our guest room. He'd see them on the street, pile them into his Rolls-Royce and bring them home. He'd buy them clothes, take them to hotels and pay the bills for months in advance.\" She also said celebrities like Michael Jackson and Clint Eastwood would often visit Ali.\n\nPaternity claims\nKiiursti Mensah-Ali claims she is Ali's biological daughter with Barbara Mensah, with whom he allegedly had a 20-year relationship, citing photographs and a paternity test conducted in 1988. She said he accepted responsibility and took care of her, but all contacts with him were cut off after he married his fourth wife Lonnie. Kiiursti says she has a relationship with his other children. After his death she again made passionate appeals to be allowed to mourn at his funeral.\nIn 2010, Osmon Williams came forward claiming to be Ali's biological son. His mother Temica Williams (also known as Rebecca Holloway) launched a $3 million lawsuit against Ali in 1981 for sexual assault, claiming that she had started a sexual relationship with him when she was 12, and that her son Osmon (born 1977) was fathered by Ali when she was 17. She further alleged that Ali had originally supported her and her son financially, but stopped doing so after four years. The case went on until 1986 and was eventually thrown out as her allegations were deemed to be barred by the statute of limitations. According to Veronica, Ali admitted to the affair with Williams, but did not believe Osmon was his son which Veronica supported by saying \"Everybody in the camp was going with that girl.\" Ali's biographer and friend Thomas Hauser has said this claim was of \"questionable veracity\".\n\nReligion and beliefs\nAffiliation with the Nation of Islam\nAli said that he first heard of the Nation of Islam when he was fighting in the Golden Gloves tournament in Chicago in 1959 and attended his first Nation of Islam meeting in 1961. He continued to attend meetings, although keeping his involvement hidden from the public. In 1962, Clay met Malcolm X, who soon became his spiritual and political mentor. By the time of the first Liston fight, Nation of Islam members, including Malcolm X, were visible in his entourage. This led to a story in The Miami Herald just before the fight disclosing that Clay had joined the Nation of Islam, which nearly caused the bout to be canceled. The article quoted Cassius Clay Sr. as saying that his son had joined the Black Muslims when he was 18.\n\nIn fact, Clay was initially refused entry to the Nation of Islam (often called the Black Muslims at the time) due to his boxing career. However, after he won the championship from Liston in 1964, the Nation of Islam was more receptive and agreed to publicize his membership. Shortly afterwards on March 6, Elijah Muhammad gave a radio address that Clay would be renamed Muhammad (one who is worthy of praise) Ali (most high). Around that time Ali moved to the south side of Chicago and lived in a series of houses, always near the Nation of Islam's Mosque Maryam or Elijah Muhammad's residence. He stayed in Chicago for about 12 years.\nOnly a few journalists, most notably Howard Cosell, accepted the new name at that time. Ali stated that his earlier name was a \"slave name\" and a \"white man's name\" and added that \"I didn't choose it and I don't want it. I am Muhammad Ali, a free name\". The person he was formerly named after was a white slave owner turned abolitionist. Ali explained in his autobiography after studying his works, \"he may have gotten rid of his slaves, but (he) held on to white supremacy.\" Ali concluded: \"Why should I keep my white slavemaster's name visible and my black ancestors invisible, unknown, unhonored?\"\nNot afraid to antagonize the white establishment, Ali stated, \"I am America. I am the part you won't recognize. But get used to me. Black, confident, cocky; my name, not yours; my religion, not yours; my goals, my own; get used to me.\" Ali's friendship with Malcolm X ended as Malcolm split with the Nation of Islam a couple of weeks after Ali joined, and Ali remained with the Nation of Islam. Ali later said that turning his back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes he regretted most in his life.\nAligning himself with the Nation of Islam, its leader Elijah Muhammad, and a narrative that labeled the white race as the perpetrator of genocide against African Americans made Ali a target of public condemnation. The Nation of Islam was widely viewed by whites and some African Americans as a black separatist \"hate religion\" with a propensity toward violence; Ali had few qualms about using his influential voice to speak Nation of Islam doctrine. In a press conference articulating his opposition to the Vietnam War, Ali stated, \"My enemy is the white people, not Vietcong or Chinese or Japanese.\" In relation to integration, he said: \"We who follow the teachings of Elijah Muhammad don't want to be forced to integrate. Integration is wrong. We don't want to live with the white man; that's all.\"\nWriter Jerry Izenberg once noted that, \"the Nation became Ali's family and Elijah Muhammad became his father. But there is an irony to the fact that while the Nation branded white people as devils, Ali had more white colleagues than most African American people did at that time in America, and continued to have them throughout his career.\"\n\nConversion to Sunni/Sufi Islam\nIn Hauser's biography Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times, Ali stated that he was not a Christian as he thought the idea of God having a son sounded wrong and did not make sense to him, stating, \"God don't beget; man begets\". However, he still believed that even good Christians or good Jews could receive God's blessing and enter heaven as he stated, \"God created all people, no matter what their religion\". He also stated, \"If you're against someone because he's a Muslim that's wrong. If you're against someone because he's a Christian or a Jew, that's wrong\".\n\nIn a 2004 autobiography, Ali attributed his conversion to mainstream Sunni Islam to Warith Deen Muhammad, who assumed leadership of the Nation of Islam upon the death of his father Elijah Muhammad and persuaded the Nation's followers to become adherents of Sunni Islam. He said some people did not like the change and stuck to Elijah's teachings, but he admired it, and so left Elijah's teachings and became a follower of Sunni Islam.\nAli had gone on the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in 1972, which inspired him in a similar manner to Malcolm X, meeting people of different colors from all over the world giving him a different outlook and greater spiritual awareness. In 1977, he said that, after he retired, he would dedicate the rest of his life to getting \"ready to meet God\" by helping people, charitable causes, uniting people and helping to make peace. He went on another Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in 1988.\nAfter the September 11 attacks in 2001, he stated that \"Islam is a religion of peace\" and \"does not promote terrorism or killing people\", and that he was \"angry that the world sees a certain group of Islam followers who caused this destruction, but they are not real Muslims. They are racist fanatics who call themselves Muslims.\" In December 2015, after the November 2015 Paris attacks, he stated that \"True Muslims know that the ruthless violence of so-called Islamic jihadists goes against the very tenets of our religion\", that \"We as Muslims have to stand up to those who use Islam to advance their own personal agenda\", and that \"political leaders should use their position to bring understanding about the religion of Islam, and clarify that these misguided murderers have perverted people's views on what Islam really is.\"\nHe also developed an interest in Sufism, which he referenced in his autobiography, The Soul of a Butterfly. According to Ali's daughter, Hana Yasmeen Ali, who co-authored The Soul of a Butterfly with him, Ali was attracted to Sufism after reading the books of Inayat Khan, which contain Sufi teachings.\nMuhammad Ali received guidance from Islamic scholars such as Grand Mufti of Syria Al Marhum Al Sheikh Ahmed Kuftaro, Hisham Kabbani, Imam Zaid Shakir, Hamza Yusuf, and Timothy J. Gianotti, who was at Ali's bedside during his last days and ensured that although his funeral was interfaith, it was still in accordance with Islamic rites and rituals.\n\nHealth\nDuring his amateur career, Ali refrained from smoking, drugs, and drinking alcohol and soda pop, and adopted an idiosyncratic diet. Upon his acceptance of the dietary restrictions of Islam, the Nation of Islam recruited cooks to prepare his meals.\n\nEntertainment career\nActing\nAli had a cameo role in the 1962 film version of Requiem for a Heavyweight, and during his exile from boxing, he starred in the short-lived 1969 Broadway musical, Buck White. He also appeared in the documentary film Black Rodeo (1972) riding both a horse and a bull.\nHis autobiography The Greatest: My Own Story, written with Richard Durham, was published in 1975. In 1977 the book was adapted into a film called The Greatest, in which Ali played himself and Ernest Borgnine played Angelo Dundee.\nThe film Freedom Road, made in 1978, features Ali in a rare acting role as Gideon Jackson, a former slave and Union (American Civil War) soldier in 1870s Virginia, who gets elected to the U.S. Senate and battles alongside former slaves and white sharecroppers to keep the land they have tended all their lives.\n\nSpoken word poetry\nIn 1963, Ali released an album of spoken word music on Columbia Records titled, I Am the Greatest, and in 1964, he recorded a cover version of the rhythm and blues song \"Stand by Me\". I Am the Greatest sold 500,000 copies, and has been identified as an early example of rap music and a precursor to hip hop. It reached number 61 on the album chart and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album at the 6th Annual Grammy Awards in 1964. He later received a second Grammy nomination, for \"Best Recording for Children\", with his 1976 spoken word novelty record, The Adventures of Ali and His Gang vs. Mr. Tooth Decay.\n\nProfessional wrestling\nAli was involved with professional wrestling at different times in his career.\nOn June 1, 1976, as Ali was preparing for his bout with Inoki, he attended a match featuring Gorilla Monsoon. After the match was over, Ali removed his shirt and jacket and confronted professional wrestler Gorilla Monsoon in the ring after his match at a World Wide Wrestling Federation show in Philadelphia Arena. After dodging a few punches, Monsoon put Ali in an airplane spin and dumped him to the mat. Ali stumbled to the corner, where his associate Butch Lewis convinced him to walk away.\n\nOn March 31, 1985, Ali was the special guest referee for the main event of the inaugural WrestleMania event.\nIn 1995, Ali led a group of Japanese and American professional wrestlers, including his 1976 opponent Antonio Inoki and Ric Flair, on a sports diplomacy mission to North Korea. Ali was guest of honor at the record-breaking Collision in Korea, a wrestling event with the largest attendance of all time.\nAli was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame by The Undertaker at the 2024 ceremony.\n\nTelevision appearances\nMuhammad Ali's fights were some of the world's most-watched television broadcasts, setting television viewership records. His most-watched fights drew an estimated 1–2 billion viewers worldwide between 1974 and 1980, and were the world's most-watched live television broadcasts at the time. Outside of fights, he made many other television appearances. The following table lists known viewership figures of his non-fight television appearances. For television viewership figures of his fights, see Boxing career of Muhammad Ali: Television viewership.\n\nArt\nAli was also an amateur artist and made dozens of drawings and paintings in the 1970s. In 1977, Rodney Hilton Brown, who owned an art gallery in NYC, asked Ali if he was interested in painting. Ali took him up on the offer and produced several paintings for him to sell. Brown is the author of \"Muhammad Ali: The Untold Story: Painter, Poet and Prophet\". In October 2021, 26 of his drawings and arts were placed on auction and sold for close to US$1 Million.\n\nLater life\nBy the end of his boxing career Ali had absorbed an estimated 200,000 hits.\nIn 1984, Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's syndrome, which sometimes results from head trauma from violent physical activities such as boxing. Ali still remained active during this time, later participating as a guest referee at WrestleMania I.\n\nPhilanthropy, humanitarianism and politics\nAli was known for being a humanitarian and philanthropist. He focused on practicing his Islamic duty of charity and good deeds, donating millions to charity organizations and disadvantaged people of all religious backgrounds. It is estimated that Ali helped to feed more than 22 million people afflicted by hunger across the world. Early in his career, one of his main focuses was youth education. He spoke at several historically black colleges and universities about the importance of education and became the largest single black donor to the United Negro College Fund in 1967 by way of a $10,000 donation ($78,000 in 2020 USD). In late 1966, he also pledged to donate a total of $100,000 to the UNCF (specifically promising to donate much of the proceeds of his title defense against Cleveland Williams) and paid $4,500 per closed circuit installation at six HBCUs so they could watch his fights.\nAli began visiting Africa, starting in 1964 when he visited Nigeria and Ghana. In 1974, he visited a Palestinian refugee camp in Southern Lebanon, where Ali declared \"support for the Palestinian struggle to liberate their homeland\". During that visit Ali also declared that the \"United States is the stronghold of Zionism and imperialism.\" In 1978, following his loss to Spinks and before winning the rematch, Ali visited Bangladesh and received honorary citizenship there. The same year, he participated in The Longest Walk, a protest march in the United States in support of Native American rights, along with singer Stevie Wonder and actor Marlon Brando.\nIn early 1980, Ali was recruited by President Jimmy Carter for a diplomatic mission to Africa, in an effort to persuade a number of African governments to join the US-led boycott of the Moscow Olympics in protest of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Having arrived in Tanzania, Ali told cameras, \"Russia is invading a Muslim country, Asiatic country,\" and that its probable intention to head to oil-rich Persia to take wells and ports \"could lead to nuclear war. My purpose in coming here was to try to stop that.\" However, according to Ali biographer Thomas Hauser, \"at best, it was ill-conceived; at worst, a diplomatic disaster.\" The Tanzanian government was insulted that Carter had sent an athlete to discuss a serious political issue. One official asked whether the United States would \"send Chris Evert to negotiate with London\". Consequently, Ali was only received by the youth and culture minister, rather than President Julius Nyerere. Ali was unable to explain why the African countries should join the US boycott when it had failed to support the African boycott of the 1976 Olympics (in protest of Apartheid in South Africa), although neither did the Soviet Union, and was unaware of the sentiment that the Soviet Union had backed some popular revolutions on the continent, although none of the countries on the itinerary were Soviet allies. The Nigerian government also rebuffed him and confirmed that they would be participating in the Moscow Games. Ali did, however, convince the government of Kenya to boycott the Soviet Olympics.\nOn January 19, 1981, in Los Angeles, Ali talked a suicidal man down from jumping off a ninth-floor ledge, an event that made national news.\n\nIn 1984, Ali announced his support for the re-election of United States President Ronald Reagan. When asked to elaborate on his endorsement of Reagan, Ali told reporters, \"He's keeping God in schools and that's enough.\" In 1985, he visited Israel to request the release of Muslim prisoners at Atlit detainee camp, which Israel declined.\nAround 1987, the California Bicentennial Foundation for the U.S. Constitution selected Ali to personify the vitality of the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights. Ali rode on a float at the following year's Tournament of Roses Parade, launching the U.S. Constitution's 200th birthday commemoration. In 1988, during the First Intifada, Ali participated in a Chicago rally in support of Palestine. The same year, he visited Sudan to raise awareness about the plight of famine victims. According to Politico, Ali supported Orrin Hatch politically. In 1989, he participated in an Indian charity event with the Muslim Educational Society in Kozhikode, Kerala, along with Bollywood actor Dilip Kumar. \n\nIn 1990, Ali traveled to Iraq prior to the Gulf War and met with president Saddam Hussein in an attempt to negotiate the release of American hostages. Ali secured the release of the hostages, in exchange for promising Hussein that he would bring America \"an honest account\" of Iraq. Despite arranging the hostages' release, he received criticism from president George H. W. Bush, and Joseph C. Wilson, the highest-ranking American diplomat in Baghdad.\nIn 1994, Ali campaigned to the United States government to come to the aid of refugees afflicted by the Rwandan genocide, and to donate to organizations helping Rwandan refugees.\nIn 1996, he lit the flame at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia. It was watched by an estimated 3.5 billion viewers worldwide.\nAfter Ali met a lesbian couple who were fans of his in 1997, he smiled and said to friend and biographer Thomas Hauser, \"They look like they're happy together.\" Hauser wrote about the story, \"The thought that Liz and Roz (the lesbian couple he met) were happy pleased Muhammad. Ali wanted people to be happy.\"\nOn November 17, 2002, Ali went to Afghanistan as the \"U.N. Messenger of Peace\". He was in Kabul for a three-day goodwill mission as a special guest of the UN.\nOn September 1, 2009, Ali visited Ennis, County Clare, Ireland, the home of his great-grandfather, Abe Grady, who emigrated to the U.S. in the 1860s, eventually settling in Kentucky.\nOn July 27, 2012, Ali was a titular bearer of the Olympic flag during the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. He was helped to his feet by his wife Lonnie to stand before the flag due to his Parkinson's syndrome rendering him unable to carry it into the stadium. The same year, he was awarded the Philadelphia Liberty Medal in recognition of his lifelong efforts in activism, philanthropy and humanitarianism.\n\nEarnings\nBy 1978, Ali's total fight purse earnings were estimated to be nearly $60 million (inflation-adjusted $379 million), including an estimated $47.45 million grossed between 1970 and 1978. By 1980, his total fight purse earnings were estimated to be up to $70 million (inflation-adjusted $338 million).\nIn 1978, Ali revealed that he was \"broke\" and several news outlets reported his net worth to be an estimated $3.5 million (inflation-adjusted $16 million). The press attributed his decline in wealth to several factors, including taxes consuming at least half of his income, management taking a third of his income, his lifestyle, and spending on family, charity and religious causes.\nIn 2006, Ali sold his name and image for $50 million, after which Forbes estimated his net worth to be $55 million in 2006. Following his death in 2016, his fortune was estimated to be between $50 million and $80 million.\n\nDeclining health\nAli's Parkinson's syndrome led to a gradual decline in his health, though he was still active into the early 2000s, promoting his own biopic, Ali, in 2001. That year he also contributed an on-camera segment to the America: A Tribute to Heroes benefit concert.\n\nIn 1998, Ali began working with actor Michael J. Fox, who has Parkinson's disease, to raise awareness and fund research for a cure. They made a joint appearance before Congress to push the case in 2002. In 2000, Ali worked with the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research to raise awareness and encourage donations for research.\nIn February 2013, Ali's brother Rahaman Ali said Muhammad could no longer speak and could be dead within days. Ali's daughter May May Ali responded to the rumors, stating that she had talked to him on the phone the morning of February 3 and he was fine. On December 20, 2014, Ali was hospitalized for a mild case of pneumonia. Ali was once again hospitalized on January 15, 2015, for a urinary tract infection after being found unresponsive at a guest house in Scottsdale, Arizona. He was released the next day.\n\nDeath\nAli was hospitalized in Scottsdale, Arizona, on June 2, 2016, with a respiratory illness. Though his condition was initially described as fair, it worsened, and he died the following day at the age of 74 from septic shock.\n\nNews coverage and tributes\nFollowing Ali's death, he was the number-one trending topic on Twitter for over 12 hours and on Facebook for several days. BET played their documentary Muhammad Ali: Made In Miami. ESPN played four hours of non-stop commercial-free coverage of Ali. News networks, such as ABC News, BBC, CNN, and Fox News, also covered him extensively.\nHe was mourned globally, and a family spokesman said the family \"certainly believes that Muhammad was a citizen of the world ... and they know that the world grieves with him\". Politicians such as Barack Obama, Hillary Clinton, Bill Clinton, Donald Trump, David Cameron and more paid tribute to Ali. Ali also received numerous tributes from the world of sports including Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, Floyd Mayweather, Mike Tyson, the Miami Marlins, LeBron James, Steph Curry and more. Then-Louisville mayor Greg Fischer stated, \"Muhammad Ali belongs to the world. But he only has one hometown.\"\nThe day after Ali's death, the UFC paid tribute to Ali at their UFC 199 event in a lengthy video tribute package, crediting Ali for his accomplishments and inspiring multiple UFC champions.\n\nMemorial\nAli's funeral had been pre-planned by himself and others for several years prior to his actual death. The services began in Louisville on June 9, 2016, with an Islamic Janazah prayer service at Freedom Hall on the grounds of the Kentucky Exposition Center. The Janazah prayer was attended by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. On June 10, 2016, the funeral procession passed through the streets of Louisville ending at Cave Hill Cemetery, where his body was interred during a private ceremony. A public memorial service for Ali at downtown Louisville's KFC Yum! Center was held during the afternoon of June 10. Billy Crystal, his wife Lonnie Ali, sports journalist Bryant Gumbel and former President Bill Clinton all gave the eulogies. The pallbearers included Will Smith, Lennox Lewis and Mike Tyson, with honorary pallbearers including George Chuvalo, Larry Holmes and George Foreman. Ali's memorial was watched by an estimated 1 billion viewers worldwide.\n\nIf the measure of greatness is to gladden the heart of every human being on the face of the earth, then he truly was the greatest. In every way he was the bravest, the kindest and the most excellent of men.\n\nLegacy\nIn boxing\nAli remains the only three-time lineal heavyweight champion. He is the only boxer to be named The Ring magazine Fighter of the Year six times and was involved in more Ring \"Fight of the Year\" bouts than any other fighter. He was one of only three boxers to be named \"Sportsman of the Year\" by Sports Illustrated. He was also named BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year three times.\nAli was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in its first year and held wins over seven other Hall of Fame inductees during an era that has been called the golden age of heavyweight boxing. His joint records of beating 21 boxers for the world heavyweight title and winning 14 unified title bouts stood for 35 years.\n\nIn hip-hop\nAli often used rhyme schemes and spoken word poetry when trash talking in boxing, and also delivered political poetry in his activism outside of boxing. He played a role in the shaping of the black poetic tradition, paving the way for The Last Poets in 1968, Gil Scott-Heron in 1970, and the emergence of rap music in the 1970s. Ali has been referred to as \"the first rapper\". As a \"rhyming trickster\", he was noted for his boasts, \"funky delivery\", \"comical trash talk\", and \"endless quotables\". Rolling Stone notes his \"freestyle skills\" and his \"rhymes, flow, and braggadocio\" would \"one day become typical of old school MCs like Run DMC and LL Cool J\", and his \"outsized ego foreshadowed the vainglorious excesses of Kanye West, while his Afrocentric consciousness and cutting honesty pointed forward to modern bards like Rakim, Nas, Jay-Z, and Kendrick Lamar.\"\nIn 2006, the documentary Ali Rap was produced by ESPN, with Chuck D of Public Enemy as the host. Other rappers narrated the documentary as well, including Doug E Fresh, Ludacris and Rakim who all spoke on Ali's behalf in the film.\nAli has been cited as an inspiration by rappers such as LL Cool J, Chuck D, Jay-Z, Eminem, Sean Combs, Slick Rick, Nas and MC Lyte. Ali has been referenced in a number of hip hop songs, including Migos' \"Fight Night\", Nas's \"The Message\", The Sugarhill Gang's \"Rapper's Delight\", the Fugees' \"Ready or Not\", EPMD's \"You're a Customer\" and Will Smith's \"Gettin' Jiggy wit It\".\n\nIn Ali's hometown\nIn 1978, shortly after becoming heavyweight champion of the world for the third time, and three years before his permanent retirement, Ali received a round of accolades in his hometown of Louisville. In September, at a tribute ceremony held at Fairgrounds Stadium, then-Governor of Kentucky Julian Carroll proclaimed 1978 the \"Year of Ali\" and presented to Ali the Governor's Distinguished Service Award. Carroll said he signed the proclamation because \"no single day or week – or even month – ever could contain the deeds of this man.\" In November, the Louisville Board of Aldermen voted 6–5 to rename downtown thoroughfare Walnut Street to Muhammad Ali Boulevard, via an ordinance shortly signed into law by then-Mayor William B. Stansbury. This was controversial at the time, as within a week 12 of the 70 street signs were stolen.\n\nAs the street renaming was under consideration, a committee of the Jefferson County Public Schools (Kentucky) considered renaming Ali's alma mater, Central High School, in his honor. Despite an initial endorsement by then-Jefferson County Judge/Executive and current U.S. Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, and an affirmative vote by the Jefferson County Fiscal Court, the committee decided not to proceed, citing long-time school tradition and alumni disagreement, even though they urged other ways to honor Ali in the community. In time, Muhammad Ali Boulevard—and Ali himself—came to be well accepted in his hometown.\nIn November 2005, Ali and his wife Lonnie Ali opened the $54 million, 93,000 ft2, non-profit Muhammad Ali Center in downtown Louisville. In addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center focuses on core themes of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth.\n\nOn January 16, 2019, the Louisville Regional Airport Authority voted to change the name of the city's main airport to \"Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport\" in honor of Ali. Then-Louisville mayor Greg Fischer upon the occasion said:Muhammad Ali belonged to the world, but he only had one hometown, and fortunately, that is our great city of Louisville. Muhammad became one of the most well-known people to ever walk the Earth and has left a legacy of humanitarianism and athleticism that has inspired billions of people. It [is] important that we, as a city, further champion The Champ's legacy, and the airport renaming is a wonderful next step. On June 6, 2019, the airport unveiled its new logo, featuring \"Ali's silhouette, arms up and victorious, against the background of a butterfly.\"\n\nAround the US and world\nMartial artist and actor Bruce Lee was influenced by Ali, whose footwork he studied and incorporated into his own style while developing Jeet Kune Do in the 1960s.\nOpened in 1976, Ali Mall, located in Araneta Center, Quezon City, Philippines, is named after Ali. Construction of the mall, the first of its kind in the Philippines, began shortly after his victory in a match with Joe Frazier in nearby Araneta Coliseum in 1975. Ali attended its opening. The Muhammad Ali vs. Antonio Inoki fight the same year played an important role in the history of mixed martial arts. In Japan, the match inspired Inoki's students Masakatsu Funaki and Minoru Suzuki to found Pancrase in 1993, which in turn inspired the foundation of Pride Fighting Championships in 1997. Pride was acquired by its rival, Ultimate Fighting Championship, in 2007.\n\nAli was the recipient of the 1997 Arthur Ashe Courage Award. He was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President Bill Clinton in January 2001 and with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush in November 2005. For his work with the civil rights movement and the United Nations, he received the Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold from the UN Association of Germany (DGVN) in Berlin in December 2005.\nThe Muhammad Ali Boxing Reform Act was introduced in 1999 and passed in 2000, to protect the rights and welfare of boxers in the United States. In May 2016, a bill was introduced to United States Congress by Markwayne Mullin, a politician and former MMA fighter, to extend the Ali Act to mixed martial arts. In June 2016, US senator Rand Paul proposed an amendment to the US draft laws named after Ali, a proposal to eliminate the Selective Service System.\nIn June 2007, Ali received an honorary doctorate of humanities at Princeton University's 260th graduation ceremony.\nIn 2015, Sports Illustrated renamed its Sportsman Legacy Award to the Sports Illustrated's Muhammad Ali Legacy Award. The annual award was originally created in 2008 and honors former \"sports figures who embody the ideals of sportsmanship, leadership and philanthropy as vehicles for changing the world\". Ali first appeared on the magazine's cover in 1963 and went on to be featured on numerous covers during his storied career.\nThe Society of Voice Arts and Sciences created the Muhammad Ali Voice of Humanity Honor in 2016, which is presented at its annual Voice Arts Awards. The award was created in collaboration with the Muhammad Ali Center and is presented to \"an individual whose voice, through humanitarianism, activism or personal sacrifice, has made a decidedly positive impact on our national or global condition as a society\". Sculptor Marc Mellon created the bronze sculpture for the award, which depicts Ali mid-speech. Recipients of the honor include Dr. Henry Louis Gates, Ken Burns, Vance Jones, Lonnie Ali, Stacey Abrams, Wes Studi, and Manuela Testolini.\nIn January 2017, the Muhammad Ali Commemorative Coin Act was introduced into the 115th Congress but was not enacted.\n\n20th-century superlatives\nBy the end of the 20th century, Ali had made it onto several superlatives lists or otherwise was mentioned in superlative terms covering the century or a large portion thereof.\nAli was ranked at or near the top of most lists of the 20th century's greatest boxers. He was crowned Sportsman of the Century by Sports Illustrated. Named BBC's Sports Personality of the Century, he received more votes than the other five candidates combined. The Associated Press ranked him as the second best boxer and best heavyweight of the 20th century. He was named Athlete of the Century by USA Today, and ranked as the third greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN SportsCentury. Ali was named \"Kentucky Athlete of the Century\" by the Kentucky Athletic Hall of Fame in ceremonies at the Galt House East.\nAli was named one of the 100 most influential Americans of the 20th century by Life magazine in 1990. In 1993, the Associated Press reported that Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athlete, out of over 800 dead or living athletes, in America. The study found that over 97% of Americans over 12 years of age identified both Ali and Ruth. In 1999, he was one of three athletes, alongside Pelé and Jackie Robinson, named in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century.\n\nIn media and popular culture\nAs a world champion boxer, social activist, sex symbol and pop culture icon, Ali was the subject of numerous creative works including books, films, music, video games, TV shows, and other. Muhammad Ali was often dubbed the world's \"most famous\" person in the media. Several of his fights were watched by an estimated 1–2 billion viewers between 1974 and 1980, and his lighting of the torch at the 1996 Atlanta Olympics was watched by an estimated 3.5 billion viewers.\n\nAli appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated on 38 different occasions, second only to Michael Jordan's 50. He also appeared on the cover of Time magazine 5 times. In 2015, Harris Poll found that Ali was one of the three most recognizable athletes in the United States, along with Michael Jordan and Babe Ruth.\nOn the set of Freedom Road Ali met Canadian singer-songwriter Michel, and subsequently helped create Michel's album The First Flight of the Gizzelda Dragon and an unaired television special featuring them both.\n\nAli was the subject of the British television program This Is Your Life in 1978 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews. Ali was featured in Superman vs. Muhammad Ali, a 1978 DC Comics comic book pitting the champ against the superhero. In 1979, Ali guest starred as himself in an episode of the NBC sitcom Diff'rent Strokes. The show's title itself was inspired by the quote \"Different strokes for different folks\" popularized in 1966 by Ali, who also inspired the title of the 1967 Syl Johnson song \"Different Strokes\", one of the most sampled songs in pop music history.\nHe also wrote several bestselling books about his career, including The Greatest: My Own Story and The Soul of a Butterfly. The Muhammad Ali effect, named after Ali, is a term that came into use in psychology in the 1980s, as he stated in The Greatest: My Own Story: \"I only said I was the greatest, not the smartest.\" According to this effect, when people are asked to rate their intelligence and moral behavior in comparison to others, people will rate themselves as more moral, but not more intelligent than others. Ali cooperated with Thomas Hauser on a biography, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. The oral history was released in 1991.\nWhen We Were Kings, a 1996 documentary about the Rumble in the Jungle, won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. The 2001 biopic Ali garnered a Best Actor Oscar nomination for Will Smith for his portrayal of Ali. Prior to making the film, Smith rejected the role until Ali requested that he accept it. Smith said the first thing Ali told him was: \"Man, you're almost pretty enough to play me.\"\nIn 2002, Ali was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the entertainment industry. His star is the only one to be mounted on a vertical surface, out of deference to his request that the name Muhammad—a name he shares with the Islamic prophet—not be walked upon.\nHis 1966 fight against George Chuvalo was the subject of the 2003 documentary film The Last Round: Chuvalo vs. Ali. A decade later, The Trials of Muhammad Ali, a documentary directed by Bill Siegel that focuses on Ali's refusal of the draft during the Vietnam War, opened in Manhattan in August 2013. A 2013 made-for-TV movie titled Muhammad Ali's Greatest Fight dramatized the same aspect of Ali's life.\nAntoine Fuqua's documentary What's My Name: Muhammad Ali was released in 2019. Then in September 2021, documentary filmmaker Ken Burns released the four-part docuseries Muhammad Ali, spanning over eight hours on Ali's life. The series, which Burns began developing in early 2016, was broadcast on PBS. Dave Zirin, who watched an 8-hour rough cut of this documentary, called it \"utterly outstanding\" and said \"the footage they found will blow minds\".\nIn spring 2025, the officially authorized musical Ali, based on Ali's life, will be debuting. Originally expected to debut at The Kentucky Center in Ali's hometown of Louisville, it will instead have its premiere at the Nederlander Theatre in Chicago, before later moving on to Broadway. The musical is being directed and written by Clint Dyer, deputy artistic director of London's National Theatre, and scored by Louisville Orchestra's music director and conductor Teddy Abrams. Rapper and record producer Q-Tip has joined the production as music director and co-lyricist, along with Rich + Tone Talauega as choreographers.\n\nProfessional boxing record\nDiscography\nI Am the Greatest (1963)\nThe Adventures of Ali and His Gang vs. Mr. Tooth Decay (1976)\n\nSee also\nList of world heavyweight boxing champions\nList of WBA world champions\nList of WBC world champions\nList of The Ring world champions\nList of undisputed world boxing champions\nList of converts to Islam\nList of boxing families\nList of people from the Louisville metropolitan area\nList of American Muslims\n1981 MAPS Wells Fargo embezzlement scandal\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nHauser, Thomas (2004). Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. London: Robson Books. ISBN 978-1-86105-738-9. OCLC 56645513.\n\nOnline\nMuhammad Ali: American boxer, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Thomas Hauser, Adam Augustyn, Piyush Bhathya, Yamini Chauhan, John M. Cunningham, Richard Pallardy, Michael Ray, Emily Rodriguez, Surabhi Sinha, Amy Tikkanen, Grace Young and The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website (November 2018 archive)\nBoxing record for Muhammad Ali from BoxRec (registration required) \nMuhammad Ali at IMDb \nWilliam Addams Reitwiesner Genealogical Services: Ancestry of Muhammad Ali\nFBI Records: The Vault – Muhammad Ali at the FBI\nCassius Clay Guilty (1967), Texas Archive of the Moving Image\nMuhammad Ali at the Team USA Hall of Fame (archive April 6, 2023)\nMuhammad Ali at Olympics.com \nMuhammad Ali at Olympedia \nPhoto essays\n\n\"Cassius Clay: Before He Was Ali\". Life. Archived from the original on October 21, 2009.\nBerman, Eliza; Ronk, Liz (June 4, 2016). \"Muhammad Ali's Life in Photos; From his time in the ring to his more playful side\". Life. Archived from the original on June 4, 2016.",
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"paragraph_text": "Joseph Louis Barrow (May 13, 1914 – April 12, 1981) was an American professional boxer who competed from 1934 to 1951. Nicknamed \"the Brown Bomber\", Louis is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential boxers of all time. He reigned as the world heavyweight champion from 1937 until his temporary retirement in 1949. He was victorious in 25 consecutive title defenses, a record for all weight classes. Louis had the longest single reign as champion of any boxer in history.\nLouis's cultural impact was felt well outside the ring. He is widely regarded as the first African-American to achieve the status of a nationwide hero within the United States, and was also a focal point of anti-Nazi sentiment leading up to and during World War II because of his historic rematch with German boxer Max Schmeling in 1938. He was instrumental in integrating the game of golf, helping break the sport's color barrier in America by appearing under a sponsor's exemption in a PGA event in 1952.\n\nEarly life\nBorn on May 13, 1914, in rural Chambers County, Alabama—in a ramshackle dwelling on Bell Chapel Road, located about 1 mile (2 kilometres) off State Route 50 and roughly 6 miles (10 kilometres) from LaFayette—Louis was the seventh of eight children of Munroe Barrow and Lillie (Reese) Barrow. He weighed 11 pounds (5 kg) at birth. Both of his parents were children of former slaves, alternating between sharecropping and rental farming.\nLouis suffered from a speech impediment and spoke very little until about the age of six. Munroe Barrow was committed to a mental institution in 1916 and, as a result, Joe knew very little of his biological father. Around 1920, Louis's mother married Pat Brooks, a local construction contractor, having received word that Munroe Barrow had died while institutionalized (in reality, Munroe Barrow lived until 1938, unaware of his son's fame).\nIn 1926, shaken by a gang of white men in the Ku Klux Klan, Louis's family moved to Detroit, Michigan, forming part of the post-World War I Great Migration. Joe's brother worked for Ford Motor Company (where Joe would himself work for a time at the River Rouge Plant) and the family settled into a home at 2700 Catherine (now Madison) Street in Detroit's Black Bottom neighborhood.\nLouis attended Bronson Vocational School for a time to learn cabinet-making.\n\nAmateur career\nThe Great Depression severely affected the Barrow family, but Joe still made time to work out at a local youth recreation center at 637 Brewster Street in Detroit. His mother attempted to get him interested in playing the violin. He is rumoured to have tried to hide his pugilistic ambitions from his mother by carrying his boxing gloves inside his violin case.\nLouis made his debut in early 1932 at the age of 17. Legend has it that before the fight, the barely literate Louis wrote his name so large that there was no room for his last name, and thus became known as \"Joe Louis\" for the remainder of his boxing career (more likely, Louis simply omitted his last name to keep his boxing a secret from his mother). After this debut—a loss to future Olympian Johnny Miler—Louis compiled numerous amateur victories, eventually winning the club championship of his Brewster Street recreation center, the home of many aspiring Golden Gloves fighters.\nIn 1933, Louis won the Detroit-area Golden Gloves Novice Division championship against Joe Biskey for the light heavyweight classification. He later lost in the Chicago Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions. The next year, competing in the Golden Gloves' Open Division, he won the light heavyweight classification, this time also winning the Chicago Tournament of Champions against Joe Bauer. However, a hand injury forced Louis to miss the New York/Chicago Champions' cross-town bout for the ultimate Golden Gloves championship. In April 1934, he followed up his Chicago performance by winning the light heavyweight United States Amateur Champion National AAU tournament in St. Louis, Missouri.\nBy the end of his amateur career, Louis's record was 50–4, with 43 knockouts.\n\nProfessional career\nJoe Louis had only three losses in his 69 professional fights. He tallied 52 knockouts and held the championship from 1937 to 1949, the longest span of any heavyweight titleholder. After returning from retirement, Louis failed to regain the championship in 1950, and his career ended after he was knocked out by Rocky Marciano in 1951.\n\nEarly years\nLouis's amateur performances attracted the interest of professional promoters, and he was soon represented by a black Detroit-area bookmaker named John Roxborough. As Louis explained in his autobiography, Roxborough convinced the young fighter that white managers would have no real interest in seeing a black boxer work his way up to title contention:\n\n[Roxborough] told me about the fate of most black fighters, ones with white managers, who wound up burned-out and broke before they reached their prime. The white managers were not interested in the men they were handling but in the money they could make from them. They didn't take the proper time to see that their fighters had a proper training, that they lived comfortably, or ate well, or had some pocket change. Mr. Roxborough was talking about Black Power before it became popular.\nRoxborough knew a Chicago area boxing promoter named Julian Black who already had a stable of mediocre boxers against which Louis could hone his craft, this time in the heavyweight division. After becoming part of the management team, Black hired fellow Chicago native Jack \"Chappy\" Blackburn as Louis's trainer. Louis's initial professional fights were all in the Chicago area, his professional debut coming on July 4, 1934, against Jack Kracken in the Bacon Casino on Chicago's south side. Louis earned $59 for knocking out Kracken in the first round. $59 in 1934 is equivalent to $1,148.60 in 2020 dollars. Louis won all 12 of his professional fights that year, 10 by knockout.\nIn September 1934, while promoting a Detroit-area \"coming home\" bout for Louis against Canadian Alex Borchuk, Roxborough was pressured by members of the Michigan State Boxing Commission to have Louis sign with white management. Roxborough refused and continued advancing Louis's career with bouts against heavyweight contenders Art Sykes and Stanley Poreda.\nWhile training for a fight against Lee Ramage, Louis noticed a young female secretary for the black newspaper at the gym. After Ramage was defeated, the secretary, Marva Trotter, was invited to the celebration party at Chicago's Grand Hotel. Trotter later became Louis's first wife in 1935.\nDuring this time, Louis also met Truman Gibson, the man who would become his personal lawyer. As a young associate at a law firm hired by Julian Black, Gibson was charged with personally entertaining Louis during the pendency of business deals.\n\nTitle contention\nAlthough Louis's management was finding him bouts against legitimate heavyweight contenders, no path to the title was forthcoming. While professional boxing was not officially segregated, many white Americans did not like the prospect of a black champion. In 1908, during an era of severe anti-black repression, Jack Johnson became the first black heavyweight champion. Johnson's flamboyant lifestyle and marriage to a white woman engendered an enormous backlash that greatly limited opportunities of black fighters in the heavyweight division. Black boxers were denied championship bouts, and there were few heavyweight black contenders at the time, though there were African Americans who fought for titles in other weight divisions, and a few notable black champions, such as Tiger Flowers. Louis and his handlers would counter the legacy of Johnson by emphasizing the Brown Bomber's modesty and sportsmanship. Biographer Gerald Astor stated that \"Joe Louis' early boxing career was stalked by the specter of Jack Johnson\".\nIf Louis were to rise to national prominence among such cultural attitudes, a change in management would be necessary. In 1935, boxing promoter Mike Jacobs sought out Louis's handlers. After Louis's narrow defeat of Natie Brown on March 29, 1935, Jacobs and the Louis team met at the Frog Club, a black nightclub, and negotiated a three-year exclusive boxing promotion deal. The contract, however, did not keep Roxborough and Black from attempting to cash in as Louis's managers; when Louis turned 21 on May 13, 1935, Roxborough and Black each signed Louis to an onerous long-term contract that collectively dedicated half of Louis's future income to the pair.\nBlack and Roxborough continued to carefully and deliberately shape Louis's media image. Mindful of the tremendous public backlash Johnson had suffered for his unapologetic attitude and flamboyant lifestyle, they drafted \"Seven Commandments\" for Louis's personal conduct. These included:\n\nNever have his picture taken with a white woman\nNever gloat over a fallen opponent\nNever engage in fixed fights\nLive and fight clean\n\nAs a result, Louis was generally portrayed in the white media as a modest, clean-living person, which facilitated his burgeoning celebrity status.\nWith the backing of a major promotion, Louis fought thirteen times in 1935. The bout that helped put him in the media spotlight occurred on June 25, when Louis knocked out 6'6\", 265-pound former world heavyweight champion Primo Carnera in six rounds. Foreshadowing the Louis–Schmeling rivalry to come, the Carnera bout featured a political dimension. Louis's victory over Carnera, who symbolized Benito Mussolini's regime in the popular eye, was seen as a victory for the international community, particularly among African Americans, who were sympathetic to Ethiopia, which was attempting to maintain its independence by fending off an invasion by fascist Italy. America's white press began promoting Louis's image in the context of the era's racism; nicknames they created included the \"Mahogany Mauler\", \"Chocolate Chopper\", \"Coffee-Colored KO King\", \"Safari Sandman\", and one that stuck: \"The Brown Bomber\".\nHelping the white press to overcome its reluctance to feature a black contender was that in the mid-1930s boxing desperately needed a marketable hero. Since the retirement of Jack Dempsey in 1929, the sport had devolved into a sordid mixture of poor athletes, gambling, fixed fights, thrown matches, and control of the sport by organized crime. New York Times Columnist Edward Van Ness wrote, \"Louis ... is a boon to boxing. Just as Dempsey led the sport out of the doldrums ... so is Louis leading the boxing game out of a slump\". Likewise, biographer Bill Libby asserted that \"The sports world was hungry for a great champion when Louis arrived in New York in 1935\".\nWhile the mainstream press was beginning to embrace Louis, many still opposed the prospect of another black heavyweight champion. In September 1935, on the eve of Louis's fight with former titleholder Max Baer, Washington Post sportswriter Shirley Povich wrote about some Americans' hopes for the white contender, \"They say Baer will surpass himself in the knowledge that he is the lone white hope for the defense of Nordic superiority in the prize ring\". However, the hopes of white supremacists would soon be dashed.\nAlthough Baer had been knocked down only once before in his professional career (by Frankie Campbell), Louis dominated the former champion, knocking him out in the fourth round. Unknowingly, Baer suffered from a unique disadvantage in the fight: earlier that evening, Louis had married Marva Trotter at a friend's apartment and was eager to end the fight in order to consummate the relationship. Later that year, Louis also knocked out Paulino Uzcudun, who had never been knocked down before.\n\nLouis vs. Schmeling\nBy this time, Louis was ranked as the No. 1 contender in the heavyweight division and had won the Associated Press' \"Athlete of the Year\" award for 1935. What was considered to be a final tune-up bout before an eventual title shot was scheduled for June 1936 against Max Schmeling. Although a former world heavyweight champion, Schmeling, who had been knocked out by the same Max Baer Louis had handily beaten, was not considered a threat to Louis, then with a professional record of 27–0. Schmeling had won his title on a technicality when Jack Sharkey was disqualified after giving Schmeling a low blow in 1930. Schmeling was also 30 years old at the time of the Louis bout and allegedly past his prime. Louis's training retreat was located at Lakewood, New Jersey, where he was first able to practice the game of golf, later to become a lifelong passion. Noted entertainer Ed Sullivan had initially sparked Louis's interest in the sport by giving an instructional book to Joe's wife Marva. Louis spent significant time on the golf course rather than training for the match.\nConversely, Schmeling prepared intently for the bout. He had thoroughly studied Louis's style and believed he had found a weakness. By exploiting Louis's habit of dropping his left hand after a jab, Schmeling handed Louis his first professional loss by knocking him out in round 12 at Yankee Stadium on June 19, 1936. The event would lead to the historic rematch of the two, in one of the world's most famous sporting events.\n\nWorld championship\nAfter defeating Louis, Schmeling expected a title shot against James J. Braddock, who had unexpectedly defeated Max Baer for the heavyweight title the previous June. Madison Square Garden (MSG) had a contract with Braddock for the title defense and also sought a Braddock–Schmeling title bout. But Jacobs and Braddock's manager Joe Gould had been planning a Braddock–Louis matchup for months.\n\nSchmeling's victory gave Gould tremendous leverage, however. If he were to offer Schmeling the title chance instead of Louis, there was a very real possibility that Nazi authorities would never allow Louis a shot at the title. Gould's demands were therefore onerous: Jacobs would have to pay 10% of all future boxing promotion profits (including any future profits from Louis's future bouts) for ten years. Braddock and Gould would eventually receive more than $150,000 from this arrangement. Well before the actual fight, Jacobs and Gould publicly announced that their fighters would fight for the heavyweight title on June 22, 1937. Figuring that the New York State Athletic Commission would not sanction the fight in deference to MSG and Schmeling, Jacobs scheduled the fight for Chicago.\nEach of the parties involved worked to facilitate the controversial Braddock–Louis matchup. Louis did his part by knocking out former champion Jack Sharkey on August 18, 1936. Meanwhile, Gould trumped up anti-Nazi sentiment against Schmeling, and Jacobs defended a lawsuit by MSG to halt the Braddock–Louis fight. A federal court in Newark, New Jersey, eventually ruled that Braddock's contractual obligation to stage his title defense at MSG was unenforceable for lack of mutual consideration.\nThe stage was set for Louis's title shot. On the night of the fight, June 22, 1937, Braddock was able to knock Louis down in round one, but afterward could accomplish little. After inflicting constant punishment, Louis defeated Braddock in round eight, knocking him out cold with a strong right hand that busted James' teeth through his gum shield and lip and sent him to the ground for a few minutes. It was the first and only time that Braddock was knocked out (the one other stoppage of Braddock's career was a TKO due to a cut). Louis's ascent to the world heavyweight championship was complete.\nLouis's victory was a seminal moment in African American history. Thousands of African Americans stayed up all night across the country in celebration. Noted author and member of the Harlem Renaissance Langston Hughes described Louis's effect in these terms:\n\nEach time Joe Louis won a fight in those depression years, even before he became champion, thousands of black Americans on relief or W.P.A., and poor, would throng out into the streets all across the land to march and cheer and yell and cry because of Joe's one-man triumphs. No one else in the United States has ever had such an effect on Negro emotions—or on mine. I marched and cheered and yelled and cried, too.\n\nInitial title defenses\nDespite his championship, Louis was haunted by the earlier defeat to Schmeling. Shortly after winning the title, he was quoted as saying, \"I don't want to be called champ until I whip Max Schmeling\". Louis's manager Mike Jacobs attempted to arrange a rematch in 1937, but negotiations broke down when Schmeling demanded 30% of the gate. When Schmeling instead attempted to arrange for a fight against British Empire champion Tommy Farr, known as the \"Tonypandy Terror\"—ostensibly for a world championship to rival the claims of American boxing authorities—Jacobs outmaneuvered him, offering Farr a guaranteed $60,000 to fight Louis instead. The offer was too lucrative for Farr to turn down.\nOn August 30, 1937, after a postponement of four days due to rain, Louis and Farr finally touched gloves at New York's Yankee Stadium before a crowd of approximately 32,000. Louis fought one of the hardest battles of his life. The bout was closely contested and went the entire 15 rounds, with Louis being unable to knock Farr down. Referee Arthur Donovan was even seen shaking Farr's hand after the bout, in apparent congratulation. Nevertheless, after the score was announced, Louis had won a controversial unanimous decision. Time described the scene thus: \"After collecting the judges' votes, referee Arthur Donovan announced that Louis had won the fight on points. The crowd of 50,000 ... amazed that Farr had not been knocked out or even knocked down, booed the decision\".\nIt seems the crowd believed that referee Arthur Donovan Sr. had raised Farr's glove in victory. Seven years later, in his published account of the fight, Donovan spoke of the \"mistake\" that may have led to this confusion. He wrote:\n\nAs Tommy walked back to his corner after shaking Louis' hand, I followed him and seized his glove. \"Tommy, a wonderful perform—\" I began ... Then I dropped his hand like a red-hot coal! He had started to raise his arm. He thought I had given him the fight and the world championship! I literally ran away, shaking my head and shouting. \"No! No! No!\" realising how I had raised his hopes for a few seconds only to dash them to the ground ... That's the last time my emotions will get the better of me in a prize fight! There was much booing at the announced result, but, as I say it, it was all emotional. I gave Tommy two rounds and one even—and both his winning rounds were close.\nSpeaking over the radio after the fight, Louis admitted that he had been hurt twice.\nIn preparation for the inevitable rematch with Schmeling, Louis tuned up with bouts against Nathan Mann and Harry Thomas.\n\nLouis vs. Schmeling II\nThe rematch between Louis and Schmeling would become one of the most famous boxing matches of all time and is remembered as one of the major sports events of the 20th century. Following his defeat of Louis in 1936, Schmeling had become a national hero in Germany. Schmeling's victory over an African American was touted by Nazi officials as proof of their doctrine of Aryan superiority. When the rematch was scheduled, Louis retreated to his boxing camp in New Jersey and trained incessantly for the fight. A few weeks before the bout, Louis visited the White House, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt told him, \"Joe, we need muscles like yours to beat Germany\". Louis later admitted: \"I knew I had to get Schmeling good. I had my own personal reasons and the whole damned country was depending on me\".\nWhen Schmeling arrived in New York City in June 1938 for the rematch, he was accompanied by a Nazi party publicist who issued statements that a black man could not defeat Schmeling and that when Schmeling won, his prize money would be used to build tanks in Germany. Schmeling's hotel was picketed by anti-Nazi protesters in the days before the fight.\nOn the night of June 22, 1938, Louis and Schmeling met for the second time in the boxing ring. The fight was held in Yankee Stadium before a crowd of 70,043. It was broadcast by radio to millions of listeners throughout the world (including 58% of radio-equipped U.S. households), with radio announcers reporting on the fight in English, German, Spanish, and Portuguese. Before the bout, Schmeling weighed in at 193 pounds; Louis weighed in at 198¾ pounds.\nThe fight lasted two minutes and four seconds. Louis battered Schmeling with a series of swift attacks, forcing him against the ropes and giving him a paralyzing body blow (Schmeling afterward claimed it was an illegal kidney punch). Schmeling was knocked down three times and only managed to throw two punches in the entire bout. On the third knockdown, Schmeling's trainer threw in the towel and referee Arthur Donovan stopped the fight.\nWell-established as one of the most significant boxing matches in history,\n the fight has been widely regarded as among the most important or historic sports events of all time. It was the first time that many white Americans openly cheered for a black man against a white opponent.\n\n\"Bum of the Month Club\"\nIn the 29 months from January 1939 through May 1941, Louis defended his title thirteen times, a frequency unmatched by any heavyweight champion since the end of the bare-knuckle era. The pace of his title defenses, combined with his convincing wins, earned Louis's opponents from this era the collective nickname \"Bum of the Month Club\". Notables of this lambasted pantheon include:\n\nWorld light heavyweight champion John Henry Lewis who, attempting to move up a weight class, was knocked out in the first round by Louis on January 25, 1939.\n\"Two Ton\" Tony Galento, who was able to knock Louis to the canvas with a left hook in the third round of their bout on June 28, 1939, before letting his guard down and being knocked out in the fourth.\nChilean Arturo Godoy, whom Louis fought twice in 1940, on February 9 and June 20. Louis won the first bout by a split-decision, and the rematch by a knockout in the eighth round.\nAl McCoy, putative New England heavyweight champion, whose fight against Louis is probably best known for being the first heavyweight title bout held in Boston, Massachusetts, (at the Boston Garden on December 16, 1940). The popular local challenger dodged his way around Louis before being unable to respond to the sixth-round bell.\nClarence \"Red\" Burman, who pressed Louis for nearly five rounds at Madison Square Garden on January 31, 1941, before succumbing to a series of body blows.\nGus Dorazio, of whom Louis remarked, \"At least he tried\", after being leveled by a short right hand in the second round at Philadelphia's Convention Hall on February 17.\nAbe Simon, who endured thirteen rounds of punishment before 18,908 at Olympia Stadium in Detroit on March 21 before referee Sam Hennessy declared a TKO.\nTony Musto, who, at 5'7½\" and 198 pounds, was known as \"Baby Tank\". Despite a unique crouching style, Musto was slowly worn down over eight and a half rounds in St. Louis on April 8, and the fight was called a TKO because of a severe cut over Musto's eye.\nBuddy Baer (brother of former champion Max), who was leading the May 23, 1941, bout in Washington, D.C., until an eventual barrage by Louis, capped by a hit at the sixth round bell. Referee Arthur Donovan disqualified Baer before the beginning of the seventh round as a result of stalling by Baer's manager.\nDespite its derogatory nickname, most of the group were top-ten heavyweights. Of the 12 fighters Louis faced during this period, five were rated by The Ring as top-10 heavyweights in the year they fought Louis: Galento (overall #2 heavyweight in 1939), Bob Pastor (#3, 1939), Godoy (#3, 1940), Simon (#6, 1941) and Baer (#8, 1941). Four others (Musto, Dorazio, Burman and Johnny Paychek) were ranked in the top 10 in a different year.\n\nLouis vs. Conn\nLouis's string of lightly regarded competition ended with his bout against Billy Conn, the light heavyweight champion and a highly regarded contender. The fighters met on June 18, 1941, in front of a crowd of 54,487 fans at the Polo Grounds in New York City. The fight turned out to be what is commonly considered one of the greatest heavyweight boxing fights of all time.\nConn would not gain weight for the challenge against Louis, saying instead that he would rely on a \"hit and run\" strategy. This prompted Louis's famous response: \"He can run, but he can't hide\".\nHowever, Louis had clearly underestimated Conn's threat. In his autobiography, Joe Louis said:\n\nI made a mistake going into that fight. I knew Conn was kinda small and I didn't want them to say in the papers that I beat up on some little guy so the day before the fight I did a little roadwork to break a sweat and drank as little water as possible so I could weigh in under 200 pounds. Chappie was as mad as hell. But Conn was a clever fighter, he was like a mosquito, he'd sting and move.\n\nConn had the better of the fight through 12 rounds, although Louis was able to stun Conn with a left hook in the fifth, cutting his eye and nose. By the eighth round, Louis began suffering from dehydration. By the twelfth round, Louis was exhausted, with Conn ahead on two of three boxing scorecards. But against the advice of his corner, Conn continued to closely engage Louis in the later stages of the fight. Louis made the most of the opportunity, knocking Conn out with two seconds left in the thirteenth round.\nThe contest created an instant rivalry that Louis's career had lacked since the Schmeling era, and a rematch with Conn was planned for late 1942. The rematch had to be abruptly canceled, however, after Conn broke his hand in a much-publicized fight with his father-in-law, Major League ballplayer Jimmy \"Greenfield\" Smith. By the time Conn was ready for the rematch, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place.\n\nWorld War II\nLouis fought a charity bout for the Navy Relief Society against his former opponent Buddy Baer on January 9, 1942, which raised $47,000 for the fund. The next day, he volunteered to enlist as a private in the United States Army at Camp Upton, Long Island. Newsreel cameras recorded his induction, including a staged scene in which a soldier-clerk asked, \"What's your occupation?\", to which Louis replied, \"Fighting and let us at them Japs\".\nAnother military charity bout on March 27, 1942, (against another former opponent, Abe Simon) netted $36,146. Before the fight, Louis had spoken at a Relief Fund dinner, saying of the war effort, \"We'll win, 'cause we're on God's side\". The media widely reported the comment, instigating a surge of popularity for Louis. Slowly, the press began to eliminate its stereotypical racial references when covering Louis and instead treated him as a sports hero. Despite the public relations boon, Louis's charitable fights proved financially costly. Although he saw none of the roughly $90,000 raised by these and other charitable fights, the IRS later credited these amounts as taxable income paid to Louis. After the war, the IRS pursued the issue.\nFor basic training, Louis was assigned to a segregated cavalry unit based in Fort Riley, Kansas. The assignment was at the suggestion of his friend and lawyer Truman Gibson, who knew of Louis's love for horsemanship. Gibson had previously become a civilian advisor to the War Department, in charge of investigating claims of harassment against black soldiers. Accordingly, Louis used this personal connection to help the cause of various black soldiers with whom he came into contact. In one noted episode, Louis contacted Gibson in order to facilitate the Officer Candidate School (OCS) applications of a group of black recruits at Fort Riley, which had been inexplicably delayed for several months. Among the OCS applications Louis facilitated was that of young UCLA athletic legend Jackie Robinson, later to break the baseball color barrier. The episode spawned a personal friendship between the two men.\nRealizing Louis's potential for raising esprit de corps among the troops, the Army placed him in its Special Services Division rather than sending him into combat. Louis went on a celebrity tour with other notables, including fellow boxer Sugar Ray Robinson. He traveled more than 35,000 km (22,000 mi) and staged 96 boxing exhibitions before two million soldiers. In England during 1944, he was reported to have signed as a player for Liverpool Football Club as a publicity stunt.\n\nIn addition to his travels, Louis was the focus of a media recruitment campaign encouraging African-American men to enlist in the Armed Services, despite the military's racial segregation. When he was asked about his decision to enter the racially segregated U.S. Army, he said: \"Lots of things wrong with America, but Hitler ain't going to fix them\". In 1943, Louis made an appearance in the wartime Hollywood musical This Is the Army, directed by Michael Curtiz. He appeared as himself in a musical number, \"The Well-Dressed Man in Harlem,\" which emphasized the importance of African-American soldiers and promoted their enlistment.\nLouis's celebrity power was not directed solely toward African Americans. In a famous wartime recruitment slogan, he echoed his prior comments of 1942: \"We'll win, because we're on God's side\". The publicity of the campaign made Louis widely popular stateside, even outside the world of sports. Never before had white Americans embraced a black man as their representative to the world.\nAlthough Louis never saw combat, his military service saw challenges of its own. During his travels, he often experienced blatant racism. On one occasion, a military policeman (MP) ordered Louis and Ray Robinson to move to a bench in the rear of an Alabama Army camp bus depot. \"We ain't moving\", said Louis. The MP tried to arrest them, but Louis forcefully argued the pair out of the situation. In another incident, Louis exerted his influence to persuade a commanding officer to drop charges against now Lt. Jackie Robinson, who had resisted being told to move his seat on a southern bus, and retaliated against a Captain who had called Robinson a \"nigger\".\nLouis was eventually promoted to the rank of technical sergeant on April 9, 1945. On September 23 of the same year, he was awarded the Legion of Merit (a military decoration rarely awarded to enlisted soldiers) for \"incalculable contribution to the general morale\". Receipt of the honor qualified him for immediate release from military service on October 1, 1945.\n\nLater career and retirement\nLouis emerged from his wartime service significantly in debt. In addition to his looming tax bill—which had not been finally determined at the time, but was estimated at greater than $100,000—Jacobs claimed that Louis owed him $250,000.\nDespite the financial pressure on Louis to resume boxing, his long-awaited rematch against Billy Conn had to be postponed to the summer of 1946, when weather conditions could accommodate a large outdoor audience. On June 19, a disappointing 40,000 saw the rematch at Yankee Stadium, in which Louis was not seriously tested. Conn, whose skills had deteriorated during the long layoff, largely avoided contact until being dispatched by knockout in the eighth round. Although the attendance did not meet expectations, the fight was still the most profitable of Louis's career to date. His share of the purse was $600,000, of which Louis's managers got $140,000, his ex-wife $66,000 and the U.S. state of New York $30,000.\nAfter trouble finding another suitable opponent, on December 5, 1947, Louis met Jersey Joe Walcott, a 33-year-old veteran with a 44–11–2 record. Walcott entered the fight as a 10-to-1 underdog. Nevertheless, Walcott knocked down Louis twice in the first four rounds. Most observers in Madison Square Garden felt Walcott dominated the 15-round fight. When Louis was declared the winner in a split decision, the crowd booed.\nLouis was under no illusion about the state of his boxing skills, yet he was too embarrassed to quit after the Walcott fight. Determined to win and retire with his title intact, Louis signed on for a rematch. On June 25, 1948, about 42,000 people came to Yankee Stadium to see the aging champion, who weighed 213½ pounds, the heaviest of his career to date. Walcott knocked Louis down in the third round, but Louis survived to knock out Walcott in the eleventh.\nLouis would not defend his title again before announcing his retirement from boxing on March 1, 1949. In his bouts with Conn and Walcott, it had become apparent that Louis was no longer the fighter he had once been. As he had done earlier in his career, however, Louis would continue to appear in numerous exhibition matches worldwide. In August 1949 Cab Calloway rendered homage to the “king of the ring” with his song Ol’ Joe Louis.\n\nComeback\nAt the time of Louis's initial retirement, the IRS was still completing its investigation of his prior tax returns, which had always been handled by Mike Jacobs's personal accountant. In May 1950, the IRS finished a full audit of Louis's past returns and announced that, with interest and penalties, he owed the government more than $500,000. Louis had no choice but to return to the ring.\nAfter asking Gibson to take over his personal finances and switching his management from Jacobs and Roxborough to Marshall Miles, the Louis camp negotiated a deal with the IRS under which Louis would come out of retirement, with all Louis's net proceeds going to the IRS. A match with Ezzard Charles—who had acquired the vacant heavyweight title in June 1949 by outpointing Walcott—was set for September 27, 1950. By then, Louis was 36 years old and had been away from competitive boxing for two years. Weighing in at 218 pounds, Louis was still strong, but his reflexes were gone and Charles repeatedly beat him to the punch. By the end of the fight, Louis was cut above both eyes, one of which was shut tight by swelling. He knew he had lost even before Charles was declared the winner. The result was not the only disappointing aspect of the fight for Louis; only 22,357 spectators paid to witness the event at Yankee Stadium, and his share of the purse was a mere $100,458. Louis had to continue fighting.\nAfter facing several club-level opponents and scoring a knockout victory over EBU heavyweight champion Lee Savold, the International Boxing Club guaranteed Louis $300,000 to face undefeated heavyweight contender Rocky Marciano on October 26, 1951. Despite his being a 6-to-5 favorite, few boxing insiders believed Louis had a chance. Marciano himself was reluctant to participate in the bout, but was understanding of Louis's position: \"This is the last guy on earth I want to fight\". It was feared, particularly among those who had witnessed Marciano's punching power first-hand, that Louis's unwillingness to quit would result in serious injury. Fighting back tears, Ferdie Pacheco said in the SportsCentury documentary about Louis's bout with Marciano, \"He [Louis] wasn't just going to lose. He was going to take a vicious, savage beating. Before the eyes of the nation, Joe Louis, an American hero if ever there was one, was going to get beaten up\". Louis was dropped in the eighth round by a Marciano left and knocked through the ropes and out of the ring less than thirty seconds later.\nIn the dressing room after the fight, Louis's Army touring companion, Sugar Ray Robinson, wept. Marciano also attempted to console Louis, saying, \"I'm sorry, Joe\". \"What's the use of crying?\" Louis said. \"The better man won. I guess everything happens for the best\".\nAfter facing Marciano, with the prospect of another significant payday all but gone, Louis retired for good from professional boxing. He would, as before, continue to tour on the exhibition circuit, with his last contest taking place on December 16, 1951, in Taipei, Taiwan, against Corporal Buford J. deCordova.\n\nTaxes and financial troubles\nDespite Louis's lucrative purses over the years, most of the proceeds went to his handlers. Of the over $4.6 million earned during his boxing career, Louis himself received only about $800,000. Louis was nevertheless extremely generous to his family, paying for homes, cars and education for his parents and siblings, often with money fronted by Jacobs. He invested in a number of businesses, all of which eventually failed, including the Joe Louis Restaurant, the Joe Louis Insurance Company, a softball team called the Brown Bombers, the Joe Louis Milk Company, Joe Louis pomade (hair product), Joe Louis Punch (a drink), the Louis-Rower P.R. firm, a horse farm and the Rhumboogie Café in Chicago. He gave liberally to the government as well, paying back the city of Detroit for any welfare money his family had received.\n\nA combination of this largesse and government intervention eventually put Louis in severe financial straits. His entrusting of his finances to former manager Mike Jacobs haunted him. After the $500,000 IRS tax bill was assessed, with interest accumulating every year, the need for cash precipitated Louis's post-retirement comeback. Even though his comeback earned him significant purses, the incremental tax rate in place at the time (90%) meant that these boxing proceeds did not even keep pace with interest on Louis's tax debt. As a result, by the end of the 1950s, he owed over $1 million in taxes and interest. In 1953, when Louis's mother died, the IRS appropriated the $667 she had willed to Louis. To bring in money, Louis engaged in numerous activities outside the ring. He appeared on various quiz shows, and an old Army friend, Ash Resnick, gave Louis a job greeting tourists to the Caesars Palace hotel in Las Vegas, where Resnick was an executive. For income, Louis even became a professional wrestler. He made his professional wrestling debut on March 16, 1956, in Washington, D.C. at the Uline Arena, defeating Cowboy Rocky Lee. After defeating Lee in a few matches, Louis discovered he had a heart ailment and retired from wrestling competition. However, he continued as a wrestling referee until 1972.\nLouis remained a popular celebrity in his twilight years. His friends included former rival Max Schmeling, who provided Louis with financial assistance during his retirement—and mobster Frank Lucas, who, disgusted with the government's treatment of Louis, once paid off a $50,000 tax lien held against him. These payments, along with an eventual agreement in the early 1960s by the IRS to limit its collections to an amount based on Louis's current income, allowed Louis to live comfortably toward the end of his life.\nAfter the Louis-Schmeling fight, Jack Dempsey expressed the opinion that he was glad he never had to face Joe Louis in the ring. When Louis fell on hard financial times, Dempsey served as honorary chairman of a fund to assist Louis.\n\nProfessional wrestling career\nIn an effort to improve his financial situation, Joe Louis got involved with professional wrestling in 1954. His first recorded match was on August 6, 1954, in a victory over Bobby Nelson.\n\nIn 1956, Louis went on a short-lived wrestling tour arranged by promoter Ray Fabiani. This was cut short after a match against Cowboy Rocky Lee on May 31, 1956, when Louis' ribs were cracked, and he subsequently lost his wrestling license.\nLouis returned to the wrestling ring on March 15, 1959, where he lost to Buddy Rogers in Columbus, Ohio. This led to a hiatus until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when he engaged in several wrestling matches. His last match was in 1973 but he continued as a referee.\n\nProfessional golf\nOne of Louis' other passions was the game of golf, in which he also played a historic role. He was a long-time devotee of the sport since being introduced to the game before the first Schmeling fight in 1936. In 1952, Louis was invited to play as an amateur in the San Diego Open on a sponsor's exemption, which was announced at the time as the first instance of an African-American to play in a PGA Tour event (in fact, professional Howard Wheeler was one of seven African-Americans to compete in the Tam O'Shanter Open in Niles, Illinois in 1942, and Wheeler appeared in subsequent PGA-sanctioned events in Philadelphia in the 1940s, qualifying for the 1950 and 1951 U.S. Open).\nInitially, the PGA of America was reluctant to allow Louis to enter the event, having a bylaw at the time limiting PGA membership to white Americans. Louis's celebrity status eventually pushed the PGA toward removing the bylaw, although the \"Caucasian only\" clause in the PGA of America's constitution was not formally amended until November 1961. The change, however, paved the way for the first generation of African-American professional golfers such as Calvin Peete.\nTwo weeks after the 1952 San Diego Open, Louis was invited to play in the 1952 Tucson Open. Louis shot a 69 in the opening round and a 72 in the 2nd round. His 2-round total of 141 enabled him to make the cut. Joe Louis is the only champion athlete from another sport ever to make the cut in a PGA event.\nLouis himself financially supported the careers of several other early black professional golfers, such as Bill Spiller, Ted Rhodes, Howard Wheeler, James Black, Clyde Martin and Charlie Sifford. He was also instrumental in founding The First Tee, a charity helping underprivileged children become acquainted with the game of golf. His son, Joe Louis Barrow Jr., served as CEO of the organization until 2017.\nIn 2009, the PGA of America granted posthumous membership to Ted Rhodes, John Shippen and Bill Spiller, who were denied the opportunity to become PGA members during their professional careers. The PGA also has granted posthumous honorary membership to Louis. A public golf course in Riverdale, Illinois, just south of Chicago, is named for him.\n\nPersonal life\n“I did the best I could with what I had”.\n\nLouis had two children by wife Marva Trotter (daughter Jacqueline in 1943 and son Joseph Louis Barrow Jr. in 1947). They divorced in March 1945 only to remarry a year later, but were again divorced in February 1949. Marva moved on to an acting and modeling career. On Christmas Day 1955, Louis married Rose Morgan, a successful Harlem businesswoman; their marriage was annulled in 1958. Louis's final marriage—to Martha Jefferson, a lawyer from Los Angeles, on St. Patrick's Day 1959—lasted until his death. They had four children: another son named Joseph Louis Barrow Jr, John Louis Barrow, Joyce Louis Barrow, and Janet Louis Barrow. The younger Joe Louis Barrow Jr. lives in New York City and is involved in boxing. Though married four times, Louis discreetly enjoyed the company of other women like Lena Horne and Edna Mae Harris.\n\nJoe and Marva Louis endorsed and campaigned for liberal, anti-segregation Republican candidate Wendell Willkie in the 1940 United States presidential election. Louis said:\n\nThis country has been good to me. It gave me everything I have. I have never come out for any candidate before but I think Wendell L. Willkie will give us a square deal. So I am for Willkie because I think he will help my people, and I figure my people should be for him, too.\nDrugs took a toll on Louis in his later years. In 1969, he was hospitalized after collapsing on a New York City street. While the incident was at first credited to \"physical breakdown,\" underlying problems would soon surface. In 1970, he spent five months at the Colorado Psychiatric Hospital and the Veterans Administration Hospital in Denver, hospitalized by his wife, Martha, and his son, Joe Louis Barrow Jr., for paranoia. In a 1971 book, Brown Bomber, by Barney Nagler, Louis disclosed the truth about these incidents, stating that his collapse in 1969 had been caused by cocaine, and that his subsequent hospitalization had been prompted by his fear of a plot to destroy him. Strokes and heart ailments caused Louis's condition to deteriorate further later in the decade. He had surgery to correct an aortic aneurysm in 1977 and thereafter used a POV/scooter for a mobility aid.\n\nDeath\nLouis died of cardiac arrest in Desert Springs Hospital near Las Vegas on April 12, 1981, just hours after his last public appearance viewing the Larry Holmes–Trevor Berbick heavyweight championship fight. President Ronald Reagan waived the eligibility rules for burial at Arlington National Cemetery and Louis was buried there with full military honors on April 21, 1981. His funeral was paid for in part by former competitor and friend, Max Schmeling, who also acted as a pallbearer.\n\nFilm and television\nLouis appeared in six full-length films and two short films.\nLouis had a starring role in the 1938 race film Spirit of Youth, in which he played a boxer with many similarities to himself.\nIn 1943, he was featured in the full-length movie This is the Army, which starred Ronald Reagan, with appearances by Kate Smith singing \"God Bless America\" and Irving Berlin, and which was directed by Michael Curtiz.\nIn 1946 he played himself in Joe Palooka, Champ, a movie based on the comic strip Joe Palooka created by Ham Fisher.\nLouis once again played himself in the short film Johnny At The Fair in 1947. The short film takes place at the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) where a boy becomes separated from his parents and meets a host of celebrities including former Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon MacKenzie King and champion figure skater Barbara Ann Scott.\nIn 1948 Louis starred as himself in Joseph Lerner's The Fight Never Ends.\nIn 1955 Louis was once again cast as himself in a small role in The Square Jungle written by George Zuckerman and starring Tony Curtis.\nLouis's last feature-length movie role took place in the 1970 comedy The Phynx in which a rock band goes on tour in Albania in order to save Americans being held hostage.\nHe was a guest on the television show You Bet Your Life in 1955. In 1977, Louis made a small cameo appearance on the TV series \"Quincy M.E.\"\nIn 1953, Robert Gordon directed a movie about Louis's life, The Joe Louis Story. Filmed in Hollywood, it starred Golden Gloves fighter and Louis lookalike Coley Wallace in the title role. The film suffered from low budget and production values, sluggishly intercutting clips from Louis's actual bouts with indifferent audio sync.\n\nLegacy\nLouis is widely regarded as one of the greatest boxers of all time. He reigned as the world heavyweight champion from 1937 to 1949, during which he participated in 26 championship fights, defeated 21 fighters, made 25 defenses and was a world champion for 11 years and 10 months. The latter two are still records in the heavyweight division, the former in any division. Louis has won the most world heavyweight title fights in history, at 26. In addition to his accomplishments inside the ring, Louis uttered two of boxing's most famous observations: \"He can run, but he can't hide\" and \"Everyone has a plan until they've been hit\".\nLouis was named fighter of the year four times by The Ring magazine in 1936, 1938, 1939, and 1941. His fights with Max Baer, Max Schmeling, Tommy Farr, Bob Pastor and Billy Conn were named fight of the year by that same magazine. Louis won the Sugar Ray Robinson Award in 1941. In 2005, Louis was ranked as the best heavyweight of all time by the International Boxing Research Organization, and was ranked number one on The Ring magazine's list of the \"100 greatest punchers of all time\". In a 1978 poll conducted by HBO, the Boxing Writers of America voted Louis the greatest heavyweight of all time. Hank Kaplan, Bert Sugar, Teddy Atlas, George Foreman, Joe Frazier, and Sugar Ray Robinson named Louis as the greatest heavyweight boxer of all time.\nLouis is also remembered in sports outside of boxing. A former indoor sports venue was named after him in Detroit, the Joe Louis Arena, where the Detroit Red Wings played their NHL games from 1979 to 2017. In 1936, Vince Leah, then a writer for The Winnipeg Tribune used Joe Louis's nickname to refer to the Winnipeg Football Club after a game. From that point, the team became known popularly as the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.\nHis recognition also transcends the sporting world. In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Joe Louis on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. On August 26, 1982, Louis was posthumously approved for the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award given to civilians by the U.S. legislative branch. Congress stated that he \"did so much to bolster the spirit of the American people during one of the most crucial times in American history and which have endured throughout the years as a symbol of strength for the nation\". Following Louis's death, President Ronald Reagan said, \"Joe Louis was more than a sports legend—his career was an indictment of racial bigotry and a source of pride and inspiration to millions of white and black people around the world\".\n\nA memorial to Louis was dedicated in Detroit (at Jefferson Avenue and Woodward) on October 16, 1986. The sculpture, commissioned by Time, Inc. and executed by Robert Graham, is a 24-foot-long (7.3 m) arm with a fisted hand suspended by a 24-foot-high (7.3 m) pyramidal framework. It represents the power of his punch both inside and outside the ring.\n\nIn an interview with Arsenio Hall in the late 1980s, former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali stated that his two biggest influences in boxing were Sugar Ray Robinson and Joe Louis. After Joe Louis died, Ali stated, \"Whatever I said before, I don't mean it, 'cause Joe Louis was the greatest.\" Ali then told the Washington Post: \nLook at Joe's life. Everybody loved Joe. He would have been marked as evil if he was evil, but everybody loved Joe. From black folks to red-neck Mississippi crackers, they loved him. They're all crying. That shows you. Howard Hughes dies, with all his billions, not a tear. Joe Louis, everybody cried. On February 27, 2010, an 8-foot (2.4 m) bronze statue of Louis was unveiled in his Alabama hometown. The statue, by sculptor Casey Downing Jr., sits on a base of red granite outside the Chambers County Courthouse.\nIn 1993, he became the first boxer to be honored on a postage stamp issued by the U.S. Postal Service.\nVarious other facilities have been named after Joe Louis. In 1984, the four streets surrounding Madison Square Garden were named Joe Louis Plaza in his honor. The former Pipe O' Peace Golf Course in Riverdale, Illinois (a Chicago suburb), was in 1986 renamed \"Joe Louis The Champ Golf Course\". American Legion Post 375 in Detroit is also named after Joe Louis. Completed in 1979 at a cost of $4 million, Joe Louis Arena, nicknamed The Joe, was a hockey arena located in downtown Detroit. It was the home of the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League from 1979 until 2017. The planned demolition of the Arena prompted the City of Detroit in 2017 to rename the Inner Circle Greenway as the Joe Louis Greenway. The 39-mile (63 km) biking and walking trail passes through the cities of Detroit, Hamtramck, Highland Park, and Dearborn.\nIn one of the most widely quoted tributes to Louis, New York Post sportswriter Jimmy Cannon, when responding to another person's characterization of Louis as \"a credit to his race\", stated, \"Yes, Joe Louis is a credit to his race—the human race\".\n\nJoe Louis trained at the site of the Pompton Lakes (NJ) Elks Club. When he won one of his fights, he donated the first ambulance to the Pompton Lakes First Aid Squad.\n\nCultural references\nIn his heyday, Louis was the subject of many musical tributes, including a number of blues songs.\nKurt Vonnegut's short story \"D.P.\" (originally published in Ladies Home Journal in August 1953) is about a black orphan boy living in post-World War II Germany who is nicknamed \"Joe Louis\" (after the boxer) by US soldiers stationed in the American Zone of Occupation. \"D.P.\" was included in Vonnegut's short story collection Welcome to the Monkey House (1968) and filmed as \"Displaced Person\" for television's American Playhouse in 1985.\nLouis was portrayed by actor Bari K. Willerford in the film American Gangster.\nIn 2009, the Brooklyn band Yeasayer debuted the single \"Ambling Alp\" from their forthcoming album Odd Blood, which imagines what advice Joe Louis's father might have given him prior to becoming a prizefighter. The song makes reference to Louis's boxing career and his famous rivalry with Schmeling in the first person, with the lyrics such as \"Oh, Max Schmeling was a formidable foe / The Ambling Alp was too, at least that's what I'm told / But if you learn one thing, you've learned it well / In June, you must give fascists hell\".\nAn opera based on his life, Shadowboxer, premiered on April 17, 2010.\nThe aforementioned sculpture of Louis's fist (see Legacy above) was one of several Detroit landmarks depicted in 'Imported from Detroit', a two-minute commercial for the Chrysler 200 featuring Eminem that aired during Super Bowl XLV in 2011.\nLouis is the inspiration behind Jesse Jagz's eponymous song from the album Jagz Nation, Vol. 2: Royal Niger Company (2014).\nThe first track from John Squire's 2002 debut LP Time Changes Everything is titled \"Joe Louis\", and the lyrics include references to his boxing and army career.\nLouis' life is retold in the 1948 old-time radio drama \"Little David\", a presentation from Destination Freedom.\n\nProfessional boxing record\nSee also\nList of world heavyweight boxing champions\n\nFootnotes\nCitations\nReferences\nThis article incorporates material from the Citizendium article \"Joe Louis\", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.\n\nExternal links\n\nBoxing record for Joe Louis from BoxRec (registration required)\nThe Joe Louis Story (1953) - Biographical movie about boxing champion of the world - Full Movie YouTube\nNBA World Heavyweight Title Fights\nNYSAC World Heavyweight Title Fights\nBoxing Hall of Fame\nESPN.com\nESPN.com -- additional information\nFBI file on Joe Louis\nJoe Louis profile at Cyber Boxing Zone\nThe Fight of the Century NPR special on the selection of the radio broadcast to the National Recording Registry\nJoe Louis at IMDb\n\"Remembering Joe Louis\", WTVM\nLouis to train in Thomas bout old newspaper clipping",
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"paragraph_text": "Tate Rosner McRae (born July 1, 2003) is a Canadian singer, songwriter, and dancer. At the age of 13, she gained prominence as the first Canadian finalist on the American reality television series So You Think You Can Dance. McRae was signed by RCA Records in 2019 after her songs had gained traction online—including her 2017 viral hit \"One Day\"—and she released her debut extended play (EP), All the Things I Never Said (2020), in January of the following year. Her 2020 single, \"You Broke Me First\", became an international hit and peaked at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100. In 2021, McRae was the youngest musician to be featured on the Forbes' 30 Under 30 list.\nHer second EP, Too Young to Be Sad (2021) was the most streamed female EP of 2021 on Spotify. Her debut studio album, I Used to Think I Could Fly (2022) was met with favorable critical response and peaked at number 13 on the US Billboard 200, also reaching the top ten in several countries. Developing a more pop-oriented image, McRae's 2023 single, \"Greedy\" saw her furthest commercial success; it peaked atop the Canadian Hot 100 and reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100. Its follow-up, \"Exes\", peaked at numbers nine and 34 on the charts, respectively, and preceded the release of her second studio album, Think Later (2023), which debuted in the top five in various countries.\n\nEarly life and education\nTate Rosner McRae was born in Calgary, Alberta, on Canada Day in 2003, to a Canadian father of Scottish descent and mother of German descent. At the age of four, due to her father's work, she moved with her family to Oman, where her mother taught dance lessons, and she lived there for three years. During her time in Oman, McRae attended The American International School Muscat (TAISM). McRae began recreational dance training at age six. Having returned to Calgary, at the age of eight, she began to train more intensively in dance and competed with Drewitz Dance Productions. From age 11, she began training in all styles of dance at YYC Dance Project, a dance company owned by her mother, and underwent ballet training at the School of Alberta Ballet, the training school for the Alberta Ballet Company.\nMcRae attended Western Canada High School and graduated online in 2022.\n\nCareer\n2013–2018: Dance career\nMcRae was awarded Mini Best Female Dancer at the 2013 Dance Awards in New York City. After gaining some prominence, she became a brand ambassador for the American dance manufacturer Capezio. She became a finalist at the New York City Dance Alliance's 2014 National Gala. She also voiced Spot Splatter Splash for the Lalaloopsy (2013-2015) franchise.\nIn 2015, McRae was awarded a two-week scholarship at the Berlin State Ballet company after winning the silver medal as a soloist and the bronze medal for her duet at the 2015 Youth America Grand Prix. She danced in the music video for Walk off the Earth's platinum-certified single \"Rule The World\". For the second time, McRae was awarded the Best Female Dancer award at the 2015 Dance Awards, this time in the Junior category.\nIn June 2016, she performed at Justin Bieber's concert in Calgary for the Purpose World Tour during Bieber's performance of \"Children\". In April 2016, McRae performed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show as part of the DancerPalooza troupe. In June 2016, she took part in the thirteenth season of American television show So You Think You Can Dance. While competing for the America's Favorite Dancer title as a non-American, she was mentored by American dancer and actress Kathryn McCormick. She advanced further in the competition than any other Canadian in the show's history, placing third on the final episode. Canadian TV host Murtz Jaffer from Toronto Sun reacted, \"The fact that Canadians couldn't vote for Tate makes her third-place finish all the more impressive. While she might not have been voted America's favourite dancer, she certainly might be Canada's.\" She performed at the 2016 Teen Choice Awards as a finalist from the SYTYCD cast. She performed again on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in October 2016 as part of the Jump Dance Convention troupe.\nShe was featured on the cover of Dance Spirit Magazine in April 2017. In May 2017, she was featured in a pas de deux in Alberta Ballet Company's production, \"Our Canada\" choreographed by Jean Grand-Maître. In November 2017, after performing a dance to Demi Lovato's song Tell Me You Love Me she was invited by Lovato to rehearse with their dancers for their performance at the American Music Awards. For the third time, she won Best Female Dancer at the 2018 Dance Awards in Las Vegas, this time in the Teen category, making her the first dancer in the competition's history to win in all categories from mini to teen. In April 2018, she choreographed and danced in the music video for the song \"Just Say When\" by American rock band Nothing More.\n\n2017–2019: Music career beginnings\nSince its creation in 2011, McRae's YouTube channel has featured a fairly consistent stream of primarily dance videos. In 2017 she started Create With Tate, a video series, focused on showcasing original songs she wrote and recorded in her bedroom. Her upload of the series' first song \"One Day\" which she wrote at the age of 14, attracted over 40 million views, prompting her to self-release the song as an independent single. The song would eventually be certified gold in Canada, making it the first certification of her career. From 2017 to 2019, McRae continued to upload and release independent singles as part of her Create With Tate series. Notable songs include \"Dear Ex Best Friend\" which has over 50 million views and \"Dear Parents\" with over 20 million views. The series led to her being named a YouTube Artist on the Rise.\nHer earlier upload of \"One Day\" caught the attention of 11 record labels. She eventually signed with RCA Records, in August 2019, because they supported her in maintaining a dance career alongside her music. Following her signing, McRae announced her debut EP All the Things I Never Said in December 2019. She released the five-track EP on January 24, 2020, and announced her first headlining tour of Europe and North America. Each stop on the tour was sold out. The tour received a four out of five star rating from Roisin O'Connor of The Independent who described McRae as an impressive performer.\nThe EP's lead single, \"Tear Myself Apart\", was co-written by Billie Eilish and Finneas O'Connell. The EP's final single, \"Stupid\" charted in Ireland and Canada, earning significant radio airplay performance in the latter, peaking within the top 15 of the Canadian pop radio charts. \"Stupid\" was certified gold in Canada. \"That Way\", a track from the EP experienced a resurgence in 2021 after going viral on TikTok and charted in the UK and Ireland. McRae released a remix of \"That Way\" with Jeremy Zucker on September 3, 2021. By December 2023, the EP had amassed over 729 million streams on Spotify.\n\n2020–2021: Too Young to Be Sad\nIn April 2020, McRae released the single \"You Broke Me First\" as the lead single for her second EP titled Too Young to Be Sad. The song was an international success, peaking within the top ten of the charts in several countries and becoming her first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100. It was also the longest charting song released by a female artist in 2020 on the Billboard Hot 100, at 38 weeks. It peaked at number 1 on the Mediabase Top 40 chart, breaking the record for the longest climb to number 1 by a female solo artist at 28 weeks.\nMcRae released the single \"Vicious\" featuring American rapper Lil Mosey in June 2020 and \"Don't Be Sad\" in August 2020. She was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Push Best New Artist, and performed \"You Broke Me First\" at the VMAs pre-show. In September 2020, she was featured on the cover of Dork Magazine.\nMcRae made her first late night TV appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live! in October 21 performing \"You Broke Me First\". The same month, she released the single \"Lie to Me\" with Canadian singer Ali Gatie. She again performed \"You Broke Me First\" in November 2020 at the 2020 MTV Europe Music Awards. She appeared on the cover of Notion in November 2020. In December 2020, she released \"r u ok\", the second single from her upcoming EP.\nMcRae gained notable recognition as a rising artist in 2020, being named YouTube's Artist on the Rise, MTV's Push Artist for July, and a Vevo DSCVR artist.\nShe was featured in Billboard's 21 Under 21 One to Watch list and named by Pandora, The Independent, NME, Amazon Music, and Uproxx as an artist to watch in 2021. In December 2020, she was the youngest person listed in the Forbes 30 Under 30 list in the music category. In the same month, she was named one of Rolling Stone's top ten biggest breakthrough artists of 2020 and featured on TikTok's \"The Come Up: Emerging Artists\" list as one of the top emerging artists on the platform. She was also featured on Harper's Bazaar's On the Rise series. Towards the end of the year, following the success of \"You Broke Me First\", she signed a worldwide publishing deal with Sony/ATV.\nIn January 2021, McRae performed \"You Broke Me First\" on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. The following day, she released the song \"Rubberband\" as the third single from her upcoming EP. \nOn March 3, 2021, she released the single \"Slower\" and announced her second EP called Too Young to Be Sad, which was released on March 26, 2021. On that same day, she was announced as an Apple Music Up Next artist. In March 2021, McRae appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live! performing \"Slower\", and received two Juno Award nominations.\nOn April 16, 2021, McRae released the track \"You\" alongside Regard and Troye Sivan. On May 8, 2021, McRae performed a global virtual show, \"Too Young to Be Sad\". The show was praised by Ali Shutler of NME, who gave it a four star rating and described the show as slick, impressive, constant spectacle with pop star ambition. Later that month, she signed her first endorsement deal with Essentia Water. In May 2021, McRae was nominated for the Social Star Award at the IHeartRadio Music Awards, and performed \"You\" with Regard and Troye Sivan on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. At the end of the month, she was featured on the soundtrack of the Amazon original series Panic with the track \"Darkest Hour\".\nIn June 2021, she was featured on the song \"U love U\" by Blackbear, performed \"Lie to Me\" at the 2021 Juno Awards, and released the track \"Working\", a collaboration with Khalid. In August 2021, McRae was featured on the cover of Hunger. In October 2021, she was featured on Billboard's 21 under 21 list for 2021 and People's One to Watch list for 2021. McRae was featured on the cover of Numéro in November 2021. By the end of 2021, Too Young to Be Sad had amassed over 1 billion Spotify streams, becoming the most streamed EP of 2021 by a female artist on Spotify. The EP was nominated for Album of the Year and Pop Album of the Year at the 2022 Juno Awards.\n\n2021–2022: I Used to Think I Could Fly\nOn November 11, 2021, McRae released \"Feel Like Shit\", the lead single from her debut studio album I Used to Think I Could Fly, which was released on May 27, 2022. In January 2022, she was nominated for three iHeart Radio Awards.\n\"She's All I Wanna Be\", the second single from the album, was released on February 4, 2022. The song reached the top 10 in Canada, Ireland, Norway, Singapore, and Belgium. It also charted in the Top 40 in several countries. It debuted at number 52 in the US, becoming her highest debut on the Hot 100 at the time. In February 2022, McRae was announced as a brand ambassador for Maybelline and the face of their new Vinyl Ink liquid lip color.\nMcRae released \"Chaotic\", the third single from the album on March 25, 2022, and released \"What Would You Do?\" as the fourth single on May 13, 2022. On June 3, 2022, Tate released a music video for her single \"Don't Come Back\" exclusively via TikTok, and later released the vertical version of the video on July 11, 2022, on YouTube.\nIn September 2022, McRae released the single \"Uh Oh\". In November 2022, Tate was featured on \"10:35\" by Tiësto, a promo-single for the opening of the luxury resort Atlantis The Royal, Dubai. The song became her second UK Top 10. It reached the Top 10 in ten other countries.\n\n2023–present: Think Later\nMcRae was nominated for five Juno Awards in 2023, and performed at the show. In March 2023, McRae teamed up with MCM Worldwide for their Spring/Summer 2023 Campaign, performing \"uh oh\" and \"She's All I Wanna Be\". On September 15, 2023, she released \"Greedy\" as the lead single for her sophomore studio album Think Later. Greedy became her biggest debut to date on Spotify, and her first top 10 on the Global Spotify Charts. It debuted at number 1 in Norway and Denmark and peaked at number 1 in several countries including Canada, Denmark, Austria, and the Netherlands, as well as the Billboard Global 200, making it her first official number 1 single worldwide.\nMcRae’s second studio album Think Later was officially released on December 8, 2023. The album received mixed to positive appraisal from both fans and critics, with Rolling Stone noting M.I.A. and Ariana Grande’s influences on the project, stating that in terms of the latter, Think Later \"represented a career-defining shift for McRae as she pulled herself from the rubble of grief, heartbreak, and internal turmoil.\"Think Later debuted in the top 5 of the charts in US, UK, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Belgium and Norway.\nThe second single from Think Later, \"Exes\", was released on November 17, 2023, and peaked in the top 10 in Canada and the Netherlands, top 20 in the UK and Australia, and top 40 in the US. On November 18, 2023, she performed \"Greedy\" and a then-unreleased song titled \"Grave\" on Saturday Night Live. She also made her debut American award show performance with \"Greedy\" at the Billboard Music Awards on November 19, 2023. McRae performed a medley at the 2024 NHL All-Star game in Toronto in February 2024. In March 2024, she made her debut performance at the Brit Awards with \"Greedy\" and subsequently performed a medley of \"Greedy\" and \"Exes\" at the iHeartRadio Music Awards in April. McRae won the Juno Award for Artist of the Year, and Single of the Year for \"Greedy\" at the 2024 Juno Awards.\nOn September 13, 2024, McRae released the song \"It's OK I'm OK\".\n\nPersonal life\nMcRae is a fan of the Calgary Flames of the NHL, and has attended numerous games.\nFrom late 2021 to early 2023, McRae was in a relationship with Columbus Blue Jackets player Cole Sillinger. In April 2024, Australian rapper and singer the Kid Laroi confirmed his relationship with McRae.\n\nArtistry and public image\nMcRae has named Post Malone, the Weeknd, Khalid, Jessie Reyez, Ariana Grande and Jeremy Zucker as her biggest musical influences. She cites Zendaya and Dua Lipa as all-around influences, and has described both women as her biggest idols, noting that she looks up to them in all aspects of life. She has also named Bruno Mars, Madonna, Christina Aguilera, Britney Spears, Ciara, Jennifer Lopez and Justin Timberlake as inspirations for bringing dance into her performances, while naming Taylor Swift, Julia Michaels and Alec Benjamin as songwriting inspirations. Further, McRae has called herself a \"huge fan\" of Swift and described her as \"one of the greatest songwriters.\" McRae has also expressed an admiration for Billie Eilish and Rosalía.\nMcRae has been described as \"the teen dance star turned future pop idol\" by i-D, \"the new teen queen\" by Notion, \"Canada's answer to Billie Eilish\" by Elle, and \"one of pop's bright young hopes\" by The Independent. \nShe has also been noted for her honest lyrics, “impressive” vocals and relatable music. Additionally, McRae has received considerable acclaim as a dancer, and has been praised by artist, dancer and choreographer Paula Abdul who declared her a \"gift from God\", and choreographers such as Stacey Tookey and Blake McGrath, both of whom stated that she's talented beyond her years, with the latter describing her as \"one of the best dancers he has ever worked with\" as well as two-time Emmy winner Travis Wall, who has named her as one of his muses. Margaret Furher of Dance Spirit Magazine described her dancing as virtuosic both technically and artistically. As of March 2024, her YouTube channel has amassed over 1.5 billion views and she has garnered more than 8.4 billion career streams across all platforms.\n\nDiscography\nStudio albums\n\nI Used to Think I Could Fly (2022)\nThink Later (2023)\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nTelevision\nAwards and nominations\nListicles\nTours\nAll the Things I Never Said Tour (2020)\nTate McRae Live Tour (2022)\nAre We Flying Tour (2023)\nThink Later World Tour (2024)\n\nSee also\nList of So You Think You Can Dance finalists\nList of YouTubers\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nTate McRae at IMDb\nTate McRae at AllMusic\nTate McRae discography at Discogs",
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"paragraph_text": "So You Think You Can Dance: The Next Generation is the 13th season of So You Think You Can Dance, an American dance competition show. The show premiered on Monday, May 30, 2016, in a new format featuring dancers between ages 8 to 13 at the time of their auditions. The season was broadcast on Fox in the United States, one show each week on Mondays, as it was the previous season. The top prize remained $250,000, and Cat Deeley continued as host.\nAuditions were held in Los Angeles, CA, Chicago, IL and New York City. 100 dancers were selected by the judges for the Dance Academy portion of the season, in which 10 contestants were selected by, and paired with, \"all-stars\" from previous seasons, who mentored and performed with them during the live performance episodes.\n\nJudges\nSeries creator and executive producer Nigel Lythgoe, along with new permanent members Paula Abdul and Jason Derulo, returned as members of the permanent judging panel and judge the audition rounds. After this, the fourth judge, dancer Maddie Ziegler, who was then 13 years old, joined the show.\n\nFormat\nSeason 13 featured a significant shift in format in that the contestants were all between the ages of 8 and 13 at the time of their auditions. Approximately 100 dancers were selected from the auditions for the next segment of the season, the Dance Academy. From these, the top 50 were chosen, and finally the top 10 were selected as contestants by a So You Think You Can Dance \"all-star\" who provided mentorship during the live shows and participated as a duet partner with his or her contestant in performances.\n\nAuditions\nOpen auditions for season 13 were held in three cities beginning in February 2016.\n\nDuring the audition round, the judges interviewed each auditioner, watched a brief audition and gave feedback, while the auditioner's family sat at the side of the stage and often participated in the interviews. Offstage, Cat Deeley chatted with contestants and judges. Approximately 100 dancers were sent through to the academy.\n\nDance Academy\nDance Academy week was split among two episodes. The June 20 episode covered the first day of the academy. The first task for the 10 all-stars was to watch solo dances by each of the contestants were sent through from the auditions. From these, each all-star selected five dancers (three from their own dance style and two wildcards), from the large number of auditioners, to join their \"team\". If a dancer was selected by more than one all-star, he or she could choose which all-star's team to join. Choreographer Warren Carlyle and the all-stars then taught the 50 remaining competitors a Broadway couples dance routine in 90 minutes, and dancers from each team were paired with dancers from another team. After all of the couples danced, each all-star was required to cut one dancer from his or her team, leaving a total of 40 contestants. Throughout the episode, Maddie Ziegler and Cat Deeley interviewed successful competitors.\nThe June 27 episode covered days two and three of academy week. On day two, the all-stars each narrowed down their teams to three and then two dancers, based first on a hip-hop routine for pairs choreographed by Tabitha and Napoleon D'umo, and then on a contemporary routine, created by Travis Wall, danced simultaneously by the remaining three members of each team. On the last day, the last two dancers from each team danced a solo just for their own all-star. Each all-star then selected one contestant, making a total of 10 contestants that he or she will mentor through the finals round. The all-stars and their contestants are:\n\nFinals\nTop 10 Contestants\nElimination chart\nPerformances\nTop 10 (July 11, 2016)\nThe live shows were all two-hour broadcasts. The first live show, on July 11, 2016, opened with a group dance by all ten contestants dancing with their all-stars and all together, futuristically dressed in white. In the middle of the show there was a contemporary group dance by the all-stars, and the show ended with a group hip-hop dance by all of the top-ten contestants. During the show, each contestant performed one solo and one duet with his or her all-star; both dances were in the contestant's primary dance style. At the beginning of the show, host Cat Deeley announced that all-star Joshua Allen has been replaced by Marko Germar, to mentor and partner with hip-hop dancer Sheaden Gabriel. Maddie Ziegler observed the contestants' rehearsals and joined the judging panel, during the broadcast, giving the contestants \"relatable feedback\" and offering encouraging words about their performances.\n\nSolos:\n\nJuly 18, 2016\nDerulo was unavailable this week, but all-star Stephen \"tWitch\" Boss took his place at the judging table; Ziegler continued to attend and comment at the contestants' rehearsals. The show opened with a group Bollywood-style number danced by all of the contestants and all-stars. In the middle of the show, the all-stars performed a piece inspired by Romeo and Juliet. Contestants were paired with each other to dance two routines; each dancer performed at least one routine outside of his or her primary style. The kids also performed duets with their all-stars. Daniela and her partner Sheaden were ranked in the bottom two, based on the previous week's voting, and Daniela was eliminated.\n\nDuets choreographed by all-stars:\n\nJuly 25, 2016 (final 9)\nThe show began again with a dance that included all the contestants and all-stars. During the course of the broadcast, there was also a group number for the kids and later one for the all-stars. The remaining nine contestants performed full-length routines with their all-stars in their own primary styles (or similar styles), and each did a short solo in his or her primary style. The kids each gave a campaign speech as if they were running for US president. Tate McRae, who is Canadian, quipped in her speech: \"The only wall that should be shared between Canada and the United States should be Travis Wall.\" Sheaden was eliminated, based on the previous week's voting. The show has been promoting the sixth annual National Dance Day, \"an annual celebration that encourages Americans to embrace dance as a fun and positive way to maintain good health and combat obesity\", which is scheduled to take place on Saturday, July 30, 2016.\n\nSolos:\n\nAugust 1, 2016 (final 8)\nThe show began with a group toy-themed hip-hop routine for all of the contestants and all-stars. Later, all 10 all-stars danced a contemporary routine based on a snow-globe. Each of the contestants danced a routine in their primary style with their all-star and then paired with another contestant for a routine in a new genre. Jake and Jordan were eliminated, based on the previous week's voting.\n\nContestant duets\n\nAugust 22, 2016 (final 6)\nThe show began with a group contemporary routine for all of the contestants and all-stars. Later, four of the female all-stars danced a contemporary routine, and Comfort and the five male all-stars danced a hip-hop number. Each of the contestants danced a routine in their primary style with their all-star, paired with another contestant for a routine in a new genre, and also performed a short solo dance in their own genre. Ruby was eliminated, based on the previous week's voting.\n\nContestant duets\n\nSolos:\n\nAugust 29, 2016 (final 5)\nThe show began with a group routine for all of the contestants and all-stars. Each of the contestants then danced with his or her all-star in their primary style. Two groups of all-stars danced separately: first a contemporary routine and then a Broadway number. In the second half of the show, the contestants each choreographed a duet with his or her all-star in their own genre, choosing the concept, music, costumes and make-up. Finally, judge Maddie Ziegler performed a dramatic contemporary routine paired with choreographer Travis Wall. Tahani was eliminated based on the previous week's voting.\n\nDuets choreographed by the contestants\n\nSeptember 5, 2016 (final 4): No elimination\nThe final four competed on Labor Day. Audience voting after this show was combined with the votes from the August 29 show to determine the results of the season, so there was no elimination this week. The show again opened with a group number for the remaining contestants and the all-stars. The four contestants danced another routine, and later so did the all-stars. Each contestant performed a duet with an all-star who was not his or her mentor, in a new genre, and each also danced a solo in his or her own genre. Finally, the contestants each reprised their favorite routine of the season with their usual all-stars.\n\nSolos:\n\nSeptember 12, 2016: Finale – Results\nThe episode began with a group dance for all the contestants and all-stars that began with the Top 4 contestants waking up and getting ready for the big day. There were also new group dances for the hip-hop finalists and their all-stars; the ballroom finalists and their all-stars; and the contemporary finalists (plus Emma) and their all stars. In addition, there was a new group routine for all the finalists plus Maddie Ziegler, and Cat Deely chose to reprise her favorite all-stars routine. During the course of the broadcast, each of the Top 4 reprised their favorite solo of the season, each judge chose two favorite routines to see again, each of the all-stars chose a favorite duet to reprise, and other duets were reprised as described below. Results were announced during the last hour of the show as follows: Emma placed 4th, Tate was 3rd, J. T. was runner-up, and Kida won the $250,000 top prize and will be featured on the cover of Dance Spirit magazine.\n\nSolos (contestants' choice):\n\nRatings\nU.S. Nielsen ratings\nNotes: \n\nJuly 4, 2016: broadcast was a rerun of academy #2.\nAugust 8, 2016: broadcast was a rerun of Top 9 Perform + Elimination.\nAugust 15, 2016: broadcast was a rerun of Top 8 Perform + Elimination.\n\nSee also\nList of So You Think You Can Dance finalists\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nEpisode 1\nAll-star group number, Episode 6\nTop 10 group number, Episode 6\nMaddie Ziegler and Travis Wall duet, Episode 11",
"title": "So_You_Think_You_Can_Dance:_The_Next_Generation_(American_TV_series)"
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] | Who won the season of the dance show that Tate McRae placed third in back in 2016? | [] | Leon "Kida" Burns | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Director Special Forces (DSF) is the senior British Armed Forces officer responsible for the United Kingdom Special Forces. The post is a senior role within the Ministry of Defence (MoD). As director, the incumbent is responsible for the provision of special forces capability to MoD, and holds operational command for discrete special forces operations.\n\nHistory\nThe post of Colonel SAS (Special Air Service) was created in 1964; this post evolved into Director SAS with the post holder commanding the SAS corps from 1969.\nIn March 1987, the post of Director SAS became Director Special Forces; it consisted of the Army's Special Air Service, Royal Navy's Special Boat Service and the Army's 14 Intelligence Company under the command of the DSF, who held the rank of brigadier, and with a Deputy, who held the rank of colonel.\nDuring the 2000s, the size of the directorate increased substantially with the inclusion of the Special Forces Support Group and the Joint Special Forces Aviation Wing. Other changes included the 14th Intelligence Company renamed as the Special Reconnaissance Regiment. This was to meet a demand for a special reconnaissance capability identified in the Strategic Defence Review: A New Chapter published in 2002 in response to the 2001 September 11 attacks. Following a review, it was found that the SAS Reserve lacked a clearly defined role, and also stated that the reservists lacked the capability, equipment, and skills to serve alongside the regular special forces. What followed was a reduction in the scope of UK Special Forces. As an outcome of this review, on 1 September 2014, 21 and 23 SAS were removed from the UKSF order of battle and placed with the Honourable Artillery Company (HAC), under the command of 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade. This change was partly reversed in 2019 with 21 and 23 SAS returning as an integrated part of the UKSF group.\nIn 2008, the rank of the DSF was upgraded from brigadier to major-general with the directorate becoming an independent, operational-level component command, alongside Land, Navy and Air elements in the Permanent Joint Headquarters (PJHQ) and in the deployable Joint Force Headquarters (JFHQ).\nThe DSF is only accountable to the Defence Secretary and the Prime Minister. UKSF may operate in locations where the UK does not formally acknowledge a military presence.\n\nList of commanders\nCommanders of special forces have been:\n\nColonel SAS\n1964–1967 Colonel John Waddy (late Parachute Regiment)\n1967–1969 Colonel Mike Wingate Gray (late Black Watch)\n\nDirector SAS\n1969–1972 Brigadier Fergie Semple (late Royal Engineers)\n1972–1975 Brigadier John Simpson (late Gordon Highlanders)\n1975–1979 Brigadier John Watts (late Royal Ulster Rifles)\n1979–1983 Brigadier Peter de la Billière (late Durham Light Infantry)\n1983–1985 Brigadier John Foley (late Royal Green Jackets)\n\nDirector Special Forces\n1986–1988 Brigadier Michael Wilkes (late Royal Artillery)\n1988–1989 Brigadier Michael Rose (late Coldstream Guards)\n1989–1993 Brigadier Jeremy Phipps (late Queen's Own Hussars)\n1993–1996 Brigadier Cedric Delves (late Devonshire and Dorset Regiment)\n1996–1999 Brigadier John Sutherell (late Royal Anglian Regiment)\n1999–2001 Brigadier John Holmes (late Scots Guards)\n2001–2003 Brigadier Graeme Lamb (late Queen's Own Highlanders)\n2003–2006 Brigadier Jonathan Shaw (late Parachute Regiment)\n2006–2009 Brigadier Adrian Bradshaw (late King's Royal Hussars)\n2009–2012 Major General Jacko Page (late Parachute Regiment)\n2012–2015 Major General Mark Carleton-Smith (late Irish Guards)\n2015–2018 Major General James Chiswell (late Parachute Regiment)\n2018–2021 Major General Roland Walker (late Grenadier Guards)\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Director_Special_Forces"
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"paragraph_text": "The 1985 UK Athletics Championships was the national championship in outdoor track and field for the United Kingdom held at Antrim Stadium, Antrim. It was the second time that a national track and field championship was held in Northern Ireland, after hosting the 1981 event.\nIt was the ninth edition of the competition limited to British athletes only, launched as an alternative to the AAA Championships, which was open to foreign competitors. However, due to the fact that the calibre of national competition remained greater at the AAA event, the UK Championships this year were not considered the principal national championship event by some statisticians, such as the National Union of Track Statisticians (NUTS). Many of the athletes below also competed at the 1985 AAA Championships.\nFatima Whitbread won her fifth consecutive women's javelin throw UK title. Both the men's and women's champions defended in the 5000 metres (Eamonn Martin, Angela Tooby) and shot put (Billy Cole, Judy Oakes), as did men's hammer thrower Dave Smith. Linford Christie and John Regis recorded the same times in both the 100 metres and 200 metres finals. Christie was given the 100 m title while the two shared the 200 m title. Christie was the only athlete at the competition to win two titles.\nThe main international track and field competition for the United Kingdom that year was the 1985 European Cup. Three UK champions medalled at that event: Whitbread in the javelin, Angela Tooby in the 10,000 m and Tom McKean in the 800 metres. Derek Redmond was third in the 400 metres at the European competition, despite coming second at the UK race.\n\nMedal summary\nMen\nWomen\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "1985_UK_Athletics_Championships"
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"paragraph_text": "Morse code is a telecommunications method which encodes text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal durations, called dots and dashes, or dits and dahs. Morse code is named after Samuel Morse, one of the early developers of the system adopted for electrical telegraphy.\nInternational Morse code encodes the 26 basic Latin letters A to Z, one accented Latin letter (É), the Arabic numerals, and a small set of punctuation and procedural signals (prosigns). There is no distinction between upper and lower case letters. Each Morse code symbol is formed by a sequence of dits and dahs. The dit duration can vary for signal clarity and operator skill, but for any one message, once established it is the basic unit of time measurement in Morse code. The duration of a dah is three times the duration of a dit (although some telegraphers deliberately exaggerate the length of a dah for clearer signalling). Each dit or dah within an encoded character is followed by a period of signal absence, called a space, equal to the dit duration. The letters of a word are separated by a space of duration equal to three dits, and words are separated by a space equal to seven dits.\nMorse code can be memorized and sent in a form perceptible to the human senses, e.g. via sound waves or visible light, such that it can be directly interpreted by persons trained in the skill. Morse code is usually transmitted by on-off keying of an information-carrying medium such as electric current, radio waves, visible light, or sound waves. The current or wave is present during the time period of the dit or dah and absent during the time between dits and dahs.\nSince many natural languages use more than the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, Morse alphabets have been developed for those languages, largely by transliteration of existing codes.\nTo increase the efficiency of transmission, Morse code was originally designed so that the duration of each symbol is approximately inverse to the frequency of occurrence of the character that it represents in text of the English language. Thus the most common letter in English, the letter E, has the shortest code – a single dit. Because the Morse code elements are specified by proportion rather than specific time durations, the code is usually transmitted at the highest rate that the receiver is capable of decoding. Morse code transmission rate (speed) is specified in groups per minute, commonly referred to as words per minute.\n\nDevelopment and history\nPre-Morse telegraphs and codes\nEarly in the nineteenth century, European experimenters made progress with electrical signaling systems, using a variety of techniques including static electricity and electricity from Voltaic piles producing electrochemical and electromagnetic changes. These experimental designs were precursors to practical telegraphic applications.\n\nFollowing the discovery of electromagnetism by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820 and the invention of the electromagnet by William Sturgeon in 1824, there were developments in electromagnetic telegraphy in Europe and America. Pulses of electric current were sent along wires to control an electromagnet in the receiving instrument. Many of the earliest telegraph systems used a single-needle system which gave a very simple and robust instrument. However, it was slow, as the receiving operator had to alternate between looking at the needle and writing down the message. In Morse code, a deflection of the needle to the left corresponded to a dit and a deflection to the right to a dah. The needle clicked each time it moved to the right or left. By making the two clicks sound different (by installing one ivory and one metal stop), transmissions on the single needle device became audible as well as visible, which led in turn to the Double Plate Sounder System.\nWilliam Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in Britain developed an electrical telegraph that used electromagnets in its receivers. They obtained an English patent in June 1837 and demonstrated it on the London and Birmingham Railway, making it the first commercial telegraph. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1833) as well as Carl August von Steinheil (1837) used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraph systems. In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces struck by a hammer.: 79\n\nSamuel Morse and Alfred Vail\nThe American artist Samuel Morse, the American physicist Joseph Henry, and mechanical engineer Alfred Vail developed an electrical telegraph system. The simple \"on or off\" nature of its signals made it desirable to find a method of transmitting natural language using only electrical pulses and the silence between them. Around 1837, Morse therefore developed such a method, an early forerunner to the modern International Morse code.: 79 \nThe Morse system for telegraphy, which was first used in about 1844, was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked. Morse code was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages.\nIn his earliest design for a code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred Vail in 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. Vail estimated the frequency of use of letters in the English language by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a local newspaper in Morristown, New Jersey.: 84 The shorter marks were called \"dots\" and the longer ones \"dashes\", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shortest sequences of dots and dashes. This code, first used in 1844, was what later became known as Morse landline code, American Morse code, or Railroad Morse, until the end of railroad telegraphy in the U.S. in the 1970s.\n\nOperator-led change from graphical to audible code\nIn the original Morse telegraph system, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of position to mark the paper tape. Early telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When Morse code was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone pulses.\nLater telegraphy training found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught \"like a language\", with each code perceived as a whole \"word\" instead of a sequence of separate dots and dashes, such as might be shown on a page.\nWith the advent of tones produced by radiotelegraph receivers, the operators began to vocalize a dot as dit, and a dash as dah, to reflect the sounds of Morse code they heard. To conform to normal sending speed, dits which are not the last element of a code became voiced as di. For example, the letter L ( ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ) is voiced as di dah di dit. Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as \"iddy-umpty\", a dit lampooned as \"iddy\" and a dah as \"umpty\", leading to the word \"umpteen\".\n\nGerke's refinement of Morse's code\nThe Morse code, as specified in the current international standard, International Morse Code Recommendation, ITU-R M.1677-1, was derived from a much-improved proposal by Friedrich Gerke in 1848 that became known as the \"Hamburg alphabet\", its only real defect being the use of an excessively long code ( ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ and later the equal duration code ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ) for the frequently used vowel O.\nGerke changed many of the codepoints, in the process doing away with the different length dashes and different inter-element spaces of American Morse, leaving only two coding elements, the dot and the dash. Codes for German umlauted vowels and CH were introduced. Gerke's code was adopted in Germany and Austria in 1851.\nThis finally led to the International Morse code in 1865. The International Morse code adopted most of Gerke's codepoints. The codes for O and P were taken from a code system developed by Steinheil. A new codepoint was added for J since Gerke did not distinguish between I and J. Changes were also made to X, Y, and Z. This left only four codepoints identical to the original Morse code, namely E, H, K and N, and the latter two had their dahs extended to full length. The original American code being compared dates to 1838; the later American code shown in the table was developed in 1844.\n\nRadiotelegraphy and aviation\nIn the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication before it was possible to transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits.\nAlthough previous transmitters were bulky and the spark gap system of transmission was dangerous and difficult to use, there had been some early attempts: In 1910, the U.S. Navy experimented with sending Morse from an airplane. However the first regular aviation radiotelegraphy was on airships, which had space to accommodate the large, heavy radio equipment then in use. The same year, 1910, a radio on the airship America was instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.\nDuring World War I, Zeppelin airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting, and ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation. Allied airships and military aircraft also made some use of radiotelegraphy.\nHowever, there was little aeronautical radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s, there was no radio system used by such important flights as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in 1927. Once he and the Spirit of St. Louis were off the ground, Lindbergh was truly incommunicado and alone. Morse code in aviation began regular use in the mid-1920s. By 1928, when the first airplane flight was made by the Southern Cross from California to Australia, one of its four crewmen was a radio operator who communicated with ground stations via radio telegraph.\nBeginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons that transmitted continuous two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code. Aeronautical charts show the identifier of each navigational aid next to its location on the map.\nIn addition, rapidly moving field armies could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy; they moved more quickly than their communications services could put up new telegraph and telephone lines. This was seen especially in the blitzkrieg offensives of the Nazi German Wehrmacht in Poland, Belgium, France (in 1940), the Soviet Union, and in North Africa; by the British Army in North Africa, Italy, and the Netherlands; and by the U.S. Army in France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945.\n\nMaritime flash telegraphy and radio telegraphy\nRadiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital during World War II, especially in carrying messages between the warships and the naval bases of the belligerents. Long-range ship-to-ship communication was by radio telegraphy, using encrypted messages because the voice radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and their security. Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used by warplanes, especially by long-range patrol planes that were sent out by navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop ships.\nMorse code was used as an international standard for maritime distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System. When the French Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was \"Calling all. This is our last call before our eternal silence.\"\n\nDemise of commercial telegraphy\nIn the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT, and the prosign SK (\"end of contact\").\nAs of 2015, the United States Air Force still trains ten people a year in Morse.\nThe United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any radio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress frequency of 500 kHz. However, the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests. Licensees have reactivated the old California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this call sign or as KSM. Similarly, a few U.S. museum ship stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts.\n\nOperator proficiency\nMorse code speed is measured in words per minute (WPM) or characters per minute (CPM). Characters have differing lengths because they contain differing numbers of dits and dahs. Consequently, words also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they contain the same number of characters. For this reason, some standard word is adopted for measuring operators' transmission speeds: Two such standard words in common use are PARIS and CODEX. Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand (\"copy\") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 WPM.\nIn addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols at high speeds, skilled high-speed operators must also be fully knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standard Prosigns for Morse code and the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse code communications protocol.\nInternational contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy (W1JYN) set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 WPM. Pierpont (2004) also notes that some operators may have passed 100 WPM. By this time, they are \"hearing\" phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942 by Harry Turner (W9YZE) (d. 1992) who reached 35 WPM in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words (50 dit durations versus 60 dit durations) and different interword gaps (5 dit durations versus 7 dit durations) may have been used when determining such speed records. For example, speeds run with the CODEX standard word and the PARIS standard may differ by up to 20%.\nToday among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 WPM. Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at 10 WPM with endorsements as high as 40 WPM, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text. Members of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the standards for translating code at 5 WPM.\n\nThrough May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial) Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon the CODEX standard word were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications Commission. The First Class license required 20 WPM code group and 25 WPM text code proficiency, the others 16 WPM code group test (five letter blocks sent as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM code text (plain language) test. It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating practice and electronics theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast stations using Morse. This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a passenger ship. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them obsolete. (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very difficult.)\nCurrently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued. This is granted either when the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license. For new applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well as 16 WPM code-group and 20 WPM text tests. However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirement.\n\nInternational Morse code\nMorse codes of one version or another have been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any other electrical message encoding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the modern form of the code. After some minor changes to the letters and a complete revision of the numerals, International Morse Code was standardized by the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and later became the standard adopted by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morse and Vail's final code specification, however, was only really used only for land-line telegraphy in the United States and Canada, with the International code used everywhere else, including all ships at sea and sailing in North American waters. Morse's version became known as American Morse code or railroad code, and is now almost never used, with the possible exception of historical re-enactments.\n\nAviation\nIn aviation, pilots use radio navigation aids. To allow pilots to ensure that the stations they intend to use are serviceable, the stations transmit a set of identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air navigation charts. For example, the VOR-DME based at Vilo Acuña Airport in Cayo Largo del Sur, Cuba is identified by \"UCL\", and Morse code UCL is repeatedly transmitted on its radio frequency. \nIn some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may instead transmit the signal TEST ( ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ), or the identification may be removed, which tells pilots and navigators that the station is unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify the navigation aid is not to be used.\n\nIn the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S., pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically translate the code into displayed letters.\n\nAmateur radio\nInternational Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio operators, in the mode commonly referred to as \"continuous wave\" or \"CW\".\nOther, faster keying methods are available in radio telegraphy, such as frequency-shift keying (FSK).\nThe original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly available until around 1920. Until 2003, the International Telecommunication Union mandated Morse code proficiency as part of the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse code requirement for amateur radio licensing optional. Many countries subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their license requirements.\n\nUntil 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse code at a minimum of five words per minute (WPM) was required to receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability was still required for the privilege to use the shortwave bands. Until 2000, proficiency at the 20 WPM level was required to receive the highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April 15, 2000, in the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5 WPM. Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses.\nWhile voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is permitted on all amateur bands: LF, MF low, MF high, HF, VHF, and UHF. In some countries, certain portions of the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only.\nBecause Morse code transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex equipment than other radio transmission modes. Morse code also uses less bandwidth (typically only 100–150 Hz wide, although only for a slow data rate) than voice communication (roughly 2,400~2,800 Hz used by SSB voice).\nMorse code is usually received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments. The fact that the transmitted power is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak signal readability. This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (long distance) transmissions, as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called \"QRP operation\", from the Q-code for \"reduce power\"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a standard of 60 WPM. The American Radio Relay League offers a code proficiency certification program that starts at 10 WPM.\nThe relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code abbreviations for typical message components. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as \"seek you\" (I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). The abbreviations OM (old man), YL (young lady), and XYL (\"ex-young lady\" – wife) are common. YL or OM is used by an operator when referring to the other operator (regardless of their actual age), and XYL or OM (rather than the expected XYM) is used by an operator when referring to his or her spouse. QTH is \"transmitting location\" (spoken \"my Q.T.H.\" is \"my location\"). The use of abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.\nAlthough the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-automatic keyers \n(informally called \"bugs\"), and of fully automatic electronic keyers (called \"single paddle\" and either \"double-paddle\" or \"iambic\" keys) is prevalent today. Software is also frequently employed to produce and decode Morse code radio signals. The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders called ARRL Farnsworth spacing that is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some programs like WinMorse have implemented the standard.\n\nOther uses\nRadio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification. Warships, including those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.\nAutomatic Transmitter Identification System (ATIS) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog satellite transmissions.\n\nMany amateur radio repeaters identify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications.\n\nApplications for the general public\nAn important application is signalling for help through SOS, \" ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ \". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar methods. The SOS signal is not sent as three separate characters; rather, it is a prosign SOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters.\nSome Nokia mobile phones offer an option to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone \" ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ \" (representing SMS or Short Message Service). In addition, applications are now available for mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code.\n\nMorse code as an assistive technology\nMorse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to communicate. For example, the Android operating system versions 5.0 and higher allow users to input text using Morse Code as an alternative to a keypad or handwriting recognition.\nMorse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic typewriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing Morse or votem.\nMorse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube (\"sip-and-puff\" interface). An important advantage of Morse code over row column scanning is that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it appears faster than scanning.\nIn one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST, an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published in QST magazine. Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to understand those series of eye-blinks.\n\nRepresentation, timing, and speeds\nInternational Morse code is composed of five elements:: §3 \n\nshort mark, dot or dit ( ▄ ): \"dit duration\" is one time unit long\nlong mark, dash or dah ( ▄▄▄ ): three time units long\ninter-element gap between the dits and dahs within a character: one dot duration or one unit long\nshort gap (between letters): three time units long\nmedium gap (between words): seven time units long (formerly five)\n\nTransmission\nMorse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: Originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but later extended to an audio tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or high and low tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car horn. Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for a dah. Ground forces send messages to aircraft with panel signalling, where a horizontal panel is a dah and a vertical panel a dit.\nMorse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or shorter dahs or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their \"fist\", and experienced operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy is said to have a \"good fist\". A \"poor fist\" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code.\n\nDigital storage\nMorse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Morse code may be represented as a binary code, and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be crudely represented a combination of the following five bit-strings:\n\nshort mark, dot or dit ( ▄ ): '1'b\nlonger mark, dash or dah ( ▄▄▄ ): '111'b\nintra-character gap (between the dits and dahs within a character): 0\nshort gap (between letters): '000'b\nmedium gap (between words): '0000000'b\nThe marks and gaps alternate: Dits and dahs are always separated by one of the gaps, and that the gaps are always separated by a dit or a dah.\nA more efficient binary encoding uses only two-bits for each dit or dah element, with the 1 dit-length pause that must follow after each automatically included for every 2 bit code. One possible coding is by number value for the length of signal tone sent one could use '01'b for a dit and the automatic single-dit pause after it, and '11'b for a dah and the automatic single-dit following pause, and '00'b for the extra pause between letters (in effect, an end-of-letter mark). That leaves the code '10'b available for some other purpose, such as an escape character, or to more compactly represent the extra space between words (an end-of-word mark) instead of '00 00 00'b (only 6 dit lengths, since the 7th is automatically inserted as part of the prior dit or dah). Although the dit and inter-letter pauses work out to be the same, for any letter containing a dah, the two-bit encoding uses digital memory more compactly than the direct-conversion bit strings mentioned above. Including the letter-separating spaces, all International Morse letter codes pack into 12 bits or less (5 symbols), and most fit into 10 bits or less (4 symbols); most of the procedural signs fit into 14 bits, with a few only needing 12 bits (5 symbols); and all digits require exactly 12 bits.\nFor example, Morse G ( ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ + 2 extra empty dits for \"end of letter\") would binary-encode as '11'b, '11'b, '01'b, '00'b; when packed it is '1111 0100'b = 'F4'x, which stores into only one byte (two nibbles) (as does every three-element code). The bit encoding for the longer method mentioned earlier the same letter would encode as '1110'b, '1110'b, '1000'b = '1110 1110 1000'b = 'EE8'x, or one-and-a-half bytes (three nibbles). The space saving allows small devices, like portable memory keyers, to have more and longer International Morse code sequences in small, conventional device-driver microprocessors' RAM chips.\n\nCable code\nThe very long time constants of 19th and early 20th century submarine communications cables required a different form of Morse signalling. Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time.\n\nTiming\nBelow is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase MORSE CODE, in Morse code format, would normally be written something like this, where – represents dahs and · represents dits:\n\nNext is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with ▓ representing \"signal on\", and ˽ representing \"signal off\", each for the time length of exactly one dit:\n\nSpoken representation\nMorse code is often spoken or written with dah for dashes, dit for dots located at the end of a character, and di for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:\n\n \n \nis spoken (or sung):\n\n Dah dah dah dah dah di dah dit di di dit dit, Dah di dah dit dah dah dah dah di dit dit. \nFor use on radio, there is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving.\n\nSpeed in words per minute\nAll Morse code elements depend on the dot / dit length. A dah is the length of 3 dits (with no gaps between), and spacings are specified in number of dit lengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission speed is to specify the dit duration as, for example, 50 milliseconds.\nSpecifying the dit duration is, however, not the common practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have different dit lengths. It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines the dit duration in milliseconds.\nSome method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to a dit duration is useful. A simple way to do this is to choose a dit duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If, for example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose a dit rate that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute.\nThe typical word thus determines the dit length. It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There are two common typical words: PARIS and CODEX. PARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural language words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such as E and T. CODEX offers a word rate that is typical of 5 letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the word PARIS as a standard, the number of dit units is 50 and a simple calculation shows that the dit length at 20 words per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the word CODEX with 60 dit units, the dit length at 20 words per minute is 50 milliseconds.\nBecause Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with the dit length, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards.\nFor commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.: §13.207(c), §13.209(d) The FCC specifies that a \"word\" is 5 characters long. The Commission specifies Morse code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and 25 words per minute.: §13.203(b) The word per minute rate would be close to the PARIS standard, and the code groups per minute would be close to the CODEX standard.\nWhile the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.: §97.503, 1996 \nA difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text. For each class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test and a 16 word per minute code group test.\nBased upon a 50 dit duration standard word such as PARIS, the time for one dit duration or one unit can be computed by the formula:\n\n \n \n \n \n T\n =\n \n \n \n \n 1\n ,\n 200\n \n \n W\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ~T={\\frac {\\,1,200\\,}{W}}~}\n \n\nwhere: T is the unit time, or dit duration in milliseconds, and W is the speed in WPM.\nHigh-speed telegraphy contests are held; according to the Guinness Book of Records in June 2005 at the International Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy in Primorsko, Bulgaria, Andrei Bindasov of Belarus transmitted 230 Morse code marks of mixed text in one minute.\n\nFarnsworth speed\nSometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds are used: A character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent. The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13 words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only 5 words per minute.\nUsing different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method of learning Morse code.\n\nAlternative display of common characters in International Morse code\nSome methods of teaching Morse code use a dichotomic search table.\n\nLearning methods\nPeople learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method are taught to send and receive letters and other symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dits, dahs, and spaces within each symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. \"Russ\" Farnsworth, also known by his call sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give \"thinking time\" to make the sound \"shape\" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be reduced with practice and familiarity.\nAnother popular teaching method is the Koch method, invented in 1935 by the German engineer and former stormtrooper Ludwig Koch, which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered.\nIn North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast by W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station. As of 2015, the United States military taught Morse code as an 81-day self-paced course, having phased out more traditional classes.\n\nMnemonics\nVisual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages. Baden-Powell included one in the Girl Guides handbook in 1918.\nIn the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse character. For instance, Q in Morse is dah dah di dah , which can be memorized by the phrase \"God Save the Queen\", and the Morse for F is di di dah dit , which can be memorized as \"Did she like it?\"\n\nLetters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-Latin variants\nCut numbers\nMost numbers have an unofficial short-form, given in the table below. They are only used when both the sender and the receiver understand that numbers, and not letters, are intended; for example, one often sees the most common R-S-T signal report rendered as 5NN[‡] instead of 599.\n\nProsigns\nProsigns for Morse code are special (usually) unwritten procedural signals or symbols that are used to indicate changes in communications protocol status or white space text formatting actions.\n\nSymbol representations\nThe symbols [!], [$], and [&] are not defined inside the official ITU-R International Morse Code Recommendation, but informal conventions for them exist. (The [@] symbol was formally added in 2004.)\n\nExclamation mark\nThere is no standard representation for the exclamation mark [!], although the KW digraph ( ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ) was proposed in the 1980s by the Heathkit Company. While Morse code translation software prefers the Heathkit version, on-air use is not yet universal as some amateur radio operators in North America and the Caribbean continue to use the older MN digraph ( ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ) copied over from American Morse landline code.\nCurrency symbols\nThe ITU has never formally codified any currency symbols into Morse code: The unambiguous ISO 4217 currency codes are preferred for transmission.\nThe [$] sign code was represented in the Phillips Code as two characters \"SX\", which became merged into SX ( ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ).\nAmpersand [&]\nThe suggested unofficial encoding of the ampersand [&] sign listed above, often shown as AS, is also the official Morse prosign for wait. In addition, the American Morse encoding for an ampersand ( ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ) was similar to ES ( ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ) and hams have nearly universally carried over this use as an abbreviation for \"and\" (e.g. WX HR COLD ES RAINY the weather here is cold and rainy).\nKeyboard \"at\" sign [@]\nOn 24 May 2004 – the 160th anniversary of the first public Morse telegraph transmission – the Radiocommunication Bureau of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) formally added the [@] (\"commercial at\" or \"commat\") character to the official Morse character set, using the sequence denoted by the AC digraph: ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ .\nThis sequence was reported to have been chosen to represent \"A[t] C[ommercial]\", or a letter \"a\" inside a swirl represented by a letter \"C\". The new character facilitates sending e‑mail addresses by Morse code, and is notable since it is the first official addition to the Morse set of characters since World War I.\n\nDiacritics and non-Latin extensions\nThe typical tactic for creating Morse codes for diacritics and non-Latin alphabetic scripts has been to begin by simply using the International Morse codes used for letters whose sound matches the sound of the local alphabet. Because Gerke code (the predecessor to International Morse) was in official use in central Europe, and included four characters not included in the International Morse standard (Ä, Ö, Ü, and CH) it has served as a beginning-point for other languages that use an alphabetic script, but require codes for letters not accommodated by International Morse.\nThe usual method has been to first transliterate the sounds represented by the International code and the four unique Gerke codes into the local alphabet, hence Greek, Hebrew, Russian, and Ukrainian Morse codes. If more codes are needed, one can either invent a new code or convert an otherwise unused code from either code set to the non-Latin letter. For example:\n\nÑ in Spanish Morse is ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ , a language-specific code not used in either International or Gerke Morse.\nFor the Greek letter Ψ, Greek Morse code uses the International Morse code for Q, ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ , which has no corresponding letter in modern Greek; Ψ and Q have no historical, phonetic, or shape relationship.\nFor Russian and Bulgarian, Russian Morse code is used to map the Cyrillic characters to four-element codes. Many of the characters are encoded the same as their latin-alphabet look-alikes or sound-alikes (A, O, E, I, T, M, N, R, K, etc.). The Bulgarian alphabet contains 30 characters, which exactly match all possible combinations of 1, 2, 3, and 4 dits and dahs (Russian Ы is used as Bulgarian Ь, Russian Ь is used as Bulgarian Ъ). Russian requires two more codes, for letters Э and Ъ which are each encoded with 5 elements.\nNon-alphabetic scripts require more radical adaption. Japanese Morse code (Wabun code) has a separate encoding for kana script; although many of the codes are used for International Morse, the sounds they represent are mostly unrelated. The Japanese / Wabun code includes special prosigns for switching back-and-forth from International Morse: ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ signals a switch from International Morse to Wabun, and ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ to return from Wabun to International Morse.\nFor Chinese, Chinese telegraph code is used to map Chinese characters to four-digit codes and send these digits out using standard Morse code. Korean Morse code uses the SKATS mapping, originally developed to allow Korean to be typed on western typewriters. SKATS maps hangul characters to arbitrary letters of the Latin script and has no relationship to pronunciation in Korean.\n\nUnusual variants\nDuring early World War I (1914–1916), Germany briefly experimented with 'dotty' and 'dashy' Morse, in essence adding a dot or a dash at the end of each Morse symbol. Each one was quickly broken by Allied SIGINT, and standard Morse was resumed by Spring 1916. Only a small percentage of Western Front (North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea) traffic was in 'dotty' or 'dashy' Morse during the entire war. In popular culture, this is mostly remembered in the book The Codebreakers by David Kahn and in the national archives of the UK and Australia (whose SIGINT operators copied most of this Morse variant). Kahn's cited sources come from the popular press and wireless magazines of the time.\nOther variations include forms of \"fractional Morse\" or \"fractionated Morse\", which recombine the characters of the Morse code–encoded message and then encrypt them using a cipher in order to disguise the text.\n\nDecoding software\nDecoding software for Morse code ranges from software-defined wide-band radio receivers, coupled to the Reverse Beacon Network, which decodes signals and detects CQ messages on ham bands, to smartphone applications.\n\nSee also\nFootnotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\n\"Morse code\". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 October 2023.\n\"Morse code\". Radio Amateur. Curlie.org. Recreation.\n\"Morse Code resources\". DXZone.com.\n\"Morse code MP3 practice files\". starling.us. — 200 hours of at increasing speeds plus an ASCII-to-CW file generator program.\nInternational Morse code, hand sending. YouTube (training film). U.S. Army. 1966. Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:\nTechnique of hand sending. YouTube (training film). Morse code radio operator training. U.S. Navy. 1944. Archived from the original on 7 July 2012.\n\"Codes of the World\" (PDF). nonstopsystems.com.",
"title": "Morse_code"
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] | How many more letters are in the first name of the eighth Director of Special Forces (United Kingdom) than the runner who won Silver in the 1985 UK Athletics Championship 10,000 meters event? Give the answer in morse code. | [] | ....- | [] | true |
293 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Catwoman is a character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Bill Finger and Bob Kane, she debuted as \"the Cat\" in Batman #1 (spring 1940). She has become one of the superhero Batman's most prominent enemies, belonging to the collective of adversaries that make up his rogues gallery, as well as Batman's best known and most enduring love interest, with many stories depicting their complex love–hate relationship. Since 1993, Catwoman has had her own ongoing series, Catwoman.\nCatwoman is the alter ego of Selina Kyle, a burglar in Gotham City who usually wears a skintight bodysuit and uses a bullwhip for a weapon. She was originally characterized as a supervillain and adversary of Batman, but has been featured in an eponymous series since the 1990s that portrays her as an antiheroine, often with a utilitarian moral philosophy. The character thrived in her earliest appearances, but she took an extended hiatus from September 1954 to November 1966 due to the developing Comics Code Authority in 1954. These issues involved the rules regarding the development and portrayal of female characters that were in violation of the Comics Code, a code which is no longer in use. In the comics, Holly Robinson and Eiko Hasigawa have both adopted the Catwoman identity, apart from Selina Kyle.\nCatwoman has been adapted in various media incarnations, having been portrayed in film by Lee Meriwether in Batman (1966), Michelle Pfeiffer in Batman Returns (1992), Halle Berry in Catwoman (2004), Anne Hathaway in The Dark Knight Rises (2012), and Zoë Kravitz in The Batman (2022). On television, she has been played by Julie Newmar and Eartha Kitt in Batman, where the name Selina Kyle was never used; and Camren Bicondova and Lili Simmons in Gotham.\nCatwoman was ranked 11th on IGN's list of the \"Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time\", and 51st on Wizard magazine's \"100 Greatest Villains of All Time\" list. Conversely, she was ranked 20th on IGN's \"Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time\" list.\n\nCharacter and publication history\nCreation\nBatman co-creator Bob Kane was a great movie fan and his love for film provided the impetus for several Batman characters, among them, Catwoman. Kane's inspiration for Catwoman was drawn from multiple sources to include actresses Jean Harlow, Hedy Lamarr, and his cousin, Ruth Steele. Kane and Finger wanted to give their comic book sex appeal, as well as a character who could appeal to female readers; they thus created a \"friendly foe who committed crimes but was also a romantic interest in Batman's rather sterile life.\" Catwoman was meant to be a love interest and to engage Batman in a chess game, with him trying to reform her. At the same time, this character was meant to be different from other Batman villains like the Joker in that she was never a killer or evil.\n\nAs for using cat imagery with the character, Kane stated that he and Finger saw cats as \"kind of the antithesis of bats\".\n\nI felt that women were feline creatures and men were more like dogs. While dogs are faithful and friendly, cats are cool, detached, and unreliable. I felt much warmer with dogs around me—cats are as hard to understand as women are. Men feel more sure of themselves with a male friend than a woman. You always need to keep women at arm's length. We don't want anyone taking over our souls, and women have a habit of doing that. So there's a love-resentment thing with women. I guess women will feel that I'm being chauvinistic to speak this way, but I do feel that I've had better relationships with male friends than women. With women, once the romance is over, somehow they never remain my friends.\n\nFictional character biography\nGolden Age\nCatwoman, then called \"the Cat\", first appeared in Batman #1 (spring 1940) as a mysterious burglar and jewel thief, revealed at the end of the story to be a young, attractive (unnamed) woman, having disguised herself as an old woman during the story and been hired to commit a burglary. Although she does not wear her iconic cat-suit, the story establishes her core personality as a femme fatale who both antagonizes and attracts Batman. It is implied Batman may have deliberately let her get away by blocking Robin as he tried to leap after her. She next appears in Batman #2 in a story also involving the Joker but escapes Batman in the end. In Batman #3 she wears a fur mask and again succeeds in escaping Batman.\nBatman #62 (December 1950) reveals that Catwoman was an amnesiac flight attendant who turned to crime after suffering a prior blow to the head during a plane crash she survived. She reveals this in the Batcave after being hit on the head by a piece of rubble while saving Batman while he was chasing her. However, in The Brave and the Bold #197 (April 1983), she later admits that she made up the amnesia story because she wanted a way out of her past life of crime. She reforms for several years, helping out Batman in Batman #65 (June 1951) and 69 (February 1952), until she decides to return to a life of crime in Detective Comics #203 (January 1954), after a newspaper publishes stories of Batman's past adventures and some crooks mock her about it. However, Catwoman prevents her thugs from murdering Batman once he is later found knocked out, but quickly claims she wants him as a hostage. Catwoman appears again as a criminal in Batman #84 (June 1954) and Detective Comics #211 (September 1954), which were her two final appearances until 1966. This was mostly due to her possible violation of the developing Comics Code Authority's rules for portrayal of female characters that started in 1954.\n\nSilver Age\nCatwoman made her first Silver Age appearance in Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane #70-71 (November–December 1966); afterward, she continued to make appearances across the various Batman comics.\nSeveral stories in the 1970s featured Catwoman committing murder, something that neither the Earth-One nor Earth-Two versions of her would ever do. This version of Catwoman was later assigned to the alternate world of Earth-B, an alternate Earth that included stories that could not be considered canonical on Earth-One or Earth-Two.\n\nModern Age\nTangled origins\nCatwoman's origin—and, to an extent, her character—was revised in 1987 when writer Frank Miller and artist David Mazzucchelli published Batman: Year One, a revision of Batman's origin. She worked as a dominatrix for the pimp Stan to survive and also sheltered a child prostitute named Holly Robinson working for him. Selina got into a fight with a disguised Bruce after he grabbed Holly, who had stabbed him during a fight with Stan, but was knocked out.\nAs the story progresses, Selina decides to leave prostitution and takes Holly with her. She gets into burglary to make money and starts robbing the rich and powerful men of Gotham, donning a catsuit costume while committing her heists. While trying to rob Carmine Falcone, she gets rescued by Batman but is irked of being thought of as his sidekick by the media.\nThe 1989 Catwoman limited series, written by Mindy Newell and with art by J.J. Birch, expanded upon Miller's Year One origin. This storyline, known as \"Her Sister's Keeper\", explores Selina's early life as a dominatrix and the start of her career as Catwoman. The story culminates with Selina's former pimp, Stan, abducting and beating her sister Maggie, who, in contrast to Selina, is a nun. Selina kills Stan to save her sister, and gets away with it. Most of this is revealed in the former series, but is expanded upon in \"Her Sister's Keeper\".\nCatwoman (vol. 2) #69 provides details about Selina's childhood and neglects Maggie's existence. Maria Kyle is a distant parent who preferred to spend her time with cats, and commits suicide when Selina is very young. Her alcoholic father, Brian, is cold to Selina for resembling her mother, whom he resents for dying, and eventually drinks himself to death. To survive, Selina takes to the streets for a time before getting caught and sent first to an orphanage, then juvenile detention center, \"where Selina began to see how hard the world could really be\". Maggie's fate at this point in the timeline is not alluded to. However, when Ed Brubaker reintroduces her into the comic, he implies that Maggie may have directly entered an orphanage and promptly been adopted.\nWhen she is 13 years old, Selina discovers that the detention center's administrator has been embezzling funds, and she confronts her. In an attempt to cover up her crime, the administrator puts Selina in a bag and drops her in a river to drown (like a cat). She escapes and returns to the orphanage, where she steals documents exposing the administrator's corruption. She uses these to blackmail the administrator into erasing \"Selina Kyle\" from the city's records, then steals the administrator's diamond necklace and escapes from the orphanage. Selina eventually finds herself in \"Alleytown – a network of cobblestone streets that form a small borough between the East End and Old Gotham.\" Selina is taken in by Mama Fortuna, the elderly leader of a gang of young thieves, and is taught how to steal. Fortuna treats her students like slaves, keeping their earnings for herself. Selina eventually runs away, accompanied by her friend Sylvia. However, the two have difficulty surviving on their own, and in desperation try to support themselves by working as prostitutes. The two drift apart afterward, with Sylvia coming to resent Selina for not inquiring about what had happened to her at the hands of her abusive first client.\nIn the Catwoman: Year One story, Selina, who is now an adult, achieves some success as a thief. Following a disastrous burglary, however, she accepts an offer to \"lie low\" as a dominatrix employed by a pimp named Stan. They plan to trick men into divulging information that might be used in future crimes. According to this storyline, Selina trains under the Armless Master of Gotham City, receiving education in martial arts and culture. During this time, a client gives her a cat o' nine tails, which Selina keeps as a trophy.\nBatman: Dark Victory, the sequel to Batman: The Long Halloween, implies that Catwoman suspects she is the illegitimate daughter of Mafia boss Carmine Falcone, although she finds no definitive proof. Selina's connection to the Falcone crime family is further explored in the miniseries Catwoman: When in Rome. Though the story adds more circumstantial evidence to the theory of Selina's Falcone heritage, establishing that the Falcones' second-born daughter was put up for adoption in America, it also supplies no definitive proof. During Batman: The Long Halloween, Selina (out of costume) develops a relationship with Bruce Wayne, even leading her to save Bruce from Poison Ivy. However, this relationship appears to end on the Fourth of July when Bruce rejects her advances twice; once as Bruce and once as Batman. She leaves him for good and also leaves Gotham for a while in Batman: Dark Victory, after he stands her up on two holidays. When the two meet at an opera many years later, during the events of Batman: Hush, Bruce comments that the two no longer have a relationship as Bruce and Selina.\nCatwoman also appears in the Batman: Knightfall saga, where she is approached by Bane's henchmen while robbing a house. Bane asks her to work for him, but she refuses, as she is repulsed by the criminal who \"broke\" Batman. Later in the story, she boards a plane with Bruce Wayne to fly to Santa Prisca. She next appears in the Batman: Knightquest saga, where Azrael is masquerading as Batman. She is one of the few to recognize that this Batman is an impostor, later being present when the true Batman returns to the fold as he struggles against his successor, his willingness to save even criminals confirming his true identity for Selina.\n\nCatwoman solo series\nIn 1993, Catwoman was given her first ongoing comic book series. This series, written by an assortment of writers, but primarily penciled by Jim Balent, generally depicted the character as an international thief (and occasional bounty hunter) with an ambiguous moral code.\nStory-lines include her adoption of teenage runaway and former sidekick, Arizona; aiding Bane, whom she later betrays to Azrael; and a stint as a reluctant government operative. The series also delves into her origin, revealing her beginnings as a young thief, her difficult period in juvenile incarceration, and her training with Ted \"Wildcat\" Grant.\nMoving to New York City, Selina becomes corporate vice president of Randolf Industries, a Mafia-influenced company and then becomes its CEO through blackmail. She plans to use this position to run for Mayor of New York City, but her hopes are dashed when the Trickster inadvertently connects her to her criminal alter ego.\nAfter her time in New York City, Selina returns to Gotham City, which at this time is in the midst of the \"No Man's Land\" storyline. As Catwoman, she assists Batman against Lex Luthor in the reconstruction of the city. After being arrested by Commissioner Gordon, she escapes from prison. Later that year, during the \"Officer Down\" storyline in the Batman titles, Catwoman is initially the chief suspect. Although later cleared, she displays increasingly erratic behavior throughout the story, with her series later revealing that she has developed a form of personality disorder after exposure to the Scarecrow's fear gas, causing her to act as herself and an identity that appears to be her sister Maggie pretending to be her. Soon afterward, she disappears and is believed to have been killed by the assassin Deathstroke the Terminator, ending her series at issue #94.\nCatwoman then appears in a series of back-up stories in Detective Comics #759–762 (August–November 2001). In the back-up storyline \"Trail of the Catwoman\", by writer Ed Brubaker and artist Darwyn Cooke, private detective Slam Bradley attempts to find out what really happened to Selina Kyle. This storyline leads into the newest Catwoman series in late 2001 (written by Brubaker initially with Cooke, later joined by artist Cameron Stewart). In this series, Selina Kyle, joined by new supporting cast members Holly and Slam Bradley (a character from the early Golden Age DC Comics), becomes protector of the residents of Gotham's East End, while still carrying out an ambitious career as a cat burglar.\nDuring the Batman: Hush storyline, Batman and Catwoman briefly work together and have a romantic relationship, during which he reveals his true identity to her. At the end, he breaks off their relationship when he suspects it has been manipulated by the Riddler and Hush. This is the second story to establish that she knows Batman's true identity. In an early 1980s storyline, Selina and Bruce develop a relationship. The concluding story features a closing panel in which she refers to Batman as \"Bruce\". A change in the editorial team at that point, however, brought a swift end to that storyline and, apparently, all that transpired during the story arc.\nIn the Justice League story arc \"Crisis of Conscience\", Catwoman fights alongside Batman and the Justice League against the old Secret Society of Super Villains, of which she had once briefly been a member.\n\nMindwiping revelations\nCatwoman appears to be completely reformed, and her love for Batman is true (although brash and unpredictable). However, she has learned her reformation was the result of a mindwipe by Zatanna, a procedure known to deeply affect and, in at least one case, physically incapacitate its victims. Zatanna gives no reason for her actions, but in a flashback, it is shown that she had acted with the consent and aid of five of the seven JLA members who had helped her mindwipe Dr. Light and Batman. Catwoman's response to this revelation is unequivocal: she gags Zatanna with duct tape, rendering her powerless, and pushes her out a window. Afterward, she is seen covering her bed with past versions of her Catwoman costume.\nStill unbalanced and uncertain of herself in issue #52, Selina is forced to decide whether to kill a supervillain. Black Mask, in an attempt to \"improve himself\", threatens the most important people in Selina's life, from Slam Bradley to Holly. The villain had also previously tortured Selina's sister Maggie by drilling out her husband's eyeballs and feeding them to Maggie, which drove her insane. Black Mask learns Selina's identity through his earlier alliance with Selina's childhood friend Sylvia, who still harbors a grudge against Selina. Still thinking that Selina adheres to a strict no-kill rule, Black Mask is caught by surprise when Selina shoots him in the head. This action continues to haunt her throughout the \"One Year Later\" storyline, and it is suggested that this might have been the first time she had ever directly taken a life.\n\nAs a mother\nFollowing the events of Infinite Crisis, the DC Universe jumps forward in time. After \"One Year later\", Selina Kyle is no longer Catwoman, she has left the East End, and has given birth to a daughter named Helena. The father of her new daughter is initially unrevealed; however, Batman demonstrates great concern for the child and at one point asks to have Helena stay at his mansion. Selina attempts to live a safe and somewhat normal life, and gives up her more dangerous ways of living as Catwoman. Holly Robinson takes over as the new Catwoman while Selina, living under the alias Irena Dubrovna, turns her attention to caring for her daughter (Selina's alias was inspired by the name of the main character in the 1942 film Cat People).\nThough she takes her role as a new mother quite seriously, Selina dons the costume for a run through the East End some days after Helena's birth. Having gained a few pounds, Selina finds that her costume is now tighter. In addition, she is easily distracted by a common criminal. Although the situation is defused through Holly's opportune arrival, the sight of two Catwomen active simultaneously in the city is caught on video. Selina returns home from her adventure to find that the mysterious movie aficionado the Film Freak has deduced her alias, teamed up with the Angle Man, and grabbed Helena. After rescuing her daughter, Selina convinces Zatanna to mindwipe the Film Freak and the Angle Man in order to preserve her secret identity. Following the procedure, the Angle Man turns himself in to the authorities; the Film Freak, however, embarks upon a murderous rampage.\nA twist occurs when Wildcat informs Selina that Holly has been arrested for the murder of Black Mask. Selina infiltrates the police station and frees Holly. Finally defeating the Film Freak, Selina returns home to find that Bradley has deduced that Helena is the daughter of his son Sam Bradley, Jr., and therefore his granddaughter (although it is still strongly hinted that Bruce Wayne may be the father).\nBatman asks Catwoman to infiltrate the violent tribe of the Bana Amazons during the Amazons Attack! crossover. Posing as a criminal, Selina gains the Bana's trust and thwarts a terror attack aimed at causing mass casualties in Gotham City.\nSelina questions whether she should be raising a daughter when her life as Catwoman has already proven to be such a danger to the child. After enlisting Batman's help in faking the death of both herself and her daughter, Selina puts Helena up for adoption. A month after Helena is placed with a new family, Catwoman asks Zatanna to erase her memories of Helena and change her mind back to a criminal mentality. Zatanna refuses, judging that such an act would be cruel to both mother and daughter. She tells Selina that she could never reverse Selina's mindset, since she was on the path to becoming a hero on her own. Believing she can no longer function as a criminal, Selina decided to become one of Batman's Outsiders. She quickly quits, however, and is replaced by Batgirl.\n\nSalvation Run\nIn Salvation Run #2, Catwoman is sent to the Prison Planet. She allies herself with Lex Luthor in an attempt to return to Earth, and mistakenly ends up on an alternate universe-Earth where Catwoman is a notorious villain. It is later revealed that this Earth is a creation of her own mind, and she has not left the Prison Planet. When accused of being a traitor by Luthor, she reveals the Martian Manhunter is posing as the Blockbuster, which would soon lead to the hero's death.\nUsing the trust she regained in Luthor's eyes, she earns a passage to the 'real' Earth, in a jerry-rigged teleport machine built by Luthor for letting the villains escape. On Earth, she resumes being a hero, with occasional lapses into thievery by commission, simply for the thrill of it.\n\nHeart of Hush\nLater, in Detective Comics, Selina is quite uncertain about pursuing a romantic relationship with Batman. She talks with Bruce about Jezebel Jet, his current girlfriend, and then has a quick pep talk with Zatanna, whom she believes is also courting Bruce. Zatanna confirms and admits her feelings, adding that she has since chosen to forget them, but extremely encourages Selina to open her heart to Bruce Wayne before Jet is able to \"seal the deal\". Hush eavesdrops on the conversation, targeting both women as a way to hurt his enemy, Bruce Wayne.\nIn Detective Comics #848 (November 2008), Hush attacks Selina as she is in her apartment, kidnapping her and surgically removing her heart. She is delivered anonymously to a Gotham hospital. Batman receives word of her situation, and while he goes in search of Hush, he leaves Selina in the care of Doctor Mid-Nite, who is considered the superhero community's chief doctor.\nBatman recovers her heart, and Dr. Mid-Nite restores it to her body; however, the doctor also makes a prognosis on whether she can still return to her former life swinging through rooftops. While Selina is still in a coma, she encounters Zatanna, who apologizes for not warning her about Hush. She tells Selina that she was so happy about her relationship with Bruce that she ignored the other warnings in the cards. Zatanna gives her a little bottle supposedly containing aloe vera for her post-op scars. It is hinted that there is a little magic in there to help Selina with her recovery. Selina is sad that she might end up alone again. In the meantime, Bruce enters the recovery room and, believing her unconscious, launches into a soliloquy. He ends by telling Selina that he will always love her, when she opens her eyes and reveals to him that she was awake all the time and heard his confession.\n\nBatman R.I.P.\nDuring the events of Batman R.I.P., Selina and Bruce's romance lasts only for a night because Bruce must continue to pose as Jezebel's lover to bring down the Black Glove. While still recuperating, she pulls off one more heist and exacts her revenge on Hush. With the help of a few allies on both sides; the Oracle, Holly Robinson, Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn, and Slam Bradley, Selina taps into Hush's assets, leaving him penniless and suffering from wounds inflicted by Batman.\n\nBattle for the Cowl\nIn Batman: Battle for the Cowl, Selina is seen as one of the members of Nightwing and Robin's contingency team known as \"the Network\", where she is seen taking down a gang of thugs before seeing Tim Drake dressed in a Batman uniform and is initially taken by surprise.\n\nBatman: Reborn and Gotham City Sirens\nIn the first issue of Gotham City Sirens, Selina runs into the Bonebuster, a new villain trying to make a name for himself, and is saved by Poison Ivy. Selina, fearing the many dangers of a post-Batman Gotham, proposes that she, Ivy, and Harley Quinn team up, living together at a single base in an abandoned animal shelter. Ivy agrees under one condition: using home-grown drugs to weaken Selina's resistance, Ivy demands the identity of the true Batman. Selina flashes back three years to when Talia al Ghul requested her presence in Tibet. There, Talia made it so that Selina would not relinquish the true identity of Batman under any circumstances. After the interrogation is over, Selina sees Harley with Bruce Wayne on TV. Selina tells Ivy that she knows it is Hush in disguise.\n\nBlackest Night\nDuring the events of Blackest Night, Selina is attacked by Black Mask after he has been reborn as a member of the Black Lantern Corps. After he tells her that he plans on getting an emotional response before killing her, Selina steals a car and heads to the mental institution where Maggie is held, believing Black Mask is coming for her. Black Mask attacks the institution, and somehow awakens Maggie from her coma. Selina arrives in time to help her sister flee into the sewers. While on the run, Maggie angrily tells Selina that she ruined both of their lives the day she decided to become Catwoman. Devastated by her sister's statement, Selina fails to realize they have both been heading into a trap. Just as Black Mask is about to gouge Maggie's eyes out and shove them down Selina's throat, Harley and Ivy arrive and defeat the Black Lantern by trapping him in the stomach of a man-eating plant. Selina is helped to her feet by her friends, who tell her that Maggie has fled the scene. The next day, the staff members of the mental institution are shown discussing Maggie's escape, also mentioning that a nun that works at the hospital had been found beaten and stripped of her uniform. Maggie is then shown in the depths of the Gotham City sewers clad in the bloodied nun robes, muttering about her plan to kill Catwoman in order to free Selina's soul. Now calling herself Sister Zero, Maggie attempts to kill Selina, but ultimately flees after being defeated by the Sirens. She is last seen going over her options, now realizing that she cannot murder her own sister, and therefore must personally exorcise the \"cat demon\" from within Selina's body.\n\nThe Return of Bruce Wayne\nIn the build-up to The Return of Bruce Wayne, the Sirens help Zatanna put out a massive fire at a local park near their home, only for them to be ambushed by a creature made of mud. After being dragged underneath the soil by the creature, Catwoman awakens bound and gagged on the floor of a dark room, and is quickly forced into an illusion by her unseen captors. Back in reality, Talia reveals to the Sirens that just a few hours prior, an unknown benefactor had offered up a massive reward to whoever could kidnap and deliver Catwoman to him, with the hopes that he could penetrate her mind and learn Batman's secret identity. Before the knowledge can be ripped from her mind, Selina's captors (revealed to be the Shrike and a new villain named the Sempai), are eventually defeated by the other Sirens.\n\nOnce Selina is freed, Talia orders Zatanna to wipe Bruce's identity from her memory, reasoning that her kidnapping has proved that the knowledge is too dangerous for her to handle. The two women initially restrain Selina and attempt to remove the knowledge from her, but Zatanna refuses at the last moment and ends up fighting Talia in order to protect Selina. Talia tries to kill Selina before vanishing, but she survives and ultimately reunites with Bruce, who had recently returned to the present.\nAfter stealing the contents of a safe belonging to the Falcone crime family, Selina returns home to find Kitrina, a teenaged escape artist and Carmine Falcone's long-lost daughter, breaking into her room. She attacks and subdues Kitrina, who tells Selina that she had unknowingly stolen a map that details the location of the new Black Mask's underground bunker. Realizing that she could use the map to capture Black Mask and claim the 50 million dollar bounty on his head, Selina leaves Kitrina bound in a locked room so that she can keep the map for herself. She later calls Batman to her house in order to turn the would-be thief over to the police, but discovers that Kitrina had managed to free herself and steal back the map. This impresses Selina, who mentions that she had tied up the child using an \"inescapable\" knot that Bruce had shown her years earlier.\nFollowing a battle with Black Mask and his henchmen, which ends with neither woman being able to claim the bounty, Selina agrees to take on Kitrina as her new sidekick, Catgirl. Once Bruce Wayne returns from his time in the past, he establishes Batman Incorporated, a global team of Batmen. Selina accompanies Batman on a mission to break into Doctor Sivana's armory, and later travels with him to Tokyo in order to recruit a Japanese representative for Batman Inc. Catwoman teams up with Batman to stop Harley Quinn from breaking the Joker out of Arkham Asylum. After defeating Harley and the Joker, Catwoman tells Poison Ivy that they are no longer friends, this after Ivy drugged her in an attempt to uncover Batman's secret identity.\nShortly afterwards, Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn have escaped and set off to pursue revenge on Catwoman for leaving them behind. The two of them found Catwoman and fought her. While they were fighting, Catwoman says that she saw good in them and only wanted to help them. Batman was about to arrest them, but Catwoman helped the two of them escape.\n\nThe New 52 / Catwoman (vol. 4)\nIn 2011, DC Comics relaunched its main line of superhero titles under the umbrella The New 52, which revised and updated the fictional history of its superhero characters. Catwoman's new monthly title now focused on Selina's earlier days as Catwoman, though not the identity's origins. The series begins with Selina frantically escaping from unknown masked men who are invading her apartment. After flitting from rooftop to rooftop, Selina looks back just in time to see her apartment blown apart by explosives. She turns to her informant, Lola, who often supplies Catwoman with information and various jobs. In this instance, Lola tips Selina off to an unoccupied penthouse where Selina can lie low for a few weeks, as well as a job stealing a painting from Russian mobsters. For this job, Selina infiltrates a Russian club by posing as the bartender. There, she recognizes a man who murdered a friend of hers, and she takes her revenge. Once her cover is blown, Selina dons her Catwoman outfit and fights her way out of the club. It is revealed through Selina's inner monologue that she and Batman are lovers, and the premiere issue ends with the first sex scene between the two. Her revised origin in Catwoman (vol. 4) #0 draws from Batman Returns.\nCatwoman is later confronted by Steve Trevor, who offers her a spot on Amanda Waller's new Justice League of America. Selina initially refuses, but accepts the offer after Trevor promises to help her track down a woman who has apparently been posing as Selina. It is later revealed that Catwoman was chosen specifically to take down Batman should the JLA ever need to defeat the original Justice League. The teams eventually come into conflict in the publisher's \"Trinity War\" crossover.\nIn the Earth-Two continuity, Selina Kyle and Bruce Wayne are married, and their daughter, Helena Wayne, is that universe's Robin. In this universe, either Selina has reformed or was never a supervillain in the first place. It is revealed in issue #0 of Worlds' Finest that this Selina was killed while trying to stop what she believed was a human trade ring.\n\nKeeper of the Castle and Inheritance\nFrom 2014 to 2015, science fiction writer Genevieve Valentine took over the series and penned a 10-issue story arc focused on Selina Kyle's reign as a Gotham City crime boss. Following events from Batman Eternal and preceding those in Batman #28, Selina takes over control of the Calabrese crime family, after being revealed as the daughter of Rex Calabrese. During this time she stops wearing the Catwoman costume, prompting Eiko Hasigawa, heir to the rival Hasigawa family, to replace her in the role.\nThe women confront each other several times, discussing Eiko's motivations to dress as Catwoman and whether Selina's plans for Gotham and the families are worth the sacrifices required. During one of their encounters, Selina and Eiko kiss, establishing their relationship as a romantic one.\n\nDC Universe\nIn June 2016, the DC Rebirth event again relaunched DC Comics' entire line of superhero comic book titles with partial revisions of their characters' fictional histories. Catwoman assumes a prominent role in the third volume of Batman. In December 2017, DC Comics ended the DC Rebirth branding, opting to include everything under a larger DC Universe banner and naming, and Catwoman continues to be featured in the third volume of Batman. The series reveals Selina Kyle's origin through a series of flashbacks and letters exchanged between her and Bruce. Selina's parents died when she was young, and she hardly remembers them. She is sent to the Thomas and Martha Wayne Home For the Boys and Girls of Gotham, and even after being placed in various foster homes, Selina would escape to return to the orphanage.\nEventually, Selina takes on the Catwoman persona. During one of her heists, she is approached by the Kite Man to aide the Joker in a gang war against the Riddler, which she refuses. She later aides Batman, with whom she already has a romantic relationship, to spy on the Joker. She is shot from a window, but is unharmed. At some point in the future, her childhood orphanage is bombed by a terrorist group called the Dogs of War. Batman reluctantly arrests Catwoman after all 237 of them are killed, despite Catwoman's insistence on her guilt.\nCatwoman's first appearance following the start of DC Rebirth is in Batman (vol. 3) #9, where she is revealed to be imprisoned in Arkham Asylum for the alleged murders of the Dogs of War. Batman is determined to prove her innocence, and makes a deal with Amanda Waller to get her off death row in exchange for her help on a mission to Santa Prisca. The mission to find the Psycho-Pirate is a success, and Batman and Catwoman return to Gotham City. Before Batman can return her to custody, she escapes. Batman investigates the murders of the terrorists that she has been charged with, and deduces that it was in fact Holly Robinson who committed the murders after the terrorists burned down the orphanage she and Selina were raised in. After being attacked by Holly Robinson, Batman is rescued by Catwoman.\nBruce proposes to Selina at the end of Batman (vol. 3) #24. In issue #32, Selina asks Bruce to propose to her again, to which she says, \"Yes\". The two leave Gotham for Khadym to where Holly Robinson has fled to in order to clear Selina's name, ultimately facing Talia al Ghul.\nBatman Annual (vol. 3) #2 (January 2018) centers on a romantic storyline between Batman and Catwoman, beginning with their initial meetings and acceptance of their shared mutual attraction towards one and another. Towards the end, the story is flash-forwarded to the future, in which Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle are a married couple in their golden years. Bruce receives a terminal medical diagnosis, and Selina cares for him until his death.\nOn the day of their wedding, Selina decides to call off the wedding as she realises that marrying Bruce would ultimately take away what makes him Batman. This is later revealed to be due to the manipulations of Holly under the instructions of Bane as to finally break Batman of both spirit and will. Subsequently, Selina leaves Gotham and starts a new life in the city of Villa Hermosa, California (Catwoman (vol. 5) #1). She faces opposition from the power-hungry Creel family who run Villa Hermosa, specifically First Lady Raina Creel.\nShe reappears in the \"City of Bane\" storyline, reuniting with Bruce following his defeat against both Bane and his father Thomas Wayne from the Flashpoint reality. They proceed to go to Paris for Bruce to recover, before going to disrupt a shipment of Venom under the jurisdiction of Bane's lieutenant, the Magpie. During this, they reconcile and finally determine when they actually first met (Batman believed it to be on a boat when they first met under their alter-egos; whilst Catwoman believed it to be in the streets as their true identities, reminiscent of their meeting in Batman: Year One). They subsequently go back to Gotham and defeat all of Batman's enemies who had sided with Bane before taking on and defeating Bane himself, at which point the two are taken by Thomas who, in an attempt to finally break Bruce's spirit, shows him the corpse of the recently murdered Alfred. However, both Bruce and Selina then defeat Thomas utilizing both Scarface and the Psycho-Pirate.\n\nEquipment\nWeapons\nDuring the Silver Age, Catwoman, like most Batman villains, used a variety of themed weapons, vehicles, and equipment, such as a custom cat-themed car called the \"Cat-illac\". This usage also appeared in the 1960s Batman television series. In her Post-Crisis appearances, Catwoman's favored weapon is a whip. She wields both a standard bullwhip and a cat o' nine tails with expert proficiency. She uses the whip because it is a weapon that the user must be trained to use, and therefore it can not be taken from her and used against her in a confrontation. She can also be seen using a pistol against people if her whip is taken from her. Catwoman uses caltrops as an anti-personnel weapon and bolas to entangle opponents at a distance.\nCatwoman has also been shown to have various items to restrain her victims, such as rope for binding hands and feet, and a roll of duct tape used to gag her targets, as she has done with various victims during her robberies over the years. Often, especially in the TV series, she uses sleeping gas or knockout darts to subdue victims. Catwoman's attractiveness and feminine wiles have also allowed her to take advantage of male opponents.\n\nCostume\nCatwoman, in her first appearance, wore no costume or disguise at all. It was not until her next appearance that she donned a mask, which was a theatrically face-covering cat-mask that had the appearance of a real cat, rather than a more stylized face mask seen in her later incarnations. Later, she wore a dress with a hood that came with ears, and still later, a catsuit with attached boots and either a domino or glasses-mask.\nIn the 1960s, Catwoman's catsuit was green, which was typical of villains of that era. In the 1990s, she usually wore a mostly purple, skintight catsuit before switching to a black catsuit similar to Michelle Pfeiffer's costume in Batman Returns, except not haphazardly stitched together.\nIn recent years, artists have typically depicted Catwoman in some variation of a tight, black bodysuit. Ed Brubaker, the writer behind the 2001 revamp of the character, has stated that Selina's current costume was inspired by Emma Peel's iconic leather catsuit in The Avengers television series. It has a more high tech look, with domino-shaped infrared goggles on her cowl. Many of her costumes have incorporated retractable metal claws on the fingertips of her gloves and sometimes on the toes of her boots. On rare occasions, she has also sported a cat's tail.\nOn May 21, 2018, DC Comics unveiled Selina's revamped Catwoman costume designed by comic book writer and artist Joëlle Jones. The new costume is black with openings under her arms and shoulders for mobility along with reinforcement in the middle. Gone are the goggles in favor of a cowl and sleeker, more stylish gloves and boots. Jones, who had been drawing the covers and interior art for DC Rebirth's Batman was announced as the writer and artist of a new solo Catwoman series (volume 5).\nHolly Robinson uses the same costume Selina used prior to Infinite Crisis.\n\nOther versions\nEarth-Two\nIn the 1970s comics, the Catwoman of Earth-Two (the parallel Earth that was retroactively declared as the home of DC's Golden Age characters) has the same history as her Golden Age counterpart. Selina later reformed in the 1950s (after the events of Batman #69) and had married Bruce Wayne; soon afterward, she gave birth to the couple's only child, Helena Wayne (the Huntress). The Brave and the Bold #197 (April 1983) elaborates upon the Golden Age origin of Catwoman given in Batman #62, after Selina reveals that she never suffered from amnesia. It is revealed that Selina Kyle had been in a bad marriage, and eventually decided to leave her husband. However, her husband kept her jewelry in his private vault, and she had to break into it to retrieve it. Selina enjoyed this experience so much she decided to become a professional costumed cat burglar, and thus began a career that repeatedly led to her encountering Batman.\nThe Earth-Two/Golden Age Selina Kyle eventually dies in the late 1970s after being blackmailed by her former underling \"Silky\" Cernak into going into action again as Catwoman, as shown in DC Super-Stars #17 (December 1977). She was killed when Cernak henchman's gun went off and hit her on the chest enough for her to fall from the fourth floor mezzanine. She died in Bruce's arms claiming \"I did it all for you\". This incident led to Helena Wayne becoming Huntress and bringing Cernak to justice.\n\nThe Dark Knight Returns\nSelina Kyle appears as an aging and somewhat overweight madam in Frank Miller's Batman: The Dark Knight Returns four times; all are brief. The first time is in a phone message to Bruce (\"Selina. Bruce, I'm lonely.\"). Next, she is attacked by the Joker, who uses a mind control drug to convince her to send one of her prostitutes to use the same substance on a governor. The Joker then beats her, dresses her in a Wonder Woman outfit, ties her up and gags her, leaving her for Batman to find. Selina's final appearance in the book is at Bruce Wayne's funeral, where she yells at Superman, telling him that she knows who killed Bruce. She does not appear in Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, Miller's follow-up story, although she is referred to in the prologue written for the trade paperback version, but in the book, Carrie Kelley's moniker of \"Catgirl\" is an homage to Catwoman.\n\nProse books\nTwo 1990s prose books feature Catwoman: The Further Adventures of Batman: Volume 3 featuring Catwoman, a short story anthology with stories written by various authors, and Catwoman: Tiger Hunt, a novel. Both books feature a Batman: Year One-influenced Catwoman who wears a gray cat costume and was once a prostitute.\n\nKingdom Come\nCatwoman also made a small cameo in Kingdom Come, mostly accompanying the Riddler; she is predominantly seen, but not much heard in the series. She is not dressed in costume, but appears in the very dress she first wore in Batman #1 as the Cat. According to the novelization by Elliot S. Maggin, she runs a multibillion-dollar cosmetics company. An armored, metahuman successor called \"Catwoman II\" is also featured in the story as one of the \"new heroes\" who follow the new \"man of tomorrow\" Magog's anti-heroic, violent example.\n\nBatman: Digital Justice\nIn the all-digital graphic novel Batman: Digital Justice, which is set some time in the future long after the original Batman has died, Sheila Romero, also known as the hit pop music star Gata (the Spanish female noun for \"cat\") and daughter of the Mayor of Gotham City, is jealous of the new Batman, James Gordon, because media coverage of his activities have been cutting into her airtime. Setting out to learn as much about Batman and his enemies as she can, Gata becomes the new Catwoman. Near the end of the story, Gata and her followers face off against Batman, but the two later fall in love, and Maria Romero, also known as Madame X, tells Sheila that she is really a clone of Maria. Maria confesses that she had planned to transplant her brain into Gata's body, but she could not bring herself to do it because she loved her \"daughter\" too much. Maria then dies in Sheila's arms.\n\nElseworlds\nIn the Elseworlds tale Catwoman: Guardian of Gotham, Selina Kyle is the daughter of millionaires Thomas and Martha Kyle. Walking home after seeing the film Cat People, the young Selina chases after an alley cat and watches in horror as her parents are gunned down by a robber. Selina learns that the crook has stolen a ring she found in a Cracker Jack box and had given to her mother. Years later she becomes Catwoman, the defender of Gotham City, operating out of a Catcave beneath Kyle Manor, aided by a young maid named Brooks (this universe's version of Alfred Pennyworth). Her major enemy is a psychopathic criminal named Batman, who beats her entire rogues gallery half-to-death just to get rid of the competition.\nIn the Elseworlds tale Batman: Nine Lives, where Batman and his supporting characters are re-invented as a pulp noir detective story, an African-American Selina Kyle is a murdered owner of the bankrupt Kit Kat Club who was blackmailing many of the city's most powerful figures. She is nicknamed \"the Catwoman\".\nIn the Elseworlds tale Batman/Tarzan: Claws of the Cat-woman, set in the 1930s, explorer and adventurer Finnegan Dent is revealed to be stealing the sacred artifacts of an African tribe. During an encounter with Batman and Tarzan, a female thief, dressed as a cat, is revealed to be the princess of the tribe, as well as the priestess of its cat-cult, trying to reclaim the artifacts.\nIn the Elseworlds tale JLA: The Nail, featuring a world where costumed heroes have no symbol of inspiration as Superman was never recovered by the Kents, Catwoman is diagnosed by the head warden of Arkham Asylum as not being a true \"criminal\", but simply enjoying playing a \"cat-and-mouse\" game with Batman, donning her costume simply to attract his attention. During her time in Arkham, the Joker attacks the asylum armed with Kryptonian gauntlets provided by the story's secret villain, forcing the inmates to fight each other—Catwoman being the last one standing—before Batman arrives. Although the Joker uses his gauntlets to brutally murder Robin and Batgirl while forcing Batman to watch, Catwoman distracts him long enough for Batman to escape the Joker's hold and destroy the gauntlets. He then proceeds to kill the Joker in a trauma-induced rage, taking the gauntlets and Catwoman back to the Batcave. With Selina and Alfred having broken through Batman's grief, Selina becomes Batwoman and joins Batman in rescuing the JLA from captivity. Although Batman resigns from the League after he is cleared of the Joker's murder, even Catwoman's support cannot help him past his grief until the events of JLA: Another Nail, where the two briefly travel into the afterlife to investigate recent supernatural disturbances with the aid of Deadman, with Batgirl and Robin's spirits appearing to forgive their mentor for his failure to save them before he returns to life.\nIn the Elseworlds tale Batman: In Darkest Knight, featuring a world if Bruce Wayne discovered the body of dying alien Abin Sur, instead of Green Lantern Hal Jordan, also features familiar Batman characters mixed with some of Green Lantern's enemies. Selina Kyle (recognized by Bruce as \"that night in the East End\", a reference to Batman: Year One\"), along with Harvey Dent are corrupted by Sinestro, who absorbs the mind of the Waynes' killer Joe Chill and became crazed. The two known as Star Sapphire (Selina) and Binary Star (Harvey) team with Sinestro to take out Green Lantern, but are stopped.\n\nBatman: Bloodstorm\nIn Batman: Bloodstorm, the first of two sequels to Batman & Dracula: Red Rain, where Batman was forced to become a vampire to save Gotham from an attack by Dracula, Selina is turned into a werecat after being bitten by one of the remaining vampires. Hunting for the monster that transformed her, Selina encounters Batman as he hunts for the remaining vampires, the two subsequently joining forces to eliminate the vampire horde. As they fight together, Batman finds that Selina's selfless love for him allows him to control his thirst for blood that had begun to consume him. She sacrifices herself to save him from the Joker, who had become the leader of the remaining vampires after Dracula's death, taking a crossbow bolt to the heart that the Joker had fired at Batman. Batman's grief and rage over her death causes him to finally lose control of his bloodlust as he drinks the Joker's blood. In the second and final sequel, Batman: Crimson Mist, the corrupted Batman reflects grimly that he can no longer understand Selina's noble sacrifice after his psyche has become increasingly corrupted by his surrender to his vampire side.\n\nThrillkiller\nIn Howard Chaykin's Thrillkiller, Selina Kyle is a stripper in a cat-themed strip club. She acts as an informant for GCPD detective Bruce Wayne.\n\nDark Allegiances\nIn Howard Chaykin's Dark Allegiances, Selina Kyle becomes a film star under the stage name of Kitty Grimalkin. Prior to becoming a star, she was an alcoholic whose actions during one of her \"blackouts\" were recorded into an underground porn film. The stills from the film are used to blackmail her into stealing information from Wayne Enterprises.\n\nBatman: Shadow of the Bat\nIn Alan Grant's Batman: Shadow of the Bat Annual #2, Vikki Vale, a reporter for Wayne Media, is Catwoman. She is hired by Anarky to steal information, but she gets caught and is tortured by Jonathan Crane, whom she calls a \"demented scarecrow\".\n\nAll Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder\nIn Frank Miller's All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, Catwoman expresses interest when the Joker's invites her to join him in \"some mischief\". She may be involved in sadomasochism, as she first advises the Joker — who has just murdered his latest lover—that \"I've heard rumors on how you handle women — and even I don't play it that rough\". Two issues later, however, Catwoman is found brutally beaten and cut, bleeding badly. She struggles to tell Batman, \"Juh... Juh... It was Juh...\"\n\nBatman: Two Faces\nIn Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning's Batman: Two Faces, Selina Kyle is a madame in 19th century Gotham, who defends streetwalkers in a mask, bustier, and fishnets and occasionally works with amateur detective Bruce Wayne. The Joker attacks and paralyzes her, much like he does to Barbara Gordon in Batman: The Killing Joke.\n\nBatman: Leatherwing\nIn Detective Comics Annual #7 (\"Batman: Leatherwing\") by Chuck Dixon, set in the 18th century Caribbean, Capitana Felina is a Spanish Contessa turned pirate, who rails against the chauvinism of her own crew. She initially teams up with the Laughing Man (the Joker) against the English freebooter Captain Leatherwing (Batman), before turning to Leatherwing's side, and eventually marrying him.\n\nBatman Beyond\nA futuristic Catwoman appears in Batman Beyond (vol. 3). Like the current Batman, Terry McGinnis, the new Catwoman sports a high-tech costume complete with advanced gadgetry. The new Hush hires her to plant a tracking device on Batman, only for Hush to begin strangling her after \"paying\" her with a box full of playing cards, regarding her death as a continuation of his efforts to destroy Batman's \"family\" by killing his rogues gallery. Bruce Wayne saves her with 'Bat-Wraith' robots. She is revealed to be the daughter of the villain Multiplex; she inherits her father's ability to self-duplicate, but can only create nine copies of herself, explaining her adoption of the Catwoman moniker. She is later revealed to be intimately involved with Dick Grayson.\n\nFlashpoint\nIn the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Selina Kyle becomes the Oracle, having been apparently paralyzed under unspecified circumstances.\n\nBatman: Earth One\nIn the second volume of the Batman: Earth One graphic novel series, Selena Kyle appears and helps Batman tending his wounds after chasing the Riddler, pretending to be a single mother who lives in the apartment building where he was injured. Batman later discovers that she is neither the apartment's tenant or a mother, but a burglar who was robbing the building at the time.\n\nScooby-Doo Team-Up\nDuring a crossover with the cast of Scooby-Doo, Catwoman poses as a ghost in order to con Harley and Ivy out of the Opal of Isis, a rare artifact. After the members of Mystery, Inc. unravel her scam, Catwoman tries to flee with the opal. She is soon found bound and gagged, with Batgirl having managed to defeat her and reclaim the opal off-screen.\n\nEarth 2\nIn 2011, The New 52 revised and relaunched DC Comics superhero titles, including revisions to the alternate-universe stories and characters of \"Earth-Two\"—renamed \"Earth-2\". The Earth 2 version of Catwoman is married to Batman and is the mother of Helena Wayne. Catwoman trained her daughter in crimefighting so that she can one day aid her father, who is busy protecting the world from bigger threats. Batman found out about the outing and got angry, only for Catwoman to calm him down and kiss him. Helena later came to her father's aid and found that soldiers from another world killed Catwoman as Batman mourns her death.\n\nBatman '89\nIn 2021, DC announced that it would be releasing a comic book continuation of Tim Burton's first two Batman films, Batman (1989) and Batman Returns (1992), Batman '89, written by Sam Hamm, and illustrated by Joe Quinones. The book picks following the events of Batman Returns (1992) and includes the return of Michelle Pfeiffer's Selina Kyle / Catwoman.\n\nIn other media\nCatwoman made her live-action debut in the 1966 Batman television series, portrayed by Julie Newmar; she was also portrayed by Lee Meriwether in the film adaptation and Eartha Kitt in the third season. The character later appeared in Tim Burton's Batman Returns, portrayed by Michelle Pfeiffer. A solo Catwoman film was released in 2004 in which she was portrayed by Halle Berry. Anne Hathaway portrayed the character in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Rises. She was voiced by Zoë Kravitz in the 2017 animated film the Lego Batman Movie, and in 2022, she portrayed the character in Matt Reeves' live-action film The Batman. Catwoman has also appeared in the television series Gotham (2014–2019), in which she was portrayed by Camren Bicondova and Lili Simmons (adult).\n\nReception\nCatwoman was ranked 11th on IGN's \"Top 100 Comic Book Villains of All Time\" list, and 51st on Wizard magazine's \"100 Greatest Villains of All Time\" list. Conversely, she was ranked 20th on IGN's \"Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time\" list, as well as 23rd in Comics Buyer's Guide's \"100 Sexiest Women in Comics\" list.\n\nBibliography\nList of Catwoman titles\nCatwoman (miniseries) #1–4 (1989)\nCatwoman: Defiant (1992)\nMateriał From Showcase '93 #1–4 (1993)\nMateriał From Showcase '95 #4 (1995)\nCatwoman (vol. 2) #1–94 (1993–2001)\nCatwoman (vol. 2) #0 (1994)\nCatwoman #1,000,000 (1998)\nCatwoman Annual #1–4 (1994–1997)\nCatwoman/Vampirella: The Furies (1997)\nCatwoman Plus/Scream Queen #1 (1997) (with Scream Queen)\nCatwoman/Wildcat #1–4 (1998)\nCatwoman: Guardian of Gotham #1–2 (1999)\nCatwoman (vol. 3) #1–83 (2002–2008, 2010)\nCatwoman: Secret Files and Origins #1 (2003)\nCatwoman: When in Rome #1–6 (2004)\nBatman/Catwoman: Trail of the Gun #1–2 (2004)\nGotham City Sirens #1–26 (2009–2011) (Catwoman co-stars in the title alongside Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn)\nCatwoman (vol. 4) #1–52 (2011–2016)\nCatwoman (vol. 4) #0\nCatwoman: Futures End #1\nCatwoman Annual (vol. 2) #1–2 (2013 and 2014)\nCatwoman (vol. 5) #1–ongoing (2018–present)\nCatwoman Annual (vol. 3) #1 (2019)\nCatwoman: Lonely City #1–4 (2021–2022)\n\nNovels\nCatwoman: Tiger Hunt, Warner Books, September 1992, ISBN 978-0-446-36043-2\n\nGraphic novels\nCatwoman: Selina's Big Score, DC Comics, ISBN 978-1-56389-922-5 (SC, August 2003), ISBN 978-1-56389-897-6 (HC, July 2002)\n\nCollected editions\nOther collected editions\nBatman: Knightfall Vol. 2: Knightquest (Catwoman (vol. 2) #6–7)\nBatman: Knightfall Vol. 3: KnightsEnd (Catwoman (vol. 2) #12–13)\nBatman: Contagion (Catwoman (vol. 2) #31–35)\nBatman: Legacy (Catwoman (vol. 2) #35–36)\nBatman/Wildcat (Catwoman/Wildcat #1-4)\nBatman: Cataclysm (Catwoman (vol. 2) #56)\nBatman: No Man's Land Vol. 2 (Catwoman (vol. 2) #72–74)\nBatman: No Man's Land Vol. 4 (Catwoman (vol. 2) #75–77)\nBatman: New Gotham Vol. 2 – Officer Down (Catwoman (vol. 2) #90)\nBatman: War Games Act 1 (Catwoman (vol. 3) #34)\nBatman: War Games Act 2 (Catwoman (vol. 3) #35)\nBatman: War Games Act 3 (Catwoman (vol. 3) #36)\nBatman: Night of the Owls (Catwoman (vol. 4) #9)\nThe Joker: Death of the Family (Catwoman (vol. 4) #13–14)\nDC Comics: Zero Year (Catwoman (vol. 4) #25)\n\nSee also\nList of Batman supporting characters\nList of Batman family enemies\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nCatwoman Through the Years – slideshow by Life magazine\n\"Catwoman (of Batman: The Animated Series) from BatmanTAS.com\". Archived from the original on March 23, 2012. Retrieved 2005-11-26.\nCatwoman on DC Database, a DC Comics wiki\n\"Girls With Gauntlets\". Archived from the original on February 18, 2012. Retrieved 2006-01-07. – the influence of Catwoman upon female action heroes of the 1990s\nMoore, Booth (January 24, 2011). \"Catching up with the original Catwoman, Julie Newmar\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 24, 2011.",
"title": "Catwoman"
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"paragraph_text": "Milton \"Bill\" Finger (February 8, 1914 – c. January 18, 1974) was an American screenwriter and comic book writer who was the co-creator (with Bob Kane) of the DC Comics character Batman. Despite making major (sometimes, signature) contributions as an innovative writer, visionary mythos/world builder and illustration architect, Finger (like other creators of his era) was often relegated to ghostwriter status on many comics—including those featuring Batman, and the original Green Lantern, Alan Scott.\nWhile Kane privately admitted in a 1980s audio interview with his autobiographer that Finger was responsible for \"50–75% of all the creativity in Batman,\" he publicly denied Finger had been anything more than a subcontractor executing Kane's ideas for decades. As a result, Finger died in obscurity and poverty while the Batman brand, and Kane, amassed international fame and wealth. In the 2000s, Finger biographer Marc Tyler Nobleman's research uncovered previously unknown heirs. At the urging of Nobleman, the online comics fan community and others, Finger's granddaughter revived the fight to restore his lost legacy, which continued for years. In 2015, DC Comics's parent company conditionally agreed to recognize Finger's intellectual property claim as co-creator of the Batman characters and mythos, officially adding his name, going forward, to the \"created by\" credit line Kane had been contractually guaranteed in 1939.\n\nEarly life\nBill Finger was born in Denver, Colorado, in 1914 to an Ashkenazi Jewish family. His father, Louis Finger, was born in Austria-Hungary in 1890 and emigrated to the U.S. in 1907. Little is known about his biological mother Rosa Rosenblatt. His stepmother Tessie was born in 1892 in New York City. The family also included two daughters (or possibly nieces raised as daughters), Emily and Gilda. The family moved to The Bronx, New York City, where during the Great Depression Louis Finger was forced to close his tailor shop. Finger graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School in The Bronx in 1933.\n\nCareer\nComics\nAn aspiring writer and a part-time shoe salesman, Finger joined Bob Kane's nascent studio in 1938 after having met Kane, a fellow DeWitt Clinton alumnus, at a party. Kane later offered him a job ghost writing the strips Rusty and Clip Carson.\n\nBatman\nEarly the following year, National Comics' success with the seminal superhero Superman in Action Comics prompted editors to scramble for similar heroes. In response, Kane conceived the \"Bat-Man\". Finger recalled Kane\n\n... had an idea for a character called 'Batman', and he'd like me to see the drawings. I went over to Kane's, and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of ... reddish tights, I believe, with boots ... no gloves, no gauntlets ... with a small domino mask, swinging on a rope. He had two stiff wings that were sticking out, looking like bat wings. And under it was a big sign ... BATMAN.\nFinger offered such suggestions as giving the character a cowl with pointed bat-ears instead of the domino mask, a cape instead of wings, adding gloves, and changing the red sections of the costume to gray. Finger later said his suggestions to have his eyes covered by white lenses was influenced by Lee Falk's popular The Phantom, a syndicated newspaper comic strip character with which Kane was also familiar, and that he devised the name Bruce Wayne for the character's secret identity. Finger said, \"Bruce Wayne's first name came from Robert Bruce, the Scottish patriot. Wayne, being a playboy, was a man of gentry. I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism. I tried Adams, Hancock ... then I thought of Mad Anthony Wayne.\" Kane decades later in his autobiography described Finger as \"a contributing force on Batman right from the beginning ... I made Batman a superhero-vigilante when I first created him. Bill turned him into a scientific detective.\" Nobleman said, \"Bob [Kane] showed Bat-Man to [editor] Vin [Sullivan]—without Bill. Vin promptly wanted to run Bat-Man, and Bob negotiated a deal—without including Bill.\"\nFinger wrote both the initial script for Batman's debut in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939) and the character's second appearance in Detective Comics #28 (June 1939), while Kane provided art. Batman proved a breakout hit, and Finger went on to write many of the early Batman stories, including making major contributions to the Joker character. Batman background artist and letterer George Roussos recalled:\n\nWhat was good about Bill was that whenever he wrote a plot, he did a lot of research for it. Whether the setting was a railroad station or a factory, he would find a photo reference, usually from National Geographic, and give Bob all the research to draw from. He was very orderly and methodical. His only problem was that he couldn't sustain the work ... he couldn't produce material regularly enough.\nRobin was introduced as Batman's sidekick in Detective Comics #38 (April 1940). When Kane wanted Robin's origin to parallel Batman's, Finger made Robin's parents circus performers murdered while performing their trapeze act. Finger recalled:\n\nRobin was an outgrowth of a conversation I had with Bob. As I said, Batman was a combination of Douglas Fairbanks and Sherlock Holmes. Holmes had his Watson. The thing that bothered me was that Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking. I found that as I went along Batman needed a Watson to talk to. That's how Robin came to be. Bob called me over and said he was going to put a boy in the strip to identify with Batman. I thought it was a great idea\".\nComics historian Jim Steranko wrote in 1970 that Finger's slowness as a writer led Batman editor Whitney Ellsworth to suggest Kane replace him, a claim reflected in Joe Desris' description of Finger as \"notoriously tardy\". During Finger's absence, Gardner Fox contributed scripts that introduced Batman's early \"Bat-\" arsenal (the utility belt, the Bat-gyro/-plane and the Batarang). Upon his return, Finger is credited with providing the name \"Gotham City\". Finger wrote the debut issue of Batman's self-titled comic book series which introduced the Joker and the Catwoman. Among the things that made his stories distinctive were a use of giant-sized props: enlarged pennies, sewing machines, or typewriters. Finger seemed to avoid having Batman operate out of a cave in the early stories, to circumvent being too similar to the Phantom and Zorro. Instead Finger indicated that Wayne merely used \"underground hangars\" on the property to store vehicles. The Batcave first appeared in the 1943 Columbia serial starring Lewis Wilson and the comics followed suit thereafter. Donald Clough Cameron created the concept of Batman having a trophy section in the Batcave. One of the prevalently featured trophies in Batman's Batcave, the giant replica of a Lincoln penny, was introduced in a story written by Finger. He was one of the writers of the syndicated Batman comic strip from 1943 to 1946. \nEventually, Finger left Kane's studio to work directly for DC Comics, where he supplied scripts for characters including Batman and Superman. A part of the Superman mythos which had originated on the radio program made its way into the comic books when kryptonite was featured in a story by Finger and Al Plastino in Superman #61 (Nov. 1949). As writer of the Superboy series, Finger created Lana Lang, a love-interest for the teenage superhero. Continuing his Batman work, he and artist Sheldon Moldoff introduced Ace the Bat-Hound in Batman #92 (June 1955), Bat-Mite in Detective Comics #267 (May 1959), Clayface in Detective Comics #298 (December 1961), and Betty Kane, the original Bat-Girl in Batman #139 (April 1961). Finger wrote for other companies, including Fawcett Comics, Quality Comics and Marvel Comics' 1940s predecessor, Timely Comics. Finger created the All-Winners Squad in All Winners Comics #19 (Fall 1946) for Timely.\n\nBatman villains\nFinger provided an account on the creation of Joker in 1966, though admittedly unsure if it was Robinson or Kane who initiated the initial concept:\n\nI got a call from Bob Kane ... He had a new villain. When I arrived he was holding a playing card. Apparently Jerry Robinson or Bob, I don't recall who, looked at the card and they had an idea for a character ... the Joker. Bob made a rough sketch of it. At first it didn't look much like the Joker. It looked more like a clown. But I remembered that Grosset & Dunlap formerly issued very cheap editions of classics by Alexandre Dumas and Victor Hugo ... The volume I had was The Man Who Laughs — his face had been permanently operated on so that he will always have this perpetual grin. And it looked absolutely weird. I cut the picture out of the book and gave it to Bob, who drew the profile and gave it a more sinister aspect. Then he worked on the face; made him look a little clown-like, which accounted for his white face, red lips, green hair. And that was the Joker!\nFinger also asserted that the creation of Penguin was fully his in the same interview, outright refuting Kane's claims:\n\nOh, he never came off a package of Kools...I happened to be looking at an old copy of the old Saturday Evening Post that had an article on the Emperor Penguin. It had photograghs of Emperor Penguins waddling about. To me they looked exactly like portly Englishmen on their way to their private clubs. Naturally when you think of an Englishman, you think of the perpetual umbrella. So, I decided to make a character who...well, it can't be just an umbrella. I decided to gimmick them. I gave him a tophat, make him looking like the Englishman, and gave him a thousand umbrellas, gimmicked. Alas, we have the Penguin.\nFinger created the Scarecrow and it is believed that Kane penciled his first appearance. Kane created Two-Face and Finger expanded his characterization in the first script for Detective Comics #66 (Aug. 1942). The Riddler was created by Finger and designed by Dick Sprang in issue #140 (Oct. 1948). The Calendar Man was another villain created by Finger without input from Kane.\n\nGreen Lantern\nFinger collaborated with artist and character creator Martin Nodell on the original Green Lantern, Alan Scott, who debuted in All-American Comics #16 (July 1940). Both writer and artist received a byline on the strip, with Nodell in the earliest issues using the pseudonym \"Mart Dellon\".\nAccording to Nodell, Finger was brought in to write scripts after Nodell had already conceived the character. Nodell recalled in an undated, latter-day interview:\n\nWhen I sent it in, I waited into the second week before I heard the word to come in. I was ushered into Mr. [Max] Gaines' office, publisher, and after sitting a long time and flipping through the pages of my presentation, he announced, \"We like it!\" And then, \"Get to work!\" I did the first five pages of an eight-page story, and then they called in Bill Finger to help. We worked on it for seven years [through 1947].\n\nScreenwriter\nAs a screenwriter, Finger wrote or co-wrote the films Death Comes to Planet Aytin, The Green Slime, and Track of the Moon Beast, and contributed scripts to the TV series' Hawaiian Eye and 77 Sunset Strip. He and Charles Sinclair wrote the two-part episode \"The Clock King's Crazy Crimes / The Clock King Gets Crowned\", airing October 12–13, 1966, in season two of the live-action Batman TV series. It was his first public credit for any Batman story.\n\nCredit\nArtist Bob Kane negotiated a contract with National Comics (the future DC Comics) that signed away ownership of the character in exchange for, among other compensations, a sole mandatory byline on all Batman comics (and adaptations thereof). Finger's name, in contrast, did not appear as an official credit on Batman stories or films until 2015. Finger began receiving limited acknowledgment for his writing work in the 1960s; the letters page of Batman #169 (Feb. 1965), for example, features editor Julius Schwartz naming Finger as creator of the Riddler.\nAdditionally, Finger did receive credit for his work for National's sister company, All-American Publications, during that time. For example, the first Wildcat story, in Sensation Comics #1 (Jan. 1942), has the byline \"by Irwin Hasen and Bill Finger\", and the first Green Lantern story (see above) is credited to \"Mart Dellon and Bill Finger\". National later absorbed All-American. National's practice in the 1950s made formal bylines rare in comics, with DC regularly granting credit only to Kane; William Moulton Marston, creator of Wonder Woman, under his pseudonym of Charles Moulton; and to Sheldon Mayer.\nIn 1989, Kane acknowledged Finger as \"a contributing force\" in the character's creation, and wrote, \"Now that my long-time friend and collaborator is gone, I must admit that Bill never received the fame and recognition he deserved. He was an unsung hero ... I often tell my wife, if I could go back fifteen years, before he died, I would like to say. 'I'll put your name on it now. You deserve it.'\" Comics historian Ron Goulart referred to Batman as the \"creation of artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger\".\nFinger's contemporary, artist and writer Jerry Robinson, who worked with Kane from the beginning, said, \"[Bill] had more to do with the molding of Batman than Bob. He just did so many things at the beginning, ... creating almost all the other characters, ... the whole persona, the whole temper.\" Batman inker George Roussos, another contemporary, said, \"Bob Kane had rough ideas, but Bill was the man behind Batman.\" A DC Comics press release in 2007 said, \"Kane, along with writer Bill Finger, had just created Batman for DC predecessor National Comics.\" Likewise, DC editor Paul Levitz wrote, \"The Darknight [sic] Detective debuted in [Detective] #27, the creation of Bob Kane and Bill Finger.\"\nWriter John Broome and penciler Gil Kane created the comic-book villain William Hand, a.k.a. Black Hand, as a tribute to Finger, on whom the character's name and likeness were based.\nIn September 2015, DC Entertainment announced Finger would receive credit on the 2016 superhero film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and the second season of Gotham, following a deal between the Finger family and DC. Finger received his first formal credit as a creator of Batman in the October 2015 comic books Batman and Robin Eternal #3 and Batman: Arkham Knight Genesis #3. The updated acknowledgement for the character appeared as \"Batman created by Bob Kane with Bill Finger\".\n\nAwards\nFinger was posthumously inducted into the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1994 and the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 1999. In 1985, DC Comics named Finger as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great. In his honor, Comic-Con International established in 2005 the Bill Finger Award for Excellence in Comic Book Writing, which is given annually to \"two recipients — one living and one deceased — who have produced a significant body of work in the comics field\". Finger posthumously received an Inkpot Award in 2014.\n\nLegacy\nOn December 8, 2017, the southeast corner of East 192nd Street and the Grand Concourse in the Bronx was named \"Bill Finger Way\". The corner was chosen for its proximity to Poe Park, where Finger and Kane used to meet to discuss their Batman character. Finger is the subject of the Hulu original documentary, Batman & Bill, which premiered in 2017.\n\nPersonal life\nFinger married twice. He and his first wife, Portia, had a son: Frederick (nicknamed \"Fred\"). After their divorce, Finger married Edith \"Lyn\" Simmons in the late 1960s, but they were no longer married when he died in 1974.\nFinger was last seen alive on January 16, 1974. His friend and longtime writing partner Charles Sinclair found Finger dead at his home on January 18 at the condominium Allen House at 340 East 51st Street in Manhattan. The cause of death was occlusive coronary atherosclerosis. His death was not widely reported at the time. Finger had suffered three heart attacks, in 1963, 1970, and 1973. Although it was long believed by Sinclair and others, that Finger was buried in an unmarked potter's field grave, his body was actually claimed by his son, Fred, who honored his wish to be cremated, and spread his ashes in the shape of a bat on a beach in Oregon. The first story of the issue Batman #259 in December 1974 would be dedicated to Finger's memory.\nFred Finger had a daughter, Athena, born two years after Bill Finger's death. Fred died of complications from AIDS on January 13, 1992. Athena and her son are his only known living heirs, and her attempts (at the prompting of Nobleman and comics fans, and aided by her attorney half-sister) to restore Bill's legacy resulted in Warner Bros.'s 2015 decision to officially recognize Finger as co-creator of Batman on film and TV projects going forward.\n\nReferences\nArgott, Don and Joyce, Sheena M. (co-directors) (2017). Batman & Bill (Motion picture). United States: 9.14 Pictures and Thruline Entertainment.\n\nExternal links\n\nBill Finger at the Comic Book DB (archived from the original)\nBill Finger at IMDb\nBill Finger at Mike's Amazing World of Comics\nComic Book Artist #3 (Winter 1999): \"The Bob Kane Letter\" (September 14, 1965, open letter by Bob Kane)\nCronin, Brian (July 27, 2012). \"Comic Book Legends Revealed\". (Column #377), Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on October 22, 2012. Retrieved August 18, 2012.\nBill Finger at Library of Congress, with 22 library catalog records",
"title": "Bill_Finger"
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"paragraph_text": "Robert Kane (né Kahn ; October 24, 1915 – November 3, 1998) was an American comic book writer, animator and artist who co-created Batman (with Bill Finger) and most early related characters for DC Comics. He was inducted into the comic book industry's Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1993 and into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996.\n\nEarly life\nRobert Kahn was born in New York City, New York. His parents, Augusta and Herman Kahn, an engraver, were of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. A high school friend of fellow cartoonist and future Spirit creator Will Eisner, Robert Kahn graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School and then legally changed his name to Robert Kane. He studied art at Cooper Union before joining the Max Fleischer Studio as a trainee animator in the year of 1934.\n\nComics\nHe entered the comics field two years later, in 1936, freelancing original material to editor Jerry Iger's comic book Wow, What a Magazine!, including his first pencil and ink work on the serial Hiram Hick. The following year, Kane began to work at Iger's subsequent studio, Eisner & Iger, which was one of the first comic book \"packagers\" that produced comics on demand for publishers entering the new medium during its late-1930s and 1940s Golden Age. Among his work there was the talking animal feature \"Peter Pupp\"—which belied its look with overtones of \"mystery and menace\"—published in the U.K. comic magazine Wags and reprinted in Fiction House's Jumbo Comics. Kane also produced work through Eisner & Iger for two of the companies that would later merge to form DC Comics, including the humor features \"Ginger Snap\" in More Fun Comics, \"Oscar the Gumshoe\" for Detective Comics, and \"Professor Doolittle\" for Adventure Comics. For that last title he went on to do his first adventure strip, \"Rusty and his Pals\".\n\nBatman\nIn early 1939, DC's success with the seminal superhero Superman in Action Comics prompted editors to scramble for more such heroes. In response, Bob Kane conceived \"the Bat-Man.\" Kane said his influences for the character included actor Douglas Fairbanks's film portrayal of the swashbuckler Zorro; Leonardo da Vinci's diagram of the ornithopter, a flying machine with huge bat-like wings; and the 1930 film The Bat Whispers, based on Mary Rinehart's mystery novel The Circular Staircase (1908).\nBill Finger joined Bob Kane's nascent studio in 1938. An aspiring writer and part-time shoe salesperson, he had met Kane at a party, and Kane later offered him a job ghost writing the strips Rusty and Clip Carson. He recalled that Kane\n\n...had an idea for a character called 'Batman', and he'd like me to see the drawings. I went over to Kane's, and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of ... reddish tights, I believe, with boots ... no gloves, no gauntlets ... with a small domino mask, swinging on a rope. He had two stiff wings that were sticking out, looking like bat wings. And under it was a big sign ... BATMAN.\nFinger said he offered such suggestions as giving the character a cowl and scalloped cape instead of wings; adding gloves; leaving the mask's eyeholes blank to connote mystery; and removing the bright red sections of the original costume, suggesting instead a gray-and-black color scheme. Finger additionally said his suggestions were influenced by Lee Falk's The Phantom, a syndicated newspaper comic strip character with which Kane was familiar as well. Finger, who said he also devised the character's civilian name, Bruce Wayne, wrote the first Batman story, while Kane provided art. Kane, who had already submitted the proposal for Batman at DC and held a contract, is the only person given an official company credit for Batman's creation. Comics historian Ron Goulart, in Comic Book Encyclopedia, refers to Batman as the \"creation of artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger\".\nAccording to Kane, \"Bill Finger was a contributing force on Batman right from the beginning. He wrote most of the great stories and was influential in setting the style and genre other writers would emulate ... I made Batman a superhero-vigilante when I first created him. Bill turned him into a scientific detective.\nThe character debuted in Detective Comics #27 (May 1939) and proved a breakout hit. Within a year, Kane hired art assistants Jerry Robinson (initially as an inker) and George Roussos (backgrounds artist and letterer). Though Robinson and Roussos worked out of Kane's art studio in The New York Times building, Kane himself did all his drawing at home. Shortly afterward, when DC wanted more Batman stories than Kane's studio could deliver, the company assigned Dick Sprang and other in-house pencilers as \"ghost artists\", drawing uncredited under Kane's supervision. Future Justice League writer Gardner Fox wrote some early scripts, including the two-part story \"The Monk\" that introduced some of The Batman's first \"Bat-\" equipment.\nIn 1943, Kane left the Batman comic books to focus on penciling the daily Batman newspaper comic strip. DC Comics artists ghosting the comic-book stories now included Jack Burnley and Win Mortimer, with Robinson moving up as penciler and Fred Ray contributing some covers. After the strip finished in 1946, Kane returned to the comic books but, unknown to DC, had hired his own personal ghosts, including Lew Schwartz and Sheldon Moldoff from 1953 to 1967.\n\nRobin\nBill Finger recalled that\n\nRobin was an outgrowth of a conversation I had with Bob. As I said, Batman was a combination of [Douglas] Fairbanks and Sherlock Holmes. Holmes had his Watson. The thing that bothered me was that Batman didn't have anyone to talk to, and it got a little tiresome always having him thinking. I found that as I went along Batman needed a Watson to talk to. That's how Robin came to be. Bob called me over and said he was going to put a boy in the strip to identify with Batman. I thought it was a great idea.\nKane, who had previously created a sidekick for Peter Pupp, proposed adding a boy named Mercury who would have worn a \"super-costume\". Robinson suggested a normal human, along with the name \"Robin\", after Robin Hood books he had read during boyhood, and noting in a 2005 interview he had been inspired by one book's N. C. Wyeth illustrations.\n\nThe impetus came from Bill's wanting to extend the parameters of the story potential and of the drama. He saw that adding a sidekick would enhance the drama. Also, it enlarged the readership identification. The younger kids could then identify with Robin, which they couldn't with Batman, and the older ones with Batman. It extended the appeal on a lot of levels. The new character, an orphaned circus performer named Dick Grayson, came to live with Bruce Wayne as his young ward in Detective Comics #38 (April 1940) and would inspire many similar sidekicks throughout the Golden Age of comic books.\n\nThe Joker\nBatman's nemesis the Joker was introduced near that same time, in Batman #1 (Spring 1940). Credit for that character's creation is disputed. Kane's position is that\n\nBill Finger and I created the Joker. Bill was the writer. Jerry Robinson came to me with a playing card of the Joker. That's the way I sum it up. [The Joker] looks like Conrad Veidt—you know, the actor in The Man Who Laughs, [the 1928 movie based on the novel] by Victor Hugo. ... Bill Finger had a book with a photograph of Conrad Veidt and showed it to me and said, 'Here's the Joker'. Jerry Robinson had absolutely nothing to do with it. But he'll always say he created it till he dies. He brought in a playing card, which we used for a couple of issues for him [the Joker] to use as his playing card.\nRobinson, whose original Joker playing card was on public display in the exhibition \"Masters of American Comics\" at the Jewish Museum in New York City, New York, from September 16, 2006 to January 28, 2007, and the William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum in Atlanta, Georgia from October 24, 2004 to August 28, 2005, has countered that:\n\nBill Finger knew of Conrad Veidt because Bill had been to a lot of the foreign films. Veidt ... had this clown makeup with the frozen smile on his face (classic). When Bill saw the first drawing of the Joker, he said, 'That reminds me of Conrad Veidt in The Man Who Laughs.' He said he would bring in some shots of that movie to show me. That's how that came about. I think in Bill's mind, he fleshed out the concept of the character.\nRobinson added, however, \"If you read the Batman historian [E. Nelson] Bridwell, he had one interview where he interviewed Bill Finger and he said no, the Joker was created by me—an acknowledgement. He can be credited and Bob himself, we all played a role in it. ... He wrote the script of that, so he really was co-creator, and Bob and I did the visuals, so Bob was also.\"\n\nOther characters\nAccording to comics historian Les Daniels, \"nearly everyone seems to agree that Two-Face was Kane's brainchild exclusively\". Catwoman, originally introduced by Kane with no costume as \"the Cat\", was partially inspired by his cousin, Ruth Steel. Kane, a frequent moviegoer, mentioned that Jean Harlow was a model for the design and added that \"I always felt that women were feline\". Kane created the Scarecrow and drew his first appearance, which was scripted by Finger. Kane also created the original incarnation of Clayface. According to Kane, he drew the Penguin after being inspired by the then advertising mascot of Kool cigarettes—a penguin with a top hat and cane. Finger, however, claimed that he created the villain as a caricature of the aristocratic type, because \"stuffy English gentlemen\" reminded him of emperor penguins.\n\nLater life and career\nIn 1966, Kane retired from DC Comics, choosing to focus on fine art. As Kane's comic-book work tapered off in the 1960s, he parlayed his Batman status into minor celebrity. He enjoyed a post-comics career in television animation, creating the characters Courageous Cat and Cool McCool, and as a painter showed his work in art galleries, although some of these paintings were produced by ghost artists. DC Comics named Kane in 1985 as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication Fifty Who Made DC Great. In 1989, Kane published the autobiography Batman and Me, with an updated edition Batman and Me: The Saga Continues, in 1996.\nKane worked as a consultant on the 1989 film Batman and its three sequels with directors Tim Burton and Joel Schumacher.\nStan Lee interviewed Kane in the documentary series The Comic Book Greats.\n\nPersonal life\nKane married his first wife, Beverly, in the 1940s, and the two divorced in 1957. They had a daughter, Deborah. Kane married his second wife, actress Elizabeth Sanders Kane, in 1987.\n\nDeath\nKane died November 3, 1998, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, at age 83. He is buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, California.\n\nAwards and honors\nKane was a recipient of the Inkpot Award in 1977, was inducted into the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1994 and the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996. He was added to the National Comics Awards' Roll of Honour in 1999.\nOn October 21, 2015, for his work in motion pictures, he posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6764 Hollywood Boulevard.\nKane's work is housed in collections in New York City's Museum of Modern Art, Whitney Museum of American Art, and St. John's University.\n\nReferences\nFurther reading\nGoulart, Ron, Over 50 Years of American Comic Books (BDD Promotional Books Company, 1991), ISBN 0-7924-5450-2; ISBN 978-0-7924-5450-2\n\nExternal links\n\nBob Kane at IMDb\nComic Book Artist #3 (Winter 1999): \"The Bob Kane Letter\" (September 14, 1965 open letter by Bob Kane)",
"title": "Bob_Kane"
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] | How old was the New-York born comic book writer who created the character Catwoman when he died? | [] | 83 | [] | true |
397 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The 2007 NHL Entry Draft was the 45th NHL Entry Draft. It was hosted at Nationwide Arena in the city of Columbus, Ohio, on June 22, 2007. The draft consisted of seven rounds with rounds two through seven taking place on June 23, 2007. The draft was televised on TSN and RDS, with the first round simulcasted in the United States on Versus and in Europe on NASN.\nColumbus Blue Jackets' President and General Manager Doug MacLean and the NHL announced the event on March 21, 2006. On March 13, 2007, it was reported that NHL owners had voted in favor of changes to the team ranking system which would begin at the 2007 draft. This draft marked the first time in NHL history in which American players were selected with the top two picks, with Patrick Kane and James van Riemsdyk being selected by the Chicago Blackhawks and Philadelphia Flyers, respectively, and also tied the record of the most Americans being selected in the first round with ten players.\n\nLottery system\nStarting with the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, the Stanley Cup champion and runner-up will receive the 30th and 29th picks, respectively. The conference finalists will get the 28th and 27th picks, and all other playoff teams will get picks based on their regular season point totals, but with the division winners getting the latest picks even if they had fewer points during the regular season than a non-division winner.\nThe draft order of the first 14 picks was determined by a lottery involving the non-playoff teams on April 10.\nUnder the weighted lottery system, the club with the fewest regular-season points had the greatest chance (25%) of winning the Draft Drawing, have a 48.2% chance to pick first overall, and could pick no lower than second at the 2007 Entry Draft. The winner of the drawing would move up a maximum of four places, with all other clubs' draft order being adjusted accordingly (no team moving down more than one spot).\nThe Chicago Blackhawks, originally slated to draft in fifth place, won the lottery and as a result had the first overall pick in the draft.\n\nDraft day trades\nCentral Scouting final rankings\nSource: NHL Central Scouting Bureau\n\nSkaters\nGoaltenders\nSelections by round\nRound one\nSt. Louis' first-round pick went to San Jose as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that a first-round pick (#13 overall) and a second-round pick in 2007 Entry Draft along with a third-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to St. Louis in exchange for this pick.\nSan Jose's acquired first-round pick went to St. Louis as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 9 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a third-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSan Jose previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent Vesa Toskala and Mark Bell to Toronto in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a fourth-round pick in the 2009 Entry Draft and a San Jose's option of a first-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick) or in the 2008 Entry Draft.\nThe Islanders' first-round pick went to Edmonton as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Ryan Smyth to the Islanders in exchange for Robert Nilsson, Ryan O'Marra and this pick.\nAnaheim's acquired first-round pick went to Minnesota as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 19 overall) and a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Anaheim in exchange for this pick.\nAnaheim previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 24, 2007 that sent Shane O'Brien and a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Tampa Bay in exchange for Gerald Coleman and this pick.\nCalgary's first-round pick went to St. Louis as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 24 overall) and a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Calgary in exchange for this pick.\nMinnesota's first-round pick went to the Anaheim as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 16 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Minnesota in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nPhoenix's acquired first-round pick went to Edmonton Oilers as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 30 overall) and a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Phoenix in exchange for this pick.\nPhoenix previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 12, 2007 that sent Ladislav Nagy to Dallas in exchange for Mathias Tjärnqvist and this pick.\nSan Jose's first-round pick went to Montreal as the result of a trade on February 25, 2007 that sent Craig Rivet and a fifth-round pick in 2008 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for Josh Gorges and this pick.\nNashville's first-round pick was re-acquired as the result of a trade on June 18, 2007 that sent Kimmo Timonen and Scott Hartnell to Philadelphia in exchange for this pick.\nPhiladelphia previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 15, 2007 that sent Peter Forsberg to Nashville in exchange for Ryan Parent, Scottie Upshall, a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSt. Louis' acquired first-round pick went to Calgary as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 18 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to St. Louis in exchange for a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSt. Louis previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 25, 2007 that sent Keith Tkachuk to Atlanta in exchange for Glen Metropolit, a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a conditional first-round pick and a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft along with this pick.\nSan Jose's acquired first-round pick went to the St. Louis Blues as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Bill Guerin to San Jose in exchange for Ville Nieminen, Jay Barriball and this pick.\nSan Jose previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on October 1, 2006 that sent Alexander Korolyuk and Jim Fahey to New Jersey in exchange for Vladimir Malakhov and this pick (being conditional at the time of the trade). The condition – San Jose will receive a first-round pick in 2007 if Malakhov does not resume his NHL career – was converted as Malakhov never played another game professionally after this trade.\nWashington's acquired first-round pick went to the San Jose as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Washington in exchange for this pick.\nWashington previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Dainius Zubrus and Timo Helbling to Buffalo in exchange for Jiří Novotný and this pick.\nEdmonton's acquired first-round pick went to Phoenix as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 21 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Edmonton in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nEdmonton previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 3, 2006 that sent Chris Pronger to Anaheim in exchange for Joffrey Lupul, Ladislav Smid, a conditional first-round pick and a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft along with this pick. The condition of the conditional pick was if Anaheim reaches the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals. The condition was met May 22, 2007.\n\nRound two\nPhiladelphia's second-round pick went to Buffalo as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Martin Biron to Philadelphia in exchange for this pick.\nLos Angeles' second-round pick went to Vancouver as the result of a trade on July 5, 2006 that sent Dan Cloutier to Los Angeles in exchange for future considerations and this pick. The future considerations became a conditional third-round pick in the 2009 Entry Draft. The condition of this pick was if Cloutier resigns with Los Angeles prior to the start of the 2006-07 NHL Season. The condition was met on September 27, 2006.\nChicago's second-round pick went to Boston as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a second-round pick (# 38 overall) and a third-round pick in the in the 2007 Entry Draft to Chicago in exchange for this pick.\nEdmonton's second-round pick went to Phoenix as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 21 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Edmonton in exchange for a first-round pick (# 30 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nBoston's second-round pick went to Chicago as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a second-round pick (# 35 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Boston in exchange for a third-round pick in the in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nWashington's acquired second-round pick went to Philadelphia as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Washington in exchange for this pick.\nWashington previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSan Jose previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 20, 2006 that sent Patrick Ehelechner and Nils Ekman to Pittsburgh in exchange for this pick.\nPittsburgh previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 9, 2006 that sent Mark Recchi to Carolina in exchange for Niklas Nordgren, Krys Kolanos and this pick.\nMinnesota's acquired second-round pick went to the Anaheim as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 16 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Minnesota in exchange for a first-round pick (# 19 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nMinnesota acquired this pick as compensation after they could not sign their first-round pick in the 2004 Entry Draft, A.J. Thelen.\nSan Jose's acquired first-round pick went to St. Louis as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 9 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for a first-round pick (#13 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft, a third-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSan Jose previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent Vesa Toskala and Mark Bell to Toronto in exchange for a San Jose's option of a first-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft or in the 2008 Entry Draft, a fourth-round pick in the 2009 Entry Draft and a this pick.\nThe Islanders' second-round pick went to Washington as the result of a trade on February 26, 2007 that sent Richard Zedník to the Islanders in exchange for this pick.\nCalgary's second-round pick went to Colorado as the result of a trade on June 24, 2006 that sent Alex Tanguay to Calgary in exchange for Jordan Leopold, a second-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft and a conditional pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick). The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nMinnesota's second-round pick went to Dallas as the result of a trade on March 8, 2006 that sent Shawn Belle and Martin Škoula to Minnesota in exchange for Willie Mitchell and this pick.\nDallas' second-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Mattias Norström, Konstantin Pushkarev, a third-round pick (# 64 overall) and a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Dallas in exchange for Jaroslav Modrý, Johan Fransson, a third-round pick (# 82 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft, a first-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSan Jose's second-round pick went to Columbus as the result of a trade on June 24, 2006 that sent a second-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for a third-round pick and a fourth-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft along with this pick.\nAnaheim's acquired second-round pick went to Colorado as the result of a trade on November 13, 2006 that sent George Parros and a third-round pick (# 75 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Anaheim in exchange for a third-round pick (# 91 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nAnaheim previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on August 17, 2006 that sent Vitaly Vishnevskiy to Nashville in exchange for Karl Stewart, a conditional fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick. The conditions of the pick are unknown and no selection was made by Anaheim.\nVancouver's second-round pick went to Chicago as the result of a trade on February 26, 2007 that sent Bryan Smolinski to Vancouver in exchange for a Chicago option of a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick) or in the 2008 Entry Draft.\nFlorida's acquired second-round pick went to Nashville as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent Tomáš Vokoun to Florida in exchange for conditional second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft or 2008 Entry Draft, a first-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick. The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nFlorida previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Todd Bertuzzi to Detroit in exchange for Shawn Matthias, a conditional second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick. The condition of this pick was if Bertuzzi re-signed with Detroit. Condition was not met.\nVancouver's acquired second-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on February 26, 2007 that sent Brent Sopel to Vancouver in exchange for a Los Angeles option of a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick) or 2008 Entry Draft and a fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft.\nVancouver previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on August 8, 2005 that sent a third-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Anaheim in exchange for a third-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft and this pick. The trade was part of a compensation package after Anaheim hired Randy Carlyle as Head Coach.\n\nRound three\nPhiladelphia's third-round pick went to the Islanders as the result of a trade on December 16, 2006 that sent Alexei Zhitnik to Philadelphia in exchange for Freddy Meyer and a conditional third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick) or a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft. The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nBoston's acquired third-round pick went to Anaheim as the result of a trade on November 13, 2006 that sent Stanislav Chistov to Boston in exchange for Anaheim's option for a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick) or 2008 Entry Draft and to swap fourth-round picks in the 2008 Entry Draft. The option to swap pick was relinquished in subsequent trade.\nBoston previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 26, 2006 that sent Nick Boynton and a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Phoenix in exchange for Paul Mara and a Boston option of a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft or 2008 Entry Draft.\nLos Angeles' third-round pick went to Dallas as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Jaroslav Modrý, Johan Fransson, a second-round pick and third-round pick (# 82 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft along with a first-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Los Angeles in exchange for Mattias Norström, Konstantin Pushkarev, a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nWashington's third-round pick went to Montreal as the result of a trade on July 12, 2006 that sent Richard Zedník to Washington in exchange for this pick.\nChicago's third-round pick went to Philadelphia as the result of a trade on February 26, 2007 that sent Kyle Calder to Chicago in exchange for Lasse Kukkonen and this pick.\nMinnesota's acquired third-round pick went to Atlanta as the result of a trade on June 14, 2006 that sent the rights to Petteri Nummelin to Minnesota in exchange for a conditional third-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft or 2007 Entry Draft (this pick). The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nMinnesota previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 8, 2006 that sent Dwayne Roloson to Edmonton in exchange for a first-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft and a conditional third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick). The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nBoston's third-round pick went to Chicago as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a second-round pick (# 35 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Boston in exchange for a second-round pick (# 38 overall) in the in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSt. Louis' third-round pick went to Calgary as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent a first-round pick (# 18 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to St. Louis in exchange for a first-round pick (# 24 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nAnaheim's acquired third-round pick went to Tampa Bay as the result of a trade on February 24, 2007 that sent Gerald Coleman and a first-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Anaheim in exchange for Shane O'Brien and this pick.\nAnaheim previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on November 13, 2006 that sent a second-round pick and a third-round pick (# 91 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Colorado in exchange for George Parros this pick.\nAtlanta's acquired third-round pick went to Pittsburgh as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent the rights to Chris Thorburn to Atlanta in exchange for this pick.\nAtlanta previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Alex Bourret to the Rangers in exchange for Pascal Dupuis and this pick.\nCalgary's third-round pick went to New Jersey as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent David Hale to Calgary in exchange for this pick.\nMinnesota's third-round pick went to Pittsburgh as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Dominic Moore to Minnesota in exchange for this pick.\nPittsburgh's third-round pick went to Nashville as the result of a trade on July 19, 2006 that sent Libor Pivko and the rights to Dominic Moore to Pittsburgh in exchange for this pick.\nDallas' third-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Mattias Norström, Konstantin Pushkarev, a third-round pick (# 64 overall) and a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Dallas in exchange for Jaroslav Modrý, Johan Fransson, a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a first-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nPhiladelphia's acquired third-round pick went to Washington as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Philadelphia in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nPhiladelphia previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 15, 2007 that sent Peter Forsberg to Nashville in exchange for Scottie Upshall, Ryan Parent, a first-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nAtlanta's third-round pick went to St. Louis as the result of a trade on February 25, 2007 that sent Keith Tkachuk to Atlanta in exchange for Glen Metropolit, a first-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a conditional first-round pick and a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft along with this pick.\nVancouver's third-round pick went to Chicago as the result of a trade on August 22, 2005 that sent Steve McCarthy to Vancouver in exchange for this pick.\nColorado's acquired third-round pick went to San Jose as the result of a trade on February 24, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick and a fifth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft along with a sixth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Colorado in exchange for this pick.\nColorado previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on November 13, 2006 that sent George Parros and a third-round pick (# 75 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Colorado in exchange for a second-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\n\nRound four\nPhiladelphia's fourth-round pick went to Anaheim as the result of a trade on November 13, 2006 that sent Todd Fedoruk to Philadelphia in exchange for this pick.\nPhoenix's fourth-round pick went to Anaheim as the result of a trade on August 23, 2005 that sent Mike Leclerc to Phoenix in exchange for a conditional fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick). The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nDallas's acquired fourth-round pick went to Columbus as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent three fifth-round picks (# 128, # 129 & # 149 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Dallas in exchange for this pick.\nDallas previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Jaroslav Modrý, Johan Fransson, a second-round pick and third-round pick ((# 82 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft along with a first-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Los Angeles in exchange for Mattias Norström, Konstantin Pushkarev, a third-round pick (# 64 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nWashington's fourth-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a sixth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft and a fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Washington in exchange for this pick.\nCarolina's acquired fourth-round pick went to St. Louis as the result of a trade on January 30, 2006 that sent Doug Weight and the rights to Erkki Rajamäki to Carolina in exchange for Jesse Boulerice, Mike Zigomanis, rights to Magnus Kahnberg, a first-round pick and a fourth-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft along with this pick.\nCarolina previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on January 20, 2006 that sent Danny Richmond and a fourth-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft to Chicago in exchange for Anton Babchuk and a this pick.\nColumbus' fourth-round pick went to Anaheim as the result of a trade on January 26, 2007 that sent Zenon Konopka, Curtis Glencross and an Anaheim's option of a seventh-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft or 2008 Entry Draft to Columbus in exchange for Joe Motzko, Mark Hartigan and this pick.\nPhoenix's acquired fourth-round pick went to Toronto as the result of a trade on November 27, 2006 that sent Mikael Tellqvist to Phoenix in exchange for Tyson Nash and this pick.\nPhoenix previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 26, 2006 that sent Paul Mara and a Boston's option of a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft or 2008 Entry Draft to Boston in exchange for Nick Boynton and a this pick.\nFlorida re-acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Joel Kwiatkowski to Pittsburgh in exchange for this pick.\nPittsburgh previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 24, 2006 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft to Florida in exchange for this pick.\nMontreal's fourth-round pick went to Phoenix as the result of a trade on July 12, 2006 that sent Mike Johnson to Montreal in exchange for this pick.\nThe Rangers' fourth-round pick went to Washington as the result of a trade on June 24, 2006 that sent a fifth-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft to the Rangers in exchange for this pick.\nThe Rangers re-acquired this pick as the result of a trade on January 8, 2009 that sent Maxim Kondratiev to Anaheim in exchange for Petr Sýkora and this pick.\nAnaheim previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on August 23, 2005 that sent Steve Rucchin to the Rangers in exchange for Trevor Gillies and a conditional pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick). The conditions of this pick are unknown.\nCalgary's fourth-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on January 29, 2007 that sent Craig Conroy to Calgary in exchange for Jamie Lundmark, a second-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft and this pick.\nSan Jose's fourth-round went to Colorado as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for a fifth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a sixth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nAtlanta re-acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 14, 2006 that sent Tommi Santala and a fifth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Vancouver in exchange for this pick.\nVancouver previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on March 9, 2006 that sent Steve McCarthy to Atlanta in exchange for a conditional pick in the 2007 Entry Draft. The condition for this pick was for a fourth-round pick unless Steve McCarthy re-signs with Atlanta. Then the pick becomes a third-round pick.\nBuffalo's acquired fourth-round pick went to Calgary as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent two fifth-round picks (# 139 & # 147 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Buffalo in exchange for this pick.\nBuffalo previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on July 14, 2006 that sent the rights to Taylor Pyatt to Vancouver in exchange for this pick.\nDetroit's fourth-round pick went to Pittsburgh as the result of a trade on March 9, 2006 that sent Cory Cross to Detroit in exchange for this pick.\nBuffalo's fourth-round pick went to Nashville as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Mikko Lehtonen to Buffalo in exchange for this pick.\n\nRound five\nColumbus' fifth-round pick went to Dallas as the result of a trade on January 16, 2007 that sent June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Columbus in exchange for three fifth-round picks (# 128, #149 overall and this pick) in the 2007 Entry Draft.\nColumbus' acquired fifth-round pick went to Dallas as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Columbus in exchange for three fifth-round picks (# 128, #149 overall and this pick) in the 2007 Entry Draft.\nColumbus previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on May 16, 2007 that sent Adam McQuaid to Boston in exchange for this pick.\nSt. Louis' fifth-round pick went to Boston as the result of a trade on January 16, 2007 that sent Yan Stastny to St. Louis in exchange for this pick.\nThe Islanders' fifth-round pick went to Dallas as the result of a trade on January 10, 2006 that sent John Erskine and a second-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft to the Islanders in exchange for Janne Niinimaa and this pick.\nTampa Bay's fifth-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Jason Ward to Tampa Bay in exchange for this pick.\nCalgary's fifth-round pick went to Buffalo as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Calgary in exchange for a fifth-round pick (# 147 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nDallas' fifth-round pick went to Montreal as the result of a trade on September 30, 2006 that sent Mike Ribeiro and a sixth-roundpick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Tampa Bay in exchange for Janne Niinimaa and this pick.\nColorado's acquired fifth-round pick went to Calgary as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent two sixth-round picks (# 155 & # 169 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft to Colorado in exchange for this pick.\nColorado previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to San Jose in exchange for a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft, a sixth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nAtlanta's fifth-round pick went to Vancouver as the result of a trade on June 14, 2006 that sent a conditional fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Atlanta in exchange for Tommi Santala and this pick.\nCalgary's acquired fifth-round pick went to Buffalo as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Calgary in exchange for a fifth-round pick (# 139 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nCalgary previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent a third-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to New Jersey in exchange for David Hale and this pick.\nColumbus's acquired fifth-round pick went to Dallas as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Columbus in exchange for two fifth-round picks (# 128 & 129) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nColumbus previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Ty Conklin to Buffalo in exchange for this pick.\nOttawa's fifth-round pick went to Tampa Bay as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Ottawa in exchange for two seventh-round picks (# 183 & 210) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\n\nRound six\nLos Angeles' sixth-round pick went to Washington as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Los Angeles in exchange for a fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft and this pick.\nCalgary's acquired sixth-round pick went to Colorado as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fifth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Calgary in exchange for a sixth-round pick (# 169 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nCalgary previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on August 4, 2005 that sent Chris Clark and a seventh-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Washington in exchange for a seventh-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft and this pick.\nFlorida's sixth-round pick went to Philadelphia as the result of a trade on January 23, 2006 that sent Jon Sim to Florida in exchange for this pick.\nColorado's sixth-round pick went to San Jose as the result of a trade on June 1, 2006 that sent the rights to Michael Vernace to Colorado in exchange for this pick.\nColorado's acquired sixth-round pick went to Boston as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a sixth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Colorado in exchange for this pick.\nColorado previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fifth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Calgary in exchange for a sixth-round pick (# 155 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft and this pick.\nOttawa's sixth-round pick went to Washington as the result of a trade on February 26, 2007 that sent Lawrence Nycholat to Ottawa in exchange for Andy Hedlund and this pick.\nAnaheim's sixth-round pick went to Florida as the result of a trade on January 3, 2007 that sent Ric Jackman to Anaheim in exchange for a conditional pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick). The conditions of this pick are unknown.\n\nRound seven\nOttawa's acquired seventh-round pick went to Tampa Bay as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Ottawa in exchange for a fifth-round pick and a seventh-round pick (# 210 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft along with this pick.\nOttawa previously acquired this pick as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent a second-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Phoenix in exchange for Oleg Saprykin and this pick.\nChicago's seventh-round pick went to Calgary as the result of a trade on June 22, 2007 that sent Andrei Zyuzin and Steve Marr to Chicago in exchange for Adrian Aucoin and this pick.\nEdmonton's seventh-round pick went to Buffalo as the result of a trade on July 10, 2006 that sent Jan Hejda to Edmonton in exchange for this pick.\nColumbus' seventh-round pick went to Los Angeles as the result of a trade on June 24, 2006 that sent a seventh-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft to Columbus in exchange for this pick.\nCarolina's seventh-round pick went to Montreal as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent Michael Leighton to Carolina in exchange for this pick.\nMontreal's seventh-round pick went to the Rangers as the result of a trade on May 31, 2007 that sent the rights to Ryan Russell to Montreal in exchange for this pick.\nCalgary's seventh-round pick went to Washington as the result of a trade on August 4, 2005 that sent a seventh-round pick in the 2006 Entry Draft and a sixth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Calgary in exchange for Chris Clark and this pick.\nPittsburgh's seventh-round pick went to San Jose as the result of a trade on February 27, 2007 that sent Nolan Schaefer to Pittsburgh in exchange for this pick.\nDallas' seventh-round pick went to Florida as the result of a trade on December 12, 2005 that sent Niklas Hagman to Dallas in exchange for this pick.\nOttawa's seventh-round pick went to Tampa Bay as the result of a trade on June 23, 2007 that sent a fourth-round pick in the 2008 Entry Draft to Ottawa in exchange for a fifth-round pick and a seventh-round pick (# 183 overall) in the 2007 Entry Draft along with this pick.\nAnaheim's seventh-round pick went to Columbus as the result of a trade on January 26, 2007 that sent Joe Motzko, Mark Hartigan and a fourth-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft to Anaheim in exchange for Zenon Konopka, Curtis Glencross and an Anaheim's option of a seventh-round pick in the 2007 Entry Draft (this pick) or 2008 Entry Draft.\n\nDraftees based on nationality\nNorth American draftees by state/province\nReferences\nExternal links\nNHL.com 2007 Entry Draft Complete Selection Order\n2007 NHL Entry Draft player stats at The Internet Hockey Database",
"title": "2007_NHL_entry_draft"
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"paragraph_text": "Patrick Timothy Kane II (born November 19, 1988) is an American professional ice hockey right winger for the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected by the Chicago Blackhawks with the first overall pick in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft and played for the Blackhawks until February 2023 when he was traded to the New York Rangers. Kane has represented the United States at the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics.\nKane established himself as one of the most productive and decorated players of his era. He won the 2008 Calder Memorial Trophy for NHL's rookie of the year and played a crucial role in the Blackhawks' three championships in 2010, 2013 and 2015. Kane's notable achievements include winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs in 2013, and later becoming the first American-born player to secure the Hart Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player and the Art Ross Trophy as the scoring champion in the 2015–16 NHL season.\nKane led all NHL players in scoring during the 2010s and was later named as one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players. He is considered one of the best American players of all time. Kane became the youngest American player to reach 1,000 career regular season points in 2020, and ranks second behind Mike Modano in most career points by an American-born player.\n\nEarly life\nPatrick Kane was born to Donna and Patrick \"Tiki\" Kane in Buffalo, New York. Kane developed an early interest in hockey. His father was a season ticket holder for the Buffalo Sabres, and frequently took his family to games. Kane was inadvertently featured in the background of Sylvain Turgeon's 1994-95 Pinnacle trading card while attending a Sabres' game as a child with his father. Kane's favorite players while growing up were Pat Lafontaine and Joe Sakic. In addition to hockey, he played baseball, soccer, lacrosse, and basketball in grade and middle school.\nKane began playing hockey when he was seven years old. His father allowed Kane to practice stick-handling and shooting in their house's basement, going as far as to set up a miniature rink that featured nets and boards. Kane attended a training camp hosted by Darryl Belfry, and credits Belfry for helping develop his vision and play-making abilities.\n\nPlaying career\nMinor and junior\nKane played for the Buffalo Saints 14U AAA hockey club. Donnie Harkins, the head coach of the Honeybaked 16U AAA hockey club, personally recruited Kane to join his team in Michigan after watching him play in a tournament. At the age of 14, Kane relocated to Detroit, Michigan to play for Honeybaked during the 2003–04 season. He resided with former NHL player Pat Verbeek while living in Detroit, whom Kane regards as a mentor and one of his primary reasons for relocating. Honeybaked posted a 66–3–1 record that season, with Kane tallying 83 goals and 77 assists.\nHis success caught the attention of the London Knights, who drafted him in the fifth round, 88th overall, in the 2004 Ontario Hockey League (OHL) Midget Draft. Kane did not join the team and instead played for the United States National Team Development Program (NTDP), which was based in Michigan. The US NTDP was initially hesitant to recruit Kane based on his short stature, describing him in a scouting report as, \"a little meek—and still has the body of a 12-year-old\". Kane spent the next two years playing for the US NTDP, where he was given the chance to train and play a bigger role on a more frequent basis. He reflected on the US NTDP by commenting, \"The program really focuses on improving your body, you get a lot of practice time and you really learn how to play the game and how to treat yourself.\" He led the team in scoring with 102 points during the 2005–06 season, surpassing the previous record holder, Phil Kessel.\nKane joined the London Knights for the 2006–07 OHL season. He skated on a line with future NHL forwards Sergei Kostitsyn and Sam Gagner. Kane appeared in 58 games for Knights, where he recorded 62 goals and 83 assists, while combining with his linemates for 394 points. He accrued an additional 31 points in 16 playoff games as the Knights lost to the Plymouth Whalers in the OHL's Western Conference final. Kane won the Emms Family Award for the OHL rookie of the year, and was the runner-up to John Tavares for the Red Tilson Trophy as league MVP. Kane also won the Canadian Hockey League's (CHL) Top Prospect and Top Scorer awards. His 145 points is the fifth most for a rookie in CHL history. The Knights later retired Kane's No. 88 jersey on January 17, 2020.\n\nChicago Blackhawks (2007–2023)\nHeading into the 2007 NHL Entry Draft, Kane was ranked first among North American prospects by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau and was chosen first overall by the Chicago Blackhawks. The St. Louis Blues offered to trade the Blackhawks their 9th, 24th and 26th overall picks in the 2007 Draft in order to acquire Chicago's first overall selection and draft Kane. On July 25, 2007, Blackhawks' general manager Dale Tallon announced that they had signed Kane to a three-year contract. Kane threw the ceremonial first pitch at a Chicago Cubs game on June 25, 2007, at Wrigley Field. Kane later joined Denis Savard, the Blackhawks' coach, in singing \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\". Kane also threw the first pitch at a Buffalo Bisons (AAA) game in August. Kane chose to wear the No. 88 jersey as a reference to his birthyear, a tradition he practiced with his former teammates on the London Knights.\n\nKane made his NHL debut on October 4, 2007, against the Minnesota Wild. He recorded his first assist and first shootout goal (a game-winner) two days later against Dominik Hašek of the Detroit Red Wings. He scored his first NHL goal on October 19, beating José Théodore of the Colorado Avalanche. With a quick start to his rookie campaign, on November 2, Kane was named the NHL Rookie of the Month for October after scoring 5 goals and 11 assists in 12 games. On December 15, Kane and the Blackhawks visited the Buffalo Sabres to mark Kane's first return to Buffalo as a professional hockey player. Kane received a special cheer from his hometown and a special ceremony was held before the game. The Blackhawks lost the game 3–1, with Kane scoring their lone goal. Kane finished his first NHL campaign atop the rookie scoring race with 72 points. On June 12, 2008, he received the Calder Memorial Trophy, awarded to the NHL's rookie of the year, finishing ahead of teammate Jonathan Toews and Washington Capitals forward Nicklas Bäckström.\n\nThe following season, Kane and Toews helped lead a rejuvenated Blackhawks team back to the Stanley Cup playoffs. After recording 70 points in the regular season andeliminating the fifth-seeded Calgary Flames in the opening round of the [2009 Stanley Cup playoffs|2009 playoffs]], Kane scored his first career hat-trick in game six of the second round against the third-seeded Vancouver Canucks on May 11, 2009. The Blackhawks won the game 7–5 for a 4–2 victory in the series, clinching their spot in the Western Conference Finals for the first time since 1995. After the game, Kane told the Chicago Sun-Times that he was \"fired up\" after Canucks defenseman Willie Mitchell claimed that Kane \"couldn't play five-on-five\". He finished his first NHL playoffs with nine goals, five assists for 14 points in 16 out of 17 games as the Blackhawks were eliminated in the Western Conference Finals by the defending Stanley Cup champion and second-seeded Detroit Red Wings.\nShortly into the 2009 off-season, the Chicago Tribune reported that Kane would be the cover athlete for EA Sports' NHL 10. In the final season of his initial rookie contract, on December 3, 2009, Kane signed a reported five-year, $31.5 million contract extension with Chicago. The deal was announced simultaneously with contract extensions to both Toews and defenseman Duncan Keith. In the 2009–10 season, Kane finished with all 82 games played with a career-high 88 points (30 goals, 55 assists) to rank ninth in the NHL in scoring. The Blackhawks finished first in the Central Division and second in the Western Conference. They advanced to the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals. On June 9, 2010, in game six of the Finals, Kane scored the overtime winner when he shot the puck under the pads of Philadelphia Flyers goaltender Michael Leighton and into the net, winning the Blackhawks the Stanley Cup. The goal ended a 49-year Stanley Cup drought for the Blackhawks. It also made Kane the youngest player in NHL history to score a Stanley Cup-winning goal in overtime; that record previously belonged to Bobby Orr in 1970.\n\nDuring the 2010–11 season, Kane was selected as an alternate captain for the 2011 NHL All-Star Game. On March 14, 2011, in a 6–3 win over the San Jose Sharks, Kane scored his 100th NHL goal on Sharks' goaltender Antero Nittymaki, becoming the third youngest player in NHL history to hit the mark. On April 10 in the last game of the season in a 4–3 loss to the Detroit Red Wings, Kane recorded his 200th career assist on a Michael Frolík goal. This loss put the defending Stanley Cup champion Blackhawks in danger of missing the playoffs with their only hope being that the Dallas Stars lose their final game which came later that same day against the Minnesota Wild which they would go on to lose 5–3 resulting in the Blackhawks clinching the eighth and final playoff spot, two points ahead of the Stars. He finished the season 27 goals and 46 assists for 73 points in 73 games. In the Blackhawks first round exit against the Presidents' Trophy-winning Vancouver Canucks, Kane recorded a goal and five assists for six points in all seven games. Kane revealed he underwent surgery to repair a broken wrist he suffered towards the end of the season that was only discovered during the following offseason after the Blackhawks first round playoff exit. \nKane recorded 66 points on 23 goals and 43 assists for 66 points in all 82 games during the 2011–12 season, marking his lowest offensive output since his rookie season as the Blackhawks finished as the sixth seed in the Western Conference. In the first round of the 2012 playoffs, Kane was held goalless with four assists and points recorded as the Blackhawks would go on to lose the series against the third-seeded Phoenix Coyotes in six games.\nShortly after the Blackhawks elimination from the 2012 playoffs, Kane was criticized after photos surfaced showing him in an intoxicated state at a Cinco de Mayo block party in Madison, Wisconsin during the ensuing offseason. Blackhawks general manager Stan Bowman commented, \"We are aware of that situation. We followed it closely. It was one of those things where we’ve discussed it with Patrick. We’ve handled that internally.\" While Kane did not face any legal charges or repercussions, he admitted his actions embarrassed the Blackhawks organization, his family, and himself.\n\nKane played overseas, signing a contract on October 24, 2012, to play for Swiss club EHC Biel during the 2012–13 NHL lockout. In 20 National League A games, Kane scored 13 goals and had 10 assists alongside fellow NHL star forward Tyler Seguin, Biel's second NHL player. Kane also played for HC Davos in the 2012 Spengler Cup. When the lockout ended and play began in the 2012–13 season in January 2013, Jonathan Toews tied Kane for the team lead in goals with 23. Kane finished the season as the team leader in assists (32) and points (55). Kane scored his second career playoff hat-trick in the 2013 playoffs against the defending Stanley Cup champion and fifth-seeded Los Angeles Kings, including the series-clinching goal in double overtime of Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals on June 8, 2013. The Blackhawks advanced to the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals against the fourth-seeded Boston Bruins. Kane contributed by scoring three goals, one in Game 4 and two in Game 5, to win the 2013 Conn Smythe Trophy as the Stanley Cup Playoffs MVP. In addition, Kane was the first winger since Claude Lemieux in 1995, and the first number one overall draft pick since Mario Lemieux in 1992, to win the Conn Smythe Trophy.\nOn March 19, 2014, Kane injured his left leg following a collision with Brenden Morrow in a game against the St. Louis Blues. He missed the remainder of the regular season but returned for the 2014 playoffs. During the playoffs, he recorded a team-high 20 points in all 19 games with 8 goals and 12 assists. As part of that run, on May 2, in Game 1 of Blackhawks' Western Conference Semifinals against the Minnesota Wild, Kane scored two goals, including the game-winning goal while coining his nickname \"Showtime\". On July 9, 2014, the Blackhawks announced that Kane and Jonathan Toews had both signed eight-year contract extensions, set to start running on July 1, 2015, with an annual average value of $10.5 million.\n\nDuring the 2014–15 season, Kane emerged as one of the NHL's leading scorers. On January 20, 2015, in a 6–1 victory over the Arizona Coyotes, Kane scored his 200th NHL goal on Coyotes' goaltender Mike Smith. Later the same month, he was elected to the 2015 NHL All-Star Game in Columbus, Ohio. He scored 64 points (27 goals and 37 assists) through the regular season. He injured his left clavicle on February 24, after he was cross-checked into the boards while stumbling towards the ice by Alex Petrovic in a game against the Florida Panthers. Kane underwent surgery and was expected to miss 12 weeks. At the time of his injury, he was leading the NHL in points. However, he recovered weeks earlier than initially projected and returned to the Blackhawks at the start of the 2015 playoffs. After initially playing on the second line with Bryan Bickell and Brad Richards, Chicago head coach Joel Quenneville moved Kane to the Blackhawks' top line alongside Jonathan Toews and Brandon Saad after the Anaheim Ducks took a 3–2 game lead in the Western Conference Finals going into game six. The trio combined for nine points over the final two games against the top-seeded Ducks and propelled the Blackhawks to the Stanley Cup Finals. Kane helped the Blackhawks defeat the Tampa Bay Lightning by assisting on Duncan Keith's game-winning goal in Game 6 and scoring an insurance goal on Lightning goaltender Ben Bishop with the help of linemates Brad Richards and Brandon Saad for his third Stanley Cup championship in six years. Kane played in all 23 playoff games and finished the playoffs with 11 goals and 12 assists, tying the Lightning's Tyler Johnson with a playoff-high 23 points.\nFollowing the 2015 off-season departures of Brandon Saad and Brad Richards to the Columbus Blue Jackets and Detroit Red Wings respectively, the Blackhawks signed rookie winger Artemi Panarin and traded for veteran center Artem Anisimov to join Kane on the second line for the 2015–16 season. Kane recorded a 26-game point streak between October and December, during which he tallied 16 goals and 24 assists. This was the longest streak by any American-born skater, and the longest point-streak in Blackhawks history. Kane was selected to the 2016 NHL All-Star Game as the captain of the Central Division team. On April 1, 2016, Kane reached the 40-goal mark for the first time in his NHL career when he scored a late goal in the second period of a 5–4 overtime victory against the Winnipeg Jets. On April 3, Kane scored his second hat trick in a 6–4 win against the Boston Bruins, reaching 100 points and becoming the first Blackhawks player to score 100 points in a season since Jeremy Roenick in 1993–94, and the first American NHL player to reach 100 points since Doug Weight in 1995–96. He ended the season with a league-high 106 points (46 goals, 60 assists), winning both the Hart Memorial Trophy and the Art Ross Trophy; he is Chicago's first winner of either award since Stan Mikita scored 87 points in 1967–68 and is the first American player in NHL history to capture either trophy since they have been awarded. Kane also won the Ted Lindsay Award, given to the NHL's most outstanding player as voted by the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA). Kane's 46 goals ranked second overall in the NHL making him the runner up for the Maurice \"Rocket\" Richard Trophy only behind Washington Capitals forward and captain Alexander Ovechkin who scored 50 goals as the league leader.\nKane continued his success with Panarin and Anisimov during the 2016–17 season. He finished the season playing in all 82 contests with 34 goals, 55 assists 89 points, finishing second in the NHL behind Edmonton Oilers captain Connor McDavid and tied with Pittsburgh Penguins captain Sidney Crosby and was named a finalist for the Ted Lindsay Award for the second straight season and second time in his career which was eventually given to McDavid. Kane was selected to play on the NHL's Central Division team for the 2017 NHL All-Star Game. However, Kane and the top seeded Blackhawks were swept by the eighth seeded Nashville Predators during the first round of the 2017 playoffs. Kane only tallied one goal and assist during the series. During the ensuing off-season, Panarin was traded to the Columbus Blue Jackets in a four-player deal in exchange for Brandon Saad returning to the Blackhawks. \nIn the 2017 off-season, Kane was named in the 100 Greatest NHL Players list for NHL's Centennial Anniversary.\nOn December 23, 2017, in a 4–1 loss to the New Jersey Devils, Kane scored his 300th NHL goal against Devils' goaltender Cory Schneider. Kane recorded the first five-point game of his NHL career on January 9, 2018, against the Ottawa Senators. He was selected to play in the 2018 NHL All-Star Game. On January 20, in a game against the New York Islanders, Kane recorded his 800th career point, becoming only the fifth player in franchise history to reach that milestone.\nThe 2018–19 season saw Kane record (44) goals, along with a career high in assists (66) and points (110) while playing with Dylan Strome and Alex DeBrincat on the teams second line. His 44 goals were fifth most in the NHL overall behind Tampa Bay Lightning forward and captain Steven Stamkos with 45 goals, Toronto Maple Leafs forward John Tavares with 47 goals, Edmonton Oilers forward Leon Draisaitl and the league leading 51 goals form Washington Capitals forward and captain Alexander Ovechkin, respectively. Kane was named a finalist for the Ted Lindsay Award for the third time in his career which would ultimately go to Tampa Bay Lightning forward Nikita Kucherov.\nKane lead all skaters in scoring between 2010–2019 with 807 points and his 315 goals was fourth most goals scored behind Alexander Ovechkin with 437, Steven Stamkos with 363 and John Tavares with 319, respectively. He was named to the 2010–19 NHL All-Decade Team.\nOn January 19, 2020, against the Winnipeg Jets, Kane scored his 1,000th NHL career point, assisting on a goal by Brandon Saad. In doing so, Kane became the fourth player in Blackhawks franchise history to reach that mark with the club, along with Stan Mikita, Bobby Hull and Denis Savard. During the 2019–20 season, the Blackhawks appointed Kane as an alternate captain after Brent Seabrook missed the remainder of the season due to multiple surgeries.\nKane retained his role as an alternate captain going into 2020–21 season, which shortened to a 56-game schedule due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. He ended the season with 15 goals and tallied 51 assists for a team-high 66 points in all 56 games played. He finished with the fifth-most points among all skaters in the NHL for the season. On February 28, 2021, Kane recorded his 400th career goal against the Detroit Red Wings on Wings' goaltender Thomas Greiss, becoming the 100th player in NHL history to reach 400 career goals. On March 9, Kane played in his 1,000th career game against the Dallas Stars and became only the seventh player in franchise history to reach the milestone. After the season's conclusion, Kane was named the Best NHL Player at the 2021 ESPY Awards.\nKane appeared in 78 games for the Blackhawks during the 2021–22 season where he recorded 26 goals, 66 assists and 92 points, tying his career high in assists from three years prior in the 2018–19 season, despite playing the entire season with a persistent undisclosed injury. Kane's 92 points marked the third-highest scoring season of his career. As he approached the final season of his current contract in Chicago, Kane commented on his future with the team, stating, \"I know in the game of hockey there's not many guys that have played their whole career with one team, so it would be a privilege and an honor to do that, but I guess we'll see how it all plays out.\"\nKane tallied 16 goals and 29 assists for 45 points in 54 games for Chicago during the 2022–23 campaign. The Blackhawks and Kane parted ways at the trade deadline, with the team opting to acquire future draft capital and initiate a full-scale rebuild.\n\nNew York Rangers (2023)\nOn February 28, 2023, Kane's 16-year tenure with the Blackhawks ended as he and prospect Cooper Zech were traded to the New York Rangers in exchange for a conditional second-round pick in the 2023 NHL Entry Draft, a fourth-round pick, and defenseman Andy Welinski. To help facilitate the trade, the Rangers sent the Arizona Coyotes a fifth-round selection in the 2025 draft. The move reunited Kane with former Blackhawks teammate from 2015–2017 Artemi Panarin, who played a major role during Kane's MVP season in 2015-16. Kane put up 12 points for the Rangers in 19 games. He recorded one goal and five assists in the postseason, as the Rangers lost to the New Jersey Devils in seven games. Following the Rangers' first-round playoff exit, Pat Brisson announced that Kane underwent successful hip resurfacing surgery on June 1, and would miss from four to sixth months while recovering.\n\nDetroit Red Wings (2023–present)\nOn November 28, 2023, Kane signed a one-year, $2.75 million contract with the Detroit Red Wings. Kane considered Detroit as one of his preferred destinations upon becoming a free agent. He remarked on the signing, \"Throughout the whole process, I felt like Detroit was always there. It was always in the back of my mind, kind of in my heart as well, to come join this team.\" His decision was also influenced by the opportunity to reunite with former Chicago Blackhawks teammate from 2017–2022 Alex DeBrincat. Kane made his 2023 debut on December 7. He scored his first goal with the Red Wings in his second game of the season, against the Ottawa Senators. He enjoyed a six-game point streak in late December, where he tallied five goals and six assists. Kane sustained a lower-body injury on January 14, 2024 that caused him to miss seven games. On February 25, Kane made his return to Chicago and played his first game against the Chicago Blackhawks since being traded a year prior. In overtime, he scored the game-winning goal on a breakaway and received a standing ovation from the fans at the United Center. Kane concluded the season with 20 goals and 27 assists in 50 games as the Red Wings missed the playoffs. He ranked fourth on the team in goals while his 47 points ranked sixth on the team. He also led the team with three overtime goals and seven game-winning goals. Red Wings general manager Steve Yzerman commended Kane's contributions to the team, stating \"He’s like a wizard with the puck -- his skill, his sense, his calmness in high-pressure situations and in the danger areas. He was great for our team, and I think he brought a lot of what I guess they call swag.\"\nOn June 30, 2024, Kane signed a one-year contract extension with the Red Wings.\n\nPlayer profile\nKane is regarded as one of the best American-born players of all time. His success is attributed to his vision, accurate shooting, deceptive stick handling, and high hockey IQ. Kane leverages these skills to anticipate how hockey plays will develop and then positions himself to generate offensive opportunities. Pavel Barber commented on Kane's elusiveness, \"They call him 'The Waterbug' because he's so good at entering the zone, just weaving, and cutting through and setting up.\" Kane is also regarded as a \"sniper\" due to his accurate wrist shot, as well as a playmaker for his passing skills. Kane reflected, \"I love scoring for the fans, for the team, for myself. That's not to say that I won't pass if I see a teammate in a better scoring position. But I like to score.\"\nHe is an offensive-minded forward. Despite his elite goal scoring and playmaking abilities, Kane has been considered a liability on defense. He practiced generating takeaways and playing defense during his later years in Chicago. Chicago head coach Joel Quenneville, (who played in the NHL as a defenseman during his own playing career before coaching) enticed Kane to play more two-way hockey by telling him during the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals, \"You're at your best when you have the puck, and we need you to play [defense] if you want to get the puck back from the other team.\" An analytical model rated Kane as one of the worst defensive players in the NHL during the 2023 off-season.\nKane is also known for his eccentric goal scoring celebrations. Upon scoring the championship-clinching goal in the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals, Kane threw his gloves in the air and began celebrating while most players were still confused or waiting for the referee to officially signal a goal. He performed a \"heartbreaker\" celebration after scoring the series-winning goal against the defending Stanley Cup champion Los Angeles Kings in June 2013, which would later be performed by Connor Bedard after scoring an over-time game-winning goal against Slovakia in January 2023. During the first round in the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs, Kane performed a goal celebration after scoring the game winner against the St. Louis Blues, where he pretended to use a payphone. In 2015, he raised his hands and began shouting \"Showtime\" after scoring a highlight-reel goal against the Minnesota Wild in the second round of the playoffs.\nKane chewed his mouth guard while skating during his early years in the NHL, which became part of his signature on-ice appearance. One of his game-used mouth guards was auctioned for $4,000 at a Blackhawks charity auction, while another is showcased in the Hockey Hall of Fame. Other American-born skaters, including Clayton Keller, Matthew and Brady Tkachuk have also followed suit and chewed their mouth guards while playing.\n\nInternational play\nKane has competed internationally for the United States. He first represented the United States in the 2006 IIHF U18 Championships, in which he led the tournament in scoring with 12 points (five goals and seven assists) in only six games played. His two points per game pace led the United States to the gold medal and earned him individual all-star team honors.\n\nThe next year, he moved onto the United States' U20 team at the 2007 World Juniors. He was one of only three players on the team playing major junior hockey. He continued his international pace with five goals and four assists in seven games to finish second in tournament scoring and, once again, garner an all-star team selection. His team did not perform as well as his U18 team, but they did manage to go home with the bronze medal. After making the NHL and being unable to play in the 2008 WJC due to professional commitments with the Chicago Blackhawks, he played in the 2008 World Championships. He posted 10 points (three goals and seven assists) in seven games as the United States finished sixth.\nKane was selected to represent the United States in the 2010 Olympic Games in Vancouver, where he and the team won the silver medal. During the tournament he scored three goals and two assists in six games. Kane represented the United States again in the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi. He missed two penalty shots in a loss against Finland in the bronze medal game.\nOn April 9, 2018, Kane was named the captain of Team USA for the 2018 IIHF World Championship. Kane scored two goals including a game winner in a 3–2 victory against the Czech Republic in the quarterfinals. The U.S. team finished the competition with the bronze medal after losing to Sweden in the semifinals but beating Canada. Kane finished the championships as the tournament's leading scorer with eight goals and 12 assists in 10 games. He was named the Most Valuable Player of 2018 Men's World Championship.\n\nPersonal life\nKane has three younger sisters: Erica, Jessica, and Jacqueline. He attended Detroit Country Day School but left before graduating.\nDuring the offseason, he lives in Hamburg, New York in a house on the shores of Lake Erie, which he purchased in March 2012. Kane lived with Stan Bowman, then an assistant general manager for the Blackhawks, when he first arrived in Chicago. Kane resided at the Trump International Hotel and Tower during the NHL season in a two-bedroom condo that he acquired in September 2008. However, Kane listed his Trump Tower condo for sale in the summer of 2016. He purchased a mansion in Lake Forest, Illinois in 2023.\nKane has an endorsement deal with Bauer Hockey. He also appeared in commercials for McDonald's and Gatorade.\n\nKane and his girlfriend, Amanda Grahovec, have one child together, a son also named Patrick, born in November 2020.\n\nCharities\nKane participated in the Denis Savard Charity Golf Tournament in 2016. He played in an ice hockey game, Champs for Charity, which raised $323,000 for the Ronald McDonald House Charities of Chicagoland and Northwest Indiana in 2012.\n\nMisdemeanor charges\nOn August 9, 2009, Kane and his cousin, James M. Kane, were arrested in Buffalo. According to a police report, Kane was apprehended around 5:00 a.m. after allegedly punching cab driver Jan Radecki when he claimed to not have proper change for their trip fare. Kane and his cousin's cab fare came out to be $14.80, and they gave him $15.00.\nKane was charged with second-degree robbery, fourth-degree criminal mischief, and theft of services. He pleaded not guilty. On August 17, Kane apologized for the distress he caused, saying he had been \"at the wrong place at the wrong time,\" and mentioned his family, the Chicago Blackhawks organization, and their fan base—but not Radecki. Kane and his cousin appeared before a grand jury on August 19. While they were cleared of any felony charges, the two were still indicted on less severe misdemeanor assault, theft, and harassment charges. Kane and his cousin reiterated their not guilty pleas when appearing in court the next day. On August 27, Kane and cousin pleaded guilty to noncriminal disorderly conduct charges, and were both given conditional discharges, avoiding any penalties if they stayed out of trouble for a year, and also ordered to apologize to Radecki.\n\n2015 police investigation\nOn August 6, 2015, the Buffalo News reported that Kane was the subject of a sexual assault investigation by police in Hamburg, New York, in connection with an incident that allegedly occurred the previous weekend. The Erie County District Attorney's Office later declined to press charges against him, stating that the complainant's allegation was not sufficiently substantiated by credible evidence. It later came to light that the complainant's mother had orchestrated a hoax in which she attempted to make it appear as if critical evidence had been tampered with.\n\nCareer statistics\nRegular season and playoffs\nBold indicates led league\n\nInternational\nAwards and achievements\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nBiographical information and career statistics from NHL.com, or Eliteprospects.com, or Eurohockey.com, or Hockey-Reference.com, or The Internet Hockey Database",
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] | What were the names of the parents of the first overall pick in the 2007 NHL entry draft? | [] | Donna and Patrick were the names of Patrick Kane's parents. | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The FIFA World Cup, often called the World Cup, is an international association football competition among the senior men's national teams of the members of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The tournament has been held every four years since the inaugural tournament in 1930, with the exception of 1942 and 1946 due to the Second World War. The reigning champions are Argentina, who won their third title at the 2022 tournament.\nThe contest starts with the qualification phase, which takes place over the preceding three years to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase. In the tournament phase, 32 teams compete for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over the course of about a month. The host nation(s) automatically qualify for the group stage of the tournament. The competition is scheduled to expand to 48 teams, starting with the 2026 tournament.\nAs of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, 22 final tournaments have been held since the event's inception in 1930, and a total of 80 national teams have competed. The trophy has been won by eight national teams. With five wins, Brazil is the only team to have played in every tournament. The other World Cup winners are Germany and Italy, with four titles each; Argentina, with three titles; France and inaugural winner Uruguay, each with two titles; and England and Spain, with one title each.\nThe World Cup is the most prestigious association football tournament in the world, as well as the most widely viewed and followed single sporting event in the world. The viewership of the 2018 World Cup was estimated to be 3.57 billion, close to half of the global population, while the engagement with the 2022 World Cup was estimated to be 5 billion, with about 1.5 billion people watching the final match.\nSeventeen countries have hosted the World Cup, most recently Qatar, who hosted the 2022 event. The 2026 tournament will be jointly hosted by Canada, the United States and Mexico, which will give Mexico the distinction of being the first country to host games in three World Cups.\n\nHistory\nPrevious international competitions\nThe world's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England. The first international tournament for nations, the inaugural British Home Championship, took place in 1884 and included games between England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. As football grew in popularity in other parts of the world at the start of the 20th century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics; however, the International Olympic Committee has retroactively upgraded their status to official events, as well as the 1906 Intercalated Games.\nAfter FIFA was founded in 1904, it tried to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been unsuccessful.\n\nAt the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official Olympic sport. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm.\nWith the Olympic event continuing to be a contest between amateur teams only, Sir Thomas Lipton organised the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title. Prior to the Lipton competition, from 1876 to 1904, games that were considered to be the \"football world championship\" were meetings between leading English and Scottish clubs, such as the 1895 game between Sunderland A.F.C. and the Heart of Midlothian F.C., which Sunderland won.\nIn 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a \"world football championship for amateurs\", and took responsibility for managing the event. This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition for nations, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and 13 European teams, and won by Belgium. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. Those were also the first two open world championships, as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era, and is the reason why Uruguay is allowed to wear 4 stars.\n\nWorld Cups before World War II\nDue to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet as the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship. With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament.\nThe national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides, especially in the midst of the Great Depression. As such, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total, 13 nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe, and two from North America.\n\nThe first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 13 July 1930, and were won by France and the United States, who defeated Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of 93,000 spectators in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup. After the creation of the World Cup, FIFA and the IOC disagreed over the status of amateur players; football was dropped from the 1932 Summer Olympics. After the IOC and FIFA worked out their differences, Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup.\nThe issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 World Cup and all North and South American nations except Brazil and Cuba boycotted the 1938 tournament. Brazil was the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions, which Germany and Brazil sought to host, were cancelled due to World War II.\n\nWorld Cups after World War II\nThe 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British football associations. Scotland, England, Wales, and Northern Ireland had withdrawn from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football. The teams rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation. The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again after defeating the host nation Brazil, in the match called \"Maracanazo\" (Portuguese: Maracanaço).\nIn the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria was absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland, and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: United States, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938; North Korea, quarter-finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1970.\n\nExpansion to 24 and 32 teams\nThe tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, and then to 32 in 1998, allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. Since then, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, with several having reached the quarter-finals: Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter-finalists in 1990; South Korea, finishing in fourth place in 2002; Senegal, along with USA, both quarter-finalists in 2002; Ghana, quarter-finalists in 2010; Costa Rica, quarter-finalists in 2014; and Morocco, finishing in fourth place in 2022. European and South American teams continue to dominate, e.g., the quarter-finalists in 1994, 1998, 2006 and 2018 were all from Europe or South America and so were the finalists of all tournaments so far.\nTwo hundred teams entered the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification rounds. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. A record 204 countries entered qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.\n\nExpansion to 48 teams\nIn October 2013, Sepp Blatter spoke of guaranteeing the Caribbean Football Union's region a position in the World Cup. In the edition of 25 October 2013 of the FIFA Weekly Blatter wrote that: \"From a purely sporting perspective, I would like to see globalisation finally taken seriously, and the African and Asian national associations accorded the status they deserve at the FIFA World Cup. It cannot be that the European and South American confederations lay claim to the majority of the berths at the World Cup.\" Those two remarks suggested to commentators that Blatter could be putting himself forward for re-election to the FIFA Presidency.\nFollowing the magazine's publication, Blatter's would-be opponent for the FIFA Presidency, UEFA President Michel Platini, responded that he intended to extend the World Cup to 40 national associations, increasing the number of participants by eight. Platini said that he would allocate an additional berth to UEFA, two each to the Asian Football Confederation and the Confederation of African Football, two shared between CONCACAF and CONMEBOL, and a guaranteed place for the Oceania Football Confederation. Platini was clear about why he wanted to expand the World Cup. He said: \"[The World Cup is] not based on the quality of the teams because you don't have the best 32 at the World Cup ... but it's a good compromise. ... It's a political matter so why not have more Africans? The competition is to bring all the people of all the world. If you don't give the possibility to participate, they don't improve.\"\nIn October 2016, FIFA president Gianni Infantino stated his support for a 48-team World Cup in 2026. On 10 January 2017, FIFA confirmed the 2026 World Cup will have 48 finalist teams.\n\n2015 FIFA corruption case\nBy May 2015, the games were under a particularly dark cloud because of the 2015 FIFA corruption case, allegations and criminal charges of bribery, fraud and money laundering to corrupt the issuing of media and marketing rights (rigged bids) for FIFA games, with FIFA officials accused of taking bribes totaling more than $150 million over 24 years. In late May, the U.S. Department of Justice announced a 47-count indictment with charges of racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering conspiracy against 14 people. Arrests of over a dozen FIFA officials were made since that time, particularly on 29 May and 3 December. By the end of May 2015, a total of nine FIFA officials and five executives of sports and broadcasting markets had already been charged on corruption. At the time, FIFA president Sepp Blatter announced he would relinquish his position in February 2016.\nOn 4 June 2015, Chuck Blazer while co-operating with the FBI and the Swiss authorities admitted that he and the other members of FIFA's then-executive committee were bribed in order to promote the 1998 and 2010 World Cups. On 10 June 2015, Swiss authorities seized computer data from the offices of Sepp Blatter. The same day, FIFA postponed the bidding process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup in light of the allegations surrounding bribery in the awarding of the 2018 and 2022 tournaments. Then-secretary general Jérôme Valcke stated, \"Due to the situation, I think it's nonsense to start any bidding process for the time being.\" On 28 October 2015, Blatter and FIFA VP Michel Platini, a potential candidate for presidency, were suspended for 90 days; both maintained their innocence in statements made to the news media.\nOn 3 December 2015 two FIFA vice-presidents were arrested on suspicion of bribery in the same Zurich hotel where seven FIFA officials had been arrested in May. An additional 16 indictments by the US Department of Justice were announced on the same day.\n\nBiennial World Cup proposition\nA biennial World Cup plan was first proposed by the Saudi Arabian Football Federation at the 71st FIFA Congress on 21 May 2021 and prominently backed by former Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger and national federations in Africa and Asia.\nContinental confederations such as UEFA and CONMEBOL are not on board with the plan but, in total, the idea is supported by 166 of the 210 member associations of FIFA.\n\nOther FIFA tournaments\nAn equivalent tournament for women's football, the FIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in China. The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991.\nMen's football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players. Women's football made its Olympic debut in 1996.\nThe FIFA Confederations Cup was a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country. The first edition took place in 1992 and the last edition was played in 2017. In March 2019, FIFA confirmed that the tournament would no longer be active owing to an expansion of the FIFA Club World Cup in 2021.\nFIFA also organises international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). The latter three do not have a women's version, although a FIFA Women's Club World Cup has been proposed.\nThe FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup is held biannually, including the year before each Women's World Cup. Both tournaments were awarded in a single bidding process on three occasions, with the U-20 tournament serving as a dress rehearsal for the larger competition each time (2010, 2014 and 2018).\n\nTrophy\nFrom 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winning team. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983 and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves.\nAfter 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is 36 cm (14.2 in) high, made of solid 18 carat (75%) gold and weighs 6.175 kg (13.6 lb).\nThe base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: \"The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory.\"\nThis new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy only until the post-match celebration is finished. They are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original immediately afterwards.\nAll members (players, coaches, and managers) of the top three teams receive medals with an insignia of the World Cup Trophy; winners' (gold), runners-up' (silver), and third-place (bronze). In the 2002 edition, fourth-place medals were awarded to hosts South Korea. Before the 1978 tournament, medals were only awarded to the eleven players on the pitch at the end of the final and the third-place match. In November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals.\nSince 2006, winners of the competition are also awarded the right to wear the FIFA Champions Badge, up until the time at which the winner of the next competition is decided.\n\nFormat\nQualification\nSince the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, and Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams.\nThe qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone entered a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations receive automatic qualification to the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, were the first defending champions to play qualifying matches.\n\nFinal tournament\nThe final tournament format since 1998 has had 32 national teams competing over the course of a month in the host nations. There are two stages: the group stage, followed by the knockout stage.\nIn the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded, including the hosts, with the other seeded teams selected using a formula based on the FIFA World Rankings or performances in recent World Cups, and drawn to separate groups. The other teams are assigned to different \"pots\", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation.\nEach group plays a round-robin tournament in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. This means that a total of six matches are played within a group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).\nConsidering six matches in a group each with three possible outcomes (win, draw, loss), there are 729 (= 36) possible final table outcomes for the 40 possible combinations of the four teams' points. However, 14 of the 40 points combinations (or 207 of the 729 possible outcomes) lead to ties between the second and third places. In such case, the ranking among these teams is determined by:\n\nGreatest combined goal difference in all group matches\nGreatest combined number of goals scored in all group matches\nIf more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined as follows:\nGreatest number of points in head-to-head matches among those teams\nGreatest goal difference in head-to-head matches among those teams\nGreatest number of goals scored in head-to-head matches among those teams\nFair play points, defined by the number of yellow and red cards received in the group stage:\nYellow card: minus 1 point\nIndirect red card (as a result of a second yellow card): minus 3 points\nDirect red card: minus 4 points\nYellow card and direct red card: minus 5 points\nIf any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lots\nThe knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the round of 16 (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the third-place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.\nOn 10 January 2017, FIFA approved a new format, the 48-team World Cup (to accommodate more teams), which was to consist of 16 groups of three teams each, with two teams qualifying from each group, to form a round of 32 knockout stage, to be implemented by 2026. On 14 March 2023, FIFA approved a revised format of the 2026 tournament, which features 12 groups of four teams each, with the top 8 third-placed teams joining the group winners and runners-up in a new round of 32.\n\nHosts\nSelection process\nEarly World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The locations were controversial because South America and Europe were by far the two centres of strength in football and travel between them required three weeks by boat. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these in France was disputed, as the South American countries understood that the location would alternate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the 1938 FIFA World Cup.\nSince the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the first tournament with multiple hosts. South Africa became the first African nation to host the World Cup in 2010. The 2014 FIFA World Cup was hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since Argentina 1978, and was the first occasion where consecutive World Cups were held outside Europe.\n\nThe host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Council. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a \"Hosting Agreement\" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. There have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as was the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups, which were awarded to Russia and Qatar, with Qatar becoming the first Middle Eastern country to host the tournament.\nFor the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament was rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation did not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder.\nThe 2026 FIFA World Cup was chosen to be held in the United States, Canada and Mexico, marking the first time a World Cup has been shared by three host nations. The 2026 tournament will be the biggest World Cup ever held, with 48 teams playing 104 matches. Sixty matches will take place in the US, including all matches from the quarter-finals onward, while Canada and Mexico will host 10 games each.\n\nSummary by confederation\nPerformances\nSix of the eight champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exceptions being Brazil, who finished as runners-up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950 and lost their semi-final against Germany in 2014, and Spain, which reached the second round on home soil in 1982. England (1966) won its only title while playing as a host nation. Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934), Argentina (1978), and France (1998) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil.\nOther nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Switzerland (quarter-finals 1954), Sweden (runners-up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), South Korea (fourth place in 2002), Russia (quarter-finals 2018), and Mexico (quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, South Africa (2010) and Qatar (2022) failed to advance beyond the first round.\n\nBroadcasting and promotion\nThe World Cup was first televised in 1954 and as of 2006 is the most widely viewed and followed sporting event in the world. The cumulative viewership of all matches of the 2006 World Cup was estimated to be 26.29 billion. 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of the tournament, almost a ninth of the entire population of the planet. The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. The World Cup attracts major sponsors such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Adidas. For these companies and many more, being a sponsor strongly impacts their global brands. Host countries typically experience a multimillion-dollar revenue increase from the month-long event.\nThe governing body of the sport, FIFA, generated $4.8 billion in revenue from the 2014 tournament, and $6.1 billion from the 2018 tournament.\n\nEach FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot or logo. World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. World Cups feature official match balls specially designed for each tournament. After Slazenger produced the ball for the 1966 World Cup Adidas became the official supplier to FIFA. Each World Cup also has an official song, which have been performed by artists ranging from Shakira to Will Smith. Other songs, such as “Nessun dorma”, performed by The Three Tenors at four World Cup concerts, have also become identified with the tournament.\n\nForming a partnership with FIFA in 1970, Panini published its first sticker album for the 1970 World Cup. Since then, collecting and trading stickers and cards has become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation. FIFA has licensed World Cup video games since 1986, sponsored by Electronic Arts.\n\nResults\nKey\naet: result/match won after extra time\np: match won after penalty shoot-out\nTBD: to be determined\n\nNotes\n\nIn all, 80 nations have played in at least one World Cup. Of these, eight national teams have won the World Cup, and they have added stars to their badges, with each star representing a World Cup victory. Uruguay, however, chose to display four stars on their badge, representing their two gold medals at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are recognized by FIFA as World Championships, and their two World Cup titles in 1930 and 1950.\nWith five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup (22) to date. Brazil were also the first team to win the World Cup for the third (1970), fourth (1994) and fifth (2002) time. Italy (1934 and 1938) and Brazil (1958 and 1962) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. West Germany (1982–1990) and Brazil (1994–2002) are the only nations to appear in three consecutive World Cup finals. Germany has made the most top-four finishes (13), medals (12), as well as the most finals (8).\n\nTeams reaching the top four\nBest performances by confederations\nTo date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by teams from the UEFA (Europe) and CONMEBOL (South America) confederations. European nations have won twelve titles, while South American nations have won ten. Only three teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: United States (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930; South Korea (Asia) in 2002; and Morocco (Africa) in 2022. Only one Oceanian qualifier, Australia in 2006, has advanced to the second round, a feat they later reaccomplished in 2022.\nBrazil, Argentina, Spain and Germany are the only teams to win a World Cup hosted outside their continental confederation; Brazil came out victorious in Europe (1958), North America (1970 and 1994) and Asia (2002). Argentina won a World Cup in North America in 1986 and in Asia in 2022. Spain won in Africa in 2010. In 2014, Germany became the first European team to win in the Americas. Only on five occasions have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent; the longest streak of tournaments won by a single confederation is four, with the 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018 tournaments all won by UEFA teams (Italy, Spain, Germany, and France, respectively).\n\nRecords and statistics\nSix players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico's Antonio Carbajal (1950–1966). Rafael Márquez (2002–2018), and Andrés Guardado (2006–2022); Germany's Lothar Matthäus (1982–1998); Argentina's Lionel Messi (2006–2022); and Portugal's Cristiano Ronaldo (2006–2022) all played in five tournaments, with Ronaldo also being the first and only player to score in five tournaments. Messi has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 26 appearances. Brazil's Djalma Santos (1954–1962), West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer (1966–1974), and Germany's Philipp Lahm (2006–2014) are the only players to be named to three World Cup All-Star Teams.\nMiroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) is the all-time top scorer at the World Cup with 16 goals. He broke Ronaldo of Brazil's record of 15 goals (1998–2006) during the 2014 semi-final match against Brazil. West Germany's Gerd Müller (1970–1974) is third, with 14 goals. The fourth-placed goalscorer, France's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup; all his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament.\n\nIn November 2007, FIFA announced that all members of World Cup-winning squads between 1930 and 1974 were to be retroactively awarded winners' medals. This made Brazil's Pelé the only player to have won three World Cup winners' medals (1958, 1962, and 1970, although he did not play in the 1962 final due to injury), with 20 other players who have won two winners' medals. Seven players have collected all three types of World Cup medals (winners', runner- ups', and third-place); five players were from West Germany's squad of 1966–1974: Franz Beckenbauer, Jürgen Grabowski, Horst-Dieter Höttges, Sepp Maier, and Wolfgang Overath (1966–1974), Italy's Franco Baresi (1982, 1990, 1994) and the most recent has been Miroslav Klose of Germany (2002–2014) with four consecutive medals.\nBrazil's Mário Zagallo, West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer and France's Didier Deschamps are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach. Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach, and Deschamps repeated the feat in 2018, after having won in 1998 as captain. Italy's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups (1934 and 1938). All World Cup-winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory.\nAmong the national teams, Brazil has played the most World Cup matches (114), Germany appeared in the most finals (8), semi-finals (13), and quarter-finals (16), while Brazil has appeared in the most World Cups (22), has the most wins (76) and has scored the most goals (237). The two teams have played each other twice in the World Cup, in the 2002 final and in the 2014 semi-final.\n\nTop goalscorers\nIndividual\nPlayers in bold are still active.\n\nCountry\n\nAwards\nAt the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament.\n\nThere are five post-tournament awards from the FIFA Technical Study Group:\n\nthe Golden Ball (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Ball\") for best player, first awarded in 1982;\nthe Golden Boot (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Boot\", formerly known as the \"adidas Golden Shoe\" from 1982 to 2006) for top goalscorer, first awarded in 1982;\nthe Golden Glove (named for its sponsor \"Adidas Golden Glove\", formerly known as the \"Lev Yashin Award\" from 1994 to 2006) for best goalkeeper, first awarded in 1994;\nthe FIFA Young Player Award (formerly known as the \"Best Young Player Award\" from 2006 to 2010) for best player under 21 years of age at the start of the calendar year, first awarded in 2006;\nthe FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team that advanced to the second round with the best record of fair play, first awarded in 1970.\nThere is currently one award voted on by fans during the tournament.:\nthe Player of the Match (currently commercially termed \"Budweiser Player of the Match\", formerly known as the \"Man of the Match\" from 2002 to 2018) for outstanding performance during each match of the tournament, first awarded in 2002.\nThere are two awards voted on by fans after the conclusion of the tournament:\nthe Goal of the Tournament, (currently commercially termed \"Hyundai Goal of the Tournament\") for the fans' best goal scored during the tournament, first awarded in 2006;\nthe Most Entertaining Team during the World Cup final tournament, as determined by a poll of the general public.\nOne other award was given between 1994 and 2006:\nan All-Star Team comprising the best players of the tournament chosen by the FIFA Technical Study Group. From 2010 onwards, all Dream Teams or Statistical Teams are unofficial, as reported by FIFA itself.\n\nSee also\nList of FIFA World Cup finals\nFIFA World Cup records and statistics\nFIFA World Cup awards\nFIFA U-20 World Cup\nFIFA U-17 World Cup\nFIFA Club World Cup\nFIFA Beach Soccer World Cup\nFIFA Futsal World Cup\nFIFA Confederations Cup\nList of association football competitions\n\nNotes\nCitations\nCited works\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nWorld Cup overview at the RSSSF",
"title": "FIFA_World_Cup"
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"paragraph_text": "London is the capital and largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of 8,866,180 in 2022. The wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 14.9 million. London stands on the River Thames in southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years. Its ancient core and financial centre, the City of London, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and has retained its medieval boundaries. The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host of the national government and parliament. London grew rapidly in the 19th century, becoming the world's largest city at the time. Since the 19th century, the name \"London\" has referred to the metropolis around the City of London, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent, and Hertfordshire, which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area of Greater London, governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority. \nAs one of the world's major global cities, London exerts a strong influence on world art, entertainment, fashion, commerce, finance, education, healthcare, media, science, technology, tourism, transport, and communications. Despite a post-Brexit exodus of stock listings from the London Stock Exchange, London remains Europe's most economically powerful city and one of the world's major financial centres. It hosts Europe's largest concentration of higher education institutions, some of which are the highest-ranked academic institutions in the world: Imperial College London in natural and applied sciences, the London School of Economics in social sciences, and the comprehensive University College London. It is the most visited city in Europe and has the world's busiest city airport system. The London Underground is the world's oldest rapid transit system.\nLondon's diverse cultures encompass over 300 languages. The 2023 population of Greater London of just under 10 million made it Europe's third-most populous city, accounting for 13.4% of the United Kingdom's population and over 16% of England's population. The Greater London Built-up Area is the fourth-most populous in Europe, with about 9.8 million inhabitants as of 2011. The London metropolitan area is the third-most populous in Europe, with about 14 million inhabitants as of 2016, making London a megacity.\nFour World Heritage Sites are located in London: Kew Gardens; the Tower of London; the site featuring the Palace of Westminster, Church of St. Margaret, and Westminster Abbey; and the historic settlement in Greenwich where the Royal Observatory defines the prime meridian (0° longitude) and Greenwich Mean Time. Other landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Paul's Cathedral, Tower Bridge, and Trafalgar Square. The city has the most museums, art galleries, libraries, and cultural venues in the UK, including the British Museum, National Gallery, Natural History Museum, Tate Modern, British Library, and numerous West End theatres. Important sporting events held in London include the FA Cup Final, the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, and the London Marathon. It became the first city to host three Summer Olympic Games upon hosting the 2012 Summer Olympics.\n\nToponymy\nLondon is an ancient name, attested in the first century AD, usually in the Latinised form Londinium. Modern scientific analyses of the name must account for the origins of the different forms found in early sources: Latin (usually Londinium), Old English (usually Lunden), and Welsh (usually Llundein), with reference to the known developments over time of sounds in those different languages. It is agreed that the name came into these languages from Common Brythonic; recent work tends to reconstruct the lost Celtic form of the name as *Londonjon or something similar. This was then adapted into Latin as Londinium and borrowed into Old English.\nUntil 1889, the name \"London\" applied officially only to the City of London, but since then it has also referred to the County of London and to Greater London.\n\nHistory\nPrehistory\nIn 1993, remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the south River Thames foreshore, upstream from Vauxhall Bridge. Two of the timbers were radiocarbon dated to 1750–1285 BC. In 2010, foundations of a large timber structure, dated to 4800–4500 BC, were found on the Thames's south foreshore downstream from Vauxhall Bridge. Both structures are on the south bank of the Thames, where the now-underground River Effra flows into the Thames.\n\nRoman London\nDespite the evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area, the first major settlement was founded by the Romans around 47 AD, about four years after their invasion of 43 AD. This only lasted until about 61 AD, when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it and burnt it to the ground.\nThe next planned incarnation of Londinium prospered, superseding Colchester as the principal city of the Roman province of Britannia in 100. At its height in the 2nd century, Roman London had a population of about 60,000.\n\nAnglo-Saxon and Viking-period London\nWith the early 5th-century collapse of Roman rule, the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned, although Roman civilisation continued around St Martin-in-the-Fields until about 450. From about 500, an Anglo-Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed slightly west of the old Roman city. By about 680 the city had become a major port again, but there is little evidence of large-scale production. From the 820s repeated Viking assaults brought decline. Three are recorded; those in 851 and 886 succeeded, while the last, in 994, was rebuffed.\nThe Vikings applied Danelaw over much of eastern and northern England, its boundary running roughly from London to Chester as an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions formally agreed by the Danish warlord, Guthrum and the West Saxon king Alfred the Great in 886. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Alfred \"refounded\" London in 886. Archaeological research shows this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls. London then grew slowly until a dramatic increase in about 950.\nBy the 11th century, London was clearly the largest town in England. Westminster Abbey, rebuilt in Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor, was one of the grandest churches in Europe. Winchester had been the capital of Anglo-Saxon England, but from this time London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war. In the view of Frank Stenton: \"It had the resources, and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self-consciousness appropriate to a national capital.\"\n\nMiddle Ages\nAfter winning the Battle of Hastings, William, Duke of Normandy was crowned King of England in newly completed Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066. William built the Tower of London, the first of many such in England rebuilt in stone in the south-eastern corner of the city, to intimidate the inhabitants. In 1097, William II began building Westminster Hall, near the abbey. It became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster.\nIn the 12th century, the institutions of central government, which had hitherto followed the royal English court around the country, grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed, for most purposes at Westminster, although the royal treasury came to rest in the Tower. While the City of Westminster developed into a true governmental capital, its distinct neighbour, the City of London, remained England's largest city and principal commercial centre and flourished under its own unique administration, the Corporation of London. In 1100, its population was some 18,000; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100,000. With the Black Death in the mid-14th century, London lost nearly a third of its population. London was the focus of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381.\nLondon was a centre of England's Jewish population before their expulsion by Edward I in 1290. Violence against Jews occurred in 1190, when it was rumoured that the new king had ordered their massacre after they had presented themselves at his coronation. In 1264 during the Second Barons' War, Simon de Montfort's rebels killed 500 Jews while attempting to seize records of debts.\n\nEarly modern\nDuring the Tudor period, the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism. Much of London property passed from church to private ownership, which accelerated trade and business in the city. In 1475, the Hanseatic League set up a main trading base (kontor) of England in London, called the Stalhof or Steelyard. It remained until 1853, when the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg sold the property to South Eastern Railway. Woollen cloth was shipped undyed and undressed from 14th/15th century London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries.\nYet English maritime enterprise hardly reached beyond the seas of north-west Europe. The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean was normally through Antwerp and over the Alps; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan. The reopening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 spurred a burst of commercial activity. The Royal Exchange was founded. Mercantilism grew and monopoly traders such as the East India Company were founded as trade expanded to the New World. London became the main North Sea port, with migrants arriving from England and abroad. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.\n\nIn the 16th century, William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London during English Renaissance theatre. Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was constructed in 1599 in Southwark. Stage performances came to a halt in London when Puritan authorities shut down the theatres in the 1640s. The ban on theatre was lifted during the Restoration in 1660, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane, opened in 1663 in what is now the West End theatre district.\nBy the end of the Tudor period in 1603, London was still compact. There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster, in the Gunpowder Plot of 5 November 1605. In 1637, the government of Charles I attempted to reform administration in the London area. This called for the Corporation of the city to extend its jurisdiction and administration over expanding areas around the city. Fearing an attempt by the Crown to diminish the Liberties of London, coupled with a lack of interest in administering these additional areas or concern by city guilds of having to share power, caused the Corporation's \"The Great Refusal\", a decision which largely continues to account for the unique governmental status of the City.\n\nIn the English Civil War, the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause. After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642, culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green, London was surrounded by a defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication. The lines were built by up to 20,000 people, and were completed in under two months.\nThe fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647, and they were levelled by Parliament the same year. London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century, culminating in the Great Plague of 1665–1666, which killed up to 100,000 people, or a fifth of the population. The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings. Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by polymath Robert Hooke. \n\nIn 1710, Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed, replacing its medieval predecessor that burned in the Great Fire of 1666. The dome of St Paul's dominated the London skyline for centuries, inspiring the artworks and writing of William Blake, with his 1789 poem \"Holy Thursday\" referring to ‘the high dome of Pauls'. During the Georgian era, new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London. In the east, the Port of London expanded downstream. London's development as an international financial centre matured for much of the 18th century.\nIn 1762, George III acquired Buckingham House, which was enlarged over the next 75 years. During the 18th century, London was said to be dogged by crime, and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Epidemics during the 1720s and 30s saw most children born in the city die before reaching their fifth birthday.\nCoffee-houses became a popular place to debate ideas, as growing literacy and development of the printing press made news widely available, with Fleet Street becoming the centre of the British press. The invasion of Amsterdam by Napoleonic armies led many financiers to relocate to London and the first London international issue was arranged in 1817. Around the same time, the Royal Navy became the world's leading war fleet, acting as a major deterrent to potential economic adversaries. Following a fire in 1838, the Royal Exchange was redesigned by William Tite and rebuilt in 1844. The repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 was specifically aimed at weakening Dutch economic power. London then overtook Amsterdam as the leading international financial centre.\n\nLate modern and contemporary\nWith the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, an unprecedented growth in urbanisation took place, and the number of High Streets (the primary street for retail in Britain) rapidly grew. London was the world's largest city from about 1831 to 1925, with a population density of 802 per acre (325 per hectare). In addition to the growing number of stores selling goods, such as Harding, Howell & Co.—one of the first department stores—located on Pall Mall, the streets had scores of street sellers. London's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics, claiming 14,000 lives in 1848, and 6,000 in 1866. Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the London Underground, the world's first urban rail network. The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some surrounding counties; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of county areas surrounding the capital.\nFrom the early years of the 20th century onwards, teashops were found on High Streets across London and the rest of Britain, with Lyons, who opened the first of their chain of teashops in Piccadilly in 1894, leading the way. The tearooms, such as the Criterion in Piccadilly, became a popular meeting place for women from the suffrage movement. The city was the target of many attacks during the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, between 1912 and 1914, which saw historic landmarks such as Westminster Abbey and St Paul's Cathedral bombed.\n\nLondon was bombed by the Germans in the First World War, and during the Second World War, the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30,000 Londoners, destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city. The tomb of the Unknown Warrior, an unidentified member of the British armed forces killed during the First World War, was buried in Westminster Abbey on 11 November 1920. The Cenotaph, located in Whitehall, was unveiled on the same day, and is the focal point for the National Service of Remembrance held annually on Remembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November.\nThe 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium, while London was still recovering from the war. From the 1940s, London became home to many immigrants, primarily from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, making London one of the most diverse cities in the world. In 1951, the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank. The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956, which ended the \"pea soup fogs\" for which London had been notorious, and had earned it the nickname the \"Big Smoke\".\nStarting mainly in the mid-1960s, London became a centre for worldwide youth culture, exemplified by the Swinging London sub-culture associated with the King's Road, Chelsea and Carnaby Street. The role of trendsetter revived in the punk era. In 1965 London's political boundaries were expanded in response to the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created. During The Troubles in Northern Ireland, London was hit from 1973 by bomb attacks by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. These attacks lasted for two decades, starting with the Old Bailey bombing. Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot.\nGreater London's population declined in the decades after the Second World War, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury, with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration, including the Canary Wharf development. This was born out of London's increasing role as an international financial centre in the 1980s. Located about 2 miles (3 km) east of central London, the Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea.\nThe Greater London Council was abolished in 1986, leaving London with no central administration until 2000 and the creation of the Greater London Authority. To mark the 21st century, the Millennium Dome, London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed. On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics, as the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times. On 7 July 2005, three London Underground trains and a double-decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks.\nIn 2008, Time named London alongside New York City and Hong Kong as Nylonkong, hailing them as the world's three most influential global cities. In January 2015, Greater London's population was estimated to be 8.63 million, its highest since 1939. During the Brexit referendum in 2016, the UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union, but most London constituencies voted for remaining. However, Britain's exit from the EU in early 2020 only marginally weakened London's position as an international financial centre.\n\nAdministration\nLocal government\nThe administration of London is formed of two tiers: a citywide, strategic tier and a local tier. Citywide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority (GLA), while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities. The GLA consists of two elected components: the mayor of London, who has executive powers, and the London Assembly, which scrutinises the mayor's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor's budget proposals each year. The GLA has responsibility for the majority of London's transport system through its functional arm Transport for London (TfL), it is responsible for overseeing the city's police and fire services, and also for setting a strategic vision for London on a range of issues. The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall, Newham. The mayor since 2016 has been Sadiq Khan, the first Muslim mayor of a major Western capital. The mayor's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan, which was most recently revised in 2011.\nThe local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation. They are responsible for most local services, such as local planning, schools, libraries, leisure and recreation, social services, local roads and refuse collection. Certain functions, such as waste management, are provided through joint arrangements. In 2009–2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £22 billion (£14.7 billion for the boroughs and £7.4 billion for the GLA).\nThe London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London, run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority. It is the third largest fire service in the world. National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service (LAS) NHS Trust, the largest free-at-the-point-of-use emergency ambulance service in the world. The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required. Her Majesty's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames, which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea.\n\nNational government\nLondon is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom. Many government departments, as well as the prime minister's residence at 10 Downing Street, are based close to the Palace of Westminster, particularly along Whitehall. There are 75 members of Parliament (MPs) from London; As of June 2024, 59 are from the Labour Party, 9 are Conservatives, 6 are Liberal Democrats and one constituency is held by an independent. The ministerial post of minister for London was created in 1994, however as of 2024, the post has been vacant.\n\nPolicing and crime\nPolicing in Greater London, with the exception of the City of London, is provided by the Metropolitan Police (\"The Met\"), overseen by the mayor through the Mayor's Office for Policing and Crime (MOPAC). The Met is also referred to as Scotland Yard after the location of its original headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police. First worn by Met police officers in 1863, the custodian helmet has been called a \"cultural icon\" and a \"symbol of British law enforcement\". Introduced by the Met in 1929, the blue police telephone box (basis for the TARDIS in Doctor Who) was once a common sight throughout London and regional cities in the UK.\n\nThe British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail, London Underground, Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services.\nThe Ministry of Defence Police is a special police force in London, which does not generally become involved with policing the general public. The UK's domestic counter-intelligence service (MI5) is headquartered in Thames House on the north bank of the River Thames and the foreign intelligence service (MI6) is headquartered in the SIS Building on the south bank.\nCrime rates vary widely across different areas of London. Crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level. In 2015, there were 118 homicides, a 25.5% increase over 2014.\nRecorded crime has been rising in London, notably violent crime and murder by stabbing and other means have risen. There were 50 murders from the start of 2018 to mid April 2018. Funding cuts to police in London are likely to have contributed to this, though other factors are involved. However, homicide figures fell in 2022 with 109 recorded for the year, and the murder rate in London is much lower than other major cities around the world.\n\nGeography\nScope\nLondon, also known as Greater London, is one of nine regions of England and the top subdivision covering most of the city's metropolis. The City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement, but as its urban area grew, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs, causing \"London\" to be defined several ways.\n\nForty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town, in which 'London' forms part of postal addresses. The London telephone area code (020) covers a larger area, similar in size to Greater London, although some outer districts are excluded and some just outside included. The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places.\nFurther urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt, although the built-up area extends beyond the boundary in places, producing a separately defined Greater London Urban Area. Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt. Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London, and by the River Thames into North and South, with an informal central London area. The coordinates of the nominal centre of London, traditionally the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall, are about 51°30′26″N 00°07′39″W.\n\nStatus\nWithin London, both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status. The City of London and the remainder of Greater London are both counties for the purposes of lieutenancies. The area of Greater London includes areas that are part of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Hertfordshire. More recently, Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London.\nIt is the capital of the United Kingdom and of England by convention rather than statute. The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court, and thus the political capital of the nation.\n\nTopography\nGreater London encompasses a total area of 611 square miles (1,583 km2) an area which had a population of 7,172,036 in 2001 and a population density of 11,760 inhabitants per square mile (4,542/km2). The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration, comprises a total area of 3,236 square miles (8,382 km2) has a population of 13,709,000 and a population density of 3,900 inhabitants per square mile (1,510/km2).\nModern London stands on the Thames, its primary geographical feature, a navigable river which crosses the city from the south-west to the east. The Thames Valley is a flood plain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill, Addington Hills, and Primrose Hill. Historically London grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Thames. The Thames was once a much broader, shallower river with extensive marshlands; at high tide, its shores reached five times their present width.\nSince the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked, and many of its London tributaries now flow underground. The Thames is a tidal river, and London is vulnerable to flooding. The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level caused by climate change and by the slow 'tilting' of the British Isles as a result of post-glacial rebound.\n\nClimate\nLondon has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). Rainfall records have been kept in the city since at least 1697, when records began at Kew. At Kew, the most rainfall in one month is 7.4 inches (189 mm) in November 1755 and the least is 0 inches (0 mm) in both December 1788 and July 1800. Mile End also had 0 inches (0 mm) in April 1893. The wettest year on record is 1903, with a total fall of 38.1 inches (969 mm) and the driest is 1921, with a total fall of 12.1 inches (308 mm). The average annual precipitation amounts to about 600 mm, which is half the annual rainfall of New York City. Despite relatively low annual precipitation, London receives 109.6 rainy days on the 1.0 mm threshold annually. London is vulnerable to climate change, and there is concern among hydrological experts that households may run out of water before 2050.\nTemperature extremes in London range from 40.2 °C (104.4 °F) at Heathrow on 19 July 2022 down to −17.4 °C (0.7 °F) at Northolt on 13 December 1981. Records for atmospheric pressure have been kept at London since 1692. The highest pressure ever reported is 1,049.8 millibars (31.00 inHg) on 20 January 2020.\nSummers are generally warm, sometimes hot. London's average July high is 23.5 °C (74.3 °F). On average each year, London experiences 31 days above 25 °C (77.0 °F) and 4.2 days above 30.0 °C (86.0 °F). During the 2003 European heat wave, prolonged heat led to hundreds of heat-related deaths. A previous spell of 15 consecutive days above 32.2 °C (90.0 °F) in England in 1976 also caused many heat related deaths. A previous temperature of 37.8 °C (100.0 °F) in August 1911 at the Greenwich station was later disregarded as non-standard. Droughts can also, occasionally, be a problem, especially in summer, most recently in summer 2018, and with much drier than average conditions prevailing from May to December. However, the most consecutive days without rain was 73 days in the spring of 1893.\nWinters are generally cool with little temperature variation. Heavy snow is rare but snow usually falls at least once each winter. Spring and autumn can be pleasant. As a large city, London has a considerable urban heat island effect, making the centre of London at times 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts.\n\nAreas\nPlaces within London's vast urban area are identified using area names, such as Mayfair, Southwark, Wembley, and Whitechapel. These are either informal designations, reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl, or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs.\n\nSuch names have remained in use through tradition, each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character, but without official boundaries. Since 1965, Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London. The City of London is the main financial district, and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east.\nThe West End is London's main entertainment and shopping district, attracting tourists. West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds. The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London.\nThe East End is the area closest to the original Port of London, known for its high immigrant population, as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London. The surrounding East London area saw much of London's early industrial development; now, brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley, which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics.\n\nArchitecture\nLondon's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style, partly because of their varying ages. Many grand houses and public buildings, such as the National Gallery, are constructed from Portland stone. Some areas of the city, particularly those just west of the centre, are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings. Few structures in central London pre-date the Great Fire of 1666, these being a few trace Roman remains, the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the city. Further out is, for example, the Tudor-period Hampton Court Palace.\nPart of the varied architectural heritage are the 17th-century churches by Christopher Wren, neoclassical financial institutions such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England, to the early 20th century Old Bailey courthouse and the 1960s Barbican Estate. The 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south-west is a local landmark, while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture, most notably St. Pancras and Paddington. The density of London varies, with high employment density in the central area and Canary Wharf, high residential densities in inner London, and lower densities in Outer London.\n\nThe Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London, which originated nearby. Marble Arch and Wellington Arch, at the north and south ends of Park Lane, respectively, have royal connections, as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington. Nelson's Column (built to commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson) is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square, one of the focal points of central London. Older buildings are mainly brick, commonly the yellow London stock brick.\nIn the dense areas, most of the concentration is via medium- and high-rise buildings. London's skyscrapers, such as 30 St Mary Axe (dubbed \"The Gherkin\"), Tower 42, the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square, are mostly in the two financial districts, the City of London and Canary Wharf. High-rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul's Cathedral and other historic buildings. This protective policy, known as 'St Paul's Heights', has been in operation by the City of London since 1937. Nevertheless, there are a number of tall skyscrapers in central London, including the 95-storey Shard London Bridge, the tallest building in the United Kingdom and Western Europe.\nOther notable modern buildings include The Scalpel, 20 Fenchurch Street (dubbed \"The Walkie-Talkie\"), the former City Hall in Southwark, the Art Deco BBC Broadcasting House plus the Postmodernist British Library in Somers Town/Kings Cross and No 1 Poultry by James Stirling. The BT Tower stands at 620 feet (189 m) and has a 360 degree coloured LED screen near the top. What was formerly the Millennium Dome, by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf, is now an entertainment venue called the O2 Arena.\n\nNatural history\nThe London Natural History Society suggests that London is \"one of the World's Greenest Cities\" with more than 40 per cent green space or open water. They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish. They state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly, 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London. London's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds. London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), two national nature reserves and 76 local nature reserves.\nAmphibians are common in the capital, including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern, and common frogs, common toads, palmate newts and great crested newts. On the other hand, native reptiles such as slowworms, common lizards, barred grass snakes and adders, are mostly only seen in Outer London.\n\nAmong other inhabitants of London are 10,000 red foxes, so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile (6 per square kilometre) of London. Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehog, brown rat, mice, rabbit, shrew, vole, and grey squirrel. In wilder areas of Outer London, such as Epping Forest, a wide variety of mammals are found, including European hare, badger, field, bank and water vole, wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, mole, shrew, and weasel, in addition to red fox, grey squirrel and hedgehog. A dead otter was found at The Highway, in Wapping, about a mile from the Tower Bridge, which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city. Ten of England's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest: soprano, Nathusius' and common pipistrelles, common noctule, serotine, barbastelle, Daubenton's, brown long-eared, Natterer's and Leisler's.\nHerds of red and fallow deer roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park. A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained. Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer, which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest. A rare population of melanistic, black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois. Muntjac deer are also found in the forest. While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city, more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature, and whole herds of fallow deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of London's green spaces.\n\nDemography\nLondon's continuous urban area extends beyond Greater London and numbered 9,787,426 people in 2011, while its wider metropolitan area had a population of 12–14 million, depending on the definition used. According to Eurostat, London is the second most populous metropolitan area in Europe. A net 726,000 immigrants arrived there in the period 1991–2001.\nThe region covers 610 square miles (1,579 km2), giving a population density of 13,410 inhabitants per square mile (5,177/km2) more than ten times that of any other British region. In population terms, London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region.\nIn tenure, 23.1% socially rent within London, 46.8% either own their house outright or with a mortgage or loan and 30% privately rent at the 2021 census. Many Londoner's work from home, 42.9% did so at the 2021 census while 20.6% drive a car to work. The biggest decrease in method of transportation was seen within those who take the train and underground, declining from 22.6% in 2011 to 9.6% in 2021. In qualifications, 46.7% of London had census classified Level 4 qualifications or higher, which is predominately university degrees. 16.2% had no qualifications at all.\n\nAge structure and median age\nLondon's median age is one of the youngest regions in the UK. It was recorded in 2018 that London's residents were 36.5 years old, which was younger than the UK median of 40.3.\nChildren younger than 14 constituted 20.6% of the population in Outer London in 2018, and 18% in Inner London. The 15–24 age group was 11.1% in Outer and 10.2% in Inner London, those aged 25–44 years 30.6% in Outer London and 39.7% in Inner London, those aged 45–64 years 24% and 20.7% in Outer and Inner London respectively. Those aged 65 and over are 13.6% in Outer London, but only 9.3% in Inner London.\n\nCountry of birth\nThe 2021 census recorded that 3,575,739 people or 40.6% of London's population were foreign-born, making it among the cities with the largest immigrant population in terms of absolute numbers and a growth of roughly 3 million since 1971 when the foreign born population was 668,373. 13% of the total population were Asian born (32.1% of the total foreign born population), 7.1% are African born (17.5%), 15.5% are Other European born (38.2%) and 4.2% were born in the Americas and Caribbean (10.3%). The 5 largest single countries of origin were respectively India, Romania, Poland, Bangladesh and Pakistan.\nAbout 56.8% of children born in London in 2021 were born to a mother who was born abroad. This trend has been increasing in the past two decades when foreign born mothers made up 43.3% of births in 2001 in London, becoming the majority in the middle of the 2000s by 2006 comprising 52.5%.\nA large degree of the foreign born population who were present at the 2021 census had arrived relatively recently. Of the total population, those that arrived between the years of 2011 and 2021 account for 16.6% of London. Those who arrived between 2001 and 2010 are 10.4%, between 1991 and 2001, 5.7%, and prior to 1990, 7.3%.\n\nEthnic groups\nAccording to the Office for National Statistics, based on the 2021 census, 53.8 per cent of the 8,173,941 inhabitants of London were White, with 36.8% White British, 1.8% White Irish, 0.1% Gypsy/Irish Traveller, 0.4 Roma and 14.7% classified as Other White. Meanwhile, 22.2% of Londoners were of Asian or mixed-Asian descent, with 20.8% being of full Asian descents and 1.4% being of mixed-Asian heritage. Indians accounted for 7.5% of the population, followed by Bangladeshis and Pakistanis at 3.7% and 3.3% respectively. Chinese people accounted for 1.7%, and Arabs for 1.6%. A further 4.6% were classified as \"Other Asian\". 15.9% of London's population were of Black or mixed-Black descent. 13.5% were of full Black descent, with persons of mixed-Black heritage comprising 2.4%. Black Africans accounted for 7.9% of London's population; 3.9% identified as Black Caribbean, and 1.7% as \"Other Black\". 5.7% were of mixed race. This ethnic structure has changed considerably since the 1960s. Estimates for 1961 put the total non-White ethnic minority population at 179,109 comprising 2.3% of the population at the time, having risen since then to 1,346,119 and 20.2% in 1991 and 4,068,553 and 46.2% in 2021. Of those of a White British background, estimates for 1971 put the population at 6,500,000 and 87% of the total population, of since fell to 3,239,281 and 36.8% in 2021.\nAs of 2021, the majority of London's school pupils come from ethnic minority backgrounds. 23.9% were White British, 14% Other White, 23.2% Asian, 17.9% Black, 11.3% Mixed, 6.3% Other and 2.3% unclassified. Altogether at the 2021 census, of London's 1,695,741 population aged 0 to 15, 42% were White in total, splitting it down into 30.9% who were White British, 0.5% Irish, 10.6% Other White, 23% Asian, 16.4% Black, 12% Mixed and 6.6% another ethnic group.\n\nLanguages\nIn January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that more than 300 languages were spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities had populations of more than 10,000. At the 2021 census, 78.4% of Londoners spoke English as their first language. The 5 biggest languages outside of English were Romanian, Spanish, Polish, Bengali, and Portuguese.\n\nReligion\nAccording to the 2021 Census, the largest religious groupings were Christians (40.66%), followed by those of no religion (20.7%), Muslims (15%), no response (8.5%), Hindus (5.15%), Jews (1.65%), Sikhs (1.64%), Buddhists (1.0%) and other (0.8%).\nLondon has traditionally been Christian, and has a large number of churches, particularly in the City of London. The well-known St Paul's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres, while the Archbishop of Canterbury, principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion, has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth.\nImportant national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul's and Westminster Abbey. The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales. Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches, observance is low within the denomination. Anglican Church attendance continues a long, steady decline, according to Church of England statistics.\nNotable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets, which is allowed to give the Islamic call to prayer through loudspeakers, the London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent's Park and the Baitul Futuh of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. After the oil boom, increasing numbers of wealthy Middle-Eastern Arab Muslims based themselves around Mayfair, Kensington and Knightsbridge in West London. There are large Bengali Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham.\nLarge Hindu communities are found in the north-western boroughs of Harrow and Brent, the latter hosting what was until 2006 Europe's largest Hindu temple, Neasden Temple. London is home to 44 Hindu temples, including the BAPS Shri Swaminarayan Mandir London. There are Sikh communities in East and West London, particularly in Southall, home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India.\nThe majority of British Jews live in London, with notable Jewish communities in Stamford Hill, Stanmore, Golders Green, Finchley, Hampstead, Hendon, and Edgware, all in North London. Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London's historic Sephardic Jewish community. It is the only synagogue in Europe to have held regular services continually for over 300 years. Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any Orthodox synagogue in Europe. The London Jewish Forum was set up in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government.\n\nAccents\nCockney is an accent heard across London, mainly spoken by working-class and lower-middle class Londoners. It is mainly attributed to the East End and wider East London, having originated there in the 18th century, although it has been suggested that the Cockney style of speech is much older. Some features of Cockney include, Th-fronting (pronouncing \"th\" as \"f\"), \"th\" inside a word is pronounced with a \"v\", H-dropping, and, like most English accents, a Cockney accent drops the \"r\" after a vowel. John Camden Hotten, in his Slang Dictionary of 1859, makes reference to Cockney \"use of a peculiar slang language\" (Cockney rhyming slang) when describing the costermongers of the East End. Since the start of the 21st century the extreme form of the Cockney dialect is less common in parts of the East End itself, with modern strongholds including other parts of London and suburbs in the home counties. This is particularly pronounced in areas like Romford (in the London Borough of Havering) and Southend (in Essex) which have received significant inflows of older East End residents in recent decades.\nEstuary English is an intermediate accent between Cockney and Received Pronunciation. It is widely spoken by people of all classes.\nMulticultural London English (MLE) is a multiethnolect becoming increasingly common in multicultural areas amongst young, working-class people from diverse backgrounds. It is a fusion of an array of ethnic accents, in particular Afro-Caribbean and South Asian, with a significant Cockney influence.\nReceived Pronunciation (RP) is the accent traditionally regarded as the standard for British English. It has no specific geographical correlate, although it is also traditionally defined as the standard speech used in London and south-eastern England. It is mainly spoken by upper-class and upper-middle class Londoners.\n\nEconomy\nLondon's gross regional product in 2019 was £503 billion, around a quarter of UK GDP. London has five major business districts: the city, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington, and Lambeth & Southwark. One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space: Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001, and the City contains the most space, with 8 million m2 of office space. London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world.\n\nCity of London\nLondon's finance industry is based in the City of London and Canary Wharf, the two major business districts. London took over as a major financial centre shortly after 1795 when the Dutch Republic collapsed before the Napoleonic armies. This caused many bankers established in Amsterdam (e.g. Hope, Baring I'm), to move to London. Also, London's market-centred system (as opposed to the bank-centred one in Amsterdam) grew more dominant in the 18th century. The London financial elite was strengthened by a strong Jewish community from all over Europe capable of mastering the most sophisticated financial tools of the time. This economic strength of the city was attributed to its diversity.\n\nBy the mid-19th century, London was the leading financial centre, and at the end of the century over half the world's trade was financed in British currency. As of 2023, London ranks second in the world rankings on the Global Financial Centres Index (GFCI), and it ranked second in A.T. Kearney's 2018 Global Cities Index.\nLondon's largest industry is finance, and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK's balance of payments. Notwithstanding a post-Brexit exodus of stock listings from the London Stock Exchange, London is still one of Europe's most economically powerful cities, and it remains one of the major financial centres of the world. It is the world's biggest currency trading centre, accounting for some 37 per cent of the $5.1 trillion average daily volume, according to the BIS. Over 85 per cent (3.2 million) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries. Because of its prominent global role, London's economy had been affected by the financial crisis of 2007–2008. However, by 2010 the city had recovered, put in place new regulatory powers, proceeded to regain lost ground and re-established London's economic dominance. Along with professional services headquarters, the City of London is home to the Bank of England, London Stock Exchange, and Lloyd's of London insurance market. Founded in 1690, Barclays, whose branch in Enfield, north London installed the first cash machine (ATM) in 1967, is one of the oldest banks in continuous operation.\nOver half the UK's top 100 listed companies (the FTSE 100) and over 100 of Europe's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London. Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London's metropolitan area, and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London. In a 1992 report commissioned by the London Stock Exchange, Sir Adrian Cadbury, chairman of his family's confectionery company Cadbury, produced the Cadbury Report, a code of best practice which served as a basis for reform of corporate governance around the world.\n\nMedia and technology\nMedia companies are concentrated in London, and the media distribution industry is London's second most competitive sector. The BBC, the world's oldest national broadcaster, is a significant employer, while other broadcasters, including ITV, Channel 4, Channel 5, and Sky, also have headquarters around the city. Many national newspapers, including The Times, founded in 1785, are edited in London; the term Fleet Street (where most national newspapers operated) remains a metonym for the British national press. The communications company WPP is the world's largest advertising agency.\nA large number of technology companies are based in London, notably in East London Tech City, also known as Silicon Roundabout. In 2014 the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD. In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014/15 list by fDi Intelligence. A museum in Bletchley Park, where Alan Turing was based during World War II, is in Bletchley, 40 miles (64 km) north of central London, as is The National Museum of Computing.\nThe gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers, cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc, SGN and UK Power Networks.\n\nTourism\nLondon is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world. It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross-border spending, estimated at US$20.23 billion in 2015. Tourism is one of London's prime industries, employing 700,000 full-time workers in 2016, and contributes £36 billion a year to the economy. The city accounts for 54% of all inbound visitor spending in the UK.\nIn 2015, the top ten most-visited attractions in the UK were all in London (shown with visits per venue):\n\nBritish Museum: 6,820,686\nNational Gallery: 5,908,254\nNatural History Museum (South Kensington): 5,284,023\nSouthbank Centre: 5,102,883\nTate Modern: 4,712,581\nVictoria and Albert Museum (South Kensington): 3,432,325\nScience Museum: 3,356,212\nSomerset House: 3,235,104\nTower of London: 2,785,249\nNational Portrait Gallery: 2,145,486\nThe number of hotel rooms in London in 2023 stood at 155,700 and is expected to grow to 183,600 rooms, the most of any city outside China. Luxury hotels in London include the Savoy (opened in 1889), Claridge's (opened in 1812 and rebuilt in 1898), the Ritz (opened in 1906) and the Dorchester (opened in 1931), while budget hotel chains include Premier Inn and Travelodge.\n\nTransport\nTransport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London, but the mayor's financial control does not extend to the longer-distance rail network that enters London. In 2007, the Mayor of London assumed responsibility for some local lines, which now form the London Overground network, adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground, trams and buses. The public transport network is administered by Transport for London (TfL).\nThe lines that formed the London Underground, as well as trams and buses, became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created. Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London, and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London.\n\nAviation\nLondon is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world. Eight airports use the word London in their name, but most traffic passes through six of these. Additionally, various other airports also serve London, catering primarily to general aviation flights.\n\nHeathrow Airport, in Hillingdon, West London, was for many years the busiest airport in the world for international traffic, and is the major hub of the nation's flag carrier, British Airways. In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened.\nGatwick Airport, south of London in West Sussex, handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base of easyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers.\nLondon Stansted Airport, north-east of London in Essex, has flights that serve the greatest number of European destinations of any UK airport and is the main base of Ryanair, the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers.\nLuton Airport, to the north of London in Bedfordshire, is used by several budget airlines (especially easyJet and Wizz Air) for short-haul flights.\nLondon City Airport, the most central airport and the one with the shortest runway, in Newham, East London, is focused on business travellers, with a mixture of full-service short-haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic.\nLondon Southend Airport, east of London in Essex, is a smaller, regional airport that caters for short-haul flights on a limited, though growing, number of airlines. In 2017, international passengers made up over 95% of the total at Southend, the highest proportion of any London airport.\n\nRail\nUnderground and DLR\nOpened in 1863, the London Underground, commonly referred to as the Tube or just the Underground, is the oldest and third longest metro system in the world. The system serves 272 stations, and was formed from several private companies, including the world's first underground electric line, the City and South London Railway, which opened in 1890.\nOver four million journeys are made every day on the Underground network, over 1 billion each year. An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability, including £6.5 billion (€7.7 billion) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics. The Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which opened in 1987, is a second, more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram-type vehicles that serve the Docklands, Greenwich and Lewisham.\n\nSuburban\nThere are 368 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above-ground suburban railway network. South London, particularly, has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines. Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London, running into eighteen terminal stations, with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports. London has Britain's busiest station by number of passengers—Waterloo, with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex (which includes Waterloo East station) each year. Clapham Junction is one of Europe's busiest rail interchanges.\nWith the need for more rail capacity, the Elizabeth Line (also known as Crossrail) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It was Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.\n\nInter-city and international\nLondon is the centre of the National Rail network, with 70 per cent of rail journeys starting or ending in London. King's Cross station and Euston station, both in London, are the starting points of the East Coast Main Line and the West Coast Main Line – the two main railway lines in Britain. Like suburban rail services, regional and inter-city trains depart from several termini around the city centre, directly linking London with most of Great Britain's major cities and towns. The Flying Scotsman is an express passenger train service that has operated between London and Edinburgh since 1862; the world famous steam locomotive named after this service, Flying Scotsman, was the first locomotive to reach the officially authenticated speed of 100 miles per hour (161 km/h) in 1934.\nSome international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains. The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network, allowing Eurostar services to begin. Since 2007, high-speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille, Calais, Paris, Disneyland Paris, Brussels, Amsterdam and other European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel. The first high-speed domestic trains started in June 2009, linking Kent to London. There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands, North West England, and Yorkshire.\n\nBuses, coaches and trams\nLondon's bus network runs 24 hours a day with about 9,300 vehicles, over 675 bus routes and about 19,000 bus stops. In 2019 the network had over 2 billion commuter trips per year. Since 2010 an average of £1.2 billion is taken in revenue each year. London has one of the largest wheelchair-accessible networks in the world and from the third quarter of 2007, became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio-visual announcements were introduced.\nAn emblem of London, the red double-decker bus first appeared in the city in 1947 with the AEC Regent III RT (predecessor to the AEC Routemaster). London's coach hub is Victoria Coach Station, opened in 1932. Nationalised in 1970 and then purchased by London Transport (now Transport for London), Victoria Coach Station has over 14 million passengers a year and provides services across the UK and continental Europe.\nLondon has a modern tram network, known as Tramlink. It has 39 stops and four routes, and carried 28 million people in 2013. Since June 2008, Transport for London has completely owned and operated Tramlink.\n\nCable car\nLondon's first and to date only cable car is the London Cable Car, which opened in June 2012. The cable car crosses the Thames and links Greenwich Peninsula with the Royal Docks in the east of the city. It is able to carry up to 2,500 passengers per hour in each direction at peak times.\n\nCycling\nIn the Greater London Area, around 670,000 people use a bike every day, meaning around 7% of the total population of around 8.8 million use a bike on an average day. Cycling has become an increasingly popular way to get around London. The launch of a bicycle hire scheme in July 2010 was successful and generally well received.\n\nPort and river boats\nThe Port of London, once the largest in the world, is now only the second-largest in the United Kingdom, handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year as of 2009. Most of this cargo passes through the Port of Tilbury, outside the boundary of Greater London.\nLondon has river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers, which offer both commuter and tourist boat services. At major piers including Canary Wharf, London Bridge City, Battersea Power Station and London Eye (Waterloo), services depart at least every 20 minutes during commuter times. The Woolwich Ferry, with 2.5 million passengers every year, is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads.\n\nRoads\nAlthough the majority of journeys in central London are made by public transport, car travel is common in the suburbs. The inner ring road (around the city centre), the North and South Circular roads (just within the suburbs), and the outer orbital motorway (the M25, just outside the built-up area in most places) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes—but very few motorways penetrate into inner London. The M25 is the second-longest ring-road motorway in Europe at 117 miles (188 km) long. The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds, and Newcastle and Edinburgh.\n\nThe Austin Motor Company began making hackney carriages (London taxis) in 1929, and models include Austin FX3 from 1948, Austin FX4 from 1958, with more recent models TXII and TX4 manufactured by London Taxis International. The BBC states, \"ubiquitous black cabs and red double-decker buses all have long and tangled stories that are deeply embedded in London's traditions\".\nAlthough traditionally black, some are painted in other colours or bear advertising.\nLondon is notorious for its traffic congestion; in 2009, the average speed of a car in the rush hour was recorded at 10.6 mph (17.1 km/h). In 2003, a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre. With a few exceptions, motorists are required to pay to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London. Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass. Over the course of several years, the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195,000 to 125,000.\nLow Traffic Neighbourhoods (LTN) were widely introduced in London, but in 2023 the Department for Transport stopped funding them, even though the benefits outweighed the costs by approximately 100 times in the first 20 years and the difference is growing over time.\n\nEducation\nTertiary education\nLondon is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe. According to the QS World University Rankings 2015/16, London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and its international student population of around 110,000 is larger than any other city in the world. A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London the global capital of higher education.\nA number of world-leading education institutions are based in London. In the 2022 QS World University Rankings, Imperial College London is ranked No. 6 in the world, University College London (UCL) is ranked 8th, and King's College London (KCL) is ranked 37th. All are regularly ranked highly, with Imperial College being the UK's leading university in the Research Excellence Framework ranking 2021. The London School of Economics (LSE) has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second-best in the world by the Financial Times. The city is also home to three of the world's top ten performing arts schools (as ranked by the 2020 QS World University Rankings): the Royal College of Music (ranking 2nd in the world), the Royal Academy of Music (ranking 4th) and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama (ranking 6th).\nWith students in London and around 48,000 in University of London Worldwide, the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK. It includes five multi-faculty universities – City, King's College London, Queen Mary, Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck, the Courtauld Institute of Art, Goldsmiths, the London Business School, the London School of Economics, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Academy of Music, the Central School of Speech and Drama, the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies.\nUniversities in London outside the University of London system include Brunel University, Imperial College London, Kingston University, London Metropolitan University, University of East London, University of West London, University of Westminster, London South Bank University, Middlesex University, and University of the Arts London (the largest university of art, design, fashion, communication and the performing arts in Europe). In addition, there are three international universities – Regent's University London, Richmond, The American International University in London and Schiller International University.\n\nLondon is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry (part of Queen Mary), King's College London School of Medicine (the largest medical school in Europe), Imperial College School of Medicine, UCL Medical School and St George's, University of London – and has many affiliated teaching hospitals. It is also a major centre for biomedical research, and three of the UK's eight academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare, King's Health Partners and UCL Partners (the largest such centre in Europe). Additionally, many biomedical and biotechnology spin out companies from these research institutions are based around the city, most prominently in White City. Founded by pioneering nurse Florence Nightingale at St Thomas' Hospital in 1860, the first nursing school is now part of King's College London. It was at King's in 1952 where a team led by Rosalind Franklin captured Photo 51, the critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA. There are a number of business schools in London, including the London School of Business and Finance, Cass Business School (part of City University London), Hult International Business School, ESCP Europe, European Business School London, Imperial College Business School, the London Business School and the UCL School of Management.\n\nLondon is also home to many specialist arts education institutions, including esteemed drama schools such as RADA (Royal Academy of Dramatic Art), the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art (LAMDA), Drama Studio London, Sylvia Young Theatre School, the Royal Central School of Speech and Drama and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, as well as the London College of Contemporary Arts (LCCA), Central School of Ballet, London Contemporary Dance School, National Centre for Circus Arts, Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance, the Royal College of Art, and Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance. The BRIT School in the London borough of Croydon provides training for the performing arts and technologies.\n\nPrimary and secondary education\nThe majority of primary and secondary schools and further-education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state-funded; leading examples include Ashbourne College, Bethnal Green Academy, Brampton Manor Academy, City and Islington College, City of Westminster College, David Game College, Ealing, Hammersmith and West London College, Leyton Sixth Form College, London Academy of Excellence, Tower Hamlets College, and Newham Collegiate Sixth Form Centre. There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London, some old and famous, such as City of London School, Harrow (alumni includes seven former British prime ministers), St Paul's School, Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School, University College School, The John Lyon School, Highgate School and Westminster School.\n\nRoyal Observatory, Greenwich and learned societies\nFounded in 1675, the Royal Observatory in Greenwich was established to address the problem of calculating longitude for navigational purposes. This pioneering work in solving longitude featured in astronomer royal Nevil Maskelyne's Nautical Almanac which made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point, and helped lead to the international adoption of Greenwich as the prime meridian (0° longitude) in 1884.\nImportant scientific learned societies based in London include the Royal Society—the UK's national academy of sciences and the oldest national scientific institution in the world—founded in 1660, and the Royal Institution, founded in 1799. Since 1825, the Royal Institution Christmas Lectures have presented scientific subjects to a general audience, and speakers have included physicist and inventor Michael Faraday, aerospace engineer Frank Whittle, naturalist David Attenborough and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins.\n\nCulture\nLeisure and entertainment\nLeisure is a major part of the London economy. A 2003 report attributed a quarter of the entire UK leisure economy to London at 25.6 events per 1000 people. The city is one of the four fashion capitals of the world, and, according to official statistics, is the world's third-busiest film production centre, presents more live comedy than any other city, and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world.\n\nWithin the City of Westminster, the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square, where London and world film premieres are held, and Piccadilly Circus, with its giant electronic advertisements. London's theatre district is here, as are many cinemas, bars, clubs, and restaurants, including the city's Chinatown district (in Soho), and just to the east is Covent Garden, an area housing speciality shops. In 1881, the West End's Savoy Theatre, which was built to showcase the plays of Gilbert and Sullivan, was fitted with the incandescent light bulb developed by Sir Joseph Swan to become the first public building in the world to be lit entirely by electricity. The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have dominated West End theatre since the late 20th century. Agatha Christie's The Mousetrap, the world's longest-running play, has been performed in the West End since 1952. The Laurence Olivier Awards–named after Laurence Olivier–are given annually by the Society of London Theatre. The Royal Ballet, English National Ballet, Royal Opera, and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House, the London Coliseum, Sadler's Wells Theatre, and the Royal Albert Hall, as well as touring the country.\nIslington's 1 mile (1.6 km) long Upper Street, extending northwards from Angel, has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the UK. Europe's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street, a shopping street nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) long, making it the longest shopping street in the UK. It is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores, including Selfridges flagship store. Knightsbridge, home to the equally renowned Harrods department store, lies to the south-west. One of the world's largest retail destinations, London frequently ranks at or near the top of retail sales of any city. Opened in 1760 with its flagship store on Regent Street since 1881, Hamleys is the oldest toy store in the world. Madame Tussauds wax museum opened in Baker Street in 1835, an era viewed as being when London's tourism industry began.\n\nLondon is home to designers John Galliano, Stella McCartney, Manolo Blahnik, and Jimmy Choo, among others; its renowned art and fashion schools make it one of the four international centres of fashion. Mary Quant designed the miniskirt in her King's Road boutique in Swinging Sixties London. In 2017, London was ranked the top city for luxury store openings. London Fashion Week takes place twice a year, in February and September; \nLondoners on the catwalk have included Naomi Campbell, Kate Moss and Cara Delevingne.\nLondon offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population. Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese restaurants of Chinatown. There are Chinese takeaways throughout London, as are Indian restaurants which provide Indian and Anglo-Indian cuisine. Around 1860, the first fish and chips shop in London was opened by Joseph Malin, a Jewish immigrant, in Bow. The full English breakfast dates from the Victorian era, and many cafes in London serve a full English throughout the day. London has five 3-Michelin star restaurants, including Restaurant Gordon Ramsay in Chelsea. Many hotels in London provide a traditional afternoon tea service, such as the Oscar Wilde Lounge at the Hotel Café Royal in Piccadilly, and a themed tea service is also available, for example an Alice in Wonderland themed afternoon tea served at the Egerton House Hotel, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory themed afternoon tea at One Aldwych in Covent Garden. The nation's most popular biscuit to dunk in tea, chocolate digestives have been manufactured by McVitie's at their Harlesden factory in north-west London since 1925.\n\nThere is a variety of annual events, beginning with the relatively new New Year's Day Parade, a fireworks display at the London Eye; the world's second largest street party, the Notting Hill Carnival, is held on the late August Bank Holiday each year. Traditional parades include November's Lord Mayor's Show, a centuries-old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the city, and June's Trooping the Colour, a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the King's Official Birthday. The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors. First held in 1862, the RHS Chelsea Flower Show (run by the Royal Horticultural Society) takes place in May every year.\n\nLGBT scene\nThe first gay bar in London in the modern sense was The Cave of the Golden Calf, established as a night club in an underground location at 9 Heddon Street, just off Regent Street, in 1912 and \"which developed a reputation for sexual freedom and tolerance of same-sex relations.\" \n\nWhile London has been an LGBT tourism destination, after homosexuality was decriminalised in England in 1967 gay bar culture became more visible, and from the early 1970s Soho (and in particular Old Compton Street) became the centre of the London LGBT community. G-A-Y, previously based at the Astoria, and now Heaven, is a long-running night club.\nWider British cultural movements have influenced LGBT culture: for example, the emergence of glam rock in the UK in the early 1970s, via Marc Bolan and David Bowie, saw a generation of teenagers begin playing with the idea of androgyny, and the West End musical The Rocky Horror Show, which debuted in London in 1973, is also widely said to have been an influence on countercultural and sexual liberation movements. The Blitz Kids (which included Boy George) frequented the Tuesday club-night at Blitz in Covent Garden, helping launch the New Romantic subcultural movement in the late 1970s. Today, the annual London Pride Parade and the London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival are held in the city.\n\nLiterature, film and television\nLondon has been the setting for many works of literature. The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer's late 14th-century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London. William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there, and some of his work, most notably his play The Alchemist, was set in the city. A Journal of the Plague Year (1722) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague.\nThe literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and (since the early 20th century) Bloomsbury. Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys, noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire; Charles Dickens, whose representation of a foggy, snowy, grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has influenced people's vision of early Victorian London; and Virginia Woolf, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century. Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Robert Louis Stevenson mixed in London literary circles, and in 1886 he wrote the Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, a gothic novella set in Victorian London. In 1898, H. G. Wells' sci-fi novel The War of the Worlds sees London (and southern England) invaded by Martians. Letitia Elizabeth Landon wrote Calendar of the London Seasons in 1834. Modern writers influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd, author of London: The Biography, and Iain Sinclair, who writes in the genre of psychogeography. In the 1940s, George Orwell wrote essays in the London Evening Standard, including \"A Nice Cup of Tea\" (method for making tea) and \"The Moon Under Water\" (an ideal pub). The WWII evacuation of children from London is depicted in C. S. Lewis' first Narnia book The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950). On Christmas Eve 1925, Winnie-the-Pooh debuted in London's Evening News, with the character based on a stuffed toy A. A. Milne bought for his son Christopher Robin in Harrods. In 1958, author Michael Bond created Paddington Bear, a refugee found in Paddington station. A screen adaptation, Paddington (2014), features the calypso song \"London is the Place for Me\". Buckingham Palace features in Roald Dahl's 1982 novel The BFG.\n\nLondon has played a significant role in the film industry. Major studios within or bordering London include Pinewood, Elstree, Ealing, Shepperton, Twickenham, and Leavesden, with the James Bond and Harry Potter series among many notable films produced here. Working Title Films has its headquarters in London. A post-production community is centred in Soho, and London houses six of the world's largest visual effects companies, such as Framestore. The Imaginarium, a digital performance-capture studio, was founded by Andy Serkis. London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist (1948), Scrooge (1951), Peter Pan (1953), One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), My Fair Lady (1964), Mary Poppins (1964), Blowup (1966), A Clockwork Orange (1971), The Long Good Friday (1980), The Great Mouse Detective (1986), Notting Hill (1999), Love Actually (2003), V for Vendetta (2005), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2008) and The King's Speech (2010). Notable actors and filmmakers from London include Charlie Chaplin, Alfred Hitchcock, Michael Caine, Julie Andrews, Peter Sellers, David Lean, Julie Christie, Gary Oldman, Emma Thompson, Guy Ritchie, Christopher Nolan, Alan Rickman, Jude Law, Helena Bonham Carter, Idris Elba, Tom Hardy, Daniel Radcliffe, Keira Knightley, Riz Ahmed, Dev Patel, Daniel Kaluuya, Tom Holland and Daniel Day-Lewis. Post-war Ealing comedies featured Alec Guinness, from the 1950s Hammer Horrors starred Christopher Lee, films directed by Michael Powell included the London-set early slasher Peeping Tom (1960), the 1970s comedy troupe Monty Python had film editing suites in Covent Garden, while since the 1990s Richard Curtis's rom-coms have featured Hugh Grant. The largest cinema chain in the country, Odeon Cinemas was founded in London in 1928 by Oscar Deutsch. The BFI IMAX on the South Bank is the largest cinema screen in the UK. The British Academy Film Awards (BAFTAs) have been held in London since 1949, with the BAFTA Fellowship the Academy's highest accolade. Founded in 1957, the BFI London Film Festival takes place over two weeks every October.\nLondon is a major centre for television production, with studios including Television Centre, ITV Studios, Sky Campus and Fountain Studios; the latter hosted the original talent shows, Pop Idol, The X Factor, and Britain's Got Talent (the latter two created by TV personality Simon Cowell who starred as a judge in all three shows), before each format was exported around the world. Formerly a franchise of ITV, Thames Television featured comedians such as Benny Hill and Rowan Atkinson (Mr. Bean was first screened by Thames), while Talkback produced Da Ali G Show which featured Sacha Baron Cohen as Ali G. Many television shows have been set in London, including the popular television soap opera EastEnders.\n\nMuseums, art galleries and libraries\nLondon is home to many museums, galleries, and other institutions, many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role. The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury, in 1753. Originally containing antiquities, natural history specimens, and the national library, the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe. In 1824, the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square.\nThe British Library is the second largest library in the world, and the national library of the United Kingdom. There are many other research libraries, including the Wellcome Library and Dana Centre, as well as university libraries, including the British Library of Political and Economic Science at LSE, the Abdus Salam Library at Imperial, the Maughan Library at King's, and the Senate House Libraries at the University of London.\nIn the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as \"Albertopolis\", a cultural and scientific quarter. Three major national museums are there: the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Natural History Museum, and the Science Museum. The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history; its holdings now comprise the world's most extensive collection of portraits. The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain, originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897. The Tate Gallery, as it was formerly known, also became a major centre for modern art. In 2000, this collection moved to Tate Modern, a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station which is accessed by pedestrians north of the Thames via the Millennium Bridge.\n\nMusic\nLondon is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and hosts major music corporations, such as Universal Music Group International and Warner Music Group, and countless bands, musicians and industry professionals. The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls, such as the Barbican Arts Centre (principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus), the Southbank Centre (London Philharmonic Orchestra and the Philharmonia Orchestra), Cadogan Hall (Royal Philharmonic Orchestra) and the Royal Albert Hall (The Proms). The Proms, an eight-week summer season of daily orchestral classical music first held in 1895, ends with the Last Night of the Proms. London's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum (home to the English National Opera). The UK's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall. Other significant instruments are in cathedrals and major churches—the church bells of St Clement Danes feature in the 1744 nursery rhyme \"Oranges and Lemons\". Several conservatoires are within the city: Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of Music, Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban. The record label EMI was formed in the city in 1931, and an early employee for the company, Alan Blumlein, created stereo sound that year. Guitar amp engineer Jim Marshall founded Marshall Amplification in London in 1962.\n\nLondon has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts, including the world's busiest indoor venue, the O2 Arena, and Wembley Arena, as well as many mid-sized venues, such as Brixton Academy, the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd's Bush Empire. Several music festivals, including the Wireless Festival, Lovebox and Hyde Park's British Summer Time, are held in London. \nThe city is home to the original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios, where the Beatles recorded many of their hits. In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, musicians and groups like Elton John, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones, Queen, Eric Clapton, the Who, the Kinks, Cliff Richard, Led Zeppelin, Iron Maiden, Deep Purple, T. Rex, the Police, Elvis Costello, Dire Straits, Cat Stevens, Fleetwood Mac, the Cure, Madness, Culture Club, Dusty Springfield, Phil Collins, Rod Stewart, Status Quo and Sade, derived their sound from the streets and rhythms of London.\nLondon was instrumental in the development of punk music, with groups such as the Sex Pistols, the Clash and fashion designer Vivienne Westwood all based in the city. Other artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael, Kate Bush, Seal, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Bush, the Spice Girls, Jamiroquai, Blur, the Prodigy, Gorillaz, Mumford & Sons, Coldplay, Dido, Amy Winehouse, Adele, Sam Smith, Ed Sheeran, Leona Lewis, Ellie Goulding, Dua Lipa and Florence and the Machine. Artists from London played a prominent role in the development of synth-pop, including Gary Numan, Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys and Eurythmics; the latter's \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\" was recorded in the attic of their north London home, heralding a trend for home recording methods. Artists from London with a Caribbean influence include Hot Chocolate, Billy Ocean, Soul II Soul and Eddy Grant, with the latter fusing reggae, soul and samba with rock and pop. London is also a centre for urban music. In particular the genres UK garage, drum and bass, dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of house, hip hop, and reggae, alongside local drum and bass. Urban acts from London include Stormzy, M.I.A., Jay Sean and Rita Ora. Music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of local urban contemporary music both in London and in the rest of the United Kingdom. The British Phonographic Industry's annual popular music awards, the Brit Awards, are held in London.\n\nRecreation\nParks and open spaces\nA 2013 report by the City of London Corporation said that London is the \"greenest city\" in Europe with 35,000 acres (14,164 hectares) of public parks, woodlands and gardens. The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks, namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west, and Regent's Park to the north. Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open-air concerts. Regent's Park contains London Zoo, the world's oldest scientific zoo, and is near Madame Tussauds wax museum. Primrose Hill is a popular spot from which to view the city skyline.\nClose to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks, Green Park and St. James's Park. A number of large parks lie outside the city centre, including Hampstead Heath and the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the southeast, and Bushy Park and Richmond Park (the largest) to the southwest. Hampton Court Park is also a royal park, but, because it contains a palace, it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces, unlike the eight Royal Parks.\nClose to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens, which has the world's largest collection of living plants. In 2003, the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. There are also parks administered by London's borough Councils, including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre. Some more informal, semi-natural open spaces also exist, including Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest, both controlled by the City of London Corporation. Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House, a former stately home and a popular location in the summer months when classical musical concerts are held by the lake. Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities, including mountain biking, walking, horse riding, golf, angling, and orienteering. Three of the UK's most-visited theme parks, Thorpe Park near Staines-upon-Thames, Chessington World of Adventures in Chessington and Legoland Windsor, are located within 20 miles (32 km) of London.\n\nWalking\nWalking is a popular recreational activity in London. Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common, Epping Forest, Hampton Court Park, Hampstead Heath, the eight Royal Parks, Regents Canal Walk, canals and disused railway tracks. Access to canals and rivers has improved recently, including the creation of the Thames Path, some 28 miles (45 km) of which is within Greater London, and The Wandle Trail along the River Wandle.\nOther long-distance paths, linking green spaces, have also been created, including the Capital Ring, the Green Chain Walk, London Outer Orbital Path (\"Loop\"), Jubilee Walkway, Lea Valley Walk, and the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Walk.\n\nSport\nLondon has hosted the Summer Olympics three times: in 1908, 1948, and 2012, making it the first city to host the modern Games three times. The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934. In 2017, London hosted the World Championships in Athletics for the first time.\nLondon's most popular sport is football, and it has seven clubs in the Premier League in the 2023–24 season: Arsenal, Brentford, Chelsea, Crystal Palace, Fulham, Tottenham Hotspur, and West Ham United. Other professional men's teams in London are AFC Wimbledon, Barnet, Bromley, Charlton Athletic, Dagenham & Redbridge, Leyton Orient, Millwall, Queens Park Rangers and Sutton United. Four London-based teams are in the Women's Super League: Arsenal, Chelsea, Tottenham and West Ham United.\nTwo Premiership Rugby union teams are based in Greater London: Harlequins and Saracens. Ealing Trailfinders and London Scottish play in the RFU Championship; other rugby union clubs in the city include Richmond, Rosslyn Park, Westcombe Park and Blackheath. Twickenham Stadium in south-west London hosts home matches for the England national rugby union team. While rugby league is more popular in the north of England, the sport has one professional club in London – the London Broncos who play in the Super League.\nOne of London's best-known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, held at the All England Club in the south-western suburb of Wimbledon since 1877. Played in late June to early July, it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and widely considered the most prestigious.\nLondon has two Test cricket grounds which host the England cricket team, Lord's (home of Middlesex C.C.C.) and the Oval (home of Surrey C.C.C.). Lord's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup and is known as the Home of Cricket. In golf, the Wentworth Club is located in Virginia Water, Surrey on the south-west fringes of London, while the closest venue to London that is used as one of the courses for the Open Championship, the oldest major and tournament in golf, is Royal St George's in Sandwich, Kent. Alexandra Palace in north London hosts the PDC World Darts Championship and the Masters snooker tournament. Other key annual events are the mass-participation London Marathon and the University Boat Race on the Thames contested between Oxford and Cambridge.\n\nNotable people\nSee also\nOutline of England\nOutline of London\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nAckroyd, Peter (2001). London: The Biography. London: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-09-942258-7.\nMills, David (2001). Dictionary of London Place Names. Oxford Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-19-280106-7. OCLC 45406491.\n\nExternal links\n\nVisitLondon.com – official tourism site\nMuseum of London\nLondon in British History Online, with links to numerous authoritative online sources\n\"London\", In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Peter Ackroyd, Claire Tomalin and Iain Sinclair (28 September 2000)\n Geographic data related to London at OpenStreetMap",
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"paragraph_text": "The UEFA Champions League (abbreviated as UCL) is an annual club association football competition organised by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) that is contested by top-division European clubs. The competition begins with a round robin league phase to qualify for the double-legged knockout rounds, and a single-leg final. It is the most-watched club competition in the world and the third most-watched football competition overall, behind only the UEFA European Championship and the FIFA World Cup. It is one of the most prestigious football tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club competition in European football, played by the national league champions (and, for some nations, one or more runners-up) of their national associations.\nIntroduced in 1955 as the Coupe des Clubs Champions Européens (French for European Champion Clubs' Cup), and commonly known as the European Cup, it was initially a straight knockout tournament open only to the champions of Europe's domestic leagues, with its winner reckoned as the European club champion. The competition took on its current name in 1992, adding a round-robin group stage in 1991 and allowing multiple entrants from certain countries since the 1997–98 season. While only the winners of many of Europe's national leagues can enter the competition, the top 5 leagues by coefficient provide four teams each by default, with a possibility for additional spots based on performance during the previous season. Clubs that finish below the qualifying spots are eligible for the second-tier UEFA Europa League competition, and since 2021, for the third-tier UEFA Conference League.\nIn its present format, the Champions League begins in early July with three qualifying rounds and a play-off round, all played over two legs. The seven surviving teams enter the league phase, joining 29 teams qualified in advance. The 36 teams each play eight opponents, four home and four away. The 24 highest-ranked teams proceed to the knockout phase that culminates with the final match in late May or early June. The winner of the Champions League automatically qualifies for the following year's Champions League, the UEFA Super Cup, and the FIFA Club World Cup.\nSpanish clubs have the most victories (20 wins), followed by England (15 wins) and Italy (12 wins). England has the most winning teams, with six clubs having won the title. The competition has been won by 23 clubs and 13 of them have won it more than once. Real Madrid is the most successful club in the tournament's history, having won it 15 times. Madrid is the only club to have won it five times in a row (the first five editions). Only one club has won all of their matches in a single tournament en route to the tournament victory: Bayern Munich in the 2019–20 season. Real Madrid are the current European champions, having beaten Borussia Dortmund 2–0 in the 2024 final for their fifteenth title.\n\nHistory\nThe first time the champions of two European leagues met was in what was nicknamed the 1895 World Championship, when English champions Sunderland beat Scottish champions Heart of Midlothian 5–3. The first pan-European tournament was the Challenge Cup, a competition between clubs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Three years later, in 1900, the champions of Belgium, Netherlands and Switzerland, which were the only existing leagues in continental Europe at the time, participated in the Coupe Van der Straeten Ponthoz, thus being dubbed as the \"club championship of the continent\" by the local newspapers.\nThe Mitropa Cup, a competition modelled after the Challenge Cup, was created in 1927, an idea of Austrian Hugo Meisl, and played between Central European clubs. In 1930, the Coupe des Nations (French: Nations Cup), the first attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe, was played and organised by Swiss club Servette. Held in Geneva, it brought together ten champions from across the continent. The tournament was won by Újpest of Hungary. Latin European nations came together to form the Latin Cup in 1949.\nAfter receiving reports from his journalists over the highly successful South American Championship of Champions of 1948, Gabriel Hanot, editor of L'Équipe, began proposing the creation of a continent-wide tournament. In interviews, Jacques Ferran (one of the founders of the European Champions Cup, together with Gabriel Hanot), said that the South American Championship of Champions was the inspiration for the European Champions Cup. After Stan Cullis declared Wolverhampton Wanderers \"Champions of the World\" following a successful run of friendlies in the 1950s, in particular a 3–2 friendly victory against Budapest Honvéd, Hanot finally managed to convince UEFA to put into practice such a tournament. It was conceived in Paris in 1955 as the European Champion Clubs' Cup.\n\n1955–1967: Beginnings\nThe first European Cup took place during the 1955–56 season. Sixteen teams participated (some by invitation): AC Milan (Italy), AGF Aarhus (Denmark), Anderlecht (Belgium), Djurgården (Sweden), Gwardia Warszawa (Poland), Hibernian (Scotland), Partizan (Yugoslavia), PSV Eindhoven (Netherlands), Rapid Wien (Austria), Real Madrid (Spain), Rot-Weiss Essen (West Germany), Saarbrücken (Saar), Servette (Switzerland), Sporting CP (Portugal), Reims (France) and Vörös Lobogó (Hungary).\nThe first European Cup match took place on 4 September 1955, and ended in a 3–3 draw between Sporting CP and Partizan. The first goal in European Cup history was scored by João Baptista Martins of Sporting CP. The inaugural final took place at the Parc des Princes between Stade de Reims and Real Madrid on 13 June 1956. The Spanish squad came back from behind to win 4–3 thanks to goals from Alfredo Di Stéfano and Marquitos, as well as two goals from Héctor Rial. Real Madrid successfully defended the trophy next season in their home stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, against Fiorentina. After a scoreless first half, Real Madrid scored twice in six minutes to defeat the Italians. In 1958, Milan failed to capitalise after going ahead on the scoreline twice, only for Real Madrid to equalise. The final, held in Heysel Stadium, went to extra time where Francisco Gento scored the game-winning goal to allow Real Madrid to retain the title for the third consecutive season.\nIn a rematch of the first final, Real Madrid faced Stade Reims at the Neckarstadion for the 1959 final, and won 2–0. West German side Eintracht Frankfurt became the first team not to compete in the Latin cup to reach the European Cup final. The 1960 final holds the record for the most goals scored, with Real Madrid beating Eintracht Frankfurt 7–3 at Hampden Park, courtesy of four goals by Ferenc Puskás and a hat-trick by Alfredo Di Stéfano. This was Real Madrid's fifth consecutive title, a record that still stands today.\nReal Madrid's reign ended in the 1960–61 season when bitter rivals Barcelona dethroned them in the first round. Barcelona were defeated in the final by Portuguese side Benfica 3–2 at the Wankdorf Stadium. Reinforced by Eusébio, Benfica defeated Real Madrid 5–3 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam and kept the title for a second consecutive season. Benfica wanted to repeat Real Madrid's successful run of the 1950s after reaching the showpiece event of the 1962–63 European Cup, but a brace from Brazilian-Italian José Altafini at Wembley gave the spoils to Milan, making the trophy leave the Iberian Peninsula for the first time ever.\nInter Milan beat an ageing Real Madrid 3–1 at the Ernst-Happel-Stadion to win the 1963–64 season and replicate their local-rival's success. The title stayed in Milan for the third year in a row after Inter beat Benfica 1–0 at their home ground, the San Siro. Under the leadership of Jock Stein, Scottish club Celtic beat Inter Milan 2–1 in the 1967 final to become the first British club to win the European Cup. The Celtic players that day, all of whom were born within 30 miles (48 km) of Glasgow, subsequently became known as the \"Lisbon Lions\".\n\n1968–1982\nThe 1967–68 season saw Manchester United become the first English team to win the European Cup, beating two-times winners Benfica 4–1 in the final. This final came ten years after the Munich air disaster, which had claimed the lives of eight United players and left their manager, Matt Busby, fighting for his life. In the 1968–69 season, Ajax became the first Dutch team to reach the European Cup final, but they were beaten 4–1 by Milan, who claimed their second European Cup, with Pierino Prati scoring a hat-trick.\nThe 1969–70 season saw the first Dutch winners of the competition. Feyenoord knocked out the defending champions, Milan in the second round, before beating Celtic in the final. In the 1970–71 season, Ajax won the title, beating Greek side Panathinaikos in the final. the season saw a number of changes, with penalty shoot-outs being introduced, and the away goals rule being changed so that it would be used in all rounds except the final. It was also the first time a Greek team reached the final, as well as the first season that Real Madrid failed to qualify, having finished sixth in La Liga the previous season. Ajax went on to win the competition three years in row (1971 to 1973), which Bayern Munich emulated from 1974 to 1976, before Liverpool won their first two titles in 1977 and 1978.\nThe following seasons saw victories in 1978–79 and 1979–80 for Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest. The following year Liverpool won their third title before Aston Villa continued the sense of English dominance in 1982.\n\n1982–1992: English dominance is broken\nIn 1982–83, Hamburger SV broke the English dominance. Liverpool regained it in 1983–84 before losing to Juventus (1984–85); Steaua București then won in 1985–86, Porto in 1986–87, PSV Eindhoven in 1987–88; Milan (2), Red Star Belgrade and Barcelona became champions before the competition was re-formulated as the UEFA Champions League. All English clubs were banned for five years (Liverpool for six years) following the 1985 European Cup final due to the Heysel Stadium disaster.\n\nAnthem\nThe UEFA Champions League anthem, officially titled simply as \"Champions League\", was written by Tony Britten, and is an adaptation of George Frideric Handel's 1727 anthem Zadok the Priest (one of his Coronation Anthems). UEFA commissioned Britten in 1992 to arrange an anthem, and the piece was performed by London's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and sung by the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields. Stating that \"the anthem is now almost as iconic as the trophy\", UEFA's official website adds it is \"known to set the hearts of many of the world's top footballers aflutter\".\nThe chorus contains the three official languages used by UEFA: English, German, and French. The climactic moment is set to the exclamations 'Die Meister! Die Besten! Les Grandes Équipes! The Champions!'. The anthem's chorus is played before each UEFA Champions League game as the two teams are lined up, as well as at the beginning and end of television broadcasts of the matches. In addition to the anthem, there is also entrance music, which contains parts of the anthem itself, which is played as teams enter the field. The complete anthem is about three minutes long, and has two short verses and the chorus.\nSpecial vocal versions have been performed live at the Champions League final with lyrics in other languages, changing over to the host nation's language for the chorus. These versions were performed by Andrea Bocelli (Italian; Rome 2009, Milan 2016 and Cardiff 2017), Juan Diego Flores (Spanish; Madrid 2010), All Angels (Wembley 2011), Jonas Kaufmann and David Garrett (Munich 2012) and Mariza (Lisbon 2014). In the 2013 final at Wembley, the chorus was played twice. In the 2018 and 2019 finals, held in Kyiv and Madrid respectively, the instrumental version of the chorus was played, by 2Cellos (2018) and Asturia Girls (2019). In the 2023 final, held in Istanbul, Hungarian pianist Ádám György performed the piano version of the anthem. The anthem has been released commercially in its original version on iTunes and Spotify with the title of Champions League Theme. In 2018, composer Hans Zimmer remixed the anthem with rapper Vince Staples for EA Sports' video game FIFA 19, with it also featuring in the game's reveal trailer.\n\nBranding\nIn 1991, UEFA asked its commercial partner, Television Event and Media Marketing (TEAM), to help brand the Champions League. This resulted in the anthem, \"house colours\" of black and white or silver and a logo, and the \"starball\". The starball was created by Design Bridge, a London-based firm selected by TEAM after a competition. TEAM gives particular attention to detail in how the colours and starball are depicted at matches. According to TEAM, \"Irrespective of whether you are a spectator in Moscow or Milan, you will always see the same stadium dressing materials, the same opening ceremony featuring the 'starball' centre circle ceremony, and hear the same UEFA Champions League Anthem\". Based on research it conducted, TEAM concluded that by 1999, \"the starball logo had achieved a recognition rate of 94 percent among fans\".\n\nFormat\nQualification\nThe UEFA Champions League used to begin with a double round-robin group stage of 32 teams until it evolved into a league phase of 36 teams, which is preceded by two qualification 'streams' for teams that do not receive direct entry to the tournament proper. The two streams are divided between teams qualified by virtue of being league champions, and those qualified by virtue of finishing second, third or fourth in their national championship.\nThe number of teams that each association enters into the UEFA Champions League is based upon the UEFA coefficients of the member associations. These coefficients are generated by the results of clubs representing each association during the previous five Champions League, Europa League and Conference League seasons. The higher an association's coefficient, the more teams represent the association in the Champions League, and the fewer qualification rounds the association's teams must compete in.\nFive of the remaining seven qualifying places are granted to the winners of a four-round qualifying tournament between the remaining 43 or 44 national champions, within which those champions from associations with higher coefficients receive byes to later rounds. The other two are granted to the winners of a three-round qualifying tournament between ten and eleven clubs from the associations ranked 5–6 through 15, which have qualified based upon finishing second, third or fourth in their respective national league.\nIn addition to sporting criteria, any club must be licensed by its national association to participate in the Champions League. To obtain a license, the club must meet certain stadium, infrastructure and finance requirements.\nIn 2005–06, Liverpool and Artmedia Bratislava became the first teams to reach the Champions League group stage after playing in all three qualifying rounds. Real Madrid and Barcelona hold the record for the most appearances in the group stage, having qualified 25 times, followed by Porto and Bayern Munich on 24.\nBetween 1999 and 2008, no differentiation was made between champions and non-champions in qualification. The 16 top-ranked teams spread across the biggest domestic leagues qualified directly for the tournament group stage. Prior to this, three preliminary knockout qualifying rounds whittled down the remaining teams, with teams starting in different rounds.\nAn exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that, if the Champions League winner fell outside of its domestic league's top four, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team in the league. Until 2015–16, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. In May 2012, Tottenham Hotspur finished fourth in the 2011–12 Premier League, two places ahead of Chelsea, but failed to qualify for the 2012–13 Champions League, after Chelsea won the 2012 final. Tottenham were demoted to the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League.\nIn May 2013, it was decided that, starting from the 2015–16 season (and continuing at least for the three-year cycle until the 2017–18 season), the winners of the previous season's UEFA Europa League would qualify for the UEFA Champions League, entering at least the play-off round, and entering the group stage if the berth reserved for the Champions League title holders was not used. The previous limit of a maximum of four teams per association was increased to five, meaning that a fourth-placed team from one of the top three ranked associations would only have to be moved to the Europa League if both the Champions League and Europa League winners came from that association and both finished outside the top four of their domestic league.\nIn 2007, Michel Platini, the UEFA president, had proposed taking one place from the three leagues with four entrants and allocating it to that nation's cup winners. This proposal was rejected in a vote at a UEFA Strategy Council meeting. In the same meeting, however, it was agreed that the third-placed team in the top three leagues would receive automatic qualification for the group stage, rather than entry into the third qualifying round, while the fourth-placed team would enter the play-off round for non-champions, guaranteeing an opponent from one of the top 15 leagues in Europe. This was part of Platini's plan to increase the number of teams qualifying directly into the group stage, while simultaneously increasing the number of teams from lower-ranked nations in the group stage.\nIn 2012, Arsène Wenger referred to qualifying for the Champions League by finishing in the top four places in the Premier League as the \"4th Place Trophy\". The phrase was coined after a pre-match conference when he was questioned about Arsenal's lack of a trophy after exiting the FA Cup. He said \"The first trophy is to finish in the top four\". At Arsenal's 2012 AGM, Wenger was also quoted as saying: \"For me there are five trophies every season: Premier League, Champions League, the third is to qualify for the Champions League...\"\n\nLeague phase and knockout phase\nBeginning with the 2024–25 season, UEFA changed the format of their three club competitions, abandoning the group stage in favour of an expanded league phase. The number of participating teams was increased from 32 to 36 teams. Teams are no longer divided into groups of four teams each but are ranked in a single table. Each team plays eight matches against eight different opponents. For the draw of the league phase, teams are divided into four seeding pots according to their UEFA coefficient. Each team will play against two teams from each pot, one home and one away. The league phase is played from September to January, while the knockout phase begins in February, with matches predominantly played on Tuesday and Wednesday nights.\nAfter the league phase, a two-legged knockout play-off round is played between teams finishing 9–16 (seeded) and 17–24 (unseeded) in the league phase. Teams finishing in the top eight of the league phase receive a bye to the round of 16 as seeded teams, while the eight winning teams from the knockout play-off round will enter the round of 16 draw as unseeded teams. Teams finishing 25th–36th place in the league phase and the eight losers of the knockout play-offs are eliminated from the competition and from European football since it is no longer possible to enter the Europa League from the league phase onwards.\nAfter the round of 16 the competition follows the traditional knockout format with quarter-finals, semi-finals (both two legged and without association draw protection) and then the final at a venue chosen prior to the season. The final is typically held in late May or early June.\nPrior to the 2024–25 season, the tournament proper began with a group stage of 32 teams, divided into eight groups of four. The draw to determine which teams entered each group was seeded based on each team's UEFA coefficient, and no group could contain more than one club from each association. Each team played six group stage games, meeting the other three teams in its group home and away in a round-robin format. The first place team and the runners-up from each group then progressed to the next round. The third-placed teams entered the Europa League's knockout round and the fourth-placed teams were eliminated from the competition.\nFor the next stage – the last 16 – the winning team from one group played against the runners-up from another group, but teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other (see random two-sided matching). From the quarter-finals onwards, the draw was entirely random, without association protection.\nThe group stage was played from September to December, whilst the knockout stage began in February, with matches usually played on Tuesday and Wednesday nights. The knockout ties were played in a two-legged format, with the exception of the final. In the 2019–20 season, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the tournament was suspended for five months. The format of the remainder of the tournament was temporarily amended as a result, with the quarter-finals and semi-finals being played as single match knockout ties at neutral venues in Lisbon, Portugal in the summer with the final taking place on 23 August 2020.\n\nDistribution\nThe following is the default access list.\n\nChanges will be made to the access list above if the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the tournament via their domestic leagues.\n\nIf the Champions League title holders qualify for the league phase via their domestic league's standard berth allocation, the best champions in qualifying rounds enter the league phase, and champions of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.\nIf the Europa League title holders qualify for the league phase via their domestic league's standard berth allocation, the best club in qualifying rounds enters the league phase, except for the runners-up of associations 11–15, as they have a higher-ranked domestic team in the qualifiers, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.\nIf the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the qualifying rounds via their domestic league, their spot in the qualifying rounds is vacated, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are promoted accordingly.\n\nPrizes\nTrophy and medals\nEach year, the winning team is presented with the European Champion Clubs' Cup, the current version of which has been awarded since 1967. From the 1968–69 season and prior to the 2008–09 season any team that won the Champions League three years in a row or five times overall was awarded the official trophy permanently. Each time a club achieved this, a new official trophy had to be forged for the following season. Five clubs own a version of the official trophy: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan and Liverpool. Since 2008, the official trophy has remained with UEFA and the clubs are awarded a replica.\nThe current trophy is 74 cm (29 in) tall and made of silver, weighing 11 kg (24 lb). It was designed by Jürg Stadelmann, a jeweller from Bern, Switzerland, after the original was given to Real Madrid in 1966 in recognition of their six titles to date, and cost 10,000 Swiss francs.\nAs of the 2012–13 season, 40 gold medals are presented to the Champions League winners, and 40 silver medals to the runners-up.\n\nPrize money\nStarting with the 2024–25 season, the distribution of the prize money is as follows.\n\nPlay-off round: €4,290,000\nBase fee for league phase: €18,620,000\nLeague phase victory: €2,100,000\nLeague phase draw: €700,000\nLeague phase top 8: €2,000,000\nLeague phase ranked 9 through 16: €1,000,000\nKnockout round play-offs: €1,000,000\nRound of 16: €11,000,000\nQuarter-finals: €12,500,000\nSemi-finals: €15,000,000\nRunners-up: €18,500,000\nChampions: €25,000,000\nA large part of the distributed revenue from the UEFA Champions League is linked to the \"market pool\", the distribution of which is determined by the value of the television market in each nation. For the 2019–20 season, Paris Saint-Germain, who were the runners-up, earned nearly €126.8 million in total, of which €101.3 million was prize money, compared with the €125.46 million earned by Bayern Munich, who won the tournament and were awarded €112.96 million in prize money.\n\nSponsorship\nLike the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations, in contrast to the single main sponsor typically found in national top-flight leagues. When the Champions League was created in 1992, it was decided that a maximum of eight companies should be allowed to sponsor the event, with each corporation being allocated four advertising boards around the perimeter of the pitch, as well as logo placement at pre- and post-match interviews and a certain number of tickets to each match. This, combined with a deal to ensure tournament sponsors were given priority on television advertisements during matches, ensured that each of the tournament's main sponsors was given maximum exposure.\nFrom the 2012–13 knockout phase, UEFA used LED advertising hoardings installed in knockout participant stadiums, including the final. From the 2015–16 season onwards, UEFA has used such hoardings from the play-off round until the final. Since 2021, the UEFA also used Virtual Board Replacement (VBR) technology to offer region-based advertising; regional sponsors are inserted into the hoardings as shown on the broadcast feed in specific regions along with the global sponsors.\nIndividual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising. However, only two sponsorships are permitted per jersey in addition to that of the kit manufacturer, at the chest and the left sleeve. Exceptions are made for non-profit organisations, which can feature on the front of the shirt, incorporated with the main sponsor or in place of it; or on the back, either below the squad number or on the collar area.\nIf a club plays a match in a nation where the relevant sponsorship category is restricted (such as France's alcohol advertising restriction), then they must remove that logo from their jerseys. For example, when Rangers played French side Auxerre in the 1996–97 Champions League, they wore the logo of the holiday chain Center Parcs instead of their primary sponsor, McEwan's Lager (both companies at the time were subsidiaries of Scottish & Newcastle).\n\nMedia coverage\nThe competition attracts an extensive television audience, not just in Europe, but throughout the world. The final of the tournament has been, in recent years, the most-watched annual sporting event in the world. The final of the 2012–13 tournament had the competition's highest TV ratings to date, drawing approximately 360 million television viewers.\n\nTeam records and statistics\nPerformance by club\nPerformances by nation\nNotes\n\nPlayer records\nMost wins\nMost appearances\nAs of 2 October 2024\nPlayers that are still active in Europe are highlighted in boldface.\nThe table below does not include appearances made in the qualification stage of the competition.\n\nMost goals\nAs of 2 October 2024\nA ‡ indicates the player was from the European Cup era.\nPlayers taking part in the 2024–25 UEFA Champions League are highlighted in bold.\nThe table below does not include goals scored in the qualification stage of the competition.\n\nAwards\nPlayer of the Season\nStarting from the 2021–22 edition, UEFA introduced the UEFA Champions League Player of the Season award.\nThe jury is composed of the coaches of the clubs that participated in the group stage of the competition, as well as 55 journalists selected by the European Sports Media (ESM) group, one from each UEFA member association.\n\nYoung Player of the Season\nIn the same season, UEFA also introduced the UEFA Champions League Young Player of the Season award.\n\nSee also\nContinental football championships\nList of association football competitions\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website (in English, French, German, Russian, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese)\nUEFA – Official website",
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] | As of August 1, 2024, which country were holders of the FIFA World Cup the last time the UEFA Champions League was won by a club from London? | [] | France | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "This list of Academy Award records is current as of the 96th Academy Awards, with the ceremony taking place on March 10, 2024.\n\nMost awards or nominations\nMost awards won by a single film: 11\nThree films have won 11 Academy Awards:\nBen-Hur (1959): nominated in 12 of the 15 possible categories\nTitanic (1997): nominated in 14 of the 17 possible categories\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003): nominated in 11 of the 17 possible categories\nMost nominations received by a single film: 14\nThree films have received 14 nominations:\nAll About Eve (1950): won 6 awards out of 16 possible categories\nTitanic (1997): won 11 awards out of 17 possible categories\nLa La Land (2016): won 6 awards out of 17 possible categories\nLargest sweep (winning awards in every nominated category): 11\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) won in every category for which it was nominated: Best Picture, Director, Adapted Screenplay, Art Direction, Makeup, Costume Design, Film Editing, Original Score, Original Song, Sound Mixing, and Visual Effects\nMost total awards won by a person: 22\nWalt Disney\nDennis Muren holds the record for the most awards by a living person: 9\nMost total awards won by a woman: 8\nEdith Head, all for Best Costume Design\nMost total nominations for a person: 59\nWalt Disney\nMost nominations and awards for a person in a single year: 6 & 4\nIn 1954, Walt Disney received six nominations and won four awards, both records. He won Best Documentary, Features for The Living Desert; Best Documentary, Short Subjects for The Alaskan Eskimo; Best Short Subject, Cartoons for Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom; and Best Short Subject, Two-reel for Bear Country. He had two additional nominations in Best Short Subject, Cartoons for Rugged Bear; and Best Short Subject, Two-reel for Ben and Me\nMost competitive awards won by a person who is still living: 8\nComposer Alan Menken has won 8 competitive awards\nOf note: Visual Effects Supervisor Dennis Muren has won 9 Academy Awards: six competitive awards, two \"Special Achievement\" awards, and one \"Technical Achievement\" award\nActing: 4\nKatharine Hepburn, all for Best Actress\nDirecting: 4\nJohn Ford\nWriting: 3\nWoody Allen, all for Best Original Screenplay\nCharles Brackett, for both Best Adapted and Original Screenplay\nPaddy Chayefsky, for both Best Adapted and Original Screenplay\nFrancis Ford Coppola, for both Best Adapted and Original Screenplay\nBilly Wilder, for both Best Adapted and Original Screenplay\nFilm Editing: 3\nMichael Kahn\nThelma Schoonmaker\nDaniel Mandell\nRalph Dawson\nCinematography: 4\nJoseph Ruttenberg\nLeon Shamroy\nFilm Music Composition and Songwriting: 9\nAlfred Newman, all for Best Original Score\nOf note:\nAlan Menken has won eight awards in musical categories\nJohn Williams has won five awards and holds the record for the most nominations by a living person at 54.\nSammy Cahn won four awards, all for Best Original Song\nJohnny Mercer won four awards, all for Best Original Song\nJimmy Van Heusen won four awards, all for Best Original Song\nArt Direction: 11\nCedric Gibbons, who designed the Oscar statuette, received 38 nominations\nCostume Design: 8\nEdith Head, who received 35 nominations in total\nMakeup: 7\nRick Baker, who has received 11 nominations in total\nVisual Effects: 8\nDennis Muren, who has received 15 nominations in total\nSpecial Effects (discontinued in 1962): 3\nA. Arnold Gillespie, who received 12 nominations in total\nMost awards won for an animated feature film: 3\nPete Docter, who has received 4 nominations in total\nMost nominations received for an animated feature film: 4\nPete Docter, winning 3\nHayao Miyazaki, winning 2\nMost awards won by a country for Best International Feature Film: 14\nItaly, which has received 33 nominations in total\nMost nominations received by a country for Best International Feature Film: 41\nFrance, which has won the award 12 times\nMost nominations received by a country for Best International Feature Film without an award: 10\nIsrael\nMost awards won by a non-English language film: 4\nFour non English-language films have won four Academy Awards:\nFanny and Alexander (1982) won Best Foreign Language Film, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Costume Design\nCrouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) won Best Foreign Language Film, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, and Best Original Score\nParasite (2019) won Best International Feature Film, Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Original Screenplay\nAll Quiet on the Western Front (2022) won Best International Feature Film, Best Production Design, Best Cinematography, and Best Original Score\nMost nominations received by a non English-language film: 10\nTwo non-English language films have been nominated for ten Academy Awards (* = winner):\nCrouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000): Best Foreign Language Film (*), Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Art Direction (*), Best Cinematography (*), Best Costume Design, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score (*), and Best Original Song\nRoma (2018): Best Foreign Language Film (*), Best Picture, Best Director (*), Best Original Screenplay, Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography (*), Best Sound Editing, and Best Sound Mixing\n\nAwards for Acting and Directing Debuts\nThese people won Academy Awards for their debut performances in film:\n\nBest Actor\nNone\nBest Actress\nShirley Booth (Come Back, Little Sheba, 1952)\nJulie Andrews (Mary Poppins, 1964)\nBarbra Streisand (Funny Girl, 1968)\nMarlee Matlin (Children of a Lesser God, 1986)\nBest Supporting Actor\nHarold Russell (The Best Years of Our Lives, 1946)\nTimothy Hutton (Ordinary People, 1980)\nHaing S. Ngor (The Killing Fields, 1984)\nBest Supporting Actress\nGale Sondergaard (Anthony Adverse, 1936)\nKatina Paxinou (For Whom the Bell Tolls, 1943)\nMercedes McCambridge (All the King's Men, 1949)\nEva Marie Saint (On the Waterfront, 1954)\nJo Van Fleet (East of Eden, 1955)\nTatum O'Neal (Paper Moon, 1973)\nAnna Paquin (The Piano, 1993)\nJennifer Hudson (Dreamgirls, 2006)\nLupita Nyong'o (12 Years a Slave, 2013)\nHonorary Award\nHarold Russell (The Best Years of Our Lives, 1946)\nAcademy Juvenile Award\nClaude Jarman Jr. (The Yearling, 1946)\nVincent Winter (The Little Kidnappers, 1954)\nThese people won Academy Awards for their directing debuts:\n\nBest Director\nDelbert Mann (Marty, 1955)\nJerome Robbins (West Side Story, 1961)\nRobert Redford (Ordinary People, 1980)\nJames L. Brooks (Terms of Endearment, 1983)\nKevin Costner (Dances with Wolves, 1990)\nSam Mendes (American Beauty, 1999)\n\nBig Five Winners\nThree films have received the Big Five Academy Awards: Best Picture, Director, Actor, Actress, and Screenplay (Original or Adapted; all won for Best Adapted Screenplay).\n\nIt Happened One Night (1934)\nOne Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975)\nThe Silence of the Lambs (1991)\n\nMost Consecutive Awards in Each Category\nAny awards\nWalt Disney received record 10 awards in the eight consecutive years from 1931/32 through 1939. Eight (listed below) are for Short Subject (Cartoon), and two were Special Awards: one for the creation of Mickey Mouse, and one recognizing the innovation of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.\nBest Picture\nDavid O. Selznick produced two consecutive Best Picture winners Gone with the Wind in 1939 and Rebecca in 1940 (He himself was not awarded the Oscars as at the time the statuette went to the studio instead of the producer)\nBest Director\nThree directors have won two consecutive awards (of which, one of each of their movies—in bold—won the Academy Award for Best Picture, and one did not):\nJohn Ford – The Grapes of Wrath (1940) and How Green Was My Valley (1941)\nJoseph L. Mankiewicz – A Letter to Three Wives (1949) and All About Eve (1950)\nAlejandro G. Iñárritu – Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014) and The Revenant (2015)\nBest Actor\nTwo actors have won two consecutive awards:\nSpencer Tracy – Captains Courageous (1937) and Boys Town (1938)\nTom Hanks – Philadelphia (1993) and Forrest Gump (1994)\nBest Actress\nTwo actresses have won two consecutive awards:\nLuise Rainer – The Great Ziegfeld (1936) and The Good Earth (1937)\nKatharine Hepburn – Guess Who's Coming to Dinner (1967) and The Lion in Winter (1968)\nBest Supporting Actor\nJason Robards won two consecutive awards for All the President's Men in 1976 and Julia in 1977\nBest Supporting Actress\nNo consecutive winner for Best Supporting Actress\nBest Adapted Screenplay\nTwo screenwriters have won two consecutive awards:\nJoseph L. Mankiewicz – A Letter to Three Wives (1949) and All About Eve (1950)\nRobert Bolt – Doctor Zhivago (1965) and A Man for All Seasons (1966)\nBest Original Screenplay\nNo consecutive winner for Best Original Screenplay\nBest Art Direction\nThomas Little won four consecutive awards for Best Art Direction. He won Best Art Direction, Black and White, for the films How Green Was My Valley in 1941, This Above All in 1942, and The Song of Bernadette in 1943, and then he won an Oscar the next year in 1944 for Best Art Direction, Color for the film Wilson\nBest Cinematography\nEmmanuel Lubezki won three consecutive awards for Gravity in 2013, Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) in 2014 and The Revenant in 2015\nBest Costume Design\nOf Edith Head's eight awards won for Best Costume Design, three were won in consecutive years: in 1949 for The Heiress, in 1950 for All About Eve, and in 1951 for A Place in the Sun for Best Costume Design, Black-and-White; in 1950 she also won for Samson and Delilah for Best Costume Design, Color\nBest Film Editing\nAngus Wall and Kirk Baxter won for The Social Network in 2010, and The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in 2011\nBest Original Score\nRoger Edens won three consecutive awards for composing the scores for Easter Parade (1948), On the Town (1949), and Annie Get Your Gun (1950)\nAlfred Newman won two consecutive awards in Best Scoring of a Musical Picture for With a Song in My Heart (1952), and Call Me Madam (1953).\nAlan Menken won two consecutive awards for composing the scores for Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Aladdin (1992)\nGustavo Santaolalla won two consecutive awards for composing the scores for Brokeback Mountain (2005) and Babel (2006)\nBest Original Song\nThree composers have won two consecutive awards for best original song, but under different award names:\nHenry Mancini (music) and Johnny Mercer (lyrics) shared the awards in Best Music (Song) for \"Moon River\" from Breakfast at Tiffany's in 1961, and \"Days of Wine and Roses\" from Days of Wine and Roses in 1962\nAlan Menken (music) won twice consecutively in Best Music (Original Song) for \"Beauty and the Beast\" from Beauty and the Beast (lyrics by Howard Ashman) in 1991, and \"A Whole New World\" from Aladdin (lyrics by Tim Rice) in 1992\nBest Sound Mixing\nThomas Moulton won three consecutive awards for The Snake Pit in 1948, Twelve O'Clock High in 1949, and All About Eve in 1950\nBest Visual Effects\nGlen Robinson won four consecutive non-competitive wins Earthquake in 1974, The Hindenburg in 1975, and both King Kong and Logan's Run in 1976\nOf Dennis Muren's eight Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects, three of them were consecutive wins (under different names); E.T. The Extra Terrestrial in 1982, Return of the Jedi in 1983, and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom in 1984.\nJim Rygiel and Randall William Cook won three consecutive visual effects Oscars for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)\nBest Documentary (Feature)\nWalt Disney won two consecutive awards for The Living Desert in 1953 and The Vanishing Prairie in 1954\nBest Short Subject (Cartoon)\nOf Walt Disney's many awards for Best Animated Short, eight of these wins were in consecutive years, for Flowers and Trees in 1931/32, Three Little Pigs in 1932/33, The Tortoise and the Hare in 1934, Three Orphan Kittens in 1935, The Country Cousin in 1936, The Old Mill in 1937, Ferdinand the Bull in 1938, and The Ugly Duckling in 1939\nBest Short Subject (Two-Reel)\nOf Walt Disney's multiple awards for Best Live Action Short, four of his wins were in consecutive years, in 1950 for In Beaver Valley, in 1951 for Nature's Half Acre, in 1952 for Water Birds, and in 1953 for Bear Country\n\nAcademy Award firsts\nFirst Best Picture winner\nWings (1927)\nFirst Best Picture winning sound film\nThe Broadway Melody (1929)\nFirst Best Picture winning color film\nGone with the Wind (1939)\nFirst Best Director co-winners (for the same film)\nRobert Wise & Jerome Robbins for West Side Story (1961)\nFirst person born in the 20th century to be nominated for (and win) an Academy Award\nJanet Gaynor, for Best Actress, 7th Heaven, Street Angel, Sunrise (1928)\nFirst person born in the 21st century to win an Academy Award\nBillie Eilish, for Best Original Song, \"No Time to Die\" from No Time to Die (2021)\nFirst person born in the 21st century to be nominated for an Academy Award\nQuvenzhané Wallis, for Best Actress, Beasts of the Southern Wild (2012)\nFirst Icelander to win an Academy Award\nHildur Guðnadóttir, for Best Original Score, for Joker (2019)\nFirst Irish-born person to win Best Actor\nCillian Murphy for Oppenheimer (2023)\nFirst Asian person to win Best Picture\nBong Joon-ho and Kwak Sin-ae (both from South Korea) for Parasite (2019)\nFirst Asian woman to win Best Actress\nMichelle Yeoh (from Malaysia) for Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022)\nFirst Asian person to be nominated for Best Picture\nIsmail Merchant (from India) for A Room with a View (1986)\nFirst Asian person (and non-Caucasian) to win Best Director\nAng Lee (from Taiwan) for Brokeback Mountain (2005)\nFirst Asian person (and non-Caucasian) to be nominated for Best Director\nHiroshi Teshigahara (from Japan) for Woman in the Dunes (1965)\nFirst Asian person to receive an Honorary Award\nAkira Kurosawa (from Japan) received an Honorary Award in 1989\nFirst Asian woman to be nominated for (and win) Best Director\nChloé Zhao for Nomadland (2020)\nFirst Black person (and non-Caucasian) to receive an Honorary Award\nJames Baskett received a special Academy Award for his portrayal of Uncle Remus in Song of the South (1947)\nFirst Black woman to win Best Actress\nHalle Berry for Monster's Ball (2001)\nFirst Black person (and non-Caucasian) to win Best Picture\nSteve McQueen for 12 Years a Slave (2013)\nFirst Black person (and non-Caucasian) to be nominated for Best Picture\nQuincy Jones for The Color Purple (1985)\nFirst Black director to be nominated for Best Director\nJohn Singleton for Boyz n the Hood (1991)\nFirst Black siblings to be nominated for any award\nThe Lucas Brothers were nominated for Best Original Screenplay for Judas and the Black Messiah (2021)\nNote: Shared nomination with Will Berson and director Shaka King.\nFirst Native American person to be nominated for an Oscar\nLily Gladstone for Killers of the Flower Moon (2023)\nFirst Native American woman to be nominated for an Oscar\nLily Gladstone for Killers of the Flower Moon (2023)\nFirst woman to be nominated for and win Best Picture\nJulia Phillips for The Sting (1973)\nFirst woman to win Best Documentary\nNancy Hamilton for Helen Keller in Her Story (1955)\nFirst woman to be nominated for Best Documentary\nJanice Loeb for The Quiet One (1948)\nFirst woman to win Best Director\nKathryn Bigelow for The Hurt Locker (2009)\nFirst woman to be nominated for Best Director\nLina Wertmüller for Seven Beauties (1976)\nFirst woman to be nominated twice for Best Director (* = winner)\nJane Campion for The Piano (1993) and The Power of the Dog (2021)*\nFirst woman to win Best Animated Feature\nBrenda Chapman for Brave (2012)\nFirst woman to be nominated for Best Animated Feature\nMarjane Satrapi for Persepolis (2007)\nFirst woman to win Best Original Score\nRachel Portman for Emma (1996)\nFirst woman to be nominated for Best Cinematography\nRachel Morrison for Mudbound (2017)\nFirst woman to receive each of the Honorary Awards\n6-year old Shirley Temple received an Academy Juvenile Award in 1934\nGreta Garbo received an Honorary Award in 1954\nMartha Raye received a Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 1969\nKay Rose received a Special Achievement Academy Award for Sound Effects Editing of The River in 1985\nKathleen Kennedy received an Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award in 2018\nFirst non-English language film to win Best Picture\nParasite (2019), in Korean\nFirst non-English language film to be nominated for Best Picture\nLa Grande Illusion (1937), in French\nAll non-English language films to be nominated for Best Picture\n\nFirst film by genre to win Best Picture\nSilent, War, Epic: Wings (1927)\nMusical: The Broadway Melody (1929)\nWestern: Cimarron (1931)\nDrama: Grand Hotel (1932)\nComedy: It Happened One Night (1934)\nHistorical: Mutiny on the Bounty (1935)\nBiopic: The Great Ziegfeld (1936)\nRomance: Gone with the Wind (1939)\nThriller: Rebecca (1940)\nAdventure: The Greatest Show on Earth (1952)\nCrime, Mystery, Neo-noir: In the Heat of the Night (1967)\nSports: Rocky (1976)\nHorror: The Silence of the Lambs (1991)\nDisaster: Titanic (1997)\nFantasy: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)\nLGBTQ+: Moonlight (2016)\nAction, Martial arts, Science-fiction: Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022)\nFirst superhero film to be nominated for Best Picture\nBlack Panther (2018)\nFirst X-rated film to be nominated for and win Best Picture\nMidnight Cowboy (1969)\nFirst film with an entirely non-White cast to win Best Picture\nSlumdog Millionaire (2008)\nFirst film with an all-Black cast to win Best Picture\nMoonlight (2016)\nFirst 3-D film to be nominated for Best Picture\nAvatar and Up (2009)\nFirst streaming service film to be nominated for Best Picture\nManchester by the Sea (2016), distributed by Amazon Studios\nFirst streaming service film to win Best Picture\nCODA (2021), distributed by Apple TV+ Original Films\nFirst animated film to be nominated for Best Picture\nBeauty and the Beast (1991)\nFirst animated film to be nominated for a writing award\nToy Story (1995), nominated for Best Original Screenplay\nFirst animated film to win Best Animated Feature\nShrek (2001)\nFirst animated film to win both music categories\nPinocchio (1940) for Best Original Score and Best Original Song\nFirst stop motion animated film to win Best Animated Feature\nWallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (2005)\nFirst non-English language film to win Best Animated Feature\nSpirited Away (2001)\nFirst PG-13 rated film to win Best Animated Feature\nThe Boy and the Heron (2023)\nFirst animated film to be nominated for Best Documentary Feature\nFlee (2021)\nFirst actor to receive ten nominations for acting\nBette Davis received her tenth acting nomination (all for Best Actress) for the film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)\nFirst male actor to receive ten nominations for acting\nLaurence Olivier received his tenth acting nomination (nine for Best Actor and one for Best Supporting Actor) for the film The Boys from Brazil (1978)\nFirst actor to receive twenty nominations for acting\nMeryl Streep received her twentieth nomination (sixteen for Best Actress and four for Best Supporting Actress) for the film Florence Foster Jenkins (2016)\nFirst film to win both an Academy Award and a Golden Raspberry Award\nWall Street (1987), Michael Douglas won an Academy Award for Best Actor and Daryl Hannah won a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress\nFirst actor to be nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Raspberry Award for the same performance in a film\nJames Coco was nominated for both Best Supporting Actor and Worst Supporting Actor for Only When I Laugh (1981)\nFirst actress to be nominated for both an Academy Award and a Golden Raspberry Award for the same performance in a film\nAmy Irving was nominated for both Best Supporting Actress and Worst Supporting Actress for Yentl (1983)\nFirst person to be nominated for acting and songwriting in the same year\nMary J. Blige, nominated for Best Supporting Actress and Best Original Song (\"Mighty River\") for Mudbound (2017)\nFirst person to direct themselves to an Oscar win\nLaurence Olivier won Best Actor for Hamlet (1948) – which he also directed, produced, and adapted\nFirst posthumous win for acting\nPeter Finch won Best Actor for Network (1976)\nFirst posthumous nomination for acting\nJeanne Eagels, nominated for Best Actress for The Letter (1929)\nFirst posthumous nomination for an actor\nJames Dean, nominated for Best Actor for East of Eden (1955)\nFirst posthumous nomination for a Black actor\nChadwick Boseman, nominated for Best Actor for Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (2020)\nFirst actress to be nominated for performing in a language other than English\nMelina Mercouri was nominated for Best Actress for Never on Sunday (1960), performing in Greek\nFirst actress to win for performing in a language other than English\nSophia Loren won Best Actress for Two Women (1961), performing in Italian\nFirst actor to be nominated for performing in a language other than English\nMarcello Mastroianni was nominated for Best Actor for Divorce Italian Style (1961), performing in Italian\nFirst actor to win for performing in a language other than English\nRobert De Niro won Best Supporting Actor for The Godfather Part II (1974), performing in Italian\nFirst Canadian to win Best Director\nJames Cameron for Titanic (1997)\nFirst people from India to win in a music category\nA. R. Rahman and Gulzar won Best Original Song for Slumdog Millionaire (2008). Rahman also won Best Original Score for the same film.\nFirst Middle Eastern film to win Best International Feature Film\nA Separation (2011), representing Iran\nFirst person to win for acting and producing in the same year\nFrances McDormand won Best Actress and Best Picture for Nomadland (2020)\nFirst Black writer to win for screenwriting\nGeoffrey S. Fletcher won Best Adapted Screenplay for Precious: Based on the Novel \"Push\" by Sapphire (2009)\nFirst Black person to receive an Honorary Award\nJames Baskett received a Special Award for his portrayal of Uncle Remus in Song of the South (1946)\nFirst Latin American to win Best Director\nAlfonso Cuarón (from Mexico) won for Gravity (2013)\nFirst child actor to receive an acting nomination\nJackie Cooper, age 9, was nominated for Best Actor for Skippy (1931)\nFirst short film to win an Academy Award outside of the Short Film categories\nThe Red Balloon (1956) for Best Original Screenplay\nFirst professional athlete to win an Academy Award\nKobe Bryant won Best Animated Short Film for Dear Basketball (2017)\nFirst Deaf actress to be nominated for and win an acting award\nMarlee Matlin won Best Actress for Children of a Lesser God (1986)\nFirst Deaf actor to be nominated for and win an acting award\nTroy Kotsur won Best Supporting Actor for CODA (2021)\nFirst autistic actor to win an Academy Award\nAnthony Hopkins won Best Actor for The Silence of the Lambs (1991)\nFirst actress with dwarfism to win in an acting category\nLinda Hunt won Best Supporting Actress for The Year of Living Dangerously (1982)\nFirst actor with dwarfism to be nominated in an acting category\nMichael Dunn was nominated for Best Supporting Actor for Ship of Fools (1965)\nFirst acting win for a portrayal of a character of the opposite gender\nLinda Hunt won Best Supporting Actress for The Year of Living Dangerously (1982)\nFirst portrayals of living persons to win in each acting category\nBest Actor: Spencer Tracy as Father Edward J. Flanagan in Boys Town (1938)\nBest Actress: Sissy Spacek as Loretta Lynn in Coal Miner's Daughter (1980)\nBest Supporting Actor: Jason Robards Jr. as Ben Bradlee in All the President's Men (1976)\nBest Supporting Actress: Patty Duke as Helen Keller in The Miracle Worker (1962)\nNote: While Joanne Woodward's portrayal of Eve White in The Three Faces of Eve (1957) was based on a real person, Chris Costner Sizemore; her identity was not known until 1977.\nFirst hip hop song to win Best Original Song\n\"Lose Yourself\" by Eminem, from the film 8 Mile (2002)\nFirst woman of Filipino descent to win in any award\n\"Fight For You\" by H.E.R., from the film Judas and the Black Messiah (2021)\nFirst song from an Indian film to win Best Original Song\n\"Naatu Naatu\" from RRR (2022)\n\nAge-related records\nYoungest winner of an acting award\nTatum O'Neal, age 10 (Best Supporting Actress, Paper Moon, 1973)\nYoungest nominee of an acting award\nJustin Henry, age 8 (Best Supporting Actor, Kramer vs. Kramer, 1979)\nYoungest Best Actress winner\nMarlee Matlin, age 21 (Children of a Lesser God, 1986)\nYoungest Best Actress nominee\nQuvenzhané Wallis, age 9 (Beasts of the Southern Wild, 2012)\nYoungest Best Actor winner\nAdrien Brody, age 29 (The Pianist, 2002)\nYoungest Best Actor nominee\nJackie Cooper, age 9 (Skippy, 1931)\nYoungest winner of an Oscar\nShirley Temple, age 6, who was awarded the (now-retired) non-competitive Academy Juvenile Award in 1934\nYoungest winner of two Oscars\nBillie Eilish, age 22, who has won the Best Original Song category with her brother, Finneas, twice (No Time to Die, 2021 and What Was I Made For?, 2023)\nYoungest Best Original Screenplay winner\nBen Affleck, age 25 (Good Will Hunting, 1997)\nYoungest Best Adapted Screenplay winner\nCharlie Wachtel, age 32 (BlacKkKlansman, 2018)\nYoungest Best Director winner\nDamien Chazelle, age 32 (La La Land, 2016)\nYoungest Best Director nominee\nJohn Singleton, age 24 (Boyz n the Hood, 1991)\nOldest winner of an acting award\nAnthony Hopkins, age 83 (Best Actor, The Father, 2020)\nOldest nominee for an acting award\nChristopher Plummer, age 88 (Best Supporting Actor, All the Money in the World, 2017)\nOldest Best Actress winner\nJessica Tandy, age 80 (Driving Miss Daisy, 1989)\nOldest Best Actress nominee\nEmmanuelle Riva, age 85 (Amour, 2012)\nOldest Best Actor nominee and winner\nAnthony Hopkins, age 83 (The Father, 2020)\nOldest Best Director winner\nClint Eastwood, age 74 (Million Dollar Baby, 2004)\nOldest Best Director nominee\nMartin Scorsese, age 81 (Killers of the Flower Moon, 2023)\nOldest competitive Oscar winner\nJames Ivory, age 89 (Best Adapted Screenplay, Call Me by Your Name, 2017)\nOldest competitive Oscar nominee\nJohn Williams, age 91 (Best Original Score, Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny, 2023)\nOldest living Oscar nominee and winner\nEva Marie Saint, age 100 (Best Supporting Actress, On the Waterfront, 1954)\nEarliest-born Oscar winner by birth year\nGeorge Arliss, born 10 April 1868 (Best Actor, Disraeli, 1929)\nEarliest-born Oscar nominee by birth year\nMay Robson, born 19 April 1858 (Best Actress, Lady for a Day, 1933)\nYear where all four acting winners had the oldest average age \n1981 with an average age of 70.5 years old.\nHenry Fonda (aged 77)\nKatharine Hepburn (72)\nJohn Gielgud (77)\nMaureen Stapleton (56)\nYear where all four acting winners had the youngest average age\n1961 with a combined average age of just under 29 years old.\nMaximilian Schell (aged 31)\nSophia Loren (27)\nGeorge Chakiris (27)\nRita Moreno (30)\nYoungest multiple nominees for an acting award (Best Actor or Best Supporting Actor)\n\nYoungest multiple nominees for an acting award (Best Actress or Best Supporting Actress)\n\nFilm records\nMost Oscar wins without winning Best Picture\nCabaret (1972) won 8 awards\nMost nominations without winning Best Picture\nLa La Land (2016) with 14 nominations\nMost nominations without any wins\nTwo films received 11 nominations without winning any awards:\nThe Turning Point (1977)\nThe Color Purple (1985)\nMost nominations without a Best Picture nomination\nThey Shoot Horses, Don't They? (1969) with 9 nominations\nMost Oscar wins without a nomination for Best Picture\nThe Bad and the Beautiful (1952) with 5 wins\nFewest awards and nominations for a Best Picture winner\nGrand Hotel (1932) received only the Best Picture nomination\nMost nominations without a major nomination (Picture, Director, Acting and Screenplay)\nPepe (1960) received 7 nominations with no major nominations\nThese seven films got 6 nominations with no major nominations:\nThe Rains Came (1939)\nHans Christian Andersen (1952)\nIt's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963)\nEmpire of the Sun (1987)\nWho Framed Roger Rabbit (1988) (note: received 7 nominations when you include a \"special achievement\")\nTerminator 2: Judgment Day (1991)\nMemoirs of a Geisha (2005)\nBest Picture nominees that won every nomination except Best Picture\nThese 16 films were nominated for Best Picture and won in every category they were nominated for, except Best Picture:\nBad Girl (1931), 2/3\nThe Private Life of Henry VIII (1932), 1/2\nNaughty Marietta (1935), 1/2\nThe Story of Louis Pasteur (1936), 3/4\nThe Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), 3/4\nMiracle on 34th Street (1947), 3/4\nThe Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948), 3/4\nA Letter to Three Wives (1949), 2/3\nKing Solomon's Mines (1950), 2/3\nThree Coins in the Fountain (1954), 2/3\nJaws (1975), 3/4\nTraffic (2000), 4/5\nThe Blind Side (2009), 1/2\nSelma (2014), 1/2\nBohemian Rhapsody (2018), 4/5\nWomen Talking (2022), 1/2\nFilms nominated for Best Picture with no other major nominations\nThese 32 films were nominated for Best Picture but had no other major nominations (this does not include films that were only nominated for Best Picture and nothing else):\nWings (1927), 2 nominations\n42nd Street (1933), 2 nominations\nA Farewell to Arms (1933), 4 nominations\nCleopatra (1934), 5 nominations\nFlirtation Walk (1934), 2 nominations\nThe Gay Divorcee (1934), 5 nominations\nImitation of Life (1934), 3 nominations\nThe White Parade (1934), 2 nominations\nDavid Copperfield (1935), 3 nominations\nLes Misérables (1935), 4 nominations\nA Midsummer Night's Dream (1935), 4 nominations (note: actually had 2, but 2 more were write-in nominations)\nNaughty Marietta (1935), 2 nominations\nTop Hat (1935), 4 nominations\nA Tale of Two Cities (1936), 2 nominations\nThe Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), 4 nominations\nOf Mice and Men (1939), 4 nominations\nThe Wizard of Oz (1939), 6 nominations\nKing Solomon's Mines (1950), 3 nominations\nDecision Before Dawn (1951), 2 nominations\nIvanhoe (1952), 3 nominations\nThree Coins in the Fountain (1954), 3 nominations\nThe Music Man (1962), 6 nominations\nDoctor Dolittle (1967), 9 nominations\nHello, Dolly! (1969), 7 nominations\nJaws (1975), 4 nominations\nBeauty and the Beast (1991), 6 nominations\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), 6 nominations\nWar Horse (2011), 6 nominations\nSelma (2014), 2 nominations\nBlack Panther (2018), 7 nominations\nFord v Ferrari (2019), 4 nominations\nNightmare Alley (2021), 4 nominations\nAvatar: The Way of Water (2022), 4 nominations\nStories made into multiple Best Picture nominees\n9 sets of Best Picture nominees share either original source material or were revised versions of the same story (* = winner):\nRomeo and Juliet (1936), West Side Story (1961)*, Romeo and Juliet (1968), West Side Story (2021)\nThe plot of another Best Picture winner, Shakespeare in Love, revolves around the original production of Romeo and Juliet\nMutiny on the Bounty (1935)*, Mutiny on the Bounty (1962)\nCleopatra (1934), Cleopatra (1963)\nPygmalion (1938), My Fair Lady (1964)*\nHere Comes Mr. Jordan (1941), Heaven Can Wait (1978)\nLes Misérables (1935), Les Misérables (2012)\nA Star Is Born (1937), A Star Is Born (2018)\nLittle Women (1933), Little Women (2019)\nAll Quiet on the Western Front (1929/30)*, All Quiet on the Western Front (2022)\nFirst Best Picture winner produced wholly by non-Americans\nHamlet (1948), United Kingdom\nFirst Best Picture winner produced wholly by non-Americans or non-British\nThe Artist (2011), France\nFirst Best Picture winner produced wholly by non-Caucasians\nParasite (2019), South Korea\nMost wins by a film produced wholly or partially by non-Americans\nThe Last Emperor (1987), Italy/Hong Kong/United Kingdom, 9 wins\nMost nominations for a film produced wholly or partially by non-Americans\nTwo non-American films have received 13 nominations:\nShakespeare in Love (1998), United Kingdom/United States\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), New Zealand/United States\nOnly animated films to be nominated for Best Picture\nBeauty and the Beast (1991), Up (2009) and Toy Story 3 (2010)\nBest Picture winners adapted from Best Play or Best Musical Tony Award winners\n My Fair Lady (1964)\n The Sound of Music (1965)\n A Man for All Seasons (1966)\n Amadeus (1984)\nAlso:\nAll About Eve (1950) was adapted into the musical Applause, which won the Best Musical in 1970.\nChicago (2002) was adapted from both the original 1975 musical, which was nominated for Best Musical, and the 1996 revival, which won Best Revival.\nWhile the musical Titanic, which won the Best Musical in 1997, and the film Titanic (1997), which won the Best Picture, shared the same name, neither production had anything to do with the other, and by coincidence, both opened in the same year.\nBest Picture winners based on Pulitzer Prize winning sources\nYou Can't Take It With You (1938) – play\nGone with the Wind (1939) – novel\nAll the King's Men (1949) – novel\nDriving Miss Daisy (1989) – play\nSpotlight (2015) – public service reporting\nOn the Waterfront (1954) was an original screenplay suggested from Pulitzer-winning newspaper articles.\nBest Picture winners with the highest prize wins from the \"Big Three\" (Cannes, Venice, and Berlin)\nThe Lost Weekend (1945) – Palme d'Or\nHamlet (1948) – Golden Lion\nMarty (1955) – Palme d'Or\nRain Man (1988) – Golden Bear\nThe Shape of Water (2017) – Golden Lion\nParasite (2019) – Palme d'Or\nNomadland (2020) – Golden Lion\nPalme d'Or winning films to be nominated for Best Picture (Best Picture winners designated with ** two asterisks)\nThe Lost Weekend (1945) **\nMarty (1955) **\nFriendly Persuasion (1956)\nM*A*S*H (1970)\nThe Conversation (1974)\nTaxi Driver (1976)\nApocalypse Now (1979)\nAll That Jazz (1979)\nMissing (1982)\nThe Mission (1986)\nThe Piano (1993)\nPulp Fiction (1994)\nSecrets & Lies (1996)\nThe Pianist (2002)\nThe Tree of Life (2011)\nAmour (2012)\nParasite (2019) **\nTriangle of Sadness (2022)\nAnatomy of a Fall (2023)\nGolden Lion winning films to be nominated for Best Picture (Best Picture winners designated with ** two asterisks)\nHamlet (1948) **\nAtlantic City (1981)\nBrokeback Mountain (2005)\nThe Shape of Water (2017) **\nRoma (2018)\nJoker (2019)\nNomadland (2020) **\nPoor Things (2023)\nGolden Bear winning films to be nominated for Best Picture (Best Picture winners designated with ** two asterisks)\n12 Angry Men (1957)\nRain Man (1988) **\nIn the Name of the Father (1993)\nSense and Sensibility (1995)\nThe Thin Red Line (1998)\nMost acting nominations from a single film\nNine films have earned a record 5 acting nominations.\nMrs. Miniver (1942)\nAll About Eve (1950)\nFrom Here to Eternity (1953)\nOn the Waterfront (1954)\nPeyton Place (1957)\nTom Jones (1963)\nBonnie and Clyde (1967)\nThe Godfather Part II (1974)\nNetwork (1976)\nMost nominations for actors (4)\nOn the Waterfront (1954)\nThe Godfather (1972)\nThe Godfather Part II (1974)\nMost nominations for actresses (4)\nAll About Eve (1950)\nMost acting wins from a single film\nThree films have received 3 acting awards:\nA Streetcar Named Desire (1951)\nNetwork (1976)\nEverything Everywhere All at Once (2022)\n\nActing records\nMost awards for Best Actress\nKatharine Hepburn with 4 awards (1933, 1967, 1968, 1981)\nMost awards for Best Actor\nDaniel Day-Lewis with 3 awards (1989, 2007, 2012)\nMost awards for Best Supporting Actor\nWalter Brennan with 3 awards (1936, 1938, 1940)\nMost awards for Best Supporting Actress\nShelley Winters (1959, 1965) and Dianne Wiest (1986, 1994) with 2 awards each\nMost consecutive Best Actress nominations\nTwo actresses have been nominated 5 years in a row:\nBette Davis (1938–1942)\nGreer Garson (1941–1945)\nMost consecutive Best Actor nominations\nMarlon Brando with four nominations (1951 to 1954)\nMost consecutive Best Supporting Actress nominations\nThelma Ritter with four nominations (1950 to 1953)\nMost consecutive acting nominations across categories\nTwo actors have been nominated 4 years in a row:\nJennifer Jones (1943 Best Actress; 1944 Best Supporting Actress; 1945–1946 Best Actress)\nAl Pacino (1972 Best Supporting Actor; 1973–1975 Best Actor)\nActor with most nominations for acting\nJack Nicholson with 12 nominations\nActress with most nominations for acting\nMeryl Streep with 21 nominations\nMost nominations for an actor without a win\nPeter O'Toole with 8 nominations (received an Honorary Award in 2002, prior to 8th nomination)\nMost nominations for an actress without a win\nGlenn Close with 8 nominations\nMost nominations for an actor performing in a non-English language\nMarcello Mastroianni with 3 nominations: He was nominated for Best Actor for Divorce, Italian Style (1962); A Special Day (1977); and Dark Eyes (1987), performing in Italian\nLongest gap between first and second award\nHelen Hayes won in 1932 for The Sin of Madelon Claudet and in 1971 for Airport, a 39-year gap.\nLongest gap between first and second nomination\nJudd Hirsch was nominated in 1981 for Ordinary People and in 2023 for The Fabelmans, a 42-year gap.\nLongest time span between first and last wins\nKatharine Hepburn won in 1934 for Morning Glory and in 1982 for On Golden Pond, a 48-year gap.\nLongest time span between first and last nomination\nRobert De Niro was nominated in 1975 for The Godfather Part II (and won); and again in 2024 for Killers of the Flower Moon, a 49-year gap.\nMost acting nominations before first win\nBoth Geraldine Page and Al Pacino won on their 8th nomination\nMost posthumous nominations\nJames Dean with 2 (1955 for East of Eden and 1956 for Giant)\n\nShortest and Longest Academy Award Winning and Nominated Performances\nMost awards by a Black actor\nTwo Black actors have won two Oscars:\nDenzel Washington won Best Supporting Actor for Glory (1989) and Best Actor for Training Day (2001)\nMahershala Ali won Best Supporting Actor for Moonlight (2016) and for Green Book (2018)\nMost awards for one acting performance\nHarold Russell played Homer Parrish in The Best Years of Our Lives in 1946. For this role he received 2 Oscars, one for Best Supporting Actor and an Honorary Oscar \"for bringing hope and courage to his fellow veterans through his appearance in The Best Years of Our Lives.\"\nMost nominations for one acting performance\nBarry Fitzgerald was nominated as Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor for his role as Father Fitzgibbon in 1944's Going My Way. He won Best Supporting Actor.\nOnly acting win portraying multiple characters in the same film\nLee Marvin won for playing Kid Shelleen and Tim Strawn in Cat Ballou (1965)\nMost roles played in a single film to be nominated for an acting award\nPeter Sellers was nominated for Best Actor for playing 3 characters (Lionel Mandrake, President Merkin Muffley and Dr. Strangelove) in Dr. Strangelove (1964)\nYears where all four acting winners were born outside the United States\n1964\nBest Actor – Rex Harrison for My Fair Lady, United Kingdom\nBest Actress – Julie Andrews for Mary Poppins, United Kingdom\nBest Supporting Actor – Peter Ustinov for Topkapi, United Kingdom\nBest Supporting Actress – Lila Kedrova for Zorba the Greek, Russia\n2007\nBest Actor – Daniel Day-Lewis for There Will Be Blood, United Kingdom\nBest Actress – Marion Cotillard for La Vie en Rose, France\nBest Supporting Actor – Javier Bardem for No Country for Old Men, Spain\nBest Supporting Actress – Tilda Swinton for Michael Clayton, United Kingdom\nActors who won a Tony Award and Academy Award for portraying the same character\nJosé Ferrer as Cyrano de Bergerac\nBest Actor in a Play in 1947 for Cyrano de Bergerac\nBest Actor in 1950 for Cyrano de Bergerac\nShirley Booth as Lola Delaney\nBest Actress in a Play in 1950 for Come Back, Little Sheba\nBest Actress in 1952 for Come Back, Little Sheba\nYul Brynner as King Mongkut of Siam\nBest Featured Actor in a Musical in 1952 for The King and I\nBest Actor in 1956 for The King and I\nAnne Bancroft as Anne Sullivan\nBest Actress in a Play in 1960 for The Miracle Worker\nBest Actress in 1962 for The Miracle Worker\nRex Harrison as Henry Higgins\nBest Actor in a Musical in 1957 for My Fair Lady\nBest Actor in 1964 for My Fair Lady\nPaul Scofield as Sir Thomas More\nBest Actor in a Play in 1962 for A Man for All Seasons\nBest Actor in 1966 for A Man for All Seasons\nJack Albertson as John Cleary\nBest Featured Actor in a Play in 1965 for The Subject Was Roses\nBest Supporting Actor in 1968 for The Subject was Roses\nJoel Grey as the Master of Ceremonies\nBest Featured Actor in a Musical in 1967 for Cabaret\nBest Supporting Actor in 1972 for Cabaret\nLila Kedrova as Madame Hortense\nBest Supporting Actress in 1964 for Zorba the Greek\nBest Featured Actress in a Musical in 1984 for Zorba\nHelen Mirren as Queen Elizabeth II\nBest Actress in 2006 for The Queen\nBest Actress in a Play in 2015 for The Audience\nViola Davis as Rose Maxson\nBest Actress in a Play in 2010 for Fences\nBest Supporting Actress in 2016 for Fences\nActing awards in Science Fiction, Fantasy, Superhero, and Horror genres\nFredric March, 1931, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde\nEdmund Gwenn, 1947, Miracle on 34th Street\nJulie Andrews, 1964, Mary Poppins\nRuth Gordon, 1968, Rosemary's Baby\nCliff Robertson, 1968, Charly\nDon Ameche, 1985, Cocoon\nKathy Bates, 1990, Misery\nJodie Foster, 1991, The Silence of the Lambs\nAnthony Hopkins, 1991, The Silence of the Lambs\nHeath Ledger, 2008, The Dark Knight\nNatalie Portman, 2010, Black Swan\nJoaquin Phoenix, 2019, Joker\nJamie Lee Curtis, 2022, Everything Everywhere All at Once\nKe Huy Quan, 2022, Everything Everywhere All at Once\nMichelle Yeoh, 2022, Everything Everywhere All at Once\nEmma Stone, 2023, Poor Things\nMost acting awards for a character\nPortrayals of Vito Corleone won:\nBest Actor for Marlon Brando in The Godfather (1972)\nBest Supporting Actor for Robert De Niro in The Godfather Part II (1974) (in Italian)\nPortrayals of the Joker won:\nBest Supporting Actor for Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight (2008)\nBest Actor for Joaquin Phoenix in Joker (2019) (as origins character, Arthur Fleck)\nPortrayals of Anita from West Side Story won:\nBest Supporting Actress for Rita Moreno in the 1961 film adaptation\nBest Supporting Actress for Ariana DeBose in the 2021 film adaptation\nMost nominations for a character\nThree portrayals of Queen Elizabeth I of England earned nominations for:\nCate Blanchett (2) in Elizabeth (1998) and its sequel Elizabeth: The Golden Age (2007) (both in Best Actress)\nJudi Dench in Shakespeare in Love (1998) (winner, Best Supporting Actress)\nThree portrayals of King Henry VIII of England earned nominations for:\nCharles Laughton in The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933) (winner, Best Actor)\nRobert Shaw in A Man for All Seasons (1966) (Best Supporting Actor)\nRichard Burton in Anne of the Thousand Days (1969) (Best Actor)\nThe lead characters of three different versions of A Star Is Born have been nominated:\nFemale leads:\n1937 : Janet Gaynor as actress Esther Blodgett/Vicki Lester\n1954 : Judy Garland as actress/singer Esther Blodgett/Vicki Lester\n2018 : Lady Gaga as singer/musician Ally Campana\nMale leads:\n1937 : Fredric March as actor Norman Maine\n1954 : James Mason as actor Norman Maine\n2018 : Bradley Cooper as singer/musician Jackson Maine\n\nMiscellaneous records\nMost films nominated for and won in a single category\n1942, with 24 films nominated for Best Documentary Feature Film and 4 winners (Shorts and features competed in a single category)\nPerson nominated in the most decades\nJohn Williams:\n1960s: 1967, 1969 (2 nominations)\n1970s: 1971, 1972 (2 nominations), 1973 (3 nominations), 1974, 1975, 1977 (2 nominations), 1978\n1980s: 1980, 1981, 1982 (2 nominations), 1983, 1984 (2 nominations), 1987 (2 nominations), 1988, 1989 (2 nominations)\n1990s: 1990 (2 nominations), 1991 (2 nominations), 1993, 1995 (3 nominations), 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999\n2000s: 2000, 2001 (2 nominations), 2002, 2004, 2005 (2 nominations)\n2010s: 2011 (2 nominations), 2012, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019\n2020s: 2022, 2023\nOnly people to win both a Nobel Prize and an Oscar\nGeorge Bernard Shaw: Won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1925, and an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay for the film Pygmalion in 1938\nBob Dylan: Won an Oscar for Best Original Song for the song \"Things Have Changed\" from Wonder Boys in 2000, and the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2016\nOnly person to win both a Booker Prize and an Oscar\nRuth Prawer Jhabvala: Won the Booker Prize for Heat and Dust in 1975, and two Oscars for Best Adapted Screenplay for the films A Room with a View in 1986 and Howards End in 1992\nPeople who won both a Pulitzer Prize and an Oscar\nMstyslav Chernov: Won an Oscar for Best Documentary Feature Film for the film 20 Days in Mariupol in 2023, and the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service in 2023\nAaron Copland: Won an Oscar for Best Original Score for the film The Heiress in 1949, and the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1945\nJohn Corigliano: Won an Oscar for Best Original Score for the film The Red Violin in 1999, and the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2001\nBob Dylan: Won an Oscar for Best Original Song for the song \"Things Have Changed\" from Wonder Boys in 2000, and an additional citation in the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2006\nHorton Foote: Won two Oscars; Best Adapted Screenplay for the film To Kill a Mockingbird in 1962, and Best Original Screenplay for the film Tender Mercies in 1983, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1995\nMarvin Hamlisch: Won three Oscars in 1973; Best Score-Adaptation or Treatment for the film The Sting, and Best Original Score and Best Original Song for the title song of the film The Way We Were, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1976\nOscar Hammerstein II: Won two Oscars; Best Original Song for the songs \"The Last Time I Saw Paris\" from the film Lady Be Good in 1941, and \"It Might as Well Be Spring\" from the film State Fair in 1945, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1950, along with an additional citation in 1943\nSidney Howard: Posthumously won an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay for the film Gone With the Wind in 1939, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1925\nWilliam Inge: Won an Oscar for Best Original Screenplay for the film Splendor in the Grass in 1961, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1953\nFrank Loesser: Won an Oscar for Best Original Song for the song \"Baby, It's Cold Outside\" from the film Neptune's Daughter in 1949, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1962\nRichard Rodgers: Won an Oscar for Best Original Song for the song \"It Might as Well Be Spring\" from the film State Fair in 1945, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1950, along with an additional citation in 1943\nWilliam Saroyan: Won an Oscar for Best Story, Screenplay for the film The Human Comedy in 1943, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1940\nJohn Patrick Shanley: Won an Oscar for Best Original Screenplay for the film Moonstruck in 1987, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 2005\nRobert E. Sherwood: Won an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay for the film The Best Years of Our Lives in 1946, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1936, 1938, and 1941, and the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography in 1949\nStephen Sondheim: Won an Oscar for Best Original Song for the song \"Sooner or Later (I Always Get My Man)\" from the film Dick Tracy in 1990, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1985\nAlfred Uhry: Won an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay for the film Driving Miss Daisy in 1989, and the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for the stage version in 1988\nOnly person to win both an Olympic medal and an Oscar\nKobe Bryant: Won gold medals in Basketball in 2008 and 2012, and an Oscar for Best Animated Short Film in 2017 for the film Dear Basketball\nOnly person to win for Acting and Songwriting\nBarbra Streisand won Best Actress for Funny Girl (1968) and Best Original Song for the song \"Evergreen (Love Theme from A Star Is Born)\" from the film A Star Is Born (1976).\nOnly person to win for Acting and Writing\nEmma Thompson won Best Actress for Howards End (1992) and Best Adapted Screenplay for the film Sense and Sensibility (1995).\nOnly person to win for Acting and Directing\nTo date, technically no one has. However Lee Grant won for Best Supporting Actress for Shampoo (1975) and she directed the Best Documentary Feature, Down and Out in America (1986), but under the Academy rules at the time, only producers were eligible to win the award, so the award went to her producer husband and another co-producer. Under the present rules, the director would now be recognized with the Oscar.\nOnly person nominated for Acting, Writing, Producing, and Directing for the same film\nWarren Beatty was nominated in the four categories for Heaven Can Wait (1978), and again for Reds (1981).\nCitizen Kane was nominated in the four categories, but at the time, the studio rather than the individual producer was eligible for the Best Picture award, meaning that writer/director/producer/actor Orson Welles was not nominated as a producer.\nOnly person to receive every nomination in a category\nStephen Bosustow received all three nominations for Short Subjects, Cartoons in 1956, winning for Magoo's Puddle Jumper.\nOnly actor to win an Oscar for portraying a real Oscar winner\nCate Blanchett won Best Supporting Actress for portraying Katharine Hepburn in The Aviator (2004).\nNOTE: Renée Zellweger won Best Actress for portraying Judy Garland in Judy (2019). Garland received the Academy Juvenile Award, an honorary award, but never won a competitive Oscar.\nOnly actor to win an Oscar for portraying a fictional Oscar nominee\nMaggie Smith won Best Supporting Actress for playing an Oscar loser in California Suite (1978).\nOnly actor to appear in multiple films with the most Oscar wins\nBernard Hill has supporting roles in Titanic (1997) and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003), with 11 Oscars each.\nMost total nominations without a win\nGreg P. Russell has earned 16 nominations in the Best Sound Mixing category (This does not include his nomination at the 89th Academy Awards for 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi, which was revoked the day before the ceremony.)\nMost total nominations before receiving an award\nFilm composer Victor Young was nominated 21 times without winning. He was often nominated multiple times in one year; twice, he was nominated four times at the same Oscars. He won posthumously for Around the World in 80 Days (1956).\nSound re-recording mixer Kevin O'Connell comes in at a close second, with 20 unsuccessful nominations from 1983 until 2016, when he finally won for Hacksaw Ridge.\nMost nominations for a living person\nFilm composer John Williams with 54\nOnly write-in nominee to win a competitive award\nCinematographer Hal Mohr for A Midsummer Night's Dream (1935)\nMost categories to have been nominated in\nKenneth Branagh: eight nominations in seven categories, winning once\nBest Picture\nBest Director\nBest Original Screenplay\nBest Adapted Screenplay\nBest Actor\nBest Supporting Actor\nBest Live Action Short Film\nAlfonso Cuarón: eleven nominations in seven categories, winning four\nBest Picture\nBest Director\nBest Original Screenplay\nBest Adapted Screenplay\nBest Film Editing\nBest Cinematography\nBest Live Action Short Film\nNOTE: Cuarón's film Roma also won Best International Feature Film, but as the category is awarded to the country rather than the producer or director, this does not count towards his wins and nominations.\nMost nominated woman\nCostume designer Edith Head with 35\nHighest \"perfect score\"\nSound editor Mark Berger has four nominations and four wins\nMost nominations for directing\nWilliam Wyler with 12 nominations\nMost nominations for directing without an award\n All received 5 nominations\nRobert Altman\nClarence Brown\nAlfred Hitchcock\nKing Vidor\nOnly films to win Best Director and nothing else\nTwo Arabian Knights (1927) – Lewis Milestone (Note: only nomination as well)\nThe Divine Lady (1928) – Frank Lloyd\nSkippy (1931) – Norman Taurog\nMr Deeds Goes to Town (1936) – Frank Capra\nThe Awful Truth (1937) – Leo McCarey\nGiant (1956) – George Stevens\nThe Graduate (1967) – Mike Nichols\nThe Power of the Dog (2021) – Jane Campion\nMost wins for producing\nTwo producers received 3 awards:\nSam Spiegel\nSaul Zaentz\nMost nominations for producing\nSteven Spielberg with 13 nominations\nMost nominations for directing in a single year\nTwo people have received 2 nominations for Best Director in the same year:\nMichael Curtiz for Angels with Dirty Faces and Four Daughters in 1938\nSteven Soderbergh for Erin Brockovich and Traffic in 2000\nMost Best Picture awards for a film franchise\nThe Godfather trilogy with 2 (for The Godfather and The Godfather Part II)\nOther Best Picture awards for a film franchise\nThe Rocky franchise: Rocky (1976)\nThe Middle-earth franchise: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)\nFilm franchises with multiple Best Picture nominations\nThe Godfather trilogy with 3 nominations for The Godfather, The Godfather Part II, and The Godfather Part III\nThe Middle-earth franchise with 3 nominations for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King\nAvatar franchise with 2 nominations for Avatar and Avatar: The Way of Water\nMost nominations for a film franchise\nStar Wars with 38 nominations\nMost wins for a film series\nThe Middle-earth franchise with 17 competitive wins out of 37 nominations (for The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit)\nMost nominations for Best Original Screenplay\nWoody Allen with 16 nominations and 3 wins\nLongest time span between the release of a film and winning an Oscar\nLimelight (1952) is the only film to have won an award twenty years after its official release. Since it was not released in Los Angeles County until 1972, it was not eligible for any Academy Awards until that time\nMost posthumous award wins\nWilliam A. Horning won in 1958 for Best Art Direction for Gigi, and for Best Art Direction for Ben-Hur in 1959\nMost posthumous award nominations\nHoward Ashman with four\nLongest time span between a winner's death and his award\nLarry Russell, who died in February 1954, won Best Original Score for Limelight (1952) in 1973, 19 years after his death\nHighest-grossing film to win Best Picture\nTitanic with $2,257,844,554\nHighest-grossing film to be nominated for Best Picture\nAvatar with $2,923,706,026\nHighest-grossing R-rated film to win Best Picture\nOppenheimer with $960,734,668\nHighest-grossing R-rated film to be nominated for Best Picture\nJoker with $1,078,751,311\nLowest-grossing film to win Best Picture\nCODA with $1,905,058\nLowest-grossing film to be nominated for Best Picture\nMank with $100,072\nLowest-grossing R-rated film to win Best Picture\nNomadland with $39,458,207\nFilms to gross over $2 billion to be nominated for Best Picture\nAvatar\nAvatar: The Way of Water\nTitanic\nFilms to gross over $1 billion to be nominated for Best Picture\nAvatar\nAvatar: The Way of Water\nBarbie\nBlack Panther\nJoker\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King\nTitanic\nTop Gun: Maverick\nToy Story 3\nLongest film to win Best Picture\nGone with the Wind, 224 minutes (238 with overture, entr'acte, and exit music)\nLongest film to be nominated for Best Picture\nCleopatra, 251 minutes\nLongest film to win an award\nO.J.: Made in America (2016), 467 minutes (Best Documentary Feature)\nThe longest fictional film to win an award was War and Peace (1968), 431 minutes (Best Foreign Language Film)\nShortest film to win Best Picture\nMarty, 90 minutes\nShortest film to be nominated for Best Picture\nShe Done Him Wrong, 66 minutes\nShortest film to win an award\nThe Crunch Bird, 2 minutes (Best Animated Short Film)\nShortest film to be nominated for an award\nFresh Guacamole, 100 seconds (Best Animated Short Film)\nMost royalty and leaders portrayed\n49 portrayals of monarchs or civil leaders (real and fictional), have been nominated for acting awards, with 11 winners\nThe United Kingdom is the most represented nation\nOverall, there have been 16 nominations and 5 wins for portrayals of British monarchs\nIn addition, two portrayals of Scottish monarchs have been nominated\nThree portrayals of British Prime Ministers have been nominated, with 3 wins\nPortrayals of four French kings and Emperor Napoleon have received nominations\nThe only portrayal of a non-British monarch to win an award was Yul Brynner as King Mongkut of Siam in The King and I\n11 portrayals of presidents of the United States – three of them fictional – have been nominated, with Daniel Day-Lewis's portrayal of Abraham Lincoln in Lincoln the only winner\nTwo portrayals of popes (the head of state for Vatican City) have been nominated, both from the film The Two Popes\n12 portrayals of spouses/consorts of leaders have been nominated, with Katharine Hepburn's Eleanor of Aquitaine in The Lion in Winter the only winner\nThree portrayals of dictators have been nominated:\nForest Whitaker won for his portrayal of Idi Amin in The Last King of Scotland\nCharlie Chaplin and Jack Oakie were nominated for their respective turns as the dictators of Tomainia and Bacteria in The Great Dictator\nMost Honorary Awards\nBob Hope received 5 honorary awards – 2 Special, 2 Honorary, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award\nTallest Oscar winner/nominee\nFlorian Henckel von Donnersmarck (2.05m/6 ft 9in) – Best International Feature Film (The Lives of Others)\nShortest Oscar winner\nLinda Hunt (1.45m/4 ft 9in) – Best Supporting Actress (The Year of Living Dangerously)\nShortest Oscar nominee\nMichael Dunn (1.17m/3 ft 10in) – Best Supporting Actor (Ship of Fools)\n\nOscar speeches\nLongest speech\nThe longest Oscar speech was given by Greer Garson at the 15th Academy Awards after she was named Best Actress for 1942 for Mrs. Miniver. The exact length of her speech is unknown but it is believed that it ran for nearly six minutes. It was shortly after this incident that the academy set forty-five seconds as the allotted time for an acceptance speech and began to cut the winners off after this time limit. When presenting the Best Actor award at the 24th Academy Awards, Garson quipped, \"I think I have ten minutes left over from a highly emotional speech I made a few years ago. I'd be glad to give it to them.\"\nShortest speech\nThe shortest Oscar speech was that given by Patty Duke at the 35th Academy Awards after she was named Best Supporting Actress for 1962 for The Miracle Worker. Duke, age 16, was the youngest person at that time to receive an Academy Award in a competitive category. Her acceptance speech was, simply, two words – \"Thank you\" – after which she walked off the stage (Note: When Fred Zinnemann accepted the Best Picture Oscar for A Man For All Seasons, he simply nodded and smiled. However, minutes earlier he had won Best Director and made his thank-yous then, and thus felt he had nothing to add.)\n\nTied winners\nThere have been six two-way ties\n\n1931/32: Best Actor – Wallace Beery (The Champ) and Fredric March (Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde)\n1949: Best Documentary Short – A Chance to Live and So Much for So Little\n1968: Best Actress – Katharine Hepburn (The Lion in Winter) and Barbra Streisand (Funny Girl)\n1986: Best Documentary – Artie Shaw: Time Is All You've Got and Down and Out in America\n1994: Best Short Film (Live Action) – Franz Kafka's It's a Wonderful Life and Trevor\n2012: Best Sound Editing – Paul N. J. Ottosson (Zero Dark Thirty) and Per Hallberg & Karen Baker Landers (Skyfall)\n\nClean sweep\nThe following films with at least two nominations won all of their categories.\n\n1927/1928: Wings (2)\nOutstanding Picture: Paramount Pictures\nBest Engineering Effects: Roy Pomeroy\n1934: It Happened One Night (5)\nOutstanding Production: Frank Capra and Harry Cohn\nBest Director: Frank Capra\nBest Actor: Clark Gable\nBest Actress: Claudette Colbert\nBest Adaptation: Robert Riskin\n1940: Pinocchio (2)\nBest Original Score: Leigh Harline, Paul Smith and Ned Washington\nBest Song: Leigh Harline and Ned Washington (\"When You Wish Upon a Star\")\n1947: Black Narcissus (2)\nBest Cinematography (Color): Jack Cardiff\nBest Art Direction (Color): Alfred Junge (Art Direction and Set Decoration)\n1958: Gigi (9)\nBest Motion Picture: Arthur Freed\nBest Director: Vincente Minnelli\nBest Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium: Alan Jay Lerner\nBest Cinematography (Color): Joseph Ruttenberg\nBest Costume Design: Cecil Beaton\nBest Film Editing: Adrienne Fazan\nBest Scoring of a Musical Picture: André Previn\nBest Song: Frederick Loewe and Alan Jay Lerner (\"Gigi\")\nBest Art Direction: William A. Horning and E. Preston Ames (Art Direction) / Henry Grace and F. Keogh Gleason (Set Decoration)\n1966: Born Free (2)\nBest Original Music Score: John Barry\nBest Song: John Barry and Don Black (\"Born Free\")\n1966: Grand Prix (3)\nBest Film Editing: Fredric Steinkamp, Henry Berman, Stu Linder and Frank Santillo\nBest Sound Effects: Gordon Daniel\nBest Sound: Franklin Milton\n1971: Sentinels of Silence (2)\nBest Documentary Short Subject: Robert Amram and Manuel Arango\nBest Live Action Short Subject: Robert Amram and Manuel Arango\n1974: The Great Gatsby (2)\nBest Costume Design: Theoni V. Aldredge\nBest Scoring: Original Song Score and Adaptation or Scoring: Adaptation: Nelson Riddle\n1985: Cocoon (2)\nBest Supporting Actor: Don Ameche\nBest Visual Effects: Ken Ralston, Ralph McQuarrie, Scott Farrar and David Berry\n1987: The Last Emperor (9)\nBest Picture: Jeremy Thomas\nBest Director: Bernardo Bertolucci\nBest Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium: Bernardo Bertolucci and Mark Peploe\nBest Cinematography: Vittorio Storaro\nBest Costume Design: James Acheson\nBest Film Editing: Gabriella Cristiani\nBest Original Score: Ryuichi Sakamoto, David Byrne and Cong Su\nBest Art Direction: Ferdinando Scarfiotti (Art Direction) / Bruno Cesari and Osvaldo Desideri (Set Decoration)\nBest Sound: Bill Rowe and Ivan Sharrock\n1989: The Little Mermaid (2)\nBest Original Score: Alan Menken\nBest Original Song: Alan Menken and Howard Ashman (\"Under the Sea\")\n1993: Jurassic Park (3)\nBest Sound Effects Editing: Gary Rydstrom and Richard Hymns\nBest Sound: Gary Rydstrom, Gary Summers, Ron Judkins and Shawn Murphy\nBest Visual Effects: Dennis Muren, Stan Winston, Phil Tippett and Michael Lantieri\n1994: Ed Wood (2)\nBest Supporting Actor: Martin Landau\nBest Makeup: Rick Baker, Ve Neill and Yolanda Toussieng\n1994: The Lion King (2)\nBest Original Score: Hans Zimmer\nBest Original Song: Elton John and Tim Rice (\"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\")\n1995: Pocahontas (2)\nBest Original Musical or Comedy Score: Alan Menken and Stephen Schwartz\nBest Original Song: Alan Menken and Stephen Schwartz (\"Colors of the Wind\")\n1995: Restoration (2)\nBest Costume Design: James Acheson\nBest Art Direction: Eugenio Zanetti (Art Direction and Set Decoration)\n1995: The Usual Suspects (2)\nBest Supporting Actor: Kevin Spacey\nBest Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen: Christopher McQuarrie\n1999: The Matrix (4)\nBest Film Editing: Zach Staenberg\nBest Sound Effects Editing: Dane Davis\nBest Sound: John T. Reitz, Gregg Rudloff, David E. Campbell and David Lee\nBest Visual Effects: John Gaeta, Janek Sirrs, Steve Courtley and Jon Thum\n2003: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (11)\nBest Picture: Peter Jackson, Fran Walsh and Barrie M. Osborne\nBest Director: Peter Jackson\nBest Adapted Screenplay: Fran Walsh, Peter Jackson and Philippa Boyens\nBest Costume Design: Ngila Dickson and Richard Taylor\nBest Film Editing: Jamie Selkirk\nBest Makeup: Peter King and Richard Taylor\nBest Original Score: Howard Shore\nBest Original Song: Howard Shore, Fran Walsh and Annie Lennox (\"Into the West\")\nBest Art Direction: Grant Major (Art Direction) / Dan Hennah and Alan Lee (Set Decoration)\nBest Sound Mixing: Christopher Boyes, Hammond Peek, Michael Hedges and Michael Semanick\nBest Visual Effects: Jim Rygiel, Joe Letteri, Randall William Cook and Alex Funke\n2006: An Inconvenient Truth (2)\nBest Documentary Feature Film: Davis Guggenheim\nBest Original Song: Melissa Etheridge (\"I Need to Wake Up\")\n2007: The Bourne Ultimatum (3)\nBest Film Editing: Christopher Rouse\nBest Sound Editing: Karen Baker Landers and Per Hallberg\nBest Sound Mixing: Scott Millan, Kirk Francis and David Parker\n2011: The Iron Lady (2)\nBest Actress: Meryl Streep\nBest Makeup: Mark Coulier and J. Roy Helland\n2013: Frozen (2)\nBest Animated Feature Film: Chris Buck, Jennifer Lee and Peter Del Vecho\nBest Original Song: Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez (\"Let It Go\")\n2013: The Great Gatsby (2)\nBest Costume Design: Catherine Martin\nBest Production Design: Catherine Martin (Production Design) / Beverley Dunn (Set Decoration)\n2017: Coco (2)\nBest Animated Feature Film: Lee Unkrich and Darla K. Anderson\nBest Original Song: Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez (\"Remember Me\")\n2021: CODA (3)\nBest Picture: Fabrice Gianfermi, Philippe Rousselet and Patrick Wachsberger\nBest Supporting Actor: Troy Kotsur\nBest Adapted Screenplay: Sian Heder\n2021: The Eyes of Tammy Faye (2)\nBest Actress : Jessica Chastain\nBest Makeup and Hairstyling : Linda Dowds, Stephanie Ingram and Justin Raleigh\n\nSee also\nReferences\nExternal links\nOscars.org (official Academy site)\nThe Academy Awards Database (official site)\nFilmsite.org",
"title": "List_of_Academy_Award_records"
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"paragraph_text": "The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is a 2003 epic high fantasy adventure film directed by Peter Jackson from a screenplay by Fran Walsh, Philippa Boyens, and Jackson. It is based on 1955's The Return of the King, the third volume of the novel The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien. The sequel to 2002's The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, the film is the third and final instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. It features an ensemble cast including Elijah Wood, Ian McKellen, Liv Tyler, Viggo Mortensen, Sean Astin, Cate Blanchett, John Rhys-Davies, Bernard Hill, Billy Boyd, Dominic Monaghan, Orlando Bloom, Hugo Weaving, Miranda Otto, David Wenham, Karl Urban, John Noble, Andy Serkis, Ian Holm, and Sean Bean. Continuing the plot of the previous film, Frodo, Sam and Gollum make their final way toward Mount Doom to destroy the One Ring, unaware of Gollum's true intentions, while Merry, Pippin, Gandalf, Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli and their allies join forces against Sauron and his legions from Mordor.\nThe Return of the King was financed and distributed by American studio New Line Cinema, but filmed and edited entirely in Jackson's native New Zealand, concurrently with the other two parts of the trilogy. It premiered on 1 December 2003 at the Embassy Theatre in Wellington and was then released on 17 December 2003 in the US and 18 December 2003 in New Zealand. The film was acclaimed by critics and audiences, who considered it a landmark in filmmaking and the fantasy film genre, and a satisfying conclusion to the trilogy, with praise for the visual effects, performances, action sequences, direction, screenplay, musical score, costume design, emotional depth, scope, and story. It grossed over $1.1 billion worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of 2003, the second-highest-grossing film of all time during its run, and the highest-grossing film ever released by New Line Cinema.\nLike the previous films in the trilogy, The Return of the King is widely recognised as one of the greatest and most influential films ever made. The film received numerous accolades; at the 76th Academy Awards, it won all eleven awards for which it was nominated, including Best Picture, the first fantasy film to do so and tying with 1959's Ben-Hur and 1997's Titanic as the movie with the most Academy Award wins. It also became the second film series whose entries have all won Best Visual Effects, after the original Star Wars trilogy.\n\nPlot\nThe hobbit Déagol discovers the One Ring in a river while fishing with his cousin Sméagol. The Ring immediately ensnares Sméagol's mind, and he kills his cousin for it. Increasingly corrupted physically and mentally, he retreats into the Misty Mountains and becomes known as Gollum.\nCenturies later, during the War of the Ring, Gandalf leads Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and King Théoden of Rohan to Isengard, where they reunite with Merry and Pippin. Gandalf retrieves Saruman's palantír, and the group returns to Edoras to celebrate their victory at Helm's Deep. Pippin looks into the palantír, seeing Sauron and a burning tree. Gandalf deduces that the enemy plans to attack Gondor's capital Minas Tirith; he rides there to warn Gondor's corrupt steward Denethor. Pippin, who accompanies him, swears fealty to Denethor, whose now-dead heir Boromir had saved his life; on Gandalf's instruction, Pippin triggers the lighting of the beacons, which call for help from Rohan.\nFrodo, who carries the Ring, and Sam continue their journey towards Mordor, unaware that Gollum, now their guide, plans to betray them and take the Ring for himself. The trio witness the Witch-king of Angmar, lord of the nine Nazgûl, setting off towards Gondor with his army of Orcs. Gollum frames Sam for eating food supplies and desiring the Ring; Frodo is deceived and orders Sam to go home.\nAs King Théoden gathers his army, Elrond tells Aragorn that Arwen is dying, having refused to leave Middle-earth. Elrond gives Aragorn Andúril, reforged from the shards of King Elendil's sword Narsil, and urges him to claim Gondor's throne, to which he is heir. Aragorn travels the Paths of the Dead with Legolas and Gimli and pledges to release the ghosts there from their curse should they come to Gondor's aid.\nGollum tricks Frodo into venturing alone into the giant spider Shelob's lair. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, who falls down a chasm after a scuffle. Shelob discovers, paralyses, and binds Frodo, but is wounded and driven away by a returning Sam. Sam mourns Frodo's apparent death and takes the Ring, but then realizes his mistake when Orcs take Frodo captive. He rescues Frodo within Mordor and the two continue towards Mount Doom.\nDenethor sends his younger son, Faramir, on a suicide charge. Faramir returns gravely wounded; believing him dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf marshals the defenders, but the enormous Orc army breaks into the city. Denethor attempts to burn himself and Faramir on a pyre, but Pippin alerts Gandalf and they rescue Faramir. Denethor, set ablaze, jumps to his death.\nThéoden arrives and leads his army against the Orcs. Despite initial success in the ensuing battle, they are decimated by the Oliphaunt-riding Haradrim and the Witch-king mortally wounds Théoden; however, his niece Éowyn slays the Witch-king with Merry's help before Théoden dies in his niece's arms. Aragorn arrives with his Army of the Dead, who overcome Sauron's forces. Their oath fulfilled, the Dead are released from their curse.\nAragorn decides to march on Mordor to distract Sauron from Frodo and Sam; all of Sauron's remaining forces march to meet Aragorn's diversion, allowing the hobbits to reach Mount Doom. Gollum, having survived his fall, attacks, but Frodo enters the mountain. There, he succumbs to the Ring's power, putting it on his finger. Gollum bites Frodo's finger off and reclaims the Ring, leading to a scuffle before they stumble off the ledge. Frodo clings to the ledge and Sam pulls him up while Gollum falls into the lava with the Ring, destroying it and vanquishing Sauron once and for all. The lands of Mordor collapse into the earth, destroying the Orc army. Frodo and Sam narrowly escape the erupting Mount Doom and are saved by Gandalf with the help of eagles.\nThe surviving Fellowship is happily reunited in Minas Tirith. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and marries Arwen; they and everyone else present bow to the hobbits. The hobbits return home to the Shire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. Four years later, Frodo, still plagued by trauma and the pain of his wound inflicted by the Witch-king, departs Middle-earth for the Undying Lands with his uncle Bilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam the Red Book of Westmarch, which details their adventures.\n\nCast\nLike the preceding films in the trilogy, The Return of the King has an ensemble cast, and some of the cast and their respective characters include:\n\nElijah Wood as Frodo Baggins: A young hobbit who continues his quest to destroy the Ring, which continues to weaken and tempt him.\nIan McKellen as Gandalf the White: An Istari wizard who travels to aid the Men of Gondor, acting as a general at the Siege of Gondor.\nViggo Mortensen as Aragorn: A Dúnedain ranger who must finally face his destiny as King of Gondor.\nSean Astin as Samwise Gamgee: Better known as Sam, Frodo's loyal hobbit gardener and companion.\nAndy Serkis as Sméagol / Gollum: A wretched and treacherous creature who was once one of the river-folk (an extinct race of hobbits) and now guides Frodo and Sam into Mordor while seeking the Ring. The first scenes in the film portray him in his former life as Sméagol as well as his deterioration into Gollum.\nBilly Boyd as Peregrin Took: Better known as Pippin, a hobbit who looks into the palantír and later becomes an esquire of Gondor.\nDominic Monaghan as Meriadoc Brandybuck: Better known as Merry, a cousin of Frodo's who becomes an esquire of Rohan.\nJohn Rhys-Davies as Gimli: A dwarf warrior and companion to Aragorn along with Legolas.\nRhys-Davies also voices Treebeard: the ent leader.\nOrlando Bloom as Legolas: An elven prince of Mirkwood and skilled archer who aids Aragorn in his quest to reclaim the throne.\nBernard Hill as Théoden: The King of Rohan who, after triumphing at Helm's Deep, is preparing his troops for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.\nMiranda Otto as Éowyn: Théoden's niece, who wishes to prove herself in battle and has fallen in love with Aragorn, who does not return her love. In the extended cut of the film, she finds love with Faramir when they are both residing in the Houses of Healing.\nDavid Wenham as Faramir: A son of the Stewards of Gondor and head of the Gondorian Rangers defending Osgiliath, who seeks his father's love in vain.\nKarl Urban as Éomer: Éowyn's brother, who serves as Chief Marshal of the Riders of Rohan and heir to his uncle's throne.\nHugo Weaving as Elrond: The Lord of Rivendell who must convince Aragorn to take up the throne.\nLiv Tyler as Arwen: Elrond's daughter and Aragorn's true love, who gives up her immortal life to be with Aragorn.\nCate Blanchett as Galadriel: The Elven-Queen of Lothlórien who is aware the time of the elves is at an end.\nJohn Noble as Denethor: The corrupt Steward of Gondor and father of Boromir and Faramir, whose grief over Boromir's death and despair over Mordor's superior numbers drive him into madness during the Siege of Gondor.\nIan Holm as Bilbo Baggins: Frodo's elderly uncle, who has rapidly aged after giving away the Ring.\nSean Bean as Boromir: Faramir's older brother and a fallen companion of Aragorn, who appears in a flashback of his death at the end of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring and in the extended cut when his father has a hallucination.\nMarton Csokas as Celeborn the Wise: The Elven-King of Lothlórien.\nLawrence Makoare as the Witch-king of Angmar: The lord of the Nazgûl, who leads Mordor's assault on Minas Tirith.\nMakoare also plays Gothmog: An Orc commander, who is voiced by Craig Parker.\nThomas Robins as Déagol: Sméagol's cousin, who is killed by Sméagol, when the former finds the One Ring in the river they are fishing in.\nThe following appear only in the Extended Edition\n\nChristopher Lee as Saruman the White: An Istari wizard, formerly the head of the Istari Order and its White Council, who is now trapped by Treebeard until he is killed by his own servant, Gríma.\nBrad Dourif as Gríma Wormtongue: Saruman's sycophantic, treacherous servant, who is shot by Legolas after stabbing his own master.\nBruce Spence as the Mouth of Sauron: Sauron's ambassador at the Black Gate.\nThere are cameos from Peter Jackson, Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo, Rick Porras and Andrew Lesnie on the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob. Sean Astin's daughter played Sam and Rosie's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene, Sarah McLeod's daughter plays their younger son. Jackson's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, while Christian Rivers played a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded. Royd Tolkien cameos as a Ranger in Osgiliath, while in the Extended Edition Howard Shore appears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers of The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game are featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor. At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched by Alan Lee, an idea suggested by Ian McKellen.\n\nComparison to the source material\nAs with all of Peter Jackson's movie adaptions of The Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included, though some are significantly altered. Some events and details seen in the film are not found in the books.\nThe film version of The Return of the King contains major scenes from the middle of Tolkien's The Two Towers, such as the attack by Shelob and the palantír subplot, as Jackson realigned events of the film to fit the timeline from the book's Appendices, rather than the interlaced order of the main narrative. However, the plot of the second half of Book III is either completely omitted (chapter \"The Road to Isengard\") or only shown in one scene (chapter \"The Voice of Saruman\"). Saruman's murder by Gríma (seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of the Scouring of the Shire.\nThe basis of Elrond and Arwen's subplot arguing about Arwen's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond's relevance to the story.\nIn the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven Denethor to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor's use of the palantír which drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out-thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes.\nThe muster of Rohan, and the subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitive Drúedain during their journey to the besieged Gondor are excised from the film. The Red Arrow brought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for Rohan's aid is absent. Éowyn's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to have Miranda Otto playing a man. When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin by telling him of the Undying Lands, based on a descriptive passage in the book's final chapter.\nThe film altered the circumstances of Théoden's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden's rallying speech (\"To death!\") before the initial charge in the film is spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King.\nThe Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book's chapters in the Houses of Healing: The Warden, the talk of Athelas, the comical conversation with the herb-master, the woman Ioreth and her saying about a King's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn's true identity are left out altogether. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is briefly referenced in the Extended Edition, with a scene where the two hold hands.\nGollum's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was rewritten for the film, as the writers felt that simply having Gollum slip and fall was anticlimactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team realised that that would make it look as if Frodo was murdering Gollum. Instead, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring.\n\nIn addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle-earth, referenced only briefly in the main text of The Return of the King, and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs of Moria, the attacks on Lothlórien and the Woodland Realm of Thranduil by the forces of Dol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and the Lonely Mountain by a force of Easterlings, events hinted at in a comment by Legolas in the book.\nThere are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn fights one), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl, and Aragorn kills the Mouth of Sauron in the extended edition of the film but not in the book.\nAlthough the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad-dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or altered in the film. Aragorn's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the city. Omitted entirely are the camp at the Field of Cormallen, Aragorn's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen's wedding, Galadriel and Celeborn being present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to the Shire with stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was seen by the screenwriters as anticlimactic. The film also left out the character epilogues:\nFor example, Samwise Gamgee stayed in the Shire when Gandalf and Frodo went to Valinor, during which time he would make changes and additions to the Red Book of Westmarch, which he inherited from Frodo, just as in the film, in which he would add a section titled \"Herb Lore of The Shire\", which was a section on Pipeweed, the plant Hobbits and other folk of Middle Earth, like Gandalf, would smoke through pipes, as well as various poems. Shortly after his contribution to the Red Book, he served seven consecutive seven year terms as mayor of the Shire, during which he had children with Rosie Cotton who each took the last name of \"Gardner\" after their father's planting of the Mallorn Tree that replaced the Party Tree, which was destroyed during the Scouring. He did, however, go to Valinor after Rosie died, and before he did, he gave the Red Book to Elanor, one of his daughters.\nThe books also expanded on Aragorn's time as king of Gondor and Arnor post-reuniting, and reveals that Arwen accepted a life as a mortal, and died shortly after Aragorn.\nMerry and Pippin also returned to the Shire, but unlike Sam and Frodo, they didn't eventually journey to Valinor. Merry inherited his father's title as \"Master of Buckland\" and despite the perils he and Pippin endured that almost cost them their lives, Merry still had his adventurous spirit. He also reviewed many gifts from Eomer and his sister, Eowyn, and helped the Hobbits learn more about lands beyond the Shire through scholarly articles. He even returned to Rivendell multiple times. When he and Pippin died, they were buried beside their friends, Aragorn and Arwen in Minas Tirith, where they spent some of their final days after a stint in Rohan.\nLegolas and Gimli make and keep promises in the books to show the other important places to them: first, Gimli shows Legolas the caverns of Aglarond, which Legolas is stunned by, then they walk in the Fangorn Forest, where they then make their way to Isengard where they bid farewell to the Fellowship, after which, they would each go back to their own lands, with Gimli even founding a Dwarven colony in the Glittering Caves. They would, however, reunite to help with the rebuilding and improving of Minas Tirith. They would be the last of the Fellowship to sail for Valinor, departing after the death of their friend Aragorn, Legolas would build a ship for him and Gimli to sail to Valinor.\nLastly, Frodo would serve as Deputy Mayor of The Shire until a wound caused by a stab from the Witch King which flared up every year on the anniversary of said stabbing forced him to resign, after which, he would sail to Valinor to receive healing and peace for the rest of his days.\n\nProduction\nThe production of The Lord of the Rings series was the first where three separate entries were written and shot simultaneously (excluding pick up shoots). Peter Jackson found The Return of the King the easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story. The Return of the King was originally the second of two planned films under Miramax Films from January 1997 to August 1998, and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with the Battle of Helm's Deep in The Two Towers. Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film's release.\n\nDesign\nJackson's Middle-earth was primarily designed by Alan Lee and John Howe, who had earlier illustrated editions of Tolkien's books. It was created by Weta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures; the Art Department built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, while Grant Major and Dan Hennah organised the planning and building.\nThe city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outside Wellington, from the Helm's Deep set. That set's gate became Minas Tirith's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch-king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by the Baptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired by Siena.\nThe Citadel's exterior was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, using forced perspective. It contained the withered White Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebanese olive trees. The interior was within a three-storey former factory in Wellington, its colours influenced by Charlemagne's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone, and polystyrene statues of past kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from the Númenóreans of the first film's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th-century Italian and German armour served as inspiration, while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient/medieval Mediterranean Basin look.\nMinas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having a wisdom tooth pulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city. Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as \"boring\", it was redesigned with more tipping angles. The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure.\nThe third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999, with the body based on a tunnelweb spider and the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being an arachnophobe himself. Shelob's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set.\nThe Return of the King also brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle-earth, men who ride the mûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state, while their underground city is influenced by Petra. The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence from Kiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single dead mûmak. Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence from J. M. W. Turner paintings.\n\nPrincipal photography\nThe Return of the King was shot during 2000, though Astin's coverage from Gollum's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods in Queenstown interrupted the focus on The Fellowship of the Ring. Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact shot last. Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes from The Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at a Matamata farm, while interior scenes were shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington, shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Astin's costume, and then negatives producing out-of-focus reels. Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May.\nThe Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in April at the Rangipo Desert, a former minefield. New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed at Mount Ruapehu for the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage.\nScenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, including Putangirua Pinnacles. In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word \"weed\" as they smoked pipe-weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help.\nEdoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed in Twizel with 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use of computer-generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in the Battle of Helm's Deep in the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recapture Osgiliath, as were scenes in the city itself. At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was the bluescreened reaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them.\n\nPick-ups\nThe 2003 pick-ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue-screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day. The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn's coronation, rushed into a single day under the supervision of second unit director Geoff Murphy on 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom, and Théoden's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap.\nThere was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were \"pathetic\" compared to the Uruk-hai of the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta Workshop created grotesque new \"über Orcs\" as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Rivers redesigned the Witch-king; all his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield.\nWith the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with a mûmak, and Shore appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli's drinking game at Edoras. The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, although John Rhys-Davies burned his final Gimli prosthetic. Viggo Mortensen headbutted the stunt team goodbye. Pick-ups ended on 27 June 2003.\nScenes shot afterwards included various live-action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson's house. For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar.\n\nEditing\nPost-production began in November 2002, with the completion of the 4½ hour assembly cut of the film that Annie Collins had been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4-hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds. Jackson reunited with longtime collaborator Jamie Selkirk to edit the final film. Like The Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film, for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir. The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging of Narsil, Gollum's backstory, and Saruman's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain. Despite pick-ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene. Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at the Copenhagen premiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly. They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee's casting in Jackson's Hobbit films. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003. Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according to Elijah Wood, his response was \"yup, it's good, pretty good\".\n\nVisual effects\nThe Return of the King contains 1,489 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. As with the two previous films, Jim Rygiel served as the visual effects supervisor. Visual effects work began with Alan Lee and Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of the Pelennor Fields in November 2002. Jackson and Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000. Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am.\nFor the battle, they recorded 450 motions for the MASSIVE digital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate, and redoing a shot of two mûmakil Éomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture.\nLike the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking a mûmak required numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated. For the latter scene, as well as the scene in which Mount Doom erupts and Frodo and Sam escape from the volcano, the help of the company Next Limit Technologies and their software RealFlow was required to simulate the lava. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull-like digital version, depending on the character's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200% for unsettling effect.\nThe Return of the King also has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb, John Noble threw a size double named Fon onto a prostrate Billy Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1:72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5m in diameter. 1:14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter. The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring's destruction, on 25 November.\n\nSound effects\nThe Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. A Tasmanian devil was used to create Shelob's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta's animators, while the mûmakil sound is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances. The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work.\n\nScore\nThe music, as for the rest of the trilogy, was composed by Shore. He watched the assembly cut of the film, and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule. The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir's speeches at the Council of Elrond in The Fellowship of the Ring and at Osgiliath in The Two Towers' Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film.\nThe score features the London Philharmonic Orchestra, London Voices, the London Oratory School Schola and featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets (and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choir with additional players for all-male and all-female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist \"bands\" playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it. One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings.\nActors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn. Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro, Sissel Kyrkjebø and James Galway contribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son, and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings \"Asea Aranion\", which was originally meant to score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, \"Into the West\", was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh. Annie Lennox (formerly of Eurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker named Cameron Duncan who had befriended Peter Jackson.\n\nRelease\nTheatrical\nAfter two years of attention and acclaim since the release of The Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final entry was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington's Embassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city's population.\n\nHome media\nThe theatrical edition of the film was released on VHS and DVD on 25 May 2004 by New Line Home Entertainment. The DVD was a 2-disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, but Return of the King's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten-minute preview). However, it contained a seven-minute trailer of the entire trilogy.\nThe Return of the King followed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) on 14 December 2004 in the UK and US, with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material. The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three-year charter membership.\nA collectors' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50-minute music documentary DVD, Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer's Journey Through Middle-earth. The DVD has a DTS-ES soundtrack. The DVD also features two humorous Easter Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another where Vince Vaughn and Ben Stiller attempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition of The Return of the King was released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is a two-sided DVD containing both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind-the-scenes documentary.\nThe theatrical Blu-ray release was released in the United States on the sixth of April 2010, though only as part of the complete trilogy release disc. The individual Blu-ray disc of The Return of the King was released on the fourteenth of September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy. The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011. It has a runtime of 263 minutes.\nThe Return of the King was released in Ultra HD Blu-ray on 30 November 2020 in the United Kingdom and on 1 December 2020 in the United States, along with the other films of the trilogy, including both the theatrical and the extended editions of the films.\n\nReception\nBox office\nThe Return of the King earned $377 million in the United States and Canada and $763.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.141 billion in its initial release. In the weekend of 20–22 February 2004, the film crossed the $1 billion mark, making it the second film in history to do so, after Titanic in 1998. Worldwide, it is the 27th highest-grossing film of all time when not adjusted for inflation, the highest-grossing film of 2003, the second highest-grossing film of the 2000s, the highest-grossing entry in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, and the highest-grossing film ever to be released by New Line Cinema. It held the record as Time Warner's highest-grossing film worldwide for eight years until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 in 2011. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.\nIn the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing 2003 film, and the highest-grossing entry in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34 million. This record was first surpassed by Spider-Man 2 in 2004 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening. Additionally, it was ranked as the highest December opening day, holding that record for less than a decade before getting dethroned by The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey in 2012. The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first-day total of The Fellowship of the Ring — which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 — as well as a significant increase over The Two Towers — which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. For two years, The Return of the King would hold the record for having the highest midnight screenings gross until 2005 when it was given to Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith. The film went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million making it the second-highest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film, behind Austin Powers in Goldmember. In addition, it had the third largest opening weekend of that year, after The Matrix Reloaded and X2. With a total gross of $125.1 million, the film had the biggest five-day Wednesday opening of all time, surpassing the previous record held by Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace. The next year, this record would be beaten by Shrek 2. Its Friday-Sunday opening weekend was a record-high for December (first surpassed by I Am Legend). The film also set single-day records for Christmas Day and New Year's Day (both first surpassed by Meet the Fockers).\nOutside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest-grossing film, the highest-grossing 2003 film and the highest-grossing film of the series. On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countries and it set an opening-weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the five-day weekend as a whole. The combined total gross increased to $250.1 million, making it the highest worldwide opening weekend at the time, knocking out The Matrix Revolutions. It set opening-day records in thirteen of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), Mexico, Chile and Puerto Rico. It set opening-weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. In Singapore, it surpassed Finding Nemo to become the country's top-grossing film. In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single-day, Friday gross, Saturday gross and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days.\nThe substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast that The Return of the King would surpass The Two Towers in total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes. The Return of the King has helped The Lord of the Rings franchise to become the highest-grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with over $2.9 billion beating other notable series such as the original Star Wars Trilogy, and became New Line's highest grossing release.\nFollowing subsequent reissues, the film has grossed $381.9 million in the United States and Canada and $769.2 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $1.151billion.\nThese figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimated that the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs).\n\nCritical response\nOn the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, The Return of the King holds an approval rating of 94% based on 282 reviews, with an average rating of 8.70/10. The website's critics consensus reads, \"Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful, The Lord of the Rings - The Return of the King is a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy.\" Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, gives the film a score of 94 out of 100 based on 41 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of \"A+\" on an A+ to F scale, the highest grade in the trilogy.\nAlan Morrison of Empire gave the film a perfect score of five stars. In his review, he called the film \"the resounding climax to a landmark in cinema history\" and praised how Peter Jackson had \"kept the momentum of the series rolling on and on through the traditionally 'difficult' middle part and 'weak' finale, delivering a climax to the story that's neater and more affecting than what Tolkien managed on the printed page.\" Morrison also mentioned how fans of the films \"who have walked beside these heroes every step of the way on such a long journey deserve the emotional pay-off as well as the action peaks, and they will be genuinely touched as the final credits roll.\" Elvis Mitchell for The New York Times lauded the acting, the craft of the technical crew, and Jackson's direction, describing The Return of the King as \"a meticulous and prodigious vision made by a director who was not hamstrung by heavy use of computer special-effects imagery.\" Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four, saying that it is \"such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films.\" Talking about the whole trilogy, Ebert said that he admired it \"more as a whole than in its parts\", and that The Return of the King certified The Lord of the Rings as \"a work of bold ambition in a time of cinematic timidity\". In his review for The Times, James Christopher praised The Return of the King as \"everything a Ring fan could possibly wish for, and much more\", and described The Lord of the Rings as \"the greatest film trilogy ever mounted, with some of the most amazing action sequences committed to celluloid\". Nev Pierce for the BBC gave the film five stars out of five, judging it to be the best chapter of the trilogy, since it combined \"the 'ooh' factor of Fellowship with the zippy action of Towers\". Pierce described The Return of the King as \"Majestic, moving, and immense\", and \"an astonishing piece of storytelling\". Philip French, reviewing it for The Observer, lauded the narrative force, the battle scenes, the language, and the visual style of the film, which he related to \"the swirling battle paintings of Albrecht Altdorfer\" and \"Claude Lorrain's elegiac paintings of maritime departures inspired by classical poets.\" French wrote about the whole trilogy \"Jackson's Lord of the Rings is indeed a very fine achievement, moving, involving and, to many people, even inspiring. It redeems the debased cinematic notion of the epic.\"\nIn her review for Entertainment Weekly, Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film an A grade, and wrote \"The conclusion of Peter Jackson's masterwork is passionate and literate, detailed and expansive, and it's conceived with a risk-taking flair for old-fashioned movie magic at its most precious ... as he has done throughout, the director paces scenes of action, intimacy, and even panoramic, geographical grandeur ... with the control of a superb choreographer.\". Schwarzbaum also said of the whole series \"I can't think of another film trilogy that ends in such glory, or another monumental work of sustained storytelling that surges ahead with so much inventiveness and ardor.\" Richard Corliss of Time named The Return of the King the best film of the year and described the whole trilogy as \"The film event of the millennium\". Joe Morgenstern, for The Wall Street Journal, wrote \"Never has a filmmaker aimed higher, or achieved more. The third and last installment of the screen epic based on J.R.R. Tolkien's literary classic redefines -- steeply upward -- the very notion of a major motion picture.\" Peter Bradshaw, who had been less enthusiastic about the first two chapters of the trilogy, gave The Return of the King four stars out of five in his review for The Guardian, commenting \"I started the series an atheist and finished an agnostic\". Bradshaw wrote of the film \"Technically it really is superb\", and commented \"Hours after watching the film, I can close my eyes and see those incredible battle scenes pulsing and throbbing in my skull ... Maybe Kurosawa's battles will one day be described as proto-Jacksonian\".\nSome critics had negative opinions of the film. Tom Charity observes in Time Out, \"Some story strands are crudely abbreviated; others fail to develop elements that were already well-established. Given the inordinate running time, it's hard to avoid the feeling that we've already been here, done this.\" Jonathan Romney noted in The Independent, \"[T]here's something not quite palatable about all these intrepid, largely beautiful Europeans boldly fending off the nameless, numberless hordes from the other side of the world, legions of dark-skinned sans-culottes with tribal drums. ... Aside from this, there's plenty to be offended by on an aesthetic level: the film's self-important solemnity, its hyperbolic over-insistence. ... [T]here are no empty spaces, no gaps for thought, no real stimulus to the viewer's imagination. The film has no idea when to stop, either, with its multiple codas and final dying fall into beatific cosiness.\" And Antonia Quirke in the Evening Standard opined, \"Viggo Mortensen's Aragorn is the good king of the title, and while the actor may look fetching in a crown and cloak, he doesn't have half of the gravitas of Sean Bean's Boromir in the first film. Director Peter Jackson has been all but deified for his work on this particular ring cycle, but there is not much personality behind the camera here, merely rampant enthusiasm.\"\nThe most common criticism of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King was its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length. Joel Siegel of Good Morning America said in his review for the film (which he gave an 'A'): \"If it didn't take forty-five minutes to end, it'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it's just one of the great achievements in film history.\"\nIn February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth on Empire's 100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible. In 2007, Total Film named The Return of the King the third best film of the past decade (Total Film's publication time), behind The Matrix and Fight Club.\n\nAccolades\nThe film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Score, Best Original Song, Best Visual Effects, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Make-up, Best Sound Mixing and Best Film Editing. At the 76th Academy Awards in 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it shares the record for highest Academy Award totals along with Titanic (which also starred Bernard Hill) and Ben-Hur, and holding the record for the highest clean sweep at the Oscars, surpassing the nine awards earned by both Gigi and The Last Emperor. It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by the National Board of Review, until the release of The Shape of Water in 2017.\nThe film won four Golden Globes (including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director), five BAFTAs, two MTV Movie Awards, two Grammy Awards, nine Saturn Awards, the New York Film Critics Circle award for Best Picture, the Nebula Award for Best Script, and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form.\n\nSee also\nThe Hobbit (film series)\nThe Hobbit (1977 film)\nThe Lord of the Rings (1978 film)\nThe Return of the King (1980 film)\nList of films considered the best\nList of Academy Award records\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at IMDb \nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at AllMovie \nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at the TCM Movie Database\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at Box Office Mojo \nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at Metacritic \nThe Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King at Rotten Tomatoes",
"title": "The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King"
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"paragraph_text": "Andrew Lesnie ACS ASC (1 January 1956 – 27 April 2015) was an Australian cinematographer. He was best known as the cinematographer for The Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–2003) and its prequel The Hobbit trilogy (2012–2014), both directed by New Zealand director Peter Jackson. He received the Academy Award for Best Cinematography for his work on The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring in 2002.\n\nEarly life\nLesnie was born in Sydney, New South Wales, on 1 January 1956, the son of Shirley (Lithgow) and Allan Lesnie, who worked for the family's company, butcher suppliers Harry Lesnie Pty Ltd.\nHe was educated at Sydney Grammar School. Andrew was well liked and popular at school. Lesnie finished 6th form and his Higher School Certificate in 1974. He started his career in 1978 as an assistant camera operator on the film Patrick (1978) while he was still in school at Australian Film, Television and Radio School (AFTRS). sd\nHis first job after graduation in 1979 was as a cameraman on the Logie Award-winning Australian magazine-style afternoon TV show Simon Townsend's Wonder World. Simon Townsend gave Lesnie almost daily opportunities to develop his craft with little restriction over a wide variety of stories and situations, and to experiment with camera and lighting techniques in hundreds of locations and situations. After two years of working on the show, Lesnie moved on to numerous Australian film and television productions, including the mini-series Bodyline.\nLater, he worked as a second camera assistant on the film The Killing of Angel Street (1981).\nLesnie would then go on to develop his craft as he photographed films such as Stations (1983), The Delinquents (1989), Temptation of the Monk (1993), and Spider and Rose (1994).\n\nCareer\nLesnie's work began receiving major attention after the release of the anthropomorphic pig story Babe (1995) and its sequel, Babe: Pig in the City. He was director of photography on Peter Jackson's Lord of the Rings trilogy, and received an Oscar for his work on The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring in 2002. Since then, he filmed several other Jackson-directed films, including King Kong and The Lovely Bones, and also filmed The Hobbit films directed by Jackson.\n\nThe Lord of the Rings trilogy (2001–03)\nLesnie used motion picture camera company Arri's Arriflex 435, Arriflex 535, and ArriCam Studio 35mm film cameras for the trilogy. He used Carl Zeiss Ultra Prime Lenses and Kodak's 5279 (tungsten-balanced) film stock to photograph the films.\nLesnie planned far ahead into the production with Peter Jackson with previsualisation programs to help establish frame sizes and angles, as well as construction of sets. During filming, Lesnie emphasised earthy colours in the makeup and wardrobe of the cast and extras.\nAt the acceptance speech for his Oscar win for Fellowship of the Ring, Lesnie dedicated his acceptance to chief lighting technician Brian Bansgrove, who he described as a major contributor to the quality of the film's cinematography.\n\nThe Hobbit trilogy (2012–14)\nFor production, Lesnie used Red Digital Cinema's Epic cameras as well as Carl Zeiss Ultra Prime Lenses to photograph the film. Jackson and Lesnie decided to shoot the film in 3D with as many as 15 stereoscopic camera rigs (2 cameras each) with 3ality. They also decided to shoot the film in an uncommon frame rate of 48 frames per second versus the industry standard of 24 frames per second. This would make Lesnie the first cinematographer to employ such a method that claims to induce more clarity, reduce motion blur, and make 3D easier to watch.\n\nThe Water Diviner\nLesnie's final film, The Water Diviner, directed by and starring Russell Crowe, was released in Australia in December 2014 and in America in April 2015, one week before his death.\n\nPersonal life and death\nLesnie lived on Sydney's north coast. He was a member of both the Australian Cinematographers Society and the American Society of Cinematographers. Lesnie died of a heart attack in his Sydney home on 27 April 2015, after having suffered from a heart condition for half a year.\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nDocumentary film\n\nShort film\n\nFeature film\n\nTelevision\nTV movies\n\nAwards and nominations\nReferences\nExternal links\nAndrew Lesnie at IMDb\nAndrew Lesnie's profile on the AFTRS website\nRussell Crowe remembers late cinematographer Andrew Lesnie",
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] | How many days after the United States release of the record holder for largest sweep at the 2004 Oscars was the death of that movie's cinematographer? | [] | 4149 days | [] | true |
290 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Good Place is an American fantasy-comedy television series created by Michael Schur. It premiered on NBC on September 19, 2016, and concluded on January 30, 2020, after four seasons and 53 episodes.\nAlthough the plot evolves significantly over the course of the series, the initial premise of the series follows Eleanor Shellstrop (Kristen Bell), a dead woman who is placed in a Heaven-esque utopian afterlife designed and supervised by afterlife \"architect\" Michael (Ted Danson). However, Eleanor knows she did not deserve to get into the Good Place, as she led a dishonorable life. To avoid being found out and sent to the Bad Place, Eleanor attempts to hide her morally imperfect past behavior while trying to become a more ethical person. William Jackson Harper, Jameela Jamil, and Manny Jacinto co-star as other residents of the Good Place, with D'Arcy Carden as Janet, an artificial being who assists the residents.\nThe Good Place received critical acclaim for its originality, writing, acting, setting, and tone. The first season's twist ending and the show's exploration and creative use of ethics and philosophy were specifically praised. Among its accolades, the series received a Peabody Award and four Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form. It was nominated for 14 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Comedy Series for its third and fourth seasons.\n\nPremise and synopsis\nThe series is centered on an afterlife in which humans are sent to \"the Good Place\" or \"the Bad Place\" after death. All humans are assigned a numerical score based on the morality of their conduct in life, and only those with the very highest scores are sent to the Good Place, where they enjoy eternal happiness with their every wish granted, guided by an artificial intelligence named Janet; all others experience an eternity of torture in the Bad Place.\nIn the first season, amoral loner Eleanor and small-time criminal Jason believe that they have been sent to the Good Place incorrectly. Eleanor's assigned soulmate, Chidi, a moral philosopher, attempts to teach them ethics so they can earn their presence there. Jason's soulmate, wealthy socialite Tahani, attempts to help Michael, the kindly designer of their neighborhood, deal with the chaos apparently caused by Eleanor and Jason's presence. In the twist ending of the first season finale, Eleanor realizes that the four humans have actually been in an experimental section of the Bad Place all along, selected by Michael (a demon) to torture each other emotionally and psychologically for eternity.\nIn the second season, Michael repeatedly erases the humans' memories to try to restart their psychological torture, but they figure out the truth each time. Over the following centuries, Michael's failures result in him being blackmailed by another demon who wants his job, so Michael convinces the humans to help him fool his boss in exchange for passage to the real Good Place. When Michael sees that humans can improve their goodness after they die, he appeals their case to the eternal Judge, who rules that the humans may be returned to their lives on Earth, with no memory of the afterlife, to attempt to prove their moral development.\nBack on Earth in the third season, the group participates in a research study led by Chidi and his colleague Simone. Once they learn the truth about the afterlife, they try to help others improve their moral behavior. Eventually they discover that no one has been admitted to the Good Place in centuries. They propose that the points system is fundamentally flawed and set up an experimental simulated Good Place to test their thesis that humans can develop morally with proper support.\nIn the final season, the year-long experiment eventually proves that humans can show moral improvement in the afterlife. The group institutes a new system whereby deceased humans will earn their way into the Good Place by passing tests of moral development; and then, to avoid becoming numbed by the ennui of eternal bliss, humans may choose to exit the Good Place and peacefully end their afterlife. In the final episode, Jason, Chidi, and Eleanor eventually choose to exit; Tahani becomes a designer of afterlife environments, and Michael is allowed to be sent to Earth to live as a human.\n\nCast and characters\nMain\nKristen Bell as Eleanor Shellstrop, a deceased selfish American pharmaceutical saleswoman from Phoenix, Arizona, who seemingly winds up in the Good Place in error after being mistaken for a lawyer (also named Eleanor Shellstrop) who exonerated innocent clients facing death sentences. In order to earn her spot, she recruits Chidi to teach her the fundamentals of becoming a better person. Eleanor is bisexual.\nWilliam Jackson Harper as Chidi Anagonye, a deceased French-speaking Nigerian-Senegalese professor of ethics and moral philosophy who taught at the Sorbonne and St. John's University in Australia. Although he has a kind and supportive nature, his inability to make choices frequently leaves him overanxious and indecisive, often resulting in poor decision-making. Assigned as Eleanor's soulmate in Michael's first Good Place experiment, he gives her ethics lessons in an attempt to make her a better person.\nJameela Jamil as Tahani Al-Jamil, a deceased wealthy British philanthropist and fashion model who believes she belongs in the Good Place. She forms an unlikely friendship with Eleanor, who initially dislikes her positive attitude, condescending way of speaking, and tendency to name-drop.\nD'Arcy Carden as Janet, a programmed guide and knowledge bank who acts as the Good Place's main source of information and can provide its residents with whatever they desire. She is described as a foundational mainframe for all neighborhoods across the Good and Bad Places. Later, Janet gains a more humanlike disposition and begins to act differently from the way she was designed.\nCarden also portrays multiple Janet iterations throughout the series. Among them are \"Bad Janet\", a Bad Place counterpart specifically designed by the demons to respond to residents in an inappropriate and impolite manner; \"Neutral Janet\", an impartial, robotic version of Janet that works in the Accountant's Office; \"Disco Janet\" who is \"fun, but a lot\" and, in \"Janet(s)\", Janet-versions of Eleanor, Chidi, Tahani, and Jason.\nManny Jacinto as Jason Mendoza, a deceased Filipino American amateur disc jockey and drug dealer from Jacksonville, Florida, who seemingly winds up in the Good Place by mistake. He is introduced as Jianyu Li, a Taiwanese Buddhist monk who took a vow of silence. Later, Jason proves to be an immature and simple, yet kindhearted, Jacksonville Jaguars and Blake Bortles fan.\nTed Danson as Michael, a Bad Place architect who runs the Good Place neighborhood in which Eleanor, Chidi, Tahani, and Jason reside. Michael has a fascination with the mundane aspects of human life, like playing with paper clips or searching for one's car keys. In the first-season finale, it is revealed that he has been tricking the four humans all along and is actually a demon torturing them, though he later teams up with and befriends them. \"Michael\" is a Hebrew name meaning \"who is like God\". The character of Michael was based on the archangel Michael.\n\nRecurring\nDemons\nTiya Sircar as Vicky, a Bad Place demon who portrays the \"real Eleanor Shellstrop\", whose position in the Good Place Eleanor supposedly stole in the first season. In the second season, when Michael's plans repeatedly fail, she tries to blackmail Michael into giving her control over the neighborhood. Late in the series, Michael places her in charge of introducing the other demons to the revised afterlife system.\nAdam Scott as Trevor, a cruel Bad Place demon who bullies the main group. He makes a return in the third season posing as an overenthusiastic member of Chidi's academic study on Earth, only to be later exiled by the Judge upon being discovered.\nMarc Evan Jackson as Shawn, Michael's wicked boss. Shawn gives Michael two chances to pull off the torture experiment and later turns against him when he finds out about Michael's betrayal. He is also the main character of the spin-off web series The Selection.\nLuke Guldan as Chris Baker, a muscular Bad Place demon assigned as Eleanor's soulmate in the second attempt. Chris was sent to the experimental Good Place disguised as \"Linda\". His mission was to distract Eleanor and the others so the Bad Place could kidnap Good Janet and replace her with a Bad Janet.\nJama Williamson as Val, a demon and Shawn's secretary.\nAmy Okuda as Gayle, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a Good Place resident by the name of Jessica. She shows a lack of interest in the humans, despite Shawn's obsession.\nSteve Berg as Chuck, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a Good Place resident by the name of Gunnar. His preferred form of punishment is chewing.\nBambadjan Bamba as Bambadjan, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a lawyer in the Good Place. He is among the more cunning of Shawn's demons.\nJosh Siegal as Glenn, a Bad Place demon pretending to be a cheerfully dopey Good Place resident. He is among the few demons to show actual concern for another being. He blows up in \"Tinker, Tailor, Demon, Spy\", although Michael stated that he would reconstitute himself with time, having to relive the life cycle of a demon.\nJoe Mande as the voice of Toddrick \"Todd\" Hemple, a lava monster who refuses to wear a human suit.\n\nHumans\nMaribeth Monroe as Mindy St. Claire, a deceased corporate lawyer and addict who died in the process of founding a charity she had planned during a cocaine high. The charity generated enough good points after her death that her point total exceeded that required to enter the Good Place. As a compromise, the Judge ruled that she would receive her own private Medium Place, where everything is mediocre and grounded in the 1980s.\nKirby Howell-Baptiste as Simone Garnett, an Australian neuroscientist and, briefly, Chidi's girlfriend. She is also the second test subject to be sent to the experimental Good Place, although she initially believed that she was experiencing a brain-death hallucination.\nEugene Cordero as Steven \"Pillboi\" Peleaz, Jason's best friend and partner in crime. Jason, Tahani and Michael manage to convince him to avoid criminal behaviour and focus on his career in elder care so that he could get into the Good Place.\nBen Lawson as Larry Hemsworth, Tahani's former boyfriend and the fictional fourth Hemsworth brother. Despite being a very attractive, successful paediatric surgeon, he constantly berates himself.\nRebecca Hazlewood as Kamilah Al-Jamil, Tahani's exceedingly successful and competitive younger sister. Tahani died attempting to humiliate her.\nAjay Mehta as Waqas Al-Jamil, Tahani's father.\nAnna Khaja as Manisha Al-Jamil, Tahani's mother.\nLeslie Grossman as Donna Shellstrop, Eleanor's cruel, self-centered, negligent mother. In the third season, it is revealed that she faked her death in Arizona and has found peace as a PTA mom in a Nevada suburb.\nAngela Trimbur as Madison, Eleanor's roommate.\nMeryl Hathaway as Brittany, Eleanor's roommate.\nDominic Burgess as Henry, Chidi's colleague in Australia who purchased a pair of red cowboy boots.\nMitch Narito as Donkey Doug, Jason's dopey father. Jason, Tahani and Michael's plan to get him into the Good Place by convincing him to become a qualified electrician fails after Donkey Doug plans several robberies as part of a get-rich-quick scheme involving a combined energy drink and body spray product.\nKeston John as Uzo, Chidi's best friend. He had long suffered from Chidi's indecisiveness and witnessed Chidi's original death.\nBrandon Scott Jones as John Wheaton, the first test subject sent to the experimental Good Place. In life, he was a gossip columnist and published trashy articles, especially about Tahani.\nBen Koldyke as Brent Norwalk, a bigoted and arrogant corporate chief executive, and the fourth test subject sent to the experimental Good Place.\nMichael McKean and Noah Garfinkel as Doug Forcett. Michael keeps a picture of Garfinkel as Forcett on his office wall as a reminder of the human who, during a magic mushroom high, almost understood the afterlife points system (with many major religions only understanding about five percent of it). In a later episode, Michael McKean appears as an older Forcett trying to live the best life possible on Earth, much to the detriment of his own happiness. Garfinkel appears as Forcett in the final episode.\n\nOther celestial beings\nJason Mantzoukas as Derek, a malfunctioning artificial rebound boyfriend created by Janet. Gifted by the humans to Mindy for helping them escape the fake Good Place, he was repeatedly rebooted for privacy or amusement. He serves as a template for the 'Janet baby' Good Place residents for Eleanor and Michael's experiment.\nMaya Rudolph as Gen, the judge who rules on interdimensional matters between the Good Place and the Bad Place.\nMike O'Malley as Jeff the Doorman, the gatekeeper of the doorway between the afterlife and Earth. He has an affinity for frogs.\nBrad Morris as Matt, a suicidal accountant who works in a neutral office between the Good Place and the Bad Place. He is assigned as the accountant for Eleanor and Michael's experiment. He had been formerly assigned to evaluating \"Weird Sex Things\" in Accounting, which accounted for nearly all case studies of unprecedented human behavior.\nPaul Scheer as Chuck, leader of the Good Place committee. Ostensibly wanting to help Eleanor and her friends, he is very hesitant to take any actual action and is overly deferential to any demands by the Bad Place in negotiations. Chuck and the rest of the committee abandon the Good Place after inducting Michael as a resident (and its new leader), having run out of ideas of how to lift the sense of ennui hanging over its residents.\nStephen Merchant as Neil, the manager in the Accounting office where all the life points are calculated. He reveals that nobody has been sent to the Good Place for about 500 years.\nNicole Byer as Gwendolyn, an optimistic and bubbly mailwoman who works at the Good Place Correspondent Center. She is naive and was quick to believe that the main group had won a raffle to a free tour of the Good Place. She also guided Michael how to contact the Good Place committee. Despite being quietly furious after she realized the group was lying to her, she was still able to kindly wave them goodbye as they joined the Judge to IHOP.\n\nEpisodes\nProduction\nCasting\nNBC issued a press release on August 13, 2015, announcing it had given the then-untitled show a 13-episode order based purely on a pitch by Michael Schur. On January 12, 2016, it was announced that Kristen Bell and Ted Danson had been cast in the lead roles for the series. The first synopsis of the show was also released, stating that it would revolve around Eleanor designing her own self-improvement course with Michael as her guide – although the afterlife element had always been a part of the series, as Bell stated she was aware of the first-season finale twist when she signed on.\nWilliam Jackson Harper was cast as Chris on February 11, 2016, though the character was renamed Chidi. Jameela Jamil was cast as Tessa on February 25, 2016, and her character was renamed Tahani. On March 3, 2016, Manny Jacinto was revealed to have been cast as a \"sweet and good-natured Jason\" whose \"dream is to make a living as a DJ in Southern Florida\". On March 14, 2016, D'Arcy Carden was cast as a series regular announced as \"Janet Della-Denunzio, a violin salesperson with a checkered past\" – although writer Megan Amram later admitted that this was a hoax.\n\nDevelopment\nThe show's final premise, including the afterlife element, was announced on May 15, 2016, when NBC announced its 2016–17 TV season.\nAccording to Schur, they originally planned to include religious elements after doing research on various faiths and groups. Instead, he decided on a more diverse concept that included all faiths and was free of religious views. \"I stopped doing research because I realized it's about versions of ethical behavior, not religious salvation,\" he says. \"The show isn't taking a side, the people who are there are from every country and religion.\" He also pointed out that the setting (shot in San Marino, California's Huntington Gardens) already had the feeling of a pastiche of different cultures, and said the neighborhoods would feature people who were part of nondenominational and interdenominational backgrounds who interacted with each other regardless of religion.\nThe series' setting and premises, as well as the serialized cliffhangers, were modeled on Lost, a favorite of Schur's. One of the first people he called when he developed the series was Lost co-creator Damon Lindelof. \"I took him to lunch and said, 'We're going to play a game [of] 'Is this anything?'\" He then added \"I imagine this going in the Lost way, with cliffhangers and future storylines.\"\nThe first season's surprise twist, that the Good Place was the Bad Place, and Chidi, Eleanor, Jason and Tahani were chosen because they were best suited to torture each other indefinitely, is very similar in premise to philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre's stage play No Exit, where three strangers die and are escorted to a single room by a friendly bellhop and informed they must co-exist. They ultimately determine they are entirely incompatible and reach the conclusion that \"hell is other people\". Danson and Bell were the only actors who knew the ultimate premise from the start.\nCritics have also suggested similarities to 1960s surreal TV show The Prisoner in its isolated, rule-bound setting.\n\nBroadcast and release\nThe series premiered September 19, 2016. On January 30, 2017, NBC renewed the series for a second season of 13 episodes, which premiered on September 20, 2017, with an hour-long opening episode. On November 21, 2017, NBC renewed the series for a 13-episode third season, which premiered on September 27, 2018. On December 4, 2018, NBC renewed the series for a fourth season, which premiered on September 26, 2019. On June 7, 2019, it was announced that the fourth season would be the last.\n\nInternational\nIn several international territories, the show is distributed on Netflix. The first season was released September 21, 2017, and episodes of subsequent seasons became available within 24 hours of their U.S. broadcast.\n\nHome media\nHome media releases for The Good Place were distributed by the Shout! Factory. The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on October 17, 2017, the second on July 17, 2018, and the third on July 30, 2019. The complete series was released on Blu-ray on May 19, 2020.\n\nReception\nRatings\nCritical response\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has a rating of 92%, based on 74 reviews, with an average rating of 7.80/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Kristen Bell and Ted Danson knock it out of the park with supremely entertaining, charming performances in this absurd, clever and whimsical portrayal of the afterlife.\" On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 78 out of 100, based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".\nThe editors of TV Guide placed The Good Place second among the top ten picks for the most anticipated new shows of the 2016–17 season. In its review from writer Liam Matthews, \"NBC's new comedy has an impressive pedigree\" (referring to Mike Schur and stars, Kristen Bell and Ted Danson, the latter cited as \"arguably the greatest sitcom actor of all time\"). Matthews concludes, \"The hope is that their combined star power can restore NBC's tarnished comedy brand to its former glory. It won't be the next Friends, but it's something even better: a network comedy that feels different than anything that's come before.\"\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has a rating of 100%, based on 59 reviews, with an average rating of 9.0/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"By voluntarily blowing up its premise, The Good Place sets up a second season that proves even funnier than its first.\" On Metacritic, the second season has a score of 87 out of 100, based on reviews from 10 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has a rating of 98%, based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 8.35/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"Charming and curious as ever, The Good Place remains a delightfully insightful bright spot on the television landscape.\" On Metacritic, the third season has a score of 96 out of 100, based on reviews from five critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".\nOn Rotten Tomatoes, the fourth season has a rating of 100%, based on 52 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, \"A wild philosophical ride to the very end, The Good Place brings it home with a forking good final season.\"\nSeveral critics have commended the show for its exploration and creative use of ethics and philosophy. Featured topics include the trolley problem thought experiment originally devised by Philippa Foot, the categorical imperative first formulated by Immanuel Kant, T. M. Scanlon's What We Owe to Each Other, and the works of Aristotle and Søren Kierkegaard. Andrew P. Street of The Guardian wrote that \"moral philosophy is the beating heart of the program\" and that the show \"made philosophy seem cool.\" Elizabeth Yuko of The Atlantic noted that \"The Good Place stands out for dramatizing actual ethics classes onscreen, without watering down the concepts being described, and while still managing to be entertaining.\" For their part, several philosophers have celebrated the show's largely accurate popularization of their line of work, while noting some minor inaccuracies.\nSeveral critics have noted that The Good Place often eschews antiheroes and cynical themes in favor of likable characters and positive messages. James Poniewozik of The New York Times said, \"The most refreshing thing about The Good Place, in an era of artistic bleakness, is its optimism about human nature. It's made humane and sidesplittingly entertaining television out of the notion that people – and even the occasional immortal demon – are redeemable.\" Jenna Scherer of Rolling Stone wrote that The Good Place proved that \"slapstick and banter can coexist alongside tragedy and hardship – that a show doesn't need to be self-serious to be serious-minded.\" Erik Adams of The A.V. Club praised the show as portraying an \"uncommonly decent TV world\". Stuart Heritage of The Guardian called The Good Place \"relentlessly optimistic\", a quality which Stephanie Palumbo of Vulture called \"a salve for despair in the Trump era\".\nIn 2019, The Good Place was ranked 69th on The Guardian's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century.\n\nCritics' top-ten lists\nAccolades\nDuring its airing, The Good Place received many awards and nominations. It received fourteen Primetime Emmy Award nominations during its run, including two nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series for its third and fourth seasons. It also received two Golden Globe Award nominations in 2019, including a nomination for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy. In genre awards, the show has won four Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form for \"The Trolley Problem\", \"Janet(s)\", \"The Answer\", and \"Whenever You're Ready\"; it has also been nominated two other times in the category. The show also received three consecutive nominations from the Saturn Awards for Best Fantasy Television Series and three nominations from the Nebula Awards for the Ray Bradbury Award, winning once for the latter. In 2017, the American Film Institute named the show as one of its top 10 television programs of the year, and in 2019, the show received a Peabody Award for its contributions to entertainment.\nSeveral cast members have received awards for their performances on the show. Danson received three Emmy nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for his performance as Michael. He has also been nominated for three Critics' Choice Television Awards (winning one in 2018), two Satellite Awards, and a TCA Award for his work. Bell was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy for her performance as Eleanor, as well as one Critics' Choice Television Award, two People's Choice Awards (winning one in 2019), one Teen Choice Award, and one TCA Award. Maya Rudolph has received three Emmy nominations for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series, and Harper, Jamil, Carden, and Adam Scott have all received nominations for awards for their work on the show.\n\nPhilosophical inspirations\nThe Good Place makes use of many different theories of moral philosophy and ethics through the character of Chidi Anagonye, the moral philosophy professor. Within the show, there is reference to John Locke, Tim Scanlon, Peter Singer, and Derek Parfit, and \"the show has covered everything from Jonathan Dancy's theory of moral particularism, to Aristotelian virtue ethics, to Kantian deontology, to moral nihilism.\" UCLA philosophy professor Pamela Hieronymi and Clemson philosophy professor Todd May served as consultants to the show. They both made cameo appearances in the final episode.\nThe beginning of The Good Place takes its inspiration from the idiom \"Hell is other people\" from Jean-Paul Sartre's play No Exit. In the play three people are trapped in Hell, represented as one room, and they torture one another psychologically while reflecting upon the sins that got them there. The concept \"Hell is other people\" is an often-misunderstood philosophical idiom meant to reflect that \"Hell is other people because you are, in some sense, forever trapped within them, subject to their apprehension of you.\"\nThe second season's philosophy is most closely related to that of Aristotle, with Schur in particular highlighting Aristotle's \"practice-makes-perfect\" attitude to acting ethically. Chidi's impenetrable 4,000 page ethical treatise was inspired by Parfit's On What Matters – which attempts \"to propose a grand unified theory of all ethical theories\". Schur was unable to finish reading due to its length. Tim Scanlon's What We Owe to Each Other \"forms the spine of the entire show\" according to Schur. The book presents the idea of contractualism: the idea is that \"to act morally is to abide by principles that no one could reasonably reject\". The show and the relationships between the characters act as an investigation into contractualism with the four main humans, Michael, and Janet forming their own society whereby they must act in ways that no one could reasonably reject even when that goes against the rules and tenets of higher powers. The overarching thesis of the show, greatly influenced by the contractualist theory, is \"the point of morality ... isn't to accumulate goodness points, as in the elaborate point system the organizers of the Good Place and its corresponding Bad Place employ to determine who goes to which upon death. It's to live up to our duties to each other.\"\n\nThe Selection\nIn September 2019, prior to the release of the fourth season of The Good Place, NBC released a six-episode web series on their website, app, and their YouTube channel, titled The Selection (full title: The Good Place Presents: The Selection), directed by Eric Kissack. The series, set during an ellipsis taking place during the season 3 episode 11: \"Chidi Sees the Time-Knife\", follows Michael's former demon boss Shawn as he and his underlings decide which four people to pick for Michael's new incarnation of \"the Good Place\". Marc Evan Jackson, Josh Siegal, Bambadjan Bamba, Amy Okuda, and Jama Williamson form the main cast by reprising their roles from The Good Place as Shawn and his underlings, with Joe Mande reprising his role as Toddrick \"Todd\" Hemple in the third episode. At the 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards, the series was nominated for Outstanding Short Form Comedy or Drama Series.\n\nSee also\n\"A Nice Place to Visit\" – episode of The Twilight Zone with a similar premise and plot twist\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nThe Good Place at IMDb",
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"paragraph_text": "Kristen Anne Bell (born July 18, 1980) is an American actress. She began her acting career starring in stage productions, while attending the Tisch School of the Arts at New York University. She made her Broadway stage debut as Becky Thatcher in the comedy musical The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and appeared in a Broadway revival of The Crucible the following year. She later appeared in the action thriller film Spartan (2004) and received praise for her performance in the television drama film Gracie's Choice (2004).\nBell received a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television for her performance as the title character in the television series Veronica Mars (2004–2007). She reprised the eponymous role in the 2014 film and the 2019 revival. During her time on Veronica Mars, she starred as Mary Lane in the musical film Reefer Madness: The Movie Musical (2005), a role she would later reprise in the New York musical of the same name.\nShe later starred as Elle Bishop in the superhero drama series Heroes from 2007 to 2008. She voiced the titular narrator in the teen drama series Gossip Girl, reprising the role in the 2021 sequel, and starred as Jeannie van der Hooven, the female lead on the Showtime comedy series House of Lies. She starred in the lead role of Eleanor Shellstrop on the critically acclaimed NBC comedy series The Good Place, receiving a Golden Globe Award nomination for her role. In addition, Bell portrayed the lead role in streaming series The Woman in the House Across the Street from the Girl in the Window.\nHer major breakout film role was the lead role for the horror movie Pulse (2006), then as the title character in Forgetting Sarah Marshall (2008). She has since appeared in a number of comedy films, including Couples Retreat (2009), When in Rome (2010), You Again (2010), The Boss (2016), Bad Moms (2016), and A Bad Moms Christmas (2017). Bell received further recognition for voicing Princess Anna in the Disney animated films Frozen (2013), Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018), and Frozen II (2019).\n\nEarly life and family\nBell was born and raised in Huntington Woods, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. Her mother, Lorelei (née Frygier), was a registered nurse, and her father, Tom Bell, was a television news director in Las Vegas. Her mother is of Polish descent, and her father has German, Scottish and Irish ancestry.\nAt the age of four, Bell stated that she did not like her first name, so her mother encouraged her to use her middle name, Anne, which she used until she attended high school.\nJust before her first year of high school, Bell's parents decided to remove her from the public school system. She attended Shrine Catholic High School in nearby Royal Oak, where she took part in the drama and music clubs. Before attending Shrine, she attended Burton Elementary School and Norup Middle School (now known as Norup International School), part of the Berkley School District. At Shrine, she won the starring role in the school's 1997 production of The Wizard of Oz as Dorothy Gale, and appeared in productions of Fiddler on the Roof (1995), Lady, Be Good (1996), and Li'l Abner (1998). In 1998, the year she graduated, she was named the yearbook's \"Best Looking Lil' Lady\" by senior class vote.\nShortly after her high school graduation, Bell moved to New York City to attend New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, studying musical theater. In 2002, during her senior year, she left a few credits shy of graduating to take a role in the Broadway musical version of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer.\n\nCareer\n1992–2003: Early work\nIn 1992, Bell went to her first audition and won a dual role as a banana and a tree in a suburban Detroit theater's production of Raggedy Ann and Andy. Her mother had established her with an agent before Bell was 13, which allowed her to appear in newspaper advertisements for several Detroit retailers and television commercials. She began private acting lessons. In 1998, she had an uncredited role in the film Polish Wedding. In 2001, Bell left New York University to play Becky Thatcher in the short-lived Broadway musical of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. That year, she made her credited film debut in Pootie Tang. Her single line of dialogue was cut, and she appears only during the credits. \nIn 2002, she appeared in the Broadway revival of The Crucible with Liam Neeson, Angela Bettis and Laura Linney. Bell moved to Los Angeles in 2002 because of her friendship with writers Kevin Murphy and Dan Studney, and appeared in a handful of television shows as a special guest, finding trouble gaining a recurring role in a television series. Bell said she \"tested like eight times and booked nothing and every show [she] tested for got picked up\", including auditions for Skin and a Norm Macdonald series. In 2003, Bell appeared in FX's The Shield, season 2, episode 1, which aired on January 7, 2003. She appeared in Everwood, season 2 episode 2 as a cheerleader. She co-starred in the film The King and Queen of Moonlight Bay as Alison, a 17-year-old girl who travels to Arizona to reconnect with the father who abandoned her family.\n\n2004–2006: Veronica Mars and other roles\nIn 2004, Bell earned acclaim for her starring role in the Lifetime television film Gracie's Choice, which received one of the network's highest ratings. She made her debut in a theatrically released film with David Mamet's action thriller Spartan, as Laura Newton, the kidnapped daughter of the U.S. president, acting alongside Val Kilmer. Bell guest-starred on the HBO period drama series Deadwood, in a two-episode story arc (\"Bullock Returns to the Camp\" and \"Suffer the Little Children\").\n\nAt 24, she won the role of the title character in the UPN noir drama series Veronica Mars, which was launched in the fall of 2004. Created by Rob Thomas, the series starred Bell as the seventeen-year-old anti-establishment high school student and private detective. Bell drew on the parallels between the character of Veronica and her own life, since Bell's parents had divorced and her best friend had also died. The series earned acclaim from critics. Bell's performance earned her the Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television and a nomination for the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Drama, among numerous others. Some critics asserted that her performance was overlooked, and deserved consideration for a Primetime Emmy Award.\nAside from working on Veronica Mars, Bell starred in Reefer Madness: The Movie Musical, reprising the role she played in the short-lived 2001 Off-Broadway musical. The musical was a spoof of Reefer Madness, the 1936 exploitation film of the same name. Reefer Madness: The Movie Musical debuted on the Showtime network on April 16, 2005. Also in April, Bell starred as Gracie in Fifty Pills, an entry for the Tribeca Film Festival. She appeared in a short independent film called The Receipt and the horror film Roman, which was directed by her Crucible co-star Angela Bettis. Released on August 11, 2006, Pulse starred Bell as the lead Mattie. A remake of the Japanese horror film Kairo, the film grossed US$27.9 million worldwide but garnered negative response from critics. Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter commented, \"despite the starring presence of Kristen Bell, [the] young actress has far less interesting material to work with here than she does as [the character] 'Veronica Mars.'\"\n\n2007–2011: Film breakthrough and Gossip Girl\nVeronica Mars continued on UPN for a second season; for the third season, the show was renewed and appeared on the newly created The CW. On January 19, 2007, CW Entertainment President Dawn Ostroff announced that while she was pleased with the gradual improvement of Veronica Mars's ratings, the series would be put on hiatus after February sweeps to air a new reality series, Pussycat Dolls Present. On May 17, 2007, Ostroff announced the cancelation of the series. A two-hour series finale aired in the United States on May 22, 2007, and on June 11, 2007, Thomas officially announced in an email to TV Guide's Michael Ausiello that Veronica Mars had been canceled by the CW. A Veronica Mars feature film and comic book series continuation had been discussed, and for a short time there was talk of another collaboration between Bell and creator Thomas that would be unrelated to the Veronica Mars series.\nFollowing the cancellation of Veronica Mars, Bell voiced interest in appearing on Heroes because she was a fan. On July 29, 2007, during a train ride back to Los Angeles from San Diego Comic-Con with Heroes actors Zachary Quinto and Masi Oka, and writers from the series, the writers had mentioned that if she \"ever want[ed] to come on Heroes, give us [writers] a call,\" to which Bell said she would \"love to\". Meanwhile, there were discussions about a role on Lost, but Bell turned down the role of Charlotte Staples Lewis. Bell portrayed Elle Bishop on Heroes, a \"mysterious young lady\" with an \"awesome power\". She did not have to audition for the role of Elle, who made her first appearance in an October 2007 episode, and appeared in twelve episodes during the run of the series. The casting of Bell, Heroes creator Tim Kring explained, \"was not easy to pull off\", but because of the large ensemble cast of the series and multiple story arcs, \"we found a way to jump into a small window in [Bell's] schedule.\" Bell lent her voice to the CW series Gossip Girl; she voiced the title character in every episode of the series, appearing in person only for a surprise cameo in the final episode, portraying herself.\n\nShortly after the cancelation of Veronica Mars in early 2007, Bell filmed on location in Hawaii for a starring role as the title character in the Judd Apatow comedy Forgetting Sarah Marshall. She regarded the improvisational comedy in the film as \"a lovely experience\". The film, written by and also starring Jason Segel, was released theatrically on April 18, 2008, and greatly increased Bell's profile. Bell lent her voice and likeness to the video game Assassin's Creed, which was released in November 2007 for consoles and April 2008 for the PC. Bell reprised her role of Lucy in Assassin's Creed II, released in November 2009, and again in Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, released in November 2010. In the spring of 2006, she finished filming the Star Wars-themed comedy Fanboys. Director Kyle Newman received additional funding to shoot new scenes, but the busy schedules of the actors only allowed for filming in September 2007. As a result, the release was delayed until January 14, 2008. Bell starred in the 2009 comedies Serious Moonlight, alongside Meg Ryan, and Couples Retreat, which chronicles four couples who partake in therapy sessions at a tropical island resort. Jason Bateman played her husband. She provided the voice for Cora in Astro Boy. On March 31, 2008, Bell began shooting the Mark Steven Johnson-written Disney film When in Rome on location in Rome and New York; the film was released in 2010. Bell reprised her role as Sarah Marshall for a cameo appearance in the film Get Him to the Greek, a spin-off sequel from Forgetting Sarah Marshall, released June 4, 2010.\nBell co-starred alongside singers Christina Aguilera and Cher in the backstage musical film Burlesque, which was released in November 2010. She had a cameo appearance alongside Anna Paquin in the slasher horror film Scream 4, which was released on April 15, 2011.\n\n2012–2019: Frozen and The Good Place\nIn 2012, Bell starred in the family drama film Big Miracle. She appeared in the music video for \"Madder Red\" by Brooklyn experimental rock band Yeasayer. Bell portrayed Mary Magdalene in The Truth & Life Dramatized Audio New Testament Bible, a 22-hour, celebrity-voiced, dramatized audio adaptation of the New Testament that uses the RSV-CE translation.\n\nBell starred as Jeannie van der Hooven, the female lead on the Showtime comedy series House of Lies, which premiered on January 8, 2012. The series ended on June 12, 2016. Bell appeared in a supporting role in the science-fiction comedy Safety Not Guaranteed (2012). She starred in the drama film The Lifeguard, written and directed by Liz W. Garcia, which began filming in July 2012 and was released in August 2013. She voiced Anna in Frozen, which was released on November 27, 2013. In 2013, for multiple episodes, Bell played Ingrid de Forest, an Eagleton City Councilwoman, on Parks and Recreation.\nOn March 13, 2013, it was confirmed that a Veronica Mars film would be coming to fruition. Bell and series creator Rob Thomas launched a fundraising campaign to produce the film through Kickstarter and attained the $2 million goal in less than ten hours. The main cast members of the series all reprised their roles in the feature film. Production of the film took place during summer 2013, and it was released theatrically and on video-on-demand on March 14, 2014.\nIn September 2014, Bell starred with her husband, Dax Shepard, in a commercial for the Samsung Galaxy Tab S. It was so popular (with over 20 million YouTube views) that they did another for the holiday season. The ad agency McKinney was behind both. In 2016, Bell voiced the sloth Priscilla in the animated comedy film Zootopia, and starred as Claire in the comedy film The Boss. Bell starred as Kiki in the 2016 comedy film Bad Moms, a role she reprised in the 2017 sequel, A Bad Moms Christmas. In 2016, Bell began starring as Eleanor Shellstrop in the NBC comedy series The Good Place. For her performance, she received a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy, the TCA Award for Individual Achievement in Comedy, and the Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series, among numerous others.\nAlso in 2017, she appeared in the biographical comedy-drama The Disaster Artist, the action comedy CHiPs and the comedy How to Be a Latin Lover. In November 2017, she played a housewife (with Dax Shepard as her husband) preparing for a Christmas party in Sia's music video for \"Santa's Coming for Us\".\nIn 2018, she began hosting the web series Momsplaining with Kristen Bell, with episodes airing on the Ellen DeGeneres video platform Ellentube. In the series, Bell gives new and expecting mothers tips about motherhood. The title of the series is a pun on the commonly used term \"mansplaining\". Bell later had the leading role in the Netflix comedy-drama film Like Father. She voiced the character of Jade Wilson in the animated comedy film Teen Titans Go! To the Movies and reprised her voice role as Princess Anna in the animated comedy sequel film Ralph Breaks the Internet.\nOn September 20, 2018, Hulu confirmed that Bell would reprise her role of Veronica Mars in an 8-episode fourth season of the drama series Veronica Mars, which would premiere in July 2019. In 2019, she again reprised her role of Princess Anna in the video game Kingdom Hearts III and the sequel Frozen II which was released on November 22, 2019. Bell served as host and executive producer on the Disney+ docuseries Encore!, which premiered in November 2019. She made her directorial debut with the eighth episode of the fourth season of The Good Place. The series concluded after its fourth season, airing its final episode in January 2020. At the 25th Critics' Choice Awards, Bell received the #SeeHer Award, which recognizes women who \"push boundaries on changing stereotypes and acknowledge the importance of authentic portrayals of women across the entertainment landscape\".\n\nSince 2020: Established actress\nIn 2020, Bell published the children's book The World Needs More Purple People, which she co-wrote with Benjamin Hart. Also in 2020, Bell voiced Molly Tillerman in the Apple TV+ animated musical comedy series Central Park, which reunited her with Frozen co-star Josh Gad and Bad Moms co-star Kathryn Hahn. Central Park received a two-season order from Apple and the series premiered on May 29, 2020. In June 2020, it was announced that Bell, who is white, would no longer voice the biracial character of Molly. The role would be re-cast with a black or mixed race actress, with Bell voicing a new role.\nIn 2021, Bell produces and voices a lead character in the Amazon Prime Video animated musical pre-school series Do, Re, & Mi. She returned to narrate as the titular character of the HBO Max teen drama series Gossip Girl, a soft reboot and sequel to the 2007–2012 series of the same name. Bell starred alongside Kirby Howell-Baptiste as a pair of housewives who created a multi-million dollar coupon scam in the comedy film Queenpins. The film was released to Paramount+ on September 10, 2021.\nHer miniseries The Woman in the House Across the Street from the Girl in the Window was released on Netflix on January 28, 2022. In November 2022, Bell starred in the Amazon Prime movie The People We Hate at the Wedding. \nBell appeared in three episodes of The Tiny Chef Show and serves as the show's executive producer.\n\nPublic image\nIn 2006 and again in 2013, Bell was selected \"World's Sexiest Vegetarian\" on PETA's yearly poll. She was placed 68 on Maxim's 2005 \"Hot 100\" list, 11 in Maxim's 2006 \"Hot 100\" list, and 46 in Maxim's 2007 \"Hot 100\" list in which she was stated to have \"single-handedly saved The CW from becoming the worst network ever\". In 2006, Maxim also placed Bell at the top of the \"Fall TV's Criminally Sexy Investigators\" List. In 2008, she was ranked 59 on AskMen's Top 99 Women of 2008 List. Reflecting on her admitted popularity with \"geeks\", Bell was voted the fourth-sexiest woman on TV by the staff at Wizard magazine.\nBell stated she never thought of herself as womanly because \"I always play and look and act 10 years younger than I am.\" However, she said, \"Something magical happened when I turned 25—I looked in the mirror and was like, 'You might not get carded for an R-rated movie anymore.' Like I didn't have a little stick figure anymore.\" Bell has said that many of her characters are tomboys because she was \"not homely enough to play the nerdy girl and not nearly pretty enough to play the pretty girl\".\n\nBell has been associated with the idea that \"nerdy is the new cool\", and she explained, \"what was previously perceived as nerdy is now viewed as original. What I like about nerdiness, geekiness, is it doesn't really matter what you're into—it just means you're not a follower.\" She has also said, \"I love nerds. Comic-Con junkies are the tastemakers of tomorrow. Isn't that funny? The tables have turned.\" Vanessa Juarez of Entertainment Weekly commented that Bell's roles on Veronica Mars, Heroes and as a Star Wars fanatic in Fanboys have \"solidif[ied] her placement at the center of the geek universe,\" while Rodney Rothman stated, \"I guess she's cornered the market on losers.\" Bell's work is often compared to Sarah Michelle Gellar's portrayal of the title character on the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter stated that Bell was \"arguably the television successor [to Gellar's portrayal of Buffy] when it comes to fighting bad guys.\" Bell is sometimes confused with Lauren Conrad from The Hills. \"Yeah, sometimes fans yell, 'Hey, Lauren' to me, but usually from a distance,\" said Bell.\nDespite \"new celebrity\" status, Bell claimed that she was not concerned because \"no one ever recognizes me anyway\". She has said that her friend Hayden Panettiere is more famous than she is and attracts more attention; as Bell explained, \"I hang out with Hayden quite a bit—they never take pictures of me. I just step to the side, and I push myself in front of her when she wants to get out of it, or put her in the car.\"\nBell was a recurring guest on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, appearing in interviews as well as sketches. On The Late Late Show, she shows a humorous hostility towards Craig Ferguson's robot skeleton sidekick Geoff Peterson, claiming that she had wanted to be Ferguson's sidekick on his show and taking it upon herself to cut Peterson down every chance she gets. Both Bell and Peterson appeared with Ferguson during the five Late Late Show episodes filmed in France.\nIn January 2011, it was announced that Bell would be the new face of Neutrogena.\nIn 2014, Bell posed nude for the May issue of Allure magazine – alongside Jenna Dewan, Minnie Driver, and Nia Long.\nIn April 2019, Bell was featured on the cover of Entrepreneur magazine's April–May issue. In the article, she discussed her snack bar company, This Bar Saves Lives, which donates its sales to help feed malnourished children around the globe. In November 2019, Bell and Idina Menzel, who play sisters in Disney's Frozen franchise, received neighboring stars—Bell's was the 2681st and Menzel's was the 2682nd—on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.\n\nPersonal life\nRelationships and family\nIn 2007, Bell ended a five-year relationship with former fiancé Kevin Mann. She later told Complex magazine that dating \"makes me want to vomit. And not out of grossness—OK, a little bit out of grossness, but just nerves... I've always been a serial monogamist.\"\nIn late 2007, Bell began dating actor Dax Shepard, who is also from Metro Detroit. They announced their engagement in January 2010. They decided to delay marriage until the state of California passed legislation legalizing same-sex marriage. They co-starred in the 2010 film When in Rome, the 2012 film Hit and Run, and the 2017 film CHiPs. After section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court on June 26, 2013, Bell asked Shepard to marry her through Twitter, which he accepted. They were married at the Beverly Hills County Clerk's Office on October 16, 2013. They have two daughters, born in March 2013, and December 2014.\n\nBeliefs, interests, and charity work\nAt age 11, Bell became a vegetarian. In an interview with PETA, Bell stated, \"I have always been an animal lover. I had a hard time disassociating the animals I cuddled with—dogs and cats, for example—from the animals on my plate, and I never really cared for the taste of meat. I always loved my Brussels sprouts!\". By 2012 Bell had become vegan with Shepard after watching the documentary Forks Over Knives. During her first pregnancy, she returned to eating dairy products and eggs, however.\nDuring her time in Michigan, Bell fostered animals from the Michigan Humane Society, and she now supports the San Diego–based Helen Woodward Animal Center. Bell often attends fundraisers for the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and other non-profit organizations dedicated to protecting animals. She has had several dogs, including a Welsh Corgi-Chow Chow mix named Lola, a Welsh Corgi-Chihuahua mix named Shakey and a black Labrador Retriever named Sadie, who was 11 years old when she was rescued from Hurricane Katrina and adopted by Bell in 2005.\nBell has stated she is non-religious and identifies as a humanist. She and her husband Dax Shepard are pro-vaccination.\nBell showed support for the Writers Guild of America in the writers' strike, appearing in the picket lines in December 2007, stating, \"the writers are just looking for some fairness\".\nBell and other Veronica Mars cast members, including Ryan Hansen, are involved with the charity Invisible Children, Inc. The goal of the organization is to create awareness of the plight of Northern Ugandans who are caught in the midst of a civil war between the government and Joseph Kony's Lord's Resistance Army.\nBell supported and campaigned for Barack Obama during the 2008 United States presidential election. Along with Rashida Jones, she visited college campuses in Missouri to discuss the candidates and encourage voter registration.\nIn 2013, Kristen Bell, along with actors Ryan Devlin, Todd Grinnell, and Ravi Patel, founded the granola bar company This Bar Saves Lives to help fight malnutrition. The business donates food aid in the form of nutrition packets to children in Haiti, South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia. Since its launch, the company has donated more than 10 million packets as of February 2019.\nIn 2014, Bell launched a Prizeo campaign offering fans a chance to win a date with her in return for donating to Invisible Children, Inc. In 2018, Bell participated in a television advertisement for bone marrow donations, specifically the Gift of Life Marrow Registry. Her actions resulted in several matches that are documented on the Gift of Life website. Bell won a 2020 Webby Special Achievement Award.\nIn 2023, Bell revealed that she had taken up Brazilian jiu-jitsu and was training under Cesalina Gracie in mother-daughter classes alongside her daughter.\n\nMental health\nIn May 2016, Bell stated that she has received treatment for depression and anxiety. She said, \"It's important for me to be candid about this so people in a similar situation can realize that they are not worthless and that they do have something to offer.\"\nIn an interview with Jimmy Kimmel in August 2018, Bell discussed why she wears scuba gloves while swimming. She stated that she fears the sensation of touching things with water-immersed, wrinkled fingers, otherwise known as \"pruney fingers\". The gloves have allowed her to swim with her children without fearing touching them.\n\nEntrepreneurship\nIn 2019, Bell and her husband founded the company Hello Bello that markets plant-based baby care products said to be environmentally friendly and affordable. As of 2021, Hello Bello's estimated annual revenue was $26.1 million a year with 104 employees. In 2020, she partnered to start Happy Dance, a line of vegan CBD products such as eye cream and hand moisturizers. In 2023, Hello Bello filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, blaming years of declining sales and the financial startup crisis. The company is set to be acquired by private equity firm Hildred Capital Management.\n\nFilmography\nDiscography\nAwards and nominations\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nKristen Bell at IMDb\nKristen Bell at the Internet Broadway Database \nKristen Bell at the TCM Movie Database\nKristen Bell at AllMovie",
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"paragraph_text": "Dax Randall Shepard (born January 2, 1975) is an American actor, comedian, filmmaker and podcaster. Since 2018, he has hosted Armchair Expert, a podcast in which he interviews celebrities, journalists, and academics about their lives.\nShepard has appeared in the feature films Without a Paddle (2004), Zathura: A Space Adventure (2005), Employee of the Month (2006), Idiocracy (2006), Let's Go to Prison (2006), Hit and Run (2012), and CHiPs (2017), the last two of which he also wrote and directed. Shepard portrayed Crosby Braverman in the NBC comedy-drama series Parenthood from 2010 to 2015. He also played Luke Matthews in the Netflix show The Ranch, co-starred in ABC's Bless This Mess and acted in the MTV practical joke reality series Punk'd (2003).\nHe is also a co-founder of the diaper and baby product company Hello Bello with his wife Kristen Bell.\n\nEarly life and education\nShepard was born in Ypsilanti, Michigan at Beyer Hospital, in Washtenaw County, Michigan, in suburban Detroit. He is the son of Laura LaBo, who worked at General Motors (GM), and David Robert \"Dave\" Shepard Sr., who was a car salesman. His parents divorced when he was 3 years old. Shepard was sexually abused at age 7, which he believes was a major underlying cause of his later substance abuse issues. He did not reveal the abuse to anyone for 12 years after it occurred.\nShepard's mother had developed a substantial business by the time he was in high school. She worked car shows with traveling events at racetracks. She started as a janitor on the midnight shift at GM, then worked in fleet management at the GM proving grounds in Milford, Michigan, then hosted hospitality days for all the GM family members, eventually moving into public relations at an ad agency. She returned to GM, becoming the owner of four shops that managed publicity events for magazine journalists. From 14 to 18, Shepard worked for his mother on the road, going from racetrack to racetrack. For about two years, Shepard had a stepfather who was an engineer on the Corvette. Shepard's mother has been married four times; Shepard said he'd had three stepfathers.\nAccording to Shepard, his mother named him for the rich playboy Dax (Diogenes Alejandro Xenos), in Harold Robbins' novel The Adventurers. He has an older brother, David Shepard Jr., who lives in Oregon, and a younger half-sister, Carly Hatter, whom he cast in two films: 2012's Hit and Run and 2017's CHiPs. Through marriage, he is distantly related to George Washington on his mother's side.\nShepard has said that he was raised in Milford, although he lived in a lot of places in suburban Detroit, growing up primarily in Walled Lake, Michigan. Shepard is dyslexic and said it inspired his acting career. He graduated from Walled Lake Central High School in 1993 before enrolling in The Groundlings school. After attending Santa Monica College and West Los Angeles College, Shepard transferred to UCLA, where he graduated magna cum laude with a B.A. in anthropology. He had a deal with his mother that if he went to college she would pay his rent.\n\nCareer\nAfter a year in Santa Barbara, California, Shepard moved to Los Angeles in 1996. He found out about The Groundlings improv troupe from a friend from Santa Barbara, Kareem Elseify, who ended up auditioning (the first time he acted) and took classes while attending UCLA. After about five years of classes, he got into the Sunday Company of The Groundlings—in a group that included Melissa McCarthy, Fortune Feimster, Tate Taylor, and Nat Faxon.\nFrom 2003 onwards, Shepard appeared in the improv Candid Camera-type show Punk'd, with Ashton Kutcher. When the show had its 2012 revival, he continued to appear. Shepard said he auditioned for Punk'd and, while doing the pilot, became friendly with Kutcher, who arranged for him to get an agent. He had auditioned unsuccessfully for ten years before landing the role in Punk'd, his first.\nIn 2004, Shepard starred in the comedy Without a Paddle, alongside Seth Green and Matthew Lillard. The film received negative reviews and was a commercial success that as of 2009 had grossed more than US$65 million worldwide. In 2005, he starred as The Astronaut in Zathura: A Space Adventure, a science fiction adventure fantasy film. In 2006, he appeared with Dane Cook and Jessica Simpson in the comedy Employee of the Month and in Mike Judge's film Idiocracy as the character Frito.\nDuring the same time, Shepard began appearing in more films and landed his first main character role in Let's Go to Prison (2006), alongside Will Arnett and Chi McBride. He had a main role in the 2008 comedy Baby Mama, starring opposite Tina Fey and Amy Poehler. Shepard wrote the script for the Paramount venture Get 'Em Wet, where he again appeared with Arnett. In 2010, he wrote, directed, and starred in the low-budget satirical mockumentary feature Brother's Justice; the film won an Audience Award at the 2010 Austin Film Festival. He had a supporting role in the 2010 romantic comedy film When in Rome, which starred his future wife Kristen Bell.\nFrom 2010 to 2015, Shepard was part of the main cast of the NBC drama Parenthood, playing Crosby Braverman.\n\nShepard wrote, produced, co-directed, and starred in the 2012 low-budget film Hit and Run alongside Bell and his close friend Bradley Cooper. He said the movie, which includes numerous car chases and fast driving scenes, allowed him to live out his Smokey and the Bandit fantasy.\nShepard had a supporting role in the 2014 film The Judge, which starred Robert Downey Jr., Robert Duvall and Vera Farmiga.\nIn September 2014, Shepard starred with his wife, Kristen Bell, in a commercial for the Samsung Galaxy Tab S. It was so popular (with over 20 million YouTube views) that they did another commercial for the holiday season. The ad agency McKinney was behind both.\nShepard wrote and directed a feature-length film called CHiPs, based on the 1977 to 1983 American crime drama of the same name, where he starred as Officer Jon Baker alongside Michael Peña as Frank \"Ponch\" Poncherello. The project was released by Warner Bros. on March 24, 2017, to negative reviews.\nOn February 14, 2018, Shepard launched the podcast Armchair Expert with cohost Monica Padman. The show explores the stories of their guests. Featured guests on the show have included Barack Obama, Bill Gates, Kristen Bell, Ashton Kutcher, Will Ferrell, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, and hundreds of others. On June 7, 2018, the show released their first episode of \"Experts on Expert\", in which Shepard and Padman interview experts in their fields. Featured experts on the show have included psychologist Wendy Mogel, comedian and author David Sedaris, and speechwriter Jon Favreau. The show was the most popular new podcast on iTunes in 2018. On December 3, 2019, it was revealed that Shepard will be a host of the revived Top Gear America, which premiered on Motor Trend in January 2021. In 2024, the company secured a first-look deal with Wondery, a unit of Amazon, after the success of the podcast show Armchair Expert.\n\nPersonal life\nRelationships\nShepard met actress Kristen Bell, also a native of Detroit's northern suburbs, at the birthday party of a mutual friend; they began dating in late 2007. The couple announced their engagement in January 2010; they decided to delay marriage until the state of California passed legislation legalizing same-sex marriage. After section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court on June 26, 2013, Bell asked Shepard through Twitter to marry her, which he accepted. They were married at the Beverly Hills County Clerk's Office on October 17, 2013. They have two daughters, born in March 2013 and December 2014.\n\nSubstance use disorder\nShepard has said that, except for a year in high school when he used drugs, he did not have a substance abuse problem until he was 18 years old. After struggling for years with alcohol, cocaine, and pills, Shepard achieved sobriety in September 2005. On September 25, 2020, in a special episode of his podcast, Armchair Expert, Shepard revealed he had relapsed while recovering from an accident by using painkillers to augment a prescription. He announced that he was again sober, with seven days of sobriety as of the recording date (September 21, 2020).\n\nInterests and charity work\nShepard races motorcycles at Buttonwillow Raceway Park, including his Ducati Hypermotard 1100S and Suzuki GSX-R1000. He donates much of his time to the Hollenbeck Youth Center, an after-school program that provides opportunity to at-risk inner-city youth. He has served as their official Master of Ceremonies, along with his friend Tom Arnold, for the Inner-City Games and Hollenbeck Youth Center's Miracle on 1st Street Toy Giveaway Program in East Los Angeles.\nHe is an avid car enthusiast. He owns the 1967 Lincoln Continental that was featured in the movie Hit and Run, and races off-road.\nShepard and his wife were advocates of California Senate Bill 606, called \"no-kids paparazzi\". Bell said: \"We're not saying that we can't be newsworthy. We're saying that our child is not newsworthy.\" California Senate Bill 606 passed in 2013, with testimony by actresses Halle Berry and Jennifer Garner.\nShepard practices Transcendental Meditation.\n\nFilmography\nFilm\nTelevision\nAwards and nominations\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nDax Shepard at IMDb",
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"paragraph_text": "PAW Patrol: The Movie is a 2021 Canadian animated action-adventure comedy film based on the television series PAW Patrol created by Keith Chapman. It was directed by Cal Brunker, who co-wrote the screenplay with Billy Frolick and Bob Barlen from a story by Frolick. Several cast members from the main series reprised their roles, including Kingsley Marshall (voicing Marshall), Keegan Hedley (voicing Rubble), Shayle Simons (voicing Zuma), Lilly Bartlam (voicing Skye), and Ron Pardo (voicing both Cap'n Turbot and Mayor Humdinger). They are joined by Iain Armitage (voicing Chase), Marsai Martin, Yara Shahidi, Kim Kardashian, Randall Park, Dax Shepard, Jimmy Kimmel, Tyler Perry, and introducing Will Brisbin in his film debut as Ryder. In the film, Ryder and the PAW Patrol pups are called to Adventure City in order to stop the recently-elected Mayor Humdinger from wreaking havoc.\nRonnen Harary announced that Spin Master Entertainment was \"considering whether to extend the PAW Patrol franchise into feature films at some point in the next 12 to 24 months\" in November 2017. Development for the feature film based on the PAW Patrol television series began in February 2020, with Brunker attached to direct, and Barlen and Frolick attached to write the screenplay. From October 2020 to May 2021, the voice casting call began. Production was done remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. The film was produced almost entirely in Canada; according to Brunker, \"95 percent of everything\" happened in Canada, with the exception being some audio recording.\nPAW Patrol: The Movie premiered at the Vue Leicester Square in London on August 8, 2021, and also premiered in the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on August 14, and was theatrically released in both Canada by Elevation Pictures and the United States by Paramount Pictures on August 20, 2021. It was also made available on Paramount+ on the same day in the United States. The film received generally positive reviews from critics for its animation, themes, characterization, soundtrack, and action sequences, but criticized for its writing, pacing, and focusing on the show's merchandising arm, and became a box office success, grossing over $151 million worldwide against a production budget of $26 million. A sequel titled PAW Patrol: The Mighty Movie was released on September 29, 2023, featuring elements from the Mighty Pups sub-theme of the main show and a third film is scheduled for release on July 31, 2026.\n\nPlot\nShortly after being called by Cap'n Turbot to rescue a truck driver who has crashed through a suspension bridge, the PAW Patrol receives a message from a dachshund named Liberty, who informs them that their arch-nemesis Mayor Humdinger has just taken over nearby Adventure City in a fixed election. Chase initially refuses to go, as he has PTSD from being lost in the city when he was younger, but Ryder assures him everything will be fine.\nAs Ryder and the pups settle into their new headquarters, Humdinger goes to a meteorology laboratory and commandeers a Cloud Catcher designed to suction up small clouds for research. Against the advice of head meteorologist Dr. Kendra Wilson, Humdinger uses the device to keep the city constantly free of rain. He later attempts to set off too many fireworks at once at a show, and the PAW Patrol, aided by Liberty, suit up to respond to the ensuing chaos.\nDuring the response, Chase sees some citizens trapped on a balcony and parachutes down to rescue them, but he forgets to take off his parachute and gets blown over the railing by a wind gust, badly frightening him. The next day, Humdinger unveils a loop-the-loop extension he has designed for the local el train; the structure quickly breaks, leaving a train stranded upside down atop a loop. Ryder sends Chase up to a rooftop to zip-line across and rescue the passengers, but Chase freezes in panic. Skye rescues him, and Marshall saves the passengers instead.\nAfter the train rescue, Ryder advises Chase to take a break, only for him to angrily accuse Ryder of betraying his trust and giving up on him before storming out. He is captured by Humdinger's associates Butch and Ruben, who take him to an obedience school they have converted into a dog pound. Liberty allows herself to be captured as well so she can speak with Chase and the other impounded dogs, including a sassy female Poodle named Delores. The rest of the PAW Patrol follows Liberty, breaking into the pound and setting all the prisoners free. As the other pups return to headquarters, Ryder takes Chase to the intersection where he had found Chase as a small puppy, and explains that he adopted Chase because he saw bravery in him.\nLater, Humdinger reveals an extension he has added to the city's tallest skyscraper, putting his office at the very top. Kendra attempts to warn an indifferent Humdinger that the Cloud Catcher is being overworked and will soon dangerously malfunction. The machine goes critical, unleashing a hurricane on the town. Kendra calls the PAW Patrol to respond; they suit up, and Ryder names Liberty as their newest member and gives her a motor scooter to ride.\nAs the pups help the citizens take cover, Ryder ascends to Humdinger's office and convinces him to evacuate by getting on the elevator. Ryder manually releases the elevator cables to quickly lower Humdinger and his kittens to the ground; he attempts to rappel down after them, but the storm blows the tower extension into another building, trapping Ryder in the debris. Seeing the tower fall, Chase uses a special motorcycle with suction cup tires to ride up the side of a skyscraper, arriving at the gap where the falling tower split its neighboring building. After briefly freezing up again when he realizes he cannot use his grappling hook, Chase remembers Ryder's words about his bravery and takes a leap of faith across the gap, finding Ryder trapped in the rubble on the other side and freeing him. They hurry down to safety, while Skye sacrifices her helicopter to destroy the Cloud Catcher and end the storm.\nOnce the weather clears, Chase arrests Humdinger for gross negligence, public endangerment, and dognapping. Later on, the PAW Patrol is given the key to Adventure City in a major ceremony held by Kendra and news reporter Marty Muckraker. As Ryder gives Liberty her own pup tag and collar to make her a true member of the team, one of the former pound dogs calls the team for help, and they happily depart for another rescue.\n\nVoice cast\nIain Armitage as Chase, an ambitious 7-year-old German Shepherd is the main protagonist of the movie who serves as a police pup. He grew up on the streets of Adventure City, giving him a \"strong character arc for the film\". Armitage found the role special and enjoyable. He said, \"It's a new challenge because you don't get to convey anything with your body movements… that's all the animator's job,\" he then explained: \"You can only use your voice to convey whatever you're trying to show. But it's really fun to do animation.\" Armitage replaces Justin Paul Kelly from the series.\nMarsai Martin as Liberty, a spirited long-haired Dachshund who grew up and lives in Adventure City and becomes the newest member of the PAW Patrol. She considers the team to be her heroes and works hard to keep the city clean, she also dreams of becoming the team's member before joining them. She is outspoken and often snarks at other people. Martin said this particular role was unique because it hits close to home. Martin expressed her feelings about her role, \"She's so wild and a free spirit. She's so energetic and fun, and I feel like she'd actually make a perfect fit into the PAW Patrol because of how amazing and wild she is.\"\nYara Shahidi as Dr. Kendra Wilson, a scientist who works at a university and quotes things in scientific terms that have to be repeated in normal terms until Rubble understands what she said. She invented the Cloud Catcher, a tool that Mayor Humdinger would use to clear the weather.\nKim Kardashian as Delores, a sassy Poodle who is working at an animal shelter after being jailed in the Fuzzy Buddies obedience school. Kardashian said she was excited to voice the part, thrilled that her children now consider her a \"cool mom\".\nRandall Park as Butch, a burly man and one of Mayor Humdinger's security guards who attempt to keep the pups out of Adventure City.\nDax Shepard as Ruben, a skinny man and another of Mayor Humdinger's security guards. On voicing his character role, Shepard stated that PAW Patrol \"was the first show he was forced to watch after becoming a dad but admitted that he actually enjoys it\", adding: \"that earned him some serious cred with his kids\". He concluded: \"I get to reintroduce my kids to that experience of going to the movies that I valued so much growing up\".\nTyler Perry as Gus, a truck driver in the midst of transporting Canadian maple syrup to its destination when he is saved by Chase after his truck swerves off a bridge to avoid hitting a baby sea turtle. Perry, on his role, saying that his 6-year-old son Aman is also thrilled that his father is involved in the film. \"He loves Skye and Chase and Zuma. I know the theme song like the back of my mind,\" he stated in an interview. \"...That's the reason I said yes. I really wanted to be a part of something that he could appreciate as much as I do.\"\nJimmy Kimmel as Marty Muckraker, the wig-wearing news anchor of the Adventure City News Network. Kimmel also had trouble convincing his kids, 4-year-old Billy and 7-year-old Jane, of his role in the film. \"I have been telling them, trying to explain to them that Daddy's in the PAW Patrol movie,\" the late-night host jokes. \"I'm hopeful this will make me a big shot, at least for a couple of days.\"\nWill Brisbin as Ryder, a 10-year-old boy who serves as the leader of the PAW Patrol. With his leadership, Ryder confidently sends the group on their mission to save Adventure City from dog-hating Mayor Humdinger and also having a complicated relationship with Chase. Brisbin had to keep his role a closely-guarded secret for some time, which he found difficult as his nine-year-old brother is a huge PAW Patrol fan. Brisbin replaces Beckett Hipkiss from the series.\nKeegan Hedley as Rubble, a wisecracking 5-year-old English Bulldog who serves as a construction pup. He becomes the main comic relief character in the film as opposed to the series, so Hedley was encouraged to make up his own dialogue during his recording. After recording, director Cal Brunker says that his personality is a mix of Disney/Pixar comic-relief sidekicks such as The Seven Dwarfs, Jiminy Cricket, the Genie, Timon and Pumbaa, Mushu, Dory, Mater, Olaf, Ducky and Bunny, giving him a personality change from being a tough pup to a funny comic-relief character in this film.\nLilly Bartlam as Skye, a sweet 7-year-old Cockapoo who serves as an aviator pup.\nKingsley Marshall as Marshall, a cuddly 6-year-old Dalmatian who serves as a firefighting pup.\nCallum Shoniker as Rocky, a clever 6-year-old mixed-breed dog who serves as a recycling pup. Shoniker previously voiced the Copycat from the Mighty Pups, Charged Up sub-series and replaces Jackson Reid from the series.\nShayle Simons as Zuma, an energetic 5-year-old chocolate Labrador who serves as an aquatic rescue pup.\nRon Pardo as:\nMayor Humdinger, the PAW Patrol's arch-nemesis from Foggy Bottom who is elected the mayor of nearby Adventure City due to his name being the only one on the ballot and the other candidate somehow withdrawing from the election. Though Humdinger despises the PAW Patrol pups, he has shown a general dislike for dogs in general because he prefers cats. Pardo said he drew inspiration for Mayor Humdinger's voice from mixing impressions of a Dudley Do-Right cartoon character with a well-known American entertainer from the 1930s-1950s.\nCap'n Turbot, a sea captain and animal expert who is one of the PAW Patrol's closest friends.\nKim Roberts as Mayor Goodway, the Mayor of Adventure Bay.\nPaul Braunstein as a tough guy on a subway who Liberty scolds for littering. Richard Arnold provides the voice of the tough guy in the UK dub.\nNeil Crone as Tony, the proprietor of the namesake of his grocery store.\nMonique Alvarez as Carmen, Liberty's friend who works at a bodega.\nJamillah Ross as a camerawoman working for Marty Muckraker.\nJosh Robert Thompson as the fireworks technician that Mayor Humdinger enlisted to pull off his fireworks show.\nJosh Graham as the computer voice that is heard in the PAW Patrol's vehicles and their satellite headquarters in Adventure City.\nJoe Pingue as Barney, an Old English Sheepdog and inmate at Fuzzy Buddies obedience school.\nCharles Gallant as Harris, a Labrador Retriever and inmate at Fuzzy Buddies obedience school. Ronan Keating provides the voice of Harris in the UK dub.\nRichard Binsley as Rocket, a Jack Russell Terrier and inmate at Fuzzy Buddies obedience school who often chases his tail. Tom Fletcher provides the voice of Rocket in the UK dub.\nRaoul Bhaneja as Dad\nSaara Chaudry as Daughter\nKevin Duhaney as a window washer\nFive side characters from the original series also make non-speaking cameo appearances in the film during the rescue of Gus: Francois Turbot, Katie, Mr. Porter, Farmer Al, and Farmer Yumi.\n\nProduction\nDevelopment\nIn November 2017, Ronnen Harary confirmed that Spin Master was \"currently considering whether to extend the PAW Patrol franchise into feature films at some point in the next 12 to 24 months\". Animation tests were conducted in 2017 to measure how the characters \"would translate onto the big screen\" and the company developed a film script.\nDevelopment of the film was confirmed on February 21, 2020, with Cal Brunker attached as director while Spin Master Entertainment's president, Jennifer Dodge serves as the film's producer. Production was done in both the United States and Canada. On March 13, 2021, an exclusive first look of the film was shown during the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards 2021.\nDodge stated that they were excited about the partnership with Paramount Pictures and Nickelodeon Movies to bring the franchise to the big screen. She adds, \"This first foray into the arena of feature film marks a significant strategic expansion for Spin Master Entertainment and our properties. This demonstrates our commitment to harnessing our own internal entertainment production teams to develop and deliver IP in a motion picture format and allows us to connect our characters to fans through shared theatrical experiences.\"\nDodge said, \"For us, it was important to be able to tell a deeper character story than what they've been able to do with the series.\" She also explained, \"And to tell it in a way that a child really can understand and relate to, and maybe even their parents get a deeper meaning from it. You can have a hard day at school or daycare and you can rise above those difficulties and you can come through on the other side. It doesn't mean you're never scared, it doesn't mean you don't doubt yourself. But, if at the end of the day, you really believe in yourself and you have people around you who believe in you, you can overcome it.\"\n\"When the chance came to pitch my take on the movie, I was able to bring all of their experience and what my kids loved about the show to the pitch, and I think that really helped,\" says Brunker. \"Our take was, we really wanted to build this around the emotional journey of one character, so it felt like more of a theatrical experience. You go on a journey with one of these characters overcoming their struggles, and the whole team is involved, but we felt that that was the best way to bring an audience deeper into the story.\"\n\nCasting\nOn October 15, 2020, Iain Armitage, Marsai Martin, Yara Shahidi, Kim Kardashian, Randall Park, Dax Shepard, Tyler Perry, and Jimmy Kimmel were announced as part of the cast. On May 3, 2021, the cast and characters were announced. Adam Levine, Perry and Kardashian joined the cast because their respective children were fans of the show. For the role of Ryder, more than 1,000 people auditioned before Will Brisbin a 15-years old actor from Sherwood Park, Alberta, Canada, got the role.\nOn July 14, it was announced that Ronan Keating, Richard Arnold, Sam Faiers and Tom Fletcher were added to the cast as part of the voice cameos for the dubs in the UK and Ireland.\nDuring an interview with Collider, Brunker spoke about enjoying the voice cast overall. \"The core cast of pups and Ryder are all kids, and that was new for us and really wonderful. We really worked with them to try to get true, meaningful performances out of all the characters, and I thought they did an amazing job. The character of Chase, played by Iain [Armitage], goes on such a wonderful emotional journey that's a little bit unexpected, and he just brought so much to it. He broke our hearts in some moments. You really end up rooting for him. In terms of improvisation, I would say Marsai's deliveries were the things that were most surprising. She almost couldn't do anything bad. When we were going through the takes, it was like, \"This is great. This is great in a different way. And this is great in a different way.\" She was wonderful and brought so much energy to it. Everybody was wonderful. Dax [Shepard] is the nicest guy, who was game on for everything. Tyler Perry was thrilled to be a part of it. His son is a big fan, and he certainly loves to improvise and do lots of takes. We couldn't have had a better cast or a better experience for recording them.\"\nIn an interview with Screen Rant, Iain Armitage spoke about the film and how he aspires to be like his canine counterpart Chase, ahead of the film's home entertainment release. He stated about the film's main character, \"Chase is a fun, funny, smart, brave, loyal dog. And he's a police dog, and he's sort of the, I don't think he's the head of the team, but he's really on top of things. I think he's very cool under pressure. He's very helpful. And he always loves to help other people. And he's always very kind, which I think is very important. And I think I try to be like him in everyday life. I don't always succeed, but I try.\"\nAccording to Armitage, \"The cool thing about voice-over is, you can't convey things with your body because, of course, they don't see it. So you sort of have to have everything that you're going to be doing for the character come through in your voice, which is hard, but it's also kind of fun. It's a fun challenge, but on the upside, you can show up to work in pajamas, and they won't get mad at you. So that balances out. But I think just trying to really bring emotion into my voice in some of those scenes and to really make it clear that I care about Ryder [Will Brisbin] and my fellow pups on the team.\"\n\nWriting\nOn February 21, 2020, Bob Barlen announced that he would co-write the screenplay with Billy Frolick. Director Cal Brunker, who also wrote the film along with his childhood friend Bob Barlen and Billy Frolick, came to the film with a solid understanding of the characters thanks to his own kids.\n\nScreenwriter Barlen described the main character to be focused on in the film: \"Chase is kind of like the quarterback. Chase sort of seems like the main character, and so being able to expand and kind of have a character who fails and who has to overcome an obstacle is important. We were able to do more than the TV show time allows. Starting in Adventure Bay, you see him as that same perfect pup from the show where he's executing things flawlessly. That's really where we were able to expand on his backstory and create something that would be worthy of the feature film. So, you're seeing him for the first time really ever make mistakes and mess up and come to terms with not being perfect, and then pushing through and overcoming that fear. That was really something that we were excited about in terms of telling a story.\"\nBrunker adds, \"At its core, the movie is about what it means to be scared, and how to overcome your fears. It felt really important to be doing something that we could share with people at this time as the movie comes out. I think people are coming out of this time of fear and uncertainty, and I think the movie has a lot to say about that. And we really feel proud that hopefully this is going to be one of the first movies that people get to see in theaters again.\"\nThe film also represented the fulfillment of a lifetime dream for Bob Barlen and Cal Brunker, who had been making films together for decades. Brunker had known Barlen since they attended high school, and would make films with him later into their respective careers: \"Back before we ever got a chance to make a movie, Bob and I went to Hollywood for the first time, and we actually paid to go on the Paramount lot tour. You know, you get to see behind the gates. We said to each other, wouldn't it be amazing if one day we were making a movie for Paramount? Well, we're six or seven weeks away from our first movie for Paramount coming out. And to be entrusted with such a beloved brand for so many people and to be able to share that with the world, this is a dream come true for us. It's been something we've been working towards for a long time and, and it's a real gift.\"\n\nAnimation\nOn November 8, 2019, it was announced that Mikros Image in Montreal would handle the animation. There are 250 filmmakers with a team of about 60 devoted to the animation. Their biggest challenge was creating high-quality theatrical animation that didn't lose the style of the series. They were also especially interested in creating action scenes that had more of a realistic quality.\nWhile they wanted to focus on the backstory of one character, it was also important to them to add a new female pup to the crew, since the character Skye is usually the only female on the team. New pups often appear in the series for a specific adventure to round out the team, but then are not necessarily in every episode going forward.\nBarlen stated about adding a new pup to the film: \"For us, in terms of actually creating Liberty, it was really fun because one of the nice things was that we were able to create a character that maybe was a bit different than the other pups. All the pups in the PAW Patrol are perfect and they're great. They're a certain way, but Liberty has got a little bit of an edge to her, which is nice. Having her experience and seeing her experiencing the film from her point of view, as she relates to the PAW Patrol, is really fun. And then, in terms of Marsai Martin who plays her, she's such an incredible actress. It was such a gift that she agreed to do it because she really brings the character to life. We couldn't imagine her being played in a better way by a better character, so we were really looking to have her on.\" Brunker says that Liberty is a new character, which allows them to write differently for her than the other pups. They also knew when she grow up in Adventure City, it justifies her having a little bit 'thicker' skin and a tougher way of talking. He stated that it is fun to juxtapose with the attitudes that the other people used to from the regular core team of pups.\nBrunker stated: \"For me, it started really young with drawing and being a visual thinker and expressing myself visually. The idea of being able to create almost anything you can imagine in animation is something that I find incredibly attractive...\" while Barlen agrees, saying, \"One of the nice things about animated movies, just from growing up on animated films and loving them well past when I was grown, is that it's so many people coming together and being able to make a film on a large scale that goes out so wide across the world. One of the exciting things about being a filmmaker is that your work is seen by hundreds of thousands or millions of people. Animation allows us to work at a scale where we can do something spectacular and really special on screen.\"\n\"My daughter is a huge Skye fan\", says Brunker. \"She was four when we started making this movie. So, we wanted to give Skye some really big, exciting moments. We also felt, just in terms of bringing something fresh and new to the team, a new girl pup would be wonderful. Because she's new for the movie, we wanted to make her stand out. We thought that because she was from the city we could make her a little tougher, a little more rough around the edges than the other pups are, and that would bring something fresh to that world as well.\"\nDodge and Brunker both thought the style of the animation needed to remain true to the series, but with some significant adjustments to give it a more theatrical feel. According to Brunker, they wanted to redesign some things noticed in the movie: \"The back legs of the dogs actually look and function like real dog legs and in the TV show they're kind of more cartoony; just kind of stick legs. We felt it would allow them to move more like real dogs, and if we could push the realism of the movement, then it would make the fact that they're doing these great big rescues and all this heroic stuff even more exciting.\"\nAt a reported budget of $26 million, the CGI animation is more polished and textured than the series, with Brunker and his team reshaping and rebuilding every character, vehicle and environment from scratch. Aside from some voice recording in Los Angeles (including recordings from most of the cast remotely) and orchestral scoring in Nashville, \"95 percent of everything\" happened in Canada, according to Brunker.\n\nMusic\nHeitor Pereira composed the music for the film. He previously collaborated with director Brunker on The Nut Job 2: Nutty by Nature. On June 2, 2021, it was confirmed that Maroon 5 lead singer Adam Levine had provided an original song, titled \"Good Mood\". It was written by Shellback, Savan Kotecha, Oscar Görres and Adam Levine; Shellback and \nOscar Görres are the producers, while Savan Kotecha serves as the executive producer. The track was officially released on August 6, and sent to Italian radio on October 1, 2021.\nAnother song, titled \"The Use in Trying\", was announced on August 2, 2021, as well as the official release on August 10, co-written by Alessia Cara (who performs the track) and Jon Levine, who additionally serves as producer. Levine stated that \"her one-of-a-kind voice weaves a beautiful song that captures the sadness and uncertainty during a pinnacle moment in the film\".\nOriginal songs performed for the film include:\n\nRelease\nTheatrical and streaming\nDuring Spin Master's first quarter 2019 earnings conference call, an animated theatrical film based on the series was announced to be \"in the works\" with an August 2021 theatrical release date. On April 24, 2020, the film's theatrical release was announced to be August 20, 2021. The film was also available to stream on Paramount+ in the U.S. on the same day it released in theaters. Because Canadian distribution is handled by Elevation Pictures, the Canadian version of Paramount+ did not initially offer the movie, and it is unknown if it will. In July 2024, the film was made available to stream on Netflix in the United States.\nIn July 2021, Paramount Pictures UK and Ireland announced that the film would be released in British and Irish theatres on August 9, 2021. This version also retained the voice actors of the British dub.\nThe film had its red carpet premiere at the Vue Leicester Square in London on August 8, 2021. PAW Patrol: The Movie was released in China on January 14, 2022.\n\nMarketing\nBy October 2020, the number of UK marketing partners have signed to promote PAW Patrol: The Movie. It includes Spin Master, Play by Play, Crayola, VTech, Sambro, RMS International, Kiddieland, Blues, Fashion UK, Aykroyd TDP, Amscan, Character World, Worlds Apart, Kinnerton, Seabrook, Yoplait, Beiersdorf, Signature Gifts, Egmont, Danilo, and DNC. On April 26, 2021, it was announced that Jakks Pacific and Disguise acquired the new rights as the toy and costume partner based on the film. The Halloween costumes and accessories from Disguise was available online, at retailers and Halloween specialty stores was also available in fall 2021.\nOn June 30, 2021, Mattel purchased rights to create a selection of items under its Mega Bloks and Uno brands which include more than 10 products featuring the characters from the film. The line of products was available in fall 2021.\nA series of books based on the film was published on July 13, 2021. A line of action figures and toys collection by Spin Master was released on August 1, 2021, after July 15 presale. In June 2021, PetPlate announced its partnership for the launch of the film.\nIn July, Marston's made a deal with Paramount Pictures to launch the exclusive meal deal and collectible mask offer across 270 pubs ahead of the film release in the UK. The kids' meal deal offer ran throughout August, and it also includes the merchandise, such as six collectible character masks and activity sheets. Additional marketing partners for the film included Build-A-Bear, Hasbro, Kellogg's, Campbell's, Kraft Heinz, and Random House Children's Books, while ViacomCBS has partnered with retailers such as Walmart, Target, Amazon, Kroger, and LIDL.\n\nHome media\nParamount Home Entertainment released PAW Patrol: The Movie on digital on October 26, 2021, then on DVD and Blu-ray on November 2, 2021. The digital release features hours of entertainment with exclusive bonus content, including a look at the team, additional news reports with reporter Marty Muckraker (voiced by Jimmy Kimmel) and a sing-along with a reimagined PAW Patrol theme song lyric video. It also includes the bonus episodes with one never-before-seen episode from the popular Nickelodeon series, and a never-before-seen episode of Blaze and the Monster Machines. When the film was released on disc, it entered the national NPD VideoScan First Alert sales chart at No. 2, debuting at No. 3 on the dedicated Blu-ray Disc chart.\n\nTelevision broadcasts\nPAW Patrol: The Movie aired on Nickelodeon on November 18, 2022. Following its debut, PAW Patrol: The Movie encored on the following Saturday (Nov. 19) and Sunday (Nov. 20).\n\nReception\nBox office\nPAW Patrol: The Movie grossed $40.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $111.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $151.4 million.\nIn the United States and Canada, PAW Patrol: The Movie was released alongside Reminiscence, The Night House, and The Protégé as well as the limited release of Flag Day and was initially projected to gross around $7–9 million from 3,184 theaters in its opening weekend. After making $4.5 million on its first day, estimates were increased to $12–14 million. It went on to debut to $13 million, finishing second behind holdover Free Guy; 88% of the audience was made up of families, 63% being under the age of 25. The opening was noteworthy because Regal Cinemas, the second-largest chain in the U.S., refused to carry the film due to its day-and-date release. The film fell 50% in its second weekend to $6.6 million, finishing in third. It then made $4 million in its third weekend, declining 40% and finishing in fifth place.\nWorldwide, PAW Patrol: The Movie debuted in six markets, making $5.8 million in its first weekend, including a $2.3 million opening in France and a $3.2 million opening in the United Kingdom. In its second weekend, the film made $12.8 million in 39 markets; the top countries were Germany ($2.6 million), the Netherlands ($1.1 million), Mexico ($864,000), France, and the United Kingdom. It also had a South Korean opening in a mere 240 theaters, a decision by the Korea Theater Association to release local titles instead. In its third, the film was screened in 46 markets and grossed $10.3 million, which included #1 openings in Spain, Argentina, and Chile.\n\nCritical response\nOn the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 51 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of \"A−\" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 81% of audience members gave it a positive score, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it.\nRandy Myers of The Mercury News gave the film three stars out of four and said, \"This old-fashioned, G-rated animated children's film (young children, that is, not teens or tweens) does everything it intends to do. And does it well.\" Kristen Page-Kirby of The Washington Post gave two and a half stars out of four and said, \"A better movie than it needs to be, with some neat visuals, an outstanding score and a story that, while simple, is well told.\" Glenn Kenny of The New York Times called the film, \"Entirely toddler-friendly and irony-free\".\nNate Adams of The Only Critic gave the film a B, and wrote in his review, \"I think three to six-year-olds are going to wince with glee at the sight of their favorite puppers saving the day, but the parents who are forced to go along for the ride will appreciate the film's cheery sense of humor and educational elements.\" Lisa Giles-Keddie of HeyUGuys gave the film four stars out of five and said, \"A relentlessly entertainment big screen outing for the familiar pups. A perfect slice of summer cinema for all the family.\" James Mottram of South China Morning Post gave the film three stars out of five, saying \"Paw Patrol: The Movie is a solidly entertaining film for kids, with plenty of crash-bang action.\"\nNell Minow of RogerEbert.com gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying \"Parents will appreciate the way the pups tackle problem-solving, working together to make the best use of each character's talents.\" Courtney Howard of Variety found that, \"Any crass consumerism is eclipsed by disarming, demonstrable themes and meaningful sentiments woven throughout the film's textured fabric.\" Yolanda Machado of TheWrap gave the film a positive review, stating \"Brunker and his co-writers find a way to deliver a multi-layered story that can grab toddlers while keeping older viewers entertained and not groaning at some propagandized messaging.\" Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter called the film, \"Harmless fun for its target audience\".\nReviews were not uniformly positive. Some critics were critical in the film for lazy and lackluster writing, poor pacing and focusing too much on the franchise's merchandising arm. Sarah Bea Milner of Screen Rant gave the film a negative review, saying, \"PAW Patrol has enough action to keep young fans entertained, but parents will likely be bored by the dragging pace and convoluted plot.\" Jude Dry of IndieWire gave the film a D, and wrote in her review, \"While it's doubtful the humorless dirge of a movie will make enough of an impression to mold young minds in any lasting way, the critique of PAW Patrol is useful as an amalgamation of certain favorite Hollywood themes that ought to be retired.\"\nWriting for The A.V. Club, Jesse Hassenger criticized the film's merchandise and gave the film a C− saying, \"The film version feels most energized when it's amping up to sell toys: fetishizing the clicking of plastic into plastic, and supersizing the characters' armor and vehicles with a deranged zeal matched only by real police departments around the country.\" Writing for Los Angeles Times, Michael Ordoña criticized the film for writing under the parents despite 'its awesomeness' for very young audiences. He stated, \"To very young kids who like cartoon dogs driving shiny vehicles, \"PAW Patrol: The Movie\" may be awesome. To grown-ups, it may be an aggressively under-written, 88-minute toy commercial.\" He felt that the voice actors were \"unremarkable\" and criticized the script, writing, \"The dialogue is fairly represented by the line: 'Where is it? There's so many buildings. I wonder which one it is.'\"\n\nAccolades\nOther media\nVideo game\nA video game based on the film was announced on June 10, 2021, titled PAW Patrol The Movie: Adventure City Calls. Developed by Drakhar Studio and published by Outright Games, it was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch, Microsoft Windows and Stadia on August 13, 2021. The game received mixed reviews. It was the third video game based on the series overall; this game is set before the events of the film where the pups including Chase, Skye, Marshall and the new city girl Liberty embarks on a mission to save Adventure City from Mayor Humdinger who becomes a mayor in a buzzing metropolis with his selfish scheming. Rocky and Zuma are the playable characters, but they are not featured in the box art. While Liberty was not wearing in the box art, she does wear during the games played.\n\nFuture\nSequels and spin-off\nIn August 2021, director Cal Brunker stated that he would like to make a sequel to the film. \"We've certainly thought about it. There are other stories that we would be excited about telling. But for us, it's really about seeing if people love this one, and then taking it from there.\"\nOn November 3, 2021, Spin Master officially announced that a sequel, titled PAW Patrol: The Mighty Movie was in development, with Cal Brunker confirming that he would direct the sequel, while Jennifer Dodge confirmed that she would serve as a producer along with Laura Clunie and Toni Stevens. Six months later, Taraji P. Henson joined the cast in a new role as a meteor-obsessed mad scientist named Victoria Vance.\nOn January 25, 2023, the film's voice cast was announced, with actors including Kristen Bell, Christian Convery, Mckenna Grace, Lil Rel Howery, James Marsden, Serena Williams, Alan Kim, Brice Gonzalez, North West, Christian Corrao (reprising his role as the voice of Marshall from the show replacing Kingsley Marshall from the first movie), and Nylan Parthipan. It was also announced that Finn Lee-Epp would replace Will Brisbin as the voice of Ryder and Luxton Handspiker would reprise his role as the voice of Rubble from Rubble & Crew replacing Keegan Hedley from the first movie, and that Marsai Martin, Kim Kardashian, Ron Pardo, and Callum Shoniker would be reprising their roles as Liberty, Delores, Mayor Humdinger, and Rocky. It was additionally announced that Pinar Toprak would compose the film's score, replacing Heitor Pereira.\nThe sequel was released on September 29, 2023.\nOn March 25, 2022, following the success of the episode focusing on Liberty, Spin Master announced that a spin-off was revealed to be in development. On April 27, 2023, the title and plot was revealed, and it is set to release in 2025. On February 22, 2024, Deadline Hollywood reported that the show will be released on June 6, 2025.\nOn September 26, 2023, Spin Master announced that a third film is in development, scheduled to be released on July 31, 2026.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nPaw Patrol: The Movie at IMDb",
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] | The lead actress of the television show The Good Place who played protagonist Eleanor Shellstop, is married to a man who has been in many TV series and Films in his career. What was the name of the character he provided the voice for in a 2021 animated movie? | [] | Ruben | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Wicked is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Schwartz and a book by Winnie Holzman. It is a loose adaptation of the 1995 Gregory Maguire novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West, which is in turn based on L. Frank Baum's 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and its 1939 film adaptation. The musical is told from the perspective of two witches, Elphaba and Glinda, before and after Dorothy's arrival in Oz. The story explores the complex friendship between Elphaba (who becomes the Wicked Witch of the West) and Galinda (who becomes Glinda the Good). Their relationship is tested by their contrasting personalities, conflicting viewpoints, shared love interest, reactions to the corrupt rule of the Wonderful Wizard, and ultimately, Elphaba's tragic fall.\nProduced by Universal Stage Productions with producers Marc Platt, Jon B. Platt, and David Stone, director Joe Mantello and choreographer Wayne Cilento, the original production of Wicked premiered on Broadway at the Gershwin Theatre in October 2003, after completing pre-Broadway tryouts at San Francisco's Curran Theatre in May and June of that year. Its original stars included Idina Menzel as Elphaba, Kristin Chenoweth as Glinda, Norbert Leo Butz as Fiyero, and Joel Grey as the Wizard.\nThe original Broadway production won three Tony Awards and seven Drama Desk Awards, while its original cast album received a Grammy Award. The success of the Broadway production has spawned many productions worldwide, including a long-running West End production. Wicked has broken box-office records around the world, holding weekly-gross-takings records in Los Angeles, Chicago, St. Louis, and London. In the week ending January 2, 2011, the London, Broadway, and both North American touring productions simultaneously broke their respective records for the highest weekly gross. In the final week of 2013, the Broadway production broke this record again, earning $3.2 million. In 2016, Wicked surpassed $1 billion in total Broadway revenue, joining The Phantom of the Opera and The Lion King as the only Broadway shows to do so. In 2017, Wicked surpassed The Phantom of the Opera as Broadway's second-highest grossing musical, trailing only The Lion King.\nA two-part film adaptation, directed by Jon M. Chu and starring Cynthia Erivo as Elphaba, Ariana Grande as Galinda, Jeff Goldblum as the Wizard, Michelle Yeoh as Madame Morrible, and Jonathan Bailey as Fiyero, is in the works. The first part is scheduled for release on November 22, 2024, with the second part to follow on November 21, 2025.\n\nInception and development\nComposer and lyricist Stephen Schwartz discovered Maguire's 1995 novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West while on vacation and saw its potential for a dramatic adaptation. However, Maguire had released the rights to Universal Pictures, which had planned to develop a live-action feature film. In 1998, Schwartz persuaded Maguire to release the rights to a stage production while also making what Schwartz himself called an \"impassioned plea\" to Universal producer Marc Platt to realize Schwartz's own intended adaptation. Persuaded, Platt signed on as joint producer of the project with Universal and David Stone.\nThe novel, described as a political, social, and ethical commentary on the nature of good and evil, takes place in the Land of Oz, in the years surrounding Dorothy's arrival. The story centers on Elphaba, a misunderstood, smart, and fiery girl with emerald-green skin, who grows up to become the Wicked Witch of the West and Galinda, the beautiful, blonde, popular girl who grows up to become Glinda the Good. The story is divided into five scenes based on the location and presents events, characters, and situations adapted from L. Frank Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900) and its 1939 film adaptation in new ways. It is designed to set the reader thinking about what it really is to be \"Wicked\", and whether good intentions with bad results are the same as bad intentions with bad results. Schwartz considered how best to condense the novel's dense and complicated plot into a sensible script. To this end, he collaborated with Emmy Award-winning writer Winnie Holzman to develop the outline of the plot over the course of a year, while meeting with producer Marc Platt to refine the structural outline of the show, creating an original stage piece rather than a strict adaptation of Maguire's work.\nWhile the draft followed Maguire's idea of retelling the story of the 1939 film from the perspective of its main villain, the storyline of the stage adaptation \"goes far afield\" from the novel. Holzman observed in an interview with Playbill that: \"It was [Maguire's] brilliant idea to take this hated figure and tell things from her point of view, and to have the two witches be roommates in college, but the way in which their friendship develops—and really the whole plot—is different onstage.\" Schwartz justified the deviation, saying: \"Primarily we were interested in the relationship between Galinda—who becomes Glinda—and Elphaba... the friendship of these two women and how their characters lead them to completely different destinies.\" Other major plot modifications include Fiyero's appearance as the scarecrow, Elphaba's survival at the end, Nessarose using a wheelchair instead of being born without arms, Boq having a continuing love interest for Glinda and eventually becoming the Tin Woodman instead of Nick Chopper, cutting Elphaba's years in the Vinkus, the deletion of Liir's birth, Fiyero not having a wife and children, Doctor Dillamond being fired instead of being murdered, and Madame Morrible going to prison instead of dying.\n\nThe book, lyrics, and score for the musical were developed through a series of readings. In these developmental workshops, Kristin Chenoweth, the Tony Award–winning actress whom Schwartz had in mind while composing the music for the character, joined the project as Glinda. Stephanie J. Block played Elphaba in the workshops (she played Elphaba in the first national tour and later as a Broadway cast replacement) before Idina Menzel was cast in the role in late 2002. Earlier that year, the creators recruited New York producer Stone, who began planning the Broadway production. Joe Mantello was engaged as director and Wayne Cilento as choreographer, while designer Eugene Lee created the set and visual style for the production inspired by W. W. Denslow's original illustrations for Baum's novels and Maguire's concept of the story being told through a giant clock. Costume designer Susan Hilferty created a \"twisted Edwardian\" style in building more than 200 costumes, while lighting designer Kenneth Posner used more than 800 lights to give each of the 54 distinct scenes and locations \"its own mood\". By April 2003, the show was in rehearsals.\nFollowing the out-of-town tryout in San Francisco in May and June 2003, which received mixed critical reception, the creative team made extensive changes before its transfer to Broadway. Holzman recalled:\n\nStephen [Schwartz] wisely had insisted on having three months to rewrite in-between the time we closed in San Francisco and when we were to go back into rehearsals in New York. That was crucial; that was the thing that made the biggest difference in the life of the show. That time is what made the show work. \n\nElements of the book were rewritten, while several songs underwent minor changes. \"Which Way is the Party?\", the introductory song to the character Fiyero, was replaced by \"Dancing Through Life\". Concern existed that Menzel's Elphaba \"got a little overshadowed\" by Chenoweth's Glinda, with San Francisco Chronicle critic Robert Hurwitt writing, \"Menzel's brightly intense Elphaba the Wicked Witch [needs] a chance of holding her own alongside Chenoweth's gloriously, insidiously bubbly Glinda.\" As a result, the creative team set about making Elphaba \"more prominent\". In making the Broadway revisions, Schwartz recalled, \"It was clear there was work to be done and revisions to be made in the book and the score. The critical community was, frankly, very helpful to us.\"\n\nSynopsis\nAct One\nThe citizens of the Land of Oz are celebrating the death of the Wicked Witch of the West. Glinda the Good then appears and tells the wicked witch's backstory: her mother had an affair with a traveling salesman while her father, the Governor of Munchkinland, was away. She gave birth to a daughter with green skin, whom her father rejected at birth, cursing her to have a troubled childhood (\"No One Mourns the Wicked\"). When a man asks Glinda if it was true that she was Elphaba's friend, Glinda begins to reminisce about their past.\nMany years earlier, Elphaba Thropp arrives at Shiz University with her younger sister, Nessarose (\"Dear Old Shiz\"), who is paraplegic and uses a wheelchair. The school's headmistress, Madame Morrible, assigns shy and nerdy Elphaba to share a dorm with bubbly and popular Galinda Upland. Worried about being separated from her sister, Elphaba uses magic to pull back Nessarose's wheelchair after Madame Morrible attempts to depart with her. Recognizing Elphaba's potential, Madame Morrible decides to privately tutor her in sorcery. She also says that Elphaba has a chance to work with the Wonderful Wizard of Oz, something which she has dreamed of her whole life (\"The Wizard and I\").\nGalinda is disdainful towards Elphaba, and Elphaba grows to loathe her just as much; they clash with each other constantly (\"What Is This Feeling?\"). In a history class taught by Doctor Dillamond, the only Animal professor at Shiz, he begins to suffer from discrimination, even from the students. Dillamond informs Elphaba of a conspiracy to stop all Animals from speaking. Elphaba vows that if she ever meets the Wizard, she will inform him of the conspiracy and help him stop it (\"Something Bad\").\nMeanwhile, a roguish prince, Fiyero, begins attending Shiz. Galinda is charmed by Fiyero's good looks and shallow philosophy. Fiyero arranges a party for his fellow students. Boq, a Munchkin who has a crush on Galinda, tries to invite her as his date, who in turn convinces him to instead invite Nessarose out of pity, leaving her free to go with Fiyero. Nessarose becomes enamored with Boq and tells Elphaba to thank Galinda for her \"help.\" At the party, Madame Morrible stops by to tell Galinda that Elphaba had asked her to admit Galinda into her sorcery class. Elphaba arrives, wearing a hat that Galinda gave her as a practical joke; the other students laugh at her. Galinda has a change of heart and decides to dance with Elphaba, and soon everyone joins them, finally allowing the girls to bond (\"Dancing Through Life\").\nBack in their dormitory, Galinda decides to give Elphaba a makeover (\"Popular\"). The next day, Dr. Dillamond tells the class that he is leaving Shiz, as he is no longer permitted to teach. Elphaba is the only student who objects. A human professor introduces them to the technical advantages of \"the cage,\" which is designed to prevent any animal from speaking. Elphaba, again, refuses to contain her anger, and, in the ensuing chaos, she escapes alongside Fiyero, taking with them the lion cub that was imprisoned within the cage. Elphaba and Fiyero share a private moment; he then leaves. Elphaba laments that Fiyero could never love her (\"I'm Not That Girl\"). Madame Morrible arrives and tells Elphaba that the Wizard wants to meet her. Boq, Nessarose, Fiyero, and Galinda say goodbye to Elphaba at the train station. Galinda tries to impress Fiyero by changing her name to Dr. Dillamond's pronunciation of it (\"Glinda\") but he barely notices. Elphaba invites Glinda to go with her to the Emerald City (\"One Short Day\").\nElphaba and Glinda meet the Wizard of Oz, who is not as scary as they expected (\"A Sentimental Man\"). He promises to grant Elphaba's request if she proves herself. Madame Morrible appears and explains she is the Wizard's new press secretary. She gives Elphaba the Grimmerie, a book of spells only the magically gifted can read. Elphaba is then asked to perform a levitation spell on the Wizard's monkey servant, Chistery. Her attempt allows him to fly, but only by making him sprout wings painfully. Elphaba discovers that the Wizard is behind the suppression of the Animals and that he is a fraudster who uses simple parlor tricks and lies to stay in power. Shocked, she flees his chamber and Madame Morrible spreads a message throughout Oz that Elphaba is a wicked witch. Glinda finds Elphaba and begs her to go back and apologize; Elphaba refuses and declares she must do what is right. She offers to take Glinda with her. Glinda declines but decides to secretly support Elphaba, who repeats the levitation spell on a broom and flies away from the Emerald City, leaving Glinda behind (\"Defying Gravity\").\n\nAct Two\nElphaba's opposition of the Wizard's regime and the public's fear of her has earned her the title \"The Wicked Witch of the West.\" Meanwhile, Glinda has become the lead spokesperson for the Wizard, given the title \"Glinda the Good,\" and publicly positioned by Madame Morrible as the nation's defender against the Wicked Witch. A press conference to celebrate Fiyero's appointment as Captain of the Guard (a position he has accepted in the hopes of finding Elphaba) is hijacked by the public's panicked rumors about her, one of them claiming that she can be melted by water. Fiyero is furious at the absurdity of the rumors. Glinda unsuccessfully tries calming him by insisting that Elphaba does not want to be found. Fiyero is further shocked when, without his consent or knowledge, Madame Morrible announces that he and Glinda are engaged. He abruptly leaves, angry with Glinda for not informing him of the announcement. She attempts to act cheerful but knows her dream life did not come as expected (\"Thank Goodness\").\nElphaba visits Nessarose, who is now the governor of Munchkinland following the death of their father. It is revealed that Nessarose has taken away the Munchkins' few rights to prevent Boq from leaving her. Elphaba tries to convince Nessarose to join the rebellion against the Wizard, but Nessarose refuses; she is bitter and resentful that Elphaba never tried to use her powers to help her. Feeling guilty, Elphaba enchants Nessarose’s silver shoes, giving her the ability to walk. Nessarose is thrilled and now believes Boq will truly love her. To Nessarose's shock, however, Boq sees this as proof that she no longer needs him and declares he intends to tell Glinda of his love for her before she marries Fiyero. Furious and unwilling to let him go, Nessarose takes the Grimmerie in order to cast a love spell on Boq to make him fall in love with her. She pronounces the incantation wrong and accidentally shrinks his heart. She cries for Elphaba to save him and prevent her from having to \"live a life of loneliness\" (\"The Wicked Witch of the East\").Note Elphaba casts another spell to save Boq's life, transforming him into a Tin Man who does not need a heart to live. Boq is horrified by his new body and flees in shock. Yelling after him, Nessarose claims that Elphaba was responsible.\nElphaba returns to the Emerald City to free the Wizard's monkey servants and is caught by him. The Wizard tries once again to convince her to work with him, explaining that he is simply a mediocre man who came into his position by chance and was led to stay by the citizens of Oz, who revered him (\"Wonderful\"). Elphaba is almost won over until she discovers Dr. Dillamond, who has lost his ability to speak. She vows to fight the Wizard to the end. Fiyero and the guards then enter, followed by Glinda. Fiyero helps Elphaba escape and decides to go with her, leaving Glinda behind. Heartbroken, she tells the Wizard and Madame Morrible a way they can capture Elphaba – spreading a rumor that Nessarose is in trouble, so she will be forced to show herself to save her. Upset by Fiyero's betrayal, Glinda leaves the room. Morrible and the Wizard decide a mere rumor would not fool Elphaba, and Morrible proposes \"a change in the weather.\" Alone, Glinda laments that Fiyero always loved Elphaba and it is unlikely he ever loved her (\"I'm Not That Girl\" (Reprise)).\nHidden away in the forest, Elphaba and Fiyero confess their love for each other (\"As Long As You're Mine\"). Their happiness is interrupted when Elphaba senses Nessarose is in danger. She is correct; a house has fallen out of the sky and crushed Nessarose to death. Elphaba arrives at the scene and finds Glinda has given Nessarose’s shoes to the house's occupant, Dorothy Gale. After a fight between the two, the Wizard's guards arrive. Fiyero arrives and holds Glinda hostage to allow Elphaba to flee. Glinda pleads for the guards not to harm him, but they do not listen. At Kiamo Ko castle, Elphaba casts a spell to make Fiyero invincible to any weapon. However, he presumably died and Elphaba accepts that every good thing she did was always seen as evil, and that she is a Wicked Witch (\"No Good Deed\").\nMeanwhile, the citizens of Oz, led by Madame Morrible and Boq, set off to capture Elphaba. Glinda realizes Madame Morrible summoned the tornado that caused the house to crush Nessarose. Morrible threatens her, alleging that she is not as virtuous as she pretends to be. Glinda flees in horror as the crowd calls for the Wicked Witch's death (\"March of the Witch Hunters\"). Meanwhile, Elphaba has captured Dorothy, refusing to release her until she relinquishes Nessarose's shoes. Glinda arrives to warn Elphaba of the danger she is in and tries to convince her to let Dorothy go. Although Elphaba refuses, the two forgive each other. Elphaba gives the Grimmerie to Glinda, and they embrace for the last time before sharing a tearful goodbye (\"For Good\"). As the citizens of Oz arrive to kill Elphaba, she tells Glinda to hide. Before she leaves, Elphaba convinces Glinda not to try to clear her name for fear that the people would turn against her too. Glinda watches from the shadows as Dorothy throws a bucket of water on Elphaba, melting her. The only remains of her are her pointy hat and the bottle of Green Elixir that belonged to her mother.\nBack in the Emerald City, Glinda confronts the Wizard with the Elixir, which he recognizes as his own. He was the man Elphaba's mother had an affair with, therefore her biological father, and the Elixir was the cause of her green skin. As the Wizard agonizes, Madame Morrible laments that this was why Elphaba was so powerful, as she was a child of both worlds. Glinda banishes the Wizard from Oz and arrests Madame Morrible for murdering Nessarose. Meanwhile, Fiyero (who has become a scarecrow due to Elphaba's spell) arrives at the spot where she supposedly melted. He knocks on the floor, and Elphaba steps out from a trap door, having faked her death. They embrace, and Elphaba laments that she will never be able to see Glinda again. Meanwhile, Glinda informs everyone that the Wicked Witch is dead and that she would like to earn her title as \"Glinda the Good.\" As Oz celebrates and Glinda mourns her best friend quietly, Elphaba and Fiyero leave Oz together (\"Finale\").\n\nCasts\nOriginal casts\nNotable replacements\nBroadway (2003–)\nElphaba: Shoshana Bean, Eden Espinosa, Ana Gasteyer, Julia Murney, Stephanie J. Block, Kerry Ellis, Marcie Dodd, Nicole Parker, Dee Roscioli, Mandy Gonzalez, Teal Wicks, Jackie Burns, Willemijn Verkaik, Lindsay Mendez, Caroline Bowman, Rachel Tucker, Jennifer DiNoia, Jessica Vosk, Lindsay Pearce, Talia Suskauer, Alyssa Fox, Mary Kate Morrissey, Saycon Sengbloh (s/b), Lisa Brescia (s/b), Donna Vivino (s/b), Lilli Cooper (s/b), Kristy Cates (u/s), Caissie Levy (u/s), Vicki Noon (u/s), Brandi Chavonne Massey (u/s), Carla Stickler (u/s), Desi Oakley (u/s)\nGlinda: Jennifer Laura Thompson, Megan Hilty, Kate Reinders, Kendra Kassebaum, Annaleigh Ashford, Alli Mauzey, Erin Mackey, Katie Rose Clarke, Chandra Lee Schwartz, Jenni Barber, Kara Lindsay, Amanda Jane Cooper, McKenzie Kurtz, Alexandra Socha, Laura Bell Bundy (s/b), Kate Fahrner (s/b), Allie Trimm (s/b), Melissa Fahn (u/s), Megan Sikora (u/s), Carrie St. Louis\nFiyero: Kristoffer Cusick, Taye Diggs, Joey McIntyre, Sebastian Arcelus, Aaron Tveit, Kevin Kern, Andy Karl, Kyle Dean Massey, Richard H. Blake, Derek Klena, Justin Guarini, Ashley Parker Angel, Curt Hansen, Ryan McCartan\nThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Sean McCourt, George Hearn, Ben Vereen, David Garrison, Lenny Wolpe, P. J. Benjamin, Tom McGowan, Fred Applegate, Peter Scolari, Kevin Chamberlin, Michael McCormick, Cleavant Derricks, John Dossett, Brad Oscar, Eddie Korbich (u/s),\nMadame Morrible: Rue McClanahan, Carol Kane, Jayne Houdyshell, Miriam Margolyes, Rondi Reed, Mary Testa, Michele Lee, Judy Kaye, Sheryl Lee Ralph, Isabel Keating, Nancy Opel, Alexandra Billings, Michele Pawk, Donna McKechnie\nNessarose: Jenna Leigh Green, Catherine Charlebois, Kelli Barrett, Arielle Jacobs, Eden Espinosa (u/s), Megan Sikora (u/s), Carla Stickler (u/s), Desi Oakley (u/s)\nBoq: Randy Harrison, Robb Sapp, Alex Brightman, Taylor Trensch, Robin de Jesús, Clyde Alves (u/s)\nDoctor Dillamond: Sean McCourt, Timothy Britten Parker, K. Todd Freeman, Michael Genet, Martin Moran, Jamie Jackson, Clifton Davis, Eddie Korbich (u/s)\n\n1st & 2nd US National Tours (2005–)\nElphaba: Kristy Cates, Julia Murney, Shoshana Bean, Dee Roscioli, Victoria Matlock, Carmen Cusack, Caissie Levy, Teal Wicks, Lisa Brescia, Donna Vivino, Vicki Noon, Eden Espinosa, Marcie Dodd, Jackie Burns, Nicole Parker, Alison Luff, Jennifer DiNoia, Jessica Vosk, Lauren Samuels, Coleen Sexton (s/b), Carrie Manolakos (s/b), Carla Stickler (s/b), Emmy Raver-Lampman (s/b), Lilli Cooper (s/b), Jenna Leigh Green (u/s)\nGlinda: Erin Mackey, Katie Rose Clarke, Kate Fahrner, Annaleigh Ashford, Chandra Lee Schwartz, Alli Mauzey, Amanda Jane Cooper, Patti Murin, Jeanna de Waal, Jennifer Gambatese, Hayley Podschun, Gina Beck, Kara Lindsay, Melissa Fahn (u/s), Rachel Potter (u/s), Lauren Zakrin (u/s)\nFiyero: Kristoffer Cusick, Sebastian Arcelus, Richard H. Blake, Colin Hanlon, Kyle Dean Massey, Curt Hansen, Nick Adams, Ashley Parker Angel, Adam Lambert (u/s)\nThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Ben Vereen, Lee Wilkof, Lenny Wolpe, Richard Kline, Don Amendolia, P. J. Benjamin, Tom McGowan, Mark Jacoby, Paul Kreppel, John Davidson, Tim Kazurinsky, Stuart Zagnit, Fred Applegate, Jason Graae, Cleavant Derricks, John Bolton, Matthew Stocke (u/s), Tim Talman (u/s)\nMadame Morrible: Carole Shelley, Alma Cuervo, Barbara Robertson, Jo Anne Worley, Patty Duke, Jayne Houdyshell, Kim Zimmer, Alison Fraser, Isabel Keating, Judy Kaye, Lisa Howard, Natalie Venetia Belcon, Brooke Elliott (u/s)\nNessarose: Deedee Magno Hall, Summer Naomi Smart, Marcie Dodd, Catherine Charlebois, Carla Stickler (u/s)\nBoq: Alex Wyse, Andy Mientus, Robin de Jesús\nDoctor Dillamond: K. Todd Freeman, William Youmans, Martin Moran, Clifton Davis, Michael Genet, Matthew Stocke (u/s), Tim Talman (u/s)\n\nWest End (2006–)\nElphaba: Kerry Ellis, Alexia Khadime, Rachel Tucker, Louise Dearman, Willemijn Verkaik, Jennifer DiNoia, Emma Hatton, Alice Fearn, Lucie Jones, Cassidy Janson (s/b), Ashleigh Gray (s/b), Katie Rowley Jones (u/s), Natalie McQueen (u/s)\nGlinda: Dianne Pilkington, Louise Dearman, Gina Beck, Savannah Stevenson, Suzie Mathers, Sophie Evans, Lucy St. Louis, Sarah Earnshaw (s/b), Caroline Keiff (u/s)\nFiyero: Oliver Tompsett, Lee Mead, Mark Evans, Matt Willis, Ben Freeman, Bradley Jaden, David Witts, Alistair Brammer, Antony Hansen (u/s)\nThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Desmond Barrit, Clive Carter, Sam Kelly, Tom McGowan, Mark Curry, Martin Ball, Andy Hockley, Gary Wilmot, Chris Jarman (u/s), Michael Fenton Stevens\nMadame Morrible: Susie Blake, Harriet Thorpe, Julie Legrand, Louise Plowright, Liza Sadovy, Anita Dobson, Kim Ismay, Sophie-Louise Dann\nNessarose: Caroline Keiff, Natalie Anderson, Cassidy Janson (u/s), Sarah Earnshaw (u/s), Natalie McQueen (u/s)\nDoctor Dillamond: Paul Clarkson, Steven Pinder, Chris Jarman\n\nMelbourne/Australian tour (2008–2015)\nElphaba: Jemma Rix, Pippa Grandison, Carmen Cusack (s/b)\nGlinda: Suzie Mathers\nFiyero: David Harris\nThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz: Bert Newton, Reg Livermore, Simon Gallaher\nMadame Morrible: Geraldine Turner\n\n1st UK/Ireland tour (2013–2015)\nElphaba: Ashleigh Gray\nThe Wonderful Wizard of Oz/Doctor Dillamond: Steven Pinder\n\nMusical numbers\n^Note: \"The Wicked Witch of the East\" is the only major piece not to be featured on the cast recording, as the producers felt \"the song included too much dialogue and would give some of the plot away to people who have not seen the show.\"\n\nOrchestration\nThe current Broadway pit consists of a 23 piece orchestra:\n\nStrings: 2 violins, 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass/electric bass, 1 harp, 2 guitars\nBrass: 2 trumpets/flugelhorns, 2 horns, 1 trombone, 1 bass trombone\nKeyboards: 3 players\nWoodwinds:\nReed 1: flute/piccolo/alto flute/penny whistle in D\nReed 2: oboe/English horn/bass oboe\nReed 3: clarinet (Bb & Eb)/bass clarinet/soprano sax\nReed 4: bassoon/baritone sax/clarinet/bass clarinet\nPercussion: 2 players\nMany other productions, including the West End, use a smaller 17 piece orchestra, with removed parts added to a 4th keyboard part:\n\nStrings: 1 violin †, 1 cello, 1 bass/electric bass, 1 guitar †\nBrass: 2 trumpets/flugelhorns, 1 horn, 1 trombone/bass trombone\nKeyboards: 4 players\nWoodwinds:\nReed 1: flute/piccolo/alto flute/soprano recorder\nReed 2: oboe/English horn\nReed 3: clarinet (Bb & Eb)/bass clarinet/soprano sax\nPercussion: 2 players\n† Some productions, such as the West End, have the mandolin played by the violinist. Others, such as those licensed by MTI Australasia, have the mandolin played by the guitarist.\n\nMusic and recordings\nMusic analysis\nThe score of Wicked is heavily thematic, bearing in some senses more resemblance to an opera than a traditional musical score. While many musical scores employ new motifs and melodies for each song with little overlap, Schwartz integrated a handful of leitmotifs throughout the production. Some of these motifs indicate irony—for example, when Glinda presents Elphaba with a \"ghastly\" hat in \"Dancing Through Life\", the score reprises a theme from \"What Is This Feeling?\" a few scenes earlier.\nTwo musical themes in Wicked run throughout the score. Although Schwartz rarely reuses motifs or melodies from earlier works, the first—Elphaba's theme—came from The Survival of St. Joan, on which he worked as musical director. \"I always liked this tune a lot and I never could figure out what to do with it,\" he remarked in an interview in 2004. The chord progression that he first penned in 1971 became a major theme of the show's orchestration. By changing the instruments that carry the motif in each instance, Schwartz enables the same melody to convey different moods. In the overture, the tune is carried by the orchestra's brass section, with heavy percussion. The result is, in Schwartz' own words, \"like a giant shadow terrorizing you.\" When played by the piano with some electric bass in \"As Long As You're Mine\", however, the same chord progression becomes the basis for a romantic duet. And with new lyrics and an altered bridge, the theme forms the core of the song \"No One Mourns the Wicked\" and its reprises.\n\nSchwartz uses the \"Unlimited\" theme as the second major motif running through the score. Although not included as a titled song, although written by Alan Vaytsman, the theme appears as an interlude in several of the musical numbers. In a tribute to Harold Arlen, who wrote the score for the 1939 film adaptation, the \"Unlimited\" melody incorporates the first seven notes of the song \"Over the Rainbow.\" Schwartz included it as an inside joke: According to copyright law, when you get to the eighth note, then people can come and say, 'Oh you stole our tune.' And of course obviously it's also disguised in that it's completely different rhythmically. And it's also harmonized completely differently.... It's over a different chord and so on, but still it's the first seven notes of 'Somewhere Over the Rainbow'. Schwartz further obscured the motif's origin by setting it in a minor key in most instances. This also creates contrast in the songs in which it forms a part, for example in \"Defying Gravity\", which is written primarily in the key of D-flat major. In the song \"The Wicked Witch of the East\", however, when Elphaba finally uses her powers to let her sister walk, the \"Unlimited\" theme is played in a major key.\n\nRecordings\nA cast recording of the original Broadway production was released on December 16, 2003, by Universal Music. All of the songs featured on stage are present on the recording with the exception of \"The Wizard and I (Reprise)\", \"A Sentimental Man (Reprise)\" and \"The Wicked Witch of the East\". The short reprise of \"No One Mourns the Wicked\" that opens Act II is attached to the beginning of \"Thank Goodness\". The music was arranged by Stephen Oremus, who was also the conductor and musical director, and James Lynn Abbott, with orchestrations by William David Brohn. The recording received the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album in 2005 and was certified platinum by the RIAA on November 30, 2006. The album was certified double platinum on November 8, 2010. A fifth-anniversary special edition of the original Broadway cast recording was released on October 28, 2008, with a bonus CD including tracks from the Japanese and German cast recordings, \"Making Good\"—a song later replaced by \"The Wizard and I\"—sung by Stephanie J. Block with Schwartz at the piano, \"I'm Not That Girl\" by Kerry Ellis (featuring Brian May on guitar), Menzel's dance mix of \"Defying Gravity\" and \"For Good\" sung by LeAnn Rimes and Delta Goodrem.\nA German recording of the Stuttgart production was released on December 7, 2007, featuring a track listing and arrangements identical to those of the Broadway recording. The Japanese cast recording was released on July 23, 2008, featuring the original Tokyo cast. It is notable for being the first (and so far the only) Cast Album of the show that includes Glinda's Finale dialogue.\n\nProductions\nOriginal Broadway production (2003–present)\nWicked officially opened on June 10, 2003, at the Curran Theatre in San Francisco, after previews began on May 28. The cast included Kristin Chenoweth as Glinda, Idina Menzel as Elphaba, Robert Morse as the Wizard, Norbert Leo Butz as Fiyero, Michelle Federer as Nessarose, Carole Shelley as Madame Morrible, John Horton as Doctor Dillamond, and Kirk McDonald as Boq. Stephanie J. Block, who originally read the role of Elphaba during the show's workshop stage, was Menzel's standby during tryouts, but left before the show moved to Broadway. She would then lead the 1st National Tour opposite Kendra Kassebaum as Glinda. The tryout closed on June 29, 2003, and after extensive retooling, the musical began previews on Broadway at the Gershwin Theatre on October 8, 2003, and made its official premiere on October 30. Most of the original production team and cast members remained with the show. Principal casting changes included Joel Grey as the Wizard, William Youmans as Doctor Dillamond and Christopher Fitzgerald as Boq.\nOn March 12, 2020, the show temporarily suspended production due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Performances resumed on September 14, 2021, with Lindsay Pearce as Elphaba and Ginna Claire Mason as Glinda. Chenoweth made a pre-curtain speech before the grand reopening of the show.\n\nNorth American productions (2005–present)\nOn 31 March 2005, the first national tour of Wicked (called the \"Emerald City Tour\" by the producers) started in Toronto, Ontario, and went on to visit numerous cities throughout the United States and Canada. The original touring cast included Kendra Kassebaum as Glinda, Stephanie J. Block as Elphaba, Derrick Williams as Fiyero, Jenna Leigh Green as Nessarose, Carol Kane as Madame Morrible, Timothy Britten Parker as Doctor Dillamond, Logan Lipton as Boq, and David Garrison as the Wizard. The tour concluded at the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles on March 15, 2015, with Jennifer DiNoia as Elphaba and Chandra Lee Schwartz as Glinda\n\nFollowing a limited engagement of the first national tour from April 29 to June 2005, a sit-down production of Wicked opened at the Oriental Theatre in Chicago immediately following the tour, using the original set of the tour. The cast included Ana Gasteyer as Elphaba, Kate Reinders as Glinda, Rondi Reed as Madame Morrible, Kristoffer Cusick as Fiyero, Telly Leung as Boq, Heidi Kettenring as Nessarose and Gene Weygandt as the Wizard. The production closed on January 25, 2009 with Dee Roscioli as Elphaba and Annaleigh Ashford as Glinda.\nAn open-ended production also appeared in Los Angeles, California, at the Pantages Theatre. Performances began on February 10, 2007, with an official opening on February 21. The cast included Megan Hilty as Glinda, Eden Espinosa as Elphaba, Carol Kane as Madame Morrible, Timothy Britten Parker as Doctor Dillamond, Jenna Leigh Green as Nessarose, Adam Wylie as Boq, Kristoffer Cusick as Fiyero, and John Rubinstein as the Wizard. The show closed on January 11, 2009 with the same leads, after 791 performances and 12 previews.\nA San Francisco production of Wicked officially opened February 6, 2009, at SHN's Orpheum Theatre. The cast included Teal Wicks as Elphaba, Kendra Kassebaum as Glinda, Nicolas Dromard as Fiyero, Carol Kane as Madame Morrible, David Garrison as the Wizard, Deedee Magno Hall as Nessarose, Tom Flynn as Doctor Dillamond, and Eddy Rioseco as Boq. The production closed on September 5, 2010, with Marcie Dodd as Elphaba and Alli Mauzey as Glinda, after 660 performances and 12 previews.\nThe second national tour of Wicked (called the \"Munchkinland Tour\") began on 12 March 2009 at the Barbara B. Mann Performing Arts Hall in Fort Myers, Florida. The original cast starred Marcie Dodd as Elphaba, Heléne Yorke as Glinda, Colin Donnell as Fiyero, and Tom McGowan as the Wizard. The production was suspended in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and resumed performances on August 3, 2021, with Talia Suskauer as Elphaba, Allison Bailey as Glinda and Curt Hanson as Fiyero. The production celebrated its 5,000th performance on July 30, 2022.\n\nLondon (2006–present)\nThe original West End (London) production began previews at the Apollo Victoria Theatre on September 7 2006, with an opening night on September 27. The show celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2016 with a special curtain call featuring former West End cast members. The British production was tailored slightly for a British audience, including minor creative changes to dialogue, choreography and special effects. A majority of them were later incorporated into all productions of Wicked, including the Broadway production and the two US national tours.\nThe London production reunited the show's original creative team. Original London cast members included the return of Idina Menzel as Elphaba, Helen Dallimore as Glinda, Miriam Margolyes as Madame Morrible, Adam Garcia as Fiyero, Martin Ball as Doctor Dillamond, James Gillan as Boq, Katie Rowley Jones as Nessarose and Nigel Planer as the Wizard. After her limited engagement, which ended on December 30, 2006, Menzel was succeeded on January 1, 2007 by Kerry Ellis, who became the first British actress to play Elphaba.\nThe production suspended performances on March 16, 2020, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. It resumed performances on September 15, 2021, in time for the production's 15th anniversary. Sophie Evans reopened the show in the role of Glinda and left when the cast changed on January 30, 2022. Helen Woolf returned from maternity leave then and Lucie Jones took over as Elphaba.\nThe musical became the 10th longest-running show in West End history during its 6,762nd performance on April 24, 2024.\n\nUK/Ireland tours (2013–present)\nWicked began its first UK/Ireland tour on September 12, 2013, at the Palace Theatre in Manchester. It then toured the UK and Ireland before concluding the run in Salford on July 25, 2015.\nA second UK/Ireland tour began in December 2017, opening at the Theater 11 in Zurich, then making it first official UK/Ireland Tour stop in January 2018 at the Bristol Hippodrome. The tour ended at the Palace Theatre in Manchester in January 2019. The cast included Amy Ross as Elphaba, Helen Woolf as Glinda, Aaron Sidwell as Fiyero, and Steven Pinder as the Wizard/Doctor Dillamond.\nA third UK/Ireland tour began on 7 December 2023 at the Edinburgh Playhouse, in Edinburgh where it played to 14 January 2024. It then toured the UK and Ireland before ending its run at the Palace Theatre in Manchester in January 2025. Laura Pick returned to lead the tour as Elphaba with Sarah O'Connor as Glinda and Carl Man as Fiyero. Simeon Truby played the Wizard/Dillamond with Donna Berlin as Madame Morrible, Jed Berry as Boq and Megan Gardiner as Nessarose.\n\nInternational tour (2016–2018)\nWicked's international tour opened on July 13, 2016, at the Alhambra Theatre in Bradford, England. Jacqueline Hughes starred as Elphaba, with Carly Anderson as Glinda and Bradley Jaden as Fiyero. Alongside them Steven Pinder as the Wizard and Doctor Dillamond and Kim Ismay as Madame Morrible. Bradford was the only UK stop of the tour, which then performed in Singapore and in other cities worldwide. Jodie Steele was standby for Elphaba in this production.\n\nGerman productions (2007–2011; 2021–2022)\nRenamed Wicked: Die Hexen von Oz (Wicked: The Witches of Oz), the German production of Wicked began previews on November 1, 2007, and opened on November 15, at the Palladium Theater in Stuttgart. Willemijn Verkaik played Elphaba and Lucy Scherer Glinda. The show was produced by Stage Entertainment and closed on January 29, 2010, transferring to Oberhausen where previews began at the Metronom Theater on March 5, 2010, with an opening night of March 8. The show closed on September 2, 2011.\nOn September 5, 2021, a brand new production of Wicked opened at the Neue Flora Theatre in Hamburg, produced by Stage Entertainment again, which previously had presented the show in Stuttgart, Oberhausen, and The Hague. Vajèn van den Bosch and Jeannine Wacker were cast as Elphaba and Glinda respectively.\n\nAustralian and New Zealand productions\nAn Australian production of the show officially opened on July 12, 2008, with previews commencing June 27 at the Regent Theatre in Melbourne.\nAmanda Harrison was originally cast as Elphaba, with Lucy Durack as Glinda. The original cast consisted of Rob Mills as Fiyero, Anthony Callea as Boq, Rob Guest as the Wizard, Maggie Kirkpatrick as Madame Morrible, Penny McNamee as Nessarose and Rodney Dobson as Doctor Dillamond. Guest unexpectedly died of a stroke months into the Melbourne season, with the role being taken up by Bert Newton.\nClosing in Melbourne August 9, 2009, the show transferred to Sydney's Capitol Theatre. Previews began on September 5, 2009, with the official opening on September 12. Shortly into the run, Harrison was forced to leave the role of Elphaba due to an illness, so current standby Jemma Rix and Australian theatre veteran Pippa Grandison began to share the role, each appearing in four shows per week. Eventually, it was confirmed that Harrison would not be returning to the cast.\nClosing in Sydney September 26, 2010, the production then embarked on a national Australian tour starting at the QPAC Lyric Theatre in Brisbane. After a two-week delay due to the Queensland floods, performances began January 25, 2011, and ran until April 2. Rix became the sole lead Elphaba with David Harris joining as the new Fiyero. The touring production then moved to the Festival Centre in Adelaide, running from April 14 until June 4, 2011, with the final leg of the tour playing the Burswood Theatre in Perth, from June 19 to September 11, 2011, after three years of performances in Australia.\nAt the time of the Wicked's 10th Anniversary on Broadway (2013), the show announced it would return to Australia for a commemorative national tour, beginning in Melbourne on May 10, 2014. Durack returned as Glinda, and Rix as Elphaba. The final cast included Mathers (who had returned once Durack announced her pregnancy) as Glinda, Rix as Elphaba, Steve Danielsen as Fiyero, Simon Gallaher as the Wizard, Edward Grey as Boq, Emily Cascarino as Nessarose, Glen Hogstrom as Doctor Dillamond and original cast member Maggie Kirkpatrick as Madame Morrible. After seven years and close to 2,000 performances across 8 different cities internationally, Wicked closed indefinitely at the Burswood Theatre in Perth on June 28, 2015.\nIn 2023, in celebration of the 20th anniversary of the original Broadway production the show returned to Australia once again, to the Sydney Lyric Theatre where it opened on September 7. The cast included Sheridan Adams as Elphaba, Courtney Monsma as Glinda, Robyn Nevin as Madame Morrible, Todd McKenney as the Wizard, Liam Head as Fiyero, Adam Murphy as Dr. Dillamond, Shewit Belay as Nessarose, and Kurtis Papadinis as Boq. In October 2023, it was announced that the production would return to the Regent Theatre in Melbourne opening on March 7. In March 2024, the production announced that they would then be transferring to the QPAC Lyric Theatre in Brisbane in September 2024 and in May 2024, they confirmed that it would tour to the Crown Theatre in Perth from December 2024.\nThe show made its premiere in New Zealand in 2013, with previews taking place on September 17, and official opening night on September 21. The Auckland run concluded on November 24, 2013, where it played the Civic Theatre. The cast then moved on to the Main Theater of the Cultural Center of the Philippines in Manila on a limited run from January 22 through March 9, 2014 after having been extended from its original closing date.\n\nOther international productions\nA full Japanese production of Wicked by the Shiki Theatre Company opened in Tokyo, Japan, on June 17, 2007, and subsequently moved to Osaka, Fukoka and Nagoya, before closing in Sapporo on November 6, 2016. The company produced a Japanese revival of the show in 2023-2024, to celebrate their 70th anniversary.\n\nAn Asian tour of Wicked began at Singapore's Grand Theater on December 6, 2011, with Australian actresses Suzie Mathers as Glinda and Jemma Rix as Elphaba. After the Singapore engagement of the tour closed April 22, 2012 and performances began in Seoul, Korea, from May 31 through October 6, 2012. A Dutch-language production began previews at the Circustheater in The Hague on October 26, 2011, and was produced by Joop van den Ende Theaterproducties/Stage Entertainment. Official opening took place on November 6. Willemijn Verkaik reprised her role of Elphaba from the German productions, becoming the first actress to play the role in two different languages.\nThe first Korean-language production began performances in Seoul on November 22, 2013. It ran at the Charlotte Theater until October 5, 2014.\nThe first Spanish-language production of Wicked opened in Mexico City, Mexico on October 17, 2013. Produced by OCESA Teatro, it played at the Teatro Telcel and closed on January 18, 2015. \nIn November 2015, the company \"Time For Fun\", a leading company in the entertainment market in Latin America, announced the adaptation of the musical in Brazil. The show debuted in March 2016 at the Renault Theatre in São Paulo and is performed on the largest stage that the musical has been mounted on yet. Despite the production closing on December 18, 2016, on November 12, 2018, a Brazilian revival production of the show was announced, this time in Rio de Janeiro's entertainment center Cidade das Artes. Though it was expected to begin performances in mid-2019, after the announcement no news was released, and the production was never realized. \nAt the end of 2020, while all Wicked productions worldwide were halted due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 virus, a third Korean production of the show was announced on November 14. The show started previews in Seoul's Blue Square Theater three months later on February 12, 2021, and was the first Wicked performance worldwide after the COVID-19 shutdown. The production opened on February 16, 2021, and played until May 2, 2021. It then transferred to Busan's Dream Theater, where it ran from May 20, 2021, until its closing date on June 27, 2021.\n\nNon-replica productions\nA condensed thirty-minute version of Wicked played at Universal Studios Japan in Osaka, Japan in 2006. Australian actress Jemma Rix was once again part of the original cast of the show, alternating the role of Elphaba with Jillian Giaachi and Taylor Jordan. The show opened on July 12, 2006, and featured the preliminary storyline of Act 1 but the characters of Fiyero, Madame Morrible, Boq, Nessarose and Doctor Dillamond were absent, also with considerable changes in the show's sets and costumes. The final performance of this show took place on January 11, 2011.\nAnother non-replica production of the original Broadway staging, opened at the City Theatre in Helsinki, Finland on August 26, 2010. Directed by Hans Berndtsson and choreographed by Rebecca Evanne the cast included Maria Ylipää as Elphaba and Anna-Maija Tuokko as Glinda. \nA European production also ran in Copenhagen, Denmark from January 12 until May 29, 2011, and was presented by Det Ny Teater.\nOn October 19, 2022, it was announced that Wicked would get a non-replica revival in Brazil through a limited run, starting March 9, 2023, at the Santander Theater, in São Paulo, produced by Atelier de Cultura. Lead actresses from the 2016 run Myra Ruiz and Fabi Bang were announced reprising their roles as Elphaba and Glinda, respectively. Their co-stars included Tiago Barbosa as Fiyero, Marcelo Médici as The Wizard, Diva Menner as Madame Morrible, Cleto Baccic as Doctor Dillamond, Nayara Venancio as Nessarose and Dante Paccola as Boq.\nA new Danish non-replica production of Wicked was announced November 2023, starring Johanne Milland as Glinda and Nanna Rossen as Elphaba. The production opened September 16, 2024 at Fredericia Musicalteater. The production will transfer to the Tivoli Concert Hall during the from October 11 until 19 before returning to Fredericia Musicalteater for the remainder of its run. The production also starred Diluckshan Jeyaratnam as Fiyero, Anders Gjellerup Koch as The Wizard, Cecilie Thiim as Madame Morrible, Christian Lund as Dr. Dillamond, Marie Louise Hansen as Nessarose, and Jens Kau Wahlers Nielsen as Boq.\n\nReception\nAwards and nominations\nThe original Broadway production of Wicked was nominated for ten Tony Awards in 2004, including Best Musical, Book, Orchestrations, Original Score, Choreography, Costume Design, Lighting Design, Scenic Design while receiving two nominations for Best Actress – for Menzel and Chenoweth. Menzel won the Best Actress award, and the show also won the Tony Awards for Best Scenic Design and Best Costume Design, notably losing Best Book, Original Score and ultimately Best Musical to Avenue Q. The same year, the show won 6 Drama Desk Awards out of 11 nominations, including Outstanding Musical, Book, Director, and Costume Design.\nSubsequent productions have received awards and nominations as well. The West End production received five Laurence Olivier Award nominations, including Best Director, Best Set Design and Best Costume Design and later won the Audience Award for Most Popular Show at the 2010 award ceremony. The original Australian production received six Helpmann Awards out of 12 nominations, including Best Musical. Wicked was named the Best Musical of the Decade by Entertainment Weekly magazine and hailed \"a cultural phenomenon\" by Variety magazine. While not technically an \"award\", the character of Elphaba was named 79th on Entertainment Weekly's list of The 100 Greatest Characters of the Past 20 Years.\n\nCritical reception\nIn its out-of-town tryout in San Francisco, audience reaction was generally positive, and although critics tended to compliment the aesthetic and spectacle of the show, they disparaged the state of its book, score, and choreography. Dennis Harvey of Variety praised the production as \"sleekly directed\", \"snazzily designed\", and \"smartly cast\", but disliked its \"mediocre\" book, \"trite\" lyrics, and \"largely generic\" music. Karen D'Souza of the San Jose Mercury News wrote that \"style over substance is the real theme in this Emerald City\".\nThe Broadway production opened on October 30, 2003, to mixed reviews. However, Chenoweth and Menzel received acclaim for their performances. Richard Zoglin of Time wrote: \"If every musical had a brain, a heart and the courage of Wicked, Broadway really would be a magical place.\" Elysa Gardner of USA Today described it as \"the most complete, and completely satisfying, new musical I've come across in a long time\". Conversely, Ben Brantley in the New York Times loved the production but panned the show itself, calling it a \"sermon\" that \"so overplays its hand that it seriously dilutes its power\", with a \"generic\" score. He noted that Glinda is such a showy role that the audience ends up rooting for her rather than the \"surprisingly colorless\" Elphaba, who is \"nominally\" the hero. Despite these mixed reviews, interest in Wicked spread quickly by word-of-mouth, leading to record-breaking success at the box office. Speaking to The Arizona Republic in 2006, Schwartz said, \"What can I say? Reviews are reviews.... I know we divided the critics. We didn't divide the audience, and that's what counts.\"\nInternational productions have opened to different critical receptions. The West End production opened to a slightly more upbeat response. The majority of critics have appreciated the spectacle of the lavish production, and the \"powerhouse\" performances of actors in the roles of the two witches. However, contemporaries have characterized the production as overblown, occasionally preachy, and suffering from more hype than heart. Although Charles Spencer of The Daily Telegraph described it as \"at times... a bit of a mess,\" he praised Holzman's script, described Kenneth Posner's lighting design as \"magical\" and lauded Menzel's Elphaba and Helen Dallimore's Glinda. Michael Billington of The Guardian gave it three out of five stars and remarked on the competence of all the lead actors; however, he complained that Wicked was \"all too typical of the modern Broadway musical: efficient, knowing and highly professional but more like a piece of industrial product than something that genuinely touches the heart or mind.\" Paul Taylor of The Independent called the topical political allegory \"well-meaning but also melodramatic, incoherent and dreadfully superficial\" and criticized the acting, songs and book, concluding that \"the production manages to feel at once overblown and empty\".\nThe Japanese version of Wicked by the Shiki Theatre Company (劇団四季) won acclaim in Tokyo, Osaka, Sapporo, and Nagoya. The original Wicked has toured in China with great popularity. A Chinese review by Harvard scholar Hansong Li appeared in the Shanghai Review of Books.\n\nCommercial reception\nSince its opening in 2003, the original Broadway production of Wicked has broken the house record at the Gershwin Theatre twenty times. It regularly grosses in excess of $1.6 million each week, making it one of the most lucrative productions on Broadway. With a $14 million capitalization, the Broadway production took 15 months to break even, earning back its initial investment by December 21, 2004. In its first year, it grossed more than $56 million. In the week ending January 1, 2006, Wicked broke the record, previously held by the musical The Producers, for the highest weekly box office gross in Broadway history, earning $1,610,934. It has gone on to break its own record numerous times, reaching $1,715,155 in November 2006, $2,086,135 for the week ending November 29, 2009 and over $2.2 million in the week ending January 2, 2011. In the first week of 2012, the Broadway production broke a record again, earning $2.7 million. In the final weekend of 2013, Wicked became the first musical to gross $3 million in one week.\nWicked's productions across North America and abroad have been equally financially successful. The Los Angeles production took the local weekly gross record, again from a performance of The Producers, bringing in $1,786,110 in the week ending March 4, 2007, with records also set in Chicago ($1,418,363), and St Louis ($2,291,608), to bring the collective gross of the seven worldwide productions to a world record-breaking $11.2 million. A new suite of records were set over Christmas 2010, with house records broken in San Francisco ($1,485,692), Providence ($1,793,764) and Schenectady ($1,657,139) as well as Broadway, bringing the musical's one-week gross in North America alone to $7,062,335.\nWicked played to more than 2 million visitors in Chicago with a gross of over $200 million, making it the highest-grossing show in Chicago history by June 2007. With an opening-week gross of $1,400,000, it continually set records and became the longest-running Broadway musical in Chicago history. Producer David Stone told Variety, \"we thought it [the Chicago production] would run 18 months, then we'd spend a year in Los Angeles and six months in San Francisco... but sales stayed so strong that the producers created another road show and kept the show running in Chicago.\" The Los Angeles production grossed over $145 million and was seen by more than 1.8 million patrons. Over the 672 performances of the San Francisco production, Wicked sold over 1 million tickets with a cumulative gross of over $75 million. While its Broadway production welcomed its 5 millionth audience member on September 29, 2010.\n\nAlthough West End theatres do not publish audited weekly grosses, the West End production of Wicked said it had set the record for highest one-week gross in December 2006, taking £761,000 in the week ending December 30. On June 23, 2008, the producers reported that over 1.4 million people had seen the London production, and grosses had topped £50 million. The same reports stated that the show had consistently been one of the two highest-grossing shows in the West End. For the week commencing December 27, 2010, the London production grossed £1,002,885, the highest single-week gross in West End theatre history, with over 20,000 people attending the nine performances of Wicked that week. The Melbourne production broke Australian box-office records, selling 24,750 tickets in three hours during pre-sales and grossing over $1.3 million on the first business day after its official opening. On April 27, 2009, the production passed the milestone of 500,000 patrons. When it transferred to Sydney, the production broke \"all previous weekly box office records for a musical at the Capitol Theatre, grossing $1,473,775.70 in one week during October 2009.\nBy seats sold on Broadway, Wicked ranks tenth of all time. Wicked celebrated its 7,486th performance on Broadway on April 11, 2023 (the show's 20th anniversary year), surpassing Andrew Lloyd Webber's Cats as the fourth longest-running Broadway show in history. Several other productions have also reached milestones such as the West End show, reaching 6512 performances on 22 September 2023, over 4,160 performances in its North American tour and 1,000 performances in Australia.\n\nMarketing and promotion\nThe success of the Broadway production has led to the development of an auxiliary show for purposes of marketing and promotion titled Behind the Emerald Curtain. It was created by Sean McCourt—an original Broadway production cast member who played the Witch's Father—and Anthony Galde, who was a long-running swing in the Broadway company from 2004 to 2012. The tour features a ninety-minute behind-the-scenes look at the props, masks, costumes and sets used in the show, and includes a question-and-answer session with the cast members. The tour also featured in the Los Angeles, San Francisco and Chicago sit-down productions, and were each run by different long-serving cast members of the show. The tour provides a behind-the-scenes look at what goes into putting on the show every day. Participants get a first-hand account of what it is like to be a part of the massive production that Wicked is. To create Elphaba's green skin, 40 pots of the commercially available MAC Chromacake landscape green make-up are used per year. It is water-based for easy removal. As of 2021, it cost $800,000 a week to run the Broadway production.\n\nLegacy and anniversary tributes\n15th anniversary tribute special\nIn October 2018, an NBC broadcast, A Very Wicked Halloween: Celebrating 15 Years on Broadway, was hosted by Menzel and Chenoweth and featured Ariana Grande, Pentatonix, Adam Lambert, Ledisi, the current Broadway company of the musical and others, singing many of the musical numbers from Wicked to a live studio audience at the Marquis Theatre in New York. The concert special was directed by Glenn Weiss.\n\nPBS special\nOn August 29, 2021, the PBS network aired a Wicked concert special, which was also hosted by Menzel and Chenoweth and featured Rita Moreno, Cynthia Erivo, Ariana DeBose, Gavin Creel, Ali Stroker, Amber Riley, Mario Cantone, Jennifer Nettles, Stephanie Hsu, Alex Newell, Isaac Cole Powell and Gabrielle Ruiz performing many of the musical numbers.\n\nFilm adaptation\nA film adaptation of Wicked had been discussed since 2004. In July 2010, it was reported that J. J. Abrams, James Mangold, Ryan Murphy, and Rob Marshall were under consideration to direct. By July 2012, Universal Studios was reported to be producing the film, with Stephen Daldry as director and Winnie Holzman, who wrote the musical's book, to pen the screenplay. Universal announced in 2016 that the film would be released in theaters on December 20, 2019, with Daldry still attached to direct, and the script to be co-written by the musical's creators, Holzman and Schwartz. In May 2017, Schwartz stated that the film would feature \"at least two\" new songs. On August 31, 2018, Universal put the film on hold, due to production scheduling, and gave the film adaptation of Cats, which became a box office bomb, the release date formerly held by the film. On February 8, 2019, Universal announced a new release date of December 22, 2021, for the Wicked film. On April 1, 2020, Universal put the film on hold once again due to Universal shifting release dates amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, and gave Sing 2 the 2021 release date. On October 20, 2020, it was announced that Daldry had left the production due to scheduling conflicts. In February 2021, Deadline reported that Jon M. Chu had signed on to direct the film adaptation. In July 2021, Schwartz stated that filming would begin in late 2021 in Georgia, but filming was later postponed to March 2022 and again to June 2022. In November 2021, Ariana Grande and Cynthia Erivo were cast as Glinda and Elphaba respectively, with production originally set to begin in mid 2022 in the United Kingdom.\nIn April 2022, it was announced the film would be released in two parts, the first one on November 22, 2024, and the second one on November 21, 2025. Jon M. Chu explained that it \"became impossible to wrestle the story of 'Wicked' into a single film without doing some real damage to it\", so he made the decision to make two movies, to allow for more time to get to know the characters and not make any omissions from the source material.\nIn June 2022, Stephen Schwartz added, while confirming that a new song will be written for one of the two films, that the song Defying Gravity will end the first film, replicating the end act one in the stage musical, as having any scene to follow \"seemed hugely anti-climactic\". He also stated that a decision was made to avoid cutting or omitting parts of the musical, as often happens when translating musicals from stage to screen, hoping this would be positively received by fans.\nOn July 18, 2022, it was revealed that with the filming process settled at the newly built Sky Studios in Elstree, England, rehearsals will begin in August with principal photography beginning in November. By September 2022, Jonathan Bailey was confirmed to have been cast as Fiyero. The following month, Jeff Goldblum was reported to be in final talks to play the Wizard.\nIn November 2022, Schwartz confirmed that part 2 of the movie will include two new songs \"to meet the demands of the storytelling.\" Then, on December 7, 2022, it was revealed that Ethan Slater will be playing Boq, the following day it was announced that Michelle Yeoh will be playing Madame Morrible, and Goldblum the Wizard and on December 9, Keala Settle, Bowen Yang, Bronwyn James, Aaron Teoh, Colin Michael Carmichael, and Marissa Bode were confirmed in the roles of Miss Coddle, Pfannee, ShenShen, Avaric, Nikidik, and Nessarose, respectively. Bode's casting as Nessarose makes her the first wheelchair-assisted actor to play the part and is also her screen debut. On December 9, 2022, Chu confirmed on Twitter that filming had begun. In April 2024, Peter Dinklage had joined the cast as the voice of Dr. Dillamond.\n\nInterpretations\nQueer Interpretations\nQueer interpretations of Wicked encompass various perspectives regarding the sexualities of the main characters, Elphaba and Glinda. These interpretations predominantly depict one or both characters as harboring homoromantic feelings for each other.\nThe lyrics and placement of the song \"What Is This Feeling?\" evoke a tone reminiscent of common Golden Age duets between couples, such as “People Will Say We're in Love” from Oklahoma! and \"If I Loved You\" from Carousel. This has led to the interpretation of Elphaba and Glinda as a couple. The subsequent sequence in “Dancing Through Life,” has been likened to a modern version of the “lilting waltzes” seen in romantic scenes from musicals like My Fair Lady, West Side Story, and The Sound of Music.\nMoreover, the line “I think we've found the place where we belong!\" from “One Short Day” is seen as reflective of the theme of finding acceptance, a sentiment many LGBT+ individuals aspire to achieve. A remix of the song “Defying Gravity,” known for its themes of resisting expectations, served as the anthem at the 2007 Gay Pride Parade and Festival in Los Angeles and is featured on the official CD from the event.\nAdditional arguments supporting a homoromantic interpretation of Wicked include Glinda's potential compulsory heterosexuality toward Fiyero and the suggestion that Glinda and Elphaba's relationship mirrors a common butch/femme pairing. Stephen Schwartz, the composer and lyricist of Wicked, has stated that rather than presenting the pair as rivals, the musical is essentially “a love story between two women.\" Gregory Maguire, the author of The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West and a gay man himself, prefers to leave the narrative open to interpretation.\nThe Wicked production capitalized on this interpretation and began selling \"Friend of Elphaba\" (a play on \"Friend of Dorothy\") merchandise during Pride Month.\nThis interpretation has been critiqued stating that the show stands as a testament that \"friendships can be equally as important as romantic relationships\" and does not require a romance, homosexual or heterosexual, to find power.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe success of Wicked has made several of the show's songs popular and has resulted in references to the show, characters, and songs in popular culture. The Broadway production has been featured in episodes of television programs, including Brothers & Sisters and The War at Home. For filming purposes, the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles doubled for the Gershwin Theatre on Broadway in Ugly Betty in an episode titled \"Something Wicked This Way Comes\" in which Betty, the show's protagonist, goes to see Wicked on a date and accidentally stops the show. In the previous episode \"Brothers\", Betty gets tickets to see Wicked and discusses with a friend how much she relates to Elphaba's outcast status in a popularity and beauty-oriented environment.\nEntertainer John Barrowman sang a version of \"The Wizard and I\" (retitled \"The Doctor and I\") on his 2008 tour of the UK, with adapted lyrics referring to his Doctor Who and Torchwood character Jack showing affection for The Doctor. Kerry Ellis, who played Elphaba in the West End and on Broadway, recorded \"I'm Not That Girl\" for the fifth anniversary edition of the original Broadway cast recording. She also recorded her own rock version of \"Defying Gravity\". Both songs were produced by British musician Brian May and were featured on her extended play Wicked in Rock (2008) and debut album Anthems (2010). She performed her version of \"Defying Gravity\" at the 2008 Royal Variety Performance, alongside May on guitar. A dance remix of her rock version of \"Defying Gravity\" was later released in 2011. Louise Dearman, who has played both Elphaba and Glinda in the West End, released an acoustic version of \"Defying Gravity\" for the Wicked edition of her album Here Comes the Sun. Her former co-star and London Elphaba Rachel Tucker also covered \"Defying Gravity\" on her debut album The Reason (2013). Rapper Drake and singer Mika both sampled the musical's song in their songs \"Popular\" and \"Popular Song\" respectively.\nThe closing song of Act I, Defying Gravity, is featured in the Glee episode Wheels, where Rachel (Lea Michele) and Kurt (Chris Colfer) sing it separately in a competition for the lead solo from the first season. It was featured again in the season five episode 100, the hundredth episode in the series, this time sung by the characters from the series, Rachel, Kurt and Mercedes (Amber Riley). Media as diverse as the anime series Red Garden, the daytime drama Passions and the Buffy the Vampire Slayer graphic novels have all parodied Wicked's songs and characters.\nThe end of the song \"Killer Instinct\" in Bring It On the Musical parodies the closing notes of \"No One Mourns the Wicked\". The Oscar-winning song \"Let It Go\" from the successful 2013 Disney computer-animated musical feature film Frozen, that also won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, had been compared to \"Defying Gravity\" due to its similar theme and similar singing style, and was sung by the original Elphaba Idina Menzel. Willemijn Verkaik, who famously played Elphaba in both Dutch and German, also voiced the Dutch and German versions of Elsa in Frozen and sang \"Let It Go\" in these two languages. This became another role originally played by Menzel that Verkaik played, following her success in the German, Dutch and English (UK) language productions of Wicked. When Frozen came to Broadway, the song \"Monster\" (sung by Caissie Levy, who also played Elphaba) was compared to \"No Good Deed\" In Lego Dimensions, when Unikitty interacts with the Wicked Witch, she says \"If you spent more time singing, then maybe you wouldn't be so 'wicked', witch.\"\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial production sites\nNorth America\nWicked at the Internet Broadway Database \nWicked at AllMusic",
"title": "Wicked_(musical)"
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"paragraph_text": "Idina Kim Menzel ( ih-DEE-nə men-ZEL; née Mentzel; born May 30, 1971) is an American actress and singer. Particularly known for her work in musicals on Broadway, she has been nicknamed the \"Queen of Broadway\" for her commanding stage presence, powerful mezzo-soprano, and reputation as one of the most influential stage actors of her generation. Having achieved mainstream success across stage, screen, and music, her accolades include an American Music Award, a Billboard Music Award, a Daytime Emmy Award, and a Tony Award, as well as nominations for three Drama League Awards, and four Drama Desk Awards. In 2019, Menzel received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, and was named a Disney Legend in 2022. Menzel received a honorary doctorate from University of Pennsylvania in 2023. \nMenzel rose to prominence as a stage actress in 1996, making her Broadway debut as Maureen Johnson in the rock musical Rent, which earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. In 2003, she originated the role of Elphaba in the musical Wicked on Broadway, for which she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. The popularity of the show and her signature song \"Defying Gravity\" earned her a devoted musical theatre following. After leaving the show in 2005, she reprised the role in the musical's original West End production in 2006, becoming the highest-paid actress in West End theatre history. In 2014, Menzel returned to Broadway as Elizabeth Vaughan in the musical If/Then, for which she received a third Tony Award nomination.\nMenzel began transitioning into film and television in the early 2000s. After reprising her Rent role in the musical's 2005 film adaptation, she was cast as Nancy Tremaine in Disney's musical fantasy film Enchanted (2007), eventually returning to the role in its 2022 sequel. She played recurring character Shelby Corcoran on the musical television series Glee from 2010 to 2013. Since 2013, Menzel has voiced Elsa in Disney's Frozen franchise, which includes two of the highest-grossing animated films of all-time. \"Let It Go\", a song she recorded for the first film, peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, making her the first Tony Award-winning actor to earn a top-10 song on the chart, and cementing her status as a crossover musical artist. Menzel has since pursued supporting roles in larger film projects, including Uncut Gems (2019), Cinderella (2021), and You Are So Not Invited to My Bat Mitzvah (2023).\nAs a recording artist and songwriter, Menzel has released seven studio albums, including I Stand (2008) and Holiday Wishes (2014); the latter peaked at number six on the Billboard 200, becoming her highest-charting studio album to-date.\n\nEarly life and education\nIdina Kim Mentzel was born on May 30, 1971, in Manhattan. She grew up in New Jersey until about age three; her family moved to Syosset, New York on Long Island. Her parents are Stuart Mentzel, a pajama salesman, and Helene Goldberg, a therapist. She has a younger sister named Cara. Idina Menzel is Jewish and her grandparents emigrated from Russia. Menzel attended J. Irving Baylis Elementary School in Plainview, New York as well as H. B. Thompson Middle School in Syosset, and Syosset High School.\nWhen Menzel was 15 years old, her parents divorced and she began working as a wedding and bar/bat mitzvah singer, a job that she held while a student at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts; she earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in drama there in 1992. Idina changed the spelling of her surname to \"Menzel\" to better reflect the pronunciation that the Mentzel family had adopted in the United States. She was friends with actor Adam Pascal before they worked together in Rent.\nIn 2017, Irish songwriter Jimmy Walsh who was based in New York City said that in 1992, Menzel had recorded a demo for him of the song \"In Your Eyes\", which went on to win the Eurovision Song Contest 1993 for Irish singer Niamh Kavanagh. Menzel was paid $75 for the recording.\n\nCareer\nTheater career\nRent to The Wild Party (1996–2000)\nIn 1995, Menzel auditioned for Rent, which became her first professional theatre job and her Broadway debut. Rent opened Off-Broadway at the New York Theatre Workshop on January 26, 1996, but it moved to Broadway's Nederlander Theatre due to its popularity. For her performance as Maureen Johnson in the original cast of the musical, Menzel received a Tony nomination as Best Featured Actress in a Musical losing to Ann Duquesnay for Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk. Her final performance in the musical was on July 1, 1997. Despite her breakout performance in Rent, Menzel did not experience the immediate success she was expecting, claiming she subsequently faded into \"obscurity\" for the following eight years.\nFollowing the success of Rent, Menzel released her first solo album entitled Still I Can't Be Still on Hollywood Records. Menzel also originated the role of Dorothy in Summer of '42 at Goodspeed Opera House in Connecticut, starred as Sheila in the New York City Center Encores! production of Hair and appeared on Broadway as Amneris in Aida. Menzel earned a Drama Desk Award nomination for her performance as Kate in the Manhattan Theatre Club's 2000 Off-Broadway production of Andrew Lippa's The Wild Party. Her other Off-Broadway credits include the pre-Broadway run of Rent and The Vagina Monologues.\n\nWicked, If/Then, Skintight, to WILD (2003–2021)\nIn 2003, Menzel starred alongside Kristin Chenoweth on Broadway in Wicked, a musical by Stephen Schwartz and Winnie Holzman based upon Gregory Maguire's 1995 novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West. Shortly after a San Francisco try-out, Wicked began previews on October 8, 2003, with an official opening night on October 30. Menzel's performance as Elphaba, the misunderstood Wicked Witch of the West, garnered critical acclaim, for which she won the 2004 Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical. Menzel's character also earned her a devoted fanbase, particularly among young girls who empathized with her misunderstood character, as well as a gay following. She can be heard on the show's Original Broadway Cast (OBC) recording. During her penultimate performance on January 8, 2005, she fell through a trap door during the melting scene and cracked a lower rib. This injury prevented her from performing in her scheduled final show on January 9; her standby, Shoshana Bean, played Elphaba at that performance. Menzel did, however, make a special appearance, in a red tracksuit, at that performance, performed her last song, and received a five-minute standing ovation. Menzel was replaced by Elphaba standby Shoshana Bean. In 2010, Broadway.com readers voted Menzel their favourite Elphaba performer out of the then-eleven actresses who had played the character on Broadway.\nFollowing Wicked, Menzel appeared Off-Broadway in the Public Theater's production of See What I Wanna See, a Michael John LaChiusa-penned musical whose run ended in December 2005, for which she received Drama Desk Award and Drama League Award nominations. She reprised her Tony Award-winning role as Elphaba in the West End production of Wicked when it opened at London's Apollo Victoria Theatre on September 27, 2006. She starred alongside Helen Dallimore as Glinda and Adam Garcia as Fiyero. During her run, she was the highest-paid female performer in the West End at $30,000 per week. Menzel finished her West End run on December 30, 2006. She was succeeded by Elphaba standby Kerry Ellis.\nMenzel played the role of Florence in the 21st-anniversary concert of the musical Chess at London's Royal Albert Hall, from May 12 to 13, 2008, alongside Kerry Ellis, Adam Pascal, and Josh Groban. In 2008, she headlined the Powerhouse Theatre's reading of Steven Sater and Duncan Sheik's musical Nero from July 11 to 13, performing the role of Nero's mistress, Poppea. She was joined by Glee costar Lea Michele as Claudia Octavia, Jeffrey Carleson as Nero, and Michael Arden as Octavia's brother, Brittanicus.\nBy February 28, 2013, Menzel was cast to star as Elizabeth in the new Tom Kitt and Brian Yorkey Broadway musical If/Then. Directed by Michael Greif (with whom Menzel previously worked on the original production of Rent), it had its world premiere at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C., starting with previews on November 5, 2013, until November 24, 2013. Following the out-of-town tryout, the show moved to the Richard Rodgers Theatre on Broadway and began previews on March 4, 2014. It officially opened on March 30, 2014. For her performance, Menzel received her second Tony Award nomination for Best Leading Actress in a Musical and performed Always Starting Over, but lost to Jessie Mueller for Beautiful: The Carole King Musical. If/Then closed on Broadway on March 22, 2015, after 29 previews and 401 regular performances.\nMenzel reprised the role of Elizabeth (along with original Broadway cast members Lachanze, James Snyder, and Anthony Rapp) on the first seven stops of the show's national tour from October 2015 to January 2016. She departed the show (along with LaChanze and Snyder) on the last day of the Costa Mesa, California engagement, on January 24, 2016. Her replacement was Jackie Burns (who previously served as Menzel's standby in the Broadway production) starting January 27, 2016, in Dallas, Texas.\nLater, in 2018, Menzel was cast as Jodi in Roundabout Theatre Company's World Premiere production of Joshua Harmon's new play Skintight. The show premiered Off Broadway at the Laura Pels Theatre at the Harold and Miriam Steinberg Center for Theatre. It began previews on May 31, 2018, opened on June 21, 2018, and ran for strictly limited engagement till August 26, 2018. The play earned Menzel rave reviews and marking it her first major New York Theater non-musical role. A year later, she reprised her performance in Skintight marking its debut on the West Coast. The production played the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles, California running from September 3 – October 6, 2019.\nWhile appearing in Skintight, Menzel read for the role of Mary Jane in a workshop for the Broadway rock musical Jagged Little Pill.\nIn late 2019, Menzel revealed on Twitter that she was working on \"a mystery project\" with Justin Tranter, Caroline Pennell and Eve Ensler (later known as V). In mid-2021, it was announced that this project is Wild: A Musical Becoming, set to perform at American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, MA from December 3, 2021, to January 21, 2022 (she was only scheduled to perform through December 23). It was later announced that she would star as Bea, with contributions to the lyrics. On December 17, due to COVID, it was announced that the show on that day was cancelled; it was later announced that the performance on the following two days and eventually all the following productions were cancelled, making December 16 her last performance.\n\nMusic career\nMenzel initially struggled to crossover into a solo music career beyond stage musicals, claiming the industry did not take her seriously as a pop or rock singer due to her Broadway origins. Menzel performed at the 1998 Lilith Fair summer concert festival and continues to write and perform original music. She has toured extensively and frequently performs in various venues throughout New York City. She produced and released her debut album, Still I Can't Be Still, for Hollywood Records in 1998. One single from the album, \"Minuet\", made the Radio & Records CHR/Pop Tracks chart at number 48 in October 1998. Following the album release, she embarked on a promotional tour, but after selling fewer than 10,000 copies in the US and missing the Billboard 200, Menzel's label put the album out of print, and she was dropped from the label. However, the album was re-released once she began to rise to greater fame with her Tony-winning performance in Wicked.\nHer second album, Here, was released independently by Zel Records in 2004. Menzel contributed to the soundtrack of Desperate Housewives in 2005. She also appears on Ray Charles's album Genius and Friends, which was also released in 2005, on the track \"I Will Be There\". In 2007, she appeared on the Beowulf soundtrack singing the end credits song, \"A Hero Comes Home\". Also, in 2007, Menzel's powerful singing voice led her to be asked to accompany the baritone British X Factor runner-up, Rhydian Roberts, on his debut album, duetting on the song \"What If\".\n\nHer third solo album, I Stand, was released on January 29, 2008. It includes many new songs, including the lead single, \"Brave\", the title track \"I Stand\", and a song released on EP, \"Gorgeous\". The album debuted at number 58 on the Billboard 200, making it the first solo album by Menzel to make the charts. There are five versions of this album: the original version, the special limited edition, the iTunes version, the Barnes & Noble edition, and the Borders edition. Menzel wrote 9 of the 10 songs on her album, with the song \"Forever\" writing only by herself.\nOn April 1, 2008, Menzel kicked off her 2008–2009 I Stand tour in support of her new album performing four sold-out legs. The concert at Rose Hall at Lincoln Center in New York City was filmed for the PBS television series Soundstage. Menzel was joined by special guests, superstar Josh Groban and saxophonist Ravi Coltrane.\nOn November 11, 2008, Menzel released \"Hope,\" written by Paul Hampton, benefiting Stand Up to Cancer. On November 27, 2008, she performed \"I Stand\" on the M&M's Chocolate float as part of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade.\nOn July 19, 2010, Menzel performed \"Defying Gravity\" and \"What I Did For Love\" in front of President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama at A Broadway Celebration: In Performance at the White House. The concert aired on PBS on October 20, 2010.\nIn April 2010, Menzel returned to the concert stage embarking on her \"Barefoot at the Symphony Tour\" in which she was accompanied by major symphony orchestras. Her performances included collaborations with the New York Philharmonic, the Boston Pops Orchestra, and the North Carolina Symphony, and featured symphonic arrangements by New York composer and producer Rob Mounsey. In October 2011, Menzel returned to London to perform a one-night-only concert in the United Kingdom at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra with Marvin Hamlisch conducting. Menzel's concert stop in Toronto was filmed at The Royal Conservatory of Music on November 17 and 18, 2011, for her second PBS special. She was accompanied by the Kitchener-Waterloo Symphony with Marvin Hamlisch conducting and special guest Taye Diggs, Menzel's then-husband. Idina Menzel Live: Barefoot at the Symphony was released as a live CD and DVD and aired on PBS in March 2012, with Musical Director Rob Mounsey producing.\n\nMenzel announced she would continue live performances in 2012. The first date she announced was July 8, 2012, at Ravinia Festival near Chicago, Illinois. She made her Carnegie Hall solo debut (originally on October 29, 2012). However, due to Hurricane Sandy's impact on New York City, it was postponed until January 13, 2013.\nMenzel toured Australia in June 2013 with shows in South Australia, Melbourne, Brisbane, and two at the Sydney Opera House.\nOn June 17, 2014, during a concert at New York City's Radio City Music Hall, Menzel confirmed that she was working on a Christmas album that would contain original material to be released later that same year. In that concert, she performed one of the original tunes from the album, \"December Prayer\". The album, Holiday Wishes, was released on October 14, 2014. The album has so far peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming her highest-charting album as a solo lead artist. Holiday Wishes also marked the first that a woman had three different albums (along with the cast recording to Frozen and If/Then) peak within the top 20 within ten months of the release date. Holiday Wishes also become the second-ever Christmas album to chart before Halloween during the SoundScan Era after Garth Brooks's 1992 album Beyond the Season. On November 26, 2014, Menzel announced through her Facebook page that she would be touring during the summer of 2015, making it her first global tour and first time playing shows in Europe and Asia.\nMenzel was honored with the Breakthrough Artist award at the 2014 Billboard Women in Music awards ceremony.\nMenzel sang \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" a cappella at Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015. Menzel's rendition earned mixed reviews from critics, who praised the quality of her voice but questioned some of her stylistic choices, namely tempo and volume. In a complementary review, Markos Papadatos of The Digital Journal felt Menzel redeemed her reputation as a strong vocalist after pundits had criticized her live performance of \"Let it Go\" at Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve the previous year.\nOn August 5, 2016, Menzel announced she would release her eponymous fifth album, on September 23. Of the release, Menzel stated: \"I poured my heart out and used my music as a place to kind of figure some things out. It's a really personal album.\" Marking it as her first original Pop studio album in 8 years since I Stand, the album debuted at # 29 on the US Billboard 200. With the success of the album, Menzel embarked on a World Tour in 2017 that traveled to Asia, Europe, and North America. Menzel's concert stop in Las Vegas was recorded for her second live album entitled idina Live and released on October 12, 2018.\nOn March 12, 2018, it was announced that Menzel would join Josh Groban for his Bridges Tour. For this tour, she served as Groban's Opening act before joining him later during his set for two duets of Lullaby and Falling Slowly. Menzel only performed with Groban on the first leg of North America in various cities, including Atlanta, Nashville, Dallas, Phoenix, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, and a sold-out performance at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The New York City show (entitled Bridges Live From Madison Square Garden) was also filmed and released in Movie Theaters & later a Live CD & DVD release with an airing on PBS.\nOn May 11, 2019, it was revealed that she had signed to Scooter Braun and SB Projects for music management. Four years later, on August 22, 2023, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Menzel was no longer being represented by Braun, having left his management that January.\nOn October 18, 2019, Menzel released her second holiday album entitled Christmas: A Season of Love from School Boy and Decca Records on October 18, 2019. It debuted at #2 on Billboard's US Top Holiday Albums. In support of it, Menzel embarked on a three-city concert tour in the east coast including a sold-out return to New York's Carnegie Hall.\nOn October 11, 2022, Menzel announced on her Instagram page that she would be releasing a concert special on Disney+ on December 9 titled Idina Menzel: Which Way to the Stage?. The special will consist of concert footage from Madison Square Garden in New York. The title is a nod to Menzel's first line as Maureen in Rent.\n\nFilm and television career\nEarly screen appearances (2001–2010)\nMenzel's feature film debut was the 2001 romantic comedy Kissing Jessica Stein in which she had a minor role as a bridesmaid, followed by an uncredited appearance as Linda in the dark comedy Just a Kiss (2002). While starring in Wicked, she appeared in the coming-of-age dramedy The Tollbooth (2004), playing main character Sarabeth's (Marla Sokoloff) pregnant sister, Raquel Cohen-Flaxman.\nMenzel starred in her first major film venture in 2005 when she reprised the role of Maureen Johnson in the film adaptation of Rent, directed by Chris Columbus. Menzel was one of six original Broadway cast members who returned for the film, including then-husband Taye Diggs. Although rumors of a Rent movie had persisted for several years before it was green-lit, Menzel did not consider herself eligible because she assumed A-list Hollywood actors would be preferred if a film version ever materialized, until Columbus approached her directly. However, Menzel was the musical's only main female cast member not replaced by a younger actress, despite all actors being several years older than their characters by the time the film was released. Menzel felt the film's chemistry benefited from retaining most of the show's original cast. Rent was released to mixed reviews and underperformed at the box office, but critics complimented Menzel's performance. Entertainment Weekly film critic Owen Gleiberman called Menzel's duet with actress Tracie Thoms (as girlfriend Joanne Jefferson) a highlight. IGN's Eric Goldman described Menzel as \"incredibly charismatic and fun\", although her performance failed to interest him in performance art. The following year, Menzel and her castmates were nominated for Best Acting Ensemble at the 11th Critics' Choice Awards.\n\nIn 2006, she played Vera Rivkin in Robert Towne's Ask the Dust, a romantic drama starring Colin Farrell and Salma Hayek. Menzel's character, a mysterious Jewish woman, harbors unrequited feelings for struggling writer Arturo, played by Farrell. Despite her limited screen time, she considers Vera one of her favorite film roles, citing her character's lack of singing and difficulty overcoming difficult situations as essential to demonstrating her versatility. Ask the Dust was poorly received by film critics. However, Kim Newman of Empire cautioned audiences to remember Menzel's name, writing, \"the film comes to life when she barges in and finds it hard to keep it together after she's gone\". The San Francisco Chronicle's Ruthe Stein said Menzel enlivens the material by sharing more chemistry with Farrell during their brief scenes together than Hayek does throughout the entire film.\nIn 2007, Menzel appeared in the musical fantasy film Enchanted as Nancy Tremaine: the fiancée of Patrick Dempsey's character Robert and Giselle's (Amy Adams) romantic rival. Despite being a musical, Menzel famously does not sing in the film; several songs composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz had written for her character were ultimately omitted from the final version. Menzel was offered the role without auditioning, and was flattered that Disney would cast her solely based on her acting. Menzel explained that singing would have been out of character for Nancy, who is a New York native unlike the film's more fantastical characters. She opted to portray Nancy with vulnerability as opposed to \"a typical mean girlfriend that everyone's going to hate\". Enchanted was a critical and commercial success, but The Hollywood Reporter's Kirk Honeycutt and Jim Lane of the Sacramento News & Review felt the film underused Menzel's talents. Some critics and fans also expressed disappointment over Menzel's lack of musical numbers.\nFrom 2010 to 2013, Menzel had a recurring role on the musical comedy television series Glee as Shelby Corcoran: the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline, and the biological mother of series lead Rachel Berry (Lea Michele). Fans of the show had long observed a strong physical resemblance between Menzel and Michele, and lobbied for the former to be cast as Michele's onscreen mother. Menzel appeared in 12 episodes across the series, and covered songs such as \"I Dreamed a Dream\" from Les Misérables and \"Poker Face\" by Lady Gaga.\n\nFrozen and worldwide recognition (2013–2016)\nIn 2013, Menzel voiced Elsa – a reclusive young queen struggling with her magical ability to control ice and snow – in Disney's animated film Frozen. After failing to secure the lead role in Disney's animated film Tangled (2010), the studio re-discovered Menzel's audition reel while casting Frozen. Loosely based on the titular villain in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale \"The Snow Queen\", Menzel's character was re-written into a misunderstood anti-heroine for Disney's adaptation, inspired by songwriters Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez's creation of her anthem \"Let It Go\", which they wrote specifically for Menzel due to its demanding vocal range. Released to critical acclaim, Frozen became the highest-grossing animated film upon release, earning over $1.2 billion worldwide. Meanwhile, \"Let It Go\" became a global phenomenon, with countless fans and artists releasing their own Internet covers and parodies. A crossover radio hit, the song peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, making Menzel the first Tony Award-winning actor to achieve a top-10 placement on the chart. Despite its non-commercial sound, \"Let it Go\" ultimately became one of the best-selling singles of 2014, selling over 10.9 million copies. Menzel has since reprised her role as Elsa in most tie-in media, including the Disney Infinity and Kingdom Hearts video games, the short films Frozen Fever (2015) and Olaf's Frozen Adventure (2017), the film Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018), and the sequel Frozen II (2019).\nMenzel sang \"Let it Go\" at the 86th Academy Awards in March 2014, where the song eventually won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. While introducing her performance, actor John Travolta mispronounced her name as \"Adele Dazeem\"; the mispronunciation was heavily ridiculed by fans and the media, and subsequently became a viral Internet meme. Although initially thrown off by the incident, Menzel was not upset about the mishap, and credits it with introducing her to a wider audience. To promote her then-current role in Broadway's If/Then, the production printed satirical playbills that credited Menzel as Adele Dazeem, and referenced her previous credits in Nert (Rent), Wicked-ly (Wicked), and Farfignugen (Frozen). Shortly after the ceremony, Travolta publicly apologized to Menzel. At the 87th Academy Awards the following year, Menzel presented Best Original Song with Travolta and jokingly introduced him as \"Glom Gazingo\", who finally pronounced her name correctly upon joining her on stage.\nAlthough Menzel had already been well-known within the Broadway community prior to working with Disney, she was not as recognized outside of her stage credits. The success of Frozen, \"Let it Go\", and the Oscars incident are credited with establishing Menzel as an international superstar, helping bolster her film and music careers beyond musical theatre. She considers Travolta mispronouncing her name to be \"one of the best things that happened for my career\".\nIn 2015, Menzel was slated to star on the Ellen DeGeneres-produced sitcom Happy Time, which would have been her first television role since Glee. However, the project never came to fruition.\n\nEstablished film actress (2017–present)\nFollowing the success of Frozen, Menzel continued to pursue more prominent roles in film and television projects. She starred as CC Bloom, a role originated by one of her idols Bette Midler, in Lifetime's 2017 remake of the 1988 film Beaches. The melodrama follows the decades-long friendship and rivalry between a brassy singer (Menzel) and a reserved lawyer, played by Nia Long. Due to her typical avoidance of revivals and fondness for the original film, Menzel was initially hesitant to star in the project, but ultimately embraced the remake as an opportunity to introduce a classic story about female friendship to a younger generation. The remake was conceived around Menzel's singing career in a similar manner to how the original incorporated Midler's, whose songs she covered for the film's soundtrack. Premiering to mixed reviews, several critics found the remake inferior to the original, but praised Menzel's musical contributions. CNN's Brian Lowry said \"the lure of providing Menzel an opportunity to let loose on these familiar tunes is more than enough to qualify as a win for Lifetime, even if the movie itself ... never achieves liftoff\". Katie Rife of The A.V. Club, Linda Holmes of NPR, and MaryAnn Sleasman of TV Guide each found Menzel's acting adequate but lacking the conviction and humor Midler brought to the role, resulting in a less compelling version of the same character.\nIn 2019, she starred opposite Adam Sandler in the crime thriller Uncut Gems, playing his character's estranged and frustrated wife Dinah Ratner. The role was considered a stark departure for Menzel, who longed to be involved in a project that differed from the family-friendly material she had become synonymous with. Directors Josh and Benny Safdie cast her based on her performance as a similar character in Skintight, and Menzel drew upon personal experience for the role, having grown up around confident women like Dinah in New York. She described Dinah as \"the voice for how the audience feels as they're going through this roller-coaster ride\" and avoided devolving her into merely a stereotype. The film and Menzel's performance drew critical acclaim. Writing for The Post and Courier, Jocelyn Noveck found Menzel \"compelling in the rare role that doesn't make use of her famous singing voice\", while Johnny Oleksinski of the New York Post called her \"delightfully abrasive\".\nIn 2021, Menzel co-starred alongside Camila Cabello, Billy Porter, and James Corden in Kay Cannon's jukebox musical adaptation of the Cinderella fairy tale, playing Cinderella's (Cabello) unkind stepmother Vivian. Despite admiring actresses who had played the villainous role prior, Menzel wanted to eschew \"the archetypal kind of idea of the straight-ahead evil nemesis\" in order to uncover the trauma behind the character's cruel nature. In addition to performing several covers for the film, Menzel wrote and recorded an original song for her character entitled \"Dream Girl\", which was shortlisted for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Cinderella received mixed reviews, but Menzel's performance was praised: IndieWire's Kristen Lopez said she played the character \"deliciously\", while Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times described Menzel as \"her usual spectacular self\" and \"arguably the most nuanced and empathetic 'evil' stepmother in 'Cinderella' history\". Michael Calleri of the Niagara Gazette said Menzel delivers the film's best performance.\nIn 2022, Menzel reprised her role as Nancy in the Enchanted sequel Disenchanted. Now the Queen of Anadalasia as Edward's (James Marsden) wife, Menzel's character sings for the first time, in addition to serving as the film's \"voice of reason\". A pop version of Menzel's song, \"Love Power\", was released as the soundtrack's lead single in November 2022. Disenchanted received mixed reviews; most critics appreciated hearing Menzel sing, while others found her role brief and her song unmemorable. Marya E. Gates of RogerEbert.com called Menzel's performance \"one of the few that manages to transcend beyond the subpar trappings of\" the film, lamenting that she is \"relegated to only a handful of scenes\". She also starred in an episode of the HGTV show Celebrity I.O.U. with the Property Brothers Drew and Jonathan Scott. In this episode, she helped the brothers renovate a garage for her friend James.\nIn 2023, Menzel played Bree Friedman in the coming-of-age comedy You Are So Not Invited to My Bat Mitzvah, reuniting with Sandler. Directed by Sammi Cohen, the film co-stars Menzel and Sandler as Jewish parents raising an adolescent girl as they prepare for her bat mitzvah. Menzel had previously played Sandler's wife in Uncut Gems, while Sandler's real-life wife and children also co-star in You Are So Not Invited to My Bat Mitzvah. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Gary Goldstein said Menzel fits in well among Sandler's own family, while Matthew Jackson of The A. V. Club said the duo make \"a wonderful (and wonderfully grumpy) couple\". Abhishek Srivastava of The Times of India said Menzel \"comes across as extremely authentic and hits all the right notes\".\nShe also stars in American Murderer directed by Matthew Gentile. During the ongoing time of the COVID-19 pandemic, Menzel created and launched a brand new YouTube web series for children entitled Idina's Treehouse. The series featured Menzel from her treehouse out in her Los Angeles home that originally was built for her son Walker Nathaniel Diggs. It features a full set of songs, stories, and appearances from Menzel's family and friends.\n\nArtistry\nVoice and influences\nMenzel possesses a mezzo-soprano vocal range that spans approximately three octaves. For the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sharon Eberson wrote that Menzel's voice \"could be categorized as coquettish to flat-out belter and everything in between—and with a stage presence to match—she usually is labeled a mezzo-soprano. But why pigeonhole someone so intriguingly offbeat?\" Eberson observed that she \"interprets songs as much as an actress as a singer,\" believing, \"therein lies her connection to the music and her fans.\" Describing Menzel as a loud soprano similar to Broadway actress Ethel Merman, Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote \"The sound she creates when she belts ... is a primal cry embedded in her being that insists that we listen and pay attention.\" Holden observed that her voice can alternate between \"babyish and demanding, or it can sound grand and imperial\" depending on the song choice. According to Andrew Gans of Playbill, Menzel has \"one of the most unique voices of her generation, a pliable alto that can be sweet and girlish in its middle register and then easily soar to pop-influenced top notes way above high C.\" Frozen songwriter Kristen Anderson-Lopez described Menzel's voice as \"a warm hug\" with \"this warmth and this vulnerability down low. And then, as you bring her higher and higher, she gets stronger and stronger, and more powerful. She just reaches into your soul when she's singing these big, giant songs.\"\nMenzel is known for her signature high belting style; The Kennedy Center website cites Menzel as a prime example of a \"Broadway Belter\" who uses the technique to her advantage. Theater critic Charles Isherwood said the singer \"has a voice that is very much her own,\" describing it as \"totally distinctive\" with \"a great belt and a great range.\" Describing Menzel's voice as \"husky ... which sometimes veers toward shrieking until she effortlessly reins herself in or, amazingly, kicks it up another notch,\" Melissa Ruggieri of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution believes she possesses \"a superior instrument\" both live and in-studio. Explaining her own technique, Menzel said she avoids moving her shoulders while singing and prefers \"to take a smaller breath for a bigger, longer note because there's less air that will come pummeling out.\" She also maintains her voice by constantly steaming and practicing vocal warm ups, describing her routine as \"very ritualistic\" and \"disciplined\". Despite her live vocals earning consistent acclaim, some critics have criticized Menzel's belting for sounding \"screechy\". Schuyler Velasco of The Christian Science Monitor observed that the singer \"made a career out of belting notes that would fry the vocal chords of mere mortals\", but felt the emotion of her performances sometimes suffers at the hands of her vocal proficiency. Velasco cited her rendition of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" at Super Bowl XLIX as an example of Menzel sacrificing excitement and inspiration for technique, yet delivering an adequate performance nonetheless. Menzel addressed such criticisms during a 2014 concert, explaining that she wishes to sing loud, proud and \"from the heart\" like her idols Merman and Aretha Franklin. Tim Smith of The Baltimore Sun wrote that Menzel's \"high-wattage vocal cords and intense phrasing ... [make] a mark whenever she sings.\" Menzel admits that she finds some of her most famous songs challenging, namely songs from the Frozen films, which \"push her to vocal extremes\" and require constant warming up and sometimes lowering the key for live performances. The term \"powerhouse\" has often been used in the media to describe Menzel's vocal ability.\nMenzel's vocal style has drawn comparisons to singer Barbra Streisand, whose song \"Don't Rain on My Parade\" she often covers, including in tribute to her at the 2008 Kennedy Center Honors. Menzel said she had long aspired to have a career as successful as Streisand to whose Jewish upbringing Menzel has also been compared, with fans deeming her \"the next big Jewish icon in music\". Menzel was particularly inspired by Streisand's performance in the film A Star is Born (1976), and cites singers Franklin, Billie Holiday, Etta James, Chaka Khan and Sarah Vaughan among her vocal idols. Despite emulating her inspirations, Menzel claims she maintains the importance of \"finding [her] own voice.\" Some critics have dubbed Menzel \"the Streisand of her generation\". Similar comparisons have been drawn between Menzel and singer Bette Midler.\n\nMusical style\nProfessionally trained as a classical singer from age eight, Menzel decided to pursue different genres such as R&B and jazz once she began high school. Upon becoming a wedding singer, Menzel was eventually exposed to a wide variety of musical genres, ranging from jazz to rock and Motown, and would often experiment with new arrangements of traditional songs. She credits her wedding singer background with training her to improvise new vocal arrangements, which in turn helps her ad-lib alternative versions of songs when she is feeling unwell or her voice is tired. Her set lists tend to incorporate an eclectic combination of original material and covers of popular pop, rock, musical theatre and film songs, selecting an assortment of songs she expects fans want to hear and feels inspired to attempt new interpretations of. Jay Handelman of the Sarasota Herald-Tribune opined that Menzel's song choices \"reinforce her own offbeat personality.\" According to Menzel, her song selections usually indicate a milestone, choosing to convey a stories and memories about her life using music. Menzel often opts to perform barefoot in concert, which has become a trademark of her live performances. She also enjoys conversing with audience members in-between musical performances. In addition to her vocal prowess, Menzel has been noted for her charming and witty banter; Smith described her as \"a pro at delivering stage banter and as quick on the draw with one-liners as seasoned stand-up comedians.\" On her stage presence, The Denver Post critic Ray Mark Rinaldi wrote that Menzel delivers \"the kind of self-assurance that can only come from beating out Kristin Chenoweth for a Tony. She comes out on stage, dressed like she doesn't care, acting a little dizzy, but knowing all along she's gonna hit the right notes.\"\nMenzel has become closely associated with songs about self-empowerment, specifically her Signature Songs \"Defying Gravity\" and \"Let it Go\". Discussing Disney author Amy M. Davis believes Menzel's voice \"has become associated with rebellion for Broadway fans.\" However, the artist claims such themes have made her feel fraudulent at times because she herself does not always feel empowered. Subsequently, she began incorporating more emotional material into her sets, such as Radiohead's \"Creep\". Although Menzel co-writes most of her own material as a singer-songwriter, she considers herself a collaborator rather than a songwriter, explaining that she prefers working with professional songwriters or producers: \"They start playing some music, and I like to sing… I can sing melodies, I come up with titles and lyrical ideas, but I'm really not good at making decisions.\" She has frequently collaborated with songwriter and producer Glen Ballard, and tends to draw upon lyrics from her personal diary and melodies from a tape recorder. Menzel claims she has never completed writing a song entirely on her own, finding the process to be too stressful: \"I never had a good song that I wrote, so to ... act like I'm this great songwriter, I would be just a fraud. But, I'm good at bringing myself to it—being a good collaborator in the room.\" She cites Joni Mitchell and Annie Lennox among her musical influences, describing them as \"singer-songwriters who had these amazing voices but also were incredible storytellers and lyricists\", while expressing admiration for musicians Bono, Sting and Seal. The Ithacan's Preston Arment observed that \"what Menzel may lack in songwriting ability, she makes up for with stunning vocals that remind us why listeners will never stop loving her.\" AllMusic biographer Marcy Donelson described Menzel's studio albums as a combination of Adult Alternative, vocal, and contemporary pop music. Menzel's fifth studio album, which she considers to be her most personal to-date, contains a combination of ballads and upbeat tracks that explore themes about home, personal loss, empowerment, relationships and starting over, much of which was inspired by her divorce from Taye Diggs. Bailey Flynn of The Heights believes the album demonstrates several trademarks for which Menzel has become known: \"power ballads that give her huge vocal range and mind-blowing control all the chance they need to show off.\"\nMenzel described performing her own songs live as \"scarier\" than singing covers or songs from established shows because \"You're a little bit more transparent. There's no costume or character I'm hiding behind ... yet sometimes it's more rewarding because of that\", describing the feeling of hearing fans sing songs she has written herself as \"incredible\".\n\nLegacy and public image\nMenzel has been called one of Broadway's greatest performers. Tim Beedle of DC.com declared her \"arguably the most widely recognized Broadway star in the country\". Several media publications have nicknamed her the \"Queen of Broadway\" due to her success and impact on the genre. Often described as one of the defining singing voices of her generation, Apple Music referred to her as \"one of the 21st century's premier vocalists\". Jenny Singer of Glamour declared Menzel one of history's greatest musical theatre vocalists, while Valerie Complex of Deadline Hollywood called her an influential performer who has \"left an indelible mark on the industry\". The Toronto Sun's Jim Slotek dubbed her \"this generation's Broadway icon\". In a 2020 retrospective, Cleveland.com's Troy L. Smith named Menzel the best vocalist of 2013, claiming the success of that year's \"Let it Go\" only cemented her legacy as \"one of Broadway's greatest stars of all time\". The previous year, BroadwayWorld recognized Menzel as one of the decade's 10 most influential Broadway stars. Time Out ranked Menzel the 19th greatest female Broadway actress of all-time, observing that she established a \"stratospheric reputation\" largely based on the popularity of only two roles: Rent and Wicked. Vulture's Jackson McHenry attributed the popularity and endurance of \"Defining Gravity\" to Menzel, believing few singers can service the song as successfully as she has. In 2018, NPR named \"Let it Go\" one of the 200 greatest female-performed songs of the 21st century, at number 182.\n\nMenzel's successful crossover from stage actor to television, film, and music star have been discussed at length, with Redbook dubbing her \"One of [Broadway's] biggest crossover success stories\". Menzel's biography on Starz described her as the kind of stage-to-screen star Broadway seldom produces anymore. Marty Hughley of The Oregonian shared a similar sentiment, writing in 2012 that although Broadway does not guarantee global superstardom as often as it used to, Menzel is \"a notable exception to the rule of Broadway’s declining clout\". Original Broadway cast recordings of Rent and If/Then, both albums prominently featuring Menzel as a soloist, debuted within the top-20 of the Billboard 200. In a 2014 article, Billboard theorized that Menzel's crossover success \"bodes well for Broadway's would-be stars\", believing \"Let it Go\" \"kicked open the door for future composers of stage and screen\". When Menzel returned to Broadway in 2014 shortly after the success of Frozen, Suzy Evans of Billboard observed that audience reception was more akin to that of a \"rock star\" than a musical theatre performer. Menzel's fanbase has nicknamed themselves \"Fanzels\". In addition to her perceived authenticity, Isherwood attributes the artist's large following to the successes of Rent and Wicked: \"two era-defying, hugely successful Broadway musicals\". Toronto Star theatre critic Richard Ouzounian credits the same two shows with solidifying her reputation as one of the industry's \"most dynamic musical theatre stars\". She has been described as \"Broadway royalty\", due to a combination of her successful stage career and playing royalty in several Disney projects.\nAccording to Akiva Gottlieb of the Los Angeles Times, Menzel's public persona is largely defined by her performances in Frozen and Wicked, and recording Christmas albums. As an actress, Menzel has earned a reputation for playing misunderstood characters both on stage and in film, admitting she gravitates towards complex roles. She cited power and vulnerability as common traits among characters she has played. According to the Irish Independent, Menzel has become \"a go-to actress for producers looking for a feisty female lead\", while The Globe and Mail's Courtney Shea said she \"forged her career playing strong and sensational females\". Menzel believes Broadway has always offered compelling roles for women of all ages, whereas she considers Hollywood to be more susceptible to ageism and sexism. Menzel is revered as a role model for young women, particularly due to her role as Elsa which has contributed her a large following among predominantly female Frozen fans. Although she takes her responsibility as a role model seriously, she has stated that she does not always feel like a role model in her personal life and feels uncomfortable bearing the responsibility at times. Menzel has a prominent gay following, dating back to the 1990s when she starred in Rent. Rent was also one of the first Broadway shows to show a lesbian relationship. The performer attributes this to playing several repressed characters who are \"hiding something within them that they’re afraid to let people see, and then finally they embrace it\". Michael Heaton, a critic for The Plain Dealer, noted that some parents have expressed concerns about the \"blue humor\" Menzel uses in her typical concerts in an attempt to appeal to both her adult gay and young fans.\nDiana Bunici of Evoke.ie dubbed Menzel \"the voice of the new generation\". In 2014, Menzel was awarded \"Breakthrough Artist\" by Billboard. In 2019, Menzel and actress Kristen Bell, who plays her sister in Frozen, received neighboring stars—Menzel's was the 2682nd and Bell's was the 2681st—on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Menzel was inducted into the live theatre category. Menzel is also among the wealthiest Broadway performers, due in part to her television, film and music careers. In 2022, Menzel was announced as a recipient of a Disney Legends Award for her outstanding contributions to the Walt Disney Company, with her D23 entry reading \"Whether on stage or screen, Idina Menzel’s unequivocal signature talents have shone through countless projects across her almost 30-year career\".\n\nPersonal life\nMenzel married Taye Diggs on January 11, 2003. They met in 1995 during the original production of Rent, in which Diggs portrayed Benjamin Coffin III, the landlord. They would appear in several films together. On September 2, 2009, she gave birth to their son, Walker Nathaniel Diggs. In late 2013, it was reported that Menzel and Diggs had separated after 10 years of marriage. Menzel said that the \"interracial aspect\" of their marriage was a primary factor in the divorce, as well as other unnamed \"complicated reasons.\"\nMenzel began dating actor Aaron Lohr, and in August 2015, they bought a home together in Encino, Los Angeles. On September 23, 2016, Menzel announced that she and Lohr were engaged. They were married September 22, 2017 in a backyard ceremony at their home.\nMenzel identifies as a feminist, saying, \"I love that I play all of these strong women. But they're not just strong—they're women who have a really deep vulnerability and need to go through a journey in order to harness their power.\"\n\nPhilanthropy and other ventures\nMenzel was an honorary chair of the Imperial Court of New York's Annual Charity Coronation Ball, Night of A Thousand Gowns, on March 21, 2009, sharing the title with Elton John, Patti LuPone, John Cameron Mitchell, Joan Rivers, and Robin Strasser.\nOn May 17, 2009, Menzel performed at a special benefit concert in Atlanta, Georgia, to raise money for the Pace Academy Diversity Program in coordination with the Ron Clark Academy. The event resulted in the funding of two scholarships for Ron Clark Academy students to attend Pace Academy. The event was organized and hosted by Philip McAdoo, a former Rent cast member and current Diversity Program Director at Pace Academy.\nIn 2010, Menzel founded the A BroaderWay Foundation with then-husband Taye Diggs as a means of supporting young people in the arts. A BroaderWay sponsors camp programs, theater workshops, and innovative educational programming, and offers scholarships and opportunities to experience professional performances. In Summer 2011, Camp BroaderWay welcomed girls from under-served metro New York communities to a 10-day performing arts camp, run by Menzel and a team of acclaimed professional Broadway artists including Taye Diggs. During this camp, the girls collaborated with Broadway artists to write an original musical that was performed at a theatre in New York. The camp was held at Belvoir Terrace Summer Camp in Lenox, Massachusetts.\nMenzel has long-championed LGBT rights by partnering with organizations like The Trevor Project, the Give A Damn Campaign (filming a public service announcement and designing a T-shirt) and the NOH8 Campaign, posing for one of their trademark duct-taped silence photos.\nIn April 2014, Menzel presented at Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS Easter Bonnet Competition with Bryan Cranston, Fran Drescher, and Denzel Washington, after raising donations at her Broadway show If/Then. \nIn 2022, Menzel had launched a clothing line with QVC called Encore by Idina Menzel. Also in 2022, Menzel co-wrote a children's book with her sister, Cara Mentzel, called Loud Mouse with illustrations by Jaclyn Sinquett. The book is semi-autobiographical about a mouse named Dee who loves to sing loudly. The book was published by Disney-Hyperion on September 27, 2022. In promotion of the book, Menzel released \"The Loud Mouse Song\", which she co-wrote with Laura Veltz, on September 23, 2022. In 2023, Menzel and her sister Cara Mentzel released a sequel to Loud Mouse, called Proud Mouse with Jaclyn Sinquett returning for illustrations.\n\nFilmography\nDiscography\nStill I Can't Be Still (1998)\nHere (2004)\nI Stand (2008)\nHoliday Wishes (2014)\nIdina (2016)\nChristmas: A Season of Love (2019)\nDrama Queen (2023)\n\nConcerts\nOther\nAwards and nominations\nTheater\nFilm\nTelevision\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nIdina Menzel at the Internet Broadway Database\nIdina Menzel at IMDb\nIdina Menzel at the Internet Off-Broadway Database\nIdina Menzel at Playbill Vault\nInterview with Idina Menzel at TonyAwards.com",
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"paragraph_text": "Charlotte Nicholls (née Brontë; 21 April 1816 – 31 March 1855), commonly known as Charlotte Brontë (, commonly ), was an English novelist and poet, the eldest of the three Brontë sisters who survived into adulthood and whose novels became classics of English literature. She is best known for her novel Jane Eyre, which she published under the male pseudonym Currer Bell. Jane Eyre went on to become a success in publication, and is widely held in high regard in the gothic fiction genre of literature.\nBrontë enrolled in school at Roe Head, Mirfield, in January 1831, aged 14 years. She left the year after to teach her sisters, Emily and Anne, at home, then returned to Roe Head in 1835 as a teacher. In 1839, she undertook the role of governess for the Sidgwick family, but left after a few months. The three sisters attempted to open a school in Haworth but failed to attract pupils. Instead, they turned to writing; they each first published in 1846 under the pseudonyms of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Although her first novel, The Professor, was rejected by publishers, her second novel, Jane Eyre, was published in 1847. The sisters admitted to their Bell pseudonyms in 1848, and by the following year were celebrated in London literary circles.\nBrontë was the last to die of all her siblings. She became pregnant shortly after her wedding in June 1854 but died on 31 March 1855, almost certainly from hyperemesis gravidarum, a complication of pregnancy which causes excessive nausea and vomiting.\n\nEarly years and education\nCharlotte Brontë was born on 21 April 1816 in Market Street, Thornton (in a house now known as the Brontë Birthplace), west of Bradford in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the third of the six children of Maria (née Branwell) and Patrick Brontë (formerly surnamed Brunty), an Irish Anglican clergyman. In 1820 her family moved a few miles to the village of Haworth, on the edge of the moors, where her father had been appointed perpetual curate of St Michael and All Angels Church. Maria died of cancer on 15 September 1821, leaving five daughters, Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, Emily and Anne, and a son, Branwell, to be taken care of by her sister, Elizabeth Branwell.\nIn August 1824, Patrick sent Charlotte, Emily, Maria, and Elizabeth to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. Charlotte maintained that the school's poor conditions permanently affected her health and physical development, and hastened the deaths of Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who both died of tuberculosis in May (Maria) and June (Elizabeth) 1825. After the deaths of his older daughters, Patrick removed Charlotte and Emily from the school. Charlotte used the school as the basis for Lowood School in Jane Eyre, which is similarly affected by tuberculosis that is exacerbated by the poor conditions.\nAt home in Haworth Parsonage, Brontë acted as \"the motherly friend and guardian of her younger sisters\". Brontë wrote her first known poem at the age of 13 in 1829, and was to go on to write more than 200 poems in the course of her life. Many of her poems were \"published\" in their homemade magazine Branwell's Blackwood's Magazine, and concerned the fictional world of Glass Town. She and her surviving siblings – Branwell, Emily and Anne – created this shared world, and began chronicling the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary kingdom in 1827. Charlotte, in private letters, called Glass Town \"her 'world below', a private escape where she could act out her desires and multiple identities\". Charlotte's \"predilection for romantic settings, passionate relationships, and high society is at odds with Branwell's obsession with battles and politics and her young sisters' homely North Country realism, none the less at this stage there is still a sense of the writings as a family enterprise\".\nHowever, from 1831 onwards, Emily and Anne 'seceded' from the Glass Town Confederacy to create a 'spin-off' called Gondal, which included many of their poems. After 1831, Charlotte and Branwell concentrated on an evolution of the Glass Town Confederacy called Angria. Christine Alexander, a Brontë juvenilia historian, wrote \"both Charlotte and Branwell ensured the consistency of their imaginary world. When Branwell exuberantly kills off important characters in his manuscripts, Charlotte comes to the rescue and, in effect, resurrects them for the next stories [...]; and when Branwell becomes bored with his inventions, such as the Glass Town magazine he edits, Charlotte takes over his initiative and keeps the publication going for several more years\".: 6–7 The sagas the siblings created were episodic and elaborate, and they exist in incomplete manuscripts, some of which have been published as juvenilia. They provided them with an obsessive interest during childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for literary vocations in adulthood.\n\nBetween 1831 and 1832, Brontë continued her education at a boarding school twenty miles away in Mirfield, Roe Head (now part of Hollybank Special School), where she met her lifelong friends and correspondents Ellen Nussey and Mary Taylor. In 1833 she wrote a novella, The Green Dwarf, using the name Wellesley. Around about 1833, her stories shifted from tales of the supernatural to more realistic stories. She returned to Roe Head as a teacher from 1835 to 1838. Unhappy and lonely as a teacher at Roe Head, Brontë took out her sorrows in poetry, writing a series of melancholic poems. In \"We wove a Web in Childhood\" written in December 1835, Brontë drew a sharp contrast between her miserable life as a teacher and the vivid imaginary worlds she and her siblings had created. In another poem \"Morning was its freshness still\" written at the same time, Brontë wrote \"Tis bitter sometimes to recall/Illusions once deemed fair\". Many of her poems concerned the imaginary world of Angria, often concerning Byronic heroes, and in December 1836 she wrote to the Poet Laureate Robert Southey asking him for encouragement of her career as a poet. Southey replied, famously, that \"Literature cannot be the business of a woman's life, and it ought not to be. The more she is engaged in her proper duties, the less leisure will she have for it even as an accomplishment and a recreation.\" This advice she respected but did not heed.\nIn 1839 Brontë took up the first of many positions as governess to families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until 1841. In particular, from May to July 1839 she was employed by the Sidgwick family at their summer residence, Stone Gappe, in Lothersdale, where one of her charges was John Benson Sidgwick (1835–1927), an unruly child who on one occasion threw the Bible at Charlotte, an incident that may have been the inspiration for a part of the opening chapter of Jane Eyre in which John Reed throws a book at the young Jane. Brontë did not enjoy her work as a governess, noting her employers treated her almost as a slave, constantly humiliating her. She was of slight build and was less than five feet tall.\n\nBrussels and Haworth\nIn 1842 Charlotte and Emily travelled to Brussels to enrol at the boarding school run by Constantin Héger (1809–1896) and his wife Claire Zoé Parent Héger (1804–1887). During her time in Brussels, Brontë, who favoured the Protestant ideal of an individual in direct contact with God, objected to the stern Catholicism of Madame Héger, which she considered a tyrannical religion that enforced conformity and submission to the Pope. In return for board and tuition Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the school was cut short when their aunt Elizabeth Branwell, who had joined the family in Haworth to look after the children after their mother's death, died of internal obstruction in October 1842. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January 1843 to take up a teaching post at the school. Her second stay was not happy: she was homesick and deeply attached to Constantin Héger. She returned to Haworth in January 1844 and used the time spent in Brussels as the inspiration for some of the events in The Professor and Villette.\nAfter returning to Haworth, Charlotte and her sisters made headway with opening their own boarding school in the family home. It was advertised as \"The Misses Brontë's Establishment for the Board and Education of a limited number of Young Ladies\" and inquiries were made to prospective pupils and sources of funding. But none were attracted and in October 1844, the project was abandoned.\n\nFirst publication\nIn May 1846, Charlotte, Emily, and Anne self-financed the publication of a joint collection of poems under their assumed names Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. The pseudonyms veiled the sisters' sex while preserving their initials; thus Charlotte was Currer Bell. \"Bell\" was the middle name of Haworth's curate, Arthur Bell Nicholls whom Charlotte later married, and \"Currer\" was the surname of Frances Mary Richardson Currer who had funded their school (and maybe their father). Of the decision to use noms de plume, Charlotte wrote:\n\n Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names under those of Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell; the ambiguous choice being dictated by a sort of conscientious scruple at assuming Christian names positively masculine, while we did not like to declare ourselves women, because – without at that time suspecting that our mode of writing and thinking was not what is called \"feminine\" – we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to be looked on with prejudice; we had noticed how critics sometimes use for their chastisement the weapon of personality, and for their reward, a flattery, which is not true praise.\nAlthough only two copies of the collection of poems were sold, the sisters continued writing for publication and began their first novels, continuing to use their noms de plume when sending manuscripts to potential publishers.\n\nThe Professor and Jane Eyre\nBrontë's first manuscript, 'The Professor', did not secure a publisher, although she was heartened by an encouraging response from Smith, Elder & Co. of Cornhill, who expressed an interest in any longer works Currer Bell might wish to send. Brontë responded by finishing and sending a second manuscript in August 1847. Six weeks later, Jane Eyre was published. It tells the story of a plain governess, Jane, who, after difficulties in her early life, falls in love with her employer, Mr Rochester. They marry, but only after Rochester's insane first wife, of whom Jane initially has no knowledge, dies in a dramatic house fire. The book's style was innovative, combining Romanticism, naturalism with gothic melodrama, and broke new ground in being written from an intensely evoked first-person female perspective. Brontë believed art was most convincing when based on personal experience; in Jane Eyre she transformed the experience into a novel with universal appeal.\nJane Eyre had immediate commercial success and initially received favourable reviews. G. H. Lewes wrote that it was \"an utterance from the depths of a struggling, suffering, much-enduring spirit\", and declared that it consisted of \"suspiria de profundis!\" (sighs from the depths). Speculation about the identity and gender of the mysterious Currer Bell heightened with the publication of Wuthering Heights by Ellis Bell (Emily) and Agnes Grey by Acton Bell (Anne). Accompanying the speculation was a change in the critical reaction to Brontë's work, as accusations were made that the writing was \"coarse\", a judgement more readily made once it was suspected that Currer Bell was a woman. However, sales of Jane Eyre continued to be strong and may even have increased as a result of the novel developing a reputation as an \"improper\" book. A talented amateur artist, Brontë personally did the drawings for the second edition of Jane Eyre and in the summer of 1834 two of her paintings were shown at an exhibition by the Royal Northern Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts in Leeds.\n\nShirley and bereavements\nIn 1848 Brontë began work on the manuscript of her second novel, Shirley. It was only partially completed when the Brontë family suffered the deaths of three of its members within eight months. In September 1848 Branwell died of chronic bronchitis and marasmus, exacerbated by heavy drinking, although Brontë believed that his death was due to tuberculosis. Branwell may have had a laudanum addiction. Emily became seriously ill shortly after his funeral and died of pulmonary tuberculosis in December 1848. Anne died of the same disease in May 1849. Brontë was unable to write at this time.\nAfter Anne's death Brontë resumed writing as a way of dealing with her grief, and Shirley, which deals with themes of industrial unrest and the role of women in society, was published in October 1849. Unlike Jane Eyre, which is written in the first person, Shirley is written in the third person and lacks the emotional immediacy of her first novel, and reviewers found it less shocking. Brontë, as her late sister's heir, suppressed the republication of Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, an action which had a deleterious effect on Anne's popularity as a novelist and has remained controversial among the sisters' biographers ever since.\n\nIn society\nIn view of the success of her novels, particularly Jane Eyre, Brontë was persuaded by her publisher to make occasional visits to London, where she revealed her true identity and began to move in more exalted social circles, becoming friends with Elizabeth Gaskell and Harriet Martineau whose sister Rachel had taught Gaskell's daughters. Brontë sent an early copy of Shirley to Martineau whose home at Ambleside she visited. The two friends shared an interest in racial relations and the abolitionist movement; recurrent themes in their writings. Brontë was also acquainted with William Makepeace Thackeray and G. H. Lewes. She never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at a time, as she did not want to leave her ageing father. Thackeray's daughter, writer Anne Isabella Thackeray Ritchie, recalled a visit to her father by Brontë:\n\n …two gentlemen come in, leading a tiny, delicate, serious, little lady, with fair straight hair and steady eyes. She may be a little over thirty; she is dressed in a little barège dress with a pattern of faint green moss. She enters in mittens, in silence, in seriousness; our hearts are beating with wild excitement. This then is the authoress, the unknown power whose books have set all London talking, reading, speculating; some people even say our father wrote the books – the wonderful books. …The moment is so breathless that dinner comes as a relief to the solemnity of the occasion, and we all smile as my father stoops to offer his arm; for, genius though she may be, Miss Brontë can barely reach his elbow. My own personal impressions are that she is somewhat grave and stern, specially to forward little girls who wish to chatter. …Everyone waited for the brilliant conversation which never began at all. Miss Brontë retired to the sofa in the study, and murmured a low word now and then to our kind governess… the conversation grew dimmer and more dim, the ladies sat round still expectant, my father was too much perturbed by the gloom and the silence to be able to cope with it at all… after Miss Brontë had left, I was surprised to see my father opening the front door with his hat on. He put his fingers to his lips, walked out into the darkness, and shut the door quietly behind him… long afterwards… Mrs Procter asked me if I knew what had happened. …It was one of the dullest evenings [Mrs Procter] had ever spent in her life… the ladies who had all come expecting so much delightful conversation, and the gloom and the constraint, and how finally, overwhelmed by the situation, my father had quietly left the room, left the house, and gone off to his club.\nBrontë's friendship with Elizabeth Gaskell, while not particularly close, was significant in that Gaskell wrote the first biography of Brontë after her death in 1855.\n\nVillette\nBrontë's third novel, the last published in her lifetime, was Villette, which appeared in 1853. Its main themes include isolation, how such a condition can be borne, and the internal conflict brought about by social repression of individual desire. Its main character, Lucy Snowe, travels abroad to teach in a boarding school in the fictional town of Villette, where she encounters a culture and religion different from her own and falls in love with a man (Paul Emanuel) whom she cannot marry. Her experiences result in a breakdown but eventually, she achieves independence and fulfilment through running her own school. A substantial amount of the novel's dialogue is in the French language. Villette marked Brontë's return to writing from a first-person perspective (that of Lucy Snowe), the technique she had used in Jane Eyre. Another similarity to Jane Eyre lies in the use of aspects of her own life as inspiration for fictional events, in particular her reworking of the time she spent at the pensionnat in Brussels. Villette was acknowledged by critics of the day as a potent and sophisticated piece of writing although it was criticised for \"coarseness\" and for not being suitably \"feminine\" in its portrayal of Lucy's desires.\n\nMarriage\nBefore the publication of Villette, Brontë received an expected proposal of marriage from Irishman Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's curate, who had long been in love with her. She initially refused him and her father objected to the union at least partly because of Nicholls's poor financial status. Elizabeth Gaskell, who believed that marriage provided \"clear and defined duties\" that were beneficial for a woman, encouraged Brontë to consider the positive aspects of such a union and tried to use her contacts to engineer an improvement in Nicholls's finances. According to James Pope-Hennessy in The Flight of Youth, it was the generosity of Richard Monckton Milnes that made the marriage possible. Brontë, meanwhile, was increasingly attracted to Nicholls and by January 1854, she had accepted his proposal. They gained the approval of her father by April and married on 29 June. Her father Patrick had intended to give Charlotte away, but at the last minute decided he could not, and Charlotte had to make her way to the church without him. \nBecause her father did not attend it was Miss Wooler (Charlotte's former teacher at Roe Head School, and life-long friend), as \"friend\", who “gave away” Charlotte (Gaskell: Vol II, Chap XIII).\nThe married couple took their honeymoon in Banagher, County Offaly, Ireland. By all accounts, her marriage was a success and Brontë found herself very happy in a way that was new to her.\n\nDeath\nBrontë became pregnant soon after her wedding, but her health declined rapidly and, according to Gaskell, she was attacked by \"sensations of perpetual nausea and ever-recurring faintness\". She died, with her unborn child, on 31 March 1855, three weeks before her 39th birthday. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as phthisis, but biographers including Claire Harman and others suggest that she died from dehydration and malnourishment due to vomiting caused by severe morning sickness or hyperemesis gravidarum. Brontë was buried in the family vault in the Church of St Michael and All Angels at Haworth.\nThe Professor, the first novel Brontë had written, was published posthumously in 1857. The fragment of a new novel she had been writing in her last years has been twice completed by recent authors, the more famous version being Emma Brown: A Novel from the Unfinished Manuscript by Charlotte Brontë by Clare Boylan in 2003. Most of her writings about the imaginary country Angria have also been published since her death. In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her.\n\nReligion\nThe daughter of an Irish Anglican clergyman, Brontë was herself an Anglican. In a letter to her publisher, she claims to \"love the Church of England. Her Ministers indeed, I do not regard as infallible personages, I have seen too much of them for that – but to the Establishment, with all her faults – the profane Athanasian Creed excluded – I am sincerely attached.\"\nIn a letter to Ellen Nussey she wrote: \n\nIf I could always live with you, and daily read the bible with you, if your lips and mine could at the same time, drink the same draught from the same pure fountain of Mercy – I hope, I trust, I might one day become better, far better, than my evil wandering thoughts, my corrupt heart, cold to the spirit, and warm to the flesh will now permit me to be.\n\nThe Life of Charlotte Brontë\nElizabeth Gaskell's biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë was published in 1857. It was an important step for a leading female novelist to write a biography of another, and Gaskell's approach was unusual in that, rather than analysing her subject's achievements, she concentrated on private details of Brontë's life, emphasising those aspects that countered the accusations of \"coarseness\" that had been levelled at her writing. The biography is frank in places, but omits details of Brontë's love for Héger, a married man, as being too much of an affront to contemporary morals and a likely source of distress to Brontë's father, widower, and friends. Mrs. Gaskell also provided doubtful and inaccurate information about Patrick Brontë, claiming that he did not allow his children to eat meat. This is refuted by one of Emily Brontë's diary papers, in which she describes preparing meat and potatoes for dinner at the parsonage. It has been argued that Gaskell's approach transferred the focus of attention away from the 'difficult' novels, not just Brontë's, but all the sisters', and began a process of sanctification of their private lives.\n\nNussey letters\nBrontë held lifelong correspondence with her former schoolmate Ellen Nussey. 350 of the some 500 letters sent by Brontë to Nussey survive, whereas all of Nussey's letters to Brontë were burned at Nicholls's request. The surviving letters provide most of the information known on Charlotte Brontë's life and are the backbone of her autobiographies.\nBrontë's letters to Nussey seem to have romantic undertones:\n\nWhat shall I do without you? How long are we likely to be separated? Why are we to be denied each other's society- I long to be with you. Why are we to be divided? Surely, Ellen, it must be because we are in danger of loving each other too well-\nEllen, I wish I could live with you always. I begin to cling to you more fondly than ever I did. If we had but a cottage and a competency of our own, I do think we might live and love on till Death without being dependent on any third person for happiness...\n\nhow sorely my heart longs for you I need not say... Less than ever can I taste or know pleasure till this work is wound up. And yet I often sit up in bed at night, thinking of and wishing for you.\nSome scholars believe it is possible that Charlotte Brontë was in a romantic or sexual relationship with Ellen Nussey.\n\nHéger letters\nOn 29 July 1913 The Times of London printed four letters Brontë had written to Constantin Héger after leaving Brussels in 1844. Written in French except for one postscript in English, the letters broke the prevailing image of Brontë as an angelic martyr to Christian and female duties that had been constructed by many biographers, beginning with Gaskell. The letters, which formed part of a larger and somewhat one-sided correspondence in which Héger frequently appears not to have replied, reveal that she had been in love with a married man, although they are complex and have been interpreted in numerous ways, including as an example of literary self-dramatisation and an expression of gratitude from a former pupil.\nIn 1980 a commemorative plaque was unveiled at the Centre for Fine Arts, Brussels, on the site of the Madam Heger's school, in honour of Charlotte and Emily.\n\nLegacy\nKazuo Ishiguro, when asked to name his favourite novelist, answered \"Charlotte Brontë's recently edged out Dostoevsky...I owe my career, and a lot else besides, to Jane Eyre and Villette.\"\n\nPublications\nJuvenilia\nThe Young Men's Magazine, Number 1 – 3 (August 1830)\nA Book of Ryhmes (1829)\nThe Spell: 146 \nThe Secret\nLily Hart: 157 \nThe Foundling\nAlbion and Marina: 129 \nTales of the Islanders\nTales of Angria (written 1838–1839 – a collection of childhood and young adult writings including five short novels)\nMina Laury: 119 \nStancliffe's Hotel: 166 \nThe Duke of Zamorna\nHenry Hastings: 15, 100 \nCaroline Vernon: 46 \nThe Roe Head Journal Fragments: 147 \nFarewell to Angria\nThe Green Dwarf, A Tale of the Perfect Tense was written in 1833 under the pseudonym Lord Charles Albert Florian Wellesley. It shows the influence of Walter Scott, and Brontë's modifications to her earlier gothic style have led Christine Alexander to comment that, in the work, \"it is clear that Brontë was becoming tired of the gothic mode per se\".\n\"At the end of 1839, Brontë said goodbye to her fantasy world in a manuscript called Farewell to Angria. More and more, she was finding that she preferred to escape to her imagined worlds over remaining in reality – and she feared that she was going mad. So she said goodbye to her characters, scenes and subjects. [...] She wrote of the pain she felt at wrenching herself from her 'friends' and venturing into lands unknown\".\n\nNovels\nJane Eyre, published in 1847\nShirley, published in 1849\nVillette, published in 1853\nThe Professor, written before Jane Eyre, was first submitted together with Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë and Agnes Grey by Anne Brontë. Subsequently, The Professor was resubmitted separately, and rejected by many publishing houses. It was published posthumously in 1857\nEmma, unfinished; Brontë wrote only 20 pages of the manuscript, published posthumously in 1860. In recent decades at least two continuations of this fragment have appeared:\nEmma, by \"Charlotte Brontë and Another Lady\", published 1980; although this has been attributed to Elizabeth Goudge, the actual author was Constance Savery.\nEmma Brown, by Clare Boylan, published 2003\n\nPoetry\nBell, Currer; Bell, Ellis; Bell, Acton (1846). Poems.\nSelected Poems of the Brontës, Everyman Poetry (1997)\n\nMedia portrayals\nIn the 1946 Curtis Bernhardt film Devotion, a fictionalized biography of the Brontë sisters, Olivia de Havilland plays Charlotte.\nA November 15, 1953 episode of the Loretta Young Show, \"The Bronte Story\", features Loretta Young as Charlotte.\nThe 2018 comic Die features a fictionalised version of Charlotte within the Brontes' fictional kingdom of Angria.\nIn the 2022 Frances O'Connor film Emily, about Emily Brontë, Alexandra Dowling plays Charlotte.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nAlexander, Christine (March 1993). \"'That Kingdom of Gloo': Charlotte Brontë, the Annuals and the Gothic\". Nineteenth-Century Literature. 47 (4): 409–436. doi:10.2307/2933782. JSTOR 2933782.\nFraser, Rebecca (2008). Charlotte Brontë: A Writer's Life (2 ed.). New York: Pegasus Books LLC. p. 261. ISBN 978-1-933648-88-0.\nLane, Margaret (1953). The Brontë Story: a reconsideration of Mrs. Gaskell's Life of Charlotte Brontë.\nMiller, Lucasta (2002). The Brontë Myth. London: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-09-928714-8.\nMiller, Lucasta (2005). The Brontë Myth. New York: Anchor. ISBN 978-1400078356.\nPaddock, Lisa; Rollyson, Carl (2003). The Brontës A to Z. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4303-3.\nPhillips-Evans, James (2012). The Longcrofts: 500 Years of a British Family. Amazon. pp. 260–261. ISBN 978-1481020886.\nPotter, Dawn (Summer 2010). \"Inventing Charlotte Brontë\". The Sewanee Review. 118 (3): 393–399. doi:10.1353/sew.2010.0014. S2CID 161213323.\n This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Cousin, John William (1910). A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via Wikisource.\n\nFurther reading\nThe Letters of Charlotte Brontë, 3 volumes edited by Margaret Smith, 2007\nThe Life of Charlotte Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell, 1857\nCharlotte Brontë, Winifred Gérin\nCharlotte Brontë: a passionate life, Lyndal Gordon\nThe Literary Protégées of the Lake Poets, Dennis Low (Chapter 1 contains a revisionist contextualisation of Robert Southey's infamous letter to Charlotte Brontë)\nCharlotte Brontë: Unquiet Soul, Margot Peters\nIn the Footsteps of the Brontës, Ellis Chadwick\nThe Brontës, Juliet Barker\nCharlotte Brontë and her Dearest Nell, Barbara Whitehead\nThe Brontë Myth, Lucasta Miller\nA Life in Letters, selected by Juliet Barker\nCharlotte Brontë and Defensive Conduct: The Author and the Body at Risk, Janet Gezari, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992\nCharlotte Brontë: Truculent Spirit, by Valerie Grosvenor Myer, 1987\nCharlotte Brontë and her Family, Rebecca Fraser\nThe Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës, Christine Alexander & Margaret Smith\nCharlotte & Arthur, Pauline Clooney (2021) ISBN 978-1916501676. Reimagining Charlotte Brontë's honeymoon in Ireland & Wales.\nA Brontë Family Chronology, Edward Chitham\nThe Crimes of Charlotte Brontë, James Tully, 1999\nDaly, Michelle (2013). I Love Charlotte Brontë. Michelle Daly. ISBN 978-0957048751. A book about Brontë through the eyes of a working-class woman\nHeslewood, Juliet (2017). Mr Nicholls. Yorkshire: Scratching Shed. ISBN 978-0993510168. Fictionalised account of Arthur Bells Nicholls' romance of Charlotte Brontë\nO'Dowd, Michael (2021). Charlotte Brontë, An Irish Odyssey: My Heart is Knit to Him-The Honeymoon. Pardus Media. ISBN 978-1914939051. Charlotte Brontë and Arthur Bell Nicholls' wedding trip and Irish Odyssey.\n\nExternal links\nWebsite of the Brontë Society and Parsonage Museum in Haworth, Yorkshire\nModern Day Images of Charlotte Brontë Residences (Archived)\nCharlotte Brontë at the Internet Book List\nCharlotte's Web: A Hypertext on Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (Archived)\nRare Charlotte Bronte book coming home after museum's auction success\nPoems by Charlotte Brontё\n\nThe Brontës\n\nElectronic editions\nWorks by Charlotte Brontë in eBook form at Standard Ebooks\nWorks by Charlotte Brontë at Project Gutenberg\nWorks by Charlotte Brontë at Faded Page (Canada)\nWorks by or about Charlotte Brontë at the Internet Archive\nWorks by Charlotte Brontë at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)",
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"paragraph_text": "Jane Eyre ( AIR; originally published as Jane Eyre: An Autobiography) is a novel by the English writer Charlotte Brontë. It was published under her pen name \"Currer Bell\" on 19 October 1847 by Smith, Elder & Co. of London. The first American edition was published the following year by Harper & Brothers of New York. Jane Eyre is a bildungsroman that follows the experiences of its eponymous heroine, including her growth to adulthood and her love for Mr Rochester, the brooding master of Thornfield Hall.\nThe novel revolutionised prose fiction, being the first to focus on the moral and spiritual development of its protagonist through an intimate first-person narrative, where actions and events are coloured by a psychological intensity. Charlotte Brontë has been called the \"first historian of the private consciousness\" and the literary ancestor of writers such as Marcel Proust and James Joyce.\nThe book contains elements of social criticism with a strong sense of Christian morality at its core, and it is considered by many to be ahead of its time because of Jane's individualistic character and how the novel approaches the topics of class, sexuality, religion and feminism. Jane Eyre, along with Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, is one of the most famous romance novels. It is considered one of the greatest novels in the English language, and in 2003 was ranked as the tenth best-loved book in Britain by the BBC in The Big Read poll.\n\nPlot\nJane Eyre is divided into 38 chapters. It was originally published in three volumes in the 19th century, consisting of chapters 1 to 15, 16 to 27, and 28 to 38.\nThe second edition was dedicated to William Makepeace Thackeray.\nThe novel is a first-person narrative from the perspective of the title character. Its setting is somewhere in the north of England, late in the reign of George III (1760–1820). It has five distinct stages: Jane's childhood at Gateshead Hall, where she is emotionally and physically abused by her aunt and cousins; her education at Lowood School, where she gains friends and role models but suffers privations and oppression; her time as governess at Thornfield Hall, where she falls in love with her mysterious employer, Edward Fairfax Rochester; her time in the Moor House, during which her earnest but cold clergyman cousin, St John Rivers, proposes to her; and ultimately her reunion with, and marriage to, her beloved Rochester. Throughout these sections it provides perspectives on a number of important social issues and ideas, many of which are critical of the status quo.\nThe five stages of Jane's life are as follows:\n\nGateshead Hall\nJane Eyre, aged 10, lives at Gateshead Hall with her maternal uncle's family, the Reeds, as a result of her uncle's dying wish. Jane was orphaned several years earlier when her parents died of typhus. Jane's uncle, Mr Reed, was the only one in the Reed family who was kind to Jane. Jane's aunt, Sarah Reed, dislikes her and treats her as a burden. Mrs Reed also discourages her three children from associating with Jane. As a result Jane becomes defensive against her cruel judgement. The nursemaid, Bessie, proves to be Jane's only ally in the household, even though Bessie occasionally scolds Jane harshly. Excluded from the family activities, Jane lives an unhappy childhood.\nOne day, as punishment for defending herself against the bullying of her 14-year-old cousin John, the Reeds' only son, Jane is locked in the red room in which her late uncle had died; there she faints from panic after she thinks she has seen his ghost. The red room is significant because it lays the grounds for the \"ambiguous relationship between parents and children\" which plays out in all of Jane's future relationships with male figures throughout the novel. She is subsequently attended to by the kindly apothecary, Mr Lloyd, to whom Jane reveals how unhappy she is living at Gateshead Hall. He recommends to Mrs Reed that Jane should be sent to school, an idea Mrs Reed happily supports.\nMrs Reed then enlists the aid of the harsh Mr Brocklehurst, the director of Lowood Institution, a charity school for girls, to enroll Jane. Mrs Reed cautions Mr Brocklehurst that Jane has a \"tendency to deceit\", which he interprets as Jane being a liar. Before Jane leaves, however, she confronts Mrs Reed and declares that she'll never call her \"aunt\" again. Jane also tells Mrs Reed and her daughters, Georgiana and Eliza, that they are the ones who are deceitful, and that she will tell everyone at Lowood how cruelly the Reeds treated her. Mrs Reed is hurt badly by these words but has neither the courage nor the tenacity to show it.\n\nLowood Institution\nAt Lowood Institution, a school for poor and orphaned girls, Jane soon finds that life is harsh. She attempts to fit in and befriends an older girl, Helen Burns. During a class session her new friend is criticised for her poor stance and dirty nails and receives a lashing as a result. Later Jane tells Helen that she could not have borne such public humiliation, but Helen philosophically tells her that it would be her duty to do so. Jane then tells Helen how badly she has been treated by Mrs Reed, but Helen tells her that she would be far happier if she did not bear grudges.\nIn due course Mr Brocklehurst visits the school. While Jane is trying to make herself look inconspicuous, she accidentally drops her slate, thereby drawing attention to herself. She is then forced to stand on a stool and is branded a sinner and a liar. Later Miss Temple, the caring superintendent, facilitates Jane's self-defence and publicly clears her of any wrongdoing. Helen and Miss Temple are Jane's two main role models who positively guide her development despite the harsh treatment she has received from many others.\nThe 80 pupils at Lowood are subjected to cold rooms, poor meals and thin clothing. Many students fall ill when a typhus epidemic strikes; Helen dies of consumption in Jane's arms. When Mr Brocklehurst's maltreatment of the pupils is discovered, several benefactors erect a new building and install a sympathetic management committee to moderate Mr Brocklehurst's harsh rule. Conditions at the school then improve dramatically.\n\nThornfield Hall\nAfter six years as a pupil and two as a teacher at Lowood, Jane decides to leave in pursuit of a new life, growing bored with her life at Lowood. Her friend and confidante, Miss Temple, also leaves after getting married. Jane advertises her services as a governess in a newspaper. The housekeeper at Thornfield Hall, Alice Fairfax, replies to Jane's advertisement. Jane takes the position, teaching Adèle Varens, a young French girl.\nOne night, while Jane is carrying a letter to the post from Thornfield, a horseman and dog pass her. The horse slips on ice and throws the rider. Despite the rider's surliness, Jane helps him get back onto his horse. Later, back at Thornfield, she learns that this man is Edward Rochester, master of the house. Adèle was left in his care when her mother, a famous dancer, abandoned her. It is not immediately apparent whether Adèle is Rochester's daughter.\nAt Jane's first meeting with Mr Rochester he teases her, accusing her of bewitching his horse to make him fall. Jane stands up to his initially arrogant manner. Despite his strange behaviour, Mr Rochester and Jane soon come to enjoy each other's company and they spend many evenings together.\nOdd things start to happen at the house, such as a strange laugh being heard, a mysterious fire in Mr Rochester's room (from which Jane saves Rochester by rousing him and throwing water on him) and an attack on a house-guest named Mr Mason.\nAfter Jane saves Mr Rochester from the fire, he thanks her tenderly and emotionally, and that night Jane feels strange emotions of her own towards him. The next day, however, he leaves unexpectedly for a distant party and several days later returns with the whole party, including the beautiful and talented Blanche Ingram. Just as she realises that she is in love with Mr Rochester, Jane sees that he and Blanche favour each other and starts to feel jealous, particularly because she also sees that Blanche is snobbish and heartless.\nJane then receives word that Mrs Reed has suffered a stroke and is calling for her. Jane returns to Gateshead Hall and remains there for a month to tend to her dying aunt. Mrs Reed confesses to Jane that she wronged her, bringing forth a letter from Jane's paternal uncle, Mr John Eyre, in which he asks for her to live with him and be his heir. Mrs Reed admits to telling Mr Eyre that Jane had died of fever at Lowood. Soon afterward Mrs Reed dies, and Jane helps her cousins after the funeral before returning to Thornfield.\nBack at Thornfield Jane broods over Mr Rochester's rumoured impending marriage to Blanche Ingram. However one midsummer evening Rochester baits Jane by saying how much he will miss her after getting married and how she will soon forget him. The normally self-controlled Jane reveals her feelings for him. To her surprise, Rochester reciprocates, having courted Blanche only to make Jane jealous, and proposes marriage. Jane is at first sceptical of his sincerity, before accepting his proposal. She then writes to her Uncle John, telling him of her happy news.\nAs she prepares for her wedding Jane's forebodings arise when a strange woman sneaks into her room one night and rips Jane's wedding veil in two. As with the previous mysterious events, Mr Rochester attributes the incident to Grace Poole, one of his servants. During the wedding ceremony, however, Mr Mason and a lawyer declare that Mr Rochester cannot marry because he is already married to Mr Mason's sister, Bertha. Mr Rochester admits this is true but explains that his father tricked him into the marriage for her money. Once they were united he discovered that she was rapidly descending into congenital madness, and so he eventually locked her away in Thornfield, hiring Grace Poole as a nurse to look after her. When Grace gets drunk, Rochester's wife escapes and causes the strange happenings at Thornfield.\nIt turns out that Jane's uncle, Mr John Eyre, is a friend of Mr Mason's and was visited by him soon after Mr Eyre received Jane's letter about her impending marriage. After the marriage ceremony is broken off, Mr Rochester asks Jane to go with him to the south of France and live with him as husband and wife, even though they cannot be married. Jane is tempted but realises that she will lose herself and her integrity if she allows her passion for a married man to consume her and she must stay true to her Christian values and beliefs. Refusing to go against her principles, and despite her love for Rochester, Jane leaves Thornfield Hall at dawn before anyone else is up.\n\nMoor House\nJane travels as far from Thornfield Hall as she can using the little money she had previously saved. She accidentally leaves her bundle of possessions on the coach and is forced to sleep on the moor. She unsuccessfully attempts to trade her handkerchief and gloves for food. Exhausted and starving, she eventually makes her way to the home of Diana and Mary Rivers but is turned away by the housekeeper. She collapses on the doorstep, preparing for her death. Clergyman St John Rivers, Diana and Mary's brother, rescues her. After Jane regains her health, St John finds her a teaching position at a nearby village school. Jane becomes good friends with the sisters, but St John remains aloof.\nThe sisters leave for governess jobs, and St John becomes slightly closer to Jane. St John learns Jane's true identity and astounds her by telling her that her uncle, John Eyre, has died and left her his entire fortune of 20,000 pounds (equivalent to US $2.24 million in 2022). When Jane questions him further, St John reveals that John Eyre is also his and his sisters' uncle. They had once hoped for a share of the inheritance but were left virtually nothing. Jane, overjoyed by finding that she has living and friendly family members, insists on sharing the money equally with her cousins, and Diana and Mary come back to live at Moor House.\n\nProposals\nThinking that the pious and conscientious Jane will make a suitable missionary's wife, St John asks her to marry him and to go with him to India, not out of love, but out of duty. Jane initially accepts going to India but rejects the marriage proposal, suggesting they travel as brother and sister. As Jane's resolve against marriage to St John begins to weaken, she seems to hear Mr Rochester's voice calling her name. Jane then returns to Thornfield Hall to see if Rochester is all right, only to find blackened ruins. She learns that Rochester sent Mrs Fairfax into retirement and Adèle to school a few months following her departure. Shortly afterwards, his wife set the house on fire and died after jumping from the roof. While saving the servants and attempting to rescue his wife, Rochester lost a hand and his eyesight.\nJane reunites with Rochester, and he is overjoyed at her return, but fears that she will be repulsed by his condition. \"Am I hideous, Jane?\", he asks. \"Very, sir; you always were, you know\", she replies. Now a humbled man, Rochester vows to live a purer life, and reveals that he has intensely pined for Jane ever since she left. He had even called out her name in despair one night, the very call that she heard from Moor House, and heard her reply from miles away, signifying the connection between them. Jane asserts herself as a financially independent woman and assures him of her love, declaring that she will never leave him. Rochester proposes again, and they are married. They live blissfully together in an old house in the woods called Ferndean Manor. The couple stay in touch with Adèle as she grows up, as well as Diana and Mary, who each gain loving husbands of their own. St John moves to India to accomplish his missionary goals, but is implied to have fallen gravely ill there. Rochester regains sight in one eye two years after his and Jane's marriage, enabling him to see their newborn son.\n\nMajor characters\nIn order of first line of dialogue:\n\nIntroduced in first chapter\nJane Eyre: The novel's narrator and protagonist. Orphaned as a baby, Jane struggles through her nearly loveless childhood and becomes a governess at Thornfield Hall. Small and facially plain, Jane is passionate and strongly principled and values freedom and independence. She also has a strong conscience and is a determined Christian. She is ten at the beginning of the novel, and nineteen or twenty at the end of the main narrative. As the final chapter of the novel states that she has been married to Edward Rochester for ten years, she is approximately thirty at its completion.\nMrs Sarah Reed (née Gibson): Jane's maternal aunt by marriage, who reluctantly adopted Jane in accordance with her late husband's wishes. According to Mrs Reed, he pitied Jane and often cared for her more than for his own children. Mrs Reed's resentment leads her to abuse and neglect the girl. She lies to Mr Brocklehurst about Jane's tendency to lie, preparing him to be severe with Jane when she arrives at Brocklehurst's Lowood School.\nJohn Reed: Jane's fourteen-year-old first cousin who bullies her incessantly and violently, sometimes in his mother's presence. Addicted to food and sweets, causing him ill health and bad complexion. John eventually ruins himself as an adult by drinking and gambling and is rumoured to have committed suicide.\nEliza Reed: Jane's thirteen-year-old first cousin. Envious of her more attractive younger sister and a slave to a rigid routine, she self-righteously devotes herself to religion. She leaves for a nunnery near Lisle (France) after her mother's death, determined to estrange herself from her sister.\nGeorgiana Reed: Jane's eleven-year-old first cousin. Although beautiful and indulged, she is insolent and spiteful. Her elder sister Eliza foils Georgiana's marriage to the wealthy Lord Edwin Vere when the couple is about to elope. Georgiana eventually marries a \"wealthy worn-out man of fashion.\"\nBessie Lee: The nursemaid at Gateshead Hall. She often treats Jane kindly, telling her stories and singing her songs, but she has a quick temper. Later, she marries Robert Leaven with whom she has three children.\nMiss Martha Abbot: Mrs Reed's maid at Gateshead Hall. She is unkind to Jane and tells Jane she has less right to be at Gateshead than a servant does.\n\nChapters 3–5\nMr Lloyd: A compassionate apothecary who recommends that Jane be sent to school. Later, he writes a letter to Miss Temple confirming Jane's account of her childhood and thereby clears Jane of Mrs Reed's charge of lying.\nMr Brocklehurst: The clergyman, director, and treasurer of Lowood School, whose maltreatment of the pupils is eventually exposed. A religious traditionalist, he advocates for his charges the most harsh, plain, and disciplined possible lifestyle, but, hypocritically, not for himself and his own family. His second daughter, Augusta, exclaimed, \"Oh, dear papa, how quiet and plain all the girls at Lowood look… they looked at my dress and mama's, as if they had never seen a silk gown before.\"\nMiss Maria Temple: The kind superintendent of Lowood School, who treats the pupils with respect and compassion. She helps clear Jane of Mr Brocklehurst's false accusation of deceit and cares for Helen in her last days. Eventually, she marries Reverend Naysmith.\nMiss Scatcherd: A sour and strict teacher at Lowood. She constantly punishes Helen Burns for her untidiness but fails to see Helen's substantial good points.\nHelen Burns: Jane's best friend at Lowood School. She refuses to hate those who abuse her, trusts in God, and prays for peace one day in heaven. She teaches Jane to trust Christianity and dies of consumption in Jane's arms. Elizabeth Gaskell, in her biography of the Brontë sisters, wrote that Helen Burns was 'an exact transcript' of Maria Brontë, who died of consumption at age 11.\n\nChapters 11–12\nMrs Alice Fairfax: The elderly, kind widow and the housekeeper of Thornfield Hall; distantly related to the Rochesters.\nAdèle Varens: An excitable French child to whom Jane is a governess at Thornfield Hall. Adèle's mother was a dancer named Céline. She was Mr Rochester's mistress and claimed that Adèle was Mr Rochester's daughter, though he refuses to believe it due to Céline's unfaithfulness and Adèle's apparent lack of resemblance to him. Adèle seems to believe that her mother is dead (she tells Jane in chapter 11, \"I lived long ago with mamma, but she is gone to the Holy Virgin\"). Mr Rochester later tells Jane that Céline actually abandoned Adèle and \"ran away to Italy with a musician or singer\" (ch. 15). Adèle and Jane develop a strong liking for one another, and although Mr Rochester places Adèle in a strict school after Jane flees Thornfield Hall, Jane visits Adèle after her return and finds a better, less severe school for her. When Adèle is old enough to leave school, Jane describes her as \"a pleasing and obliging companion—docile, good-tempered and well-principled\", and considers her kindness to Adèle well repaid.\nGrace Poole: \"…a woman of between thirty and forty; a set, square-made figure, red-haired, and with a hard, plain face…\" Mr Rochester pays her a very high salary to keep his mad wife, Bertha, hidden and quiet. Grace is often used as an explanation for odd happenings at the house such as strange laughter that was heard not long after Jane arrived. She has a weakness for drinking that occasionally allows Bertha to escape.\nEdward Fairfax Rochester: The master of Thornfield Hall. A Byronic hero, he has a face \"dark, strong, and stern.\" He married Bertha Mason years before the novel begins.\nLeah: The housemaid at Thornfield Hall.\n\nChapters 17–21\nBlanche Ingram: Young socialite whom Mr Rochester plans to marry. Though possessing great beauty and talent, she treats social inferiors, Jane in particular, with undisguised contempt. Mr Rochester exposes her and her mother's mercenary motivations when he puts out a rumour that he is far less wealthy than they imagine.\nRichard Mason: An Englishman whose arrival at Thornfield Hall from the West Indies unsettles Mr Rochester. He is the brother of Rochester's first wife, the woman in the attic, and still cares for his sister's well-being. During the wedding ceremony of Jane and Mr Rochester, he exposes the bigamous nature of the marriage.\nRobert Leaven: The coachman at Gateshead Hall, who brings Jane the news of the death of the dissolute John Reed, an event which has brought on Mrs Reed's stroke. He informs her of Mrs Reed's wish to see Jane before she dies.\n\nChapters 26–32\nBertha Antoinetta Mason: The first wife of Edward Rochester. After their wedding, her mental health began to deteriorate, and she is now violent and in a state of intense derangement, apparently unable to speak or go into society. Mr Rochester, who insists that he was tricked into the marriage by a family who knew Bertha was likely to develop this condition, has kept Bertha locked in the attic at Thornfield Hall for years. She is supervised and cared for by Grace Poole, whose drinking sometimes allows Bertha to escape. After Richard Mason stops Jane and Mr Rochester's wedding, Rochester finally introduces Jane to Bertha: \"In the deep shade, at the farther end of the room, a figure ran backwards and forwards. What it was, whether beast or human being, one could not, at first sight, tell… it snatched and growled like some strange wild animal: but it was covered with clothing, and a quantity of dark, grizzled hair, wild as a mane, hid its head and face.\" Eventually, Bertha sets fire to Thornfield Hall and throws herself to her death from the roof. Bertha is viewed as Jane's \"double\": Jane is pious and just, while Bertha is savage and animalistic. Though her race is never mentioned, it is sometimes conjectured that she was of mixed race. Rochester suggests that Bertha's parents wanted her to marry him, because he was of \"good race\", implying that she was not pure white, while he was. There are also references to her \"dark\" hair and \"discoloured\" and \"black\" face. A number of writers during the Victorian period suggested that madness could result from a racially \"impure\" lineage, compounded by growing up in a tropical West Indian climate.\nDiana and Mary Rivers: Sisters in a remote moors house who take Jane in when she is hungry and friendless, having left Thornfield Hall without making any arrangements for herself. Financially poor but intellectually curious, the sisters are deeply engrossed in reading the evening Jane appears at their door. Eventually, they are revealed to be Jane's cousins. They want Jane to marry their stern clergyman brother so that he will stay in England rather than journey to India as a missionary. Diana marries naval Captain Fitzjames, and Mary marries clergyman Mr Wharton. The sisters remain close to Jane and visit her and Rochester every year.\nHannah: The kindly housekeeper at the Rivers home; \"…comparable with the Brontës' well-loved servant, Tabitha Aykroyd.\"\nSt John Eyre Rivers: A handsome, though severe and serious, clergyman who befriends Jane and turns out to be her cousin. St John is thoroughly practical and suppresses all of his human passions and emotions, particularly his love for the beautiful and cheerful heiress Rosamond Oliver, in favour of good works. He wants Jane to marry him and serve as his assistant on his missionary journey to India. After Jane rejects his proposal, St John goes to India unmarried.\nRosamond Oliver: A beautiful, kindly, wealthy, but rather simple young woman, and the patron of the village school where Jane teaches. Rosamond is in love with St John, but he refuses to declare his love for her because she would not be suitable as a missionary's wife. She eventually becomes engaged to the respected and wealthy Mr Granby.\nMr Oliver: Rosamond Oliver's wealthy father, who owns a foundry and needle factory in the district. \"…a tall, massive-featured, middle-aged, and grey-headed man, at whose side his lovely daughter looked like a bright flower near a hoary turret.\" He is a kind and charitable man, and he is fond of St John.\n\nContext\nThe early sequences, in which Jane is sent to Lowood, a harsh boarding school, are derived from the author's own experiences. Helen Burns's death from tuberculosis (referred to as consumption) recalls the deaths of Charlotte Brontë's sisters, Elizabeth and Maria, who died of the disease in childhood as a result of the conditions at their school, the Clergy Daughters School at Cowan Bridge, near Tunstall, Lancashire. Mr Brocklehurst is based on Rev. William Carus Wilson (1791–1859), the Evangelical minister who ran the school. Additionally, John Reed's decline into alcoholism and dissolution recalls the life of Charlotte's brother Branwell, who became an opium and alcohol addict in the years preceding his death. Finally, like Jane, Charlotte became a governess. These facts were revealed to the public in The Life of Charlotte Brontë (1857) by Charlotte's friend and fellow novelist Elizabeth Gaskell.\nThe Gothic manor of Thornfield Hall was probably inspired by North Lees Hall, near Hathersage in the Peak District in Derbyshire. This was visited by Charlotte Brontë and her friend Ellen Nussey in the summer of 1845, and is described by the latter in a letter dated 22 July 1845. It was the residence of the Eyre family, and its first owner, Agnes Ashurst, was reputedly confined as a lunatic in a padded second floor room. It has been suggested that the Wycoller Hall in Lancashire, close to Haworth, provided the setting for Ferndean Manor to which Mr Rochester retreats after the fire at Thornfield: there are similarities between the owner of Ferndean—Mr Rochester's father—and Henry Cunliffe, who inherited Wycoller in the 1770s and lived there until his death in 1818; one of Cunliffe's relatives was named Elizabeth Eyre (née Cunliffe). The sequence in which Mr Rochester's wife sets fire to the bed curtains was prepared in an August 1830 homemade publication of Brontë's The Young Men's Magazine, Number 2. Charlotte Brontë began composing Jane Eyre in Manchester, and she likely envisioned Manchester Cathedral churchyard as the burial place for Jane's parents and Manchester as the birthplace of Jane herself.\n\nAdaptations and influence\nThe novel has been adapted into a number of other forms, including theatre, film, television, and at least three full-length operas. The novel has also been the subject of a number of significant rewritings and related interpretations, notably Jean Rhys's seminal 1966 novel Wide Sargasso Sea.\nA famous line in the book is at the beginning of Chapter 38: \"Reader, I married him.\" Many authors have used a variation of this line in their work. For example, Liane Moriarty discussed and used the line in her 2018 novel Nine Perfect Strangers.\nThe book Reader, I Married Him: Stories inspired by Jane Eyre, a 2016 anthology of short stories, edited by Tracy Chevalier, was also inspired by this line. It was commissioned to mark the 200th anniversary of Brontë's birth, and is published by The Borough Press, an imprint of HarperCollins.\nThe novel The French Dancer’s Bastard, by Emma Tennant, reimagines the back story of Adéle, exploring whether she was Rochester's love child and what her relationship with Jane Eyre is.\nThe most recent film adaptation, Jane Eyre, was released in 2011, directed by Cary Joji Fukunaga, and starred Mia Wasikowska as Jane Eyre and Michael Fassbender as Mr. Rochester. The film, actors, and costume design team were nominated and won various awards from 2011–2012.\n\nReception\nContemporary reviews\nJane Eyre's initial reception contrasts starkly to its reputation today. In 1848, Elizabeth Rigby (later Elizabeth Eastlake), reviewing Jane Eyre in The Quarterly Review, found it \"pre-eminently an anti-Christian composition,\" declaring: \"We do not hesitate to say that the tone of mind and thought which has overthrown authority and violated every code human and divine abroad, and fostered Chartism and rebellion at home, is the same which has also written Jane Eyre.\"\nAn anonymous review in The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction writes of \"the extraordinary daring of the writer of Jane Eyre\"; however, the review is mostly critical, summarising: \"There is not a single natural character throughout the work. Everybody moves on stilts—the opinions are bad—the notions absurd. Religion is stabbed in the dark—our social distinctions attempted to be levelled, and all absurdly moral notions done away with.\"\nThere were some who felt more positive about the novel contemporaneously. George Henry Lewes said, \"It reads like a page out of one's own life; and so do many other pages in the book.\" Another critic from the Atlas wrote, \"It is full of youthful vigour, of freshness and originality, of nervous diction and concentrated interest ...It is a book to make the pulses gallop and the heart beat, and to fill the eyes with tears.\"\nA review in The Era praised the novel, calling it \"an extraordinary book\", observing that \"there is much to ponder over, rejoice over, and weep over, in its ably-written pages. Much of the heart laid bare, and the mind explored; much of greatness in affliction, and littleness in the ascendant; much of trial and temptation, of fortitude and resignation, of sound sense and Christianity—but no tameness.\"\nThe People's Journal compliments the novel's vigour, stating that \"the reader never tires, never sleeps: the swell and tide of an affluent existence, an irresistible energy, bears him onward, from first to last. It is impossible to deny that the author possesses native power in an uncommon degree—showing itself now in rapid headlong recital, now in stern, fierce, daring dashes in portraiture—anon in subtle, startling mental anatomy—here in a grand illusion, there in an original metaphor—again in a wild gush of genuine poetry.\"\nAmerican publication The Nineteenth Century defended the novel against accusations of immorality, describing it as \"a work which has produced a decided sensation in this country and in England... Jane Eyre has made its mark upon the age, and even palsied the talons of mercenary criticism. Yes, critics hired to abuse or panegyrize, at so much per line, have felt a throb of human feeling pervade their veins, at the perusal of Jane Eyre. This is extraordinary—almost preternatural—smacking strongly of the miraculous—and yet it is true... We have seen Jane Eyre put down, as a work of gross immorality, and its author described as the very incarnation of sensualism. To any one, who has read the work, this may look ridiculous, and yet it is true.\"\nThe Indicator, concerning speculation regarding the gender of the author, wrote, \"We doubt not it will soon cease to be a secret; but on one assertion we are willing to risk our critical reputation—and that is, that no woman wrote it. This was our decided conviction at the first perusal, and a somewhat careful study of the work has strengthened it. No woman in all the annals of feminine celebrity ever wrote such a style, terse yet eloquent, and filled with energy bordering sometimes almost on rudeness: no woman ever conceived such masculine characters as those portrayed here.\"\n\nTwentieth century\nLiterary critic Jerome Beaty believed the close first-person perspective leaves the reader \"too uncritically accepting of her worldview\", and often leads reading and conversation about the novel towards supporting Jane, regardless of how irregular her ideas or perspectives are.\nIn 2003, the novel was ranked number 10 in the BBC's survey The Big Read.\n\nGenres\nRomance\nBefore the Victorian era, Jane Austen wrote literary fiction that influenced later popular fiction, as did the work of the Brontë sisters produced in the 1840s. Brontë's love romance incorporates elements of both the gothic novel and Elizabethan drama, and \"demonstrate[s] the flexibility of the romance novel form.\"\n\nGothic\nThe Gothic genre uses a combination of supernatural features, intense emotions, and a blend of reality and fantasy to create a dark, mysterious atmosphere and experience for characters and readers. Jane Eyre is a homodiegetic narrator, which allows her to exist both as a character and narrator in the story world, and her narration establishes an emotional connection and response for the reader. This intentional, narrative technique works in tandem with Gothic features and conventions. Jane and the reader are unaware of the cause behind the \"demoniac laugh--low, suppressed, and deep\" or \"a savage, a sharp, a shrilly sound that ran from end to end of Thornfield Hall,\" though the reason comes from Bertha Mason. The element of the unknown works in conjunction to the possibility of the supernatural. The intensity of emotions and reactions to Gothic conventions can solely exist in the protagonist's imagination. Instances that a protagonist interprets to be their imagination turns into reality. Jane's experience in the red room represents an aspect of Gothic conventions as Jane feels fear towards being punished in the red room because she believes and imagines that her dead uncle haunts the room.\nThe Gothic genre uses the Gothic double: a literary motif, which is described as the protagonist having a double, alter ego, or doppelgänger interpreted between Jane Eyre and Bertha Mason, where Bertha represents the other side of Jane and vice versa. The commonly used Gothic literary device, foreshadowing, creates an environment filled with tension, ominousity, and dread. After Jane agrees to marry Rochester, a horse-chestnut tree in an orchard is struck by lightning, splitting the tree in half. The lightning strike is ominous and foreshadows Jane and Rochester's separation.\nThe Gothic Genre in tandem with Murphy's the \"New Woman Gothic\" establishes an opportunity to go against the Romantic's concept that the antagonist is usually a villainous father. The Gothic genre allows there to be a complex consideration of who or what hinders Jane's happiness. The barriers Jane experiences, whether related to social class, societal and cultural norms, Bertha Mason, or Rochester, have antagonistic elements.\n\nBildungsroman\nThe Bildungsroman representation in Jane Eyre uses romantic elements that emphasise the journey of one pursuing the discovery of one's identity and knowledge. Jane Eyre desires the thrill and action that comes from being an active individual in society, and she refuses to allow the concept of gender and class to hinder her.\nBildungsroman was primarily viewed through male life progression, but feminist scholars have worked to counteract the male norm of bildungsroman by including female development. Experiences that deem a female narrative to be bildungsroman would be the female protagonist discovering how to manage living in a restrictive society. The novel's setting is the English society of the early 19th century, and with that time setting come specific restrictions women encountered during that time, such as the law of coverture, the lack of rights, and the restricted expectations placed on women. Jane Eyre does not specifically and directly deal with the restrictions of, for example coverture, but her character lives in a society where coverture exists, which inadvertently impacts social and cultural norms and expectations. Progression in the bildungsroman does not necessarily occur in a linear direction. Many narratives that employ bildungsroman do so through the protagonist's development of maturity, which is represented through the protagonist's experiences from childhood to adulthood; this progression is in conjunction with the novel's narrative technique set as an autobiography. Temporally, the beginning of the novel begins with Jane at age ten and ends with Jane at age thirty, but Jane's development of maturity goes beyond her age. For example, Jane's emotional intelligence grows through her friendship with Helen Burns as Jane experiences and processes the loss of her friendship with Helen.\nMany times, the 19th-century female bildungsroman can be interpreted as the heroine's growth of self and education in the context of prospective marriage, especially when, in the context of 19th-century womanhood, a wife experiences new knowledge in the private sphere of her role. Jane develops knowledge and experience regarding a romantic journey before her almost marriage to Mr. Rochester; a physical, spiritual, and financial knowledge during her time with St. John; and lastly, with her marriage with Mr. Rochester at the end of the novel. Jane's search for excitement and understanding of life goes beyond her romantic journey. In the text, Jane's childhood beliefs about religion, as seen in her interactions with Mr. Brocklehurt, shift considerably in comparison to her friendship with Helen in Lowood as a child and in her marital and missionary rejection of St. John as an adult woman.\n\nThemes\nRace\nThroughout the novel there are frequent themes relating to ideas of ethnicity (specifically that of Bertha), which are a reflection of the society that the novel is set within. Mr Rochester claims to have been forced to take on a \"mad\" Creole wife, a woman who grew up in the West Indies, and who is thought to be of mixed-race descent. In the analysis of several scholars, Bertha plays the role of the racialised \"other\" through the shared belief that she chose to follow in the footsteps of her parents. Her alcoholism and apparent mental instability cast her as someone who is incapable of restraining herself, almost forced to submit to the different vices she is a victim of. Many writers of the period believed that one could develop mental instability or mental illnesses simply based on their race.\nThis means that those who were born of ethnicities associated with a darker complexion, or those who were not fully of European descent, were believed to be more mentally unstable than their white European counterparts were. According to American scholar Susan Meyer, in writing Jane Eyre Brontë was responding to the \"seemingly inevitable\" analogy in 19th-century European texts which \"[compared] white women with blacks in order to degrade both groups and assert the need for white male control\". Bertha serves as an example of both the multiracial population and of a 'clean' European, as she is seemingly able to pass as a white woman for the most part, but also is hinted towards being of an 'impure' race since she does not come from a purely white or European lineage. The title that she is given by others of being a Creole woman leaves her a stranger where she is not black but is also not considered to be white enough to fit into higher society.\nUnlike Bertha, Jane Eyre is thought of as being sound of mind before the reader is able to fully understand the character, simply because she is described as having a complexion that is pale and she has grown up in a European society rather than in an \"animalistic\" setting like Bertha. Jane is favoured heavily from the start of her interactions with Rochester, simply because like Rochester himself, she is deemed to be of a superior ethnic group than that of his first wife. While she still experiences some forms of repression throughout her life (the events of the Lowood Institution) none of them are as heavily taxing on her as that which is experienced by Bertha. Both women go through acts of suppression on behalf of the men in their lives, yet Jane is looked at with favour because of her supposed \"beauty\" that can be found in the colour of her skin. While both are characterised as falling outside of the normal feminine standards of this time, Jane is thought of as superior to Bertha because she demands respect and is able to use her talents as a governess, whereas Bertha is seen as a creature to be confined in the attic away from \"polite\" society.\nScholars have also noted the novel's overt references and allusions to slavery, arguably its North American iteration.\n\nWide Sargasso Sea\nJean Rhys intended her critically acclaimed novel Wide Sargasso Sea as an account of the woman whom Rochester married and kept in his attic. The book won the notable WH Smith Literary Award in 1967. Rhys explores themes of dominance and dependence, especially in marriage, depicting the mutually painful relationship between a privileged English man and a Creole woman from Dominica made powerless on being duped and coerced by him and others. Both the man and the woman enter marriage under mistaken assumptions about the other partner. Her female lead marries Mr Rochester and deteriorates in England as \"The Madwoman in the Attic\". Rhys portrays this woman from a quite different perspective from the one in Jane Eyre.\n\nFeminism\nThe idea of the equality of men and women emerged more strongly in the Victorian period in Britain, after works by earlier writers, such as Mary Wollstonecraft. R. B. Martin described Jane Eyre as the first major feminist novel, \"although there is not a hint in the book of any desire for political, legal, educational, or even intellectual equality between the sexes.\" This is illustrated in chapter 23, when Jane responds to Rochester's callous and indirect proposal:\n\nDo you think I am an automaton? a machine without feelings?...Do you think, because I am poor, obscure, plain, and little, I am soulless and heartless? You think wrong—I have as much soul as you,—and full as much heart...I am not talking to you now through the medium of custom, conventionalities, nor even of mortal flesh;—it is my spirit that addresses your spirit; just as if both had passed through the grave, and we stood at God's feet, equal,—as we are.\nThe novel \"acted as a catalyst\" to feminist criticism with the publication by S. Gilbert and S. Gubar's The Madwoman in the Attic (1979), the title of which alludes to Rochester's wife. The Brontës' fictions were cited by feminist critic Ellen Moers as prime examples of Female Gothic, exploring woman's entrapment within domestic space and subjection to patriarchal authority, and the transgressive and dangerous attempts to subvert and escape such restriction. Both Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre explore this theme.\n\nSocial class\nThroughout the novel, Jane undergoes various social class transitions, in response to her life's varying situations. As a child, she mixes with middle class people through the Reed family, though Jane is not at the same level of social class as the rest of the Reed family. While at Lowood, she experiences the life of children whose guardians can afford the school fees of \"fifteen pounds per year\" but nonetheless are \"charity children\" \"because fifteen pounds is not enough for board and teaching\", living in poor conditions, and later working there as an adult as a teacher on a salary of fifteen pounds. She has an opportunity to be a private governess, and in so doing double her salary, but her governess position makes her aware of her ambiguous social position as a governess to a child with a wealthy guardian. After Jane leaves Thornfield Hall, she is stripped of her class identity as she travels across the moors and arrives at Moor House. But Jane receives an inheritance which she shares with her new-found family, and this offers a different form of independence.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nJane Eyre at Standard Ebooks\n\n Jane Eyre at Project Gutenberg\n Jane Eyre public domain audiobook at LibriVox\nJane Eyre at the Internet Archive\nJane Eyre at the British Library Archived 12 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine",
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"paragraph_text": "New York City, the most populous city in the United States, is home to more than 7,000 completed high-rise buildings of at least 115 feet (35 m), of which at least 102 are taller than 650 feet (198 m). The tallest building in New York is One World Trade Center, which rises 1,776 feet (541 m). The 104-story skyscraper also stands as the tallest building in the United States, the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere, and the seventh-tallest building in the world. At 1,550 feet (472 m), Central Park Tower is the second-tallest completed building in the city. It has the highest roof of any building outside Asia, and is the tallest residential building in the world. The third-tallest completed building in the city is 111 West 57th Street. Rising to 1,428 feet (435 m), it is the world's most slender skyscraper. The fourth-tallest is One Vanderbilt. At 1,401 feet (427 m), it is the tallest office building in Midtown. The fifth-tallest is 432 Park Avenue at 1,397 feet (426 m).\nAt 1,250 feet (381 m), the 102-story Empire State Building in Midtown Manhattan, which was finished in 1931, stood as the tallest building in the world from its completion until 1970, when construction on the 1,368-foot (417 m) North Tower of the original World Trade Center surpassed it. It is the tenth-tallest building in the United States, and rises to a pinnacle of 1,454 feet (443 m) including its antenna. The North Tower (the original One World Trade Center), along with its twin the South Tower (the first Two World Trade Center), which was six feet shorter, held this title only briefly as they were both surpassed by construction of the 110-story Willis Tower in Chicago in 1973. The Twin Towers remained the tallest buildings in New York City until they were destroyed in 2001 during the September 11 attacks, leaving the Empire State Building again as the city's tallest building.\nThe new One World Trade Center began construction in 2006; in April 2012 it surpassed the Empire State Building to become the city's tallest. Upon its topping out in May 2013, the 1,776-foot (541 m) One World Trade Center surpassed the Willis Tower to become the tallest building in the United States and the Western Hemisphere. One World Trade Center is part of the redevelopment of the World Trade Center, which also includes the 1,079-foot (329 m) 3 World Trade Center, the 977-foot (298 m) 4 World Trade Center, the 743-foot (226 m) 7 World Trade Center, the approved 900-foot (274 m) 5 World Trade Center, and one partly constructed on-hold building: the 1,350-foot (411 m) 2 World Trade Center.\nThe majority of skyscrapers in New York City are concentrated in Midtown and Downtown Manhattan, although other neighborhoods of Manhattan and the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx also contain some high-rises.\nAs of March 2024, there were 317 completed skyscrapers that rose at least 492 feet (150 m) in height, more than any other city in the Western Hemisphere, and third most in the world exceeded only by Hong Kong and Shenzhen.\n\nHistory\nThe history of skyscrapers in New York City began with the construction of the Equitable Life, Western Union, and Tribune buildings in the early 1870s. These relatively short early skyscrapers, sometimes referred to as \"preskyscrapers\" or \"protoskyscrapers\", included features such as a steel frame and elevators—then-new innovations that were used in the city's later skyscrapers.: 62 Modern skyscraper construction began with the completion of the World Building in 1890; the structure rose to a pinnacle of 349 feet (106 m). Though not the city's first high-rise, it was the first building to surpass the 284-foot (87 m) spire of Trinity Church. The World Building, which stood as the tallest in the city until 1899, was demolished in 1955 to allow for the construction of an expanded entrance to the Brooklyn Bridge. The Park Row Building, at 391 feet (119 m), was the city's tallest building from 1899 to 1908, and the world's tallest office building during the same time span. By 1900, fifteen skyscrapers in New York City exceeded 250 feet (76 m) in height.: 280 \nNew York has played a prominent role in the development of the skyscraper. Since 1890, ten of those built in the city have held the title of world's tallest. New York City went through two very early high-rise construction booms, the first of which spanned the 1890s through the 1910s, and the second from the mid-1920s to the early 1930s. During this period 44 skyscrapers over 492 feet (150 m) were built—including the Singer Building, Met Life Tower, Woolworth Building, 40 Wall Street, the Chrysler Building, and the Empire State Building, each of which was the tallest in the world at the time of its completion, the last remaining so for forty years.\nSkyscraper construction resumed in the early 1960s, with construction surges in the early 1970s, late 1980s, and late 2010s. In total, the city has seen the rise of over 100 completed and topped-out structures at least 650 feet (198 m) high, including the twin towers of the World Trade Center, and the current World Trade Center redevelopment.\n\nTallest buildings\nThis list ranks completed and topped out New York City skyscrapers that stand at least 650 feet (198 m) tall based on standard height measurements. This includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. An asterisk (*) indicates that the building is still under construction but has been topped out. The \"Year\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.\n\nTallest buildings by pinnacle height\nThis list ranks buildings in New York City based on pinnacle height measurement, which includes antenna masts. Standard architectural height measurement, which excludes non-architectural antennas in building height, is included for comparative purposes. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. The \"Year\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.\n\nTallest buildings in each borough\nThis lists the tallest building in each borough of New York City based on standard height measurement. The \"Year\" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.\n\nTallest under construction or proposed\nUnder construction\nThis lists buildings that are currently under construction in New York City and are expected to rise to a height of at least 650 feet (198 m). Buildings under construction that have already been topped out are also included, as are those whose construction has been suspended. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.\n\n* Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding expected building heights or dates of completion has not yet been released.\n\nApproved\nThis table lists buildings that are approved for construction in New York City and are expected to rise at least 650 feet (198 m) in height. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.\n\nProposed\nThis table lists buildings that are proposed for construction in New York City and are expected to rise at least 650 feet (198 m) in height. For buildings whose heights have not yet been released by their developers, this table uses a floor count of 50 stories as the cutoff.\n\n* Table entries with dashes (—) indicate that information regarding building heights or dates of completion has not yet been released.\n\nTallest destroyed or demolished\nThis table lists buildings in New York City that were destroyed or demolished and at one time stood at least 500 feet (152 m) in height.\n\nTimeline of tallest buildings\nThis lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in New York City. Both Trinity Church and the Empire State Building have held the title twice, the latter following the destruction of the World Trade Center in the September 11 attacks. The Empire State Building was surpassed by One World Trade Center in 2012.\n\nSee also\nArchitecture of New York City\nList of cities with the most skyscrapers\nList of tallest buildings\nList of tallest buildings in the United States\nList of tallest buildings in Albany, New York\nList of tallest buildings in Brooklyn\nList of tallest buildings in Buffalo, New York\nList of tallest buildings in Jersey City\nList of tallest buildings in New Jersey\nList of tallest buildings in Queens\nList of tallest buildings in Rochester, New York\nList of tallest buildings in Upstate New York\n\nNotes\nReferences\nCitations\nSources\n\"New York City – The Skyscraper Center\". CTBUH. Retrieved June 12, 2020.\n\nExternal links\n \n\nDiagram of New York City skyscrapers on SkyscraperPage\n100 years of New York skyline on Favrify",
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] | Imagine there is a building called Bronte tower whose height in feet is the same number as the dewey decimal classification for the Charlotte Bronte book that was published in 1847. Where would this building rank among tallest buildings in New York City, as of August 2024? | [] | 37th | [] | true |
172 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Northern Ireland national football team represents Northern Ireland in international association football. It is organised by the Irish Football Association (IFA), which was formed in 1880, prior to the partition of Ireland. The original Ireland national team was selected by the IFA and included players from all of Ireland. Following the creation of the Irish Free State, the Football Association of Ireland (FAI) was set up and it picked its own national team. Until 1950, both Irish associations picked players from the whole of the island, which resulted in there being several 'dual internationals' (33 originating from the territory of the Irish Republic and six from the territory of Northern Ireland). After complaints by the FAI against this practice being used by the IFA during 1950 FIFA World Cup qualification matches, FIFA decreed that each association should select teams based on their own part of Ireland.\nUntil the 1950s, the only major competition entered by Ireland/Northern Ireland was the British Home Championship, which operated until 1984. The team won the competition eight times, taking the title outright on three occasions, including the last championship in 1984. The best World Cup performance by Northern Ireland was in their first appearance in the finals, the 1958 World Cup, where they reached the quarter-finals after beating Czechoslovakia 2–1 in a play-off. Northern Ireland became the smallest country to have qualified for the World Cup, a record that stood until Trinidad & Tobago qualified for the 2006 World Cup.\nNorthern Ireland qualified for the 1982 World Cup. Gerry Armstrong scored the goal in a shock 1–0 win against tournament hosts Spain, which helped the team progress to the second group stage by winning their first group stage. Norman Whiteside became the youngest player ever in the World Cup finals, breaking a record set by Pelé. Northern Ireland also qualified for the 1986 World Cup, but did not progress beyond the first group stage. Billy Bingham, a playing member of the 1958 squad, was manager for both of these tournaments.\nNorthern Ireland qualified for the UEFA European Championship for the first time in 2016. They defeated West Germany 1–0 both home and away in UEFA Euro 1984 qualifying and David Healy set a record for goals scored in one European qualifying section, by scoring 13 times in UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying.\n\nList of players\nThe list includes all players who were selected for Ireland (IFA) from 1882 to 1952 (including those from the territory of what became the Irish Republic, 33 of whom also played for the FAI team), and all those who played for Northern Ireland from then on. Caps/goals in unofficial wartime international matches are not included here, and any players who appeared in them but did not gain an official cap are not listed.\n\nKey\n\nAs of 21:10, 11 April 2023 (UTC)\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nNorthern Ireland's Footballing Greats",
"title": "List_of_Northern_Ireland_international_footballers"
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"paragraph_text": "Keith Robert Gillespie ( ghil-ESP-ee; born 18 February 1975) is a Northern Irish former professional footballer who plays as a winger for FC Mindwell in the Mid-Ulster Football League.\nHe began his career at Manchester United after winning the FA Youth Cup in 1992, before moving to Newcastle United, where he played in the UEFA Champions League. Gillespie also played in the Premier League for Blackburn Rovers, Leicester City and Sheffield United, helping Blackburn win the Football League Cup in 2002. Towards the end of his career, he played for Glentoran in the Irish League and Longford Town in the League of Ireland.\nGillespie earned 86 caps for Northern Ireland between 1994 and 2008, putting him 6th in their most capped players of all time. He had well-publicised issues with problem gambling during his career, and has since spoken out about gambling.\n\nClub career\nEarly career\nGillespie was born in Larne, County Antrim. His first years were spent in Islandmagee, County Antrim where he attended Whitehead Primary School. He later moved to Bangor, County Down where he attended Rathmore Primary School and Bangor Grammar School. He was scouted playing for St Andrews FC from Belfast, and was the first professional footballer to come from this club.\n\nManchester United\nGillespie signed for Manchester United on leaving school in the summer of 1991, being a member of the FA Youth Cup winning side in 1992. Also in that team were Ryan Giggs, Paul Scholes, David Beckham, Gary Neville and Robbie Savage.\nGillespie made his first senior appearance for Manchester United in the 1992–93 season. He scored on his debut against Bury in a 2–0 FA Cup third round triumph on 5 January 1993. He was issued with the number 31 shirt for the 1993–94 season with the introduction of squad numbers, but did not play any first team games and was loaned to Division Three club Wigan Athletic, scoring four goals in eight games.\nOccasional appearances for United followed in 1994–95, but he was never able to displace Andrei Kanchelskis as United's first-choice right winger.\nHe moved to Newcastle United on 10 January 1995, as a £1 million component in the £7 million deal (£6 million cash) which took Andy Cole to Old Trafford. Gillespie had scored one of United's goals against Newcastle in the 2–0 victory at Old Trafford. This meant that he had scored twice for Manchester United in three seasons as a professional.\n\nNewcastle United\nOn 20 August 1995, the News of the World carried reports that Gillespie was subject of an approach from Alex Ferguson to return to Manchester United to fill the gap on the right wing being left by the sale of Andrei Kanchelskis to Everton, but the return to Old Trafford never happened and United instead turned to up-and-coming youngster David Beckham to occupy that position. 18 years later, Gillespie confirmed that Ferguson did contact him regarding a possible return to Manchester United, but claims that he heard nothing more about the prospective transfer after that original telephone conversation with his former manager.\nGillespie stayed at Newcastle for three and a half years and during this time he played 143 games, including 15 European ties (in both the Champions League and UEFA Cup) and scored 13 goals. In both the 1995–96 and 1996–97 seasons he helped Newcastle to finish second in the Premier League (runners up to Gillespie's former club, Manchester United, on both occasions), being a key member of \"The Entertainers\". On the first occasion, the Magpies very nearly beat Gillespie's old club to the title, having been 10 points ahead of them by Christmas 1995 before a dismal final three months of the season saw the title sealed by Gillespie's former team mates. Initially injured from a Phil Neville tackle in a 0–2 defeat at Old Trafford on 27 December 1995 causing him to miss the following three games, at the end of the 1995–96 season Gary Lineker, then a BBC pundit, said that one of the main reasons that Newcastle lost out on the title race was because they dropped Gillespie (who had been supplying Newcastle's forwards with a stream of good crosses) for several key games in the latter part of the season.\nIn September 1996, Gillespie was outed as a problem gambler by The Sun. He then accepted a £5,000 payment by the same tabloid to publicly thank them for helping out his problem. Gillespie has publicly said that he would bet on matches involving his own team, and once lost £52,000 because he had bet on Newcastle scored a late goal and he had bet on them beating Stoke City by under four goals.\nIn his final full season at Newcastle, the 1997–98 season, Gillespie assisted two of Faustino Asprilla's three goals in a 3–2 Champions League victory over FC Barcelona on 17 September 1997. He also scored what he later claimed was his best goal for the club when playing up front due to an injury crisis at home to Blackburn Rovers in 1-1 draw on 25 October 1997. He also helped Newcastle to reach the FA Cup final. However, a foot injury sustained in a 0–2 defeat at Tottenham Hotspur on 25 April 1998 meant, despite a fitness test, he was not in the squad for the final and Newcastle lost to Arsenal. Despite being in manager Kenny Dalglish's plans, the following pre-season Gillespie failed a medical at Middlesbrough but eventually departed Tyneside in a £2.3 million move to Blackburn Rovers following the appointment of Ruud Gullit as manager and a final appearance in a 2–2 draw at Middlesbrough on 6 December 1998.\n\nBlackburn Rovers\nGillespie was unable to help Blackburn avoid relegation in 1998–99, and manager Brian Kidd was sacked later in the year. Gillespie was initially out of favour with new manager Graeme Souness, and another loan spell at Wigan Athletic brought his total appearances for Athletic to 15, from which he scored four goals. He returned to the Blackburn side for the final months of the 2000–01 season, as the club gained promotion back to the Premier League. He also started in the 2002 Football League Cup Final, setting up a goal by Matt Jansen in the 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. Five seasons at Ewood Park brought 137 appearances and 6 goals.\n\nLeicester City\nGillespie moved to newly promoted Leicester City on a free transfer on 8 July 2003, signing a two-year contract. He played 48 games and scored two goals in two seasons.\nIn March 2004, Gillespie and teammates Frank Sinclair and Paul Dickov were held in a prison cell for a week in La Manga, Spain, while charges were made against six more Leicester players. All nine men were cleared when forensic tests proved that none of them had any contact with the three women who accused them.\n\nSheffield United\nGillespie signed for Sheffield United on 5 August 2005, signing a one-year contract. This was then extended to June 2007 a month later. In his first season at the club, Gillespie played a role in Sheffield United's successful promotion campaign to the Premier League. Gillespie's most memorable goal for Sheffield United came against Charlton, where he scored the winner in the 88th minute with a stunning volley from 25 yards. This goal was also a nominee for the December Goal of the Month competition, which Paul Scholes eventually won.\nOn 20 January 2007, during a Premier League match against Reading at the Madejski Stadium, Gillespie was sent off for violent conduct, \"throwing an elbow in the direction of\" Reading's Stephen Hunt, \"within 10 seconds\" of coming on as a substitute - play had not even restarted following the substitution. As he made his way off the pitch, Gillespie \"threw another punch\" at Hunt. He submitted a transfer request soon afterwards, but in July of that year Gillespie recanted and signed a new two-year contract.\nIn July 2008, he limped out of a pre-season friendly at Bury and missed the start of the 2008–09 season. Having regained fitness he was unable to regain a first team place and was eventually loaned out to Charlton Athletic. He made only six appearances for the Addicks before being recalled to Bramall Lane as cover for mounting injuries.\nDespite being recalled to Sheffield United, Gillespie failed to make another appearance and on 30 January 2009 his contract was terminated by mutual consent. He went to Bradford City with whose manager Stuart McCall Gillespie had been a teammate at Sheffield United. However, McCall insisted Gillespie was only training with the club to stay fit and help out the younger players, and not on trial.\n\nBradford City\nGillespie impressed McCall during training and told the manager he was very keen to gain match experience; as a result, Gillespie signed for Bradford City in March for the rest of the 2008–09 season. Gillespie was an unused substitute in their 1–0 defeat to Exeter City and so had to wait for his debut which came as a second-half substitute with City already 4–1 down to AFC Bournemouth three days later. After just three appearances Gillespie was not offered a long-term deal by Bradford City. In the summer of 2009 he had a trial with Hungarian side Ferencváros and had been linked with a move to the IFA Premiership.\n\nGlentoran\nIn 2009, Gillespie made a shock move to the east Belfast club, Glentoran. It was believed that Gillespie's agents approached Glentoran. He made his debut for Glentoran against Ballymena United in the league, he had previously played for Glentoran the night before for the reserves against Ballymena; Glentoran lost 2–1 in his 1st senior appearance for, at the time, the current league champions. In June 2010, the club announced that Gillespie was to leave after just one season after he and the club failed to agree terms on a new deal.\n\nShamrock Rovers\nIn August 2010, Gillespie's former international teammate Michael O'Neill invited him to play in a friendly for Shamrock Rovers in a reserve game against his first club, Manchester United.\n\nDarlington\nIn October 2010, Gillespie joined up with Conference National side Darlington, later signing with the club. He made three appearances before being released on 23 December 2010.\n\nLongford Town\nOn 24 March 2011, Gillespie signed for League of Ireland First Division side Longford Town. Gillespie made his debut from the bench in a local derby against Athlone Town on 2 April with Gillespie's new side coming out on top by two goals to nil.\nHe was named on the League of Ireland First Division team of the season for 2012 and was also awarded Longford Town F.C. player of the year, as they lost in the promotion playoffs to Waterford United.\nGillespie scored his one and only Longford goal in May 2013 against Cobh Ramblers. Injuries hampered Gillespie during the 2013 season and he announced his retirement prior to the season's end. His final appearance was as a substitute during Longford's 3–1 victory at home to Finn Harps on 7 September 2013.\n\nFC Mindwell\nGillespie came out of retirement in 2020, aged 45, to play for newly-formed Mid-Ulster Football League side FC Mindwell, a team set up to raise awareness of mental health issues.\n\nInternational career\nGillespie is currently sixth place in the list of appearances for Northern Ireland with 86 caps. He made his debut in September 1994 in a 2–1 home defeat by Portugal. He played an important role in his country's 3–2 qualifying win against Spain at Windsor Park on 6 September 2006. Gillespie was investigated by the Irish FA for his involvement in a fracas with George McCartney on the trip back home from a game in Iceland in September 2007. He was not involved with the Northern Ireland set-up since being omitted from the squad that faced San Marino in February 2009. His final cap was won in a 2–0 defeat by Hungary at Windsor Park in November 2008.\n\nInternational goals\nScores and results list Northern Ireland's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Gillespie goal.\n\nPersonal life\nGillespie was declared legally bankrupt on 1 October 2010 by the Belfast High Court. In 2013, he released his autobiography, How Not to Be a Football Millionaire, in which he describes his gambling addiction, estimating he lost more than £7 million. Reviewer Robbie Meredith of When Saturday Comes wrote that \"It is too cliched to claim that Gillespie achieves redemption at the end of his tale. Rather he gains the uncertain gift of a better understanding of himself. In doing so, he provides a compelling glimpse into the dark void inherent in the modern age of adrenaline-fuelled football celebrity\". Gillespie has supported the Gambling with Lives charity, which calls for tighter regulation of gambling and offers support for people with gambling problems.\n\nHonours\nManchester United\n\nFA Charity Shield: 1994\nFA Youth Cup: 1992\nBlackburn Rovers\n\nFootball League Cup: 2001–02\nGlentoran\n\nIrish League Cup: 2009–10\nIndividual\n\nPFAI First Division Team of the Year: 2012\nLongford Town Supporters Player of the Year: 2012\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nKeith Gillespie player profile at sufc.co.uk\nKeith Gillespie player profile at lcfc.co.uk\nKeith Gillespie at Soccerbase \nNI FA profile",
"title": "Keith_Gillespie"
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"paragraph_text": "Manchester United Football Club, commonly referred to as Man United (often stylised as Man Utd) or simply United, is a professional football club based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England. They compete in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. Nicknamed the Red Devils, they were founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, but changed their name to Manchester United in 1902. After a spell playing in Clayton, Manchester, the club moved to their current stadium, Old Trafford, in 1910.\nDomestically, Manchester United have won a record 20 top-flight league titles, 13 FA Cups, 6 League Cups and a record 21 FA Community Shields. Additionally, in international football, they have won the European Cup/UEFA Champions League three times, and the UEFA Europa League, the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, the UEFA Super Cup, the Intercontinental Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup once each. Appointed as manager in 1945, Matt Busby built a team with an average age of just 22 nicknamed the Busby Babes that won successive league titles in the 1950s and became the first English club to compete in the European Cup. Eight players were killed in the Munich air disaster, but Busby rebuilt the team around star players George Best, Denis Law and Bobby Charlton – known as the United Trinity. They won two more league titles before becoming the first English club to win the European Cup in 1968.\nAfter Busby's retirement, Manchester United were unable to produce sustained success until the arrival of Alex Ferguson, who became the club's longest-serving and most successful manager, winning 38 trophies including 13 league titles, five FA Cups and two Champions League titles between 1986 and 2013. In the 1998–99 season, under Ferguson, the club became the first in the history of English football to achieve the continental treble of the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League. In winning the UEFA Europa League under José Mourinho in 2016–17, they became one of five clubs to have won the original three main UEFA club competitions (the Champions League, Europa League and Cup Winners' Cup).\nManchester United are one of the most widely supported football clubs in the world and have rivalries with Liverpool, Manchester City, Arsenal and Leeds United. Manchester United were the highest-earning football club in the world for 2016–17, with an annual revenue of €676.3 million, and the world's third-most-valuable football club in 2019, valued at £3.15 billion ($3.81 billion). After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was taken private in 2005 after a purchase by American businessman Malcolm Glazer valued at almost £800 million, of which over £500 million of borrowed money became the club's debt. From 2012, some shares of the club were listed on the New York Stock Exchange, although the Glazer family retains overall ownership and control of the club.\n\nHistory\nEarly years (1878–1945)\nManchester United was formed in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (LYR) depot at Newton Heath. The team initially played games against other departments and railway companies, but on 20 November 1880, they competed in their first recorded match; wearing the colours of the railway company – green and gold – they were defeated 6–0 by Bolton Wanderers' reserve team. By 1888, the club had become a founding member of The Combination, a regional football league. Following the league's dissolution after only one season, Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance, which ran for three seasons before being merged with The Football League. This resulted in the club starting the 1892–93 season in the First Division, by which time it had become independent of the railway company and dropped the \"LYR\" from its name. After two seasons, the club was relegated to the Second Division.\n\nIn January 1902, with debts of £2,670 – equivalent to £370,000 in 2024 – the club was served with a winding-up order. Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen, including John Henry Davies (who became club president), each willing to invest £500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name; on 24 April 1902, Manchester United was officially born. Under Ernest Mangnall, who assumed managerial duties in 1903, Manchester United finished as Second Division runners-up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division, which they won in 1908 – the club's first league title. The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield and ended with the club's first FA Cup title. Mangnall was considered a significant influence behind the team's move to Old Trafford in 1910, and Manchester United won the First Division for the second time in 1911. At the end of the following season, however, Mangnall left the club to join Manchester City.\nIn 1922, three years after the resumption of football following the First World War, the club was relegated to the Second Division, where it remained until regaining promotion in 1925. Relegated again in 1931, Manchester United became a yo-yo club, achieving its all-time lowest position of 20th place in the Second Division in 1934. Following the death of principal benefactor John Henry Davies in October 1927, the club's finances deteriorated to the extent that Manchester United would likely have gone bankrupt had it not been for James W. Gibson, who, in December 1931, invested £2,000 and assumed control of the club. In the 1938–39 season, the last year of football before the Second World War, the club finished 14th in the First Division.\n\nBusby years (1945–1969)\nIn October 1945, the impending resumption of football after the war led to the managerial appointment of Matt Busby, who demanded an unprecedented level of control over team selection, player transfers and training sessions. Busby led the team to second-place league finishes in 1947, 1948 and 1949, and to FA Cup victory in 1948. In 1952, the club won the First Division, its first league title for 41 years. They then won back-to-back league titles in 1956 and 1957; the squad, who had an average age of 22, were nicknamed \"the Busby Babes\" by the media, a testament to Busby's faith in his youth players. In 1957, Manchester United became the first English team to compete in the European Cup, despite objections from The Football League, who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season. En route to the semi-final, which they lost to Real Madrid, the team recorded a 10–0 victory over Belgian champions Anderlecht, which remains the club's biggest victory on record.\n\nThe following season, on the way home from a European Cup quarter-final victory against Red Star Belgrade, the aircraft carrying the Manchester United players, officials and journalists crashed while attempting to take off after refuelling in Munich, Germany. The Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 claimed 23 lives, including those of eight players – Geoff Bent, Roger Byrne, Eddie Colman, Duncan Edwards, Mark Jones, David Pegg, Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan – and injured several more.\n\nAssistant manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final, which they lost to Bolton Wanderers. In recognition of the team's tragedy, UEFA invited the club to compete in the 1958–59 European Cup alongside eventual League champions Wolverhampton Wanderers. Despite approval from The Football Association, The Football League determined that the club should not enter the competition, since it had not qualified. Busby rebuilt the team through the 1960s by signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand, who combined with the next generation of youth players – including George Best – to win the FA Cup in 1963. Busby rested several key players for the League game before the Cup Final which gave Dennis Walker the chance to make his debut against Nottingham Forest on 20 May. Walker thus became the first Black player to represent United. The following season, they finished second in the league, then won the title in 1965 and 1967. In 1968, Manchester United became the first English club to win the European Cup, beating Benfica 4–1 in the final with a team that contained three European Footballers of the Year: Bobby Charlton, Denis Law and George Best. They then represented Europe in the 1968 Intercontinental Cup against Estudiantes of Argentina, but defeat in the first leg in Buenos Aires meant a 1–1 draw at Old Trafford three weeks later was not enough to claim the title. Busby resigned as manager in 1969 before being replaced by the reserve team coach, former Manchester United player Wilf McGuinness.\n\n1969–1986\nFollowing an eighth-place finish in the 1969–70 season and a poor start to the 1970–71 season, Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties, and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach. In June 1971, Frank O'Farrell was appointed as manager, but lasted less than 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972. Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season, only to see them relegated in 1974; by that time the trio of Best, Law, and Charlton had left the club. The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976, but were beaten by Southampton. They reached the final again in 1977, beating Liverpool 2–1. Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards, following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist's wife.\nDave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977. Despite major signings, including Joe Jordan, Gordon McQueen, Gary Bailey, and Ray Wilkins, the team failed to win any trophies; they finished second in 1979–80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup final. Sexton was dismissed in 1981, even though the team won the last seven games under his direction. He was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from his former club West Bromwich Albion. Under Atkinson, Manchester United won the FA Cup in 1983 and 1985 and beat rivals Liverpool to win the 1983 Charity Shield. In 1985–86, after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches, the club was favourite to win the league but finished in fourth place. The following season, with the club in danger of relegation by November, Atkinson was dismissed.\n\nFerguson years (1986–2013)\nAlex Ferguson and his assistant Archie Knox arrived from Aberdeen on the day of Atkinson's dismissal, and guided the club to an 11th-place finish in the league. Despite a second-place finish in 1987–88, the club was back in 11th place the following season. Reportedly on the verge of being dismissed, Ferguson's job was saved by victory over Crystal Palace in the 1990 FA Cup final. The following season, Manchester United claimed their first UEFA Cup Winners' Cup title. That triumph allowed the club to compete in the European Super Cup for the first time, where United beat European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1–0 at Old Trafford. The club appeared in two consecutive League Cup finals in 1991 and 1992, beating Nottingham Forest 1–0 in the second to win that competition for the first time as well. In 1993, in the first season of the newly founded Premier League, the club won their first league title since 1967, and a year later, for the first time since 1957, they won a second consecutive title – alongside the FA Cup – to complete the first \"Double\" in the club's history. United then became the first English club to do the Double twice when they won both competitions again in 1995–96, before retaining the league title once more in 1996–97 with a game to spare.\n\n \nIn the 1998–99 season, Manchester United became the first team to win the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League – \"The Treble\" – in the same season. Trailing 1–0 going into injury time in the 1999 UEFA Champions League final, Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored late goals to claim a dramatic victory over Bayern Munich, in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks of all time. That summer, Ferguson received a knighthood for his services to football.\nIn November 1999, the club became the only British team to ever win the Intercontinental Cup with a 1–0 victory over the strong 1999 Copa Libertadores winners Palmeiras in Tokyo. The Red Devils counted on an unexpected goalkeeper fail by future 2002 FIFA World Cup winner Marcos and a disallowed goal scored by Alex to win the game.\n\n \nManchester United won the league again in the 1999–2000 and 2000–01 seasons, becoming only the fourth club to win the English title three times in a row. The team finished third in 2001–02, before regaining the title in 2002–03. They won the 2003–04 FA Cup, beating Millwall 3–0 in the final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff to lift the trophy for a record 11th time. In the 2005–06 season, Manchester United failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade, but recovered to secure a second-place league finish and victory over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup final. The club regained the Premier League title in the 2006–07 season, before completing the European double in 2007–08 with a 6–5 penalty shoot-out victory over Chelsea in the 2008 UEFA Champions League final in Moscow to go with their 17th English league title. Ryan Giggs made a record 759th appearance for the club in that game, overtaking previous record holder Bobby Charlton. In December 2008, the club became the first British team to win the FIFA Club World Cup after beating LDU Quito 1–0 in the final. Manchester United followed this with the 2008–09 Football League Cup, and its third successive Premier League title. That summer, forward Cristiano Ronaldo was sold to Real Madrid for a world record £80 million. In 2010, Manchester United defeated Aston Villa 2–1 at Wembley to retain the League Cup, its first successful defence of a knockout cup competition.\nAfter finishing as runners-up to Chelsea in the 2009–10 season, United achieved a record 19th league title in 2010–11, securing the championship with a 1–1 away draw against Blackburn Rovers on 14 May 2011. This was extended to 20 league titles in 2012–13, securing the championship with a 3–0 home win against Aston Villa on 22 April 2013.\n\nPost-Fergie years and struggles (2013–present)\nOn 8 May 2013, Ferguson announced that he was to retire as manager at the end of the football season, but would remain at the club as a director and club ambassador. He retired as the most decorated manager in football history. The club announced the next day that Everton manager David Moyes would replace him from 1 July, having signed a six-year contract. Ryan Giggs took over as interim player-manager 10 months later, on 22 April 2014, when Moyes was sacked after a poor season in which the club failed to defend their Premier League title and failed to qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1995–96. They also failed to qualify for the UEFA Europa League, the first time Manchester United had not qualified for a European competition since 1990. On 19 May 2014, it was confirmed that Louis van Gaal would replace Moyes as Manchester United manager on a three-year deal, with Giggs as his assistant. Malcolm Glazer, the patriarch of the family that owns the club, died on 28 May 2014.\n\nUnder Van Gaal, United won a 12th FA Cup, but a disappointing slump in the middle of his second season led to rumours of the board sounding out potential replacements. Van Gaal was ultimately sacked just two days after the cup final victory, with United having finished fifth in the league. Former Porto, Chelsea, Inter Milan and Real Madrid manager José Mourinho was appointed in his place on 27 May 2016. Mourinho signed a three-year contract, and in his first season won the FA Community Shield, EFL Cup and UEFA Europa League. Wayne Rooney scored his 250th goal for United, a stoppage-time equaliser in a league game against Stoke City in January 2017, surpassing Sir Bobby Charlton as the club's all-time top scorer. The following season, United finished second in the league – their highest league placing since 2013 – but were still 19 points behind rivals Manchester City. Mourinho also guided the club to a 19th FA Cup final, but they lost 1–0 to Chelsea. On 18 December 2018, with United in sixth place in the Premier League table, 19 points behind leaders Liverpool and 11 points outside the Champions League places, Mourinho was sacked after 144 games in charge. The following day, former United striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær was appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season. On 28 March 2019, after winning 14 of his first 19 matches in charge, Solskjær was appointed permanent manager on a three-year deal.\nOn 18 April 2021, Manchester United announced they were joining 11 other European clubs as founding members of the European Super League, a proposed 20-team competition intended to rival the UEFA Champions League. The announcement drew a significant backlash from supporters, other clubs, media partners, sponsors, players and the UK Government, forcing the club to withdraw just two days later. The failure of the project led to the resignation of executive vice-chairman Ed Woodward, while resultant protests against Woodward and the Glazer family led to a pitch invasion ahead of a league match against Liverpool on 2 May 2021, which saw the first postponement of a Premier League game due to supporter protests in the competition's history.\nOn the pitch, United equalled their own record for the biggest win in Premier League history with a 9–0 win over Southampton on 2 February 2021, but ended the season with defeat on penalties in the UEFA Europa League final against Villarreal, going four straight seasons without a trophy. On 20 November 2021, Solskjær left his role as manager. Former midfielder Michael Carrick took charge for the next three games, before the appointment of Ralf Rangnick as interim manager until the end of the season.\nOn 21 April 2022, Erik ten Hag was appointed as the manager from the end of the 2021–22 season, signing a contract until June 2025 with the option of extending for a further year. Under Ten Hag, Manchester United won the 2022–23 EFL Cup, defeating Newcastle United in the final to end their longest period without a trophy since a six-year span between 1977 and 1983. On 5 March 2023, the club suffered their joint-heaviest defeat, losing 7–0 to rivals Liverpool at Anfield. At the end of the following season, the club finished eighth in the Premier League, their lowest league finish since the 1989–90 season, but went on to beat cross-city rivals Manchester City 2–1 in the FA Cup final, to win their 13th FA Cup title.\n\nCrest and colours\nThe club crest is derived from the Manchester City Council coat of arms, although all that remains of it on the current crest is the ship in full sail. The devil stems from the club's nickname \"The Red Devils\" inspired from Salford Rugby Club; it was included on club programmes and scarves in the 1960s, and incorporated into the club crest in 1970, although the crest was not included on the chest of the shirt until 1971. In 1975, the red devil (\"A devil facing the sinister guardant supporting with both hands a trident gules\") was granted as a heraldic badge by the College of Arms to the English Football League for use by Manchester United. In 2023, the Red Devil motif alone, which had been used in promotional items and merchandise previously, was used as the sole badge on the Manchester United third kit. The existing crest remains on the home and away kits.\nNewton Heath's uniform in 1879, four years before the club played its first competitive match, has been documented as 'white with blue cord'. A photograph of the Newton Heath team, taken in 1892, is believed to show the players wearing red-and-white quartered jerseys and navy blue knickerbockers. Between 1894 and 1896, the players wore green and gold jerseys which were replaced in 1896 by white shirts, which were worn with navy blue shorts.\nAfter the name change in 1902, the club colours were changed to red shirts, white shorts, and black socks, which has become the standard Manchester United home kit. Very few changes were made to the kit until 1922 when the club adopted white shirts bearing a deep red \"V\" around the neck, similar to the shirt worn in the 1909 FA Cup final. They remained part of their home kits until 1927. For a period in 1934, the cherry and white hooped change shirt became the home colours, but the following season the red shirt was recalled after the club's lowest ever league placing of 20th in the Second Division and the hooped shirt dropped back to being the change.\nThe black socks were changed to white from 1959 to 1965, where they were replaced with red socks up until 1971 with white used on occasion, when the club reverted to black. Black shorts and white socks are sometimes worn with the home strip, most often in away games, if there is a clash with the opponent's kit. For 2018–19, black shorts and red socks became the primary choice for the home kit. Since 1997–98, white socks have been the preferred choice for European games, which are typically played on weeknights, to aid with player visibility. The current home kit is a red shirt with Adidas' trademark three stripes in red on the shoulders, white shorts, and black socks.\nThe Manchester United away strip has often been a white shirt, black shorts and white socks, but there have been several exceptions. These include an all-black strip with blue and gold trimmings between 1993 and 1995, the navy blue shirt with silver horizontal pinstripes worn during the 1999–2000 season, and the 2011–12 away kit, which had a royal blue body and sleeves with hoops \nmade of small midnight navy blue and black stripes, with black shorts and blue socks. An all-grey away kit worn during the 1995–96 season was dropped after just five games; in its final outing against Southampton, Alex Ferguson instructed the team to change into the third kit during half-time. The reason for dropping it being that the players claimed to have trouble finding their teammates against the crowd, United failed to win a competitive game in the kit in five attempts. In 2001, to celebrate 100 years as \"Manchester United\", a reversible white and gold away kit was released, although the actual match day shirts were not reversible.\nThe club's third kit is often all-blue; this was most recently the case during the 2014–15 season. Exceptions include a green-and-gold halved shirt worn between 1992 and 1994, a blue-and-white striped shirt worn during the 1994–95 and 1995–96 seasons and once in 1996–97, an all-black kit worn during the Treble-winning 1998–99 season, and a white shirt with black-and-red horizontal pinstripes worn between 2003–04 and 2005–06. From 2006–07 to 2013–14, the third kit was the previous season's away kit, albeit updated with the new club sponsor in 2006–07 and 2010–11, apart from the 2008–09 season, when an all-blue kit was launched to mark the 40th anniversary of the 1967–68 European Cup success.\n\nGrounds\n1878–1893: North Road\nNewton Heath initially played on a field on North Road, close to the railway yard; the original capacity was about 12,000, but club officials deemed the facilities inadequate for a club hoping to join The Football League. Some expansion took place in 1887, and in 1891, Newton Heath used its minimal financial reserves to purchase two grandstands, each able to hold 1,000 spectators. Although attendances were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road, the highest documented attendance was approximately 15,000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893. A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889.\n\n1893–1910: Bank Street\nIn June 1893, after the club was evicted from North Road by its owners, Manchester Deans and Canons, who felt it was inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground, secretary A. H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in Clayton. It initially had no stands, by the start of the 1893–94 season, two had been built; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the \"Bradford end\". At the opposite end, the \"Clayton end\", the ground had been \"built up, thousands thus being provided for\". Newton Heath's first league match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893, when 10,000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat-trick, Newton Heath's only goals in a 3–2 win. The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later. In October 1895, before the visit of Manchester City, the club purchased a 2,000-capacity stand from the Broughton Rangers rugby league club, and put up another stand on the \"reserved side\" (as distinct from the \"popular side\"); however, weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12,000.\nWhen the Bank Street ground was temporarily closed by bailiffs in 1902, club captain Harry Stafford raised enough money to pay for the club's next away game at Bristol City and found a temporary ground at Harpurhey for the next reserves game against Padiham. Following financial investment, new club president John Henry Davies paid £500 for the erection of a new 1,000-seat stand at Bank Street. Within four years, the stadium had cover on all four sides, as well as the ability to hold approximately 50,000 spectators, some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand.\n\n1910–present: Old Trafford\nFollowing Manchester United's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later, it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies' ambition; in February 1909, six weeks before the club's first FA Cup title, Old Trafford was named as the home of Manchester United, following the purchase of land for around £60,000. Architect Archibald Leitch was given a budget of £30,000 for construction; original plans called for seating capacity of 100,000, though budget constraints forced a revision to 77,000. The building was constructed by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester. The stadium's record attendance was registered on 25 March 1939, when an FA Cup semi-final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town drew 76,962 spectators.\nBombing in the Second World War destroyed much of the stadium; the central tunnel in the South Stand was all that remained of that quarter. After the war, the club received compensation from the War Damage Commission in the amount of £22,278. While reconstruction took place, the team played its \"home\" games at Manchester City's Maine Road ground; Manchester United was charged £5,000 per year, plus a nominal percentage of gate receipts. Later improvements included the addition of roofs, first to the Stretford End and then to the North and East Stands. The roofs were supported by pillars that obstructed many fans' views, and they were eventually replaced with a cantilevered structure. The Stretford End was the last stand to receive a cantilevered roof, completed in time for the 1993–94 season. First used on 25 March 1957 and costing £40,000, four 180-foot (55 m) pylons were erected, each housing 54 individual floodlights. These were dismantled in 1987 and replaced by a lighting system embedded in the roof of each stand, which remains in use today.\nThe Taylor Report's requirement for an all-seater stadium lowered capacity at Old Trafford to around 44,000 by 1993. In 1995, the North Stand was redeveloped into three tiers, restoring capacity to approximately 55,000. At the end of the 1998–99 season, second tiers were added to the East and West Stands, raising capacity to around 67,000, and between July 2005 and May 2006, 8,000 more seats were added via second tiers in the north-west and north-east quadrants. Part of the new seating was used for the first time on 26 March 2006, when an attendance of 69,070 became a new Premier League record. The record was pushed steadily upwards before reaching its peak on 31 March 2007, when 76,098 spectators saw Manchester United beat Blackburn Rovers 4–1, with just 114 seats (0.15 per cent of the total capacity of 76,212) unoccupied. In 2009, reorganisation of the seating resulted in a reduction of capacity by 255 to 75,957. Manchester United has the second highest average attendance among European football clubs, behind only Borussia Dortmund. In 2021, United co-chairman Joel Glazer said that \"early-stage planning work\" for the redevelopment of Old Trafford was underway. This followed \"increasing criticism\" over the lack of development of the ground since 2006. After the club's takeover by Sir Jim Ratcliffe in 2024, it emerged that plans were being made for the construction of a new, 100,000-capacity stadium near Old Trafford and that the current stadium would be downsized to serve as the home for the women's team and the club's academy.\n\nSupport\nManchester United is one of the most popular football clubs in the world, with one of the highest average home attendances in Europe. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club (MUSC), in at least 24 countries. The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours. Accountancy firm and sports industry consultants Deloitte estimate that Manchester United has 75 million fans worldwide. The club has the third highest social media following in the world among sports teams (after Barcelona and Real Madrid), with over 82 million Facebook followers as of July 2023. A 2014 study showed that Manchester United had the loudest fans in the Premier League.\nSupporters are represented by two independent bodies; the Independent Manchester United Supporters' Association (IMUSA), which maintains close links to the club through the MUFC Fans Forum, and the Manchester United Supporters' Trust (MUST). After the Glazer family's takeover in 2005, a group of fans formed a splinter club, F.C. United of Manchester. The West Stand of Old Trafford – the \"Stretford End\" – is the home end and the traditional source of the club's most vocal support.\n\nRivalries\nManchester United has high profile rivalries with Liverpool and local neighbours Manchester City. The club has also had rivalries throughout its history with the likes of Arsenal, Leeds United and Chelsea.\n\nThe matches against Manchester City are known as the Manchester derby, as they are the two most important teams in the city of Manchester. It is considered one of the biggest local derbies in British football, particularly after City's rise to prominence in the 2010s and the two clubs fighting for trophies, such as the league title in 2012 and 2013, as well as two consecutive FA Cup finals in 2023 and 2024.\nThe rivalry with Liverpool is rooted in competition between the cities during the Industrial Revolution, when Manchester was famous for its textile industry while Liverpool was a major port. The two clubs are the most successful in the history of English football; between them they have won 39 league titles, 9 European Cups, 21 FA Cups, 16 League Cups, 4 UEFA Cup/Europa Leagues, 2 FIFA Club World Cups, 1 Intercontinental Cup, 37 FA Community Shields and 5 UEFA Super Cups. Ranked the two biggest clubs in England by France Football magazine based on metrics such as fanbase and historical importance, matches between Manchester United and Liverpool are considered to be the most famous fixture in English football and one of the biggest rivalries in the football world. No player has been transferred between the clubs since 1964. Former Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson said in 2002, \"My greatest challenge was knocking Liverpool right off their fucking perch\".\nThe \"Roses Rivalry\" with Leeds stems from the Wars of the Roses, fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, with Manchester United representing Lancashire and Leeds representing Yorkshire.\nThe rivalry with Arsenal arose from the numerous times the two teams battled for the Premier League title, especially under managers Alex Ferguson and Arsène Wenger, who also had a heated personal rivalry. With 33 titles between them (20 for Manchester United, 13 for Arsenal), the fixture has been described as a \"blockbuster\" and the \"greatest\" rivalry in the history of the Premier League.\n\nGlobal brand\nManchester United has been described as a global brand; a 2011 report by Brand Finance, valued the club's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £412 million – an increase of £39 million on the previous year, valuing it at £11 million more than the second best brand, Real Madrid – and gave the brand a strength rating of AAA (Extremely Strong). In July 2012, Manchester United was ranked first by Forbes magazine in its list of the ten most valuable sports team brands, valuing the Manchester United brand at $2.23 billion. The club is ranked third in the Deloitte Football Money League (behind Real Madrid and Barcelona). In January 2013, the club became the first sports team in the world to be valued at $3 billion. Forbes magazine valued the club at $3.3 billion – $1.2 billion higher than the next most valuable sports team. They were overtaken by Real Madrid for the next four years, but Manchester United returned to the top of the Forbes list in June 2017, with a valuation of $3.689 billion.\n\nThe core strength of Manchester United's global brand is often attributed to Matt Busby's rebuilding of the team and subsequent success following the Munich air disaster, which drew worldwide acclaim. The \"iconic\" team included Bobby Charlton and Nobby Stiles (members of England's World Cup winning team), Denis Law and George Best. The attacking style of play adopted by this team (in contrast to the defensive-minded \"catenaccio\" approach favoured by the leading Italian teams of the era) \"captured the imagination of the English footballing public\". Busby's team also became associated with the liberalisation of Western society during the 1960s; George Best, known as the \"Fifth Beatle\" for his iconic haircut, was the first footballer to significantly develop an off-the-field media profile.\nAs the second English football club to float on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club raised significant capital, with which it further developed its commercial strategy. The club's focus on commercial and sporting success brought significant profits in an industry often characterised by chronic losses. The strength of the Manchester United brand was bolstered by intense off-the-field media attention to individual players, most notably David Beckham (who quickly developed his own global brand). This attention often generates greater interest in on-the-field activities, and hence generates sponsorship opportunities – the value of which is driven by television exposure. During his time with the club, Beckham's popularity across Asia was integral to the club's commercial success in that part of the world.\nBecause higher league placement results in a greater share of television rights, success on the field generates greater income for the club. Since the inception of the Premier League, Manchester United has received the largest share of the revenue generated from the BSkyB broadcasting deal. Manchester United has also consistently enjoyed the highest commercial income of any English club; in 2005–06, the club's commercial arm generated £51 million, compared to £42.5 million at Chelsea, £39.3 million at Liverpool, £34 million at Arsenal and £27.9 million at Newcastle United. A key sponsorship relationship was with sportswear company Nike, who managed the club's merchandising operation as part of a £303 million 13-year partnership between 2002 and 2015. Through Manchester United Finance and the club's membership scheme, One United, those with an affinity for the club can purchase a range of branded goods and services. Additionally, Manchester United-branded media services – such as the club's dedicated television channel, MUTV – have allowed the club to expand its fan base to those beyond the reach of its Old Trafford stadium.\n\nSponsorship\nIn an initial five-year deal worth £500,000, Sharp Electronics became the club's first shirt sponsor at the beginning of the 1982–83 season, a relationship that lasted until the end of the 1999–2000 season, when Vodafone agreed a four-year, £30 million deal. Vodafone agreed to pay £36 million to extend the deal by four years, but after two seasons triggered a break clause in order to concentrate on its sponsorship of the Champions League.\nTo commence at the start of the 2006–07 season, American insurance corporation AIG agreed a four-year £56.5 million deal which in September 2006 became the most valuable in the world. At the beginning of the 2010–11 season, American reinsurance company Aon became the club's principal sponsor in a four-year deal reputed to be worth approximately £80 million, making it the most lucrative shirt sponsorship deal in football history. Manchester United announced their first training kit sponsor in August 2011, agreeing a four-year deal with DHL reported to be worth £40 million; it is believed to be the first instance of training kit sponsorship in English football. The DHL contract lasted for over a year before the club bought back the contract in October 2012, although they remained the club's official logistics partner. The contract for the training kit sponsorship was then sold to Aon in April 2013 for a deal worth £180 million over eight years, which also included purchasing the naming rights for the Trafford Training Centre.\nThe club's first kit manufacturer was Umbro, until a five-year deal was agreed with Admiral Sportswear in 1975. Adidas won the contract in 1980, before Umbro started a second spell in 1992. That sponsorship lasted for ten years, followed by Nike's record-breaking £302.9 million deal, which lasted until 2015; 3.8 million replica shirts were sold in the first 22 months with the company. In addition to Nike and Chevrolet, the club also has several lower-level \"platinum\" sponsors, including Aon and Budweiser.\nOn 30 July 2012, United signed a seven-year deal with American automotive corporation General Motors, which replaced Aon as the shirt sponsor from the 2014–15 season. The new $80m-a-year shirt deal is worth $559m over seven years and features the logo of General Motors brand Chevrolet. Nike announced that they would not renew their kit supply deal with Manchester United after the 2014–15 season, citing rising costs. Since the start of the 2015–16 season, Adidas has manufactured Manchester United's kit as part of a world-record 10-year deal worth a minimum of £750 million. Plumbing products manufacturer Kohler became the club's first sleeve sponsor ahead of the 2018–19 season. Manchester United and General Motors did not renew their sponsorship deal, and the club subsequently signed a five-year, £235 million sponsorship deal with TeamViewer ahead of the 2021–22 season. At the end of the 2023–24 season, TeamViewer were replaced by Snapdragon, who agreed a deal worth more than £60 million a year to take over as the club's main sponsor. In August 2024, Snapdragon's parent company Qualcomm triggered an option to extend the deal by two years, taking it through to 2029.\n\nOwnership and finances\nOriginally funded by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, the club became a limited company in 1892 and sold shares to local supporters for £1 via an application form. In 1902, majority ownership passed to the four local businessmen who invested £500 to save the club from bankruptcy, including future club president John Henry Davies. After his death in 1927, the club faced bankruptcy yet again, but was saved in December 1931 by James W. Gibson, who assumed control of the club after an investment of £2,000. Gibson promoted his son, Alan, to the board in 1948, but died three years later; the Gibson family retained ownership of the club through James' wife, Lillian, but the position of chairman passed to former player Harold Hardman.\nPromoted to the board a few days after the Munich air disaster, Louis Edwards, a friend of Matt Busby, began acquiring shares in the club; for an investment of approximately £40,000, he accumulated a 54 per cent shareholding and took control in January 1964. When Lillian Gibson died in January 1971, her shares passed to Alan Gibson who sold a percentage of his shares to Louis Edwards' son, Martin, in 1978; Martin Edwards went on to become chairman upon his father's death in 1980. Media tycoon Robert Maxwell attempted to buy the club in 1984, but did not meet Edwards' asking price. In 1989, chairman Martin Edwards attempted to sell the club to Michael Knighton for £20 million, but the sale fell through and Knighton joined the board of directors instead.\nManchester United was floated on the stock market in June 1991 (raising £6.7 million), and received yet another takeover bid in 1998, this time from Rupert Murdoch's British Sky Broadcasting Corporation. This resulted in the formation of Shareholders United Against Murdoch – now the Manchester United Supporters' Trust – who encouraged supporters to buy shares in the club in an attempt to block any hostile takeover. The Manchester United board accepted a £623 million offer, but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999. A few years later, a power struggle emerged between the club's manager, Alex Ferguson, and his horse-racing partners, John Magnier and J. P. McManus, who had gradually become the majority shareholders. In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar, Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager, and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen's majority.\n\nGlazer ownership\nIn May 2005, Malcolm Glazer purchased the 28.7 per cent stake held by McManus and Magnier, thus acquiring a controlling interest through his investment vehicle Red Football Ltd in a highly leveraged takeover valuing the club at approximately £800 million (then approx. $1.5 billion). Once the purchase was complete, the club was taken off the stock exchange. Much of the takeover money was borrowed by the Glazers; the debts were transferred to the club. As a result, the club went from being debt-free to being saddled with debts of £540 million, at interest rates of between 7% and 20%.\nIn July 2006, the club announced a £660 million debt refinancing package, resulting in a 30 per cent reduction in annual interest payments to £62 million a year. In January 2010, with debts of £716.5 million ($1.17 billion), Manchester United further refinanced through a bond issue worth £504 million, enabling them to pay off most of the £509 million owed to international banks. The annual interest payable on the bonds – which were to mature on 1 February 2017 – is approximately £45 million per annum. Despite restructuring, the club's debt prompted protests from fans on 23 January 2010, at Old Trafford and the club's Trafford Training Centre. Supporter groups encouraged match-going fans to wear green and gold, the colours of Newton Heath. On 30 January, reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans, dubbed the \"Red Knights\", with plans to buying out the Glazers' controlling interest. The club's debts reached a high of £777 million in June 2007.\nIn August 2011, the Glazers were believed to have approached Credit Suisse in preparation for a $1 billion (approx. £600 million) initial public offering (IPO) on the Singapore stock exchange that would value the club at more than £2 billion; however, in July 2012, the club announced plans to list its IPO on the New York Stock Exchange instead. Shares were originally set to go on sale for between $16 and $20 each, but the price was cut to $14 by the launch of the IPO on 10 August, following negative comments from Wall Street analysts and Facebook's disappointing stock market debut in May. Even after the cut, Manchester United was valued at $2.3 billion, making it the most valuable football club in the world.\nThe New York Stock Exchange allows for different shareholders to enjoy different voting rights over the club. Shares offered to the public (\"Class A\") had 10 times lesser voting rights than shares retained by the Glazers (\"Class B\"). Initially in 2012, only 10% of shares were offered to the public. As of 2019, the Glazers retain ultimate control over the club, with over 70% of shares, and even higher voting power.\nIn 2012, The Guardian estimated that the club had paid a total of over £500 million in debt interest and other fees on behalf of the Glazers, and in 2019, reported that the total sum paid by the club for such fees had risen to £1 billion. At the end of 2019, the club had a net debt of nearly £400 million.\nIn 2023, the Glazers began soliciting bids for the sale of the club, and several bids were received. Sir Jim Ratcliffe, who owns Ineos, and Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani, a Qatari sheikh, were the only bidders who had publicly declared their interest in a controlling share of the club. In March 2023, Finnish entrepreneur Thomas Zilliacus also made his interest in Manchester United public.\nOn 24 December 2023, it was announced that Ratcliffe had purchased 25 per cent of Manchester United, and that his Ineos Sport company was taking control of football operations. The Glazers remain as majority shareholders.\n\nPlayers\nFirst-team squad\nAs of August 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nUnder-21s and Academy\nAs of 4 September 2024\nList of under-21s and academy players with articles\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nPlayer of the Year awards\nCoaching staff\nManagerial history\nManagement\nOwnership\nManchester United plc\nManchester United Football Club\nHonours\nManchester United is one of the most successful clubs in Europe in terms of trophies won. The club's first trophy was the Manchester Cup, which they won as Newton Heath LYR in 1886. In 1908, the club won their first league title, and won the FA Cup for the first time the following year. Since then, they have gone on to win a record 20 top-division titles – including a record 13 Premier League titles – and their total of 13 FA Cups is second only to Arsenal (14). Those titles have meant the club has appeared a record 30 times in the FA Community Shield (formerly the FA Charity Shield), which is played at the start of each season between the winners of the league and FA Cup from the previous season; of those 30 appearances, Manchester United have won a record 21, including four times when the match was drawn and the trophy shared by the two clubs.\nThe club had a successful period under the management of Matt Busby, starting with the FA Cup in 1948 and culminating with becoming the first English club to win the European Cup in 1968, winning five league titles and two FA Cups in the intervening years. The club's most successful decade, however, came in the 1990s under Alex Ferguson; five league titles, four FA Cups, one League Cup, five Charity Shields (one shared), one UEFA Champions League, one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup and one Intercontinental Cup. The club has won the Double (winning the Premier League and FA Cup in the same season) three times; the second in 1995–96 saw them become the first club to do so twice, and it became referred to as the \"Double Double\". United became the sole British club to win the Intercontinental Cup in 1999 and are one of only three British clubs to have won the FIFA Club World Cup, in 2008. In 1999, United became the first English club to win the Treble. In 2017, United won the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League, beating Ajax in the final. In winning that title, United became the fifth club to have won the \"European Treble\" of European Cup/UEFA Champions League, Cup Winners' Cup, and UEFA Cup/Europa League after Juventus, Ajax, Bayern Munich and Chelsea.\nThe club's most recent trophy is the 2023–24 FA Cup.\n\ns shared record\n\nDoubles and Trebles\nDoubles\nLeague and FA Cup (3): 1993–94, 1995–96, 1998–99\nLeague and UEFA Champions League (2): 1998–99, 2007–08\nLeague and EFL Cup (1): 2008–09\nEFL Cup and UEFA Europa League (1): 2016–17\nTrebles\nLeague, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League (1): 1998–99\nShort competitions – such as the FA Charity/Community Shield, Intercontinental Cup (now defunct), FIFA Club World Cup or UEFA Super Cup – are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble.\n\nManchester United Women\nManchester United Supporters Club Ladies began operations in the late 1970s and was unofficially recognised as the club's senior women's team. They became founding members of the North West Women's Regional Football League in 1989. The team made an official partnership with Manchester United in 2001, becoming the club's official women's team; however, in 2005, following Malcolm Glazer's takeover, the club was disbanded as it was seen to be \"unprofitable\". In 2018, Manchester United formed a new women's football team, which entered the second division of women's football in England for their debut season. The women's football team won their first trophy on 12 May 2024 as they lifted the Women's FA Cup as they defeated Tottenham Hotspur 4-0.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nAndrews, David L., ed. (2004). Manchester United: A Thematic Study. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-33333-7.\nBarnes, Justyn; Bostock, Adam; Butler, Cliff; Ferguson, Jim; Meek, David; Mitten, Andy; Pilger, Sam; Taylor, Frank OBE; Tyrrell, Tom (2001) [1998]. The Official Manchester United Illustrated Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). London: Manchester United Books. ISBN 978-0-233-99964-7.\nBose, Mihir (2007). Manchester Disunited: Trouble and Takeover at the World's Richest Football Club. London: Aurum Press. ISBN 978-1-84513-121-0.\nCrick, Michael; Smith, David (1990). Manchester United – The Betrayal of a Legend. London: Pan Books. ISBN 978-0-330-31440-4.\nDevlin, John (2005). True Colours: Football Kits from 1980 to the Present Day. London: A & C Black. ISBN 978-0-7136-7389-0.\nDobson, Stephen; Goddard, John (2004). \"Ownership and Finance of Professional Soccer in England and Europe\". In Fort, Rodney; Fizel, John (eds.). International Sports Economics Comparisons. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-98032-0.\nDunning, Eric (1999). Sport Matters: Sociological Studies of Sport, Violence and Civilisation. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09378-1.\nHamil, Sean (2008). \"Case 9: Manchester United: the Commercial Development of a Global Football Brand\". In Chadwick, Simon; Arth, Dave (eds.). International Cases in the Business of Sport. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-8543-6.\nInglis, Simon (1996) [1985]. Football Grounds of Britain (3rd ed.). London: CollinsWillow. ISBN 978-0-00-218426-7.\nJames, Gary (2008). Manchester: A Football History. Halifax: James Ward. ISBN 978-0-9558127-0-5.\nMorgan, Steve (March 2010). McLeish, Ian (ed.). \"Design for life\". Inside United (212). ISSN 1749-6497.\nMurphy, Alex (2006). The Official Illustrated History of Manchester United. London: Orion Books. ISBN 978-0-7528-7603-0.\nShury, Alan; Landamore, Brian (2005). The Definitive Newton Heath F.C. SoccerData. ISBN 978-1-899468-16-4.\nTyrrell, Tom; Meek, David (1996) [1988]. The Hamlyn Illustrated History of Manchester United 1878–1996 (5th ed.). London: Hamlyn. ISBN 978-0-600-59074-3.\nWhite, Jim (2008). Manchester United: The Biography. London: Sphere. ISBN 978-1-84744-088-4.\nWhite, John (2007) [2005]. The United Miscellany (2nd ed.). London: Carlton Books. ISBN 978-1-84442-745-1.\n\nExternal links\nOfficial website\n\nIndependent websites\nOfficial Manchester United Supporters' Trust\n\nManchester United F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures\nManchester United at Sky Sports\nManchester United at Premier League\nManchester United at UEFA\n\nBusiness data for Manchester United F.C.:",
"title": "Manchester_United_F.C."
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"paragraph_text": "Wigan Athletic Football Club () is a professional association football club based in Wigan, Greater Manchester, England. The team competes in the EFL League One, the third level of the English football league system.\nFounded in 1932, they have played at the 25,138-seat The Brick Community Stadium since 1999, before which they played at Springfield Park. Their colours are blue and white stripes, although all-blue shirts have been common throughout the club's history. The club regards Bolton Wanderers as its primary derby rival.\nWigan competed in the Cheshire County League for the first nine seasons of the club's existence, winning three league titles before being placed in the Lancashire Combination in 1947. It spent 14 years in the Lancashire Combination and secured four league titles during this time. It spent 1961 to 1968 back in the Cheshire County League, picking up another league title in 1964–65. Invited to become a founder member of the Northern Premier League in 1968, the club won two league titles and also reached the FA Trophy final in 1973. Wigan was elected to the Football League in 1978 and was promoted out of the Fourth Division in 1981–82. The club won the Associate Members' Cup in 1985, but was relegated back into the fourth tier in 1993. It won the Third Division title in 1996–97, the Football League Trophy in 1999 and the Second Division in 2002–03, before securing promotion out of the Championship in 2004–05.\nWigan lost in the League Cup final in 2006 and won the FA Cup in 2013, beating Manchester City in the final. However, the club was relegated later that year, bringing its eight-season stay in the Premier League to an end. The FA Cup success did, though, gain it a place in the UEFA Europa League group stages the following season. Relegated from the Championship in 2015, the club won the League One title in 2015–16 and repeated this feat in 2017–18 after another relegation. On 1 July 2020, less than a month after a change of ownership, it was placed into administration and was relegated from the Championship due to the subsequent points deduction. After narrowly avoiding relegation to League Two in 2020–21 under new ownership, Wigan won the League One title for a fourth time in 2021–22, but a year later were again relegated from the Championship following two further points deductions. Additional deductions of points were made in May 2023, meaning the club would start the 2023–24 League One season with minus eight points.\n\nHistory\nNon-League football: 1932–1978\nWigan Athletic was formed in 1932, following the winding-up of Wigan Borough the year before. The establishment of Wigan Athletic was the sixth attempt to create a stable football club in the town following the demise of Wigan A.F.C., Wigan County, Wigan United, Wigan Town and Wigan Borough. The town's die-hard football enthusiasts planned the rebirth of a town team, and a public meeting was held at the Queen's Hall presided over by the then Mayor of Wigan, Councillor W.A. Hipwood, and Callum Roper, who called on the town to keep up its reputation for producing fine sportsmen by keeping intact an Association Football team as well as the Rugby League team. A committee was elected and a new club was formed, Wigan Athletic. Springfield Park, the former home of Wigan Borough, was purchased by the club for £2,850 from the owners of the Woodhouse Lane dog track. Despite their initial application being turned down, Wigan Athletic were elected into the Cheshire County League following the resignation of Manchester Central. The club had also made the first of many attempts to be admitted into the Football League, but failed to receive a single vote. On 27 August 1932, Wigan Athletic played their first-ever league game against Port Vale Reserves. The team played in red and white shirts with black shorts.\nWigan Athletic won its first honours in the 1933–34 season, finishing top of the Cheshire League, despite being based in neighbouring Lancashire. In the following season the club won a second league championship and also entered the FA Cup for the first time, defeating Carlisle United 6–1 in the first round – a cup record for the biggest victory by a non-League club over a League club. In the 1935–36 season, the club won its third consecutive Cheshire League title and the Lancashire Junior Cup.\nAfter the Second World War, Wigan Athletic adopted their present-day blue and white colours. The club struggled to assemble a competitive side and finished bottom of the league in 1946–47 season. Despite their pre-war success, the club failed to gain re-election and was replaced by Winsford United. The club joined the Lancashire Combination, winning the league in their first season. In 1950, Wigan Athletic came close to election to The Football League, narrowly losing out to Scunthorpe United and Shrewsbury Town. The club would frequently apply for election to the Football League over the next 28 years before finally being accepted.\nIn the 1953–54 season, Wigan played an FA Cup match against Hereford United in front of a crowd of 27,526 – a club record and also a record attendance for a match between two non-League teams at a non-League ground. In the next round of the cup, Wigan Athletic was drawn against First Division side Newcastle United. Wigan Athletic held their top-flight opponents to a 2–2 draw at St James' Park, but went on to lose the replay 3–2. In 1961, the club moved back to the Cheshire League.\nIn the 1964–65 season, Wigan Athletic won its first Cheshire League title since returning to the league, with top goalscorer Harry Lyon scoring 66 times. He remains the club's greatest goalscorer of all time. Wigan Athletic won four cup titles in the 1966–67 season (Lancashire Floodlit Cup winner, Liverpool Non League Senior Cup winner, Northern Floodlit League winner, Northern Floodlit League Cup winner) and was also Cheshire County League runner-up.\nIn 1968, Wigan Athletic was a founder member of the Northern Premier League. In winning the league title in 1970–71, the leading goalscorer, with 42 goals including seven hat-tricks, was Geoff Davies, who scored 28 goals in the following 1971–72 season. The team played at Wembley Stadium for the first time in the 1973 FA Trophy final, where they lost 2–1 to Scarborough. After 34 failed election attempts, including one controversial but headline-making application in 1972 to join the Scottish League Second Division, Wigan Athletic was elected to the Football League in 1978.\n\nEarly League years: 1978–1995\nWigan Athletic finished in second place in the Northern Premier League in the 1977–78 season, behind winners Boston United. But as Boston's ground and facilities did not meet the Football League criteria for a League club, whereas Springfield Park did, Wigan Athletic were put forward for election to the league. There was no automatic promotion to the Football League until 1987, and at that time a club had to be 'voted out' of the League to allow a non-League team to be promoted in their place. At the end of the 1977–78 season, Southport finished next to the bottom of the old Fourth Division, and faced near neighbours Wigan Athletic for their place in the league. The first round of voting was tied, with both clubs receiving 26 votes. After a tense re-vote which Wigan won 29–20, Southport lost their place in the Fourth Division and Wigan Athletic became an English League club on 2 June 1978.\nIn the club's first season of league football, Wigan Athletic finished in sixth place, just six points off promotion and playing in front of an average crowd of 6,701. Two more top-half finishes came in the following seasons, though a relatively weak 1980–81 season saw the dismissal of long-serving manager Ian McNeill shortly before the end of the season. They gained their first Football League promotion under the management of former Liverpool player Larry Lloyd in 1981–82, when a points tally of 91 saw them join the former Division Three for the first time, beginning a 10-year spell in English football's third tier. The club struggled in their first season in Division Three, which led to Lloyd's sacking in early 1983, at which point Bobby Charlton, a director at the time, took over as temporary manager before being replaced by Harry McNally. Under McNally's management, the club stabilised in Division Three and secured a pair of mid-table finishes, but a dreadful 1984–85 season cost him his job, with Tranmere manager Bryan Hamilton stepping into the breach. Under Hamilton's management, the club's performances went to the next level and they won their first silverware as a league club that season with the Freight Rover Trophy. They were beaten in the Northern final of the same competition the following season by Bolton Wanderers. More importantly, Hamilton achieved Division Three survival, which had looked an impossible task earlier that season.\n\nThe 1985–86 season saw a marked improvement in the club's league form, eventually finishing in fourth position, a then-club record high which would stand for 17 years until 2002–03. Wigan Athletic finished the season just one point outside the promotion places in the final season before the Football League introduced the play-off system for promotion and relegation. However, Hamilton's feats attracted the attention of First Division Leicester City and he left to become their manager in the summer of 1986. His assistant, Ray Mathias, who had followed him from Tranmere, stepped up to the Wigan Athletic manager's job. Wigan Athletic managed an identical fourth-place finish in the 1986–87 season, but this time were rewarded with the chance to compete for the final promotion place in the new play-off system. (In the first two years of the play-off system, teams finishing third, fourth and fifth joined the team finishing 20th in the division above to play-off for the promotion place; this was changed to the teams finishing third, fourth, fifth and sixth from the 1988–89 season). The Latics lost at the two-legged semi-final stage to Swindon, who went on to win the final promotion place.\nThe fourth-place finishes of the 1985–86 and 1986–87 seasons proved to be the high points of Wigan Athletic's first stint in Division 3. For the next five years, they finished mid-table, flirting with relegation in 1988–89 (at which time Mathias was sacked and the previous manager Bryan Hamilton returned) and 1989–90, until they were relegated for the first time in the club's league history in 1992–93. Wigan Athletic finished in 23rd place, amid tumbling attendances which had fallen from averages of 3,000–4,000 in Wigan Athletic's Division 3 years to just 2,593 in 1992–93. Hamilton resigned shortly before the club were relegated, and was replaced by Kenny Swain. A year later, with the club back in the fourth tier of the English League, the Latics finished fourth from bottom, in 19th place. While there was no relegation that season due to the lack of a promotable club in the Football Conference, this remains the club's lowest-ever finish. The following season would prove to be arguably even worse, as Swain was sacked early in the campaign following a horrific start, and former player Graham Barrow took over as manager. Despite the club being rooted to the bottom of the table until the start of December, the second half of the campaign saw a major upturn in form, and they finished well clear of the relegation zone in 15th place. Attendances fell to a lowest-ever Wigan Athletic League average of 1,845 by 1995.\n\nRising through the league: 1995–2005\nIn February 1995, local millionaire and owner of JJB Sports, Dave Whelan purchased the club. Through Whelan's business connections in Spain he attracted three Spaniards to the club – Roberto Martínez, Isidro Díaz, and Jesus Seba – who became known as the Three Amigos. The trio became the on-pitch symbols of Whelan's ambitious plan to take Wigan Athletic into the Premier League. The Three Amigos were joined at the club by John Deehan, who replaced Barrow as manager during the 1995–96 season following a 6–2 home defeat to Mansfield Town. Deehan took the Latics within two points of a play-off place in his first season; the club had in fact been in the final automatic promotion spot with four games remaining, but lost them all and so failed to even make the playoffs. The following year Wigan Athletic became Division Three champions on the last day of the season, Graeme Jones scoring a club record 31 league goals in the process. In most seasons they would have been runners-up, but a temporary rule change which saw goals scored take precedence over goal difference allowed them to finish above runners-up Fulham, who had the same number of points and a better goal difference.\nFollowing a mid-table finish in Division Two the following season, Deehan quit to become Steve Bruce's assistant at Sheffield United. He was succeeded by Ray Mathias, who returned for his third stint as Wigan Athletic manager. Mathias' team won the Football League Trophy in 1999, beating Millwall 1–0 at Wembley Stadium. The same season the Latics reached the Division Two play-offs, losing 2–1 on aggregate to Manchester City. Mathias was sacked, and replaced by John Benson. He led the team to the top of Division Two in his first six months, but they were only able to qualify for the play-offs. In the last Division Two play-off final played at the old Wembley Stadium, Wigan lost 3–2 after extra time to Gillingham.\nBenson moved 'upstairs' to the new post of director of football in the summer of 2000, when former Arsenal manager Bruce Rioch took the manager's job for the 2000–01 season. Rioch was hampered by severe injury problems and after a difficult and often unimpressive first half of the season left the club in February 2001. He was temporarily replaced by club stalwart Colin Greenall, before the surprise appointment of Steve Bruce for the final eight games of the season. His arrival brought renewed vigour to Wigan Athletic performances, but the club ultimately lost in the play-offs again, this time against Reading, and Bruce left for Crystal Palace.\nIn the summer of 2001, the former Latics forward Paul Jewell took over as manager following an unsuccessful spell at Sheffield Wednesday. His first season in charge saw mixed results and an embarrassing defeat to non-League Canvey Island in the FA Cup first round, although the club eventually finished in mid-table. Jewell's second season in charge was far more successful. Wigan Athletic went on a run to the quarter-finals of the League Cup, beating Premier League opponents West Brom, Manchester City and Fulham en route. Wigan Athletic won the Division Two championship in 2002–03 with a points total of 100, powered by the goals of then-record £1.2 million signing Nathan Ellington, with a run of 10 consecutive wins along the way. The club lost only four times all season, and Wigan Athletic secured promotion to the second tier of the English Football League for the first time in their history.\nAfter losing their first Division One game, Wigan Athletic confounded expectations to go unbeaten for the next 17 games and topped the division by November 2003. A weak finish saw Wigan Athletic win only three of their last 10 games to finish seventh in Division One – a last-minute goal by West Ham's Brian Deane in the final game of the season saw the Latics drop out of the play-off places in favour of eventual play-off winners Crystal Palace.\nHoping to build on the previous season's disappointing finish, the Latics went one better than 2003–04 by remaining unbeaten for the first 17 games of the 2004–05 season. Along with Sunderland and Ipswich, the Latics remained in the promotion hunt all season. By the last day of the season, Sunderland had already won the title and Wigan needed at least a draw against Reading – who themselves needed to win to finish in sixth place – to beat Ipswich to the last automatic promotion spot. A 3–1 victory at the JJB Stadium earned Wigan Athletic promotion to the top division of English football for the first time in their 73-year history.\n\nPremier League years and FA Cup victory: 2005–2013\nThe club's first Premier League game was a sell-out at the JJB Stadium against holders Chelsea, a 1–0 defeat after an injury-time winner by Hernán Crespo. A successful run followed, and by November, Wigan were second in the league. Good league form was coupled with an equally strong performance in the Football League Cup, with Wigan reaching their first ever major cup final after defeating Arsenal on away goals in the semi-final. In the final, Wigan were defeated 4–0 by neighbours Manchester United. Wigan Athletic eventually finished the season in 10th place, which remains the club's highest ever league placing. Defender Pascal Chimbonda was also included in the 2005–06 PFA Team of the Season, capping off his season by being picked for the France squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup.\nDuring the close season, Wigan sold many players who had starred in their first season in the Premier League, such as Jimmy Bullard, Jason Roberts and Stéphane Henchoz, while bringing in replacements including Emile Heskey, Denny Landzaat, Chris Kirkland and Antonio Valencia. After a mid-table start to the 2006–07 season, Wigan had eight consecutive losses from mid-December, but was 15th in early March. On the final day of the season, Wigan got a 2–1 away win against Sheffield United, which kept them up at the expense of their opponents. The following day, Paul Jewell unexpectedly resigned as manager; his assistant Chris Hutchings was appointed as his replacement.\nWigan's third Premier League campaign saw changes in the squad, with Titus Bramble, Mario Melchiot, Jason Koumas and Marcus Bent among the players brought in, and Melchiot was installed as the new club captain. The 2007–08 season began well for Wigan, with Emile Heskey recalled to the England squad, as the first Wigan player to represent England whilst a full member of the club. However, he broke his foot immediately after his England call-up and was out injured for six weeks. The club's league position subsequently worsened, and on the back of a run of six consecutive defeats, Wigan fell into the relegation zone. Whelan took the decision to sack Hutchings on 5 November 2007, after 12 games in charge, reinstating Steve Bruce, who saved the club from relegation.\nIn the summer of 2008, Bruce signed Lee Cattermole from Middlesbrough for £3.5 million, and Egyptian striker Amr Zaki sign on an initial one-year loan. Zaki had scored 10 Premier League goals by February 2009, as Wigan reached seventh place in the table with 34 points from 25 games. January saw the departure of two key first team members, Wilson Palacios and Emile Heskey, to Tottenham and Aston Villa respectively. Despite these changes, Wigan finished the season in 11th place with 45 points, their second-best finish ever in the Premier League. On 3 June, Bruce left Wigan for the second time to take over the vacant manager position at Sunderland. July saw the departure of another key first team member Antonio Valencia to Manchester United. Before the 2009–10 season got underway, Cattermole left for Sunderland.\n\nWigan appointed Roberto Martínez, then manager of Swansea City, as manager prior to the 2009–10 Premier League season. He previously played for Wigan from 1995 to 2001. On 26 September, they claimed their first three points against a \"Big 4\" team after beating Chelsea 3–1, with goals from Titus Bramble, Hugo Rodallega and Paul Scharner. A late surge that included a 1–0 win over Liverpool and a 3–2 win over Arsenal – the latter of which saw Wigan recover from two goals down with ten minutes remaining to win in injury time – saw the team once more survive relegation. Most notably, having never defeated any of the traditional \"Big Four\" in the league until their win over Chelsea (and with only one win over any of them in cup competitions), Wigan ended the season having defeated three of them at home. Despite this high, the season also saw two humiliating 8 goal defeats, firstly a 9–1 thrashing at Tottenham in November, and finally an 8–0 defeat to Chelsea on the final day of the season, a match which saw their opponents crowned Premier League champions.\nIn the 2010–11 season, Wigan fell to the bottom of the league by the end of February, following a 4–0 defeat to Manchester United. However, despite remaining in the bottom three for the majority of the season, they managed to retain their Premier League status on the last day of the season, defeating Stoke City at the Britannia Stadium after a goal from Hugo Rodallega. On 7 May 2012, they simultaneously secured their Premier League status and relegated Blackburn Rovers with a 1–0 victory at Ewood Park.\n\nIn 2013, after beating Everton in the quarter-final and Millwall in the semi-final, Wigan reached the FA Cup final for the first time in their history. In the final, played at Wembley Stadium, Wigan beat Manchester City 1–0, with a goal by Ben Watson scored in injury time.\nWigan's first ever major trophy also gave the club a place in the group stage of the Europa League. Following their 4–1 defeat to Arsenal three days later, Wigan Athletic ended their eight-year spell in the Premier League and became the first team to be relegated and win the FA Cup in the same season. On 5 June it was announced that Martínez had left Wigan and had signed for Everton on a four-year deal.\n\nEnd of the Whelan era: 2013–2018\nOwen Coyle became the new manager of Wigan Athletic when Martínez left for Everton. The team lost to Manchester United in the Community Shield. Coyle left by mutual agreement on 2 December 2013 after a poor start to the season, and was replaced by Uwe Rösler. On 12 December in his first match, Wigan were eliminated from the Europa League group stage after defeat to Maribor. On 9 March 2014 Wigan beat Manchester City to reach the semi-final of the FA Cup at Wembley for the second successive year, where they played Arsenal, and lost 4–2 on penalties after normal time and extra time resulted in a 1–1 draw. After finishing 5th in the Championship, Wigan lost their play-off semi-final to Queens Park Rangers.\nRösler was sacked in November 2014 with the club in the relegation places, and was replaced by Malky Mackay. Whelan resigned as chairman on 3 March 2015, remaining as owner but handing over the chairmanship to his grandson David Sharpe. The following month, with Wigan in danger of relegation to League One, Mackay was sacked and replaced by former Wigan captain Gary Caldwell, yet the team ended the season with relegation. The squad changed drastically, including the signings of Will Grigg from Brentford and Reece James from Manchester United. The side lost only once in 23 matches in the second half of the season and won the division, with Grigg the league's top scorer with 25 goals.\n\nIn October 2016, following a poor start to the season, Caldwell was sacked as manager and replaced by Manchester United coach Warren Joyce. Results did not improve under Joyce, who was sacked in March 2017. Wigan were subsequently relegated back to League One in April and interim manager Graham Barrow left, ending a 15-year association with the club. Paul Cook, who had just won League Two with Portsmouth, was appointed Wigan manager in June 2017.\nIn the 2017–18 League One season, Wigan finished top winning promotion back to the Championship. Their promotion was sealed by a 4–0 win against Fleetwood Town. In the 2017–18 FA Cup, Wigan beat Manchester City in the fifth round at home, winning 1–0 after Will Grigg scored in the 79th minute. In the quarter-finals, they were knocked out by Southampton in a 2–0 loss. At the end of the season it was announced that the Whelan family had agreed a deal to sell the club, stadium and training facilities to the Hong Kong–based International Entertainment Corporation (IEC) in a £22m deal. On 2 November 2018, IEC received shareholder approval to complete the acquisition of the football club, ending 23 years of Whelan family ownership.\nIn the 2018–19 season, Wigan finished 18th in the Championship with 52 points, well clear of the relegation zone.\n\nAdministration, financial instability, and new ownership: Since 2020\nOn 4 June 2020, IEC sold the majority of Wigan Athletic shareholdings to Hong Kong–based Next Leader Fund; the sale was formally ratified and approved by the shareholders of IEC, the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the EFL. On 1 July 2020, the club – standing 14th in the Championship, eight points clear of relegation, in a season delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic – announced it had gone into administration as Next Leader Fund had refused to invest promised money. The insolvency left Wigan facing a 12-point deduction; the sanction would be applied at the end of the 2019–20 season if the club finished outside the bottom three after 46 games. Wigan MP Lisa Nandy and Greater Manchester mayor Andy Burnham wrote a joint letter to Parry calling for an investigation into the club's takeover. Players had not been paid and there was talk of club staff being made redundant and of players being offered for sale, they said. Wigan's supporters club also called for an investigation and for financial support from the EFL; supporters, backed by Nandy, later launched an online petition to try to trigger a parliamentary debate around the EFL's owners' and directors' test.\nOn 7 July, 75 (approximately half) of the club's non-playing staff were made redundant by the administrators.\nMeanwhile, on 7 July 2020 the club had appealed against the 12-point deduction imposed by the EFL for entering administration. On 14 July, Wigan recorded their biggest League victory, beating Hull City 8–0. This, combined with other results, meant Wigan would not finish in the relegation places, so the 12-point deduction would be applied at the end of the current season with the relegation confirmed on 4 August.\nOn 17 August 2020, it was reported that Au Yeung Wai Kay, the club's owner, had, on 23 June, asked Begbies Traynor about putting it into administration before completing his takeover. Wigan supporters began a fund-raising effort, initially raising £500,000 to help secure the club's future, and then raising £200,000 more.\nAdministrators had been confident a sale would be agreed by their deadline, but later revised their opinion.\nBy early March 2021, the administrators were in advanced talks with a consortium, Phoenix 2021 Ltd, led by Bahrain businessmen Abdulrahman Al-Jasmi and Talal Mubarak al-Hammad, which was confirmed officially on 30 March. In May, the former administrators repaid £171,000 raised by supporters to keep the club going when it first went into administration.\nThe club finished the 2020–21 season in 20th position, one point above the relegation places. Wigan Athletic won the League One title under Leam Richardson in the following season, earning promotion back to the Championship after a final day 3–0 victory at Shrewsbury Town.\nOn 7 March 2023, Wigan reported a £7.7m loss for the financial year to June 2022. Four days later, Wigan released a statement saying there would be a temporary delay in meeting wage obligations due to liquidity issues; the EFL was aware of the situation and on 20 March 2023, bottom-of-the-table Wigan were docked three points for failing to pay players, having had a previous EFL sanction for non-payment suspended. At the end of the 2022–23 season, they were relegated from the Championship.\nIn late May 2023, Wigan were hit with two further points deductions and would therefore start its next season with minus eight points. On 12 June, HMRC lodged a winding-up petition over unpaid tax. On 14 June 2023, Wigan-born billionaire and Wigan Warriors RLFC co-owner Mike Danson bought the club and immediately paid all creditors, including staff.\n\nStadium\nWigan Athletic's stadium is the 25,138 capacity The Brick Community Stadium, part of the Robin Park complex in Wigan. It has been the club's home since the 1999–2000 season. Wigan Athletic owns the stadium, but leases the ground to rugby league team Wigan Warriors. The stadium cost £30 million to construct. Previously, home games were played at Springfield Park, the former home of Wigan Borough, which was demolished in June 1999; it is now the site of a housing development. The record attendance at The Brick Community Stadium (then known as the JJB Stadium) for Wigan Athletic is 25,133 for a game against Manchester United on 11 May 2008 – the final match of the 2007–08 season.\nThe stadium, initially known as the JJB Stadium for sponsorship reasons, was the fourth attempt at re-development/re-location for Wigan Athletic, the first coming in 1986 when then-chairman Bill Kenyon revealed plans for a 15,000 all-seater development at Springfield Park including a hotel and shopping facilities. The club was to play at the nearby Woodhouse Stadium (formerly Wigan Municipal Stadium – now demolished) while the building work took place. In 1990, Kenyon submitted his second scheme which would cost £3m, hold 12–15,000 fans and involved moving the pitch nearer to the car park. Neither efforts got past the planning stage. The next chairman, Stephen Gage, spent most of 1993 and 1994 trying to relocate the Latics to the then Robin Park Stadium (now demolished) until his plans were scuppered by Wigan Council when the local council announced plans for their own ground involving Wigan Warriors. Gage finally admitted defeat when he sold the Latics to Dave Whelan on 27 February 1995 for around £1m.\nPlans for the JJB Stadium were first published in 1997. Contracts for the new stadium were signed in late 1997 and work began immediately. Originally the ground was to be built for both Wigan Athletic and Orrell R.U.F.C., as grants were only available for multi-use stadia at that time. Wigan Warriors did not figure in the equation until Whelan bought the rugby league club some 12 months later after protracted negotiations with the directors of the rugby league club. The modern all-seater stadium was officially opened on 4 August 1999. Its inauguration was marked with a friendly between Wigan and neighbours Manchester United, who were then reigning European Champions, with Alex Ferguson officially opening the stadium. However, Wigan Athletic hosted Morecambe three days earlier on 1 August as a dress rehearsal for the official opening against Manchester United. The game was played during a violent electrical storm and torrential rain, even so, 4,020 supporters attended and the game ended in a goalless draw. The first competitive football match took place on 7 August 1999, with Wigan Athletic facing Scunthorpe United in a Division 2 match. Simon Haworth scored twice, including the first competitive goal at the new stadium, as Athletic won 3–0.\nOn 7 March 2005 Greater Manchester Police announced that it would stop policing Wigan Athletic matches at the stadium from 2 April. This move left Wigan Athletic facing the prospect of playing their home games in the Premier League in an empty stadium, so they paid the money they owed to the police. The club appealed against the payments in court and won, with the claims expected to earn the club around £37,000.\nOn 25 March 2009 it was announced that Wigan Athletic would change the name of their stadium to The DW Stadium, after chairman Dave Whelan's commercial venture, DW Sports Fitness. For 2013–14 Europa League fixtures held at the stadium, the ground was known as The Wigan Athletic Stadium. From 13 May 2024, the stadium was renamed The Brick Community Stadium, in partnership with a local Wigan charity, The Brick, which works to address poverty and homelessness. The name will remain in place until the end of 2025 while Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors secure a long-term commercial stadium partner for 2026 and beyond.\n\nSupporters\nWigan Athletic Official Supporters Club (formerly known as Wigan Athletic Supporters Travel Club) is the official supporters' association of Wigan Athletic Football Club. The supporters club are a non-profit organisation run by volunteers and meet before home matches in the South Stand Bar.\nThe Latics' most vocal supporters can be found in the East Stand of The Brick Community Stadium which houses up to 8,206 fans The South Stand of the ground is the family stand.\nA long-standing song sung by fans of the club is \"You Are My Sunshine\". In more recent times, \"I'm a Believer\", the Hokey cokey, \"We Built This City\" and \"Gold\" are among some of the songs that have been adapted by Wigan supporters.\nThe club has one unofficial fanzine, The Mudhutter, which is released between 5 and 6 times during the season.\nResulting from a number of incidents at Latics matches where smoke bombs were used by fans (resulting in 17 banning orders as a result of one fixture), several club statements were issued and police presence was increased at some matches. Data from the UK Football Policing Unit found that Wigan Athletic along with Everton and Manchester United had the highest number of incidents involving pyrotechnics.\nWigan's return to the Championship saw an average away following of over 1,200. This figure did not include Europa League, Community Shield, League Cup and FA Cup fixtures, where on average supporters turned up in greater numbers.\nIn 2013, the club sold out their 25,000 allocation for the FA Cup final and sold 20,000 tickets for the FA Cup semi-final. A total of 5,500 was also sold for the FA Community Shield in the same year.\nIn 2014, hundreds of fans took part in a charity walk from Wigan to Bolton in aid of local charity Joseph's Goal. Joseph was Wigan's mascot in the 2013 FA Cup final, led out by captain Emmerson Boyce.\nOn Boxing Day, over the years many fans have chosen to attend Wigan Athletic's match in fancy dress. This is particularly prominent with away fixtures on that day where the fans are known as the 'Banana Army'. However, on Boxing Day in 2014 a boycott of the club's fixture against Leeds United was ordered by some supporters due to the ticket prices for the match at Elland Road. Around 750 away fans attended the match.\nDuring the 2014–15 season, a Fan Advisory Board (FAB) was set up by the club to allow supporters of Wigan Athletic to have a greater say on any issues they may have. The board meets every month to six weeks with the first meeting having taken place in November 2014.\n\nMascot\nIn August 2019, the club announced that a giant pie, called Crusty, would serve as the team's new mascot for the 2019–20 season. Crusty The Pie was chosen following a competition in which more than 90 primary schools were invited to submit ideas, with over half of the entries opting for a pie.\n\nRivalries\nSince Wigan Athletic's admission to the Football League in 1978, the club has built up several rivalries, mainly with Bolton Wanderers, the club's primary derby match.\nOne rivalry that has arisen in recent years has been that with Manchester City, since the first time they met in the Second Division in 1998, the season in which City gained passage to the 1999 Division Two play-off final through the \"Hand of Goat\". Wigan met City in the 2013 FA Cup final and beat them 1–0. Since then, City have failed to beat Wigan in the competition; losing 2–1 at the Etihad in the 2013–14 FA Cup quarter-final and, in February 2018, losing 1–0 with third tier Wigan beating eventual Premier League champions City with a Will Grigg goal.\nWigan also have other local rivalries with Preston North End, Blackburn Rovers, Oldham Athletic, Blackpool and Rochdale.\nOne of the club's longest and recently forgotten rivalries was with nearby Lancashire based club Chorley, although the two clubs have not played a league game since 1971 when they were in the Northern Premier League. The last time Wigan played Chorley was in the first round of the FA Cup in 2020, with non-League Chorley beating an administration-stricken Wigan 3–2 after extra-time.\n\nEuropean record\nWigan's victory in the 2013 FA Cup final qualified them for European football for the first and only time, earning them an automatic place in the group stage of the 2013–14 UEFA Europa League.\n\nPlayers\nFirst team\nAs of 16 August 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nClub officials\nBoard\n\nAs of 2 August 2024\nOwner: Mike Danson\nChairman & CEO: Ben Goodburn\nDirector: Lucas Danson\nSporting Director: Gregor Rioch\nLife President: Dave Whelan\nHonorary President: Brenda Spencer\nCoaching & Medical Staff\n\nAs of 2 August 2024\nManager: Shaun Maloney\nAssistant Manager: Max Rogers\nFirst Team Coach: Glenn Whelan\nFirst Team Coach: Shadab Iftikhar\nGoalkeeping Coach: Andy Lonergan\nKitman: Naz Ali\nAcademy Manager: Jake Campbell\nUnder 21s Manager: Chris Brown\nUnder 18s Manager: Peter Murphy\n\nNotable former players\nPlayer of the Year\nManagers\nAs listed on the official Wigan Athletic website.\n\nRecords\nHighest league position: 10th in the Premier League (2005–06)\nRecord League victory: 8–0 vs Hull City (Championship, 14 July 2020)\nRecord attendance at The Brick Community Stadium: 25,133 v Manchester United, Premier League (11 May 2008)\nRecord Attendance Springfield Park (Wigan): 27,526, vs Hereford United F.C., FA Cup (1953)\nMost League appearances: 317, Kevin Langley (1981–1986, 1990–1994)\nMost League goals scored: total, 70, Andy Liddell (1998–2003)\nMost League goals scored, season: 31, Graeme Jones (1996–97)\nRecord consecutive league appearances: 123, Jimmy Bullard (January 2003 – November 2005)\nRecord transfer fee paid: Charles N'Zogbia, £7 million, from Newcastle United, February 2009\nRecord transfer fee received: Antonio Valencia, £15 million, to Manchester United, June 2009\n\nHonours\nSource:\nLeague\n\nChampionship (level 2)\nRunners-up: 2004–05\nSecond Division / League One (level 3)\nChampions: 2002–03, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2021–22\nFourth Division / Third Division (level 4)\nChampions: 1996–97\nPromoted: 1981–82\nNorthern Premier League (level 5)\nChampions: 1970–71, 1974–75\nLancashire Combination\nChampions: 1947–48, 1950–51, 1952–53, 1953–54\nNorthern Floodlit League\nChampions: 1966–67\nCheshire League\nChampions: 1933–34, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1964–65\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners: 2012–13\nLeague Cup\nRunners-up: 2005–06\nFA Community Shield\nRunners-up: 2013\nAssociate Members' Cup / Football League Trophy\nWinners: 1984–85, 1998–99\nFA Trophy\nRunners-up: 1972–73\nNorthern Premier League Shield\nWinners: 1972–73, 1973–74, 1975–76\nNorthern Premier League Challenge Cup\nWinners: 1971–72\n\nNotes and references\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nWigan Athletic at Curlie\nWigan Athletic F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures\n\"Brief history of Wigan Athletic\". Archived from the original on 14 December 2005. Retrieved 5 December 2005.\nThe Springfield Park Memorial",
"title": "Wigan_Athletic_F.C."
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"paragraph_text": "Newcastle United Football Club is a professional association football club based in Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, England. The club competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. Since the formation of the club in 1892, when Newcastle East End absorbed the assets of Newcastle West End to become Newcastle United, the club has played its home matches at St James' Park. Located in the centre of Newcastle, it currently has a capacity of 52,374.\nThe club has been a member of the Premier League for all but three years of the competition's history, spending 92 seasons in the top flight as of May 2024, and has never dropped below English football's second tier since joining the Football League in 1893. Newcastle have won four League titles, six FA Cups and an FA Charity Shield, as well as the 1968–69 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, the ninth-highest total of trophies won by an English club. The club's most successful period was between 1904 and 1910, when they won an FA Cup and three of their League titles. Their last major domestic trophy was in 1955. More recently the club have been League or FA Cup runners-up on four occasions in the 1990s. Newcastle were relegated in 2009, and again in 2016. The club won promotion at the first time of asking each time, returning to the Premier League, as Championship winners, in 2010 and 2017. In October 2021, a consortium led by the Public Investment Fund, the sovereign wealth fund of Saudi Arabia, became majority owners of Newcastle United.\nThe team's traditional kit colours are black-and-white striped shirts, black shorts and black or white socks. Their crest has elements of the city coat of arms, which features two grey hippocamps. Before each home game, the team enters the field to \"Going Home\", with \"Blaydon Races\" also being sung during games. The 2005 film Goal! featured Newcastle United, and many signings mentioned the influence the film had on them.\n\nHistory\n1881–1903: formation and early history\nThe first record of football being played on Tyneside dates from 3 March 1877 at Elswick Rugby Club. Later that year, Newcastle's first football club, Tyne Association, was formed. The origins of Newcastle United Football Club itself can be traced back to the formation of a football club by the Stanley Cricket Club of Byker in November 1881. This team was renamed Newcastle East End F.C. in October 1882, to avoid confusion with the cricket club in Stanley, County Durham. Rosewood F.C. of Byker merged with Newcastle East End a short time later. In 1886, Newcastle East End moved from Byker to Heaton. In August 1882, Newcastle West End F.C. formed from West End Cricket Club, and in May 1886 moved into St James' Park. The two clubs became rivals in the Northern League. In 1889, Newcastle East End became a professional team, before becoming a limited company the following March. Newcastle West End, on the other hand, was in serious financial trouble and approached East End with a view to a takeover. Newcastle West End was eventually dissolved, and a number of its players and backroom staff joined Newcastle East End, effectively merging the two clubs, with Newcastle East End taking over the lease on St James' Park in May 1892.\nWith only one senior club in the city for fans to support, development of the club was much more rapid. Despite being refused entry to the Football League's First Division at the start of the 1892–93 season, they were invited to play in their new Second Division. However, with no big names playing in the Second Division, they turned down the offer and remained in the Northern League, stating \"gates would not meet the heavy expenses incurred for travelling\". In a bid to start drawing larger crowds, Newcastle East End decided to adopt a new name in recognition of the merger. Suggested names included 1892 Newcastle, Newcastle Rangers, Newcastle City and City of Newcastle, but Newcastle United was decided upon on 9 December 1892, to signify the unification of the two teams. The name change was accepted by the Football Association on 22 December, but the club was not legally constituted as Newcastle United Football Club Co. Ltd. until 6 September 1895. At the start of the 1893–94 season, Newcastle United were once again refused entry to the First Division and so joined the Second Division, along with Liverpool and Woolwich Arsenal. They played their first competitive match in the division that September against Woolwich Arsenal, with a score of 2–2.\nTurnstile numbers were still low, and the club published a statement stating, \"The Newcastle public do not deserve to be catered for as far as professional football is concerned\". However, eventually figures picked up by 1895–96, when 14,000 fans watched the team play Bury. That season Frank Watt became secretary of the club, and he was instrumental in promotion to the First Division for the 1898–99 season. However, they lost their first game 4–2 at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers and finished their first season in 13th place.\n\n1903–1937: first glory years and war years\nIn 1903–04, the club built up a promising squad of players, and went on to dominate English football for almost a decade, the team known for their \"artistic play, combining team-work and quick, short passing\". Long after his retirement, Peter McWilliam, the team's defender at the time, said, \"The Newcastle team of the 1900s would give any modern side a two goal start and beat them, and furthermore, beat them at a trot\". Newcastle United went on to win the League on three occasions during the 1900s; 1904–05, 1906–07 and 1908–09. In 1904–05, they nearly did the double, losing to Aston Villa in the 1905 FA Cup Final. They were beaten again the following year by Everton in the 1906 FA Cup Final. They reached the final again in 1908 where they lost to Wolverhampton Wanderers. They finally won the FA Cup in 1910 when they beat Barnsley in the final. They lost again the following year in the final against Bradford City.\nThe team returned to the FA Cup final in 1924, in the second final held at the then new Wembley Stadium. They beat Aston Villa, winning the club's second FA Cup. Three years later, they won the First Division championship a fourth time in 1926–27, with Hughie Gallacher, one of the most prolific goal scorers in the club's history, captaining the team. Other key players in this period were Neil Harris, Stan Seymour and Frank Hudspeth. In 1930, Newcastle United came close to relegation, and at the end of the season Gallacher left the club for Chelsea, and at the same time Andy Cunningham became the club's first team manager. In 1931–32, the club won the FA Cup a third time. However, a couple of years later, at the end of the 1933–34 season, the team were relegated to the Second Division after 35 seasons in the top. Cunningham left as manager and Tom Mather took over.\n\n1937–1969: post-war success\nThe club found it difficult to adjust to the Second Division and were nearly further relegated in the 1937–38 season, when they were spared on goal average. However, when World War II broke out in 1939, Newcastle had a chance to regroup, and in the War period, they brought in Jackie Milburn, Tommy Walker and Bobby Cowell. They were finally promoted back to the First Division at the end of the 1947–48 season. During the 1950s, Newcastle won the FA Cup three times in five years, beating Blackpool in 1951, Arsenal in 1952 and Manchester City in 1955. However, after this last FA Cup victory the club fell back into decline and were relegated to the Second Division once again at the end of the 1960–61 season under the management of Charlie Mitten. Mitten left after one season in the Second Division and was replaced by former player Joe Harvey. Newcastle returned to the First Division at the end of the 1964–65 season after winning the Second Division title. Under Harvey, the club qualified for European competition for the first time after a good run in the 1967–68 season and the following year won the 1969 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final, triumphing 6–2 over two legs against Hungary's Újpest in the final.\n\n1969–1992: bouncing between divisions\nHarvey bought striker Malcolm Macdonald in the summer of 1971, for a club record transfer fee of £180,000 (equivalent to £2,265,000 in 2021). He was an impressive goal scorer, who led United's attack to Wembley in their 1974 FA Cup Final defeat at the hands of Liverpool. The club also had back to back triumphs in the Texaco Cup in 1974 and 1975. Harvey left the club in 1975, with Gordon Lee brought in to replace him. Lee took the team to the 1976 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City, but failed to bring the trophy back to Tyneside. However, he sold Macdonald to Arsenal at the end of the season, a decision of which Macdonald later said \"I loved Newcastle, until Gordon Lee took over\". Lee left for Everton in 1977, and was replaced by Richard Dinnis.\nUnited dropped once again to the Second Division at the end of the 1977–78 season. Dinnis was replaced by Bill McGarry, and then he was replaced by Arthur Cox. Cox steered Newcastle back to the First Division at the end of the 1983–84 season, with players such as Peter Beardsley, Chris Waddle and ex-England captain Kevin Keegan the fulcrum of the team. However, with a lack of funds, Cox left for Derby County and Keegan retired. With managers such as Jack Charlton and then Willie McFaul, Newcastle remained in the top-flight, until key players such as Waddle, Beardsley and Paul Gascoigne were sold, and the team was relegated once more in the 1988–89 season. McFaul left the managerial post, and was replaced by Jim Smith. Smith left at the start of the 1991–92 season and the board appointed Osvaldo Ardiles his replacement.\nJohn Hall became the club's chairman in 1992, and replaced Ardiles with Keegan, who managed to save the team from relegation to the Third Division. Keegan was given more money for players, buying Rob Lee, Paul Bracewell and Barry Venison. The club won the First Division championship at the end of the 1992–93 season, earning promotion to the Premier League.\n\n1993–2007: into the Premier League\nAt the end of their first year, 1993–94 season, back in the top flight they finished in third, their highest league finish since 1927. The attacking philosophy of Keegan led to the team being labelled \"The Entertainers\" by Sky Sports.\nKeegan took Newcastle to two consecutive runners-up finishes in the league in 1995–96 and 1996–97, coming very close to winning the title in the former season which included a 4–3 game against Liverpool at Anfield – often considered the greatest game in Premier League history – which ended with a defining image of the Premier League with Keegan slumped over the advertising hoarding. The success of the team was in part due to the attacking talent of players like David Ginola, Les Ferdinand and Alan Shearer, who was signed on 30 July 1996 for a then world record fee of £15 million.\nKeegan left Newcastle in January 1997 and was replaced by Kenny Dalglish, however the club endured a largely unsuccessful season with a 13th-place finish in the 1997–98 FA Premier League, failure to progress beyond the group stages of the 1997–98 UEFA Champions League despite beating Barcelona and group winners Dynamo Kyiv at home as well as coming from 2–0 down to draw 2–2 with Valeriy Lobanovskyi's team in Ukraine and defeat in the 1998 FA Cup Final. Dalglish was replaced as manager early in the following season by Ruud Gullit. The club once again finished 13th in the league and lost the 1999 FA Cup Final. Gullit fell into disagreements with the squad and chairman Freddy Shepherd, and quit the club five games into the 1999–2000 season with the team bottom of the table to be replaced by Bobby Robson. In 1999 Newcastle was 5th-highest revenue producing club in the world; second in England behind Manchester United.\n\nA title challenge emerged during the 2001–02 season, and Newcastle's fourth-place finish saw them qualify for the UEFA Champions League. The following season, Robson guided the team to another title challenge and finished third in the League, and the second group stage of the Champions League, after being the first team to have progressed past the first group stage after losing their first three games. Newcastle finished fifth in the league at the end of the 2003–04 season, and exited the Champions League in the qualifying rounds, but despite this Robson was sacked in August 2004 following a series of disagreements with the club.\n\nGraeme Souness was brought in as manager early in the 2004–05 season. In his time at the helm, he broke the club's transfer record by signing Michael Owen for £16.8 million. Souness also took Newcastle to the quarter-finals of the 2004–05 UEFA Cup with Alan Shearer winning the tournament's golden boot as well. However, he was sacked in February 2006 after a bad start to the club's 2005–06 season. Glenn Roeder took over, initially on a temporary basis, before being appointed full-time manager at the end of the season. Shearer retired at the end of the 2005–06 season as the club's all-time record goal scorer, with 206 goals.\nIn 2006, Newcastle won the Intertoto Cup for the first time in their history, and their first European trophy since 1973.\nDespite finishing the 2005–06 season in seventh, Roeder's fortunes changed in the 2006–07 season, with a terrible injury run to the senior squad, and he left the club by mutual consent on 6 May 2007. After the 2006–07 season, and inside the Premier League era, Newcastle United were now the fifth most successful Premiership club in terms of points gained.\nSam Allardyce was appointed Roeder's replacement as manager on 15 May 2007.\n\n2007–2021: Mike Ashley era\nOn 7 June, Freddy Shepherd's final shares in the club were sold to Mike Ashley and Shepherd was replaced as chairman by Chris Mort on 25 July. Ashley then announced he would be delisting the club from the London Stock Exchange upon completion of the takeover. The club officially ceased trading on the Stock Exchange as of 8 am on 18 July 2007 at 5p a share.\nAllardyce departed the club on in January 2008 by mutual consent after a bad start to the 2007–08 season, and Kevin Keegan was reappointed as Newcastle manager. Mort stepped down as chairman in June and was replaced by Derek Llambias, a long-term associate of Ashley. Newcastle finished the 2007–08 season in 12th place, but as the season drew to a close, Keegan publicly criticised the board, stating they were not providing the team enough financial support.\nIn September 2008, Keegan resigned as manager, stating: \"It's my opinion that a manager must have the right to manage and that clubs should not impose upon any manager any player that he does not want\". Former Wimbledon manager Joe Kinnear was appointed as his replacement, but in February 2009, due to his heart surgery, Alan Shearer was appointed interim manager in his absence. Under Shearer, the club were relegated to the Championship at the end of the 2008–09 season, the first time the club had left the Premier League since joining it in 1993.\nFollowing their relegation, the club was put up for sale in June 2009, with an asking price of £100 million. Chris Hughton was given the manager job on a caretaker basis before taking over full-time on 27 October 2009. On the same day, Ashley announced that the club was no longer for sale.\n\nHughton led Newcastle to win the 2009–10 Championship, securing automatic promotion on 5 April 2010 with five games remaining, and securing the title on 19 April; Newcastle were promoted back to the Premier League after just one season away.\nUnder Hughton, Newcastle enjoyed a strong start to the 2010–11 season, but he was sacked on 6 December 2010. The club's board stated that they felt \"an individual with more managerial experience [was] needed to take the club forward.\" Three days later, Alan Pardew was appointed as manager with a five-and-a-half-year contract. Despite some turbulence, Newcastle were able to finish 12th at the end of the season, with one particular highlight being a 4–4 home draw against Arsenal that saw Newcastle come back from four goals down to claim a point.\nThe start of the 2011–12 season was very successful as they went on to enjoy one of their strongest openings to a season, playing 11 consecutive games unbeaten. Newcastle eventually secured a place in the 2012–13 Europa League with a fifth-place finish, their highest league position since the Bobby Robson days. Further honours were to come as Pardew won both the Premier League Manager of the Season and the LMA Manager of the Year awards.\nIn the following season Newcastle made few acquisitions in the summer and suffered injuries over the season. As a result, the first half of the season was marred by a run of 10 losses in 13 games, which saw the club sink near the relegation zone. The Europa League campaign was largely successful with the team making the quarter-finals before bowing out to eventual finalists Benfica. Domestically, Newcastle struggled, and stayed up after a 2–1 victory over already-relegated Queens Park Rangers on the penultimate game of the season.\n\nThe 2014–15 season saw Newcastle fail to win any of their first seven games, prompting fans to start a campaign to get Pardew sacked as manager before an upturn in form saw them climb to fifth in the table. Pardew left for Crystal Palace in December. On 26 January 2015, his assistant John Carver was put in charge for the remainder of the season but came close to relegation, staying up on the final day with a 2–0 home win against West Ham, with Jonás Gutiérrez, who beat testicular cancer earlier in the season, scoring the team's second goal.\nOn 9 June 2015, Carver was sacked and replaced by Steve McClaren the following day. On 11 March 2016, McClaren was sacked after nine months as manager, with Newcastle in 19th place in the Premier League and the club having won just six of 28 Premier League games during his time at the club. He was replaced by Spaniard Rafael Benítez on the same day, who signed a three-year deal, but was not able to prevent the club from being relegated for the second time under Ashley's ownership.\nNewcastle returned to the Premier League at the first attempt, winning the Championship title in May 2017. In October, Mike Ashley put Newcastle United up for sale for the second time. The team finished the season with a 3–0 win over the previous year's champions Chelsea, finishing tenth in the league, their highest finish in four years. The following season saw a 13th-place finish, despite being in the relegation zone in January. Ashley came under increased scrutiny for his lack of investment in the squad and apparent focus on other business ventures. Benitez left his position on 30 June 2019 after rejecting a new contract.\nOn 17 July 2019, former Sunderland manager Steve Bruce was appointed as manager on a three-year contract. Bruce oversaw 13th and 12th-placed finishes during his two full seasons in charge.\n\n2021–present: PIF era\nOn 7 October 2021, after 14 years as owner, Ashley sold the club to a new consortium for a reported £305 million. The consortium was made up of Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund, RB Sports & Media and PCP Capital Partners. On 20 October, Bruce left his position by mutual consent, after receiving a reported £8 million payout. Eddie Howe was appointed as Bruce's replacement on 8 November. Howe guided the club to an 11th-place finish after a run of 12 wins in their final 18 games, and Newcastle became the first team in Premier League history to avoid relegation after failing to win any of their first 14 games.\nOn 21 August 2022, Newcastle United Women moved into the club's ownership for the first time, after a formal restructuring. At the end of the 2022–23 season, the club sealed qualification for the Champions League for the first time in 20 years. The season was the subject of the Amazon Prime Video documentary We Are Newcastle United. In the 2023–24 season, Newcastle were eliminated in the group stages of the Champions League.\n\nClub identity\nThe club's home colours are a black and white striped shirt. Shorts and socks are usually black with white trim, though white socks are sometimes worn. Newcastle's colours at the outset were generally the home kit of Newcastle East End, comprising plain red shirts with white shorts and red socks. In 1894, the club adopted the black and white striped shirts, which had been used as the reserve team's colours. These colours were chosen for the senior team because they were not associated with either of the two teams United were merged from. They played in grey shorts until 1897, and between 1897 and 1921, they played in blue shorts before adopting the black shorts they play in now.\nUnited's away colours have changed a number of times over the years. They played in white shirts and black shorts from 1914 until 1961, and then white shorts until 1966. They then played in yellow shirts and blue shorts for the 1967–68 season, but from 1969 to 1974 played in all red with an all blue third kit. In 1974, they returned to a yellow shirt, which they played with various coloured shorts until 1983. They played in all grey from 1983 to 1988, before once again returning to the yellow kit until 1993. Since 1995, the away kit has changed frequently and has not been the same for more than a single season.\n\nThe current club crest was first used in the 1988–89 season. The crest includes elements from the coat of arms of the city of Newcastle upon Tyne – the two sea horses representing Tyneside's strong connections with the sea, the castle representing the city's keep. The city's coat of arms were first embroidered on the team's shirts in 1969 and worn as standard until 1976. A scroll at the bottom featured the city's motto in Latin; fortiter defendit triumphans which translates into English as \"triumphing by brave defence\". From 1976 until 1983, the club wore a specific badge which was developed to wear in place of the city's coat of arms. The design was of a circular shape, which featured the club's name in full, it contained a magpie standing in front of the River Tyne with the historic keep of Newcastle in the background. A more simplistic design followed in 1983, featuring the initials of the club's name, NUFC with the small magpie used in the previous crest within the horizontally laid \"C,\"; this logo was relatively short lived and was discontinued after 1988.\n\nKit suppliers and shirt sponsors\nIn May 2013, Newcastle announced a sponsorship which featured the Wonga.com logo on kits. This attracted criticism from many Newcastle supporters. In July 2013, it was reported that Newcastle striker and practising Muslim Papiss Cissé refused to wear any official kit or training wear with reference to Wonga.com as it did not align with his religious beliefs. The matter was later resolved.\nOn 15 May 2017, the home shirt for the 2017–18 season was revealed, featuring the logo of new sponsors Fun88. The shirt was shown to include a gold and silver commemorative crest to mark the club's 125th football season, based on the city's coat of arms. It was also announced that the kit would feature red numbers for the first time since the 1992–93 season.\nNewcastle United's current kit sponsor is Sela, a deal that started in 2023. Previous kit sponsors include Newcastle Breweries (1980–1986), Greenall's Beers (1986–1990), McEwan's Lager and Newcastle Brown Ale (1990–2000), NTL (2000–2003), Northern Rock (2003–2012), Virgin Money (2012–2013), Wonga.com (2013–2017), and Fun88 (2017–2023).\nNewcastle United's current kit manufacturer is Adidas, in a deal that started in 2024. Previous kit manufacturers include Bukta (1974–1975, 1976–1980), Umbro (1975–1976, 1980–1993), Asics (1993–1995), Adidas (1995–2010, 2024–present), Puma (2010–2021), and Castore (2021–2024).\nNewcastle United's current sleeve sponsor is Noon, in a deal that started in 2022. Previous sleeve sponsors include MRF Tyres (2017–2018), StormGain (2019–2020), ICM.com (2020–2021), and Kayak (2021–2022).\nOther current team sponsors include Fun88, BetMGM, Carling, Monster Energy, Sportsbet.io, InPost, Fenwick and Saudia.\n\nStadium\nThroughout Newcastle United's history, their home venue has been St James' Park, the oldest and largest football stadium in North East England, as well as the seventh-largest football stadium in the Premier League. It has hosted 11 international football matches at senior level, the first in 1901 and the most recent in 2024. It was used as a venue for both the 2012 Summer Olympics and the 2015 Rugby World Cup and has been a regular venue for Rugby League's Magic Weekend, attracting record crowds.\nFootball had been played at St James' Park as early as 1880, the ground being occupied by Newcastle Rangers, before becoming the home of Newcastle West End in 1886. Its lease was then bought by Newcastle East End in 1892, before they changed their name to Newcastle United. At the turn of the 20th century, the ground's capacity was given as 30,000 before being redeveloped between 1900 and 1905, increasing the capacity to 60,000 and making it the biggest stadium in England for a time. For most of the 20th century, the stadium changed very little, despite various plans for development of the ground. The old West Stand was replaced with the Milburn Stand in 1987, the Sir John Hall Stand replacing the Leazes End in 1993, and the rest of the ground renovated making the ground a 37,000 capacity all-seater stadium. Between 1998 and 2000, double tiers were added to the Milburn and Sir John Hall stands to bring the venue up to its current capacity of 52,305.\n\nIn October 2009, Ashley announced that he planned to lease the name of the ground in a bid to increase revenue, and in November the stadium was temporarily renamed sportsdirect.com @ St James' Park Stadium. This name was only supposed to be used until the end of the 2009–10 season, but lasted until November 2011. On 10 November 2011, the club officially changed the name of the stadium to the Sports Direct Arena, although this was an interim name to showcase the sponsorship capabilities of the stadium. The company, owned by Ashley, was not paying anything for the deal. In October 2012, payday loan company Wonga.com became Newcastle United's main commercial sponsor and purchased the stadium naming rights but restored the St James' Park name.\nFollowing the conclusion of the 22/23 season, a small allocation of seating in between the East stand and Gallowgate end were converted into Safe standing zones meaning that for the first time since 1993 St James' Park is no longer an all-seater stadium much like many other Premier League grounds.\nIn July 2023 it was confirmed that following the re-purchase of Strawberry Place, plans for a new fan zone outside the Gallowgate End had been submitted. It will be built in partnership with Stack and Sela (The clubs front of shirt sponsor).\nSince 1982, the stadium has been served by St James Metro station on the Tyne and Wear Metro. The station is decorated in a black and white colour scheme, with archive photographs of the club's players.\nThe club's current training ground is the Newcastle United Training Centre, located at Darsley Park, which is north of the city at Benton. The facility was opened in July 2003.\nFollowing the club's ownership takeover in 2021, the Training Centre was renovated extensively, with a new reception area, restaurant, players' lounge, presentation suite, offices, medical facility, dressing room and hydrotherapy unit all constructed.\n\nOwnership\nNewcastle United was set up as a private company limited by shares on 6 September 1895. The club traded in this way for much of the 20th century, dominated by McKeag, Westwood and Seymour family ownership, until April 1997, when John Hall, who bought 72.9% of the club for £3 million in 1991, floated the club on the stock exchange as a public limited company, with less than half the shares sold to the Hall family and the majority holding going to his business partner Freddy Shepherd. Later that year, Hall stepped down as chairman and was replaced by Shepherd, with the Hall family represented on the board by John's son Douglas. In December 1998, after buying a 6.3% stake in the club for £10 million, the media group NTL had considered a full takeover of the club. This was later dropped after the Competition Commission, established in April 1999, expressed concerns about football clubs being owned by media companies.\n\nIn 2007, businessman Mike Ashley purchased the combined stakes of both Douglas and John Hall, 41% share in the club, through a holding company St James Holdings, with a view to buy the rest. Upon purchasing this share, he appointed Chris Mort as chairman, while gaining more shares, owning 93.19% of the club by 29 June 2007. This figure reached 95% on 11 July 2007, forcing the remaining shareholders to sell their shares.\nAfter completing the purchase of the club, Ashley had announced that he planned to sell the club on three occasions. The first occurred after fan protests over the resignation of Kevin Keegan in September 2008, when Ashley stated, \"I have listened to you. You want me out. That is what I am now trying to do.\" However, he took it off the market on 28 December 2008 after being unable to find a buyer. On 31 May 2009, it was reported that Ashley was attempting to sell the club again. On 8 June 2009, Ashley confirmed that the club was up for sale at an asking price of £100 million. By the end of August 2009, the club was back off the market. On 16 October 2017, Newcastle United announced that Ashley had once again put the club up for sale, reporting that he hoped that a deal could be concluded by Christmas 2017.\n\nSaudi-led takeover\nIn April 2020, it was widely reported that a consortium consisting of Public Investment Fund, PCP Capital Partners and RB Sports & Media, was finalising an offer to acquire Newcastle United. The proposed sale prompted concerns and criticism, such as arguments considering it sportwashing of Saudi Arabia's human rights record, as well as ongoing piracy of sports broadcasts in the region.\nIn May 2020, two Conservative MPs called upon the government to scrutinise aspects of the deal, with Karl McCartney calling for the sale to be blocked, and Giles Watling calling upon the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) to hold an oral evidence session regarding sports piracy in Saudi Arabia. In May 2020, The Guardian reported that the Premier League had obtained a report from the World Trade Organization (published publicly the following month), which contained evidence that Saudi nationals had backed beoutQ – a pirate broadcaster carrying the beIN Sports networks in the region since the Qatar diplomatic crisis. In June 2020, The Guardian reported that Richard Masters, who appeared in front of the DCMS, had hinted the possible takeover of Newcastle United was close to completion. The MPs warned it would be humiliating to allow a Saudi Arabian consortium to take charge given the country's record on piracy and human rights.\n\nIn July 2020, The Guardian reported that Saudi Arabia's decision to ban beIN Sports broadcast from operating in the nation had further complicated the takeover of Newcastle United. On 30 July 2020, Saudi Arabia announced its withdrawal from the Newcastle deal, stating \"with a deep appreciation for the Newcastle community and the significance of its football club, we have come to the decision to withdraw our interest in acquiring Newcastle United Football Club\". The group also stated that the \"prolonged process\" was a major factor in them pulling out. The collapse of the takeover was met with widespread criticism from Newcastle fans, with Newcastle MP Chi Onwurah accusing the Premier League of treating fans of the club with \"contempt\" and subsequently wrote to Masters for an explanation.\nDespite the consortium's withdrawal, disputes over the takeover continued. On 9 September 2020, Newcastle United released a statement claiming that the Premier League had officially rejected the takeover by the consortium and accused Masters and the Premier League board of \"[not] acting appropriately in relation to [the takeover]\", while stating that the club would be considering any relevant legal action. The Premier League strongly denied this in a statement released the next day, expressing \"surprise\" and \"disappointment\" at Newcastle's statement.\nOn 7 October 2021, the Public Investment Fund, PCP Capital Partners and RB Sports & Media confirmed that they had officially completed the acquisition of Newcastle United. An investigation in May 2022 by The Guardian claimed that the British government of Boris Johnson was involved in Saudi Arabia's takeover of Newcastle United. In April 2021, it was revealed that Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman had warned Johnson in a text message, stating that the Premier League's decision would impact on UK-Saudi diplomatic relations. Following the warning, Johnson had appointed his special envoy for the Gulf, Edward Lister, to take up the case. It was later reported that Johnson's extensive efforts also involved the Minister of Investment Gerry Grimstone, who held discussions with the Premier League chairman Gary Hoffman and Saudi representatives well-connected with MBS' office. The UK Government and Johnson said they were not involved in the Saudi takeover. After Premier League's approval, Hoffman informed the 20 English Football clubs that there was extensive pressure from the government; he said the decision was not influenced by it. A separate report revealed that despite the US' conclusion that Jamal Khashoggi's assassination was ordered by Saudi's Prince Mohammed, he was able to avert the owners' and directors' test of the Premier League. Human Rights Watch (HRW), a campaign group, has accused the Saudi government of using football, motor racing, and golf for sportswashing. As reported by Josh Noble, a sports editor for the Financial Times, HRW defines sportswashing as \"an effort to distract from its serious human rights abuses by taking over events that celebrate human achievement\".\nThe Premier League had agreed to the Saudi PIF takeover of Newcastle, following \"legally-binding assurances\" that the Saudi state will have no control over the club. However, in February 2023, court documents published in the US claimed that the PIF is \"a sovereign instrumentality of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia\", and that the PIF governor and Newcastle's chairman Yasir Al-Rumayyan is \"a sitting minister of the Saudi government\". Following that, Amnesty international, which already criticised Saudi of sportswashing, pushed Premier League to re-examine the Saudi PIF takeover of the club. In March 2023, Richard Masters expressed his doubts to a committee of lawmakers, stating that he was unsure if Premier League had launched the investigation.\n\nSocial responsibility\nNewcastle United Foundation is an independent charity established by the club in summer 2008. It seeks to encourage learning and promote healthy living amongst disadvantaged children, young people and families in the North East region, as well as promoting equality and diversity. The charity moved into its state-of-the art ‘NUCASTLE’ building in the Arthur's Hill area of the city in 2021. Open seven days a week, NUCASTLE combines community space with education and wellness facilities, including activity and state-of-the-art cycling studios, specialist STEM room, esports room, four-court sports hall, accessible changing areas, event and meeting spaces, offices and more.\nThe Foundation's commitment, along with a similar foundation run by West Bromwich Albion, the unique relationship that Aston Villa has with Acorns Children's Hospice and Tottenham Hotspur has with SOS Children's Villages UK, are some leading examples of commitment in the highest level of football to responsibility and change in the communities in which they work and who enrich them through their support and ticket sales. The work of these clubs, and others, is changing the way professional sport interacts with their communities and supporters.\nIn December 2012, the club announced that it had become the world's first carbon positive football club.\n\nSupporters and rivalries\nNewcastle United's supporters are known for being some of the most passionate football fans in the world. In 2016, supporters founded the Wor Flags group, which continues to produce large and unique flag, banner and tifo displays at St James' Park. The group is entirely fan-funded.\nThe club's strongest supporter base is in the North East, but supporters' clubs can be found in many countries across the world. The club's nickname is The Magpies, while the club's supporters are also known as the Geordies or the Toon Army. The name Toon originates from the Geordie pronunciation of town. In a 2004 survey by Co-operative Financial Services, it was found that Newcastle United topped the league table for the cost incurred and distance travelled by Newcastle-based fans wishing to travel to every Premier League away game. The total distance travelled for a fan to attend every away game from Newcastle was found to be equivalent to a round-the-world trip. In the 2016–17 season, while in the second tier, Newcastle recorded an average attendance of 51,106.\nThe club's supporters publish a number of fanzines including True Faith and The Mag, along with NUFC.com, which was established in 1996. They set up Newcastle United Supporters Trust in September 2008, aiming to \"represent the broad church of Newcastle United's support.\" In addition to the usual English football chants, Newcastle's supporters sing the traditional Tyneside song \"Blaydon Races\". Prior to each home game the team enters the field to \"Going Home\", the closing song of the 1983 film Local Hero, written by Newcastle supporter and Dire Straits founder Mark Knopfler.\nIn 1998, The Police founder and Newcastle fan Sting wrote a song in support of Newcastle, called \"Black and White Army (Bringing The Pride Back Home)\" (sung by Ryan Molloy). In 2015, some Newcastle fans boycotted games in protest of club management by Mike Ashley, and they were supported by famous club fans like Sting and Jimmy Nail.\nTraditionally, Newcastle's main rivals are Sunderland, against whom the Tyne–Wear derby is competed, along with Middlesbrough, with whom they compete in the Tyne-Tees derby.\n\nRecords and statistics\nAs of the 2024–25 season, Newcastle United have spent 93 seasons in the top-flight. They are eighth in the all-time Premier League table and have the ninth-highest total of major honours won by an English club with 11 wins. The holder of the record for the most appearances is Jimmy Lawrence, having made 496 first team appearances between 1904 and 1921. The club's top goalscorer is Alan Shearer, who scored 206 goals in all competitions between 1996 and 2006. Andy Cole holds the record for the most goals scored in a season: 41 in the 1993–94 season in the Premier League. Shay Given is the most capped international for the club, with 134 appearances for the Republic of Ireland.\nThe club's widest victory margin in the league was in the 13–0 win against Newport County in the Second Division in 1946. Their heaviest defeat in the league was 9–0 against Burton Wanderers in the Second Division in 1895. The club's longest number of consecutive seasons in the top flight of English football was 32 from 1898 to 1899 until 1933–34.\nNewcastle's record home attendance is 68,386 for a First Division match against Chelsea on 3 September 1930. The club's highest attendance in the Premier League is 52,389, in a match against Manchester City on 6 May 2012. Newcastle lost the game 2–0. The highest transfer fee received for a Newcastle player is £35 million, from Liverpool for Andy Carroll in January 2011 & from Nottingham Forest for Elliot Anderson in June 2024, while the most spent by the club on a player is £63 million for Alexander Isak from La Liga side Real Sociedad in August 2022.\n\nPlayers\nFirst-team squad\nAs of 8 August 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOther players under contract\nThe following players have previously been in the first team squad:\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nReserves and Academy\nThe following Under-21 players have previously been named in a Newcastle United squad for a competitive match:\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nNotable players\nPlayer of the Year\nSource: Newcastle United F.C.\n\nManagement\nBackroom staff\nBoard of directors\nHonours\nSource:\nLeague\n\nFirst Division / Premier League (level 1)\nChampions: 1904–05, 1906–07, 1908–09, 1926–27\nRunners-up: 1995–96, 1996–97\nSecond Division / First Division / Championship (level 2)\nChampions: 1964–65, 1992–93, 2009–10, 2016–17\nRunners-up: 1897–98, 1947–48\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners: 1909–10, 1923–24, 1931–32, 1950–51, 1951–52, 1954–55\nRunners-up: 1904–05, 1905–06, 1907–08, 1910–11, 1973–74, 1997–98, 1998–99\nFootball League Cup / EFL Cup\nRunners-up: 1975–76, 2022–23\nFA Charity Shield\nWinners: 1909\nRunners-up: 1932, 1951, 1952, 1955, 1996\nInter-Cities Fairs Cup\nWinners: 1968–69\nMinor titles\n\nSheriff of London Charity Shield\nWinners: 1907\nTexaco Cup\nWinners: 1973–74, 1974–75\nUEFA Intertoto Cup\nWinners: 2006\nAnglo-Italian Cup\nWinners: 1973\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\n\nIndependent websites\n\nNewcastle United F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures\nNewcastle United at Sky Sports\nNewcastle United FC at Premier League\nNewcastle United FC at UEFA",
"title": "Newcastle_United_F.C."
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"paragraph_text": "Blackburn Rovers Football Club is a professional football club based in Blackburn, Lancashire, England, which competes in the EFL Championship, the second level of the English football league system. They have played home matches at Ewood Park since 1890. The club's motto is \"Arte et Labore\", meaning \"By Skill and Hard Work\" in Latin. They have a long-standing rivalry with nearby club Burnley, with whom they contest the East Lancashire derby.\nBlackburn Rovers was founded in 1875, becoming a founding member of The Football League in 1888. They won five FA Cup finals in the 19th century: 1884, 1885, 1886, 1890 and 1891. The team was crowned English League champions in 1911–12 and 1913–14, then won a sixth FA Cup in 1928. They were relegated for the first time in 1936, but returned to the top-flight as Second Division champions in 1938–39. Relegated in 1948, Rovers secured promotion again in 1957–58, but were relegated in 1966 and again in 1971. Blackburn won the Third Division title in 1974–75, and were again promoted in 1979–80 after suffering relegation the previous year. They won the Full Members' Cup in 1987.\nIn 1992, Rovers gained promotion to the new Premier League via the play-offs, a year after being taken over by local entrepreneur Jack Walker, who installed Kenny Dalglish as manager. In 1994–95, Rovers became Premier League champions. Relegated four seasons after being crowned champions, they secured promotion at the end of the 2000–01 season, and won the 2002 Football League Cup Final the following year. They spent eleven successive seasons in the Premier League, but were relegated in 2012 and again into the third tier in 2017. Blackburn secured promotion out of League One at the end of the 2017–18 season.\n\nHistory\nEarly years\nThe club was founded following a meeting, at the Leger Hotel, Blackburn, on 5 November 1875. The meeting was organised by two young men, namely John Lewis and Arthur Constantine, two old-boys of Shrewsbury School. The purpose of the meeting was \"to discuss the possibility of forming a football club to play under Association rules\". The first match played by Blackburn Rovers took place in Church, Lancashire on 18 December 1875 and was a 1–1 draw.\nOn 28 September 1878, Blackburn Rovers became one of 23 clubs to form the Lancashire Football Association. On 1 November 1879 the club played in the FA Cup for the first time, beating the Tyne Association Football Club 5–1. Rovers were eventually put out of the competition in the third round after suffering a heavy 6–0 defeat by Nottingham Forest.\nOn 25 March 1882 the club won through to the final of the FA Cup against the Old Etonians. Blackburn Rovers was the first provincial team to reach the final, but the result was a 1–0 defeat by the Old Etonians.\nRovers finally won the FA Cup on 29 March 1884 with a 2–1 victory over the Scottish team Queen's Park. The same teams played the FA Cup final again the next season, with Blackburn Rovers again emerging victorious, with a 2–0 score. Rovers repeated this success yet again the next season, winning the final replay 2–0 against West Bromwich Albion. For this three-in-a-row of FA Cup victories, the club was awarded a specially commissioned silver shield.\nThe 1885–86 season was the birth of the legal professional footballer, and Blackburn Rovers spent £615 on player wages for the season.\n\nFootball League commences\nBlackburn Rovers were founder members of the Football League in 1888.\nBlackburn Rovers again reached the FA Cup final on 29 March 1890 at the Kennington Oval. The club claimed the trophy for the fourth time, by beating Sheffield Wednesday a hefty 6–1 with left forward William Townley scoring three goals and becoming the first player to achieve a hat-trick in the FA Cup final.\nThe 1890–91 season saw Blackburn Rovers win the FA Cup for the fifth time against Notts County with a 3–1 victory. During the 1897–98 season the club were relegated but were elected back into the first division at the Football League's AGM along with Newcastle United. The season marked the beginning of Bob Crompton's 45-year association with the club, as a player and later an FA Cup-winning manager.\n\nEarly 20th century\nBlackburn Rovers continued to struggle during the early years of the 20th century, but the results began a gradual improvement. Major renovations were made to Ewood Park: in 1905 the Darwen End was covered at a cost of £1680 and the new Nuttall Stand was opened on New Year's Day 1907. During the first three decades of the 20th century, Blackburn Rovers were still considered a top side in the English league. They were First Division champions in 1911–12 and 1913–14, and F.A Cup winners in 1927–28 with a 3–1 victory against Huddersfield Town, but the F.A Cup win was their last major trophy for nearly 70 years.\n\nMid 20th century\nBlackburn Rovers maintained a respectable mid-table position in the First Division until they were finally relegated (along with Aston Villa) from the top flight (for the first time since the foundation of the league) in the 1935–36 season.\nWhen the league resumed after the war, Blackburn Rovers were relegated in their second season (1947–48). At this time the tradition of burying a coffin began. The club remained in the second division for the following ten years. After promotion in 1958, they again returned to the mid-table position they had occupied in the earlier part of the century. During this time, they seldom made a serious challenge for a major trophy – although they did reach the 1960 FA Cup Final when managed by Scot Dally Duncan. Rovers lost this game 3–0 to Wolverhampton Wanderers after playing most of the game with only 10 men on the field following an injury to Dave Whelan, who broke a leg.\nThere were brief hopes of a return to glory in the 1963–64 season, when a remarkable 8–2 away win over West Ham United in east London on Boxing Day took them to the top of the league. Their lead of the league was short-lived, and they finished the season some way down the table, as the title was seized by a Liverpool side who would record a further 12 league titles over the next 26 years, while Blackburn's fortunes took a very different route. They were relegated from the First Division in 1966 and began a 26-year exile from the top division.\n\n1970s and 1980s\nDuring the 1970s, Blackburn Rovers bounced between the Second and Third Divisions, winning the Third Division title in 1975, but never mounted a challenge for promotion to the First Division despite the efforts of successive managers to put the club back on track, and fell back into the Third Division in 1979. They went up as runners-up in the Third Division in 1980 and, save for one season in League One in 2017–18, have remained in the upper two tiers of the English league ever since. A second successive promotion was nearly achieved the following year, but the club missed out on goal difference, and promotion-winning manager Howard Kendall moved to Everton that summer. Kendall's successor, Bobby Saxton only managed mid-table finishes for the next three seasons, then nearly achieved promotion in the 1984–85 season, but a poor finish the following year (just one place above relegation) followed by an abysmal start to the 1986–87 season cost Saxton his job.\nSaxton was replaced by Don Mackay, who steered them to a decent finish that season and also victory in the Full Members Cup. In the following three seasons Mackay re-established Rovers as promotion contenders, but they fell just short of promotion each time; the closest they came was in 1988–89 reached the Second Division play-off final in its last season of the home-away two-legged format – but lost to Crystal Palace. A defeat in the 1989–90 Second Division playoff semi-finals brought more frustration to Ewood Park, but the following season saw the club taken over by local steelworks owner and lifelong supporter Jack Walker (1929–2000).\n\n1990s\nFollowing the Walker takeover Rovers finished 19th in the Second Division at the end of the 1990–91 season, but the new owner had made millions of pounds available to spend on new players and appointed Kenny Dalglish as manager in October 1991. Rovers secured promotion to the new FA Premier League at the end of 1991–92 season as play-off winners, ending 26 years outside the top flight.\nRovers made headlines in the summer of 1992 by paying an English record fee of £3.5million for the 22-year-old Southampton and England centre forward Alan Shearer. After finishing fourth in 1992–93 and runners-up in 1993–94, they went on to win the Premier League title in 1994–95. The title chase went down to the last game of the season, but despite Rovers losing to Liverpool they edged out rivals Manchester United to win the championship.\nKenny Dalglish moved upstairs to the position of Director of Football at the end of the Premier League winning season, and handed over the reins to his assistant Ray Harford. Blackburn Rovers made a poor start to the 1995–96 season, and found themselves in the bottom half for most of the first half of the season. Rovers also struggled in the Champions League and finished bottom of their group with just four points.\nA poor start to the 1996–97 Premier League campaign saw Harford resign in late October with the club bottom of the division, having failed to win any of their first ten games. Relegation looked a real possibility, just two seasons after winning the league. After an abortive attempt to bring in Sven-Göran Eriksson as manager, long-serving coach Tony Parkes took over as manager for the rest of the campaign, narrowly steering the side to survival. That summer, the manager's job was taken by Roy Hodgson, who joined the club from Internazionale. UEFA Cup football was secured with a 6th-place finish. Rovers made a poor start to the 1998–99 campaign and Hodgson was sacked in December less than an hour after a 2–0 home defeat by bottom side Southampton, a result that locked Rovers in the relegation zone. He was replaced as manager by Brian Kidd. Kidd failed to save Rovers from relegation.\n\n2000s\nIn 1999–2000 Rovers began the season as promotion favourites, but with the club hovering just above the Division One relegation zone Brian Kidd was sacked in October and replaced in March by Graeme Souness. Jack Walker died just after the start of the 2000–01 season, and the club dedicated its promotion challenge in memory of their benefactor. Fittingly, they returned to the Premier League after a much improved season, finishing second behind Fulham.\nIn 2001–02, record signing Andy Cole was bought in for £8million, and Rovers won their first-ever League Cup by beating Tottenham Hotspur 2–1 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Cole scoring the winner in the 69th minute. The following season Rovers finished sixth to qualify for the UEFA Cup for the second season running. Souness left just after the start of 2004–05 to take charge at Newcastle, and he was replaced by Welsh national coach Mark Hughes. Hughes secured Rovers' Premier League survival for the 2004–05 season as well as an FA Cup semi-final against Arsenal, with Rovers finishing 15th once again. He led the team to sixth the following season and Rovers's third European qualification in five years.\nRovers reached the semi-final of the 2006–07 FA Cup, but lost to Chelsea in extra time, and finished that season's league in tenth, qualifying for the Intertoto Cup, which led to a short run in the 2007–08 UEFA Cup. In May 2008, Mark Hughes left Blackburn Rovers for the vacancy at Manchester City. He was replaced by Paul Ince, whose first job was to persuade some of the wantaway players to stay. with Archie Knox coming in as his assistant. Ince's time in charge started well, but following a run of eleven games without a win he was sacked in December 2008. Sam Allardyce was appointed as Ince's replacement and in 2009–10 he led the team to a tenth-place finish and a League Cup semi-final.\n\n2010 onwards\nIn November 2010, the Indian company V H Group bought Blackburn Rovers under the name of Venky's London Limited for £23 million. The new owners immediately sacked manager Sam Allardyce and replaced him with first-team coach Steve Kean, initially on a temporary basis, but by January 2011 he had been awarded a full-time contract until June 2013. Kean's appointment was shrouded in controversy since his agent Jerome Anderson had earlier played a major role in advising Venky's during the takeover of the club in the preceding months.\nIn December 2011, Blackburn Rovers posted an annual pre-tax loss of £18.6m for the year ending 30 June 2011. Despite this, the owners of Blackburn Rovers provided assurances over the continued funding of the club, even if they were relegated.\nOn 7 May 2012, Blackburn were relegated to the Championship after being defeated at home by Wigan Athletic in the penultimate game of the season, ending eleven years in the Premier League. At the start of the 2012–2013 season, Kean was given a chance by the owners to win promotion and kept his job as the manager. Ultimately though, pressure from the supporters who had been calling for the manager's removal for months resulted in his resignation as manager on 29 September 2012.\nOn 7 May 2017, Blackburn were relegated to League One. On 24 April 2018, the club were promoted back to the second tier with a 1–0 win at Doncaster Rovers.\nIn recent years, they have finished 15th (2018–2019), 11th (2019–2020), 15th (2020–2021), 8th (2021–2022), and 7th (2022–2023) in the Championship.\nIn the 2023–2024 season, Blackburn narrowly avoided relegation on the final matchday, finishing in 19th place after a 2–0 win against title winners Leicester City, their lowest finish since their promotion back to the Championship in 2018.\n\nPlayers\nCurrent squad\nAs of 30 August 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nFor recent transfers, see 2024–25 Blackburn Rovers F.C. season.\n\nDevelopment/Academy squad\nNotable players\nFor a list of notable Blackburn Rovers players in sortable-table format see List of Blackburn Rovers F.C. players.\n\nClub staff\nAs of 15 June 2024\n\nSenior Management\nSenior Football\nAcademy Football\nClub Operations\nAwards\nPlayer of the season\nSeason-by-season record\nEuropean football\nManagerial history\nTeam colours and badge\nUnlike most teams, Blackburn Rovers have only ever had one design to their home kit. The distinctive blue and white halved jersey is widely acknowledged as the \"town colour\". Although the design has remained the same, the side in which the colours fall has often changed. Blue has resided on the wearers left since 1946; prior to this, the blue and white often switched order almost yearly.\nBlackburn Rovers' first kit is uncertain. The 1905 book; Book of Football by Jonathan Russell describes Blackburn Rovers' first kit as a white jersey with Maltese Cross on the wearers left breast, Trousers and a blue and white skull cap. The Maltese Cross notorious with the public schools in which the founders of the club were educated. In contrast an account from the Blackburn Standard on 6 January 1894 accounts the first kit as navy blue and white quartered jersey (quartered accounting for the shirts four panels front and back), white knickers and navy hose. This account is much more synonymous with the kit today. Photographic evidence from 1878 shows the team in Blue and white halved (quartered) jerseys, white shorts and blue socks, complete with blue and white cap and Maltese Cross.\nThrough its history the club has adopted four badges as its crest; the Maltese Cross, the towns coat of arms, Lancashire Rose and the present day Blackburn Rovers Badge. From 1875 to approximately 1882 The Maltese Cross was present on the club's first ever home kit and was worn by both the Shrewsbury and Malvern school teams. Two former Malvernians and two former Salopians played in that first team, so there is a clear link with these public schools.\nDuring FA Cup finals it is tradition for the club to adopt the town's coat of arms as their badge. This tradition has carried through all eight FA Cup finals the club has been a part of all the way to their last FA Cup final against Woverhampton Wanderers in 1960.\nFrom roughly 1882 and excluding cup finals the club did not use a badge until 1974. In this year the club opted for an embroidered Lancashire Rose with the club's initials \"B.R.F.C.\" below. This badge lasted unchanged for 15 years until it was 1989 due to visibility issues of the dark red rose on the dark blue of the shirt.\nFrom 1989 to the present day the current Blackburn Rovers badge has been used. It has encompassed the previous badge in a newer design for the Lancashire Red Rose. Circling the rose is the team name \"Blackburn Rovers F.C.\" and the date in which the club was founded \"1875\". At the base of the badge is the club motto, \"Arte Et Labore\" which translated means, \"by skill and by labour\". This motto has been taken from the town motto which was adopted in 1852.\n\nKit\nAs of 2021, the club's kit has been manufactured by Macron, and sponsored by local law firm, Watson Ramsbottom, since June 2024.\n\nGrounds\nOozehead Ground 1875–1877\nRovers first home ground was a field at Oozehead on Preston New Road to the north west of the town. This field was farmland and was owned by a local farmer; when Blackburn Rovers weren't using the field it was used to graze cows. In the centre of the field was a large watering hole, which on match days was covered with timber and turf.\n\nPleasington Cricket Ground 1877\nDue to the rough conditions at Oozehead, the committee felt an established sports ground would be best to play on. Therefore, during the 1877 season they acquired the use of Pleasington's cricket ground to the south west of the town. Play stopped on this ground after Henry Smith of Preston North End died of a heart attack whilst playing.\n\nAlexandra Meadows 1877–1881\nStill adopting cricket grounds, the committee acquired the use of the East Lancashire Cricket Club's ground in the centre of the town, Alexandra Meadows. Sources differ as to the date of the first match played by Rovers at Alexandra Meadows. A programme from Clitheroe F.C. states that Clitheroe was the first team to beat Blackburn at Alexandra Meadows on 17 November 1877. Other sources indicate that the first match took place on 2 January 1878 with a Blackburn victory against Partick Thistle. It was on this ground Blackburn Rovers played for the first time under artificial light against Accrington on 4 November 1878.\n\nLeamington Road 1881–1890\nDue to the increasing demand in football in the area and in particular for Blackburn Rovers the committee felt that a private ground was more fitting. Therefore, in 1881 the club moved to Leamington Road, Blackburn Rovers' first purpose built ground including a 700-person capacity seated grandstand, costing £500. The first game played at this ground was held on 8 October 1881 against Blackburn Olympic resulting in a 4–1 win for Rovers. Whilst at Leamington Road and under James Fielding the club won three FA Cups and was inaugurated into the Football League as a founding Member in 1888. Despite the club's success, they left Leamington Road due to an increase in lease costs.\n\nEwood Park 1890–present\nBuilt in April 1882 as Ewood Bridge. The ground was an all purpose sporting venue hosting football, athletics and dog racing. The Blackburn Rovers committee felt this was the ideal venue for the club after having already played numerous games there in 1882. The first game played at the new Ewood Park ground was on 13 September 1890 against Accrington, the 0–0 draw was viewed by 10,000 people and on 31 October 1892 artificial lights were installed. Ewood sits on the bank of the River Darwen in Blackburn, Lancashire.\n\n1913 terrorist incident\nAn attempt was made to destroy the ground in 1913. As part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, suffragettes carried out a series of bombings and arson attacks nationwide to publicise their campaign for women's suffrage. In November 1913, suffragettes attempted to burn down Ewood Park's grandstand but were foiled. In the same year, suffragettes succeeded in burning down Arsenal's then South London stadium, and also attempted to burn down Preston North End's ground. More traditionally male sports were targeted in order to protest against male dominance.\n\nSupporters and rivalries\nBlackburn Rovers supporters have formed several support clubs related to the team, and almost all of them are partially focused on making trips to Ewood Park easier. Rovers home games were well attended as a percentage of the Blackburn population throughout the 2000s with average attendances of around 25,000, equal to roughly a quarter of Blackburn's population (approximately 100,000). The supporters' long-running fanzine is called 4,000 Holes.\nClement Charnock and his brother Harry were Blackburn Rovers fans who introduced football into Russia in the 1880s.\nBlackburn's primary rivals are Burnley, with whom they contest the East Lancashire derby. Other rivalries for Rovers include Preston North End, Bolton Wanderers and Wigan Athletic, all by proximity.\n\nStatistics and records\nRecords\nMost League appearances:\nDerek Fazackerley, 593+3 sub, 1970–71 to 1986–87\n\nRecord goalscorer:\nSimon Garner, 194 goals (168 league), 1978–79 to 1991–92\n\nRecord attendance at Ewood Park:\n62,255 v Bolton Wanderers, FA Cup 6th round, 2 March 1929\n\nTransfer fee paid:\n£8m to Manchester United for Andy Cole in December 2001£8m to Huddersfield Town for Jordan Rhodes in August 2012\n\nTransfer fee received:\nUp to £22m from Crystal Palace for Adam Wharton in February 2024\n\nRecord win:\n11–0 v Rossendale United, Ewood Park, FA Cup 1st round 13 October 1884\n\nRecord League win:\n9–0 v Middlesbrough, Ewood Park, Division 2, 6 November 1954\n\nRecord away win:\n8–2 v West Ham United, Division 1, 26 December 1963\n\nRecord League defeat:\n0–8 v Arsenal, Division 1, 25 February 1933,\n0–8 v Lincoln City, Division 2, 29 August 1953\n\nRecord home League defeat:\n0-7 v Fulham, 3 November 2021\n\nRecord aggregate League score:\n13: 5–8 v Derby County, 6 September 1890\n\nMost points gained in a season (2pts):\n60 (1974–75)\n\nMost points gained in a season (3pts):\n91 (2000–01)\n\nFewest points gained in a season (2pts):\n20 (1965–66)\n\nFewest points gained in a season (3pts):\n31 (2011–12)\n\nMost consecutive League appearances:\nWalter Crook, 208 (1934–46)\n\nMost goals scored by a player in a season:\nTed Harper, 43, Division 1, 1925–26\n\nMost goals scored by a player in a match:\nTommy Briggs, 7 v Bristol Rovers, Ewood Park, Division 2, 5 February 1955\n\nMost hat-tricks in a season:\n8, 1963–64\n\nMost individual hat-tricks:\n13, Jack Southworth, 1887–1893\n\nMost FA Cup appearances:\nRonnie Clayton, 56, 1949–1969\n\nMost League Cup appearances:\nDerek Fazackerley, 38, 1969–1987\n\nYoungest player to appear for Rovers:\nHarry Dennison, aged 16 yrs and 155 days against Bristol City, Division 1, 8 April 1911\n\nOldest player to appear for Rovers:\nBob Crompton, 40 yrs and 150 days against Bradford City, Division 1, 23 February 1920\n\nLongest undefeated FA Cup run:\n24 games including 3 consecutive FA Cup wins, 1884–86. Still an FA Cup record\nReference for above facts\n\nHonours\nSource:\nLeague\n\nFirst Division / Premier League (level 1)\nChampions: 1911–12, 1913–14, 1994–95\nRunners-up: 1993–94\nSecond Division / First Division / Championship (level 2)\nChampions: 1938–39\nRunners-up: 1957–58, 2000–01\nPlay-off winners: 1992\nThird Division / League One (level 3)\nChampions: 1974–75\nRunners-up: 1979–80, 2017–18\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners (6): 1883–84, 1884–85, 1885–86, 1889–90, 1890–91, 1927–28\nRunners-up: 1881–82, 1959–60\nFootball League Cup\nWinners: 2001–02\nFA Charity Shield\nWinners: 1912\nRunners-up: 1928, 1994, 1995\nFull Members' Cup\nWinners: 1986–87\nFootball League War Cup\nRunners-up: 1939–40\nRegional\n\nLancashire Cup\nWinners (20): 1881–82, 1882–83, 1883–84, 1884–85, 1895–96, 1900–01, 1901–02, 1903–04, 1906–07, 1908–09, 1910–11, 1944–45, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1989–90, 2006–07, 2010–11, 2018–19, 2020–21\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\n\nIndependent websites\n\nBlackburn Rovers F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures\nBlackburn Rovers at Sky Sports\nBlackburm Rovers FC at Premier League\nBlackburn Rovers FC at UEFA",
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"paragraph_text": "Leicester City Football Club is a professional football club based in the city of Leicester, East Midlands, England. The club competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football, following promotion from the 2023–24 EFL Championship as league champions.\nThe club was founded in 1884 as Leicester Fosse F.C, and became known as Leicester City in 1919. They moved to Filbert Street in 1891, were elected to the Football League in 1894 and moved to the nearby King Power Stadium in 2002.\nLeicester City have won five major honours, including one Premier League, one FA Cup and three League Cups. They have also won the FA Community Shield twice, in 1971 and 2021. The club's 2015–16 Premier League title win attracted global attention, and they became one of seven clubs to have won the Premier League since its inception in 1992. Prior to this, Leicester's highest league finish was second place in the top flight in 1928–29.\nThe club have competed in seven European campaigns to date, reaching the UEFA Champions League quarter-finals in 2016–17 and UEFA Europa Conference League semi-finals in 2021–22. They have played in the FA Cup final five times, winning their first title in 2021. Leicester won the League Cup in 1964, 1997 and 2000 respectively, and were finalists in 1964–65 and 1998–99.\n\nHistory\nFounding and early years (1884–1949)\nFormed in 1884 by a group of old boys of Wyggeston School as \"Leicester Fosse\", the club joined The Football Association (FA) in 1890. Before moving to Filbert Street in 1891, the club played at five different grounds, including Victoria Park south-east of the city centre and the Belgrave Road Cycle and Cricket Ground. The club also joined the Midland League in 1891, and were elected to Division Two of the Football League in 1894 after finishing second. Leicester's first Football League game was a 4–3 defeat at Grimsby Town, with a first League win the following week, against Rotherham United at Filbert Street. The same season also saw the team's largest win to date, a 13–0 victory over Notts Olympic in an FA Cup qualifying game. In 1907–08 the club finished as Second Division runners-up, gaining promotion to the First Division, the highest level of English football. However, the club was relegated after a single season which included the team's record defeat, a 12–0 loss against Nottingham Forest.\nIn 1919, when league football resumed after World War I, Leicester Fosse ceased trading due to financial difficulties. The club was reformed as \"Leicester City Football Club\", particularly appropriate as the borough of Leicester had recently been given city status. Following the name change, the club enjoyed moderate success in the 1920s; under the management of Peter Hodge, who left in May 1926 to be replaced two months later by Willie Orr, and with record goalscorer Arthur Chandler in the side, they won the Division Two title in 1924–25 and recorded their second-highest league finish in 1928–29 as runners-up by a single point to The Wednesday. However, the 1930s saw a downturn in fortunes, with the club relegated in 1934–35 and, after promotion in 1936–37, another relegation in 1938–39 would see them finish the decade in Division Two.\n\nPost-World War II (1949–2000)\nLeicester reached the FA Cup final for the first time in their history in 1949, losing 3–1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers. The club, however, was celebrating a week later when a draw on the last day of the season ensured survival in Division Two. Leicester won the Division Two championship in 1954, with the help of Arthur Rowley, one of the club's most prolific strikers. Although they were relegated from Division One the next season, under Dave Halliday they returned in 1957, with Rowley scoring a club record 44 goals in one season. Leicester remained in Division One until 1969, their longest period in the top flight.\nUnder the management of Matt Gillies and his assistant Bert Johnson, Leicester reached the FA Cup final on another two occasions, but lost in both 1961 and 1963. As they lost to double winners Tottenham Hotspur in 1961, they were England's representatives in the 1961–62 European Cup Winners' Cup. In the 1962–63 season, the club led the First Division during the winter. Thanks to a sensational run of form on icy and frozen pitches, the team became nicknamed the \"Ice Kings\" and eventually finished fourth, the club's best post-war finish. Gillies guided Leicester to their first piece of silverware in 1964, when Leicester beat Stoke City 4–3 on aggregate to win the League Cup for the first time. Leicester also reached the League Cup final the following year but lost 3–2 on aggregate to Chelsea. Gillies and Johnson received praise for their version of the \"whirl\" and the \"switch\" system, a system that had previously been used by the Austrian and Hungarian national teams. After a bad start to the season, Matt Gillies resigned in November 1968. His successor Frank O'Farrell was unable to prevent relegation, but the club reached the FA Cup final in 1969, losing to Manchester City 1–0.\n\nIn 1971, Leicester were promoted back to the First Division, and won the Charity Shield for the first time. Due to double winners Arsenal's commitments in European competition, Second Division winners Leicester were invited to play FA Cup runners-up Liverpool, beating them 1–0 thanks to a goal by Steve Whitworth. Jimmy Bloomfield was appointed for the new season, and his team remained in the First Division for his tenure. Leicester reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1973–74.\nFrank McLintock, a noted player for seven years for Leicester in a successful period from the late 1950s to the mid-1960s, succeeded Bloomfield in 1977. On 19 March 1977, Winston White became Leicester's first black player in an away game at Stoke City. The club was relegated at the end of that season and McLintock resigned. Jock Wallace resumed the tradition of successful Scottish managers (after Peter Hodge and Matt Gillies) by steering Leicester to the Second Division championship in 1980. Wallace was unable to keep Leicester in the First Division, but they reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1982. Under Wallace, one of City's most famous home-grown players, Gary Lineker, emerged into the first-team squad. Leicester's next manager was Gordon Milne, who achieved promotion in 1983. Lineker helped Leicester maintain their place in the First Division, but was sold to Everton in 1985; two years later Leicester were relegated, having failed to find a suitable replacement to partner Alan Smith, who was sold to Arsenal after Leicester went down.\nMilne left in 1986 and was replaced in 1987 by David Pleat, who was sacked in January 1991 with Leicester in danger of relegation to the Third Division. Gordon Lee was put in charge of the club until the end of the season. Leicester won their final game of the season, which guided them clear of relegation to the third tier of the Football League.\nBrian Little took over in 1991 and by the end of the 1991–92 season Leicester had reached the playoff final for a place in the new Premier League, but lost to Blackburn Rovers by way of a penalty from former Leicester striker Mike Newell. The club also reached the playoff final the following year, losing 4–3 to Swindon Town, having come back from 3–0 down. In 1993–94, Leicester were promoted from the playoffs, beating Derby County 2–1 in the final. Little quit as Leicester manager the following November to take charge at Aston Villa, and his successor Mark McGhee was unable to save Leicester from finishing second-from-bottom in the 1994–95 season.\nMcGhee left the club unexpectedly in December 1995, while Leicester were top of the First Division, to take charge of Wolverhampton Wanderers. McGhee was replaced by Martin O'Neill. Under O'Neill, Leicester qualified for the 1996 Football League play-offs and beat Crystal Palace 2–1 in the final through a 120th-minute Steve Claridge goal to gain promotion to the Premier League. Following promotion, Leicester established themselves in the Premier League with four successive top ten finishes. O'Neill ended Leicester's 33-year wait for a major trophy, winning the League Cup twice, in 1997 and 2000, and Leicester were runners-up in 1999. Thus, the club qualified for the UEFA Cup in 1997–98 and 2000–01, the club's first European competition since 1961. In June 2000, O'Neill left Leicester City to take over as manager of Celtic.\n\nDecline in the early 21st century (2000–2008)\nMartin O'Neill was replaced by former England under-21 coach Peter Taylor. During this time, one of Leicester's European appearances ended in a 3–1 defeat to Red Star Belgrade on 28 September 2000 in the UEFA Cup. Leicester began well under Taylor's management, topping the Premier League for two weeks in the autumn and remaining in contention for a European place for most of the campaign, before a late-season collapse dragged them down to a 13th-place finish.\nTaylor was sacked after a poor start to the 2001–02 season, and his successor Dave Bassett lasted just six months before being succeeded by his assistant Micky Adams, the change of management being announced just before relegation was confirmed. Leicester won just five league matches all season.\n\nLeicester moved into the new 32,314-seat Walkers Stadium at the start of the 2002–03 season, ending 111 years at Filbert Street. Walkers, the Leicester-based crisp manufacturers, acquired the naming rights for a ten-year period. In October 2002, the club went into administration with debts of £30 million. Some of the reasons were the loss of TV money (ITV Digital, itself in administration, had promised money to First Division clubs for TV rights), the large wage bill, lower-than-expected fees for players transferred to other clubs and the cost of the new stadium. Adams was banned from the transfer market for most of the season, even after the club was rescued with a takeover by a consortium led by Gary Lineker. Adams guided Leicester to the runners-up spot in Division One and automatic promotion back to the Premier League with more than 90 points. However, Leicester lasted only one season in the top flight and were relegated to the newly labelled Championship, previously known as Division One.\nWhen Adams resigned as manager in October 2004, Craig Levein was appointed boss. This would prove to be an unsuccessful period and after 15 months in charge, Levein was sacked, having failed to get The Foxes anywhere near the promotion places. Assistant manager Rob Kelly took over as caretaker manager, and after winning three out of four matches, was appointed to see out the rest of the season. Kelly steered Leicester to safety and in April 2006 was given the manager's job on a permanent basis.\nIn October 2006, ex-Portsmouth chairman Milan Mandarić was quoted as saying he was interested in buying the club, reportedly at a price of around £6 million, with the current playing squad valued at roughly £4.2 million. The takeover was formally announced on 13 February 2007. On 11 April 2007, Rob Kelly was sacked as manager and Nigel Worthington appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season. Worthington saved the club from relegation, but was not offered the job on a permanent basis. On 25 May 2007, the club announced former Milton Keynes Dons manager Martin Allen as their new manager with a three-year contract. Allen's relationship with Mandarić became tense and after only four matches, Allen left by mutual consent on 29 August 2007. On 13 September 2007, Mandarić announced Gary Megson as the new manager of the club, citing Megson's \"wealth of experience\" as a deciding factor in the appointment. However, Megson left on 24 October 2007 after only six weeks in charge, following an approach made for his services by Bolton Wanderers. Mandarić placed Frank Burrows and Gerry Taggart in the shared position as caretaker managers until a professional manager was appointed.\n\nOn 22 November, Ian Holloway was appointed manager, and he became the first Leicester manager in over 50 years to win his first league match in charge, beating Bristol City 2–0. However, this success did not last, and Leicester were relegated from the Championship at the end of the 2007–08 season. Holloway left by mutual consent after less than a season at the club, being replaced by Nigel Pearson.\n\nRise back to Premier League and change of ownership (2008–2015)\nThe 2008–09 campaign was Leicester's first season outside the top two levels of English football, but they hit this nadir only seven years before becoming the 2015–16 Premier League champions – one of the fastest rises to the top of the English football league system. Following relegation to the third tier the previous season, Leicester returned to the Championship at the first attempt in 2008–09, finishing as champions of League One after a 2–0 win at Southend United, with two matches in hand. The 2009–10 season saw Leicester's revival under manager Nigel Pearson continue, as the club finished fifth and reached the Championship play-offs in their first season back in the second tier. Though coming from 2–0 down on aggregate, away to Cardiff City, to briefly lead 3–2, they eventually lost to a penalty shoot-out in the play-off semi-final. At the end of the season, Pearson left Leicester to become the manager of Hull City, claiming he felt the club seemed reluctant to keep him, and that Paulo Sousa had been the club's guest at both play-off games, hinting at a possible replacement. On 7 July 2010, Sousa was confirmed as Pearson's replacement.\nIn August 2010, following agreement on a three-year shirt sponsorship deal with duty-free retailers the King Power Group, Mandarić sold the club to Thai-led consortium Asian Football Investments (AFI), fronted by King Power Group's Vichai and his son Aiyawatt Srivaddhanaprabha. Mandarić, an investor in AFI, was retained as club chairman. On 1 October 2010, after a poor start that saw Leicester bottom of the Championship with only one win out of the first nine league matches, Paulo Sousa was sacked by the club with immediate effect. Two days later, Sven-Göran Eriksson, who had been approached by the club after the 6–1 loss to then bottom-of-the-table Portsmouth two weeks earlier, was appointed as his replacement, signing a two-year contract with the club. On 10 February 2011, Vichai, part of the Thai-based Asia Football Investments consortium, was appointed new chairman of the club after Mandarić left in November to take over Sheffield Wednesday.\nLeicester were viewed as one of the favourites for promotion in the 2011–12 season, but on 24 October 2011, following an inconsistent start with the Foxes winning just 5 out of their first 13 matches, Eriksson left the club by mutual consent. Three weeks later, Nigel Pearson returned to the club as Eriksson's successor. Pearson would go on to lead The Foxes to a sixth-place finish in the 2012–13 season, ensuring Leicester were in the Championship play-offs. However, Leicester lost the playoff semi-final 3–2 on aggregate to Watford after Manuel Almunia made a double save from an Anthony Knockaert late penalty and Troy Deeney scored at the other end following a swift counterattack.\nIn 2014, Leicester's march up the league system hit a breakthrough. Their 2–1 home win over Sheffield Wednesday, combined with losses by Queens Park Rangers and Derby County, allowed Leicester City to clinch promotion to the Premier League after a ten-year absence. Later that month, a win at Bolton Wanderers saw Leicester become champions of the 2013–14 Championship, a joint record 7th second-tier title.\nLeicester started their first season in the Premier League since 2004 with a good run of results in their first five league matches, starting with a 2–2 draw on the opening day against Everton. The Foxes then claimed their first Premier League win since May 2004, with a 1–0 win at Stoke City. On 21 September 2014, Leicester went on to produce one of the greatest comebacks in Premier League history, beating Manchester United 5–3 at King Power Stadium. They made Premier League history by becoming the first team to beat Manchester United from a two-goal deficit since the league's launch in 1992.\nDuring the 2014–15 season, a dismal run of form saw the team slip to the bottom of the league table with only 19 points from 29 matches. By 3 April 2015, they were seven points adrift from safety. This could have brought a sudden end to Leicester's seven-year rise, but seven wins from their final nine league matches meant The Foxes finished the season in 14th place with 41 points. They finished the season with a 5–1 thrashing of relegated Queens Park Rangers, and Leicester's upturn in results was described as one of the Premier League's greatest escapes from relegation. They also became only the third team in Premier League history to survive after being bottom at Christmas (the other two being West Bromwich Albion in 2005 and Sunderland in 2014), and no team with fewer than 20 points from 29 matches had previously stayed up.\n\nPremier League champions, FA Cup winners, relegation and promotion (2015–present)\nOn 30 June 2015, Nigel Pearson was sacked, with the club stating \"the working relationship is no longer viable.\" The sacking was linked to a number of public relations issues involving Pearson throughout the season, with the final straw involving his son James' role in a \"racist sex tape\" made by three Leicester reserve players in Thailand during a post-season goodwill tour. Leicester reacted by appointing former Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri as their new manager for the new 2015–16 Premier League season. Despite an initially sceptical reaction to Ranieri's appointment, the club made an exceptional start to the season. Striker Jamie Vardy scored 13 goals over 11 consecutive matches from August to November, breaking Ruud van Nistelrooy's Premier League record of scoring in 10 consecutive matches. On 19 December, Leicester defeated Everton 3–2 at Goodison Park to top the Premier League on Christmas Day, having been bottom exactly 12 months earlier. A 2–0 victory at Sunderland on 10 April, coupled with Tottenham Hotspur's 3–0 win over Manchester United, ensured Leicester's qualification for the UEFA Champions League for the first time in their history.\nLeicester won the Premier League on 2 May 2016 after Tottenham lost a 2–0 lead against Chelsea, drawing 2–2 at the \"Battle of Stamford Bridge\". Bookmakers thought Leicester's victory was so unlikely that Ladbrokes and William Hill offered odds of 5,000–1 for it at the start of the season, which subsequently resulted in the largest payout in British sporting history with total winnings of £25 million. A number of newspapers described Leicester's title win as the greatest sporting shock; multiple bookmakers including Ladbrokes and William Hill had never paid out at such long odds for any sport. One book was titled \"The Unbelievables\", a spin-off harking back to Arsenal's undefeated team \"The Invincibles\". The scale of the surprise title victory attracted global attention for the club and the city of Leicester. The Economist declared it would be \"pored over for management lessons.\" Several commentators viewed it as an inspiration to other clubs and fundamentally transforming expectations.\nLeicester became known for their counterattacking style of play, \"incredible pace in the areas it is most essential\" and defensive solidarity. Former boss Nigel Pearson was credited by pundits and fans as having laid the foundations for Leicester's title winning season. Reacting to the title win, then executive chairman of the Premier League Richard Scudamore said:\n\nIf this was a once in every 5,000-year event, then we've effectively got another 5,000 years of hope ahead of us.\nLeicester, while performing well in the UEFA Champions League, struggled domestically during 2016–17, spending much of the first few months in the bottom half of the Premier League table. In December 2016, Ranieri was awarded coach of the year and Leicester team of the year at the BBC Sports Personality of the Year. However, on 23 February 2017, Ranieri was dismissed due to the club's continuing poor form, resulting in them being only one point above the relegation zone. The sacking was met with significant upset and anger from sections of the media, with Gary Lineker calling the sacking \"very sad\" and \"inexplicable\", while Manchester United manager José Mourinho blamed it on \"selfish players\". Rumours began emerging some days later that players had been meeting with the owners to discuss Ranieri's sacking without Ranieri knowing, which sparked widespread outrage over social media, but these were never proven. Craig Shakespeare took over as caretaker manager, and in his first match in charge, Leicester won 3–1 against 5th placed Liverpool. In his second match as caretaker, Shakespeare led Leicester to another 3–1 victory over Hull City. Following those two results, it was decided on 12 March 2017 that Shakespeare would become manager until the end of the season.\nThe 2016–17 campaign was also the first season in 15 years that Leicester qualified for European football. Leicester were placed in Group G of the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League, alongside Porto, Copenhagen and Club Brugge. In their inaugural Champions League campaign, they went undefeated in their first five matches to progress to the knockout stages as group winners. The Foxes then faced La Liga club Sevilla in the round of 16 and defeated the Spanish side 2–0 on the night, and 3–2 on aggregate to advance to the quarter-finals. There they faced Atlético Madrid, and drew 1–1 in the second leg, but lost 2–1 on aggregate after losing 1–0 in the first leg. This put an end to Leicester's 2016–17 European campaign, and they finished as Champions League quarter-finalists. Despite the loss, Leicester remained unbeaten at home in the 2016–17 Champions League.\nCraig Shakespeare, having impressed during his caretaker spell, was appointed full-time on a three-year contract. However, following a poor start to the season he was sacked in October 2017 after four months officially in charge, with Leicester in 18th place in the table. He was replaced by former Southampton boss Claude Puel on 25 October 2017. By Christmas, Leicester were in 8th place in the Premier League and finished 9th at the end of the season.\nOn 27 October 2018, a Leonardo AW169 helicopter carrying chairman Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha and four others malfunctioned and crashed outside the club's stadium, shortly after taking off from the pitch. This followed a home match against West Ham United, and all five people on board the helicopter died. One year later, The Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha Memorial Garden officially opened on 27 October 2019, before The Khun Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha Statue was unveiled on 4 April 2022, which would have been Srivaddhanaprabha's 64th birthday.\n\nLeicester suffered a poor run of results in 2019 which included four successive home defeats, and following a 4–1 home defeat to Crystal Palace, manager Claude Puel was sacked on 24 February 2019 with the club in 12th place. Former Liverpool manager Brendan Rodgers was appointed as his replacement, and the club finished the season again in 9th place.\nThe 2019–20 season started with the team picking up 38 points from their first 16 matches, which included a record eight-game winning streak from 19 October to 8 December. On 25 October 2019, Leicester recorded a 0–9 away win at Southampton, the joint-largest win in Premier League history and the largest away win in English top-flight history. In the same season, the club reached the semi-final stage of the League Cup but lost out to Aston Villa over two legs. Despite being in the top four for most of the season, Leicester suffered a drop-off in form at the end of the season, winning only two of their nine games following the resumption of league play due to the coronavirus pandemic. Three defeats in their last four matches saw them slide into fifth, the second-highest Premier League finish in their history, securing a place in the UEFA Europa League for the following season.\nOn 15 May 2021, Leicester City won the FA Cup for the first time, having lost all of their previous four finals, in the process securing a second major trophy in the space of five years; Youri Tielemans scored the only goal against Chelsea at Wembley Stadium. The club also went on to win the 2021 FA Community Shield on 7 August 2021, the second in their history. After finishing 5th again in the 2020–21 Premier League, Leicester qualified for the Europa League for the second consecutive year.\nIn their 2021–22 UEFA Europa League campaign, Leicester came third in their group and were transferred to the newly established UEFA Europa Conference League. They went on to reach their first European semi-final, losing to eventual winners A.S. Roma over two legs. In the Premier League, the club finished in 8th place.\nThe club's finances were heavily impacted by the COVID pandemic, with the parent company King Power International Group being in the travel retail (DF&TR) sector. The club were restricted in their spending during the 2022 summer transfer market, while there were also concerns over breaching Financial Fair Play regulations. In addition to this, in the summer of 2021 Leicester went away from their model of selling a key asset and spent more than £50 million on new players, dramatically increasing their wages-to-turnover ratio. Failure to qualify for European football in the proceeding season (2021–22) was an additional factor in reduced spending. At the same time, the club were also continuing to balance investment in infrastructure, to better compete with the Premier League's 'big six' in the long term.\nRodgers left the club on 2 April 2023 via mutual consent, with ten games remaining and the team in the relegation zone. Dean Smith was appointed as his replacement until the end of the season. On 28 May, despite a 2–1 home win over West Ham United, Leicester City were relegated as a consequence of Everton's 1–0 home victory over AFC Bournemouth. This ended the club's nine-year stint in the Premier League, making them only the second former Premier League champions to be relegated from the league since it began in 1992–93, following Blackburn Rovers in 1998–99.\n\nOn 16 June 2023, Enzo Maresca was appointed as the club's new manager ahead of the 2023–24 EFL Championship season. Leicester went on to make their best start to a league season, and the best since the league became known as the Championship in 2004–05. They were promoted back to the Premier League as champions at the first attempt. This was also their eighth second tier title which is a record for the division.\n\nClub identity\nThe club's traditional home colours of royal blue shirts, white shorts and either white or blue socks have been used for the team's kits throughout most of its history. In more recent times, the club have alternated between either white or blue shorts.\nAn image of a fox was first incorporated into the club crest in 1948. Since 1992, the club's badge has featured a fox's head overlaid onto a Cinquefoil; the Cinquefoil is similar to the one used on the coat of arms of Leicester.\n\nThe club's stadium move in 2002 prompted some changes to the crest, and the design has since evolved further. For the 2009–10 season, the club's 125th anniversary year, a special edition crest was worn on the home and away kits. For this season's away kit, there was also a return to the first colours worn by the club (originally Leicester Fosse), albeit with black shorts as opposed to the original white. This kit returned once again for the 2023–24 season, having also featured during the 2004–05 season.\nIn 1941, the club adopted the playing of the \"Post Horn Galop\" at home matches, to signal both teams entering the pitch. To the present day, the tune is usually played live on the pitch for the first half, while a modern version of the tune is played over the PA system for the second half. The club also play a modern version of their anthem \"When You're Smiling\" before kick-off on home matchdays, with the connection to the song generally accepted to have originated in the late 1970s. Foxes Never Quit is the club's motto, with these words placed above the tunnel inside the stadium.\n\nKit suppliers and shirt sponsors\nSource:\n\nSince 2018, Leicester City's kit has been manufactured by German sportswear company Adidas. Previous manufacturers have included Bukta (1962–64, 1990–92), Admiral (1976–79, 1983–88), Umbro (1979–83), Scoreline (1988–90), Fox Leisure (1992–2000), Le Coq Sportif (2000–05), JJB (2005–07), Jako (2007–09), Joma (2009–10), Burrda (2010–12) and Puma (2012–18).\nThe club's current main shirt sponsor is BC.GAME. The first sponsorship logo to appear on a Leicester shirt was that of Ind Coope in 1983. British snack food manufacturer Walkers Crisps are the club's official snack partner. Walkers Crisps have held a long association with the club, sponsoring their shirts from 1987 to 2001 and the stadium from 2002 to 2011. Other sponsors have included John Bull (1986–87), LG (2001–03), Alliance & Leicester (2003–07), Topps Tiles (2007–09), Loros (2009–10), King Power (2010–21, 2023–24), Tourism Authority of Thailand (2020–21) and FBS (2021–23). Siam Commercial Bank became the club's first sleeve sponsor, and the deal was valid for the 2017–18 season. Since the 2018–19 season, the sleeve sponsor has been Bia Saigon.\n\nStadium and training ground\nIn their early years, Leicester played at numerous grounds, but have only played at two since they joined the Football League. When first starting out, they played on a field by Fosse Road, hence the original club name Leicester Fosse. They moved from there to Victoria Park, and subsequently to Belgrave Road. Upon turning professional the club moved to Mill Lane. After eviction from Mill Lane the club played at the County Cricket ground while seeking a new ground. The club secured the use of an area of land by Filbert Street and moved there in 1891.\nSome improvements by noted football architect Archibald Leitch occurred in the Edwardian era, and in 1927 a new two-tier stand was built, nicknamed \"the Double Decker\", which would persist until the ground's closure in 2002. With the exception of the addition of compulsory seating, the ground saw no further development until 1993, when the Main Stand was demolished and replaced by the new Carling Stand. The addition of the new stand, while the rest of the ground had been untouched since the 1920s, led manager Martin O'Neill to joke that he used to \"lead new signings out backwards\" so they only saw the Carling Stand.\n\nThe club moved away from Filbert Street in 2002, to a new 32,500-capacity all-seater stadium located less than 300 yards away. The site's address, Filbert Way, retains a link with the club's former home. The first match hosted at the stadium was a 1–1 friendly draw against Athletic Bilbao, Bilbao's Tiko scored the first goal at the stadium and Jordan Stewart became the first Leicester player to score. The first competitive match was a 2–0 victory against Watford.\nThe stadium was known as the Walkers Stadium until 2011 in a sponsorship deal with Leicester-based food manufacturers Walkers. On 19 August 2010, it emerged that the new owners King Power wanted to rename the stadium King Power Stadium, and had plans to increase the capacity to 42,000 should Leicester secure promotion. On 5 July 2011, it was announced that the Walkers Stadium would now be known as King Power Stadium.\nThe stadium currently has an all-seated capacity of 32,262, with plans formally approved in December 2023 to extend this to 40,000. In 2020, the club moved into a new state-of-the-art training complex in the Leicestershire village of Seagrave, described as being \"one of the world's most advanced training facilities.\" The club's former training ground Belvoir Drive now serves as the training ground for Leicester City Women.\n\nRivalries, support and hooliganism\nThe club's main rivals are Nottingham Forest, Derby County and Coventry City. Lesser rivalries also exist with Chelsea, Leeds United and more recently Tottenham Hotspur. Leicester were widely considered to be Nottingham Forest's main rivals prior to the mid-1970s. However, when Brian Clough was appointed as Forest manager in 1975, much to the dismay of Derby fans, the rivalry between Forest and Derby quickly intensified. The Leicester-Forest rivalry is however, still prominent on the border of both cities, and on the border of both counties (Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire).\nThe club's anthem \"When You're Smiling\", sung by supporters at home and away matches, is generally accepted to have originated in the late 1970s, with a modern version of the tune currently played before kick-off on home matchdays. Like many other clubs in English football, Leicester have had links to hooliganism. In England and Wales, Leicester were listed as the second most violent football club in August 2000, and averaged the fifth highest number of hooligans at matches between 2019 and 2023. During the 2022–23 and 2023–24 seasons, the club were ranked third and fourth respectively for football banning orders.\n\nEuropean record\nNotes\nLCFC goals listed first\nKPO: Knockout round play-offs\nPR: Preliminary round\n1R: First round\nGS: Group stage\nR32: Round of 32\nR16: Round of 16\nQF: Quarter-final\nSF: Semi-final\n\nManagerial history\nLeicester City's current manager, Steve Cooper, was appointed on 20 June 2024. Nigel Pearson and Peter Hodge have both had two separate spells in charge of the club. Dave Bassett also had a second spell as caretaker manager after his spell as permanent manager. Up until Peter Hodge was hired after World War I, the club had no official manager. A nominal role of secretary/manager was employed, though the board and the selection committee took control of most team affairs. It was Hodge who instated a system at the club for the manager having complete control over player and staff recruitment, team selection, and tactics. Though Hodge was originally also titled \"secretary/manager\" he has retrospectively been named as the club's first official \"manager.\"\n\nRecords and statistics\nGraham Cross holds the record for the most Leicester appearances, with the defender playing 600 games between 1960 and 1976, increased from 599 following the club's decision to incorporate the 1971 Charity Shield into official records. However, Adam Black holds the record for the most appearances in the league with 528 between 1920 and 1935.\nStriker Arthur Chandler is currently the club's all-time record goal scorer, netting 273 in his 12 years at the club; he also found the net in 8 consecutive matches in the 1924–25 season. The most goals managed in a single season for the club is 44 by Arthur Rowley, in the 1956–57 season. The fastest goal in the club's history was scored by Matty Fryatt, when he netted after just nine seconds against Preston North End in April 2006.\nJamie Vardy broke the Premier League record by scoring in 11 consecutive Premier League games, scoring 13 in the process during the 2015–16 Premier League season. Vardy's goal at Sunderland on 10 April 2016 saw him become the first Leicester player since Gary Lineker in 1984–85 to score 20 top flight goals for the club, having already become Leicester's highest Premier League scorer in a single season, ultimately finishing with 23 and the Premier League Golden Boot for the season.\nThe record transfer fee paid by Leicester for a player was in the region of £32-to-40 million for midfielder Youri Tielemans from AS Monaco. The highest transfer fee received for a Leicester player was approximately £80 million from Manchester United for Harry Maguire; at the time of the transfer this was the eleventh-highest-ever fee, the highest-ever move between two English teams, and the highest-ever for a defender.\nThe club's record home attendance is 47,298, for a fifth-round FA Cup match against Tottenham Hotspur at Filbert Street in 1928. The current record home attendance at the current stadium is 32,242, for a Premier League match against Sunderland on 8 August 2015. The highest-ever attendance for a non-competitive football match at King Power Stadium stands at 32,188, for a pre-season friendly against Real Madrid on 30 July 2011.\nLeicester's highest league finish is first in the Premier League in 2015–16. The club currently holds the all-time record for second tier titles with eight.\nLeicester's longest unbeaten run in the league was between 1 November 2008 and 7 March 2009, in which the team remained unbeaten for 23 games on their way to the League One title. The club's longest run of consecutive victories in league football is currently nine, which the team achieved between 21 December 2013 and 1 February 2014 in the EFL Championship.\nIn the 2015–16 season, Leicester achieved many new club records in what The Daily Telegraph described as \"one of the most astonishing league titles of all-time\". They recorded the fewest losses in any of the club's previous Premier League seasons, the fewest away defeats in any top-flight season, and the most consecutive wins in the top flight. Those consecutive victories came against Watford, Newcastle United, Crystal Palace, Southampton and Sunderland. Coincidentally, Leicester kept a record of five straight clean sheets against each of the same five opponents. The King Power Stadium's home crowds in 2015–16 saw their team beaten just once in the Premier League all season.\nLeicester made their UEFA Champions League debut in the 2016–17 season, their fourth appearance in European football. The club became the third English team to win on their Champions League debut, after Manchester United in 1994 and Newcastle United in 1997. They also became the first English team to win away on their Champions League debut, and win all three of their opening games in the competition. Leicester are currently the first and only team in Champions League history to keep clean sheets in each of their opening four games in the competition. In March 2017, the club became the 50th to reach the UEFA Champions League quarter-finals.\nOn 25 October 2019, the Leicester team set the record for the highest margin of away victory in English top-flight history, defeating Southampton 9–0 at St Mary's Stadium. In doing so they also tied the record for the highest margin of victory in Premier League history, equalling Manchester United's 9–0 home victory over Ipswich Town in 1995. As a result, Leicester City hold the all-time top tier records for the biggest defeat, biggest away win, and highest-scoring draw.\nIn the 2023–24 EFL Championship season, the club made its best start to a league season, and the best in the competition's history (since being known as the Championship). During this period, the club also set a new record of six straight away wins, matched the all-time record of nine consecutive league wins home and away, and went four home matches without conceding for the first time since 1973.\n\nLeague history\nSince their election to the Football League in 1894, Leicester City have spent all but one season within the top two tiers of English football. During the 2008–09 season, they played in League One, the third tier of English football, after the club's relegation from the Championship in the previous season. However, the club made an instant return to the second tier and were promoted as 2008–09 League One champions.\n\nSource\n\nSeasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system: 55\nSeasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system: 63\nSeasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system: 1\n(up to and including 2023–24)\n\nPlayers\nFirst team\nAs of 30 August 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nUnder-21s and Academy\nFormer players\nClub staff\nAs of 9 July 2024\n\nPlayer statistics\nPlayer of the Year\nLeicester City's Player of the Year award is voted for by the club's supporters at the end of every season.\n\nEnglish Hall of Fame members\nThe following have played for Leicester and have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame:\n\n Gordon Banks 2002 (Inaugural Inductee)\n Peter Shilton 2002 (Inaugural Inductee)\n Gary Lineker 2003\n Don Revie 2004 (Inducted as a manager)\n Frank McLintock 2009\n\nFootball League 100 Legends\nThe Football League 100 Legends is a list of \"100 legendary football players\" produced by The Football League in 1998, to celebrate the 100th season of League football. It also included Premier League players, and the following former Leicester City players were included:\n\n Arthur Rowley\n Gordon Banks\n Frank McLintock\n Peter Shilton\n Gary Lineker\n\nPlayers with over 300 appearances for Leicester\nIncludes competitive appearances only. Current players in bold.\n\nAs of 4 May 2024\n\nPlayers with 50 or more goals for Leicester\nIncludes competitive appearances only.\nCurrent players in bold.\n\nAs of 4 May 2024\n\nHonours\nLeicester City are currently one of five clubs, including Manchester United, Manchester City, Chelsea and Liverpool, to have won the Premier League, FA Cup and League Cup in the 21st century. Since the start of the millennium, they are the 6th most successful club in English football and one of 14 clubs to have won all four major domestic competitions. The club also hold the record for the most second division titles with eight.\nLeague\n\nFirst Division / Premier League (level 1)\nChampions: 2015–16\nRunners-up: 1928–29\nSecond Division / First Division / Championship (level 2)\nChampions (8): 1924–25, 1936–37, 1953–54, 1956–57, 1970–71, 1979–80, 2013–14, 2023–24\nRunners-up: 1907–08, 2002–03\nPlay-off winners: 1994, 1996\nLeague One (level 3)\nChampions: 2008–09\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners: 2020–21\nRunners-up: 1948–49, 1960–61, 1962–63, 1968–69\nLeague Cup\nWinners: 1963–64, 1996–97, 1999–2000\nRunners-up: 1964–65, 1998–99\nFA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield\nWinners: 1971, 2021\nRunners-up: 2016\n\nNotes\nReferences\nFurther reading\nExternal links\nOfficial website\n\nIndependent websites\n\nLeicester City F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures\nLeicester City at Sky Sports\nLeicester City FC at Premier League\nLeicester City FC at UEFA",
"title": "Leicester_City_F.C."
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"paragraph_text": "Sheffield United Football Club is a professional football club based in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England. The club competes in the EFL Championship, the second tier of English football, following relegation from the Premier League in 2023–24. They are nicknamed \"the Blades\" due to Sheffield's history of cutlery production. The team have played home games at Bramall Lane since their formation. For most of the club's history, United have played in red and white striped shirts with black shorts. Their main rivals are Sheffield Wednesday, with whom they contest the Steel City derby.\nSheffield United was formed as an offshoot of Sheffield United Cricket Club in 1889. Following strong performances in the Midland League and Northern League, they were invited to become founder members of the Football League Second Division in 1892. They won promotion to the First Division at the end of the 1892–93 season, the first team to do so, and went on to be crowned English football champions in 1897–98. United went on to win the FA Cup on four occasions: 1899, 1902, 1915 and 1925; and were beaten finalists in 1901. They spent 41 years in the top-flight before being relegated in 1934. United finished as FA Cup runners-up in 1936 and were promoted as runners-up of the Second Division in 1938–39.\nUnited won the Second Division title in 1952–53, following relegation in 1949. They spent the next three decades between the First and Second Divisions, winning promotions in 1960–61 and 1970–71 after relegations in 1956 and 1968. However, a slow decline saw the club drop to the fourth tier by 1982, though they would win an immediate promotion as Fourth Division champions in 1981–82; this achievement meant that Sheffield United are one of only five sides to have won all four professional divisions of English football. Promoted in 1983–84, they recovered from relegation in 1988 to win consecutive promotions into the top-flight at the end of the 1989–90 campaign.\nSheffield United were founding members of the Premier League in the 1992–93 season, during which they scored the first ever goal of the competition. They were relegated in 1994 and after losing play-off finals in 1997 and 2003, the club finally regained their Premier League status at the end of the 2005–06 campaign under the stewardship of manager Neil Warnock. However, United were relegated the following year and dropped into League One in 2011. They spent six seasons in the third tier, losing in three play-off campaigns, before manager Chris Wilder led the club to promotion as champions in 2016–17. Promotion to the Premier League followed in 2018–19, though they returned to the Championship in 2021. The club played in the Premier League following a promotion from the EFL Championship in the 2022–23 season, but were relegated in the following season.\n\nHistory\nFormation and glory years (1888–1975)\nThe club was formed by members of the Sheffield United Cricket Club, formed in 1854 and the first English sports club to use 'United' in its name. Sheffield United's predominant nickname is \"The Blades\", a reference to Sheffield's status as the major producer of cutlery in the United Kingdom. United's original nickname was in fact \"The Cutlers\" from 1889 to 1912. City rivals Wednesday held the nickname \"The Blades\" in their early years, however in 1907 Wednesday officially became \"The Owls\", in reference to their new ground in Owlerton, and United would later claim \"The Blades\" nickname for themselves.\nSheffield United officially formed on 22 March 1889 at the Adelphi Hotel, Sheffield (now the site of the Crucible Theatre) by the President of the Cricket Club, Sir Charles Clegg. The Wednesday had moved from Bramall Lane to their own ground at Olive Grove after a dispute over gate receipts and the tenants of Bramall Lane needed to create a new team to generate income. Sir Charles Clegg was incidentally also the president of The Wednesday.\nUndoubtedly United's heyday was the 30-year period from 1895 to 1925, when they were champions of England in 1897–98 and runners-up in 1896–97 and 1899–1900, and FA Cup winners in 1899, 1902, 1915 and 1925. United have not won a trophy since 1925, bar those associated with promotion from lower leagues, their best performances in the cup competitions being several semi-final appearances in the FA Cup and League Cup.\n\nFall from grace and brief revival (1975–1994)\nTheir darkest days came between 1975 and 1981. After finishing sixth in the First Division at the end of the 1974–75 season, they were relegated to the Second Division the following season, and three years after that setback they fell into the Third Division. They reached an absolute low in 1981 when they were relegated to the Fourth Division, but were champions in their first season in the league's basement division and two years afterwards they won promotion to the Second Division.\nThey fell back into the Third Division in 1988, but new manager Dave Bassett masterminded a quick revival which launched the Blades towards one of the most successful eras in their history. Successive promotions in the aftermath of the 1988 relegation saw them return to the First Division in 1990 after a 14-year exile. They survived at this level for four seasons (being founder members of the new Premier League in 1992 after peaking with a ninth-place finish in the last season of the old First Division) and reached an F.A. Cup semi-final in the 1992–93 season before being relegated in 1994.\n\nFinancial trouble and fall to League One (1994–2013)\nThey remained outside the top flight for the next 12 years, although they qualified for the play-offs under Bassett's successor Howard Kendall in 1997 and caretaker manager Steve Thompson in 1998. They were struggling at the wrong end of Division One when Neil Warnock was appointed manager in December 1999, and a financial crisis was preventing the club from being able to boost their squad, but in 2002–03 they enjoyed their most successful season for a decade, reaching the semi-finals of both domestic cups and also reaching the Division One play-off final, where they were beaten 3–0 by Wolverhampton Wanderers. Three years later, however, Warnock delivered a Premier League return as the Blades finished runners-up in the re-branded Championship. They lasted just one season back amongst the elite, before being relegated from the Premier League amidst the controversy surrounding Carlos Tevez, the player who was controversially signed by West Ham United and whose performances played a big part in their remarkable escape from relegation. Neil Warnock resigned as manager after the Blades went down. The team also purchased Chinese club Chengdu Wuniu in 2006, and redesigned the club crest in the style of the Sheffield United badge and renamed the team \"Chengdu Blades\". The team were dissolved in 2015.\nThe club struggled to come to terms with life back in the Championship, with a spiralling wage bill not being matched by the quality of the players brought in, and a succession of managers within a short period of time. The Blades reached the Championship playoff final in 2009 under Kevin Blackwell, but a period of decline then set in. The 2010–11 season proved disastrous, with the club employing three different managers in the span of a season, which ultimately ended in relegation to League One under Micky Adams, meaning they would play in the third tier of English football for the first time since 1989. United qualified for the League One play-offs in 2011–12 and 2012–13 but lost in the final and semi-final respectively.\n\nSaudi takeover and return to the top flight (2013–present)\nIn September 2013, Abdullah bin Mosaad Al Saud of the House of Saud had bought a 50 per cent stake in United's parent company \"Blades Leisure Ltd\". Both parties, at that time, agreed to include a \"roulette notice\" mechanism to end their arrangement when they no longer wished to work together. In 2014, United reached the FA Cup semi-finals at Wembley Stadium but lost 5–3 to Hull City. In 2014–15, the team reached the quarter-finals of the FA Cup and semi-finals of the Football League Cup. United secured promotion back to the second tier in the 2016–17 season under the management of lifelong United fan and former player Chris Wilder, winning the League One title with 100 points. In late 2017, co-owner Kevin McCabe served a roulette notice on Prince Abdullah, giving him the option to sell his 50 per cent at £5 million or buy McCabe's 50 per cent for the same price. Prince Abdullah chose to buy but McCabe refused to sell, a decision that ended up before the High Court of Justice.\nIn the 2018–19 season, Sheffield United achieved automatic promotion to the Premier League. United's first season back in the Premier League, despite being tipped by many for relegation, produced a ninth-place finish. Despite this, ownership disputes between Prince Abdullah and McCabe continued. In September 2019, after 20 months of litigation, the High Court issued its judgment, requiring McCabe's company to sell its shares in United. McCabe sought permission to appeal from the High Court and Court of Appeal but both appeals were rejected. As a result, Prince Abdullah became the sole beneficial owner of the club. The club had a very poor start to the 2020–21 season, winning just one of their opening 18 matches. Wilder left the club by mutual consent in March 2021. He was replaced by Paul Heckingbottom as caretaker manager, who could not prevent relegation at the end of the season. In May 2021, the club appointed Slaviša Jokanović as the new manager, making him the first overseas manager the club's history. However, Jokanović was dismissed in November 2021 after a poor start to the season and Heckingbottom was reappointed as manager, this time on a permanent basis. Heckingbottom appointed former Sheffield United players Stuart McCall and Jack Lester as part of his coaching team. The 2021–22 season resulted in a fifth-place finish in the Championship, losing in the play-off semi-finals to Nottingham Forest on penalties. During the following season, Nigerian businessman Dozy Mmobuosi failed with an attempted £90 million takeover of the financially troubled club having reportedly paid a near-£10 million non-refundable deposit. By the end of the season, Heckingbottom had guided United back to the Premier League, securing automatic promotion with a second-place finish. The team also reached the FA Cup semi-finals, losing 3–0 to Manchester City at Wembley Stadium.\nSheffield United's return to the Premier League for the 2023–24 season proved to be difficult and by early December they sat at the bottom of the league. The club's board decided to sack Heckingbottom, replacing him with former Blades manager Chris Wilder. Despite the managerial change, the team's poor form continued and their relegation back to the Championship was confirmed on 27 April 2024 following a 5–1 loss to Newcastle United. On 11 May 2024, after conceding the 101st goal of their campaign in a 1–0 defeat to Everton, Sheffield United set a new record for the most goals conceded in a single Premier League season, breaking Swindon Town's record of 100 from the 1993–94 season. On the final matchday of the season, the club lost 3–0 to Tottenham Hotspur at home, finalizing their new record of 104 goals conceded, in addition to a goal difference of −69, matching Derby County's record from the 2007–08 season. Furthermore, they set new records for goals conceded at home with 57, surpassing Aston Villa's record from the 1935–36 season, and recorded a home goal difference of −38.\n\nKits, colours and crest\nSheffield United have played in red and white stripes for most of their history, but began playing in white shirts and blue shorts. They briefly played in narrow red stripes for the 1890–91 season, before returning to all-white the following year. The stripes returned in the 1892–93 season, with black shorts replacing the blue in 1904. The shirts remained largely unchanged until collars were first removed in 1955, replaced by V-necks until the 1966–67 season (when white socks were also used), and from here on the neck style varied.\nThe traditional red and white stripes remained until the 1974–75 season, when elements of black were added, until the 1979–81 and 82 season kit. This was white with a red breast, and with thin stripes down either side, and was created to accommodate the logo of the club's principal sponsor, Cantor's, a local furniture shop. This was to be replaced by a striped kit, with the sponsor Bentley's (1981–82) and Renault (1982–83) written vertically down a white stripe over the left-hand side. Their kits continued to feature striped shirts, albeit with various aids to accommodate their sponsors, including a yellow square for Laver from 1988 to 1992 (the 1990–92 shirt also featured narrow black stripes through each white stripe) and a black hoop, also for Laver in the 1994–95 season. Then came the diamond kit, which was so badly received that the club reverted to stripes the following season. Since then, red and white stripes and black socks with varying trim have been the order of the day, with black shorts for all but the 2002–05 seasons, when white and then red were tried. The club also every few seasons opt to put thin black stripes between the red and white stripes. Sheffield United's home colours were the inspiration for the kit of Irish club, Derry City. In 1934, Derry City adopted the stripes, while Billy Gillespie was manager of the club, in recognition of Gillespie's achievements at Sheffield United.\n\nThe first time a crest appeared on the shirt was in the 1891–92 season, when a red crest appeared on the white shirt, but this disappeared the following season. United used the city of Sheffield's coat of arms from 1965 to 1977, when a new crest was used, introduced by former manager Jimmy Sirrel, but designed apparently over 20 years previously by former player Jimmy Hagan. This consisted of two white crossed swords, or blades, the club's nickname, with a Yorkshire Rose above, on a black background. This is surrounded by a red ring with \"Sheffield United F.C.\" written around the top and \"1889\", the year the club was founded, underneath. This has been altered very slightly a few times, with a simple black embroidered crest appearing on shirts from 1987 to 1990, and an all-white crest on a red-edged black shield for the 1992–99 seasons, but reverted to its original form in 2000.\n\nShirt sponsors and manufacturers\nGround\nSheffield United play at Bramall Lane, near the centre of Sheffield. Bramall Lane is the oldest major league ground anywhere in the world, having hosted its first game in 1862, a match between Hallam and Sheffield Club. Bramall Lane also hosted the world's first ever floodlit football match on 14 October 1878 with two teams picked from the Sheffield Football Association. The power for the lights was provided by two generators. The crowd was 20,000 and the score 2–0.\nBramall Lane was originally a cricket ground and in 1855 it was leased to Sheffield United Cricket Club (founded in 1854) by the Duke of Norfolk. The ground was opened with a cricket match on 30 April 1855 and later became a shared cricket/football venue. After Yorkshire County Cricket Club was founded in 1863, it was their main venue in the nineteenth century. They continued to use the ground for some matches each season until 7 August 1973, after which construction work began to convert Bramall Lane into a specialist football stadium.\nThe ground has seen expansion in recent years, with the 2006 completion of a 3,000 seat corner stand, Bramall Lane is now an all-seater stadium fit for the Premier League holding 31,884.\nIn March 2009 the club were officially granted permission to expand the stadium once again, over two phases. The first phase would have seen the Kop being extended to increase the ground's capacity up to approximately 37,000. It would also have seen the removal of the main supporting pillars and a giant screen installed as part of the stand's roof. The second phase would have seen the Valad Stand (formerly Arnold Laver Stand) also extended, bringing the total capacity to a 40,000 all seater. The expansion would also have had a secondary focus of being available for selection for FIFA World Cup matches in 2018 or 2022, if England's bid were to be successful. However, on 16 December 2009 The Football Association announced that should England's 2018/2022 World Cup bid be successful then any games played in Sheffield would be staged at Sheffield Wednesday's Hillsborough Stadium. In light of this United's former chief executive, Trevor Birch, made it known that all planned ground redevelopment had been put on hold until the club was able to regain and maintain Premiership status.\nA revised application for the redevelopment of Kop was submitted in 2015, which would see 3,215 seats added to the stand's current capacity. Further plans were revealed in 2017 for the development of the corner between the Kop and South Stand, which would see the construction of residential flats and a new club store.\n\nSupporters and rivalries\nSheffield United derive support from a broad cross-section of the city and its environs, with branches of the official supporters' club running from Swinton, Kiveton Park, Retford, and Eckington. Further afield, supporters groups also exist in Essex, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, and Australia, amongst others.\nA 2013 study of posts on social networking site Twitter found that Blades fans have the most positive interactions with the official account of their club out of any in English football. Sheffield United were also found to have the most 'obsessed' fans in the 2006–07 Premier League, with supporters reportedly thinking about the team 110 times a day on average.\nUnited have a number of celebrity supporters including:\n\nSean Bean, actor\nKell Brook, boxer\nRichard Caborn, Labour Party politician\nJoe Elliott, singer-songwriter and musician\nJessica Ennis-Hill, Olympic gold-medallist\nFlea, singer and actor\nMatt Fitzpatrick, golfer\nPaul Goodison, Olympic gold-medallist\nPaul Heaton, musician\nDing Junhui, professional snooker player\nMark Labbett, Chaser on TV quiz show The Chase\nMichael Palin, writer and television presenter\nJoe Root, England cricketer\nJuan Sebastián Verón, former Argentina international footballer\n\nRivalries\nSheffield United have numerous rivalries, mostly with other Yorkshire clubs. The most notable rivalry is with their city neighbours Sheffield Wednesday, with whom they contest the Steel City derby (named after the steel industry for which the city of Sheffield is globally famous).\nSheffield United's next main regional rival is Leeds United from West Yorkshire. This is known as a Yorkshire derby match (the two cities of Sheffield and Leeds are the largest two cities in Yorkshire). Other local rivalries are shared with the professional clubs of South Yorkshire: Barnsley, Doncaster Rovers and Rotherham United. These matches are known as South Yorkshire derbies.\nSheffield United also have a rivalry with Nottingham Forest. This can be attributed to the miners' strikes of the 1980s, where workers in the pits of Nottinghamshire did not join the strike (known locally as scabbing) while miners from Yorkshire did.\nWest Ham United have also become fierce rivals due to the 'Tevez saga' and the following lawsuit charges.\n\nChants\nLike many English clubs, Sheffield United supporters have a wide variety of chants and songs. The most famous of these is The Greasy Chip Butty Song, sung to the tune of John Denver's 'Annie's Song'.\n\nRecords and statistics\nRecord League victory: 10–0 away v Port Vale, Division Two, 10 December 1892 and 10–0 home v Burnley, Division One, 19 January 1929\nRecord Cup victory: 6–0 home v Leyton Orient, FA Cup 1st Round 6 November 2016\nRecord League defeat: 0–8 home v Newcastle United, Premier League, 24 September 2023\nRecord Cup defeat: 0–13 home v Bolton Wanderers, FA Cup 2nd round, 1 February 1890\nHighest home attendance: 68,287 v Leeds United, FA Cup 5th round, 15 February 1936\nMost league appearances: Joe Shaw made 631 appearances between 1948 and 1966\nMost goals scored overall: Harry Johnson scored 201 goals in 313 games between 1919 and 1930\nMost goals scored in a Season: Jimmy Dunne 41 goals from 41 appearances, Division One, 1930–31\nRecord Transfer Fee Paid: £23.5 million for Rhian Brewster from Liverpool on 2 October 2020\nRecord Transfer Fee Received: £11.5 million for David Brooks to AFC Bournemouth on 1 July 2018\n\nLeague history\nSeasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system: 62\nSeasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system: 44\nSeasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system: 11\nSeasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system: 1\n\nPlayers\nFirst team\nAs of 30 August 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nPlayer of the Year\nA 'Player of the Year' award has been presented since 1967 to recognise the player who has made the greatest contribution to the club over the course of the season. Initially organised by the Official Supporters Club the award was voted for by their members although it was presented as an official club award. In recent years the award has been presented at a gala 'End of Season' award ceremony and dinner, usually held at the end of April, and voting has been widened to include a broader section of the club's fanbase. The first winner of the award was long serving goalkeeper Alan Hodgkinson. The player with the most award wins is striker Alan Woodward on four occasions between 1970 and 1978. The longest gap between wins by a player is seven years; Keith Edwards had two spells with the club and won the award during both, in 1977 and 1984. Harry Maguire and Phil Jagielka have won the award on three consecutive occasions. The award was shared between two players for the first time in 2017, with Billy Sharp and John Fleck receiving the award. The award was won by an overseas born player consecutive times for the first time in 2024, Iliman Ndiaye in 2023 and Gustavo Hamer in 2024.\n\nDevelopment squads and women's team\nAcademy\nSheffield United's Academy is responsible for youth development at the club. It has produced such players as Manchester City defender Kyle Walker and defender Phil Jagielka, both England internationals, and also Swansea City defender Kyle Naughton, Burnley full back Matthew Lowton, Manchester United defender and club captain Harry Maguire and current club captain Billy Sharp. The academy building and training facilities in the Sheffield suburb of Shirecliffe were opened in 2002 by then Minister for Sport Richard Caborn. Sheffield United Academy U18s currently play in the Professional Development League at the Shirecliffe ground at Firshill Crescent, and finished as runners-up in the 2011 FA Youth Cup. In addition, SteelPhalt are the sponsor of the Shirecliffe-based Academy, and are also the major sponsor of Sheffield United Women.\n\nUnder 23s\nSheffield United U23s currently compete in the Professional Development League, playing home games at various venues, including Bramall Lane and Stocksbridge Park Steels FC. The club have fielded a reserve team since 1893, when the reserves played in 'Sheffield League Division One'.\n\nUnited Women\nSheffield United also have a Women's team, formerly known as Sheffield United Ladies, who play in the FA Women's Championship after having been promoted in the 2017–18 season from the FA Women's National League. Sheffield United Women also have a Development team and numerous junior teams as part of the Regional Talent Club and an additional grassroots arm.\n\nClub management\nManagerial history\nAt its formation in 1889 United did not employ what would today be termed a manager, the side was coached by a trainer and a football committee selected the team and decided upon tactics (this was a continuation of the structure of Sheffield United Cricket Club from which the football team had been formed). They did appoint Joseph Wostinholm to the position of club secretary and he was responsible for the day-to-day running of the club, matchday organisation and dealing with players and contracts. Wostinholm oversaw a period of rapid growth for the team, culminating in 1898 when United won their only First Division championship, after which he retired. Wostinholm was replaced by John Nicholson as secretary and he would remain in post for over thirty years until his death in 1932. Nicholson presided over the most successful period in the club's history as United became a leading force in English football, winning the FA Cup four times and regularly challenged at the top of the league but a second Division One title for the club eluded him.\n\nA new era\nFollowing the death of John Nicholson (who died whilst travelling to an away match in Birmingham) the United board turned to Chesterfield manager Teddy Davison to become the club's first real manager. The team were in decline however and were soon relegated for the first time in their history. Davison gradually rebuilt the side with astute signings and young players and regained top flight status, but the club's post-war financial problems would hamper team building for years to come. Davison retired in 1952 and prompted the club to appoint Rotherham United manager Reg Freeman as his successor. Freeman stabilised the team but fell ill and died in 1955 after which United turned to the inexperienced Joe Mercer but he struggled to cope with a team in decline and departed for Aston Villa in 1958. United then appointed Chester manager John Harris who inherited a talented but under performing side which he transformed into a promotion team, returning to Division One in 1961. Harris built a side based on local players and stabilised them in the top flight but financial issues soon prompted the sale of key players and United were eventually relegated once more. Harris opted to 'move upstairs' to become 'general manager' and handed the role of team manager to Arthur Rowley but he was sacked after one season following disappointing results. Harris returned as manager and guided the side to promotion once more but after a good start back in the top flight Harris' confidence faded and he stepped down in 1973 to 'move upstairs' for the second time.\n\nRapid decline\nExperienced Blackburn Rovers manager Ken Furphy was the man United turned to replace John Harris. He initially did well but the team was ageing and there was little money to replace players. After a good finish in his first season a disastrous string of results the following year led to Furphy's sacking in October 1975. Jimmy Sirrel was recruited from Notts County but he proved unpopular with both the players and fans and could not halt the decline, overseeing relegation and then being sacked in September 1977 with United at the bottom of Division Two. The ambitious and colourful Harry Haslam was handed the reins and although many of his ideas were ahead of their time he built an ageing side based on 'star' players at the end of their career. Now in the Third Division performances deteriorated still further and Haslam stepped down due to illness in January 1981. World Cup winner and then United player Martin Peters was promoted to the position of manager but United were relegated to Division Four at the end of the season and Peters resigned.\n\nMoving on up\nWith a new ambitious board in place United recruited Ian Porterfield as manager in June 1981. He had an immediate impact, winning the Division Four championship in his first season and taking the club back into the second tier two years later on a meagre budget. Despite this many fans were unhappy with the style of football and odd team selections and Porterfield was sacked in 1986 following supporter protests. Coach Billy McEwan was promoted to the position of manager but failed to improve the standard of play and with attendances falling and the team in danger of relegation once more he was sacked in January 1988. United now turned to the colourful character of Dave Bassett who had most recently had a short, unsuccessful spell as manager of Watford. It was to prove an astute appointment as although he could not prevent relegation in his first season he built a solid, hard working team on a small budget and won back to back promotions, returning the club to the top flight and achieving regular mid-table finishes. With the formation of the Premier League United's old financial problems and willingness to sell star players without replacing them meant the side eventually succumbed to relegation and when an immediate return was not forthcoming Basset was sacked in December 1995.\n\nComings and goings\nThe following years proved a turbulent time for United as they chased the ambition of Premiership football. Experienced Howard Kendall was recruited as manager and undertook a complete rebuilding of the side but left in June 1997 to take over at Everton. Player-coach Nigel Spackman was promoted to replace Kendall but after initial promise he quit after only eight months citing boardroom interference. This was to become a recurring theme and replacement Steve Bruce would leave after only one season citing the same reasons. Adrian Heath then proved a disastrous appointment and lasted only six months before being sacked with United looking more likely to be relegated than promoted. The Blades then turned to experienced lower league manager Neil Warnock who managed to stave off relegation and began to rebuild the side on a meagre budget. Warnock proved a divisive figure with fans, but after a number of mid-table finishes he achieved promotion back to the Premiership in 2006. The side were relegated the following season, prompting the board not to renew Warnock's contract.\nJust like Adrian Heath, the appointment of Bryan Robson in 2007 proved an unpopular and unsuccessful one and he was sacked after less than a year following poor results and intense fan pressure. Former assistant manager Kevin Blackwell was appointed as Robson's replacement but despite reaching the play-off finals in his first full season the team was obviously in decline and he was sacked after only two games of the 2010–11 season. Worse was to come however as player-coach Gary Speed was briefly promoted to manager but left after only a few months to take over the Welsh national side. Micky Adams then became the third full-time manager of the season, and oversaw a disastrous run of results which saw United relegated and Adams sacked after only six months in charge.\nWith United in the third tier once more, Danny Wilson was appointed as manager in June 2011, despite protests from United fans over his previous association with cross-town rivals Sheffield Wednesday. Wilson guided the club to the League One play-off final in his first full season in charge, only to lose to Huddersfield Town after a famous penalty shootout in which Huddersfield missed their first three penalties. Despite the club challenging for promotion the following season, a poor run of results led to Wilson's departure in April 2013, being replaced by Chris Morgan until the end of the season.\nAfter a long search for a new boss, former Scotland defender David Weir was appointed as Wilson's long-term replacement. Weir's tenure was short-lived however, as he was sacked in October of the same year, having won only one of 13 games in charge. After Chris Morgan had overseen the team for a brief time, Nigel Clough was appointed as Weir's permanent successor in October 2013. Clough guided the Blades to finish seventh in the table narrowly missing the play-offs after having been bottom of the table at the start of February and also led United to an FA Cup semi-final against Hull City which the Blades lost 5–3 after twice taking the lead in the first half.\nThe following season saw Clough guide the Blades to fifth place in the league, thus qualifying for the play-offs and also led them to a first League Cup semi-final in 12 years, with the Blades ultimately losing to Tottenham Hotspur 3–2 on aggregate. United failed to gain promotion through the play-offs after losing to Swindon Town 2–1 in the first leg and drawing 5–5 in the second leg (7–6 on aggregate).\nFollowing their failure to gain promotion, Clough was sacked on 25 May 2015 and on 2 June 2015, former Scunthorpe United, Southampton and Reading boss Nigel Adkins was appointed as the new Blades manager. However, his appointment only lasted one season as the Blades (who were in 2nd place after the first five matches) ultimately finished in 11th place, the club's lowest finish in the third tier since 1983. Adkins was duly sacked on 12 May 2016.\nAtkins was quickly replaced by former Northampton Town manager and former Blades player Chris Wilder, who oversaw United's promotion from League One in 2017, after six years in the division, and its subsequent return to the Premier League in 2019.\nUnited went on to finish ninth in their first season back in the top flight, but the following 2020–21 season was a completely different story. On 13 March 2021, Wilder left the club by mutual consent, with the club bottom of the Premier League, with 14 points from 28 games. U23 coach Paul Heckingbottom took interim charge of the team until the end of the season but United were still relegated.\nOn 27 May 2021, former Fulham boss Slaviša Jokanović was appointed by United on a three-year deal, becoming the club's first manager from overseas. However he was sacked on 25 November 2021, after United had only won six of 19 Championship games.\nHeckingbottom was subsequently appointed manager of Sheffield United, this time on a permanent basis, and eventually guided United to the FA Cup semi-finals in 2023, and back to the Premier League for the 2023–24 season.\nUnited struggled on their return to the Premier League for the 2023–24 season and by early December the team was bottom of the League. Paul Heckingbottom was sacked and replaced by former Blades manager, Chris Wilder.\n\nHonours\nLeague\n\nFirst Division (level 1)\nChampions: 1897–98\nRunners-up: 1896–97, 1899–1900\nSecond Division / Championship (level 2)\nChampions: 1952–53\n2nd place promotion (8): 1892–93, 1938–39, 1960–61, 1970–71, 1989–90, 2005–06, 2018–19, 2022–23\nThird Division / League One (level 3)\nChampions: 2016–17\n2nd place promotion: 1988–89\n3rd place promotion: 1983–84\nFourth Division (level 4)\nChampions: 1981–82\nFootball League North\nChampions: 1945–46\nSheffield United are the fourth club to have won a championship title in each of England's four professional leagues. After Burnley, Preston North End and Wolverhampton Wanderers.\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners: 1898–99, 1901–02, 1914–15, 1924–25\nRunners-up: 1900–01, 1935–36\nSheriff of London Charity Shield\nWinners: 1898 (shared)\n\nIn media and popular culture\nBBC Radio Sheffield is the current radio broadcaster of live commentaries of matches within the catchment area of the station. Available on FM Radio frequencies: 88.6 MHz, 94.7 MHz & 104.1 MHz. DAB Radio and Freeview channel 734.\nSheffield United's in-house media label SUTV broadcast matches available to stream through their website.\nUnited were, along with Arsenal, the first team to be featured in a live radio commentary. The Division One fixture between the two sides on 22 January 1927 was broadcast by the BBC. Club captain Billy Gillespie scored United's goal in the 1–1 draw and listeners were provided with a numbered map of the pitch via the Radio Times to aid their understanding of where play was taking place. The area in front of the goalkeeper was numbered 1, with the game providing the first use of the phrase \"back to square one.\"\nA number of films and television programmes have included references to Sheffield United:\n\n1977 Sheffield United are referenced by Brian Blessed's character in a third series episode of the BBC post-apocalyptic drama series Survivors from the 1970s. Blessed's character also wears a Sheffield United scarf throughout.\n1990, the BBC produced a six-part documentary series named \"United\" that followed the fortunes of the club towards the end of the 1989–90 season, in which they achieved automatic promotion to the top flight of English football.\n1996 film When Saturday Comes stars real-life United fan Sean Bean as a part-time Hallam FC player who is scouted by Sheffield United, who then goes on to play in a FA Cup semi-final.\n1997 British comedy film The Full Monty is set in Sheffield and the character 'Gaz' is seen wearing a replica United shirt at one part of the film, and promises his son a ticket for a game at Bramall Lane between Sheffield United and Manchester United.\n2004 Walt Disney film National Treasure which stars Sean Bean, and Nicolas Cage as the lead character. There is a scene where Bean's character is writing on a yellow notepad. Near the top right corner of the notepad is a doodle of the Sheffield United club emblem, the crossed blades and a dot to represent the Yorkshire rose.\n2005 film Batman Begins features a child wearing a 1990s Blades shirt.\n2012 television drama Prisoners' Wives also references the club.\n\nInternational links\nIn January 2006, Sheffield United became the first foreign club to take over a Chinese team when they purchased the football club Chengdu F.C., based in the city of Chengdu, China. The club was renamed the Chengdu Blades, after their new owners. Sheffield United shirts were sold in China, and Chengdu shirts were sold in Sheffield, increasing revenue streams for both clubs. United sold on their share of the Chinese side in 2010, following Chengdu's implication in a match-fixing scandal and increasing financial pressures on the English club.\nIn February 2008, Kevin McCabe, the club's chairman, finalised an agreement with Budapest-based Ferencváros to buy its football team, and also negotiated with the Hungarian government to purchase and develop the ground around Stadion Albert Flórián. A match was played in Budapest to celebrate the link-up. McCabe left the Fenecváros board in January 2011.\nThe Blades also have operating, business and exchange of ideas links with Central Coast Mariners of Australia and White Star Woluwé of Belgium. In November 2020, they took over the Calicut, Kerala based club Quartz FC which plays in the third tier of Indian Football and rebranded it as Kerala United FC.\n\nAffiliated clubs\nArklow Town\n Beerschot\n Buxton\n Central Coast Mariners\n Estudiantes\n Fenerbahce SK\n São Paulo\n Strindheim IL\n White Star Woluwé\n Kerala United FC\n Al Hilal United (2020–present)\n LB Châteauroux (2021–present)\n\nBibliography\nClarebrough, Denis (30 September 1997). Sheffield United Football Club. Chalford Publishing. ISBN 0-7524-1059-8.\nClarebrough, Denis; Kirkham, Andrew (1 January 1999). Sheffield United Football Club 1889–1999: A Complete Record. Sheffield United Football Club. ISBN 978-0950858821.\nMatthews, Tony (15 December 2003). The Official Encyclopaedia of Sheffield United Football Club. Britespot Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-904103-19-7.\nPack, Andy; Cookson, Kevin (1 June 2006). Destination Premiership. J W Northend Ltd. ISBN 978-0901100672.\nArmstrong, Gary; Garrett, John (1 December 2007). Sheffield United Football Club – The Biography. Hallamshire Publications Ltd. ISBN 978-1-874718-65-9.\nPhillips, Darren (22 October 2010). The Sheffield United Miscellany. The History Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0752457185.\nClarebrough, Denis; Kirkham, Andrew (1 September 2012). Sheffield United: The Complete Record. DB Publishing. ISBN 978-1780910192.\nJohnson, Nick (17 September 2012). Match of My Life: Twelve Stars Relive Their Greatest Games Sheffield United. Pitch Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1908051721.\nHall, Danny (8 September 2018). He's One Of Our Own: The Story Of Chris Wilder's Blades Revolution. Vertical Editions. ISBN 978-1908847102.\nGillan, Don (2 March 2019). Sheffield United Season Scrapbook 1897/98: T'First Proper Champions. Independently Published. ISBN 978-1798567364.\nAllsop, Alan (9 May 2019). You Fill Up My Senses: The Joy and Despair of Following Sheffield United. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1097573707.\nHall, Danny (31 July 2019). 'We're not going to Wembley'. Vertical Editions. ISBN 978-1908847140.\nAnson, Matt (16 September 2019). Greatest Games Sheffield United Blades' Fifty Finest Matches. Pitch Publishing. ISBN 9781785315503.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\n\nIndependent websites\n\nSheffield United F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures\nSheffield United at Sky Sports\nSheffield United FC at Premier League\nSheffield United FC at UEFA",
"title": "Sheffield_United_F.C."
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"paragraph_text": "Charlton Athletic Football Club is a professional association football club based in Charlton, south-east London, England. The team compete in EFL League One, the third level of the English football league system. \nTheir home ground is The Valley, where the club have played since 1919. They also played at The Mount in Catford during the 1923–24 season, and spent seven years at Selhurst Park and the Boleyn Ground between 1985 and 1992, because of financial issues, and then safety concerns raised by the local council. The club's traditional kit consists of red shirts, white shorts and red socks, and their most commonly used nickname is The Addicks. Charlton share local rivalries with fellow South London clubs Crystal Palace and Millwall.\nThe club was founded on 9 June 1905 and turned professional in 1920. They spent one season in the Kent League and one season in the Southern League, before being invited to join the newly-formed Football League Third Division South in 1921. They won the division in the 1928–29 season, and again in 1934–35 following relegation in 1933. Charlton were promoted out of the Second Division in 1935–36, and finished second in the First Division the next season. Having been beaten finalists in 1946, they lifted the FA Cup the following year with a 1–0 victory over Burnley. The departure of Jimmy Seed in 1956, manager for 23 years, saw the club relegated out of the top-flight the following year. Relegated again in 1972, Charlton were promoted from the Third Division in 1974–75, and again in 1980–81 following relegation the previous season.\nCharlton recovered from administration to secure promotion back to the First Division in 1985–86, and went on to lose in the 1987 final of the Full Members' Cup, though they won the 1987 play-off final to retain their top-flight status. Having been relegated in 1990, Charlton won the 1998 play-off final to make their debut in the Premier League. Though they were relegated the next year, manager Alan Curbishley took them back up as champions in 1999–2000. Charlton spent seven successive years in the Premier League, before suffering two relegations in three years. They won League One with 101 points in 2011–12, though were relegated from the Championship in 2016, and again in 2020 after they won the 2019 League One play-off final.\n\nHistory\nEarly history (1905–1946)\nCharlton Athletic F.C. was formed on 9 June 1905 by a group of 14 to 15-year-olds in East Street, Charlton, which is now known as Eastmoor Street and no longer residential.\nContrary to some histories, the club was founded as \"Charlton Athletic\" and had no connection to other teams or institutions such as East St Mission, Blundell Mission or Charlton Reds; it was not founded by a church, school, employer or as a franchise for an existing ground. Charlton spent most of the years before the First World War playing in local leagues but progressing rapidly, winning successive leagues and so promotions eight years in a row. In 1905–06 the team played only friendly games but joined, and won, the Lewisham League Division III for the 1906–07 season. For the 1907–08 season the team contested the Lewisham League, Woolwich League and entered the Woolwich Cup. It was also around this time the Addicks nickname was first used in the local press although it may have been in use before then. In the 1908–09 season Charlton Athletic were playing in the Blackheath and District League and by 1910–11 had progressed to the Southern Suburban League. During this period Charlton Athletic won the Woolwich Cup four times, the championship of the Woolwich League three times, won the Blackheath League twice and the Southern Suburban League three times.\nThey became a senior side in 1913, the same year that nearby Woolwich Arsenal F.C. relocated to North London.\nAt the outbreak of World War I, Charlton were one of the first clubs to close down to take part in the \"Greater Game\" overseas. The club was reformed in 1917, playing mainly friendlies to raise funds for charities connected to the war and for the Woolwich Memorial Hospital Cup, the trophy for which Charlton donated. It had previously been the Woolwich Cup that the team had won outright following three consecutive victories.\nAfter the war, they joined the Kent League for one season (1919–20) before becoming professional, appointing Walter Rayner as the first full-time manager. They were accepted by the Southern League and played just a single season (1920–21) before being voted into the Football League. Charlton's first Football League match was against Exeter City in August 1921, which they won 1–0. In 1923, Charlton became \"giant killers\" in the FA Cup beating top flight sides Manchester City, West Bromwich Albion, and Preston North End before losing to eventual winners Bolton Wanderers in the Quarter-Finals. Later that year, it was proposed that Charlton merge with Catford Southend to create a larger team with bigger support.: 30 In the 1923–24 season Charlton played in Catford at The Mount stadium and wore the colours of \"The Enders\", light and dark blue vertical stripes. However, the move fell through and the Addicks returned to the Charlton area in 1924, returning to the traditional red and white colours in the process.: 33 \nCharlton finished second bottom in the Football League in 1926 and were forced to apply for re-election which was successful. Three years later the Addicks won the Division Three championship in 1929 and they remained at the Division Two level for four years. After relegation into the Third Division south at the end of the 1932–33 season the club appointed Jimmy Seed as manager and he oversaw the most successful period in Charlton's history either side of World War II. Seed, an ex-miner who had made a career as a footballer despite suffering the effects of poison gas in the First World War, remains the most successful manager in Charlton's history. He is commemorated in the name of a stand at the Valley.: 19 Seed was an innovative thinker about the game at a time when tactical formations were still relatively unsophisticated. He later recalled \"a simple scheme that enabled us to pull several matches out of the fire\" during the 1934–35 season: when the team was in trouble \"the centre-half was to forsake his defensive role and go up into the attack to add weight to the five forwards.\": 66 The organisation Seed brought to the team proved effective and the Addicks gained successive promotions from the Third Division to the First Division between 1934 and 1936, becoming the first club to ever do so. Charlton finally secured promotion to the First Division by beating local rivals West Ham United at the Boleyn Ground, with their centre-half John Oakes playing on despite concussion and a broken nose.\nIn 1937, Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in 1938 finished fourth and 1939 finished third. They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before World War II. This continued during the war years and they won the Football League War Cup and appeared in finals.\n\nPost-war success and fall from grace (1946–1984)\nCharlton reached the 1946 FA Cup Final, but lost 4–1 to Derby County at Wembley. Charlton's Bert Turner scored an own goal in the 80th minute before equalising for the Addicks a minute later to take them into extra time, but they conceded three further goals in the extra period. When the full league programme resumed in 1946–47 Charlton could finish only 19th in the First Division, just above the relegation spots, but they made amends with their performance in the FA Cup, reaching the 1947 FA Cup Final. This time they were successful, beating Burnley 1–0, with Chris Duffy scoring the only goal of the day. In this period of renewed football attendances, Charlton became one of only 13 English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season. The Valley was the largest football ground in the League, drawing crowds in excess of 70,000. However, in the 1950s little investment was made either for players or to The Valley, hampering the club's growth. In 1956, the then board undermined Jimmy Seed and asked for his resignation; Charlton were relegated the following year.\n\nFrom the late 1950s until the early 1970s, Charlton remained a mainstay of the Second Division before relegation to the Third Division in 1972. It caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in 1975 back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances. In 1979–80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division, but won immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980–81. This was a turning point in the club's history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile. A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems, such as the reckless signing of former European Footballer of the Year Allan Simonsen, and the club looked like it would go out of business.: 141-150\n\nThe \"exiled\" years (1985–1992)\nIn 1984 financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd. although the club's finances were still far from secure. They were forced to leave the Valley just after the start of the 1985–86 season, after its safety was criticised by Football League officials in the wake of the Bradford City stadium fire.\nThe club began to ground-share with Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park and this arrangement looked to be for the long-term, as Charlton did not have enough funds to revamp the Valley to meet safety requirements.\nDespite the move away from the Valley, Charlton were promoted to the First Division as Second Division runners-up at the end of 1985–86, and remained at this level for four years (achieving a highest league finish of 14th) often with late escapes, most notably against Leeds in 1987, where the Addicks triumphed in extra-time of the play-off final replay to secure their top flight place. In 1987 Charlton also returned to Wembley for the first time since the 1947 FA Cup final for the Full Members Cup final against Blackburn.: 156 \nEventually, Charlton were relegated in 1990 along with Sheffield Wednesday and bottom club Millwall. Manager Lennie Lawrence remained in charge for one more season before he accepted an offer to take charge of Middlesbrough. He was replaced by joint player-managers Alan Curbishley and Steve Gritt. The pair had unexpected success in their first season finishing just outside the play-offs, and 1992–93 began promisingly and Charlton looked good bets for promotion in the new Division One (the new name of the old Second Division following the formation of the Premier League). However, the club was forced to sell players such as Rob Lee to help pay for a return to the Valley, while club fans formed the Valley Party, nominating candidates to stand in local elections in 1990, pressing the local council to enable the club's return to the Valley – finally achieved in December 1992.\nIn March 1993, defender Tommy Caton, who had been out of action because of injury since January 1991, announced his retirement from playing on medical advice. He died suddenly at the end of the following month at the age of 30.\n\nPremier League years (1998–2007)\nIn 1995, new chairman Richard Murray appointed Alan Curbishley as sole manager of Charlton. Under his sole leadership Charlton made an appearance in the play-off in 1996 but were eliminated by Crystal Palace in the semi-finals and the following season brought a disappointing 15th-place finish. 1997–98 was Charlton's best season for years. They reached the Division One play-off final and battled against Sunderland in a thrilling game which ended with a 4–4 draw after extra time. Charlton won 7–6 on penalties, with the match described as \"arguably the most dramatic game of football in Wembley's history\", and were promoted to the Premier League.\nCharlton's first Premier League campaign began promisingly (they went top after two games) but they were unable to keep up their good form and were soon battling relegation. The battle was lost on the final day of the season but the club's board kept faith in Curbishley, confident that they could bounce back. Curbishley rewarded the chairman's loyalty with the Division One title in 2000 which signalled a return to the Premier League.\nAfter the club's return, Curbishley proved an astute spender and by 2003 he had succeeded in establishing Charlton in the top flight. Charlton spent much of the 2003–04 Premier League season challenging for a Champions League place, but a late-season slump in form and the sale of star player Scott Parker to Chelsea, left Charlton in seventh place, which was still the club's highest finish since the 1950s. Charlton were unable to build on this level of achievement and Curbishley departed in 2006, with the club still established as a solid mid-table side.\nIn May 2006, Iain Dowie was named as Curbishley's successor, but was sacked after 12 league matches in November 2006, with only two wins. Les Reed replaced Dowie as manager, however he too failed to improve Charlton's position in the league table and on Christmas Eve 2006, Reed was replaced by former player Alan Pardew. Although results did improve, Pardew was unable to keep Charlton up and relegation was confirmed in the penultimate match of the season.\n\nReturn to the Football League (2007–2014)\nCharlton's return to the second tier of English football was a disappointment, with their promotion campaign tailing off to an 11th-place finish. Early in the following season the Addicks were linked with a foreign takeover, but this was swiftly denied by the club. On 10 October 2008, Charlton received an indicative offer for the club from a Dubai-based diversified investment company. However, the deal later fell through. The full significance of this soon became apparent as the club recorded net losses of over £13 million for that financial year. Pardew left on 22 November after a 2–5 home loss to Sheffield United that saw the team fall into the relegation places. Matters did not improve under caretaker manager Phil Parkinson, and the team went a club record 18 games without a win, a new club record, before finally achieving a 1–0 away victory over Norwich City in an FA Cup third round replay; Parkinson was hired on a permanent basis. The team were relegated to League One after a 2–2 draw against Blackpool on 18 April 2009.\nAfter spending almost the entire 2009–10 season in the top six of League One, Charlton were defeated in the Football League One play-offs semi-final second leg on penalties against Swindon Town.\n\nAfter a change in ownership, Parkinson and Charlton legend Mark Kinsella left after a poor run of results. Another Charlton legend, Chris Powell, was appointed manager of the club in January 2011, winning his first game in charge 2–0 over Plymouth at the Valley. This was Charlton's first league win since November. Powell's bright start continued with a further three victories, before running into a downturn which saw the club go 11 games in succession without a win. Yet the fans' respect for Powell saw him come under remarkably little criticism. The club's fortunes picked up towards the end of the season, but leaving them far short of the play-offs. In a busy summer, Powell brought in 19 new players and after a successful season, on 14 April 2012, Charlton Athletic won promotion back to the Championship with a 1–0 away win at Carlisle United. A week later, on 21 April 2012, they were confirmed as champions after a 2–1 home win over Wycombe Wanderers. Charlton then lifted the League One trophy on 5 May 2012, having been in the top position since 15 September 2011, and after recording a 3–2 victory over Hartlepool United, recorded their highest ever league points score of 101, the highest in any professional European league that year.\nIn the first season back in the Championship, the 2012–13 season saw Charlton finish ninth place with 65 points, just three points short of the play-off places to the Premier League.\n\nDuchâtelet's ownership (2014–2019)\nIn early January 2014 during the 2013–14 season, Belgian businessman Roland Duchâtelet took over Charlton as owner in a deal worth £14million. This made Charlton a part of a network of football clubs owned by Duchâtelet. On 11 March 2014, two days after an FA Cup quarter-final loss to Sheffield United, and with Charlton sitting bottom of the table, Powell was sacked, private emails suggesting a rift with the owner.\nNew manager Jose Riga, despite having to join Charlton long after the transfer window had closed, was able to improve Charlton's form and eventually guide them to 18th place, successfully avoiding relegation. After Riga's departure to manage Blackpool, former Millwall player Bob Peeters was appointed as manager in May 2014 on a 12-month contract. Charlton started strong, but a long run of draws meant that after only 25 games in charge Peeters was dismissed with the team in 14th place. His replacement, Guy Luzon, ensured there was no relegation battle by winning most of the remaining matches, resulting in a 12th-place finish.\nThe 2015–16 season began promisingly but results under Luzon deteriorated and on 24 October 2015 after a 3–0 defeat at home to Brentford he was sacked. Luzon said in a News Shopper interview that he \"was not the one who chose how to do the recruitment\" as the reason why he failed as manager. Karel Fraeye was appointed \"interim head coach\", but was sacked after 14 games and just two wins, with the club then second from bottom in the Championship. On 14 January 2016, Jose Riga was appointed head coach for a second spell, but could not prevent Charlton from being relegated to League One for the 2016–17 season. Riga resigned at the end of the season. To many fans, the managerial changes and subsequent relegation to League One were symptomatic of the mismanagement of the club under Duchâtelet's ownership and several protests began.\nAfter a slow start to the new season, with the club in 15th place of League One, the club announced that it had \"parted company\" with Russell Slade in November 2016. Karl Robinson was appointed on a permanent basis soon after. He led the Addicks to an uneventful 13th-place finish. The following season Robinson had the team challenging for the play-offs, but a drop in form in March led him to resign by mutual consent. He was replaced by former player Lee Bowyer as caretaker manager who guided them to a 6th-place finish, but lost in the play-off semi-final.\nBowyer was appointed permanently in September on a one-year contract and managed Charlton to third place in the 2018–19 EFL League One season, qualifying for the play-offs. In their first visit to the New Wembley Stadium and a repeat of their famous match in 1998, Charlton beat Sunderland 2–1 in the League One play-off final to earn promotion back to the EFL Championship after a three-season absence. Bowyer later signed a new one-year contract following promotion, which was later extended to three years in January 2020.\n\nMultiple changes of ownership (2019–present)\nESI (2019–2020)\nOn 29 November 2019, Charlton Athletic were acquired by East Street Investments (ESI) from Abu Dhabi, subject to EFL approval. Approval was reportedly granted on 2 January 2020. However, on 10 March 2020, a public disagreement between the new owners erupted along with reports that the main investor was pulling out, and the EFL said the takeover had not been approved. The Valley and Charlton's training ground were still owned by Duchâtelet, and a transfer embargo was in place as the new owners had not provided evidence of funding through to June 2021. On 20 April 2020, the EFL said the club was being investigated for misconduct regarding the takeover. In June 2020, Charlton confirmed that ESI had been taken over by a consortium led by businessman Paul Elliott, and said it had contacted the EFL to finalise the ownership change. However, a legal dispute involving former ESI director Matt Southall continued. He attempted to regain control of the club to prevent Elliott's takeover from going ahead, but failed and was subsequently fined and dismissed for challenging the club's directors. On 7 August 2020, the EFL said three individuals, including ESI owner Elliott and lawyer Chris Farnell, had failed its Owners' and Directors' Test, leaving the club's ownership unclear; Charlton appealed against the decision. Meanwhile, Charlton were relegated to League One at the end of the 2019–20 season after finishing 22nd. Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the final games of the season were played behind closed doors, which remained the case for the majority of the following season.\nLater in August, Thomas Sandgaard, a Danish businessman based in Colorado, was reported to be negotiating to buy the club. After further court hearings, Elliott was granted an injunction blocking the sale of ESI until a hearing in November 2020.\n\nThomas Sandgaard (2020–2023)\nOn 25 September 2020, Thomas Sandgaard acquired the club itself from ESI, and was reported to have passed the EFL's Owners' and Directors' Tests; the EFL noted the change in control, but said the club's sale was now \"a matter for the interested parties\".\nOn 15 March 2021, with the club lying in eighth place, Bowyer resigned as club manager and was appointed manager of Birmingham City. His successor, Nigel Adkins, was appointed three days later. The club finished the 2020–21 season in seventh place, but started the following season by winning only two out of 13 League One matches and were in the relegation zone when Adkins was sacked on 21 October 2021. \nAfter a successful spell as caretaker manager, Johnnie Jackson was appointed manager in December 2021, but, after Charlton finished the season in 13th place, he was also sacked. Swindon Town manager Ben Garner was appointed as his replacement in June 2022, but was sacked on 5 December 2022 with the team in 17th place. After the club was knocked out of the FA Cup by League Two side Stockport County on 7 December, supporters said Charlton was at its \"lowest ebb in living memory\", with fans \"losing confidence\" in owner Thomas Sandgaard. Dean Holden was appointed manager on 20 December 2022, and Charlton improved to finish the 2022–23 season in 10th place.\n\nSE7 Partners (2023–present)\nOn 5 June 2023, the club announced that SE7 Partners, comprising former Sunderland director Charlie Methven and Edward Warrick, had agreed a takeover of Charlton Athletic, becoming the club's fourth set of owners in under four years. On 19 July, the EFL and FA cleared SE7 Partners to take over the club, and the deal was completed on 21 July 2023. On 27 August 2023, after one win in the opening six games of the 2023–24 season, Holden was sacked as manager, and succeeded by Michael Appleton. On 23 January 2024, following a 3–2 defeat at The Valley against Northampton Town - and no wins in 10 League One games - Appleton was sacked. He was replaced on 4 February 2024 by Nathan Jones, under whom Charlton lost one and drew three of their next four games as they matched the club's longest winless streak of 18 games. The winless run ended with a 2–1 win away to Derby County on 27 February 2024. Charlton then went on a 14 match unbeaten run, the club's longest in 24 years. However, Charlton finished the season in 16th place, their worst finishing league position in 98 years. Despite a disappointing campaign for the Addicks, Charlton striker Alfie May won the League One Golden Boot award for the 2023–24 season, with his tally of 23 goals.\n\nClub identity\nColours and crest\nCharlton have used a number of crests and badges during their history, although the current design has not been changed since 1968. The first known badge, from the 1930s, consisted of the letters CAF in the shape of a club from a pack of cards. In the 1940s, Charlton used a design featuring a robin sitting in a football within a shield, sometimes with the letters CAFC in the four-quarters of the shield, which was worn for the 1946 FA Cup Final. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the crest of the former metropolitan borough of Greenwich was used as a symbol for the club but this was not used on the team's shirts.\nIn 1963, a competition was held to find a new badge for the club, and the winning entry was a hand holding a sword, which complied with Charlton's nickname of the time, the Valiants. Over the next five years modifications were made to this design, such as the addition of a circle surrounding the hand and sword and including the club's name in the badge. By 1968, the design had reached the one known today, and has been used continuously from this year, apart from a period in the 1970s when just the letters CAFC appeared on the team's shirts.\nWith the exception of one season, Charlton have always played in red and white – colours chosen by the boys who founded Charlton Athletic in 1905 after having to play their first matches in the borrowed kits of their local rivals Woolwich Arsenal, who also played in red and white.: 8 The exception came during part of the 1923–24 season when Charlton wore the colours of Catford Southend as part of the proposed move to Catford, which were light and dark blue stripes.: 32 However, after the move fell through, Charlton returned to wearing red and white as their home colours.\nThe sponsors were as follows:\n\nNicknames\nCharlton's most common nickname is The Addicks. The origin of this name is from a local fishmonger, Arthur \"Ikey\" Bryan, who rewarded the team with meals of haddock and chips with vinegar: 10 \nThe progression of the nickname can be seen in the book The Addicks Cartoons: An Affectionate Look into the Early History of Charlton Athletic, which covers the pre-First World War history of Charlton through a narrative based on 56 cartoons which appeared in the now defunct Kentish Independent. The very first cartoon, from 31 October 1908, calls the team the Haddocks. By 1910, the name had changed to Addicks although it also appeared as Haddick. The club also have two other nicknames, The Robins, adopted in 1931, and The Valiants, chosen in a fan competition in the 1960s which also led to the adoption of the sword badge which is still in use. The Addicks nickname never went away and was revived by fans after the club lost its Valley home in 1985 and went into exile at Crystal Palace. It is now once again the official nickname of the club.\nCharlton fans' chants have included \"Valley, Floyd Road\", a song noting the stadium's address to the tune of \"Mull of Kintyre\".\n\nStadium\nThe club's first ground was Siemens Meadow (1905–1907), a patch of rough ground by the River Thames. This was over-shadowed by the Siemens Brothers Telegraph Works. Then followed Woolwich Common (1907–1908), Pound Park (1908–1913), and Angerstein Lane (1913–1915). After the end of the First World War, a chalk quarry known as the Swamps was identified as Charlton's new ground, and in the summer of 1919 work began to create the level playing area and remove debris from the site. The first match at this site, now known as the club's current ground The Valley, was in September 1919. Charlton stayed at The Valley until 1923, when the club moved to The Mount stadium in Catford as part of a proposed merger with Catford Southend. However, after this move collapsed in 1924, Charlton returned to The Valley.\nDuring the 1930s and 1940s, significant improvements were made to the ground, making it one of the largest in the country at that time. In 1938 the highest attendance to date at the ground was recorded at over 75,000 for a FA Cup match against Aston Villa. During the 1940s and 1950s the attendance was often above 40,000, and Charlton had one of the largest support bases in the country. However, after the club's relegation little investment was made in The Valley as it fell into decline.\nIn the 1980s matters came to a head as the ownership of the club and The Valley was divided. The large East Terrace had been closed down by the authorities after the Bradford City stadium fire and the ground's owner wanted to use part of the site for housing. In September 1985, Charlton made the controversial move to ground-share with South London neighbours Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park. This move was unpopular with supporters and in the late 1980s significant steps were taken to bring about the club's return to The Valley.\nA single issue political party, the Valley Party, contested the 1990 local Greenwich Borough Council elections on a ticket of reopening the stadium, capturing 11% of the vote, aiding the club's return. The Valley Gold investment scheme was created to help supporters fund the return to The Valley, and several players were also sold to raise funds. For the 1991–92 season and part of the 1992–93 season, the Addicks played at West Ham's Upton Park as Wimbledon had moved into Selhurst Park alongside Crystal Palace. Charlton finally returned to The Valley in December 1992, celebrating with a 1–0 victory against Portsmouth.\nSince the return to The Valley, three sides of the ground have been completely redeveloped turning The Valley into a modern, all-seater stadium with a 27,111 capacity which is the biggest in South London. There are plans in place to increase the ground's capacity to approximately 31,000 and even around 40,000 in the future.\n\nSupporters and rivalries\nThe bulk of the club's support base comes from South East London and Kent, particularly the London boroughs of Greenwich, Bexley and Bromley. Supporters played a key role in the return of the club to The Valley in 1992 and were rewarded by being granted a voice on the board in the form of an elected supporter director. Any season ticket holder could put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes were cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18. The last such director, Ben Hayes, was elected in 2006 to serve until 2008, when the role was discontinued as a result of legal issues. Its functions were replaced by a fans forum, which met for the first time in December 2008 and is still active to this day.\n\nCharlton's main rivals are their South London neighbours, Crystal Palace and Millwall. Unlike those rivals Charlton have never competed in football's fourth tier and are the only one of the three to have won the FA Cup.\nIn 1985, Charlton were forced to ground-share with Crystal Palace after safety concerns at The Valley. They played their home fixtures at the Glaziers' Selhurst Park stadium until 1991. The arrangement was seen by Crystal Palace chairman Ron Noades as essential for the future of football, but it was unpopular with both sets of fans. Charlton fans campaigned for a return to The Valley throughout their time at Selhurst Park. In 2005, Palace were relegated by Charlton at the Valley after a 2–2 draw. Palace needed a win to survive. However, with seven minutes left, Charlton equalised, relegating their rivals. Post-match, there was a well-publicised altercation between the two chairmen of the respective clubs, Richard Murray and Simon Jordan. Since their first meeting in the Football League in 1925, Charlton have won 17, drawn 13 and lost 26 games against Palace. The teams last met in 2015, a 4–1 win for Palace in the League Cup.\nCharlton are closest in proximity to Millwall than any other EFL club, with The Valley and The Den being less than four miles (6.4 km) apart. They last met in July 2020, a 1–0 win for Millwall at the Valley. Since their first Football League game in 1921, Charlton have won 11, drawn 26 and lost 37 league games (the two sides also met twice in the Anglo-Italian Cup in the 1992–93 season; Charlton winning one tie, and one draw). The Addicks have not beaten Millwall in the last 12 league fixtures between the sides; their last win came on 9 March 1996 at The Valley.\n\nIn popular culture\nFilm and TV\nCharlton Athletic featured in the ITV one-off drama Albert's Memorial, shown on 12 September 2010 and starring David Jason and David Warner.\nIn the long-running BBC sitcom Only Fools and Horses, Rodney Charlton Trotter is named after the club.\nIn the BBC science-fiction series Doctor Who, the seventh Doctor's companion Ace (played by Sophie Aldred from 1987 to 1989) wears a Charlton Athletic badge on her black bomber jacket and the club is mentioned in Silver Nemesis.\nThe Valley and manager Alan Curbishley made cameo appearances in the Sky One television series Dream Team.\nCharlton Athletic assumes a pivotal role in the film The Silent Playground (1963). Three children get in to trouble when their mother's boyfriend 'Uncle' Alan (John Ronane), gives them pocket money to wander off on their own, so that he can attend a Charlton football match. There is some footage from the ground which Ronane is later seen leaving.\nA Charlton Athletic match against Manchester United in the 1950s is depicted in BBC Two television film United (released in 2011).\nA young Billy Butcher has a Charlton flag in his room in Amazon Prime Video series The Boys.\n\nBooks\nCharlton Athletic has also featured in several book publications, in both fiction and factual/sports writing. These include works by Charlie Connelly and Paul Breen's work of popular fiction which is entitled The Charlton Men. The book is set against Charlton's successful 2011–12 season when they won the League One title and promotion back to the Championship in concurrence with the 2011 London riots.\nTimothy Young, the protagonist in Out of the Shelter, a 1970 novel by David Lodge, supports Charlton Athletic. The book describes Timothy listening to Charlton's victory in the 1947 FA Cup Final on the radio.\n\nRecords and statistics\nSam Bartram is Charlton's record appearance maker, having played a total of 623 times between 1934 and 1956. But for six years lost to the Second World War, when no league football was played, this tally would be far higher.: 104 \nKeith Peacock is the club's second highest appearance maker with 591 games between 1961 and 1979: 320 He was also the first-ever substitute in a Football League game, replacing injured goalkeeper Mike Rose after 11 minutes of a match against Bolton Wanderers on 21 August 1965.\nDefender and midfielder Radostin Kishishev is Charlton's record international appearance maker, having received 42 caps for Bulgaria while a Charlton player.\nIn total, 12 Charlton players have received full England caps. The first was Seth Plum, in 1923 and the most recent was Darren Bent, in 2006. Luke Young, with seven caps, is Charlton's most capped England international.\nCharlton's record goalscorer is Derek Hales, who scored 168 times in all competitions in 368 matches, during two spells, for the club.: 320 \nCounting only league goals, Stuart Leary is the club's record scorer with 153 goals between 1951 and 1962.: 112 \nThe record number of goals scored in one season is 33, scored by Ralph Allen in the 1934–35 season.: 58 \nCharlton's record home attendance is 75,031 which was set on 12 February 1938 for an FA Cup match against Aston Villa\nThe record all-seated attendance is 27,111, The Valley's current capacity. This record was first set in September 2005 in a Premier League match against Chelsea and has since been equalled several times.\n\nPlayer records\nPlayers\nAs of 9 October 2024\n\nFirst-team squad\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nUnder-21s squad\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nUnder-18s squad\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nWomen's team\nPlayer of the Year\nClub officials\nAs of 2 October 2024\n\nCoaching staff\nManagerial history\nSource:\n\nList of chairmen\nHonours\nSource:\nLeague\n\nFirst Division (level 1)\nRunners-up: 1936–37\nSecond Division / First Division (level 2)\nChampions: 1999–2000\n2nd place promotion: 1935–36, 1985–86\nPlay-off winners: 1987, 1998\nThird Division South / Third Division / League One (level 3)\nChampions: 1928–29 (South), 1934–35 (South), 2011–12\n3rd place promotion: 1974–75, 1980–81\nPlay-off winners: 2019\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners: 1946–47\nRunners-up: 1945–46\nFull Members' Cup\nRunners-up: 1986–87\nFootball League War Cup\nJoint winners: 1943–44\nKent Senior Cup\nWinners: 1994–95, 2012–13, 2014–15\nRunners-up: 1995–96, 2015–16\nLondon Senior Cup\nWinners: 2022–23, 2023–24\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nClayton, Paul (2001). The Essential History of Charlton Athletic. Headline Book Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7553-1020-3.\n\nSee also\nFootball in London\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nCharlton Athletic – UEFA.com\nCharlton Athletic information and statistics Archived 2010-05-29 at the Wayback Machine – Soccerbase\nCharlton Athletic F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures",
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"paragraph_text": "Bradford City Association Football Club is an English professional football club in Bradford, West Yorkshire. The team competes in League Two, the fourth tier of the English football league system, and is managed by Graham Alexander.\nThe club was founded in 1903 and immediately elected into the Football League Second Division. Promotion to the top tier followed as they won the 1907–08 Second Division title and then they went on to win the 1911 FA Cup final, which remains the club's only major honour. They were relegated in 1922 and again in 1927, before winning the Third Division North title in 1928–29. Another relegation in 1937 did allow the club to go on to win the Third Division North Cup in 1939, however a further relegation followed in 1962 to leave the club in the newly created Fourth Division. They secured promotions back into the third tier in 1969 and 1977, but were relegated in 1972 and 1978. They found success in the 1980s under the stewardship of first Roy McFarland and then Trevor Cherry, winning promotion in 1981–82 and following this up with the Third Division title in 1984–85, though they were relegated out of the Second Division in 1990.\nBradford were promoted back into the second tier via the play-offs in 1996, before securing another promotion in 1998–99 to reach the Premier League, marking a return to the top-flight after a 77-year absence. They entered Europe and reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 2000–01 but ended the campaign with relegation from the Premier League. A succession of financial crises followed as the club entered administration twice in two years and further relegations followed in 2004 and 2007 to leave the club back in the fourth tier. They found success under the management of Phil Parkinson by reaching the 2013 League Cup final and then going on to win that year's League Two play-off final but were relegated from League One in 2019.\nThe club's home ground is the 24,840-capacity Valley Parade, which was the site of the Bradford City stadium fire on 11 May 1985, which took the lives of 56 supporters. They are the only professional football club in England to wear claret and amber, and have worn these colours throughout their history. They have though been known by various nicknames, with the \"Bantams\" being the most commonly used nickname as it appears on the current club crest. Supporters hold West Yorkshire derby rivalries with Huddersfield Town and Leeds United, as well as a historic Bradford derby rivalry with the now non-league side Bradford (Park Avenue).\n\nHistory\nBradford City were formed in 1903 as a result of a series of meetings called by James Whyte, a sub-editor of the Bradford Observer, with Football Association representatives and officials at Manningham F.C., a rugby league side. The Football League saw the invitation as a chance to promote association football in the rugby league-dominated county of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It duly elected the new club into the Second Division, in place of Doncaster Rovers. Four days later, at the 23rd annual meeting of Manningham FC, the committee decided to change codes from rugby league to association football. Bradford City Association Football Club were formed without having played a game, taking over Manningham's colours of claret and amber, and their Valley Parade ground.\nRobert Campbell was appointed the club's first manager and with the help of the new committee, he assembled a playing squad at the cost of £917 10s 0d. City's first game was a 2–0 defeat at Grimsby Town on 1 September 1903, six days before their first home game attracted 11,000 fans. The club finished 10th in their first season. Peter O'Rourke took over as manager in November 1905, and he led City to the Second Division title in 1907–08 and with it promotion to the First Division. Having narrowly avoided relegation in their first season in the top flight, City recorded their highest finish of 5th in 1910–11. The same season they won the FA Cup, when a goal from captain Jimmy Speirs won the final replay against Newcastle United. City's defence of the cup, which included the first Bradford derby against Bradford Park Avenue, was stopped by Barnsley after a run of 12 consecutive clean sheets.\n\nCity remained in the top flight in the period up to the First World War and for three seasons afterwards, but were relegated in 1921–22 along with Manchester United. Back in the Second Division, attendances dropped and City struggled for form, with five consecutive finishes in the bottom half of the table. They suffered a second relegation to the Third Division (North) in 1926–27. Two seasons later, O'Rourke, who had initially retired in 1921 following the death of his son, returned and guided City to promotion with a record haul of 128 goals. O'Rourke left for a second time after one more season, and although City spent a total of eight seasons back in the Second Division, they rarely looked like earning promotion back to the top flight. Instead in 1936–37, the club were relegated back to the Third Division (North). City won their third piece of silverware two seasons later, when they lifted the Third Division North Challenge Cup, but they were unable to defend the trophy because competitive football was suspended for the Second World War.\nAfter the war, City went through two managers in the first two seasons, and were consistently in the bottom half of the Third Division (North) table until 1955–56. After three successive top half finishes, City were placed in the new national Third Division in 1958–59. Bradford spent just three seasons in the Third Division, but during their relegation season in 1960–61, they upset First Division side Manchester United in the inaugural season of the League Cup. With 34 goals from David Layne, City nearly earned promotion the following season 1961–62, but did also suffer a record 9–1 defeat to Colchester United. Layne left for Sheffield Wednesday, and without him City finished second from bottom of the league and had to apply for re-election. Bradford City just failed to win promotion in 1963–64, winning more games than any other team in the division that season, twenty five, with Rodney Green top scoring with 29 league goals. There followed three difficult seasons during which time manager Grenville Hair died following a heart attack in training, City returned to the Third Division after getting promoted in 1968–69. City's stay in the Third Division lasted just three years, when they finished bottom in 1971–72. Promotion via fourth spot was won again in 1976–77 but it was instantly followed by a relegation season.\n\nCity failed to win promotion for three successive seasons, until the board appointed former England centre back Roy McFarland as manager in May 1981. McFarland won promotion in his first season, but was poached by his former club Derby County just six months later. City won compensation from Derby and installed another England international Trevor Cherry as McFarland's replacement. Cherry, with former teammate Terry Yorath as his assistant manager, failed to win for two months, but eventually the pair guided City to safety from relegation. During the summer, however, the club chairman Bob Martin had to call in the official receivers. The club was saved by former chairman Stafford Heginbotham and former board member Jack Tordoff, but to ensure the club could start the new season, prize asset, striker Bobby Campbell was sold to Derby. City struggled but so did Campbell, and when he returned, the club went on a record run of ten successive victories. Although they missed out on promotion, City won the league the following season 1984–85, to return to the second tier of the Football League. However, City's triumph was overshadowed when the main stand at Valley Parade caught fire during the final game of the season, killing 56 people.\nCity played games away from Valley Parade for 19 months. But just ten days after the new £2.6 million ground was opened, Cherry was sacked. His replacement, Terry Dolan, steered City away from possible relegation, before he mounted a promotion challenge the following season. City went top of the table in September 1987, but fell away during Christmas and missed out on promotion on the final day of the season. Instead, they entered the play-offs but were defeated in the semi-finals by Middlesbrough. Two years later City were relegated back to the Third Division. For three seasons, City finished mid-table in the third tier, which was renamed Division Two following the formation of the Premier League in 1992.\n\nIn January 1994, Geoffrey Richmond came from Scarborough to take over as chairman, and promised to guide City to the Premier League within five years. He cleared the debts and after four months sacked manager Frank Stapleton to appoint his own manager, Lennie Lawrence. Lawrence left after little more than a year to join Luton Town but his successor, Chris Kamara, took City to the play-offs and their first game at Wembley Stadium. They defeated Notts County 2–0 in the final to earn promotion to Division One. City avoided relegation the following season by winning their last two league games, 1–0 against Charlton Athletic and then beating Queens Park Rangers 3–0 on the final day of the season, but Kamara was sacked in January 1998. Paul Jewell took over, initially on a temporary basis, before he was given a permanent contract. He bought the club's first £1 million signings and guided the club to the Premier League — the first time they had been in the top flight for 77 years — with a second-place finish. The following season, Jewell continued to defy the critics, who labelled his team Dad's Army, by avoiding relegation again on the last day with a 1–0 victory over Liverpool, with a goal from David Wetherall.\nHowever, Jewell left shortly afterwards. His assistant Chris Hutchings was promoted to the manager's position, and despite a series of new expensive signings, he was sacked by November 2000, with City second from bottom of the league. Jim Jefferies took over but could not save the club from relegation. At the end of the first season back in Division One, City were placed in administration with debts of nearly £13 million. Two years later, the club suffered a second spell in administration and a second relegation. Two top-half finishes followed, but the club were relegated for a third time in seven seasons in 2006–07 meaning the following season would be their first in the bottom tier for 26 seasons. Former player Stuart McCall was appointed the new manager, and although he said anything less than promotion would be a failure, he finally led the team to a 10th-place finish. McCall eventually left Bradford City on 8 February 2010 following a board meeting after a run of poor results.\nIn September 2011, the club became linked with American amateur side SC United Bantams.\nIn January 2013, City became the first club from the fourth tier of English football since Rochdale in 1962 to reach the League Cup final, and the first fourth tier club ever to reach a major Wembley Cup final. They defeated three Premier League sides en route to the final – Wigan Athletic 4–2 on penalties in the fourth round, Arsenal 3–2 on penalties in the quarter-finals and Aston Villa 4–3 on aggregate over the two legs of the semi-final. They met Premier League side Swansea City in the final at Wembley but lost 5–0.\nThe run to the final is thought to have been worth at least £1.3 million to the club, with joint chairman Mark Lawn stating that the final itself could be worth an additional £1 million, taking the club's total earnings to £2.3 million during their cup campaign. On 18 May 2013, the club returned to Wembley where they defeated Northampton Town 3–0 in the League Two play-off final to secure a place in League One for 2013–14.\nOn 24 January 2015, Bradford City caused an upset by beating Premiership leaders Chelsea 4–2 away in the FA Cup. The victory sent Bradford through to the fifth round for the first time in eighteen years. They beat Sunderland, another Premier League club, 2–0 at home in the next round on 15 February 2015. In the quarter-finals, the Bantams faced Reading at home, in a game that ended in a goalless draw. The replay was played on 16 March 2015 at the Madejski Stadium, where Reading won 3–0.\nThe club was relegated to League Two at the end of the 2018–19 season.\nIn December 2021, the club was approached by American investors known as WAGMI United (who use cryptocurrency and NFTs) about a possible buyout. The offer was rejected.\nOn 24 February 2022, Mark Hughes was appointed manager of the club on a contract until the summer of 2024. He was sacked on 4 October 2023, with player Kevin McDonald becoming player-caretaker manager. Later that month, assistant manager Mark Trueman replaced McDonald as caretaker manager.\n\nColours and club crest\nBradford City is the only professional football club in England to wear claret and amber. The club colours were inherited from Manningham FC, when the club converted to football upon Bradford City's foundation in 1903. However, whereas Manningham played in hoops, the new football club adopted claret and amber stripes. Manningham RFC adopted the colours in 1884 before the move to Valley Parade in 1886. Having originally worn black shirts with white shorts, the club's first game in claret and amber was against Hull on 20 September 1884, at Carlisle Road.\nThe reason Manningham chose claret and amber is not documented but the colours were the same as those of The Prince of Wales's Own West Yorkshire Regiment, which was based at Belle Vue Barracks on nearby Manningham Lane. Both Manningham, from 1886, and Bradford City, from 1903 to 1908, used the barracks as changing and club rooms.\nBradford City has worn claret and amber, with either white or black, since it was founded. Since the fire in 1985, the club has used black on the kit as a memorial to the 56 supporters who died. The club's away shirt has traditionally been white and to a lesser extent also blue, but there has been a profusion of other colours and designs particularly in more recent years. The away kit for the 2008–09 season was all white. For the 2009–10 season, the away kit was all black with a thin claret and amber stripe down the centre-left.\nCity scarves have also sold in large numbers in recent years to fans of Harry Potter, because the colours are the same as Harry's house scarf at Hogwarts School.\nA number of other clubs across the world wear claret and amber. They include Scottish club Motherwell, who originally wore blue and white until they wore claret and amber for the first time on 23 August 1913, against Celtic. It is erroneously believed that Motherwell chose the claret and amber colours because they were the racing colours of Lord Hamilton; it is more likely that Motherwell were influenced by Bradford City's English FA cup win in 1911.\nThe club's crest combines a series of logos from over the years. In 1974, City adopted a contemporary style crest incorporating the club's initials, with a B-C logo. At the time, the new logo maintained the previous nickname of the Paraders. By December 1981, the club relaunched the Bantams as the official identity with a bantam on the new crest. The crest maintains the club colours and also includes the words The Bantams.\n\nNickname\nBradford City have had a number of nicknames during their history. In their early years, they were referred to as the Robins or Wasps, taking over the nickname of Manningham FC, as a result of Manningham's claret and amber hoops. Other nicknames have been the Citizens or Paraders, but the club is better known as the Bantams.\n\nStadium\nValley Parade was the site of a quarry on the hillside below Manningham, Bradford, owned by Midland Railway Company, in 1886, when Manningham RFC bought one-third of the land and leased the remainder, because they had been forced to find a new home. They spent £1,400 erecting a ground with a capacity of 20,000, club facilities and levelling the land. When Bradford City were formed in 1903, they took over the ground at Valley Parade, which was also at this time the headquarters of The 2nd West Riding Brigade Royal Field Artillery (Territorial Force), playing their first home game on 5 September 1903 against Gainsborough Trinity, drawing a crowd of 11,000. Five years later, the club won promotion to the First Division, and so commissioned football architect Archibald Leitch to redevelop the ground. The capacity was increased to 40,000 by December 1908 with a 5,300-seater main stand, a terraced paddock in front, a Spion Kop, and an 8,000-capacity Midland Road stand. Its first game against Bristol City on Christmas Day attracted a crowd of 36,000. On 11 March 1911, Valley Parade attracted its highest attendance 39,146, for an FA Cup game between Bradford City and Burnley during Bradford's FA Cup winning run.\nUntil 1952, by which time Bradford City had bought the remaining two-thirds of the ground to own it outright, the ground remained virtually unchanged. However, twice during the next decade, the club's Midland Road stand had to be demolished. Club officials first closed part of the stand in 1952, as a result of the Burnden Park disaster six years earlier. Its frame was sold to Berwick Rangers and a replacement stand built in 1954. Six years later, the new stand was itself demolished, and Valley Parade remained a three-sided ground until 1966, when the pitch was moved, and a new stand built.\n\nOn 11 May 1985, Valley Parade was the scene of a fatal fire, during which 56 supporters were killed and at least 265 were injured. The game was the final match of the 1984–85 season, before which City were presented with the Third Division championship trophy. The fire destroyed the wooden main stand in just nine minutes. The club played its home games at Odsal Stadium, a rugby league ground in Bradford, Elland Road, Leeds, and Leeds Road, the former home of Huddersfield Town, until December 1986, while Valley Parade was redeveloped. The club spent £2.6 million building a new main stand and improving the Kop and reopened the new ground on 14 December 1986 for an exhibition match against an England international XI.\nIn 1991, the Bradford end of the ground was the next to be redeveloped and was converted into a two-tier stand with a scoreboard. In 1996, following City's promotion to Division One, club chairman Geoffrey Richmond announced the construction of a 4,500 seater stand on the Midland Road side. Ahead of promotion to the Premiership in 1999, Richmond spent another £6.5 million to convert the Kop into a two-tier 7,500-seat capacity stand. A corner stand between the Kop and main stand was opened in December 2000, taking the capacity to 20,000 for the first time since 1970. The following summer, the main stand was also converted into a two-tier stand, taking the capacity to 24,840. Further projects were planned until the club went into administration in May 2002 so none have taken place. The following year, Valley Parade was sold to Gibb's pension fund for £5 million, with the club's offices, the shop and car park sold to London-based Development Securities for £2.5 million, but these (club offices, shop and car park) were bought back by the club's joint chairmen in the summer of 2011. The club's annual rent and maintenance costs to Gibb's pension fund is £1.2m, and so as of February 2009, the club is considering a return to Odsal. The club and Bradford Bulls would share the new £50m complex, which would also feature cricket, cycling and athletics facilities. Valley Parade has had several other names under sponsorship naming deals. In July 2016 it became the Northern Commercials Stadium, and in July 2019 it became the Utilita Energy Stadium. This partnership came to an end in July 2022. The University of Bradford subsequently became title sponsor of Valley Parade.\n\nSupporters\nThe club spearheaded an initiative in 2007 to slash the price of watching professional football for the 2007–08 season. As a result, season tickets to watch Bradford City were the cheapest in England at £138, the equivalent of £6 per match. When the offer finished, the club confirmed the amount of season tickets sold was 12,019. The scheme enabled the club to top the average league attendances for Football League Two during the 2007–08 season, attracting more than three times more than any other club. The club won the Perform Best Fan Marketing campaign category in The Football League Awards for the scheme and earned them an invitation to the Houses of Parliament. The club aimed to attract 20,000 fans for the 2008–09 by offering a free season ticket to anyone buying a season ticket as long as 9,000 adults sign up, but they fell 704 short of the target. Joint-chairman Mark Lawn announced in November 2008 that season tickets in the Bradford End for the 2009–10 season would be available for just £99 and £138 for the rest of the ground if bought in December 2008.\nFor the 2015–16 season, the club announced its latest season ticket scheme aimed at continuing to make football affordable for fans. Season ticket prices were set at £149 for adults, senior citizens and students, while admission for under-11s was free when purchased with an adult ticket. An initial campaign target of 15,000 was set. On 6 July, the club announced a record-breaking 18,000 tickets had been sold following a successful campaign. The campaign was repeated for the 2016–17 season, where the club sold in excess of 17,000 tickets.\nBradford City have one official mascot, Billy Bantam.\nBradford City announced 'Own The Moment' 2022–23 season ticket sales of 14,190 in September 2022. The figure was a League Two record for the club. It surpassed the previous fourth-tier season-ticket sales record of 13,614 in 2019–20.\nOn 4 March 2023, Bradford City set a new attendance record for Football League Two at a 2–0 victory against Colchester United, with an attendance of 20,383, including 345 away fans. The Bantams then broke this record again in a home fixture on 8 May 2023 against Leyton Orient, with 22,576 supporters in attendance, including 1,902 Leyton Orient fans.\n\nRivalry\nBradford City have participated in the Bradford derby with city rivals Bradford Park Avenue. The West Yorkshire derby is held between City and local rivals Leeds United and Huddersfield Town. A \"friendly\" rivalry also existed with now-defunct club Halifax Town.\nAccording to a survey conducted in August 2019, Bradford City fans also see Burnley, Barnsley and Oldham Athletic as rivals.\n\nEuropean football\nBradford City's only participation in European football to date came in the 2000 UEFA Intertoto Cup.\n\nPlayers\nCurrent squad\nAs of 6 October 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nPlayer of the Year\nStaff\nCurrent staff\nAs of 23 July 2024\n\nFormer managers\nHonours and records\nLeague\n\nSecond Division / First Division (level 2)\nChampions: 1907–08\nRunners-up: 1998–99\n\nThird Division North / Third Division / Second Division (level 3)\nChampions: 1928–29, 1984–85\nPlay-off winners: 1996\nFourth Division / League Two (level 4)\nRunners-up: 1981–82\nPromoted: 1968–69, 1976–77\nPlay-off winners: 2013\nCup\n\nFA Cup\nWinners: 1910–11\nFootball League Cup\nRunners-up: 2012–13\nThird Division North Challenge Cup\nWinners: 1938–39\nWest Riding County FA Challenge Cup\nWinners: 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909\n\nRecords\nRecord league victory: 11–1 v Rotherham United, Third Division (North), 25 August 1928\nRecord FA Cup victory: 11–3 v Walker Celtic, first round replay, 1 December 1937\nRecord League Cup victory: 7–2 v Darlington, Second Round Second Leg, 25 September 2000\nRecord league defeat: 0–8 v Manchester City, Second Division, 7 May 1927 / 1–9 v Colchester United, Fourth Division, 30 December 1961\nRecord FA Cup defeat: 1–6 v Newcastle United, third round, 7 March 1963 / 0–5 v Burnley, fifth round replay, 3 February 1960 / 0–5 v Tottenham Hotspur, third round, 7 January 1970\nRecord home attendance: 39,146 v Burnley, FA Cup fourth round, 11 March 1911\nRecord gate receipts: £300,000 v Arsenal, Football League Cup quarter-final, 11 December 2012\nLongest unbeaten run : 21 1968 to 1969\nLongest run of wins: 10 1983 to 1984\nMost appearances : 574 Ces Podd\nMost league appearances: 502 – Ces Podd\nMost goals scored : 143 – Bobby Campbell\nMost league goals: 121 – Bobby Campbell\nMost goals in a season: 36 – David Layne, 1961–62\nMost goals scored in a match: 7 – Albert Whitehurst v Tranmere Rovers, Third Division (North), 6 March 1929\nHighest transfer fee paid: £2.5 million – David Hopkin, from Leeds United, July 2000\nHighest transfer fee received: £2 million – Des Hamilton, to Newcastle United, March 1997 / Andy O'Brien, to Newcastle United, March 2001\nMost team league goals in a season: 128 – Third Division (North), 1928–29\nMost points (three points for a win): 94 – Third Division, 1984–85\nMost points (two points for a win): 63 – Third Division (North), 1928–29\nAll records from Bradford City F.C. official website.\n\nSponsors\nKit and main sponsors\nTables of kit suppliers and shirt sponsors appear below:\n\nStadium\n1995–1999 The Pulse\n2005–2007 Bradford & Bingley\n2007 Intersonic\n2007–2016 Coral Windows\n2016–2019 Northern Commercials\n2019–2022 Utilita Energy\n2022–present University of Bradford\n\nSee also\nFootball in Yorkshire\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nSite of Bradford City's bantamspast museum\nPlay-off record. Archived 26 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine.",
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"paragraph_text": "Darlington Football Club is an association football club based in Darlington, County Durham, England. As of the 2023–24 season, the team competes in the National League North, at the sixth level of English football.\nThe club was founded in 1883, and played its matches at Feethams. The club originally played in regionally organised leagues, and was one of the founding members of the Northern League in 1889. They were first admitted to the Football League when the Third Division North was formed in 1921. They won the Third Division North title in 1925, and their 15th place in the Second Division in 1926 remains their highest ever league finish. After their admission to the League, they spent most of their history in the bottom tier. They won the Third Division North Cup in 1934, their first victory in nationally organised cup competition. They reached the last 16 of the FA Cup twice, and the quarter-final of the League Cup once, in 1968. In the early 1990s they won successive titles, in the Conference National in 1990 and the Fourth Division in 1991. In 2011 they won the FA Trophy, defeating Mansfield Town 1–0 at Wembley Stadium.\nDarlington moved to the all-seater, 25,000-capacity Darlington Arena in 2003. The cost of the stadium was a major factor in driving the club into administration in 2003, 2009, and 2012. As the fan owned club was unable to agree a creditors voluntary agreement it was expelled from the Football Association (FA). A new club was immediately formed and moved to Blackwell Meadows stadium but the FA ruled that, as a new club, it must have a different playing name from the expelled club. The name chosen was Darlington 1883, and that club was placed in the Northern League Division One, the ninth tier of English football, for the 2012–13 season. They won three promotions in four seasons before the FA approved their request to change to the traditional Darlington FC name.\nThe club have at times worn strips of black and white shirts, black shorts and black and white socks. The club's crest depicts Locomotion No. 1, referring to the town's railway history; as well as a stylised Quaker hat, referring to the religious movement that had a historic influence on the town, and which was the source of the team's nickname, the Quakers. The club's main rival's historically are Hartlepool United.\n\nHistory\nFounding and pre-war\nIn July 1883, a meeting was called in Darlington Grammar School to address concerns that so few Darlington-based football clubs were entering the major competition in the region, the Durham Challenge Cup. The meeting agreed with the view expressed by the Darlington & Stockton Times newspaper, that there was \"no club, urban or rural, sufficiently powerful to worthily represent Darlington\", decided to form a new club, and elected one Charles Samuel Craven, a local engineer, as secretary. Darlington Football Club duly entered the Durham Challenge Cup, reached the final in their first season, and won the trophy in 1885. The following season Darlington entered the FA Cup for the first time, only to lose 8–0 to Grimsby Town. Craven was instrumental in the formation of the Northern League in 1889. Darlington were one of the founder members, and went on to win the league title in 1896 and 1900; they reached the semi-final of the FA Amateur Cup in the same two seasons.\n\nThe club turned professional in 1908 and joined the North Eastern League. The 1910–11 season saw Darlington reach the last 16 of the FA Cup, progressing through five qualifying rounds to lose to Swindon Town in the third round proper, and two years later they won the North Eastern League. Ground improvements begun before the First World War left the club in financial difficulty during it; the chairman of Darlington Forge Albion financed the completion of the East Stand and cleared the debts, allowing them to continue to compete. When competitive football resumed after the war, Darlington finished second in the North Eastern League, and were champions for a second time the following year. This victory was well timed, as it coincided with the formation of the Northern Section of the Football League's Third Division, which Darlington were invited to join.\nTheir first season in the Third Division was a successful one and they ended up in second place. Three years later, in 1924–25, they were champions and won promotion to the Football League Second Division. The 15th-place finish in 1926 remains Darlington's best League performance, but they were relegated back to the Third Division in 1927, where they remained until the Second World War put an end to competitive football. They came as high as third in 1929–30, but twice had to apply for re-election to the League, in 1932–33 and 1936–37, after finishing in last place in the section. In 1934, they enjoyed their first success in a nationally organised cup competition, defeating Stockport County 4–3 at Old Trafford to win the Football League Third Division North Cup, and reached the final again two years later, this time losing 2–1 at home to Chester.\n\nPost-war\nSoon after the Football Association gave permission for competitive matches to be played under floodlights, Darlington beat Carlisle United 3–1 in the first floodlit FA Cup match between Football League clubs, a replay held at St James' Park, Newcastle United's ground, in November 1955.[B] The 1957–58 season saw the club equal their previous best FA Cup run, reaching the last 16 by defeating Chelsea, Football League champions only three years earlier, in the fourth round. After letting slip a three-goal lead at Stamford Bridge, Darlington won the replay 4–1 after extra time, described as \"a most meritorious win, earned by a combination of sound tactics and an enthusiasm that Chelsea never equalled\" by The Times' correspondent, who felt it \"surprising that extra time was necessary, for Darlington always seemed to have the match well in hand\". In the League, Darlington's fourth place in 1948–49 was their only top-half finish in the first twelve seasons after the war, and when the regional sections of the Third Division were merged, they were allocated to the new Fourth Division.\nThe Supporters' Club raised £20,000 to pay for a roof at one end of the Feethams ground and for floodlights, which were first used on 19 September 1960. Later that night, the West Stand burned down due to an electrical fault. Darlington's attendance record, of 21,023 against Bolton Wanderers in the League Cup fourth round, was set two months later. Under the management of Lol Morgan, they won promotion to the Third Division in 1966. A crowd of 16,000 watched the draw against Torquay United on the last day of the season which ensured they finished as runners-up, but they were relegated the following year.\nDarlington reached the quarter-finals of the 1968 League Cup; drawn away to Brian Clough's Derby County, they took the lead, only to lose 5–4. During the 1970s the club had to apply for re-election to the League five times, and by 1982 they were facing a financial crisis which they survived thanks to fundraising efforts in the town. Three years later they won promotion by finishing third in the league under manager Cyril Knowles. Darlington spent two seasons in the Third Division; the 13th-place finish in 1986 was the highest position they achieved in the Football League since the introduction of the four-division structure in 1958, but they were relegated the following season.\nThough Brian Little's appointment as manager in February 1989 was too late to stave off relegation to the Conference, he went on to lead them to successive promotions. An immediate return to the Football League as Conference champions preceded the Fourth Division title in 1990–91, but Little's departure for Leicester City was followed by relegation and a succession of short-term managers. They came close to a return to the Third Division via the play-offs in 1996; on their first visit to Wembley, against Plymouth Argyle, they were beaten by a Ronnie Mauge goal.\n\nNew stadium, administration and decline\nThe 1999–2000 season, the first under George Reynolds' chairmanship, was marked by Darlington becoming the first team to lose an FA Cup tie and still qualify for the next round. Manchester United's involvement in the FIFA Club World Championship meant they did not enter the FA Cup. To decide who took their place, a \"lucky losers\" draw was held from the 20 teams knocked out in the second round; Darlington were selected, and lost their third-round tie 2–1 to Aston Villa at Villa Park. Their second Wembley appearance came later that season, facing Peterborough United in the play-off final after automatic promotion had seemed certain earlier in the season. After a 3–0 aggregate semi-final win over Hartlepool United, Quakers missed numerous chances and were again undone by a single goal, this time from Andy Clarke.\nIn 2002, Darlington made unsuccessful approaches to sign international stars Paul Gascoigne and Faustino Asprilla, and moved into their new stadium, named the Reynolds Arena, in summer 2003. Reynolds had paid the club's debts when he took over, but the cost of the stadium, partly financed with high-interest loans and built without realistic expectation of filling it, drove the club into administration six months later. Reynolds resigned as a director in January 2004 with the club under threat of imminent closure. A benefit match, featuring footballers such as Gascoigne, Bryan Robson and Kenny Dalglish, played in front of a crowd of over 14,000, raised £100,000 to help ensure survival in the short term. Despite the off-field problems, David Hodgson, in his third spell as manager, and his players produced some fine performances as the team avoided relegation.\n\nAt the end of the season, Reynolds was obliged to hand over control to the Sterling Consortium to bring the club out of administration, Stewart Davies taking over as chairman. He and his staff adopted a fan-friendly approach, in contrast to the abrasive Reynolds, before in 2006, the club was sold to property developer George Houghton. For four consecutive seasons, under Hodgson, sacked in 2006, and then under successor Dave Penney, the Quakers finished in the top half of the table, reaching the play-off semi-final in 2008 only to lose to Rochdale on penalties. In February 2009, Darlington again went into administration, triggering an automatic 10-point deduction, without which they would have again reached the play-offs. Fundraising efforts kept the club going, but when no buyer was found for the club by a May deadline, the administrators made the majority of the first-team squad available for transfer and cut staff numbers to a minimum. On 20 May, Houghton returned to the club as chairman, appointed former Middlesbrough boss Colin Todd as manager, and brokered an agreement which led to the club coming out of administration and ownership passing to local businessman Raj Singh and enabling it to compete in the 2009–10 season without any points deduction. Todd left the club after losing seven of his first nine games and was replaced by former Republic of Ireland manager Steve Staunton, who only won four of 23 league games.\nThe club were eventually relegated to the Conference, and suffered more managerial turmoil during the summer when Simon Davey and successor Ryan Kidd both left within 11 days, to leave Mark Cooper in charge. He led the club to victory in the 2011 FA Trophy final at Wembley Stadium, defeating Mansfield Town 1–0 with a goal from Chris Senior in the last minute of extra time. Following a succession of poor performances at the start of the 2011–12 season, Cooper and his assistant Richard Dryden were sacked by the club in October. A little more than two months later, Singh placed the club into administration for the third time in less than a decade. A number of players were released and allowed to join other clubs for nominal fees in January before interim manager Craig Liddle and the remaining playing staff had their contracts terminated by Darlington's administrator. Two days later, the club was spared from liquidation after a last-minute injection of funding by supporters' groups. Enough funds were raised for Darlington to complete the season, but relegation was confirmed with three matches remaining.\n\nDarlington 1883\nOn 3 May 2012, the club was taken over by DFC 1883 Ltd with the intention of moving into community ownership. Because it failed to agree a creditors voluntary agreement, the club was expelled from the Football Association and was eventually wound up in the High Court. DFC 1883 Limited immediately formed a new club. Because the club proposed to play at a ground without the required grading for the Northern Premier League, the new club was placed in the Northern League Division One, by the Football Association. Martin Gray was appointed manager. An appeal against the new club not being treated as a continuation of the old club was rejected, confirming that the club was to be treated as a new club and would not be able to play under the name Darlington F.C. The new owners opted to name the new club Darlington 1883.\n\nIn February 2013, the club became 100% fan- and community-owned after the Darlington Football Club Community Interest Company (DFC CIC), representing around 800 members, had taken a 52% stake; the Supporters' Club held 15%, and individual fans held the remaining 33%. The new ownership were committed to paying off debts incurred under the previous owners; five months later, the club made a final payment on tax owed to HMRC.\nOn the pitch, Darlington were crowned Northern League Division One champions in 2012–13 with a club record haul of 122 points, having scored 145 goals in the process, thus gaining promotion to the Northern Premier League Division One North for the 2013–14 season. The season saw them finish as Division One North runners-up, before losing in the play-off semi-final to Ramsbottom United. In 2014–15, Darlington again finished second, and this time won the play-off final 2–0 against Bamber Bridge, earning promotion to the Premier Division. Darlington clinched their second successive promotion and the 2015–16 Northern Premier League Premier Division title on 21 April 2016 after beating Whitby Town 7–1. However, the club were unable to make it three promotions in a row, as despite finishing in the National League North play-off positions in 2016–17, ground grading issues prevented their participation.\n\nReturn to Darlington F.C.\nIn April 2017, the FA approved the club's request to change to the traditional name of Darlington F.C. for the 2017–18 season.\nIn the summer of 2017, it was reported through the club website that work had begun on a new playing area and a new seated stand, following the addition of more fundraising.\nIn October 2017, Gray resigned as manager to join rivals York City. He was succeeded by former player Tommy Wright, with another former player Alan White as his assistant. Wright led Darlington to a 12th and 16th-place finish respectively during the two seasons he was in charge before leaving by mutual consent in April 2019.\nIn May 2019, Wright was succeeded by another former player Alun Armstrong who joined from Blyth Spartans. Assistant Manager Alan White also left the club in July 2019 before replacing him with another former player Darren Holloway a week later.\nIn Armstrong's first season as manager, Darlington qualified for the first round of the FA Cup for the first time since they were reformed in 2012, including wins all away from home against Trafford, Leamington and Tamworth. In the first round, they played away again against League Two side Walsall and the match finished 2–2 with midfielder Joe Wheatley getting a 97th-minute equaliser to get a replay at Blackwell Meadows. Darlington did then lose the first round replay 1–0 in a record crowd since their first game at Blackwell Meadows with the attendance of 3,106, which was shown in front of the BT Sport cameras.\nAfter a 10th-place finish in the 2019–20 season, the 2020-21 campaign was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Darlington finished 13th in 2021–22 and after being top of the league in January 2023, fell to 10th in the 2022–23 season. The poor run continued into the 2023–24 season, and Armstrong was dismissed on 6 September 2023. Josh Gowling replaced Armstrong, but only lasted three months before he was dismissed after only winning three out of sixteen games during his tenure and left the club second bottom in the league. Steve Watson replaced Gowling and brought Terry Mitchell from Workington with him as his assistant manager. They guided Darlington to a 16th-place finish after being 9 points adrift from safety at one stage of the season and winning 10 out of the last 15 games of the season, completing \"The Great Escape\".\n\nColours and badge\nIn 1888, Darlington's kit consisted of a shirt with black and white vertical stripes, black shorts and black socks. Apart from a period between the 1910s and 1936, when blue shorts were worn, the basic colours of the home kit have remained black and white. The shirt design has varied, from the 1888 vertical stripes, through hoops, plain white, and back to hoops again in the 1990s. Sponsors' names have appeared on Darlington's shirts since the 1980s. A table of kit manufacturers (since the 1970s) and shirt sponsors appears on the right.\nThe club badge is in the form of a shield, divided diagonally into two parts; the smaller section, to the upper right, is in the club's home colour of white, the larger is red, their traditional away colour. In the white section is a stylised Quaker hat, emblematic of the major role played by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in the history of the town. The larger section depicts George Stephenson's Locomotion No 1, the steam locomotive that hauled the first train on the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825, representing the importance of the railway industry to the area. Across the bottom of the shield is a ribbon bearing the club's nickname, The Quakers, and the whole rests on a bed of oak leaves, symbolic of strength and endurance.\n\nStadiums\nFeethams was originally used by Darlington Cricket Club, but began to be used for football in the 1860s. Darlington F.C. began playing there when they formed in 1883. With growing crowd figures, the ground was expanded with the construction of the West stand at the turn of the century and the Polam Lane end in 1905. In 1913, a pair of towers were built at the entrance to the ground, and in 1920, offices and changing rooms were built underneath the East stand. Floodlights were installed in September 1960, but after their first use an electrical fault gutted the West stand in a fire, prompting its rebuilding. In 1997, the East stand was demolished and rebuilt as an all-seater stand, but its cost had a major negative effect on the club's finances. George Reynolds came in to the club, paid its debts and initiated construction of a new stadium. The last match played at Feethams was a 2–2 draw with Leyton Orient on 3 May 2003. Following the closure of the ground, the floodlights were sold to Workington A.F.C. and the stadium demolished. A housing estate was planned for the cleared site.\nThe 25,000-seat Reynolds Arena was opened in 2003, at a cost of £18 million. The first match at the new stadium was a 2–0 loss to Kidderminster Harriers on 16 August 2003. The attendance of 11,600 still stands as a record for the ground. After Reynolds left the club, the stadium had a variety of sponsored names, but it is generally known as the Darlington Arena. The capacity was restricted to just 10,000 because of county and local planning regulations,[A] but attendances rarely reached 3,000, and in 2011, the club's receivers put it up for sale. In May 2012, Darlington confirmed they would no longer play at the Arena. Later that year, it was bought by Darlington Mowden Park R.F.C.\n\nPlans had originally been laid down to groundshare with Shildon, but arrangements were eventually for Darlington to share Bishop Auckland's Heritage Park ground from the start of the 2012/13 season. In December 2013, it was confirmed that a deal had been reached in principle for the football team to share Darlington RFC's ground at Blackwell Meadows ground, and thus return to the town of Darlington. In March 2016, it was confirmed that Darlington aimed to relocate by the start of the 2016/17 season, with expansion plans in place to increase the capacity to 3,000, as required for promotion to the National League. In the event, they played their first match at Blackwell Meadows on 26 December 2016, a 3–2 National League North win against F.C. Halifax Town in front of 3,000 spectators. Darlington expanded the seated stand at Blackwell Meadows to seat 588 in 2018, after a successful funding drive by their fans, allowing for the club to be promoted to the National League. This was built following the 2016–17 season, where Darlington finished the season in the playoff, but were disqualified from playing due to the inadequate number of seats at Blackwell Meadows. The club continues to explore further ways to improve Blackwell Meadows, including a stand at the currently empty west end of the ground.\n\nSupporters and rivalries\nDarlington's supporters consider Hartlepool United their main rivals. The feeling is reciprocated: in a 2008 survey, 95% of supporters of both clubs named the other as their bitterest rivals. They have fierce competition each time they come up against each other. The clubs, based 25 miles (40 km) apart, had met 147 times in the Football League, as of 2009–10, of which Hartlepool won 60 to Darlington's 57. The meeting between the two clubs in 2007 attracted a crowd of 10,121 to the Darlington Arena, the largest attendance for that League fixture for 50 years, though the average League attendance at the stadium declined from over 5,000 in its opening season to 2,744 in 2009–10.\nIn the 2012–13 season, Darlington's first season as a renamed club, its main rivals were Spennymoor Town owing to the hotly contested title for the Northern League. Spennymoor Town had won the league for the three previous years, but had not applied for promotion until the 2012–13 season when Darlington entered the league. Spennymoor Town were the only club to contend with Darlington for the title towards the end of the season. To a lesser extent, landlords Bishop Auckland were also rivals owing to their shared home ground. In the 2014–15 season, Darlington once again locked horns with Spennymoor Town after they achieved promotion from the Northern League in 2014. Again, they contested Darlington for promotion in a semi-final playoff match that Darlington won 3–2. The rivalry with Spennymoor was re-ignited in 2017–18 when Spennymoor booked their place in the National League North, with the first game ending all square 1–1 at Blackwell Meadows on 28 August 2017.\nThe team's mascots included Mr Q, \"a flat-looking cartoon man with a very big hat\", Darlo Dog, a Dalmatian who was once ejected from the ground for climbing on the advertising boards in front of television cameras, and a panda named Feethams. Fanzines included Mission Impossible, first published in the early 1990s, and Where's The Money Gone, whose teenage editor, along with the editor of the Darlo Uncovered website, were among several supporters banned from the ground by chairman George Reynolds for criticising the running of the club. Since 2013, a fan-run internet radio station, Darlo Fans Radio, has provided commentary on Darlington matches both home and away.\nDarlington had an official supporters' club and an away supporters group, known as Darlington Away Far Travelling Supporters (DAFTS), who represented Darlington supporters from places elsewhere in the country. A supporters' trust was founded in 2002; it established a Disabled Supporters Group, tried to maintain a working relationship between club and supporters, and, together with the Darlington Camera Club, staged a \"Farewell to Feethams\" exhibition in celebration of the club's longtime home. Together with the supporters' club, the trust was actively involved in fund-raising particularly during the club's periods of administration.\n\nPlayers\nCurrent squad\nAs of 20 September 2024\n\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nOut on loan\nNote: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.\n\nStaff\nAs of 1 July 2024\n\nBoardroom\nFootball\nReserve team\nIn October 2016 it was announced that Horden Colliery Welfare would move 30 miles to Darlington to become the reserve team of Darlington; they will change their name to Darlington 1883 Reserves and play on the 4G surface at Eastbourne Sports Complex. Horden chairman Norman Stephens said \"If the move had not have happened, Horden would have been dead by Xmas\". Stephens and some of the playing staff were retained by Darlington who took Horden's place in the Wearside League. They played their first game under the new name on 6 October in a 1–0 away defeat to Boldon C.A.\nIn June 2024, Darlington announced that they would be forming an Under 23s team. The team would be a continuation of Grant Cuthbertson and John Walters' U18s team, that won 3 successive county cups, and would be entering the Wearside League Division Three.\n\nHonours\nHonours achieved by Darlington since their foundation in 1883 include the following:\nLeague\n\nThird Division North (level 3)\nChampions: 1924–25\nRunners-up: 1921–22\nFourth Division (level 4)\nChampions: 1990–91\nRunners-up: 1965–66\nPromoted: 1984–85\nFootball Conference (level 5)\nChampions: 1989–90\nNorthern Premier League Premier Division (level 7)\nChampions: 2015–16\nNorthern Premier League Division One North (level 8)\nRunners-up and play-off winners: 2014–15\nRunners-up: 2013–14\nNorthern League\nChampions: 1895–96, 1899–1900, 2012–13\nRunners-up: 1896–97, 1898–99\nNorth Eastern League\nChampions: 1912–13, 1920–21\nRunners-up: 1919–20\nCup\n\nFA Trophy\nWinners: 2010–11\nFootball League Third Division North Cup\nWinners: 1933–34\nRunners-up: 1935–36\nDurham Challenge Cup\nWinners: 1884–85, 1890–91, 1892–93, 1896–97, 1919–20, 1999–2000\n\nRecords\nDarlington's highest league finish was fifteenth in the Football League Second Division, during the 1925–26 season. The club's best performance in the FA Cup has been two appearances in the last 16 of the competition. This first was in 1910–11, when they lost to Swindon Town in the third round. The second was in the 1957–58 season, when they beat Chelsea 4–1 in a replay to reach the fifth round, in which they lost 6–1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers. The club's best League Cup performance was reaching the quarter-final in the 1967–68 season.\nThe Quakers' biggest home win was a 13–1 defeat of Scarborough in the FA Cup on 24 October 1891. Their best away win in the Football League was on 22 October 1921, when they beat Durham City 7–3 in the Third Division North. They achieved 7–1 wins in the Northern League Division One against Billingham Town in October 2012 and Hebburn Town in February 2013, and in the Northern Premier League against Whitby Town in April 2016.\nThe player with the most league appearances for Darlington is Ron Greener with 439 between 1955 and 1967. He made a total of 490 senior appearances for the club. Alan Walsh scored a club-record 87 league goals between 1978 and 1984, and scored 100 goals for Darlington overall. The most league goals scored for the club by a single player in a season is 39, by David Brown in the 1924–25 season. Franz Burgmeier has the most senior international appearances while a Darlington player, with seven caps for Liechtenstein in the 2008–09 season.\n\nDream team\nAs part of the 2003 \"Farewell to Feethams\" celebrations, a competition in the club programme selected the following all-time \"Dream Team\": Mark Prudhoe, Ron Greener, Craig Liddle, Kevan Smith, John Peverell, Andy Toman, David McLean, Alan Sproates, Alan Walsh, Marco Gabbiadini and Colin Sinclair. Gabbiadini, scorer of 53 goals in his two seasons at Darlington, was voted greatest ever player.\n\nNotes\nA. ^ The Darlington Arena was built to hold 25,000 seated spectators, yet a condition was imposed at the planning stage that \"at no time should the owner of the property admit or permit the admission of more than 10,000 people to the new stadium\". Capacity was for a time restricted to 6,000 for weekend events and 4,500 for midweek events unless prior written permission was granted to exceed those limits.\nB. ^ Though not the first FA Cup match to be played under lights, as the club history suggests: a preliminary round replay between Kidderminster Harriers and Brierley Hill Alliance took place under floodlights on 14 September 1955, some two months before Darlington's match against Carlisle United.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nDarlington F.C. on Facebook",
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] | Which Northern Irish footballer who started in the 90s played for 9 English clubs, 8 of which were FA Cup winners? | [] | Keith Gillespie | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The Sydney Peace Prize is awarded by the Sydney Peace Foundation,\na non profit organisation associated with the University of Sydney. The prize promotes peace with justice and the practice of nonviolence. It aims to encourage public interest and discussion about issues of peace, social justice, human rights, and non-violent conflict resolution.\n\nSupport\nThe City of Sydney is a major supporter of the Sydney Peace Prize. This involves a significant financial contribution along with other in-kind support in order to foster peace with justice.\n\nThe prize\nOver three months each year, the Sydney Peace Prize jury – comprising seven individuals who represent corporate, media, academic and community sector interests – assesses the merits of the nominees' efforts to promote peace with justice. It is awarded to an organisation or individual:\n\nwho has made significant contributions to global peace including improvements in personal security and steps towards eradicating poverty, and other forms of structural violence\nwhose role and responsibilities enable the recipient to use the prize to further the cause of peace with justice\nwhose work illustrates the philosophy and principles of non-violence\n\nConsiderations\nThe jury has been prepared to make some controversial choices. Sydney Peace Foundation Founder, Emeritus Professor Stuart Rees, said, \"The initiators of the Sydney Peace Prize aimed to influence public interest in peace with justice, an ideal which is often perceived as controversial. The choice of a non-controversial candidate for a peace prize would be a safe option but unlikely to prompt debate or to increase understanding. Consensus usually encourages compliance, often anaesthetises and seldom informs.\"\n\nPrize winners\n1998 – Professor Muhammad Yunus, the founder of the Grameen Bank for the poor and Nobel Peace Prize recipient\n1999 – Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize recipient\n2000 – Xanana Gusmão, the poet-artist and president of East Timor\n2001 – Sir William Deane, the former Governor-General of Australia\n2002 – Mary Robinson, former United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\n2003 – Dr. Hanan Ashrawi, Palestinian academic and human rights campaigner\n2004 – Arundhati Roy, Indian novelist and peace activist\n2005 – Olara Otunnu, United Nations Under Secretary General for Children and Armed Conflict from Uganda\n2006 – Irene Khan, Secretary General of Amnesty International\n2007 – Hans Blix, chairman of the UN Weapons of Mass Destruction Commission\n2008 – Patrick Dodson, chairman of the Lingiari Foundation\n2009 – John Pilger, Australian journalist and documentary maker\n2010 – Vandana Shiva, Indian social justice and environmental activist, eco-feminist and author\n2011 – Noam Chomsky, American linguist and activist\n2012 – Sekai Holland, Zimbabwean Senator\n2013 – Cynthia Maung, Burmese doctor\n2014 – Julian Burnside, Australian barrister, human rights and refugee advocate\n2015 – George Gittoes, Australian artist who chronicles conflicts around the world\n2016 – Naomi Klein, Canadian journalist, author and prominent activist for climate justice\n2017 – Black Lives Matter, International civil rights activist movement\n2018 – Joseph E. Stiglitz, American economist and academic\n2019 – Tarana Burke and Tracey Spicer, American founders of the #MeToo Movement\n2020 – Midnight Oil, Australian rock band\n2021–2022 – The Uluru Statement from the Heart\n2023 – Nazanin Boniadi, British actress and activist\n\nGold medal for Peace with Justice\nThe foundation also occasionally awards a special gold medal for significant contributions to peace and justice. Winners of the gold medal include South African statesman Nelson Mandela, 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso, Japanese Buddhist leader Daisaku Ikeda, WikiLeaks publisher Julian Assange, Costa Rican Christina Figueres and Australian band Midnight Oil.\n\nNotes\nExternal links\nSydney Peace Foundation",
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"paragraph_text": "Avram Noam Chomsky ( nohm CHOM-skee; born December 7, 1928) is an American professor and public intellectual known for his work in linguistics, political activism, and social criticism. Sometimes called \"the father of modern linguistics\", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. He is a laureate professor of linguistics at the University of Arizona and an institute professor emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Among the most cited living authors, Chomsky has written more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, and politics. In addition to his work in linguistics, since the 1960s Chomsky has been an influential voice on the American left as a consistent critic of U.S. foreign policy, contemporary capitalism, and corporate influence on political institutions and the media.\nBorn to Ashkenazi Jewish immigrants in Philadelphia, Chomsky developed an early interest in anarchism from alternative bookstores in New York City. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania. During his postgraduate work in the Harvard Society of Fellows, Chomsky developed the theory of transformational grammar for which he earned his doctorate in 1955. That year he began teaching at MIT, and in 1957 emerged as a significant figure in linguistics with his landmark work Syntactic Structures, which played a major role in remodeling the study of language. From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study. He created or co-created the universal grammar theory, the generative grammar theory, the Chomsky hierarchy, and the minimalist program. Chomsky also played a pivotal role in the decline of linguistic behaviorism, and was particularly critical of the work of B. F. Skinner.\nAn outspoken opponent of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, which he saw as an act of American imperialism, in 1967 Chomsky rose to national attention for his anti-war essay \"The Responsibility of Intellectuals\". Becoming associated with the New Left, he was arrested multiple times for his activism and placed on President Richard Nixon's list of political opponents. While expanding his work in linguistics over subsequent decades, he also became involved in the linguistics wars. In collaboration with Edward S. Herman, Chomsky later articulated the propaganda model of media criticism in Manufacturing Consent, and worked to expose the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. His defense of unconditional freedom of speech, including that of Holocaust denial, generated significant controversy in the Faurisson affair of the 1980s. Chomsky's commentary on the Cambodian genocide and the Bosnian genocide also generated controversy. Since retiring from active teaching at MIT, he has continued his vocal political activism, including opposing the 2003 invasion of Iraq and supporting the Occupy movement. An anti-Zionist, Chomsky considers Israel's treatment of Palestinians to be worse than South African–style apartheid, and criticizes U.S. support for Israel.\nChomsky is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences, contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky remains a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, contemporary capitalism, U.S. involvement and Israel's role in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mass media. Chomsky and his ideas are highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. Since 2017, he has been Agnese Helms Haury Chair in the Agnese Nelms Haury Program in Environment and Social Justice at the University of Arizona.\n\nLife\nChildhood: 1928–1945\nChomsky was born on December 7, 1928, in the East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His parents, William Chomsky and Elsie Simonofsky, were Jewish immigrants. William had fled the Russian Empire in 1913 to escape conscription and worked in Baltimore sweatshops and Hebrew elementary schools before attending university. After moving to Philadelphia, William became principal of the Congregation Mikveh Israel religious school and joined the Gratz College faculty. He placed great emphasis on educating people so that they would be \"well integrated, free and independent in their thinking, concerned about improving and enhancing the world, and eager to participate in making life more meaningful and worthwhile for all\", a mission that shaped and was subsequently adopted by his son. Elsie, who also taught at Mikveh Israel, shared her leftist politics and care for social issues with her sons.\nNoam's only sibling, David Eli Chomsky (1934–2021), was born five years later, and worked as a cardiologist in Philadelphia. The brothers were close, though David was more easygoing while Noam could be very competitive. They were raised Jewish, being taught Hebrew and regularly involved with discussing the political theories of Zionism; the family was particularly influenced by the Left Zionist writings of Ahad Ha'am. He faced antisemitism as a child, particularly from Philadelphia's Irish and German communities.\nChomsky attended the independent, Deweyite Oak Lane Country Day School and Philadelphia's Central High School, where he excelled academically and joined various clubs and societies, but was troubled by the school's hierarchical and domineering teaching methods. He also attended Hebrew High School at Gratz College, where his father taught.\nChomsky has described his parents as \"normal Roosevelt Democrats\" with center-left politics, but relatives involved in the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union exposed him to socialism and far-left politics. He was substantially influenced by his uncle and the Jewish leftists who frequented his New York City newspaper stand to debate current affairs. Chomsky himself often visited left-wing and anarchist bookstores when visiting his uncle in the city, voraciously reading political literature. He became absorbed in the story of the 1939 fall of Barcelona and suppression of the Spanish anarchosyndicalist movement, writing his first article on the topic at the age of 10. That he came to identify with anarchism first rather than another leftist movement, he described as a \"lucky accident\". Chomsky was firmly anti-Bolshevik by his early teens.\n\nUniversity: 1945–1955\nIn 1945, at the age of 16, Chomsky began a general program of study at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explored philosophy, logic, and languages and developed a primary interest in learning Arabic. Living at home, he funded his undergraduate degree by teaching Hebrew. Frustrated with his experiences at the university, he considered dropping out and moving to a kibbutz in Mandatory Palestine, but his intellectual curiosity was reawakened through conversations with the linguist Zellig Harris, whom he first met in a political circle in 1947. Harris introduced Chomsky to the field of theoretical linguistics and convinced him to major in the subject. Chomsky's BA honors thesis, \"Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew\", applied Harris's methods to the language. Chomsky revised this thesis for his MA, which he received from the University of Pennsylvania in 1951; it was subsequently published as a book. He also developed his interest in philosophy while at university, in particular under the tutelage of Nelson Goodman.\nFrom 1951 to 1955, Chomsky was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard University, where he undertook research on what became his doctoral dissertation. Having been encouraged by Goodman to apply, Chomsky was attracted to Harvard in part because the philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine was based there. Both Quine and a visiting philosopher, J. L. Austin of the University of Oxford, strongly influenced Chomsky. In 1952, Chomsky published his first academic article in The Journal of Symbolic Logic. Highly critical of the established behaviorist currents in linguistics, in 1954, he presented his ideas at lectures at the University of Chicago and Yale University. He had not been registered as a student at Pennsylvania for four years, but in 1955 he submitted a thesis setting out his ideas on transformational grammar; he was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree for it, and it was privately distributed among specialists on microfilm before being published in 1975 as part of The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. Harvard professor George Armitage Miller was impressed by Chomsky's thesis and collaborated with him on several technical papers in mathematical linguistics. Chomsky's doctorate exempted him from compulsory military service, which was otherwise due to begin in 1955.\nIn 1947, Chomsky began a romantic relationship with Carol Doris Schatz, whom he had known since early childhood. They married in 1949. After Chomsky was made a Fellow at Harvard, the couple moved to the Allston area of Boston and remained there until 1965, when they relocated to the suburb of Lexington. The couple took a Harvard travel grant to Europe in 1953. He enjoyed living in Hashomer Hatzair's HaZore'a kibbutz while in Israel, but was appalled by his interactions with Jewish nationalism, anti-Arab racism and, within the kibbutz's leftist community, Stalinism. On visits to New York City, Chomsky continued to frequent the office of the Yiddish anarchist journal Fraye Arbeter Shtime and became enamored with the ideas of Rudolf Rocker, a contributor whose work introduced Chomsky to the link between anarchism and classical liberalism. Chomsky also read other political thinkers: the anarchists Mikhail Bakunin and Diego Abad de Santillán, democratic socialists George Orwell, Bertrand Russell, and Dwight Macdonald, and works by Marxists Karl Liebknecht, Karl Korsch, and Rosa Luxemburg. His politics were reaffirmed by Orwell's depiction of Barcelona's functioning anarchist society in Homage to Catalonia (1938). Chomsky read the leftist journal Politics, which furthered his interest in anarchism, and the council communist periodical Living Marxism, though he rejected the Marxist orthodoxy of its editor, Paul Mattick.\n\nEarly career: 1955–1966\nChomsky befriended two linguists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)—Morris Halle and Roman Jakobson—the latter of whom secured him an assistant professor position there in 1955. At MIT, Chomsky spent half his time on a mechanical translation project and half teaching a course on linguistics and philosophy. He described MIT as open to experimentation where he was free to pursue his idiosyncratic interests. MIT promoted him to the position of associate professor in 1957, and over the next year he was also a visiting professor at Columbia University. The Chomskys had their first child, Aviva, that same year. He also published his first book on linguistics, Syntactic Structures, a work that radically opposed the dominant Harris–Bloomfield trend in the field. Responses to Chomsky's ideas ranged from indifference to hostility, and his work proved divisive and caused \"significant upheaval\" in the discipline. The linguist John Lyons later asserted that Syntactic Structures \"revolutionized the scientific study of language\". From 1958 to 1959 Chomsky was a National Science Foundation fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.\n\nChomsky's provocative critique of B. F. Skinner, who viewed language as learned behavior, and its challenge to the dominant behaviorist paradigm thrust Chomsky into the limelight. Chomsky argued that behaviorism underplayed the role of human creativity in learning language and overplayed the role of external conditions in influencing verbal behavior. He proceeded to found MIT's graduate program in linguistics with Halle. In 1961, Chomsky received tenure and became a full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics. He was appointed plenary speaker at the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, held in 1962 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which established him as the de facto spokesperson of American linguistics. Between 1963 and 1965 he consulted on a military-sponsored project to teach computers to understand natural English commands from military generals.\nChomsky continued to publish his linguistic ideas throughout the decade, including in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar (1966), and Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). Along with Halle, he also edited the Studies in Language series of books for Harper and Row. As he began to accrue significant academic recognition and honors for his work, Chomsky lectured at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1966. These lectures were published as Language and Mind in 1968. In the late 1960s, a high-profile intellectual rift later known as the linguistic wars developed between Chomsky and some of his colleagues and doctoral students—including Paul Postal, John Ross, George Lakoff, and James D. McCawley—who contended that Chomsky's syntax-based, interpretivist linguistics did not properly account for semantic context (general semantics). A post hoc assessment of this period concluded that the opposing programs ultimately were complementary, each informing the other.\n\nAnti-war activism and dissent: 1967–1975\nChomsky joined protests against U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War in 1962, speaking on the subject at small gatherings in churches and homes. His 1967 critique of U.S. involvement, \"The Responsibility of Intellectuals\", among other contributions to The New York Review of Books, debuted Chomsky as a public dissident. This essay and other political articles were collected and published in 1969 as part of Chomsky's first political book, American Power and the New Mandarins. He followed this with further political books, including At War with Asia (1970), The Backroom Boys (1973), For Reasons of State (1973), and Peace in the Middle East? (1974), published by Pantheon Books. These publications led to Chomsky's association with the American New Left movement, though he thought little of prominent New Left intellectuals Herbert Marcuse and Erich Fromm and preferred the company of activists to that of intellectuals. Chomsky remained largely ignored by the mainstream press throughout this period.\nChomsky also became involved in left-wing activism. Chomsky refused to pay half his taxes, publicly supported students who refused the draft, and was arrested while participating in an anti-war teach-in outside the Pentagon. During this time, Chomsky co-founded the anti-war collective RESIST with Mitchell Goodman, Denise Levertov, William Sloane Coffin, and Dwight Macdonald. Although he questioned the objectives of the 1968 student protests, Chomsky regularly gave lectures to student activist groups and, with his colleague Louis Kampf, ran undergraduate courses on politics at MIT independently of the conservative-dominated political science department. When student activists campaigned to stop weapons and counterinsurgency research at MIT, Chomsky was sympathetic but felt that the research should remain under MIT's oversight and limited to systems of deterrence and defense. Chomsky has acknowledged that his MIT lab's funding at this time came from the military. He later said he considered resigning from MIT during the Vietnam War. There has since been a wide-ranging debate about what effects Chomsky's employment at MIT had on his political and linguistic ideas.\n\nChomsky's anti-war activism led to his arrest on multiple occasions and he was on President Richard Nixon's master list of political opponents. Chomsky was aware of the potential repercussions of his civil disobedience, and his wife began studying for her own doctorate in linguistics to support the family in the event of Chomsky's imprisonment or joblessness. Chomsky's scientific reputation insulated him from administrative action based on his beliefs. In 1970 he visited southeast Asia to lecture at Vietnam's Hanoi University of Science and Technology and toured war refugee camps in Laos. In 1973 he helped lead a committee commemorating the 50th anniversary of the War Resisters League.\nChomsky's work in linguistics continued to gain international recognition as he received multiple honorary doctorates. He delivered public lectures at the University of Cambridge, Columbia University (Woodbridge Lectures), and Stanford University. His appearance in a 1971 debate with French continental philosopher Michel Foucault positioned Chomsky as a symbolic figurehead of analytic philosophy. He continued to publish extensively on linguistics, producing Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar (1972), an enlarged edition of Language and Mind (1972), and Reflections on Language (1975). In 1974 Chomsky became a corresponding fellow of the British Academy.\n\nEdward S. Herman and the Faurisson affair: 1976–1980\nIn the late 1970s and 1980s, Chomsky's linguistic publications expanded and clarified his earlier work, addressing his critics and updating his grammatical theory. His political talks often generated considerable controversy, particularly when he criticized the Israeli government and military. In the early 1970s Chomsky began collaborating with Edward S. Herman, who had also published critiques of the U.S. war in Vietnam. Together they wrote Counter-Revolutionary Violence: Bloodbaths in Fact & Propaganda, a book that criticized U.S. military involvement in Southeast Asia and the mainstream media's failure to cover it. Warner Modular published it in 1973, but its parent company disapproved of the book's contents and ordered all copies destroyed.\nWhile mainstream publishing options proved elusive, Chomsky found support from Michael Albert's South End Press, an activist-oriented publishing company. In 1979, South End published Chomsky and Herman's revised Counter-Revolutionary Violence as the two-volume The Political Economy of Human Rights, which compares U.S. media reactions to the Cambodian genocide and the Indonesian occupation of East Timor. It argues that because Indonesia was a U.S. ally, U.S. media ignored the East Timorese situation while focusing on events in Cambodia, a U.S. enemy. Chomsky's response included two testimonials before the United Nations' Special Committee on Decolonization, successful encouragement for American media to cover the occupation, and meetings with refugees in Lisbon. Marxist academic Steven Lukes most prominently publicly accused Chomsky of betraying his anarchist ideals and acting as an apologist for Cambodian leader Pol Pot. Herman said that the controversy \"imposed a serious personal cost\" on Chomsky, who considered the personal criticism less important than the evidence that \"mainstream intelligentsia suppressed or justified the crimes of their own states\".\nChomsky had long publicly criticized Nazism, and totalitarianism more generally, but his commitment to freedom of speech led him to defend the right of French historian Robert Faurisson to advocate a position widely characterized as Holocaust denial. Without Chomsky's knowledge, his plea for Faurisson's freedom of speech was published as the preface to the latter's 1980 book Mémoire en défense contre ceux qui m'accusent de falsifier l'histoire. Chomsky was widely condemned for defending Faurisson, and France's mainstream press accused Chomsky of being a Holocaust denier himself, refusing to publish his rebuttals to their accusations. Critiquing Chomsky's position, sociologist Werner Cohn later published an analysis of the affair titled Partners in Hate: Noam Chomsky and the Holocaust Deniers. The Faurisson affair had a lasting, damaging effect on Chomsky's career, especially in France.\n\nCritique of propaganda and international affairs\nIn 1985, during the Nicaraguan Contra War—in which the U.S. supported the contra militia against the Sandinista government—Chomsky traveled to Managua to meet with workers' organizations and refugees of the conflict, giving public lectures on politics and linguistics. Many of these lectures were published in 1987 as On Power and Ideology: The Managua Lectures. In 1983 he published The Fateful Triangle, which argued that the U.S. had continually used the Israeli–Palestinian conflict for its own ends. In 1988, Chomsky visited the Palestinian territories to witness the impact of Israeli occupation.\nChomsky and Herman's Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) outlines their propaganda model for understanding mainstream media. Even in countries without official censorship, they argued, the news is censored through five filters that greatly influence both what and how news is presented. The book received a 1992 film adaptation. In 1989, Chomsky published Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies, in which he suggests that a worthwhile democracy requires that its citizens undertake intellectual self-defense against the media and elite intellectual culture that seeks to control them. By the 1980s, Chomsky's students had become prominent linguists who, in turn, expanded and revised his linguistic theories.\n\nIn the 1990s, Chomsky embraced political activism to a greater degree than before. Retaining his commitment to the cause of East Timorese independence, in 1995 he visited Australia to talk on the issue at the behest of the East Timorese Relief Association and the National Council for East Timorese Resistance. The lectures he gave on the subject were published as Powers and Prospects in 1996. As a result of the international publicity Chomsky generated, his biographer Wolfgang Sperlich opined that he did more to aid the cause of East Timorese independence than anyone but the investigative journalist John Pilger. After East Timor attained independence from Indonesia in 1999, the Australian-led International Force for East Timor arrived as a peacekeeping force; Chomsky was critical of this, believing it was designed to secure Australian access to East Timor's oil and gas reserves under the Timor Gap Treaty.\nChomsky was widely interviewed after the September 11 attacks in 2001 as the American public attempted to make sense of the attacks. He argued that the ensuing War on Terror was not a new development but a continuation of U.S. foreign policy and concomitant rhetoric since at least the Reagan era. He gave the D.T. Lakdawala Memorial Lecture in New Delhi in 2001, and in 2003 visited Cuba at the invitation of the Latin American Association of Social Scientists. Chomsky's 2003 Hegemony or Survival articulated what he called the United States' \"imperial grand strategy\" and critiqued the Iraq War and other aspects of the War on Terror. Chomsky toured internationally with greater regularity during this period. \nDuring the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, Chomsky supported Scottish independence.\n\nRetirement\nChomsky retired from MIT in 2002, but continued to conduct research and seminars on campus as an emeritus. That same year he visited Turkey to attend the trial of a publisher who had been accused of treason for printing one of Chomsky's books; Chomsky insisted on being a co-defendant and amid international media attention, the Security Courts dropped the charge on the first day. During that trip Chomsky visited Kurdish areas of Turkey and spoke out in favor of the Kurds' human rights. A supporter of the World Social Forum, he attended its conferences in Brazil in both 2002 and 2003, also attending the Forum event in India.\n\nChomsky supported the 2011 Occupy movement, speaking at encampments and publishing on the movement, which he called a reaction to a 30-year class war. The 2015 documentary Requiem for the American Dream summarizes his views on capitalism and economic inequality through a \"75-minute teach-in\".\nIn 2015 Chomsky and his wife purchased a residence in São Paulo, Brazil, and began splitting their time between Brazil and the U.S.\nChomsky taught a short-term politics course at the University of Arizona in 2017 and was later hired as a part-time professor in the linguistics department there, his duties including teaching and public seminars. His salary was covered by philanthropic donations.\nAfter a stroke in June 2023, Chomsky moved to Brazil full-time; this was not publicly reported until June 2024.\n\nLinguistic theory\nThe basis of Chomsky's linguistic theory lies in biolinguistics, the linguistic school that holds that the principles underpinning the structure of language are biologically preset in the human mind and hence genetically inherited. He argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of sociocultural differences. In adopting this position Chomsky rejects the radical behaviorist psychology of B. F. Skinner, who viewed speech, thought, and all behavior as a completely learned product of the interactions between organisms and their environments. Accordingly, Chomsky argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other animal species. Chomsky argues that his nativist, internalist view of language is consistent with the philosophical school of \"rationalism\" and contrasts with the anti-nativist, externalist view of language consistent with the philosophical school of \"empiricism\", which contends that all knowledge, including language, comes from external stimuli. Historians have disputed Chomsky's claim about rationalism on the basis that his theory of innate grammar excludes propositional knowledge and instead focuses on innate learning capacities or structures.\n\nUniversal grammar\nSince the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that syntactic knowledge is partially inborn, implying that children need only learn certain language-specific features of their native languages. He bases his argument on observations about human language acquisition and describes a \"poverty of the stimulus\": an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic competence they attain. For example, although children are exposed to only a very small and finite subset of the allowable syntactic variants within their first language, they somehow acquire the highly organized and systematic ability to understand and produce an infinite number of sentences, including ones that have never before been uttered, in that language. To explain this, Chomsky proposed that the primary linguistic data must be supplemented by an innate linguistic capacity. Furthermore, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky referred to this difference in capacity as the language acquisition device, and suggested that linguists needed to determine both what that device is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that result from these constraints would constitute \"universal grammar\". Multiple researchers have challenged universal grammar on the grounds of the evolutionary infeasibility of its genetic basis for language, the lack of crosslinguistic surface universals, and the unproven link between innate/universal structures and the structures of specific languages. Michael Tomasello has challenged Chomsky's theory of innate syntactic knowledge as based on theory and not behavioral observation. The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged by Geoffrey Pullum and others, leading to back-and-forth debate in the language acquisition literature. Recent work has also suggested that some recurrent neural network architectures can learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint.\n\nTransformational-generative grammar\nTransformational-generative grammar is a broad theory used to model, encode, and deduce a native speaker's linguistic capabilities. These models, or \"formal grammars\", show the abstract structures of a specific language as they may relate to structures in other languages. Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s, whereupon it became the dominant syntactic theory in linguistics for two decades. \"Transformations\" refers to syntactic relationships within language, e.g., being able to infer that the subject between two sentences is the same person. Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and conceptual meaning. Transformational-generative grammar uses mathematical notation to express the rules that govern the connection between meaning and sound (deep and surface structures, respectively). By this theory, linguistic principles can mathematically generate potential sentence structures in a language.\n\nChomsky is commonly credited with inventing transformational-generative grammar, but his original contribution was considered modest when he first published his theory. In his 1955 dissertation and his 1957 textbook Syntactic Structures, he presented recent developments in the analysis formulated by Zellig Harris, who was Chomsky's PhD supervisor, and by Charles F. Hockett. Their method is derived from the work of the Danish structural linguist Louis Hjelmslev, who introduced algorithmic grammar to general linguistics. Based on this rule-based notation of grammars, Chomsky grouped logically possible phrase-structure grammar types into a series of four nested subsets and increasingly complex types, together known as the Chomsky hierarchy. This classification remains relevant to formal language theory and theoretical computer science, especially programming language theory, compiler construction, and automata theory. Chomsky's Syntactic Structures became, beyond generative linguistics as such, a catalyst for connecting what in Hjelmslev's and Jesperson's time was the beginnings of structural linguistics, which has become cognitive linguistics.\nTransformational grammar was the dominant research paradigm through the mid-1970s. The derivative government and binding theory replaced it and remained influential through the early 1990s, when linguists turned to a \"minimalist\" approach to grammar. This research focused on the principles and parameters framework, which explained children's ability to learn any language by filling open parameters (a set of universal grammar principles) that adapt as the child encounters linguistic data. The minimalist program, initiated by Chomsky, asks which minimal principles and parameters theory fits most elegantly, naturally, and simply. In an attempt to simplify language into a system that relates meaning and sound using the minimum possible faculties, Chomsky dispenses with concepts such as \"deep structure\" and \"surface structure\" and instead emphasizes the plasticity of the brain's neural circuits, with which come an infinite number of concepts, or \"logical forms\". When exposed to linguistic data, a hearer-speaker's brain proceeds to associate sound and meaning, and the rules of grammar we observe are in fact only the consequences, or side effects, of the way language works. Thus, while much of Chomsky's prior research focused on the rules of language, he now focuses on the mechanisms the brain uses to generate these rules and regulate speech.\n\nPolitical views\nChomsky is a prominent political dissident. His political views have changed little since his childhood, when he was influenced by the emphasis on political activism that was ingrained in Jewish working-class tradition. He usually identifies as an anarcho-syndicalist or a libertarian socialist. He views these positions not as precise political theories but as ideals that he thinks best meet human needs: liberty, community, and freedom of association. Unlike some other socialists, such as Marxists, Chomsky believes that politics lies outside the remit of science, but he still roots his ideas about an ideal society in empirical data and empirically justified theories.\nIn Chomsky's view, the truth about political realities is systematically distorted or suppressed by an elite corporatocracy, which uses corporate media, advertising, and think tanks to promote its own propaganda. His work seeks to reveal such manipulations and the truth they obscure. Chomsky believes this web of falsehood can be broken by \"common sense\", critical thinking, and understanding the roles of self-interest and self-deception, and that intellectuals abdicate their moral responsibility to tell the truth about the world in fear of losing prestige and funding. He argues that, as such an intellectual, it is his duty to use his social privilege, resources, and training to aid popular democracy movements in their struggles.\nAlthough he has participated in direct action demonstrations—joining protests, being arrested, organizing groups—Chomsky's primary political outlet is education, i.e., free public lessons. He is a longtime member of the Industrial Workers of the World international union, as was his father.\n\nUnited States foreign policy\nChomsky has been a prominent critic of \"American imperialism\", but is not a pacifist, believing World War II was justified as America's last defensive war. He believes that U.S. foreign policy's basic principle is the establishment of \"open societies\" that are economically and politically controlled by the U.S. and where U.S.-based businesses can prosper. He argues that the U.S. seeks to suppress any movements within these countries that are not compliant with U.S. interests and to ensure that U.S.-friendly governments are placed in power. When discussing current events, he emphasizes their place within a wider historical perspective. He believes that official, sanctioned historical accounts of U.S. and British extraterritorial operations have consistently whitewashed these nations' actions in order to present them as having benevolent motives in either spreading democracy or, in older instances, spreading Christianity; by criticizing these accounts, he seeks to correct them. Prominent examples he regularly cites are the actions of the British Empire in India and Africa and U.S. actions in Vietnam, the Philippines, Latin America, and the Middle East.\nChomsky's political work has centered heavily on criticizing the actions of the United States. He has said he focuses on the U.S. because the country has militarily and economically dominated the world during his lifetime and because its liberal democratic electoral system allows the citizenry to influence government policy. His hope is that, by spreading awareness of the impact U.S. foreign policies have on the populations affected by them, he can sway the populations of the U.S. and other countries into opposing the policies. He urges people to criticize their governments' motivations, decisions, and actions, to accept responsibility for their own thoughts and actions, and to apply the same standards to others as to themselves.\nChomsky has been critical of U.S. involvement in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that it has consistently blocked a peaceful settlement. He also criticizes the U.S.'s close ties with Saudi Arabia and involvement in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, highlighting that Saudi Arabia has \"one of the most grotesque human rights records in the world\".\nChomsky called the Russian invasion of Ukraine a criminal act of aggression and noted that Russia was committing major war crimes in the country. He considered support for Ukraine's self-defense legitimate and said Ukraine should be given enough military aid to defend itself, but not enough to cause \"an escalation\". His criticism of the war focused on the United States. He alleged that the U.S. rejected any compromise with Russia and that this might have provoked the invasion. According to Chomsky, the U.S. was arming Ukraine only to weaken Russia, and Ukrainian requests for heavy weaponry were untrue \"Western propaganda\", despite Ukraine's President Volodymyr Zelensky repeatedly asking for them. More than a year into the invasion, Chomsky argued that Russia was waging the war \"more humanely\" than the U.S. did the invasion of Iraq.\n\nCapitalism and socialism\nIn his youth, Chomsky developed a dislike of capitalism and the pursuit of material wealth. At the same time, he developed a disdain for authoritarian socialism, as represented by the Marxist–Leninist policies of the Soviet Union. Rather than accepting the common view among U.S. economists that a spectrum exists between total state ownership of the economy and total private ownership, he instead suggests that a spectrum should be understood between total democratic control of the economy and total autocratic control (whether state or private). He argues that Western capitalist countries are not really democratic, because, in his view, a truly democratic society is one in which all persons have a say in public economic policy. He has stated his opposition to ruling elites, among them institutions like the IMF, World Bank, and GATT (precursor to the WTO).\nChomsky highlights that, since the 1970s, the U.S. has become increasingly economically unequal as a result of the repeal of various financial regulations and the unilateral rescinding of the Bretton Woods financial control agreement by the U.S. He characterizes the U.S. as a de facto one-party state, viewing both the Republican Party and Democratic Party as manifestations of a single \"Business Party\" controlled by corporate and financial interests. Chomsky highlights that, within Western capitalist liberal democracies, at least 80% of the population has no control over economic decisions, which are instead in the hands of a management class and ultimately controlled by a small, wealthy elite.\nNoting the entrenchment of such an economic system, Chomsky believes that change is possible through the organized cooperation of large numbers of people who understand the problem and know how they want to reorganize the economy more equitably. Acknowledging that corporate domination of media and government stifles any significant change to this system, he sees reason for optimism in historical examples such as the social rejection of slavery as immoral, the advances in women's rights, and the forcing of government to justify invasions. He views violent revolution to overthrow a government as a last resort to be avoided if possible, citing the example of historical revolutions where the population's welfare has worsened as a result of upheaval.\nChomsky sees libertarian socialist and anarcho-syndicalist ideas as the descendants of the classical liberal ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, arguing that his ideological position revolves around \"nourishing the libertarian and creative character of the human being\". He envisions an anarcho-syndicalist future with direct worker control of the means of production and government by workers' councils, who would select temporary and revocable representatives to meet together at general assemblies. The point of this self-governance is to make each citizen, in Thomas Jefferson's words, \"a direct participator in the government of affairs.\" He believes that there will be no need for political parties. By controlling their productive life, he believes that individuals can gain job satisfaction and a sense of fulfillment and purpose. He argues that unpleasant and unpopular jobs could be fully automated, specially remunerated, or communally shared.\n\nIsraeli–Palestinian conflict\nChomsky has written prolifically about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, aiming to raise public awareness of it. A labor Zionist who later became what is today considered an anti-Zionist, Chomsky has criticized the Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank, which he likens to a settler colony. He has said that the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a bad decision, but given the realpolitik of the situation, he has also considered a two-state solution on the condition that the nation-states exist on equal terms.\nChomsky has said that characterizing Israel's treatment of the Palestinians as apartheid, similar to the system that existed in South Africa, would be a \"gift to Israel\", as he has long held that \"the Occupied Territories are much worse than South Africa\". South Africa depended on its black population for labor, but Chomsky argues the same is not true of Israel, which in his view seeks to make the situation for Palestinians under its occupation unlivable, especially in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, where \"atrocities\" take place every day. He also argues that, unlike South Africa, Israel has not sought the international community's approval, but rather relies solely on U.S. support. Chomsky has said that the Israeli-led blockade of the Gaza Strip has turned it into a \"concentration camp\" and expressed similar fears to Israeli intellectual Yeshayahu Leibowitz's 1990s warning that the continued occupation of the Palestinian territories could turn Israeli Jews into \"Judeo-Nazis\". Chomsky has said that Leibowitz's warning \"was a direct reflection of the continued occupation, the humiliation of people, the degradation, and the terrorist attacks by the Israeli government\". He has also called the U.S. a violent state that exports violence by supporting Israeli \"atrocities\" against the Palestinians and said that listening to American mainstream media, including CBS, is like listening to \"Israeli propaganda agencies\".\nChomsky was denied entry to the West Bank in 2010 because of his criticisms of Israel. He had been invited to deliver a lecture at Bir Zeit University and was to meet with Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad. An Israeli Foreign Ministry spokesman later said that Chomsky was denied entry by mistake.\nIn his 1983 book The Fateful Triangle, Chomsky criticized the Palestinian Liberation Organization for its \"self-destructiveness\" and \"suicidal character\" and disapproved of its programs of \"armed struggle\" and \"erratic violence\". He also criticized the Arab governments as not \"decent\". Given what he has described as his very Jewish upbringing with deeply Zionist activist parents, Chomsky's views have drawn controversy and criticism. They are rooted in the kibbutzim and socialist binational cooperation. In a 2014 interview on Democracy Now!, Chomsky said that the charter of Hamas, which calls for Israel's destruction, \"means practically nothing\", having been created \"by a small group of people under siege, under attack in 1988\". He compared it to the electoral program of the Likud party, which, he said, \"states explicitly that there can never be a Palestinian state west of the Jordan River. And they not only state it in their charter, that's a call for the destruction of Palestine, explicit call for it\".\n\nMass media and propaganda\nChomsky's political writings have largely focused on ideology, social and political power, mass media, and state policy. One of his best-known works, Manufacturing Consent, dissects the media's role in reinforcing and acquiescing to state policies across the political spectrum while marginalizing contrary perspectives. Chomsky asserts that this version of censorship, by government-guided \"free market\" forces, is subtler and harder to undermine than was the equivalent propaganda system in the Soviet Union. As he argues, the mainstream press is corporate-owned and thus reflects corporate priorities and interests. Acknowledging that many American journalists are dedicated and well-meaning, he argues that the mass media's choices of topics and issues, the unquestioned premises on which that coverage rests, and the range of opinions expressed are all constrained to reinforce the state's ideology: although mass media will criticize individual politicians and political parties, it will not undermine the wider state-corporate nexus of which it is a part. As evidence, he highlights that the U.S. mass media does not employ any socialist journalists or political commentators. He also points to examples of important news stories that the U.S. mainstream media has ignored because reporting on them would reflect badly upon the country, including the murder of Black Panther Fred Hampton with possible FBI involvement, the massacres in Nicaragua perpetrated by U.S.-funded Contras, and the constant reporting on Israeli deaths without equivalent coverage of the far larger number of Palestinian deaths in that conflict. To remedy this situation, Chomsky calls for grassroots democratic control and involvement of the media.\nChomsky considers most conspiracy theories fruitless, distracting substitutes for thinking about policy formation in an institutional framework, where individual manipulation is secondary to broader social imperatives. He separates his Propaganda Model from conspiracy in that he is describing institutions following their natural imperatives rather than collusive forces with secret controls. Instead of supporting the educational system as an antidote, he believes that most education is counterproductive. Chomsky describes mass education as a system solely intended to turn farmers from independent producers into unthinking industrial employees.\n\nReactions of critics and counter-criticism: 1980s–present\nIn the 2004 book The Anti-Chomsky Reader, Peter Collier and David Horowitz accuse Chomsky of cherry-picking facts to suit his theories. Horowitz has also criticized Chomsky's anti-Americanism:\n\nFor 40 years Noam Chomsky has turned out book after book, pamphlet after pamphlet and speech after speech with one message, and one message alone: America is the Great Satan; it is the fount of evil in the world. In Chomsky's demented universe, America is responsible not only for its own bad deeds, but for the bad deeds of others, including those of the terrorists who struck the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. In this attitude he is the medium for all those who now search the ruins of Manhattan not for the victims and the American dead, but for the \"root causes\" of the catastrophe that befell them.\nFor the conservative public policy think tank the Hoover Institution, Peter Schweizer wrote in January 2006, \"Chomsky favors the estate tax and massive income redistribution—just not the redistribution of his income.\" Schweizer criticized Chomsky for setting up an estate plan and protecting his own intellectual property as it relates to his published works, as well as the high speaking fees that Chomsky received on a regular basis, around $9,000–$12,000 per talk at that time.\n\nChomsky has been accused of treating socialist or communist regimes with credulity and examining capitalist regimes with greater scrutiny or criticism:Chomsky's analysis of U.S. actions plunged deep into dark U.S. machinations, but when traveling among the Communists he rested content with appearances. The countryside outside Hanoi, he reported in The New York Review of Books, displayed \"a high degree of democratic participation at the village and regional levels.\" But how could he tell? Chomsky did not speak Vietnamese, and so he depended on government translators, tour guides, and handlers for information. In [Communist] Vietnamese hands, the clear-eyed skepticism turned into willing credulousness.According to Nikolas Kozloff, writing for Al Jazeera in September 2012, Chomsky \"has drawn the world's attention to the various misdeeds of the US and its proxies around the world, and for that he deserves credit. Yet, in seeking to avoid controversy at all costs Chomsky has turned into something of an ideologue. Scour the Chomsky web site and you won't find significant discussion of Belarus or Latin America's flirtation with outside authoritarian leaders, for that matter.\"\nPolitical activist George Monbiot has argued that \"Part of the problem is that a kind of cult has developed around Noam Chomsky and John Pilger, which cannot believe they could ever be wrong, and produces ever more elaborate conspiracy theories to justify their mistakes.\"\nAnarchist and primitivist John Zerzan has accused Chomsky of not being a real anarchist, saying that he is instead \"a liberal-leftist politically, and downright reactionary in his academic specialty, linguistic theory. Chomsky is also, by all accounts, a generous, sincere, tireless activist—which does not, unfortunately, ensure his thinking has liberatory value.\"\nDefenders of Chomsky have countered that he has been censored or left out of public debate. Claims of this nature date to the Reagan era. Writing for The Washington Post in February 1988, Saul Landau wrote, \"It is unhealthy that Chomsky's insights are excluded from the policy debate. His relentless prosecutorial prose, with a hint of Talmudic whine and the rationalist anarchism of Tom Paine, may reflect a justified frustration.\"\n\nPhilosophy\nChomsky has also been active in a number of philosophical fields, including philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophy of science. In these fields he is credited with ushering in the \"cognitive revolution\", a significant paradigm shift that rejected logical positivism, the prevailing philosophical methodology of the time, and reframed how philosophers think about language and the mind. Chomsky views the cognitive revolution as rooted in 17th-century rationalist ideals. His position—the idea that the mind contains inherent structures to understand language, perception, and thought—has more in common with rationalism than behaviorism. He named one of his key works Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought (1966). This sparked criticism from historians and philosophers who disagreed with Chomsky's interpretations of classical sources and use of philosophical terminology. In the philosophy of language, Chomsky is particularly known for his criticisms of the notion of reference and meaning in human language and his perspective on the nature and function of mental representations.\nChomsky's famous 1971 debate on human nature with the French philosopher Michel Foucault was a symbolic clash of the analytic and continental philosophy traditions, represented by Chomsky and Foucault, respectively. It showed what appeared to be irreconcilable differences between two moral and intellectual luminaries of the 20th century. Foucault held that any definition of human nature is connected to our present-day conceptions of ourselves; Chomsky held that human nature contained universals such as a common standard of moral justice as deduced through reason. Chomsky criticized postmodernism and French philosophy generally, arguing that the obscure language of postmodern, leftist philosophers gives little aid to the working classes. He has also debated analytic philosophers, including Tyler Burge, Donald Davidson, Michael Dummett, Saul Kripke, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, Willard Van Orman Quine, and John Searle.\nChomsky's contributions span intellectual and world history, including the history of philosophy. Irony is a recurring characteristic of his writing, such as rhetorically implying that his readers already know something to be true, which engages the reader more actively in assessing the veracity of his claims.\n\nPersonal life\nChomsky endeavors to separate his family life, linguistic scholarship, and political activism from each other. An intensely private person, he is uninterested in appearances and the fame his work has brought him. McGilvray suggests that Chomsky is not motivated by a desire for fame, but impelled to tell what he perceives as the truth and a desire to aid others in doing so. Chomsky acknowledges that his income affords him a privileged life compared to the majority of the world's population; nevertheless, he characterizes himself as a \"worker\", albeit one who uses his intellect as his employable skill. He reads four or five newspapers daily; in the U.S., he subscribes to The Boston Globe, The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, Financial Times, and The Christian Science Monitor. Chomsky is not religious but has expressed approval of forms of religion such as liberation theology.\nChomsky is known to use charged language (\"corrupt\", \"fascist\", \"fraudulent\") when describing established political and academic figures, which can polarize his audience but is in keeping with his belief that much scholarship is self-serving. His colleague Steven Pinker has said that Chomsky \"portrays people who disagree with him as stupid or evil, using withering scorn in his rhetoric\", and that this contributes to the extreme reactions he receives. Chomsky avoids academic conferences, including left-oriented ones such as the Socialist Scholars Conference, preferring to speak to activist groups or hold university seminars for mass audiences. His approach to academic freedom has led him to support MIT academics whose actions he deplores; in 1969, when Chomsky heard that Walt Rostow, a major architect of the Vietnam war, wanted to return to work at MIT, Chomsky threatened \"to protest publicly\" if Rostow were denied a position at MIT. In 1989, when Pentagon adviser John Deutch applied to be president of MIT, Chomsky supported his candidacy. Later, when Deutch became head of the CIA, The New York Times quoted Chomsky as saying, \"He has more honesty and integrity than anyone I've ever met. ... If somebody's got to be running the CIA, I'm glad it's him.\"\nChomsky was married to Carol Doris (née Schatz) from 1949 until her death in 2008. They had three children together: Aviva (b. 1957), Diane (b. 1960), and Harry (b. 1967). In 2014, Chomsky married Valeria Wasserman. They have owned a residence in Wasserman's native country of Brazil since 2015.\nIn 2023, Chomsky suffered a massive stroke and was flown to a hospital in São Paulo, Brazil, to recuperate. He can no longer walk or communicate, making his return to public life improbable, but he continues to follow current events such as the Israel–Hamas war. He was discharged in June 2024 to continue his recovery at home. The same month, Chomsky trended on social media amid false reports of his death. Periodicals retracted premature obituaries.\n\nReception and influence\nChomsky has been a defining Western intellectual figure, central to the field of linguistics and definitive in cognitive science, computer science, philosophy, and psychology. In addition to being known as one of the most important intellectuals of his time, Chomsky has a dual legacy as a leader and luminary in both linguistics and the realm of political dissent. Despite his academic success, his political viewpoints and activism have resulted in his being distrusted by mainstream media, and he is regarded as being \"on the outer margin of acceptability\". Chomsky's public image and social reputation often color his work's public reception.\n\nIn academia\nMcGilvray observes that Chomsky inaugurated the \"cognitive revolution\" in linguistics, and that he is largely responsible for establishing the field as a formal, natural science, moving it away from the procedural form of structural linguistics dominant during the mid-20th century. As such, some have called Chomsky \"the father of modern linguistics\". Linguist John Lyons further remarked that within a few decades of publication, Chomskyan linguistics had become \"the most dynamic and influential\" school of thought in the field. By the 1970s his work had also come to exert a considerable influence on philosophy, and a Minnesota State University Moorhead poll ranked Syntactic Structures as the single most important work in cognitive science. In addition, his work in automata theory and the Chomsky hierarchy have become well known in computer science, and he is much cited in computational linguistics.\nChomsky's criticisms of behaviorism contributed substantially to the decline of behaviorist psychology; in addition, he is generally regarded as one of the primary founders of the field of cognitive science. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results; Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.\nACM Turing Award winner Donald Knuth credited Chomsky's work with helping him combine his interests in mathematics, linguistics, and computer science. IBM computer scientist John Backus, another Turing Award winner, used some of Chomsky's concepts to help him develop FORTRAN, the first widely used high-level computer programming language. Chomsky's theory of generative grammar has also influenced work in music theory and analysis, such as Fred Lerdahl's and Ray Jackendoff's generative theory of tonal music.\nChomsky is among the most cited authors living or dead. He was cited within the Arts and Humanities Citation Index more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992. Chomsky was also extensively cited in the Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index during the same period. The librarian who conducted the research said that the statistics show that \"he is very widely read across disciplines and that his work is used by researchers across disciplines ... it seems that you can't write a paper without citing Noam Chomsky.\" As a result of his influence, there are dueling camps of Chomskyan and non-Chomskyan linguistics. Their disputes are often acrimonious. Additionally, according to journalist Maya Jaggi, Chomsky is among the most quoted sources in the humanities, ranking alongside Marx, Shakespeare and the Bible.\n\nIn politics\nChomsky's status as the \"most-quoted living author\" is credited to his political writings, which vastly outnumber his writings on linguistics. Chomsky biographer Wolfgang B. Sperlich characterizes him as \"one of the most notable contemporary champions of the people\"; journalist John Pilger has described him as a \"genuine people's hero; an inspiration for struggles all over the world for that basic decency known as freedom. To a lot of people in the margins—activists and movements—he's unfailingly supportive.\" Arundhati Roy has called him \"one of the greatest, most radical public thinkers of our time\", and Edward Said thought him \"one of the most significant challengers of unjust power and delusions\". Fred Halliday has said that by the start of the 21st century Chomsky had become a \"guru\" for the world's anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements. The propaganda model of media criticism that he and Herman developed has been widely accepted in radical media critiques and adopted to some level in mainstream criticism of the media, also exerting a significant influence on the growth of alternative media, including radio, publishers, and the Internet, which in turn have helped to disseminate his work.\nDespite this broad influence, university departments devoted to history and political science rarely include Chomsky's work on their undergraduate syllabi. Critics have argued that despite publishing widely on social and political issues, Chomsky has no formal expertise in these areas; he has responded that such issues are not as complex as many social scientists claim and that almost everyone is able to comprehend them regardless of whether they have been academically trained to do so. Some have responded to these criticisms by questioning the critics' motives and their understanding of Chomsky's ideas. Sperlich, for instance, says that Chomsky has been vilified by corporate interests, particularly in the mainstream press. Likewise, according to McGilvray, many of Chomsky's critics \"do not bother quoting his work or quote out of context, distort, and create straw men that cannot be supported by Chomsky's text\".\nChomsky drew criticism for not calling the Bosnian War's Srebrenica massacre a \"genocide\". While he did not deny the fact of the massacre, which he called \"a horror story and major crime\", he felt the massacre did not meet the definition of genocide. Critics have accused Chomsky of denying the Bosnian genocide.\nChomsky's far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy. A document obtained pursuant to a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request from the U.S. government revealed that the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) monitored his activities and for years denied doing so. The CIA also destroyed its files on Chomsky at some point, possibly in violation of federal law. He has often received undercover police protection at MIT and when speaking on the Middle East but has refused uniformed police protection. German news magazine Der Spiegel described Chomsky as \"the Ayatollah of anti-American hatred\", while American conservative commentator David Horowitz called him \"the most devious, the most dishonest and ... the most treacherous intellect in America\", whose work is infused with \"anti-American dementia\" and evidences his \"pathological hatred of his own country\". Writing in Commentary magazine, the journalist Jonathan Kay described Chomsky as \"a hard-boiled anti-American monomaniac who simply refuses to believe anything that any American leader says\".\nChomsky's criticism of Israel has led to his being called a traitor to the Jewish people and an anti-Semite. Criticizing Chomsky's defense of the right of individuals to engage in Holocaust denial on the grounds that freedom of speech must be extended to all viewpoints, Werner Cohn called Chomsky \"the most important patron\" of the neo-Nazi movement. The Anti-Defamation League (ADL) called him a Holocaust denier, describing him as a \"dupe of intellectual pride so overweening that he is incapable of making distinctions between totalitarian and democratic societies, between oppressors and victims\". In turn, Chomsky has claimed that the ADL is dominated by \"Stalinist types\" who oppose democracy in Israel. The lawyer Alan Dershowitz has called Chomsky a \"false prophet of the left\"; Chomsky called Dershowitz \"a complete liar\" who is on \"a crazed jihad, dedicating much of his life to trying to destroy my reputation\". In early 2016, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey publicly rebuked Chomsky after he signed an open letter condemning Erdoğan for his anti-Kurdish repression and double standards on terrorism. Chomsky accused Erdoğan of hypocrisy, noting that Erdoğan supports al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate, the al-Nusra Front.\n\nAcademic achievements, awards, and honors\nIn 1970, the London Times named Chomsky one of the \"makers of the twentieth century\". He was voted the world's leading public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll jointly conducted by American magazine Foreign Policy and British magazine Prospect. New Statesman readers listed Chomsky among the world's foremost heroes in 2006.\nIn the United States he is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Linguistic Society of America, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Philosophical Association, and the American Philosophical Society. Abroad he is a corresponding fellow of the British Academy, an honorary member of the British Psychological Society, a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina, and a foreign member of the Department of Social Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He received a 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship, the 1984 American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology, the 1988 Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the 1996 Helmholtz Medal, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, the 2010 Erich Fromm Prize, and the British Academy's 2014 Neil and Saras Smith Medal for Linguistics. He is also a two-time winner of the NCTE George Orwell Award for Distinguished Contribution to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language (1987 and 1989). He has also received the Rabindranath Tagore Centenary Award from The Asiatic Society.\nChomsky received the 2004 Carl-von-Ossietzky Prize from the city of Oldenburg, Germany, to acknowledge his body of work as a political analyst and media critic. He received an honorary fellowship in 2005 from the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. He received the 2008 President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway. Since 2009, he has been an honorary member of International Association of Professional Translators and Interpreters (IAPTI). He received the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for \"significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems.\" Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.\nIn 2011, the US Peace Memorial Foundation awarded Chomsky the US Peace Prize for anti-war activities over five decades. For his work in human rights, peace, and social criticism, he received the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize, the Sretenje Order in 2015, the 2017 Seán MacBride Peace Prize and the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award.\nChomsky has received honorary doctorates from institutions including the University of London and the University of Chicago (1967), Loyola University Chicago and Swarthmore College (1970), Bard College (1971), Delhi University (1972), the University of Massachusetts (1973), and the International School for Advanced Studies (2012). Public lectures given by Chomsky include the 1969 John Locke Lectures, 1975 Whidden Lectures, 1977 Huizinga Lecture, and 1988 Massey Lectures.\nVarious tributes to Chomsky have been dedicated over the years. He is the eponym for a bee species, a frog species, an asteroid, and a building complex at the Indian university Jamia Millia Islamia. Actor Viggo Mortensen and avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2003 album Pandemoniumfromamerica to Chomsky.\n\nSelected bibliography\nSee also\nNotes\nReferences\nSources\nFurther reading\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website \nNoam Chomsky personal archives at MIT\nNoam Chomsky Audio Conservatory at Internet Archive\nFaculty page at MIT\nFaculty page at University of Arizona",
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"paragraph_text": "Neam \"Nim\" Chimpsky (November 19, 1973 – March 10, 2000) was a chimpanzee used in a study to determine whether chimps could learn a human language, American Sign Language (ASL). The project was led by Herbert S. Terrace of Columbia University with linguistic analysis by psycholinguist Thomas Bever. Chimpsky was named as a pun on linguist Noam Chomsky, who posited that humans are \"wired\" to develop language.\nOver the course of Project Nim, the infant chimp was shuttled between locations and a revolving group of roughly 60 caregivers, including teenagers and grad students, few of whom were proficient in sign language. Four years into the project, Nim became too difficult to manage and was returned to the Institute for Primate Studies in Oklahoma.\nAfter reviewing the results, Terrace concluded that Nim mimicked signs from his teachers in order to get a reward. Terrace argued that Nim did not initiate conversation or create sentences. Terrace said that he had not noticed this throughout the duration of the study but only upon reviewing video tape. Terrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic of ape language studies.\n\nProject Nim\nHerbert Terrace, a professory of Psychology at Columbia University, launched Project Nim in 1973, six years after R. Allen and Beatrix Gardner began testing a chimpanzee's ability to acquire American Sign Language with Project Washoe. Terrace named the infant chimpanzee as a pun on Noam Chomsky. With this project, Terrace intended to challenge Chomsky's assertion that only humans can use language. (Terrace's mentor, B.F. Skinner, a key figure in behaviorism, was known as an academic target and rival of Chomsky.)\n\nNim's early years\nNim's life history is detailed in Elizabeth Hess's seminal biography, Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human (2008), which became the basis for a 2011 documentary film directed by James Marsh, Project Nim (see below).\nNim was born at the Institute for Primate Studies in Norman, Oklahoma. A few days after his birth, he was taken from his sedated mother and placed in the New York City home of Stephanie LaFarge. LaFarge was a former grad student of Terrace's with three children and four stepchildren. LaFarge \"knew nothing\" about chimps and instantly recognized that the arrangement would be a problem. The LaFarge household was unconventional: she breastfed the chimp (though she had no milk) and smoked pot with him. Stephanie LaFarge and her daughter Jennie Lee used signs sporadically, focusing instead on play and establishing trust, which they saw as a developmental need. They did not maintain records of Nim's development and did not support the harsh discipline practices that Terrace and his lead trainer at the time demanded. (This included the use of cattle prods and forcing Nim into a small, dark box when he misbehaved.). By mutual agreement two years later, Nim was moved out of the LaFarge brownstone and into a large house in Riverdale, where a grad student, Laura-Ann Petitto, took over as primary caregiver.\nAfter the move to Riverdale, Nim exhibited symptoms of intense anxiety. For the first few weeks, he refused to be alone for even a minute. When left with a new person, he would rip off his clothes and pee and poop all over the room. His habit of \"sinking his teeth into human flesh\" -- which started before he was a year old -- became both more frequent and more damaging.\nAdding further complication, Terrace became romantically involved with Petitto. (He had also been sexually involved with LaFarge but the relationship ended years before Project Nim.) After he \"abruptly\" ended the relationship, Petitto quit, cutting off Nim (again) from his closet companion and maternal figure. Terrace's two other full-timers quit around the same time. In the wake of these turnovers, Nim's behavior deteriorated further; he became more aggressive and less compliant with sign-language sessions.\n\nProblems with the study\nThe turnover in staff, varying punishment methods, and Nim's “emotional turmoil” created a problem for the study. For any such study to be valid, the juvenille subject should be a healthy one, not marked by significant trauma.\nAnother problem with the study was the quality (and number) of people working with Nim. There were about 60 total, mostly volunteers, and few were proficient in sign language. Mary Wambaugh, a deaf woman fluent in ASL, joined the team three years into the study and raised concerns that the others were improperly signing. She told Terrace that Nim was being taught a pidgin version of the language, not proper ASL, which has a structure and set of rules. As Hess, observed, this made sense given the study's heavy reliance on students and untrained volunteers. The caregivers signed word-by-word, the same way Nim did.\n\nAnother significant problem involved Nim's classrooom. Nim performed his signs most fluidly and creatively when playing with his (human) friends at \"home\" — \"home\" being initially the LaFarge brownstone and, later, the Riverdale mansion. Yet Terrace needed Nim to work primarily in a space at Columbia, a windowless, noisy, 15' square \"dungeon.\" Terrace described the challenges with the space in Nim:In the classroom, the slightest noise would make Nim jump into the arms of a teacher. At times, he was so scared he tried to hide under his teacher's skirt. The squeals of rats [in a nearby room] caused him to panic. And he would rock back-and-forth on the floor.Joyce Butler, who took over as primary caregiver after Petitto quit, said that Nim was nearly impossible to wrangle in the classroom and would repeatedly ask to leave by signing \"dirty\" to go to the bathroom. Butler and her fellow caregivers fought Terrace over his requirement that Nim attend the classroom daily. Eventually, they refused to take him there.\nAs difficulties with staff, funding concerns, and Nim's behavior came to a head, Terrace called an end to the study. Over intense resistance from staff, he sent Nim back to the Institute for Primate Studies in 1977 and then set about analyzing his data.\n\nTerrace's conclusions\nWhile Nim was in New York, Terrace believed he was learning sign language. But in reviewing the data, Terrace came to a conclusion that surprised most everyone involved: Nim, he said, was not using language at all. Terrace said that he changed his mind when watching videotapes of Nim (in his classroom). Language requires the use of sentences, and Nim didn't use sentences. Though Nim recognized and used signs, Terrace said he did not initiate conversation. When Nim combined signs, they tended to be highly repetitive and filled with \"wild cards\" -- words like ME, HUG, NIM, and MORE. For example, Nim's longest utterance, 16 signs, was: \"Give orange me give eat orange me eat orange give me eat orange give me you.\" The videotapes, Terrace argued, proved that Nim mimicked his teachers and used signs strictly to get a reward, not unlike a dog or horse.\nTerrace's results shocked some of Nim's trainers and contradicted his earlier observations, including those in his book Nim (1979). That said, his findings regarding the Nim data were generally accepted as accurate. Among the many problems with Terrace's project (see above), he did not build in blind controls, making Project Nim vulnerable to the Clever Hans effect. \nControversy erupted over the fact that Terrace did not restrict his analysis to Nim. He claimed that other apes in other sign language research projects—most notably, Washoe and gorilla Koko—were mere mimmicks as well. He made these claims after examining brief video clips of the apes taken from a NOVA documentary and a film by Allen and Beatrix Gardner. Terrace's criticisms of other ape research led to heated debates, with many scholars contesting Terrace's claims. The arguments back-and-forth were summarized at that time by Jean Marx in Science (1980) and Dava Sobel (1979) and Eugene Linden in the New York Times.\nTerrace ultimately became a popularly cited critic of ape language studies.\n\nLife after Project Nim\nNim's return to the Institute of Primate Studies (IPS) in Oklahoma was by all accounts traumatic. By contemporary standards, IPS was a dreary facility. The apes spent most of their time in relatively small cages with concrete floors. But IPS founder William Lemmon recognized the critical importance of apes' social interactions and connected the cages so that chimps had access to each other. He also provided a better, healthier diet than the standard monkey chow. Compared to many zoos and other research facilities at the time, the IPS chimps fared relatively well.\nNim's celebrity was unique, but many of the IPS chimps had similarly been raised by humans. Like Nim, they were returned to IPS when they started growing up and exhibiting wild behaviors. Also like Nim, they had never met members of their own species before. The switch from a human environment to concrete cages with alien beasts caused intense stress and, in some cases, self-mutilation.\nBut Nim's depression turned out to be relatively short-lived compared to other new arrivals at IPS. Though terrified of the other chimps at first, Nim made new friends. Also, several students in Roger Fouts' sign language program enjoyed working with Nim and took him out for walks on the grounds. Nim continued to use signs, including STONE SMOKE TIME NOW to request marijuana. One IPS student, Bob Ingersoll, took a particular interest in Nim and advocated for him in the turmoil that was to follow.\nIn the early 1980s, University of Oklahoma withdrew its support of the IPS. Faced with the loss of funding, William Lemmon arranged to gradually sell off chimps to a New York University (NYU) biomedical lab, LEMSIP. (Roger Fouts, who had been working with several IPS chimps, had suddenly left for a new position in Washington, taking Washoe and Loulis with him.) Beginning in December 1981, IPS started sending chimps to LEMSIP, including many, like Nim, who had been used in sign language research. Staff at LEMSIP began noticing the chimps using ASL to communicate with them, so vet James Mahoney posted signs around the facility to help the staff understand the chimps' gestures.\nWhen Bob Ingersoll found out about the LEMSIP plan, he called his Nim contacts to launch a protest and press campaign. He also contacted Jane Goodall, who wrote a letter to the University of Oklahoma on the chimps' behalf. Henry Herrman, a lawyer who had caught wind of the story in the Boston Globe reached out to Terrace, who had been quoted, to offer his services. His call to Terrace proved to be fortuitous. Other IPS personnel made a few calls that ultimately led to a CBS news story. When CBS News interviewed Terrace, Terrace said he was shocked to hear about the move and, referring to his contact with Herrman, announced that he would be filing a lawsuit to stop it. (According to James Mahoney of LEMSIP, Terrace had known about the move for several months and only acted outraged when the press attention hit.)\nThough NYU initially ignored the press, the mounting legal threats and negative attention made holding on to the celebrity chimp — Nim — no longer worth it for the university. NYU arranged to send Nim and fellow chimp Ally back to IPS. Nim had been at LEMSIP for less than a month. The other sign language-trained chimps remained at LEMSIP. The press by then had moved on.\nIn 1983, philanthropist Cleveland Amory stepped in to buy Nim, by now a celebrity, and brought him to his equine sanctuary, Black Beauty Ranch, in Texas. As the only chimpanzee at the Ranch, Nim sank into a deep depression. Nim would gesture to staff but they did not sign back. When Ingersoll came to visit, Nim signed BOB, OUT, KEY. Ingersoll urged Amory to get a companion for Nim but was ignored. Meanwhile, Nim studied the locks on his cage and would periodically escape and run into the manager's house, raid the refrigerator, and sometimes turn on the TV. Once, in the process, he threw the pet poodle against a wall, killing it.\nA year after Nim's arrival, Amory arranged to adopt another chimp, Sally. In her biography of Nim, Hess writes that the chimps became inseparable. Nim taught Sally how to sign DRINK, BANANA and GUM, three of the words he used most frequently at the ranch. He was frequently seen signing SORRY to Sally after they had a squabble. Nim still escaped, but a new manager handled those escapes differently. When Nim and Sally showed up at his house, he would act happy to see them and let them stay until they got bored. By keeping tensions low, he found, the chimps did not need to be darted.\nAfter almost ten years with Nim, Sally died, sending Nim once again into severe distress. After hearing about Sally's death, Ingersoll arranged to help get three new chimp companions for Nim: Kitty, Midge, and Lulu. The chimps thrived as a small group until March 10, 2000, when Nim died suddenly of a heart attack. He was 26 years old, about half his average life expectancy.\n\nIn media\nProject Nim, a documentary film by James Marsh about the Nim study, explores the story (and the wealth of archival footage) to consider ethical issues, the emotional experiences of the participants, and the deeper issues the experiment raised. The film is based on Nim Chimpsky, the biography by Elizabeth Hess, and Hess is credited as the writer. This documentary (produced by BBC Films, Red Box Films, and Passion Films) opened the 2011 Sundance Film Festival. The film was released in theaters on July 8, 2011 by Roadside Attractions and on DVD on February 7, 2012.\nTerrace wrote an op-ed in response to what he considered a negative portrayal of his Nim project, stating that the filmmakers inaccurately equated his study's negative results with \"failure.\"\n\nReferences\nKey sources\nHess, Elizabeth (2008). Nim Chimpsky: The Chimp Who Would Be Human. New York: Bantam. ISBN 9780553803839.\nIngersoll, Robert; Scarnà, Antonina Anna (2023). Primatoloogy, Ethnics and Trauma: The Oklahoma Chimpanzee Studies. London and New York: Routledge.\nLinden, Eugene (1986). Silent Partners: The Legacy of the Ape Language Experiments. Times Books. ISBN 0-8129-1239-X.\nMarsh, James (2011) Project Nim, documentary film.\nMarx, Jean L. (March 21, 1980) \"Ape-Language Controversy Flares Up.\" Science. Vol. 27. No. 4437, pp. 1330–1333.\nSobel, Dava. (October 21, 1970) \"Researcher Challenges Conclusion That Apes Can Learn Language.\" The New York Times. p.1.\nTerrace, H. S. (1979). Nim. New York: Knopf.\nTerrace, H. S.; Singer, P. (November 24, 2011). \"Can Chimps Converse?: An Exchange\". New York Review of Books.\n\nNotes\nSee also\nAlex (parrot)\nAnimal language\nChantek (orangutan)\nGreat ape language\nJennie, a 1994 novel about a chimpanzee living with a family in the 1970s learning sign language\nKanzi (bonobo)\nKoko (gorilla)\nList of individual apes\nLucy (chimpanzee)\nPanbanisha (bonobo)\nWashoe (chimpanzee)\n\nExternal links\n\"'Test' results\". ling.ohio-state.edu. Archived from the original on June 25, 2003.\n\"Official website for Project Nim documentary\". project-nim.com. Archived from the original on January 20, 2011.",
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] | What was the word that featured the least in the longest recorded quotation by the chimpanzee named after the recipient of the 2011 Sydney Peace Prize? | [] | You | [] | true |
260 | [
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"paragraph_text": "William Keir Clark (May 30, 1910 – November 28, 2010) was a Canadian merchant and political figure in Prince Edward Island. After serving as mayor of Montague in 1941 and 1942, he represented 3rd Kings in the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island from 1947 to 1959 and 4th Kings from 1966 to 1970 as a Liberal. In 1970, he sat as an Independent Liberal.\nHe was born in Mount Stewart, Prince Edward Island, the son of Russell Charles Clark and Marion J. McKay, and was educated at Prince of Wales College and Dalhousie University. In 1940, Clark married Anna I. McLaren. He served as mayor of Montague. Clark served in the province's Executive Council as Minister of Education from 1953 to 1959, as Provincial Treasurer from 1954 to 1955 and as Minister of Health and Municipal Affairs from 1966 to 1969. He resigned from cabinet in 1969, saying that he did not support all aspects of his government's development plan.\nHe was defeated when he ran for reelection in 1959. In 2008 he became P.E.I.'s oldest living former politician, and he turned 100 in 2010. Clark died in Eldon, Prince Edward Island on November 28, 2010.\n\nReferences\nNotes\n\nSources\nWeeks, Blair (2002). Minding the House: A Biographical Guide to Prince Edward Island MLAs. Acorn Press. ISBN 1-894838-01-7.",
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"paragraph_text": "Prince of Wales College (PWC) is a former university college, which was located in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada. PWC merged with St. Dunstan's University in 1969 to form the University of Prince Edward Island.\nPWC traces its history to 1804 when land was set aside by Lieutenant-Governor Edmund Fanning for a college - the colony's first. In 1821 a district school called the National School opened on the site located on Kent Street in the east end of Charlottetown. In 1835 Central Academy opened on a site along Grafton Street, immediately south of the National School. The National School closed in the early 1850s and the provincial Normal School for training teachers opened on the site in 1856.\nIn 1860 the Central Academy was upgraded and renamed Prince of Wales College (PWC) in honour of a visit to the colony that year by the Prince of Wales, later to become King Edward VII. In 1879, PWC became co-educational and the Normal School was merged into the institution. A significant expansion took place in the late 1920s and early 1930s when a new brick and stone campus was constructed on the site of the original PWC campus. Ferdinand Herbert Marani, an architect with Marani & Paisley designed the new PWC campus which opened in 1932. PWC remained a non-denominational or inter-denominational college which served to provide an education comparable to the present-day colleges in Quebec, namely senior matriculation and one or several years of university. It was the non-denominational character of PWC which led many of Island Roman Catholics to label the school as being \"Protestant\". Many Catholic women attended PWC despite this label because they were barred from attending St. Dunstan's University which was male-only. It was not until 1965 that the provincial government granted PWC a degree-granting charter and the only Bachelor's degrees from PWC were awarded in the spring 1969 convocation.\nPWC had several administrators who proved their importance to Prince Edward Island's education profession:\n\nDr. Alexander Anderson served as professor 1862–1868 and principal of PWC from 1868–1901, having influenced many islanders, including Lucy Maud Montgomery.\nDr. Samuel Napier Robertson served as professor and took over as principal of PWC following Anderson's move into the provincial civil service, serving in that role from 1901 to 1937.\nG. Douglas Steel, a Harvard graduate would be on faculty for 40 years and served from 1937 to 1949 as principal.\nDr. Frank MacKinnon being invited back to the Island in 1949 at the age of 30, he took on the role of principal until he resigned in 1968, amid an effort by government to amalgamate the college with St. Dunstan's University. Sixteen other PWC faculty resigned soon after.\nThomas M. Lothian a biology professor became interim principal from 1968 until its dissolution in 1969.\nPWC held high academic standards for its students and as early as the 1910s, McGill University entered into talks related to integrating PWC as its Atlantic coast counterpart to the University of Victoria, which McGill had also helped to establish and nurture. Master plans had called for quadrupling the size of the PWC Grafton Street campus to encompass most of what is now the eastern end of downtown Charlottetown with the proposed PWC-McGill campus being built along the area bounded by Grafton, Prince, Kent, and Edward Streets in a massive redevelopment of the community.\nThe plans did not come to fruition and by the 1960s, the provincial government began a critical study of its post-secondary education institutions (PWC and SDU), concluding that a merger to form a provincial university was the desired funding and service model for future students. The merger was not without controversy as emotions ran their course on the part of supporters of both institutions, however, in May 1969 the last classes graduated from PWC and SDU and the institutions were merged into the University of Prince Edward Island which opened for the first time in September 1969 on the now-former SDU campus. The PWC campus on Grafton Street was taken over by the provincial government and became part of UPEI during the early period of amalgamation. By the early 1970s it was the Charlottetown campus of a new provincial community college named Holland College.\n\nSee also\nRoyal eponyms in Canada\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nPrince of Wales College history - provided by UPEI",
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"paragraph_text": "The University of Prince Edward Island (UPEI) is a public university in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada, and the only university in the province. Founded in 1969, the enabling legislation is the University Act, R.S.P.E.I 2000.\n\nHistory\nThe university traces its roots back to 1804, when Lt. Governor Edmund Fanning and the Legislative Council of Prince Edward Island called for the establishment of Kent College. By 1820, the first Kent College building, known as \"the National School\", or James Breading's School was erected. Later succeeded by Central Academy, which received a Royal Charter in 1834.\nThe Colleges were renamed for the Prince of Wales in honour of the future King Edward VII in 1860. The University of Prince Edward Island also traces its roots back to its two earlier predecessor organizations, St. Dunstan's University and Prince of Wales College, founded in 1855 and 1860 respectively. The two institutions were merged in 1969 by the government of Alex Campbell as part of a campaign to integrate the Island's Roman Catholic and Protestant communities, which had previously maintained the two separate institutions of higher learning. Holland College was later created to fill the void left by the merger of Prince of Wales College into the university.\nThe University of Prince Edward Island is a non-denominational university established in 1969 by the amalgamation of Prince of Wales College (PWC) founded in 1834, and St. Dunstan's University (SDU) founded in 1855. The first student to enrol was Elizabeth Rollins Epperly, who would later become president. Its predecessor institutions ceased to operate although St. Dunstan's still retains its charter and the lands that were home to Prince of Wales became the campus for Holland College. UPEI is located on the former St. Dunstan's campus.\nDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, UPEI received a $500,000 grant from the Public Health Agency of Canada's Immunization Partnership Fund to develop and implement the Island Vaccine Education Program, intended to increase uptake of COVID-19 vaccines among vulnerable families.\n\nLegacy\nOn 8 May 2004 Canada Post issued 'University of Prince Edward Island, 1804-2004' as part of the Canadian Universities series. The stamp was based on a design by Denis L'Allier and on a photograph by Guy Lavigueur. The 49¢ stamps are perforated 13.5 and were printed by Canadian Bank Note Company, Limited.\n\nCampus\nUPEI's campus, located at the corner of Belvedere and University Avenues in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island's capital city, is built on 134 acres (54 hectares) of land. The Confederation Trail runs alongside its eastern boundary.\nOriginal SDU buildings in the central quadrangle have been renovated to retain integrity of their exterior aesthetic design while meeting modern standards. Main Building, built in 1854, and Dalton Hall, built between 1917 and 1919, are on the registry of Historic Places of Canada.\nThe War Memorial Hall (more generally known as Memorial Hall) is a landmark building on the campus of UPEI. Built as a men's residence building in 1946, Memorial Hall honours alumni who had enlisted and died in the First World War, and in the Second World War.\nOver the past three decades, UPEI has experienced significant growth with many new buildings integrated into the campus, including Central Utility Building (1973), Duffy Science Centre (1967), Blanchard Hall (1973), Bernardine Hall (1968), Robertson Library (1975), Atlantic Veterinary College (1986), Chi-Wan Young Sports Centre (1990), Wanda Wyatt Dining Hall (1990), Food Technology Centre, K.C. Irving Chemistry Centre (1997), W.A. Murphy Student Centre (2002), MacLauchlan Arena (2004), Bill and Denise Andrew Hall residence facility (2006), expansions to the Atlantic Veterinary College (2007 and 2009), Regis and Joan Duffy Research Centre (2007), a research and development laboratory which is home to the National Research Council of Canada, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, and other partners, and Don and Marion McDougall Hall (2008). The most recent addition is the Health Sciences Building, home to the School of Nursing and Applied Human Sciences programs.\nIn October 2004, the UPEI administration undertook an official campus plan to improve the aesthetics of modern buildings constructed since the amalgamation which do not enhance the original SDU design, and to take overall campus aesthetics into account for future developments on and adjacent to the campus.\n\nOrganization\nThe current president and vice-chancellor is Dr. Wendy Rodgers, who began her appointment on June 1, 2024. The current chancellor is the Honourable Diane Griffin, who was installed on April 5, 2024.\n\nAcademics\nUPEI's seven faculties (arts, business, education, nursing, science, sustainable design engineering and veterinary medicine) and two schools (Mathematical & Computational Sciences and Climate Change & Adaptation) offer a wide range of programs and degrees to undergraduate, graduate and doctoral students. Co-op programs have been established in Business Administration, Computer Science, Physics, and Dietetics. The University is presently developing a Faculty of Medicine, in association with the Memorial University of Newfoundland.\nMaster's and Doctoral degree programs were first introduced through the Atlantic Veterinary College and, beginning in 1999, a Master of Science degree was offered through the Faculty of Science. In that same year the first students were admitted to the university's new Master of Education program. As of 2010, in addition to the MEd graduate program, the Faculty of Education offered a PhD in Educational Studies. The university also now offers a Master of Arts in Island Studies. Recently the Faculty of Business Administration began offering an Executive Master of Business Administration degree. Since 1998, The Centre for Conflict Resolution Studies has been offering courses leading to a Certificate in Conflict Resolution Studies. The Master of Applied Health Services Research (MAHSR) program is coordinated by the Atlantic Research Training Centre (ARTC).\nThe Faculty of Education offers one-year (12 months) post-degree bachelor's degrees with specializations in international, adult, and indigenous education, French immersion and human resources development, a Master of Education (MEd) in leadership in learning, and a PhD in Educational Studies.\nThe Department of Applied Human Sciences has an accredited dietitian program. The university is accredited by a professional organization such as the Dietitians of Canada and the university's graduates may subsequently become registered dieticians.\nThe Faculty Development Office provides professional development courses applicable to many sectors and industries, including development programs for administrative assistants and new managers; collaboration, conflict, and communication training; and, financial management courses.\n\nRankings\nIn Maclean's 2023 Guide to Canadian Universities, UPEI was ranked eighth in the publication's category for \"primarily undergraduate\" Canadian universities.\n\nResearch\nUPEI manages over $17 million in annual research expenditures. The on-campus biosciences and health research facility is used by researchers from UPEI, National Research Council (Canada), and Agriculture and Agri-Foods Canada.\nUPEI houses the L.M. Montgomery Institute, founded in 1993, which promotes scholarly inquiry into the life, works, culture, and influence of the Canadian writer, L.M. Montgomery. The collection consists of novels, manuscripts, texts, letters, photographs, sound recordings and other Montgomery artifacts and ephemera.\nUPEI joined with Dalhousie University and Memorial University of Newfoundland to form the Ocean Frontier Institute, a collaborative research initiative aimed at harnessing the vast potential of the world's oceans.\n\nStudent life\nAthletics\nThe UPEI Panthers have nine teams playing in the Atlantic University Sport (AUS) and the Canadian Interuniversity Sport (CIS), including men's and women's ice hockey, soccer, basketball, as well as women's field hockey and rugby union and co-ed swimming.\nThe UPEI campus provides its students with many athletics amenities typically found on university campuses. The CARI Complex is a public recreation facility located on the campus and includes two hockey rinks (the MacLauchlan Arena as well as a practice rink) as well as two 25-metre swimming pools (a shallow recreational wading pool, and an eight-lane competitive pool with diving boards). In 2009 UPEI inaugurated the UPEI Alumni Canada Games Place which was built in part to host the 2009 Canada Games. It consists of a \"class 2\" eight-lane 400-metre running track and rugby field that has spectator seating for 1,335.\n\nResidence\nThe University of Prince Edward Island provides student accommodations in four different residence buildings on campus: Bill and Denise Andrew Hall, Blanchard Hall, Bernardine Hall, and a mixed-use Performing Arts Centre and Residence. Bill and Denise Andrew Hall has two-room suites with single bedrooms. In Blanchard Hall, each suite has two single bedrooms with a kitchenette and a living room. Bernardine Hall (known as \"Bernie\" to the students) offers suites with two double bedrooms and a shared bathroom. Although the hall is co-ed, one floor is female-only.\nOpened in 2023, the Performing Arts Centre and Residence features two towers of residence apartments and lounges with classroom space and a 400-seat auditorium on the main floor.\n\nUPEI/SDU/PWC notable people\nList of presidents\nRonald James Baker (1969-1978)\nPeter P.M. Meincke (1978-1985)\nCharles William John Eliot (1985-1995)\nElizabeth Rollins Epperly (1995-1998)\nWade MacLauchlan (1999-2011)\nAlaa Abd-El-Aziz (2011–2021)\nGregory Keefe (2021–2004)\nWendy Rodgers (2024-present)\nIn 2015 each of the first five presidents were recognized as Founders of the University.\nBeing a long-standing university and college in the Maritime province of Prince Edward Island (called the Cradle of Confederation) UPEI/SDU/PWC have been in a position to provide education to a long list of people who have gone to notable achievements. The most well known graduate (of Prince of Wales College) is Lucy Maude Montgomery, author of \"Anne of Green Gables\" and other books. The most distinguished Saint Dunstan's graduate may be James Charles McGuigan, Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome.\n\nReligion\nJames Charles McGuigan - Cardinal; Archbishop of Toronto; Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome.\nJoseph Anthony O'Sullivan - Grad of Grand Séminaire de Montréal; Archbishop of Kingston, Ontario; Titular Archbishop of Maraguia\nJames Morrison - Archbishop, Bishop of Antigonish, Nova Scotia; studied at the Urban College of the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide in Rome.\nJames Charles McDonald - 4th Bishop of Charlottetown; Studied at Grand Séminaire de Montréal\nJohn T. McNeill - Theological Historian; Graduate of McGill University, University of Edinburgh, and University of Chicago\n\nMedical\nHeather G. Morrison - Rhodes Scholar, Oxford University, Medical Doctor, Chief Public Health Officer of PEI.\nSir Andrew Macphail - Physician; Writer for Chicago Times; Enlisted in Canadian Army in WW I at age 50 as ambulance driver. Knighted in 1918 for literary and military work.\nJohn Joseph Alban Gillis - Surgeon, Senior House Doctor at Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal; MLA in British Columbia Legislative Assembly; Mayor of Merritt, British Columbia\nWilliam Henry Sutherland - Physician at Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal, for the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the Hotel Vancouver; Mayor of Revelstoke, British Columbia\nJames Walter MacNeill - Physician; First superintendent of Saskatchewan Hospital; Early developer for advanced treatments of the mentally ill\nOwen Trainor - Physician; Member of Parliament for Winnipeg Manitoba South; Died during first term in House of Commons\nAugustine A. MacDonald - Physician & Member of Legislative Assembly; Awarded Order of Canada in 1968 for providing medical care to the people of rural Prince Edward Island for more than sixty years\n\nBusiness\nFrank Zakem - LLD, B.A., B.Ed., B.Com., OPEI. businessman, politician, educator, author\nBrenton St. John - Businessman, fish factory director, farm commodity exporter; Speaker of PEI Legislative Assembly\nHenry Callbeck - Ship Builder, Businessman, Sheriff of Queens County, Governor of Prince of Wales College\nDon McDougall (baseball) - President of Labatt Brewing Company; principal in establishment of Toronto Blue Jays\n\nPrince Edward Island Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal)\nWillibald Joseph MacDonald - 19th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; Soldier in WW I and WW II\nMarion Reid - C.M.Order of Canada, OPEI Order of Prince Edward Island, 24th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI (and first woman Lt. Gov); Dame of Grace of The Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem (Order of Saint John (chartered 1888))\nGeorge William Howlan - 6th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; Irish-born merchant and ship owner\nAugustine Colin Macdonald - 10th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; also long time Member of Parliament\nMurdock MacKinnon - 11th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; Farmer; PEI Commissioner of Agriculture\nDonald Alexander MacKinnon - 8th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; Attorney, also grad Dalhousie School of Law\nThomas William Lemuel Prowse - 17th Lieutenant Governor (Vicregal) of PEI; 26th Mayor of Charlottetown; President of Prowse Brother, Ltd\nFrederick Walter Hyndman - 18th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; Canadian Army Major in WW II\nFrank Richard Heartz - 12th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; also businessman and farmer\nGordon Lockhart Bennett - 21st Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI; Chemistry Professor at Prince of Wales College; Canadian Curling Hall of Fame\n\nPrince Edward Island Premier\nLemuel Owen - 2nd Premier of PEI; Shipbuilder, Banker; Merchant\nSir William Wilfred Sullivan - 4th Premier of PEI; Knighted by King George V.\nLouis Henry Davies - 3rd Premier of PEI, Member of Parliament, 12th Puisne Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada, 6th Chief Justice of Canada\nFrederick Peters - 6th Premier of PEI; mother was Mary Cunard (eldest daughter of Sir Samuel Cunard)\nDonald Farquharson - 8th Premier of PEI; Member of Parliament; MLA\nHerbert James Palmer - 11th Premier of PEI; son of former colonial Premier Edward Palmer (Canadian politician).\nAubin-Edmond Arsenault - 13th Premier of Prince Edward Island, PEI Supreme Court Judge\nAlbert Charles Saunders - 16th Premier of Prince Edward Island; PEI Supreme Court Judge; elected four times as mayor of Summerside PEI\nThane Campbell - 19th Premier of PEI, Rhodes Scholar, also grad Oxford University\nBennett Campbell - 24th Premier of PEI\nAlexander Warburton - Also grad University of Edinburgh. PEI Member of Parliament, 7th Premier of Prince Edward Island\nJames Lee - 26th Premier of PEI; Sworn to Privy Council of Canada by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.\nKeith Milligan - 29th Premier of PEI\nWilliam J.P. MacMillan - 18th Premier of PEI; also M.D. and graduate of McGill University School of Medicine\nJames David Stewart - 15th Premier of PEI\nWalter Russell Shaw - 22nd Premier of PEI; Officer of the Order of Canada; Canadian Agricultural Hall of Fame in 1980.\nJohn Howatt Bell - 14th Premier of PEI; PEI Member of Parliament\nJohn Alexander Mathieson - 12th Premier of PEI\n\nPrince Edward Island Members Legislative Assembly\nProsper Arsenault - Educator; Politician, Speaker of the PEI Legislative Assembly\nCletus Dunn - MLA, Civil Servant\nCynthia Dunsford - MLA, Squash Coach, Writer/Performer of CBC Radio comedy show \"Parkdale Doris.\"\nPaul Connolly - Educator, Politician; Member National Parole Board in 2002, serving for seven years.\nJamie Ballem - MLA, Businessman; founded Island Green Power Company to promote the development of wind power on the island\nHerb Dickieson - MLA, Physician, also grad Dalhousie University School of Medicine; Chief of Medical Staff at Charlottetown Community Hospital\nDoug Currie - MLA; Head Coach and Director of Hockey Operations for the University of Prince Edward Island.\nValerie Docherty - MLA\nPaula Biggar - MLA\nAlan Buchanan - MLA, Educational Administrator; Communication Officer with Island Telecom and later Aliant,\nKevin MacAdam - MLA, Political Advisor\nJames Warburton - MLA, Mayor of Charlottetown, Physician\nJim Larkin - MLA; Executive with Tourism Industry Association of Canada\nGeorge Dewar - MLA; Physician in private practice and earlier with Royal Canadian Medical Corps in WW II; member Order of Canada\nBetty Jean Brown - MLA, Nurse Practitioner; Owner of family fur farm\nDavid McKenna - Optometrist, businessman and politician, MLA in Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island\n\nCanada national government\nMark MacGuigan - Attorney General of Canada; Secretary of State for External Affairs in the cabinet of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau\nJacques Hebert - Quebec Senator to Parliament; Author Deux innocents en Chine rouge (with Pierre Trudeau)\nMike Duffy - PEI Senator to Parliament of Canada; TV news show host; covered fall of Saigon, Vietnam\nPercy Downe - PEI Senator to Parliament of Canada; Chief of Staff for Prime Minister Jean Chrétien\nLorne Bonnell - PEI Senator to Parliament of Canada; Physician\nJohn McLean - PEI Senator to Parliament of Canada; earlier Member of Parliament; MLA; Director of several businesses, i.e., Maritime Life Insurance Co. and The Guardian newspaper\nMelvin McQuaid - PEI Member of Parliament of Canada; PEI Supreme Court Judge\nAlfred Lefurgey - PEI Member of Parliament of Canada; also grad Harvard Law\nThomas Joseph Kickham - PEI Senator to Parliament of Canada\nJames McIsaac - PEI Member of Parliament of Canada; also grad Université Laval\nAngus Alexander McLean - PEI Member of Parliament of Canada; also grad Harvard Law\nPeter Adolphus McIntyre - PEI Member of Parliament; 7th Lieutenant Governor (Viceregal) of PEI\nJoe McGuire - PEI Member of Parliament of Canada\nShawn Murphy - PEI Member of Parliament; Attorney, Queen's Counsel\nGeorge Henderson; PEI Member of Parliament; Shellfish Technician; Farmer, Electrical Engineer and Businessman\nChester McLure - PEI Member of Parliament; Fox Farmer; Honorary Lieutenant-Colonel in 1930 for the 2nd Medium Light Artillery\nMontague Aldous - Dominion Topographical Surveyor of the Northwest Territories 1877; also grad of Bowdoin College, Maine\nThomas McMillan - political scientist and former politician, Member of Parliament; Minister of the Environment\n\nProvincial/local governments of Canada\nDavid Laird - 1st Lieutenant Governor of Northwest Territories, Canada; Indian Commissioner of the Northwest Territories, Manitoba, and Keewatin\nBob MacQuarrie - Ontario MLA\nGeorge Washington McPhee - Saskatchewan Member of Parliament of Canada; Attorney, King's Counsel\nRobert Deschamps - Member National Assembly of Quebec; Parti Québécois member and supporter of sovereignty of Quebec\nF.H. Auld - Agricultural Scientist, Saskatchewan Deputy Minister of Agriculture, 1916–46\nHarold Lloyd Henderson - Presbyterian minister, Mayor Portage la Prairie, Manitoba; also grad McGill University\nJohn Salmon Lamont - PWC and Princeton University, Reeve of Assinibola, Manitoba\nJohn K. McInnis - Mayor of Regina, Saskatchewan\nMaurice DeLory - MLA in Nova Scotia House of Assembly; Surgeon\nAlexander Campbell - represented St. John's in the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly, 1928–32; also grad Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and the University of Vienna.\n\nArts and letters\nLucy Maud Montgomery - Author: Anne of Green Gables, Avonlea\nIrene Gammel - Literary Historian: Baroness Elsa, Looking for Anne of Green Gables\nSandra M. Macdonald - Chairperson National Film Board of Canada\nJohn Smith - Poet Laureate of PEI\nRachna Gilmore - Children's Book Writer; 1999 Governor General's Award for Children's Literature\nAnne Compton - Poet; 2005 Governor General's Award for Poetry; 2012 awarded Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal\nTyler Shaw - Singer; 2012 Billboard Canada Adult Contemporary # 5 song \"Kiss Goodnight.\" Song was certified Gold by Music Canada in 2013.\nJames Jeffrey Roche - Writer, American Consul in Switzerland; Editor of Boston Pilot newspaper\n\nEducation\nJohn Angus Weir - 4th President of Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario; also grad University of Notre Dame\nWilliam Christopher Macdonald - 4th Chancellor of McGill University; founder MacDonald & Brothers tobacco company\nElizabeth Rollins Epperly - Victorian Scholar; grad UPEI and University of London; President of UPEI, 1995–98\nEddie Gardner - Elder-in-Residence University of the Fraser Valley; founder Open-Net Salmon Boycott\nMarin Gallant - Educator, MLA, Inspector for PEI French Schools\nWilliam Edwin Cameron - first Saint Dunstan's Rhodes Scholar, SDU Class of 1904\nScott MacEachern - Professor of Archaeology and Anthropology at Duke Kunshan University, China, an expert in African archaeology.\nKathy Martin - Professor in the Faculty of Forestry at the University of British Columbia and a senior research scientist with Environment and Climate Change Canada\nTim Carroll - Assistant Professor of History at Saint Francis Xavier University & UPEI; MLA in Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island\n\nPhilanthropist\nJean-Louis Lévesque - Philanthropist, entrepreneur, racehorse owner\n\nPrince Edward Island law/legal\nWayne Cheverie - PEI Supreme Court Judge\nGerard Mitchell - Chief Justice PEI Supreme Court\nCharles St. Clair Trainor - Chief Justice PEI Supreme Court, King's Counsel\nGavan Duffy - Judge of the Prince Edward Island County Court, sitting in Queens County; King's Counsel; Grand Master Knights of Columbus\nReginald Bell - PEI Supreme Court Judge\nGeorge McMahon - PEI Supreme Court Judge\n\nOther Canada law/legal\nSir James Hyndman - Alberta Supreme Court Judge; Inducted as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1948.\nJ. Greg Peters - Superintendent of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Usher of the Black Rod of the Senate of Canada.\n\nU.S. government\nJacob Gould Schurman - US Ambassador to Germany; President Cornell University\nCyrus S. Ching - U.S. federal administrator, US Department of Labor Hall of Honor\nJames U. Campbell - 25th Chief Justice Oregon Supreme Court, USA; U.S. Lieutenant in Philippines during Spanish–American War\nBurpee L. Steeves - 9th Lieutenant Governor of Idaho; also grad Willamette University, Oregon\n\nPrince Edward Island local government\nIan MacDonald - 43rd Mayor of Charlottetown; Known as \"Tex\"\nWilliam S. Stewart - Mayor of Charlottetown, 1932–34; MLA; Admiralty Court Judge\nPhilip Brown - Mayor of Charlottetown, as of January 2019; teacher and businessman\n\nMilitary\nRalph McInerney - World War I Pilot in Royal Flying Corps; Represented the city of Saint John, New Brunswick in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick from 1939 to 1948.\nRoger Soloman - Lieutenant Royal Canadian Navy; Tourist cottages business owner on Brudenell River, PEI; High School Principal\nKeith Brown - Scottish politician; Deputy Leader of the Scottish National Party; Royal Marines in Falklands War\n\nAthletics\nScott Morrison - Assistant Coach of Boston Celtics, 2017+; 2014-15 NBA Developmental League (D-League) Coach of the Year with Maine Red Claws\nDoug MacLean - NHL General Manager and Coach for the Columbus Blue Jackets and the Head Coach for Florida Panthers; Coach for two NHL All Star games, 1995–97; earlier after playing varsity hockey for the UPEI Panthers became hockey coach for the University of New Brunswick. Known as \"Prince Eddy\" because of his affinity for Prince Edward Island\nAl MacAdam - NHL Hockey Player, Stanley Cup Champion 1974, NHL All-Star 1976 & 1977\nBill MacMillan - NHL Hockey Player, Bronze Medal 1976 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France\nJoel Ward - NHL Hockey Player, Team Canada 2014 IIHF World Championship in Minsk, Belarus\nDave Cameron - NHL Coach (2016 Ass't Coach Calgary Flames) and Player (Colorado Rockies and New Jersey Devils)\nDarwin McCutcheon - Hockey player; five years professional in American Hockey League and Int'l Hockey League. Played one game in NHL for Toronto Maple Leafs\nGerry Fleming - NHL hockey player for the Montreal Canadiens and American Hockey League for the Fredericton Canadiens\nJim Foley - CFL Football Player, Grey Cup Champion 1973 & 1976, CFL's Rookie of the Year Award in 1971 and later won 1975 Most Outstanding Canadian Award\nVernon Pahl - CFL Football Player, Grey Cup Champion 1984 & 1988\nErin Carmody - Curler, MVP 2010 Scotties Tournament of Hearts\nPaul Craig - NASL Soccer Player, FC Edmonton\nKara Grant - Modern Pentathlon: Athens Olympics 2004 and Beijing Olympics 2008; Bronze Medalist at Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2002\nAnja Weisser - German Women's Ice Hockey Team, 2014 Olympics in Sochi, Russia\nPark Ye-eun - Korean Women's Ice Hockey Team, 2018 Olympics in Pyeongchang, Korea.\nKatie Baker - Captain Canada National Field Hockey Team; Pan American Games 2007 in Brazil; Commonwealth Games 2010 in Delhi, India.\nCory Vitarelli - Lacrosse player for Rochester Knighthawks in National Lacrosse League. Three time Champion's Cup now known as (National Lacrosse League Cup) winner.\nRyan Anstey - soccer player Toronto Lynx USL First Division, Crown Attorney in Alberta\nJared Gomes - hockey player; Bridgeport Sound Tigers, American Hockey League\nJustin Donati - hockey player; Brampton Beast, ECHL; Toronto St. Michael's Majors, Ontario Hockey League\nCalvin Tyler Scott - professional basketball player in the National Basketball League of Canada for the Island Storm\nMitch Murphy - Standardbred Canada Board of Directors (horse racing); MLA\nMathew Maione - professional hockey player for Dinamo Riga in the Kontinental Hockey League, Russia\nMark Guggenberger - professional ice hockey goaltender with the Perth Thunder of the Australian Ice Hockey League (AIHL)\n\nHonorary degrees\nFollowing is a partial list of Past Honorary Degree Recipients from UPEI:\n\nPrince Edward, Duke of Edinburgh - Honorary Doctor of Laws, 2007; third son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh\nTed Kennedy - Honorary Doctor of Laws from Saint Dunstan's University and SDU Class of 1964 Commencement Speaker\nAngèle Arsenault - Honorary Doctor of Laws from UPEI; actress and singer; Ordre de la Pléiade de l'Association des parlementaires de langue française\nHisako, Princess Takamado - Member of Imperial House of Japan\nAnne Murray - Singer: four time Grammy Award winner most famously for the 1970 song Snowbird (song), former H.S. teacher on PEI\nAdrienne Clarkson - 26th Governor-General of Canada\nDavid Suzuki - Climate change activist; Ph.D. from University of Chicago in zoology\nColonel George Stanley - Professor Emeritus Royal Military College; Knight of Justice of the Order of St. John; Lt. Governor of New Brunswick\nEdward D. Ives - Folklorist of Maine and Canada's Maritime Provinces; Professor of Folklore at University of Maine; Ph.D. from Indiana University\nPhilip Oland - of the founding family of and CEO of Moosehead Breweries, Saint John, New Brunswick; Retired Brigadier Canadian Forces; Philanthropist\nAlan Lund - Dancer and choreographer of television, movies, and theatre; Officer of the Order of Canada\nGordon Pinsent - Screenwriter, Actor: Wind at My Back, Red Green Show, Old Man and the Sea {1999} voice\nLester B. Pearson - Prime Minister of Canada; Awarded in 1967 at Prince of Wales College\nPierre Burton - Journalist, historian and author; Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal honoree\nBeverley McLachlin - 17th Chief Justice of Canada; Judge on the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal\nDoug Hall - Lecturer, author, TV and radio host and chemical engineer by education. Master Marketing Inventor at Procter & Gamble\nStompin' Tom Connors - Canadian country and folksinger/writer. Ranked 13th on The Greatest Canadian list, the highest of any artist\nArt Linkletter - Canadian-born American radio & television personality, \"Kids Say the Darndest Things\"\n\nNotable UPEI faculty and administration\nAngus Bernard MacEachern - Founded St. Andrew's College; 1st Bishop of Charlottetown (incl Magdalen Islands); studied theology in Spain.\nBernard Donald Macdonald - 2nd Bishop of Charlottetown; Supervisor of construction of Saint Dunstan's College\nWade MacLauchlan - 32nd Premier of PEI, President UPEI; grad University of New Brunswick and Yale University with Masters of Law\nWilliam E. Andrew - Chancellor UPEI\nRonald James Baker - 1st president of UPEI; British Air Force WW II; Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal; grad University of British Columbia and School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London\nLou Hooper - Professor of Music from 1975; jazz pianist in Harlem, Yew York, Michigan, and Canada. Played with Billie Holiday and Paul Robeson; Taught piano to Oscar Peterson, 1936–39\nDave Nutbrown - Varsity basketball coach; conference all-star player at University of New Brunswick; recruit of New York Knicks\nGustave Gingras - Chancellor of UPEI, 1974–82. Physician; Consultant to United Nations, World Health Organization, and Canadian Red Cross\nGeorge Wastie Deblois - Merchant; MLA; Trustee of Prince of Wales College; Land agent for Samuel Cunard, founder of the Cunard Line of ships\nRichard Raiswell - Historian and Professor of Medieval and Renaissance History; commentator on Smithsonian Network's \"Treasures Decoded;\" Cricket enthusiast and writer about the sport\nKenneth Ozmon - Professor and Dean of Arts; Officer of the Order of Canada; later 13th President of Mount Allison University\nGodfrey Baldacchino - UNESCO Co-chair in Island Studies and Sustainability at UPEI (in partnership with the University of Malta)\nDoris Anderson - Chancellor of UPEI, 1992-96: editor Chatelaine magazine; Member of Trilateral Commission; Companion of the Order of Canada; President of the National Action Committee on the Status of Women\nPaul Boutilier - Instructor of International Marketing; Member of the 1983 Stanley Cup champion New York Islanders and seven year NHL player\nDavid Bourque - Associate Professor of Music (Spring 2008 term); teacher of clarinet and bass clarinet; member of Toronto Symphony Orchestra; accompanist in several US films, e.g., Academy Award-winning Norman Jewison's film \"Moonstruck\"\nReginald C. Stuart - History Professor at UPEI, 1968–88. Distinguished Chair in North American Studies at the Woodrow Wilson Institute Center for Scholars in Washington, DC, Jun-Jan, 2005\nJamie Muir - Instructor of Education; Ph.D. in education from University of Virginia; also an MLA in Nova Scotia\nDavid Staines - Professor of English; Scholar in Medieval, Victorian, and Canadian literature; grad of Harvard University (M.A. and Ph.D.)\nLouis Groarke - Professor of Philosophy; Writings in Ethics, Logic, Political Philosophy, and Aesthetics\nAnne Simpson - Author and poet; author of seven books, four of which are in the Toronto Globe & Mails Top 100 Books of the Year, i.e., \"Falling\" (2008) and \"Canterbury Beach\" (2001) (Short term Writer-in-Residence)\nVianne Timmons - Professor at UPEI; President of the University of Regina (Alberta)\nEdward MacDonald - Associate Professor of History, teaching about Canadian political history, Atlantic Canada and Prince Edward Island\nColm Magner - Canadian actor, director and writer\nRichard Covey - Canadian composer and Assistant Professor of Theory/Composition\nIan Dowbiggin - Professor in the Department of History and writer on the history of medicine. Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.\nPaul Boutilier - Instructor of International Marketing; Retired professional ice hockey defenceman who was a member of the 1983 Stanley Cup champion New York Islanders.\nSilver Donald Cameron - Writer-in-Residence; writing focuses on social justice, nature and the environment\nSam Gindin - Intellectual and activist known for his expertise on the labour movement and the economics of the automobile industry\nHilda Woolnough - Artist who exhibited in Europe, Asia, the Caribbean and North America; member of Royal Canadian Academy of Arts\nRobyn MacPhee - Virology technologist at the Atlantic Veterinary College, UPEI; Gold Medalist 2001 World Junior Curling Championships\nMarcia Anastasia Christoforides - Established the Sir James Dunn Animal Welfare Centre at UPEI with gift of 2.2 million dollars. Wife of Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook with honorific as Dowager Lady Beaverbrook.\nSir Charles Dalton – Silver fox breeder; Owner of the Charlottetown Guardian newspaper; Donated and built Dalton Hall at SDU; Knight Commander in the Order of St. Gregory the Great\n\nSee also\nHigher education in Prince Edward Island\n\nReferences\nHistories of the University\nBruce, Marian. A Century of Excellence: Prince of Wales College, 1860–1969. Charlottetown: Prince of Wales Alumni Association/Island Studies Press, 2005.\nBruce, Marian. Pets, Professors, and Politicians: The Founding and Early Years of the Atlantic Veterinary College. Charlottetown: Atlantic Veterinary College/Island Studies Press, 2004.\nMacEachern, Alan. Utopian U: The Founding of the University of Prince Edward Island, 1968–1970. Charlottetown: University of Prince Edward Island, 2005.\nMoase, Lorne Robert. \"The Development of the University of Prince Edward Island, 1964-1972.\" M.Ed., University of New Brunswick, 1972.\n\nExternal links\nUniversity of Prince Edward Island\nUniversity Island\nUPEI Student Union",
"title": "University_of_Prince_Edward_Island"
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] | Canadian politician Keir Clark attended a now defunct university college, which shut its doors in 1969. Who served as the first President of its successor institution? | [] | Ronald James Baker | [] | true |
169 | [
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"paragraph_text": "Joe Frans (born Kojo Frans in Takoradi, Ghana) is a Swedish politician of Ghanaian descent, social activist, board professional and former member of parliament.\n\nCareer\nJoe Frans came to Sweden to attend university. During his studies he met his wife and became involved with politics. Frans has a diploma in Communications and has been the producer of the TV-show Sweden Today. He has also been CEO of Sweden Now AB and Skandinavisk Video Teknik AB, companies trading TV-broadcast rights.\nFor many years he worked as a Senior Political Advisor to the Deputy Mayor of Stockholm and as Press Secretary to the Mayor of Stockholm. He then stepped into national political arena and served as a member of the Swedish Parliament 2002–2006. In the Parliament he served on Committee on Justice and European Union Committee. When the Social Democratic Party lost power in 2006, Frans lost his seat in Parliament.\n\nCurrent Appointments\nToday has several public appointments. He is a member of the University of Stockholm board and the Swedish National Police Board.\nJoe Frans is also the Chairperson of Forumsyd, the Social Democratic party in Vällingby district, Broderskapdistriktet (a Christian Socialdemocratoc organization) and Rinkeby folketshus.\nFrans is the founder and CEO of Next Generation Africa and NGA Novum AB.\nHe has also served as an Independent Expert for the United Nations Human Rights Council, Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent. \nFrans initiated the Swedish Martin Luther King Prize in 2005.\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Joe_Frans_(politician)"
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"paragraph_text": "Ghana is a multilingual country in which about eighty languages are spoken. Of these, English, which was inherited from the colonial era, is the official language and lingua franca. Of the languages indigenous to Ghana, Akan is the most widely spoken in the south. Dagbani, Dagare, Sisaala, Waale, and Gonja are among the most widely spoken in the northern part of the country. \nGhana has more than seventy ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language. Languages that belong to the same ethnic group are usually mutually intelligible. The Dagbanli, Nanumba and Mamprusi languages of Northern Region, are almost the same and, are mutually intelligible with the Frafra and Waali languages of the Upper East and Upper West Regions of Ghana. The Mole–Dagbani languages are spoken by more than 20% of the population.\nEleven languages have the status of government-sponsored languages: three Akan ethnic languages (Akuapem Twi, Asante Twi and Fante) and two Mole–Dagbani ethnic languages (Dagaare and Dagbanli). The others are Ewe, Dangme, Ga, Nzema, Gonja, and Kasem.\nIn April 2019, the Ghanaian government declared its intention to make French one of Ghana's official languages due to the country being surrounded by Francophone countries (Burkina Faso to a lesser extent, the Ivory Coast and Togo) and the presence of a French speaking minority in the country.\n\nGovernment-sponsored languages\nThe number of government-sponsored languages is either eleven or nine, depending on whether or not Akuapem Twi, Asante Twi, and Fante are considered a single language. They are supported by the Bureau of Ghana Languages, which was established in 1951 and publishes materials in the languages; during the periods when Ghanaian languages were used in primary education, these were the languages which were used. All these languages belong to the Niger–Congo language family, though to several different branches.\n\nAkan (Fante, Asante Twi and Akuapem Twi)\nAkan, part of the Kwa branch of the Niger–Congo family, is a dialect continuum, but with regard to official status, only a few out of the many varieties of Akan are recognised: Fante, Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi. Taken as a whole, Akan is the most-widely spoken language in Ghana.\n\nEwe\nEwe is a Gbe language, part of the Volta–Niger branch of the Niger–Congo family. The Ewe Language is spoken in Ghana, Togo and Benin with a trace of the language in West Nigeria. Out of the many dialects of Ewe spoken in Ghana, the major ones are Anlo, Tongu, Vedome, Gbi, and Krepi.\n\nDagbani\nDagbani is one of the Gur languages. It is the most spoken language in Northern Ghana. The number of native speakers numbers more than three million, This number will reach six million if dialects such as Nanumba, Mamprusi and Kamara are added. It belongs to the larger Mole–Dagbani ethnic group found in Ghana and makes up about 18.5% of the population. It is spoken by Dagombas in the Northern Region of Ghana.\n\nDangme\nDangme is one of the Ga–Dangme languages within the Kwa branch. It is spoken in Greater Accra, in south-east Ghana and Togo. Dangme is a West African Kwa language spoken in Ghana, and it has been gaining popularity among Ghana residents.\n\nDagaare\nDagaare is another of the Gur languages. It is spoken in the Upper West Region of Ghana. It is also spoken in Burkina Faso. Waali, spoken by the Wala people, and the Dagaare language are languages that can be understood by each other's speakers.\n\nGa\nGa is the other Ga–Dangme language within the Kwa branch. Ga is spoken in south-eastern Ghana, in and around the capital Accra. It is a Niger-Congo language in the Kwa branch, spoken by around 600,000 people in Ghana. Six separate towns comprised the Ga-speaking peoples: Accra, Osu, Labadi, Teshi, Nungua, and Tema. Each town had a central stool of importance in Ga traditions. Accra, among these towns, rose to prominence and now serves as Ghana's capital.\n\nNzema\nNzema is one of the Bia languages, closely related to Akan. It is spoken by the Nzema people in the Western Region of Ghana. It is also spoken in the Ivory Coast. Nzema, also known as Appolo, is mainly spoken in Ghana's Jomoro district and Ivory Coast's Comoé district. In 2004, it had around 330,000 speakers. The Nzema language utilizes a Latin-based script and comprises a total of twenty-four alphabetic characters.\n\nKasem\nKasem is a Gurunsi language, in the Gur branch. It is spoken in the Upper Eastern Region of Ghana. It is also spoken in Burkina Faso. By 1998, Kasem had around 250,000 speakers, divided between Ghana (130,000) and Burkina Faso (120,000). It's alternatively known as Kasena, Kasim, Kassem, Kasɩm, or Kassena.\n\nGonja\nGonja is one of the Guang languages, part of the Tano languages within the Kwa branch along with Akan and Bia. It is spoken in the Northern Region of Ghana and Wa. \"Gonja\" comes from \"Kada Goro-Jaa\" in Hausa, signifying \"land of Red Cola.\" Ghana has over 285,000 Gonja people.\n\nLanguages spoken in Ghana by number of speakers\nThis chart reflects data provided by Ethnologue.\n\nLanguage classification\nThe language of Ghana belong to the following branches within the Niger–Congo language family:\n\nKwa languages (Akan, Bia, Guang in Tano; Ga and Adangme)\nGbe languages (Ewe)\nGur languages (Gurunsi, Dagbani, Mossi, Dagaare, and Frafra in Oti–Volta)\nSenufo languages (Nafaanra)\nKulango languages\nMande languages (Wangara, Ligbi)\nOlder classifications may instead group them as Kwa, Gur, and Mande.\n\nSee also\nGhana\nDemographics of Ghana\nGhanaian English\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nEthnologue listing for Ghana\nEthnologue map of languages in Ghana\nOwu-Ewie, Charles. 2006. The Language Policy of Education in Ghana: A Critical Look at the English-Only Language Policy of Education. In Selected Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, ed. John Mugane et al., 76-85. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project.\nPanAfrican L10n wiki page on Ghana\nL'aménagement linguistique dans le monde page on Ghana\nGhanaWeb",
"title": "Languages_of_Ghana"
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"paragraph_text": "The Trans–West African Coastal Highway or TAH 7 is a transnational highway project to link 12 West African coastal nations, from Mauritania in the north-west of the region to Nigeria in the east, with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries, Mali and Burkina Faso.\n\nThe eastern end of the highway terminates at Lagos, Nigeria. Some organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) consider its western end to be Nouakchott, Mauritania, and others such as the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa consider it to be Dakar, Senegal, giving rise to these alternative names for the road:\n\nNouakchott–Lagos Highway\nLagos–Nouakchott Highway\nDakar–Lagos Highway\nLagos–Dakar Highway\nTrans-African Highway 7 in the Trans-African Highway network.\n\nRoute and status\nOverall length and condition\nThe length of the route is 4,560 kilometres (2,833 mi) of which 83% or 3,777 km (2,347 mi) has been paved according to African Union (AU) documents, or 4,010 km (2,492 mi) with 3,260 km (2,026 mi) paved, according to African Development Bank (ADB) reports (which do not include the Nouakchott-Dakar section of about 570 km (354 mi)). There are about 9 unpaved sections, but some paved sections require reconstruction. All are two-lane highways with the exception of short four-lane highways in the eastern third of the route. The ADB reports published in 2003 say that 32% of the highway is in poor condition, 9% is good and 59% is fair.\nReconstruction of the segment in Lagos, Nigeria began in 2010, and when it is complete that section will be ten lanes wide.\n\nManaging authorities\nThe highway is a project of ECOWAS and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) of the AU, with funding from the African Development Bank. The route is Trans Africa Highway No. 7 (TAH7) in the International Road Federation's list of nine highways which it regards as priorities for a Trans-Africa Highway network.\n\nRoute\nThe cities and countries served, and status of the road are as follows. Please note that a paved alternate route Dakar-Bamako-Abidjan (shown in black on map) is more practical. Information about construction required is from two sources: the ECOWAS website, undated document, and the ADB website, consultancy report date August 2003. Note: 'spur' indicates the city is on a spur off the main alignment of the highway, 'existing' could mean a pre-existing national road has been adopted for the route or a section has been newly constructed.\n\nNouakchott, Mauritania – existing to:\nDakar (spur), Senegal – existing, to:\nBanjul, The Gambia – existing, some sections with pavement missing, through The Gambia then southern Senegal to:\nBissau, Guinea-Bissau – existing to Quebo, with a short new section required to the Guinea border where a major bridge over the Kogon River was planned for construction to start in 2004;\na new 89 km (55 mi) section in Guinea is needed from the border to Boké;\nin Guinea, Boké to Conakry (spur) and the Sierra Leone border is existing;\nin Sierra Leone reconstruction has been completed, there is a new bridge over the Moa River to Zimmi, continuing to the Liberian border;\nin Liberia, the section though Monrovia inland to Ganta is existing, with a new section required of about 70 km (43 mi), Ganta-Sanniquellie-Kahnple-Côte d'Ivoire border;\nin Côte d'Ivoire a new section is needed from the Liberian border through to Danané, while the road from there through Man, Yamoussoukro and Abidjan to the Ghanaian border is complete:\nin Ghana the road is existing through Cape Coast and Accra to the border with Togo, and 31 km (19 mi) east from Akatsi to Dzodze has been replaced by a new road parallel to the old;\nthe 80 km (50 mi) through Togo has been replaced by a new road by-passing Lomé on the north side;\nthe Benin section through Cotonou and Porto Novo is existing to the Nigerian border:\nabout 60 km (37 mi) from the border to Lagos, Nigeria is existing.\n\nNotes\nBetween Monrovia and Abidjan the highway departs from the coastal route and goes as much as 400 km (249 mi) inland. Originally it was planned to follow the coast, and to this end Côte d'Ivoire built a paved road west of Abidjan along its coast to Tabou, near the Liberian border. However Liberia did not build any paved highways along its coast to Monrovia, and later adopted the inland route.\nThe eastern third of the route spanning Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, and Benin to Lagos is the longest existing section and probably the oldest, and the most used by traffic, to the extent that it became worn out and congested, leading to the need to construct new parallel by-passes along sections in Togo and in south-eastern Ghana.\nThe longest sections of earth roads needing to be paved, or missing entirely, are in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, the last two both still recovering from years of civil war.\n\nFeeder roads and other transnational highways\nBamako, Mali and Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (the two landlocked countries of ECOWAS) are already linked to the coastal highway by paved highways to Abidjan, Accra and Lomé. Lagos is linked via the largest network of paved highways in West Africa, the national road network of Nigeria, with links to the neighbouring countries of Niger, Chad and Cameroon.\nThe Trans-Sahelian Highway is another ECOWAS project running parallel to the coastal highway linking the Sahelian countries of West Africa from Dakar to Ndjamena, Chad.\nTwo other transnational roads are also under development from Lagos to link to the Trans–West African Coastal Highway:\n\n TAH 2 (Trans-Sahara Highway) to Algiers, Algeria, most of which is already paved.\n TAH 8 (Lagos-Mombasa Highway), which still requires a long paved section through the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Trans–West African Coastal Highway could then be regarded as the western end of a route spanning the continent from its western extremity virtually to its eastern extremity for a total distance of 10,269 km (6,381 mi).\n\nSee also\n\nTrans-African Highway network\nTrans-Sahara Highway\nTrans-Sahelian Highway\nCairo-Dakar Highway\n\n\n== References ==",
"title": "Trans%E2%80%93West_African_Coastal_Highway"
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"paragraph_text": "Kente refers to a Ghanaian textile made of hand-woven strips of silk and cotton. Historically the fabric was worn in a toga-like fashion by royalty among the Ashanti and Akan. According to Ashanti oral tradition, it originated from Bonwire in the Ashanti region of Ghana. In modern day Ghana, the wearing of kente cloth has become widespread to commemorate special occasions, and kente brands led by master weavers are in high demand. Kente is also worn in parts of Togo and Ivory Coast by the Ewe and Akan people there.\n\nDue to the popularity of kente cloth patterns, production of mass-produced prints with the kente patterns have become popular throughout West Africa, and by extension the whole of Africa. Globally, the print is used in the design of academic stoles in graduation ceremonies.\n\nEtymology\nKente comes from the word kɛntɛn, which means \"basket\" in the Asante dialect of the Akan language, referencing its basket-like pattern. In Ghana, the Akan ethnic group also refers to kente as nwentoma, meaning \"woven cloth\". Ashanti folklore includes a story where weavers invented kente by seeking to replicate the patterns of Anansi the spider.\n\nHistory\nWest African cultures have been weaving textiles for thousands of years. Archaeological evidence for the oldest form of handloom weaving in Southern Ghana has been discovered at Begho and Bono Manso. Spindle whorls and dye holes discovered in these sites have been dated to the 14th–18th centuries. At Wenchi, spindle whorls have been dated to the 16th–17th centuries.\nAsante oral tradition give the origins of Kente to an individual from Bonwire who introduced a loom among the Asante from Bono Gyaman during the reign of Nana Oti Akenten in the 17th century. Another oral source states that it was developed indigenously by individuals from Bonwire during the reign of Osei Kofi Tutu I, who were inspired by the web designs of a spider. In the 18th century, Asantehene Opoku Ware I was documented by Danish agents Nog and L.F. Rømer, to have encouraged expansion in craft work. The Asantehene set up a factory during his reign to innovate weaving in the Ashanti Empire. This was the early stages of Kente production. The Danish agents described the operations of the factory as:\n\nSome of his subjects were able to spin cotton, and they wove bands of it, three fingers wide. When twelve long strips were sewn together it became a \"Pantjes\" or sash. One strip might be white, the other one blue or sometimes the was a red among them...[Asantehene] Opoke [Ware] bought silk taffeta and materials of all colours. The artists unravelled them. \n\nBy the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Kente made out of silk was fully developed in Ashanti. In 1817, Thomas Edward Bowdich noted that weaving in Ashanti had progressed to an extent that cloths were made \"in all the varieties of colour, as well as pattern, [and] they were of an incredible size and weight.\" The word \"Kente\" might have been applied by the Fante traders to Ashanti fabrics.\nEwe version of Kente is made out of double-woven bands. According to oral tradition, Ewe weaving goes back to the 16th century when weavers were among the migrants who resettled in Ghana from Benin Republic and Western Nigeria. In the 18th century Keta became the centre of weaving among Ewe migrants who had settled in Southern Ghana. The earliest description of weaving among the southern ewe was from a report in 1718 by a Dutch West India Company official during his visit to Keta. By 1881, weaving was a prominent industry among the northern Ewe who had migrated north of the Volta River.\n\nProduction\nKente production can be classified by three versions: authentic kente cloth made by traditional weavers, kente print produced by brands such as Vlisco and Akosombo Textile Ltd, and mass-produced kente pattern typically produced in China for West Africans. Authentic kente cloth is the most expensive, while kente print varies in price depending on the production style.\nFor authentic kente, the towns of Bonwire, Sakora Wonoo, Ntonso, Safo and Adawomase are noted for kente weaving, and are located in the Ashanti region.\nWeaving is done on a wooden loom in which multiple threads of dyed fabric are pressed together. Weavers are typically apprenticed under a master weaver or company for a number of years before producing their own patterns. Rolls of cloth are then imprinted with a brand to signify authenticity.\nGender has an influence on cloth production. Weaving kente is traditionally considered a male practice.\n\nCharacteristics\nThere exist hundreds of different kinds of kente patterns. Kente patterns vary in complexity, with each pattern having a name or message by the weaver. Ghanaians choose kente cloths as much for their names as their colors and patterns. Although the cloths are identified primarily by the patterns found in the lengthwise (warp) threads, there is often little correlation between appearance and name. Names are derived from several sources, including proverbs, historical events, important chiefs, queen mothers, and plants. The cloth symbolizes high value.\nAhwepan refers to a simple design of warp stripes, created using plain weave and a single pair of heddles. The designs and motifs in kente cloth are traditionally abstract, but some weavers also include words, numbers and symbols in their work. Example messages include adweneasa, which translates as 'I've exhausted my skills', is a highly decorated type of kente with weft-based patterns woven into every available block of plain weave. Because of the intricate patterns, adweneasa cloth requires three heddles to weave.\n\nSymbolic meanings of the colors\nBlack: maturation, intensified spiritual energy, spirits of ancestors, passing rites, mourning, and funerals\nBlue: peacefulness, harmony, and love\nGreen: vegetation, planting, harvesting, growth, spiritual renewal\nGold: royalty, wealth, high status, glory, spiritual purity\nGrey: healing and cleansing rituals; associated with ash\nMaroon: the color of mother earth; associated with healing\nPink: associated with the female essence of life; a mild, gentle aspect of red\nPurple: associated with feminine aspects of life; usually worn by women\nRed: political and spiritual moods; bloodshed; sacrificial rites and death.\nSilver: serenity, purity, joy; associated with the moon\nWhite: purification, sanctification rites and festive occasions\nYellow: preciousness, royalty, wealth, fertility, beauty\n\nControversy\nIn June 2020, Democratic Party leaders in the United States caused controversy by wearing stoles made of kente cloth to show support against systemic racism. While it was said to be an act of unity with African-Americans, many, including Jade Bentil, a Ghanaian-Nigerian researcher, voiced objection tweeting \"My ancestors did not invent Kente cloth for them to be worn by publicity (obsessed) politicians as 'activism' in 2020\". On the other hand Congressional Black Caucus chair Karen Bass said, at a news conference for the introduction of the Justice in Policing Act of 2020, that the non-black lawmakers were showing solidarity, and April Reign, who is credited with initiating the #OscarsSoWhite hashtag, while not a fan of the symbolism, suggested that the legislation's fate is more relevant than the event in the Capitol's Emancipation Hall.\nThere is also a controversy with Louis Vuitton's usage of a printed and monogrammed version of kente in their autumn-winter 2021 collection by American creative director Virgil Abloh, whose grandmother was Ghanaian. Additionally, questions of ownership of the woven craft, its image, and location of ateliers of production of kente. To this question of cultural appropriation, Abloh's response to the press in 2020 was: \"Provenance is reality; ownership is a myth. In the same way, we cannot control our inspirations, we cannot trade-mark natural or cultural heritage as contemporary artistic territory.\" This coincided with the first appearance of this design of kente cloth printed on a dress worn by American poet Amanda Gorman for the cover of Vogue's May 2021 issue.\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nBoateng Boatema (2011). The Copyright Thing Doesn't Work Here: Adinkra and Kente Cloth and Intellectual Property in Ghana. U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-7002-4.\nColleen E. Kriger (2006). Cloth in West African History. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0422-8.\n\nExternal links\n\nAfrican fabric and fashion\nKente Cloth Style Collections\nNational Folklore Board (Ghana)",
"title": "Kente_cloth"
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] | I am thinking of a country. A former member of Swedish Parliament during 2002 – 2006 was born there. English is the official language but many other languages are spoken there. The Trans–West African Coastal Highway passes through this country. In June 2020, Democratic Party leaders in the United States caused controversy by wearing stoles made of cloth from this country. | [] | Ghana | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\n\nPresidents\nSee also\nActing President of the United States\nFounding Fathers of the United States\nList of vice presidents of the United States\nPresident of the Continental Congress\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nExternal links\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote",
"title": "List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"
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"paragraph_text": "Daniel D. Tompkins (June 21, 1774 – June 11, 1825) was an American politician. He was the fourth governor of New York from 1807 to 1817, and the sixth vice president of the United States from 1817 to 1825.\nBorn in Scarsdale, New York, Tompkins practiced law in New York City after graduating from Columbia College. He was a delegate to the 1801 New York constitutional convention and served on the New York Supreme Court from 1804 to 1807. In 1807, he defeated incumbent Morgan Lewis to become the Governor of New York. He held that office from 1807 to 1817, serving for the duration of the War of 1812. During the war, he often spent his own money to equip and pay the militia when the legislature was not in session, or would not approve the necessary funds.\nTompkins was the Democratic-Republican Party's vice presidential nominee in the 1816 presidential election. The ticket of James Monroe and Tompkins easily prevailed over limited Federalist opposition. He served as vice president from 1817 to 1825, and was the only 19th century vice president to serve two full terms. In 1820, he sought another term as Governor of New York, but was defeated by DeWitt Clinton. After the War of 1812, Tompkins was in poor physical and financial health, the latter condition stemming largely from his spending for the military effort during the War of 1812. He fell into alcoholism and was unable to re-establish fiscal solvency despite winning partial reimbursement from the federal government in 1823. He died 99 days after completing a second term and leaving office at the age of 50.\n\nName\nTompkins was baptized Daniel Tompkins, but added the middle initial \"D.\" either before or during his time as a student at Columbia College. According to his granddaughter, Helen T. Tompkins, this was to distinguish himself from another Daniel Tompkins who was a student there, though records of Columbia College do not list any other Daniel Tompkinses studying at Columbia at the time. There is controversy as to what the middle initial stood for; some have suggested \"Decius.\" The generally accepted conclusion is that it did not stand for anything and served only to distinguish him from another Daniel Tompkins whom he perhaps studied along with either in primary or secondary school.\n\nEarly life, family, and career\nDaniel D. Tompkins was born on June 21, 1774, in Scarsdale, Westchester County, New York, at his home, the estate of Fox Meadow. His parents were Sarah Ann (Hyatt) and Jonathan Griffin Tompkins. His older brother, Caleb Tompkins was a United States representative from 1817 to 1821. Daniel Tompkins graduated from Columbia College in New York City in 1795, and then studied law with James Kent and Peter Jay Munro. He was admitted to the bar in 1797, and practiced in New York City. Despite the Federalist leanings of Kent and Munro, Tompkins entered politics as a Democratic-Republican. He was a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention in 1801, and a member of the New York State Assembly in 1804. He was elected to the 9th United States Congress, but resigned before the beginning of the term to accept, at age 30, an appointment as associate justice of the New York Supreme Court of Judicature, in which capacity he served from 1804 to 1807.\nOn February 20, 1798, Daniel Tompkins, 23, married 16-year-old Hannah Minthorne, the daughter of Mangle Minthorne, an assistant alderman of New York City. The couple had eight children, including Arietta Minthorn Tompkins (born July 31, 1800), who married a son of Smith Thompson in 1818, and (Mangle) Minthorne Tompkins (December 26, 1807 – June 5, 1881), who was the Free Soil Party candidate for Governor of New York in 1852. The Tompkinses also fostered Henry Brewerton (1801–1879), who was orphaned at a young age. Brewerton entered West Point in 1813, served as an engineer officer during the American Civil War and retired from the Army in 1867.\nThe Tompkinsville section of Staten Island was named after him; in 1815, Tompkins established a settlement along the eastern shore of the island with the purchase of the Van Buskirk Farm in New Brighton and property on Grymes Hill. His main residence was located on Fort Hill, near Fort Place which burned down in 1874.\nTheir children Hannah and Minthorne were named after their mother, and Hannah and Minthorne streets in Staten Island are named for them. Staten Island's Westervelt Avenue is named for daughter Hannah's husband. Hannah was ill in the year before her husband became vice president, and did not attend his inauguration. She survived him by nearly four years in Tompkinsville, Staten Island.\n\nGovernor\nOn April 30, 1807, he defeated the incumbent Governor Morgan Lewis – Tompkins received 35,074 votes, Lewis 30,989 – and remained in office as Governor of New York until 1817. He was reelected in 1810, defeating Jonas Platt – Tompkins received 43,094 votes, Jonas Platt received 36,484. In 1813 he defeated Stephen Van Rensselaer – Tompkins received 43,324 votes, Van Rensselaer received 39,718 – and in 1816, he beat Rufus King – Tompkins received 45,412 votes, King received 38,647. Tompkins was supported by DeWitt Clinton in his first run for office, but Tompkins later broke with Clinton by supporting James Madison over Clinton in the 1808 presidential election.\nDuring the War of 1812, Tompkins proved to be one of the most effective war governors. He played an important role in reorganizing the state militia and promoted the formation of a standing state military force based on select conscription. He declined an appointment as United States Secretary of State by President James Madison in 1814, instead accepting appointment as commander of the federal military district that included New York City.\nTompkins was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.\nIn 1815 Tompkins established a settlement along the eastern shore of Staten Island that came to be called Tompkinsville. He built a dock along the waterfront in the neighborhood in 1817 and began offering daily ferry service between Staten Island and Manhattan. In 1816 he purchased much of the land later known as Tompkinsville from the Church of St. Andrew, but his financial troubles later led the church to foreclose. His son-in-law and daughter, Dr. John S. and Hannah Westervelt then bought the property, which they later divided into many lots to sell off.\nIn 1817, Governor Tompkins suggested that July 4, 1827, be set as the date on which all slaves in New York state—including those who were born before the Gradual Manumission Act of July 4, 1799, (and who were therefore not eligible for freedom)—should be freed. This was subsequently marked by African Americans in the state by a Fifth of July celebration.\n\nVice presidency (1817–1825)\nMany New York Democratic-Republicans supported Tompkins for president in the 1816 presidential election, but James Monroe received the party's nomination. Tompkins was instead elected vice president as Monroe's running mate. Tompkins was re-elected in 1820. He served from March 4, 1817, to March 4, 1825. In April 1820, while serving as vice president, he ran for Governor of New York against incumbent DeWitt Clinton. Tompkins lost, 45,900 votes to 47,447. He was a delegate to the 1821 New York State Constitutional Convention, serving as its president.\nWhen Tompkins became vice president, he was in poor health, due to a fall from a horse on November 3, 1814. His finances were also quite poor. During the War of 1812, he had personally financed New York's war effort with borrowed money, but did not adequately document his expenses. Both the New York legislature and the federal government refused him full reimbursement. He also slipped into alcoholism. With poor physical and financial health, Tompkins spent much of his vice presidency outside of Washington, D.C., and made for a poor presiding officer of the Senate while it debated the Missouri Compromise in 1820. In 1823, Tompkins finally won compensation from the federal government, but he continued to drink heavily and was unable to resolve his business affairs.\n\nFreemasonry\nApart from his political career, Tompkins was an active Freemason throughout his life. He was a member of Hiram Lodge 72, Mount Pleasant, New York and became Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of New York from 1820 to 1822. The Daniel D. Tompkins Memorial Chapel at the Masonic Home in Utica, New York was built in his honor in 1911. The Grand Lodge of New York celebrated the centennial of the chapel on June 25, 2011.\nHe also served as the first Sovereign Grand Commander of the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction Scottish Rite, a branch of Freemasonry. Tompkins served in this capacity from 1813 to 1825, although he did not devote much time to the newly formed group.\n\nDeath\nTompkins died in Tompkinsville on June 11, 1825, 10 days before his 51st birthday. He was interred in the Minthorne vault in the west yard of St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, New York City, as was his wife. His post-vice presidency lifespan is the shortest of any US vice president, and he also lived the shortest life of any US vice president. He was the youngest US vice president until John C. Breckinridge took office in 1857 at 36, and the only 19th-century vice president to serve two terms under the same president, and two full terms at all. (George Clinton died in his second term, and John Calhoun resigned before the end of his.)\n\nLegacy\nThe Tompkinsville neighborhood of Staten Island is named for Tompkins, and the streets in that neighborhood are named for his children. Tompkins Masonic Lodge #471 in that same section of Staten Island is also named for him. Tompkins is credited with being one of the founding members of the Brighton Heights Reformed Church on Staten Island. The church was founded in 1823, during his term as vice president. Its first meeting place was in New York Marine Hospital (then known as the Quarantine), a predecessor of the immigration facility on Ellis Island.\nFour forts in New York State in the War of 1812 were named for Governor Tompkins, in Staten Island, Sackets Harbor, Buffalo, and Plattsburgh.\nTompkins Park in Bedford Stuyvesant, Brooklyn, New York (now called Herbert Von King Park) was named after Tompkins. The nearby Tompkins Avenue and Tompkins Public Houses are likewise named.\nTompkins County in New York, Tompkins Square Park in Manhattan, Public School 69 Daniel D. Tompkins School in Staten Island, and the Town of Tompkins are named after him, as is Tompkins Road, running between Post Road (NY-22) and Fenimore Road in Scarsdale, New York.\nTompkinsville, Kentucky, is named for Tompkins. It is the county seat of Monroe County, Kentucky, which is named for the president under whom Tompkins served as vice president.\nTompkins was mentioned by Kris Kringle in the 1947 film Miracle on 34th Street. The screenplay was incorrect, however, in that Kringle mentions that Tompkins served as vice president under John Quincy Adams when Adams's vice president was actually John C. Calhoun. Tompkins was the sixth vice president and Adams was the sixth president, leading to confusion in the script.\nAmerican actor and producer Richard Kollmar, husband of columnist and TV personality Dorothy Kilgallen, was a great-great-grandchild of Tompkins.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\n\n Media related to Daniel D. Tompkins at Wikimedia Commons\n\nUnited States Congress. \"Daniel D. Tompkins (id: T000306)\". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.\nPublic papers of Daniel D. Tompkins, governor of New York, 1807–1817, Volume 3 (online)",
"title": "Daniel_D._Tompkins"
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] | How old was the vice president to the fifth US president when he died? | [] | 50 | [] | true |
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"paragraph_text": "Jackson Hole Mountain Resort (JHMR) is a ski resort in the western United States, at Teton Village, Wyoming. In the Teton Range of the Rocky Mountains, it is located in Teton County, twelve miles (20 km) northwest of Jackson and due south of Grand Teton National Park.\nIt is named after the historically significant Jackson Hole valley and is known for its steep terrain and large continuous vertical drop of 4,139 ft (1,262 m). JHMR appears frequently in the media as one of North America's most expensive ski resorts.\n\nSki area information\nThe ski area partially covers Rendezvous and Apres Vous Mountains and is known for its challenging terrain, including the infamous Corbet's Couloir.\nHalf of the terrain is rated expert, 40% intermediate, and only 10% beginner. The intermediate terrain is primarily on south-facing Apres Vous Mountain, while Rendezvous Mountain has Jackson Hole's more advanced terrain, including bowls, glades, and chutes. At over 4,000 vertical feet of skiing, Jackson Hole boasts one of the greatest continuous inbounds rises in the U.S, after nearby Big Sky, Montana, which has an overall vertical of 4,350 feet (1,326 m), but its continuous vertical is 700 feet (213 m) less; and Snowmass in Colorado, which has the greatest lift-served vertical drop in the nation at 4,406 feet (1,343 m)). \nIn addition to the skiable terrain in-bounds, there is an even larger area to be explored off-piste (out of bounds). These areas are accessed through marked gates by expert skiers/boarders who are equipped with avalanche safety gear.\nJackson Hole's original aerial tram was closed to the public in the spring of 2006 and replaced with a new tram that opened in 2008. The tram's vertical rise is 4,139 feet (1,262 m) to an elevation of 10,450 feet (3,185 m) above sea level. Construction on the new, 100-passenger Doppelmayr CTEC tram began the day after the Resort closed for the 2006-2007 ski season. Service began on December 20, 2008. During the two seasons without a tram, a temporary double chairlift named East Ridge was built to service the runs at the top of Rendezvous Mountain. This lift was subsequently moved and renamed the Marmot Chair, which provides access from the base of the Thunder Lift to the Bridger Gondola summit.\nIn the summer, the resort offers numerous activities such as mountain biking, hiking, paragliding, bungee trampoline, ropes course, rock climbing, and the Via ferrata in Casper bowl at the top of the Bridger gondola.\nThe resort and region is served by the Jackson Hole Airport KJAC, located 11 miles north east of Teton Village and offers seasonal service to 20 cities across the United States.\n\nHistory\nBefore 1961, the area of the future resort was the Crystal Springs Girl Scout Ranch. Paul McCollister purchased the ranch and formed the Jackson Hole Ski Corporation in 1963 with partners Alex Morley and Gordon Graham. Construction began a year later, and Apres Vous mountain opened to the public the 1965-66 winter with 3 double chairlifts. Eagles rest, Teewinot, and Apres Vous. The original tram on Rendezvous opened on July 31, 1966; with capacity for 62 people and 1 conductor. It took between 8-12 minutes, depending on speed set, to reach the summit of Rendezvous Mountain at 10,450 ft. The Aerial Tram officially opened to the skiing public Winter Season 1966/67. The Resort opened winter of 1965/66 and reigning Olympic gold medalist Josef \"Pepi\" Stiegler of Austria was hired that same year as ski school director. In 1992, McCollister sold his interests in the resort to John Kemmerer III. From there, the Kemmerer Family made multiple new changes to the resort, including new lifts, hotels, and new ski runs.\nJackson Hole hosted World Cup ski races in the inaugural 1967 season, and again in 1970 and 1975. The most recent races in 1975 were downhills, won by Franz Klammer and Marie-Theres Nadig.\nThe first national Powder 8 Championship was held at Jackson Hole in 1970.\n\nAvalanches\nJackson Hole was the site of two in-bounds avalanches in late 2008, first on December 27 and another two days later on December 29. The first avalanche resulted in the death of skier David Nodine, one of three in-bound deaths in the American West in the 2008-09 ski season, the most since three skiers were killed at Alpine Meadows in 1976. The second avalanche occurred in the Headwall area and buried part of the Bridger Restaurant but resulted in no injuries.\nAn in-bounds avalanche swept a longtime member of the ski patrol, Mark Wolling (known as Big Wally), off a cliff on January 6, 2010. Although he was rescued, he later died from his injuries. A double-black-diamond run in Cheyenne Bowl was named after Big Wally. It is marked on the trail map as Wally World. A set of flags lying on the run's fall line indicates where he was found.\n\nLifts\nJackson Hole has 13 lifts.\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nOfficial website\nSki Lifts.org - Jackson Hole - current and removed lifts",
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"paragraph_text": "Wyoming ( wye-OH-ming) is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the southwest, and Colorado to the south. With a population of 576,851 in 2020, Wyoming is the least populous state despite being the 10th largest by area, with the second-lowest population density after Alaska. The state capital and most populous city is Cheyenne, which had a population of 65,132 in 2020.\nWyoming's western half consists mostly of the ranges and rangelands of the Rocky Mountains; its eastern half consists of high-elevation prairie, and is referred to as the High Plains. Wyoming's climate is semi-arid in some parts and continental in others, making it drier and windier overall than other states, with greater temperature extremes. The federal government owns just under half of Wyoming's land, generally protecting it for public use. The state ranks sixth in the amount of land—and fifth in the proportion of its land—that is owned by the federal government. Its federal lands include two national parks (Grand Teton and Yellowstone), two national recreation areas, two national monuments, and several national forests, as well as historic sites, fish hatcheries, and wildlife refuges.\nIndigenous peoples inhabited the region for thousands of years. Historic and currently federally recognized tribes include the Arapaho, Crow, Lakota, and Shoshone. Part of the land that is now Wyoming came under American sovereignty via the Louisiana Purchase, part via the Oregon Treaty, and, lastly, via the Mexican Cession. With the opening of the Oregon Trail, the Mormon Trail, and the California Trail, vast numbers of pioneers traveled through parts of the state that had once been traversed mainly by fur trappers, and this spurred the establishment of forts, such as Fort Laramie, that today serve as population centers. The Transcontinental Railroad supplanted the wagon trails in 1867 with a route through southern Wyoming, bringing new settlers and the establishment of founding towns, including the state capital of Cheyenne. On March 27, 1890, Wyoming became the union's 44th state. \nWyoming is known for having a political culture that leans towards libertarian conservatism. The Republican presidential nominee has carried the state in every election since 1968. It is one of the least religious states in the country. Wyoming was the first state to allow women the right to vote (not counting New Jersey, which had allowed it until 1807), and the right to assume elected office, as well as the first state to elect a female governor. In honor of this part of its history, its most common nickname is \"The Equality State\" and its official state motto is \"Equal Rights\".\nFarming and ranching, and the attendant range wars, feature prominently in the state's history. Wyoming's economy is largely based on tourism and the extraction of minerals such as coal, natural gas, oil, and trona. Its agricultural commodities include barley, hay, livestock, sugar beets, wheat, and wool. \nWyoming does not require the beneficial owners of LLCs to be disclosed in the filing, which creates an opportunity for a tax haven. Wyoming levies no individual or corporate income tax and no tax on retirement income.\n\nHistory\nSeveral Native American groups originally inhabited the region today known as Wyoming. The Crow, Arapaho, Lakota, and Shoshone were but a few of the original inhabitants European explorers encountered when they first visited the region. What is now southwestern Wyoming was claimed by the Spanish Empire, which extended through the Southwest and Mexico. With Mexican independence in 1821, it was considered part of Alta California. U.S. expansion brought settlers who fought for control. Mexico ceded these territories after its defeat in 1848 in the Mexican–American War.\nFrom the late 18th century, French-Canadian trappers from Québec and Montréal regularly entered the area for trade with the tribes. French toponyms such as Téton and La Ramie are marks of that history.\nAmerican John Colter first recorded a description in English of the region in 1807. He was a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, which was guided by French Canadian Toussaint Charbonneau and his young Shoshone wife, Sacagawea. At the time, Colter's reports of the Yellowstone area were considered fictional. On a return from Astoria, Robert Stuart and a party of five men discovered South Pass in 1812.\nThe Oregon Trail later followed that route as emigrants moved to the west coast. In 1850, mountain man Jim Bridger first documented what is now known as Bridger Pass. Bridger also explored Yellowstone, and filed reports on the region that, like Colter's, were largely regarded at the time as tall tales. The Union Pacific Railroad constructed track through Bridger Pass in 1868. It was used as the route for construction of Interstate 80 through the mountains 90 years later.\nAfter the Union Pacific Railroad reached Cheyenne in 1867, population growth was stimulated. The federal government established the Wyoming Territory on July 25, 1868. Lacking significant deposits of gold and silver, unlike mineral-rich Colorado, Wyoming did not have such a population boom. But South Pass City had a short-lived boom after the Carissa Mine began producing gold in 1867. Copper was mined in some areas between the Sierra Madre Mountains and the Snowy Range near Grand Encampment.\nOnce government-sponsored expeditions to the Yellowstone country began, Colter's and Bridger's descriptions of the region's landscape were confirmed. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was created as the world's first, to protect this area. Nearly all of the park lies within the northwestern corner of Wyoming.\n\nOn December 10, 1869, territorial Governor John Allen Campbell extended the right to vote to women, making Wyoming the first territory to do so, and upon statehood became the first state to grant women's suffrage. Women first served on juries in Wyoming (Laramie in 1870). Wyoming was also a pioneer in welcoming women into electoral politics. It had the first female court bailiff (Mary Atkinson, Laramie, in 1870), and the first female justice of the peace in the country (Esther Hobart Morris, South Pass City, in 1870). In 1924, Wyoming was the first state to elect a female governor, Nellie Tayloe Ross, who took office in January 1925. Due to its civil-rights history, one of Wyoming's state nicknames is \"The Equality State\", and the official state motto is \"Equal Rights\".\nWyoming's constitution also included a pioneering article on water rights. Bills for Wyoming Territory's admission to the union were introduced in both the U.S. Senate and U.S. House of Representatives in December 1889. On March 27, 1890, the House passed the bill and President Benjamin Harrison signed Wyoming's statehood bill; Wyoming became the 44th state in the union.\nWyoming was the location of the Johnson County War of 1892, which erupted between competing groups of cattle ranchers. The passage of the Homestead Act led to an influx of small ranchers. A range war broke out when either or both of the groups chose violent conflict over commercial competition in the use of the public land.\n\nEtymology\nThe region had acquired the name Wyoming by 1865 when Representative James Mitchell Ashley of Ohio introduced a bill to Congress to provide a \"temporary government for the territory of Wyoming\". The territory was named after the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania. Thomas Campbell wrote his 1809 poem \"Gertrude of Wyoming\", inspired by the Battle of Wyoming in the American Revolutionary War. The name ultimately derives from the Lenape Munsee word xwé:wamənk (\"at the big river flat\").\n\nGeography\nClimate\nWyoming's climate is generally semi-arid and continental (Köppen climate classification BSk) and is drier and windier in comparison to most of the United States with greater temperature extremes. Much of this is due to the topography of the state. Summers in Wyoming are warm with July high temperatures averaging between 80 and 90 °F (27 and 32 °C) in most of the state. With increasing elevation, however, this average drops rapidly with locations above 9,000 feet (2,700 m) averaging around 70 °F (21 °C). Summer nights throughout the state are characterized by a rapid cooldown with even the hottest locations averaging in the 50–60 °F (10–16 °C) range at night. In most of the state, most of the precipitation tends to fall in the late spring and early summer. Winters are cold but are variable with periods of sometimes extreme cold interspersed between generally mild periods, with Chinook winds providing unusually warm temperatures in some locations.\nWyoming is a dry state with much of the land receiving less than 10 inches (250 mm) of rainfall per year. Precipitation depends on elevation with lower areas in the Big Horn Basin averaging 5–8 inches (130–200 mm), making the area nearly a true desert. The lower areas in the North and on the eastern plains typically average around 10–12 inches (250–300 mm), making the climate there semi-arid. Some mountain areas do receive a good amount of precipitation, 20 inches (510 mm) or more, much of it as snow, sometimes 200 inches (510 cm) or more annually. The state's highest recorded temperature is 114 °F (46 °C) at Basin on July 12, 1900, and the lowest recorded temperature is −66 °F (−54 °C) at Riverside on February 9, 1933.\nThe number of thunderstorm days varies across the state with the southeastern plains of the state having the most days of thunderstorm activity. Thunderstorm activity in the state is highest during the late spring and early summer. The southeastern corner of the state is the most vulnerable part of the state to tornado activity. Moving away from that point and westwards, the incidence of tornadoes drops dramatically with the west part of the state showing little vulnerability. Tornadoes, where they occur, tend to be small and brief, unlike some of those that occur farther east.\n\nLocation and size\nAs specified in the designating legislation for the Territory of Wyoming, Wyoming's borders are lines of latitude 41°N and 45°N, and longitude 104°3'W and 111°3'W (27 and 34 west of the Washington Meridian)—a geodesic quadrangle. Wyoming is one of only three states (the others being Colorado and Utah) to have borders defined by only \"straight\" lines. Due to surveying inaccuracies during the 19th century, Wyoming's legal border deviates from the true latitude and longitude lines by up to one-half mile (0.80 km) in some spots, especially in the mountainous region along the 45th parallel. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the tenth largest state in the United States in total area, containing 97,814 square miles (253,340 km2) and is made up of 23 counties. From the north border to the south border, it is 276 miles (444 km); and from the east to the west border is 365 miles (587 km) at its south end and 342 miles (550 km) at the north end.\n\nNatural landforms\nMountain ranges\nThe Great Plains meet the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming. The state is a great plateau broken by many mountain ranges. Surface elevations range from the summit of Gannett Peak in the Wind River Mountain Range, at 13,804 feet (4,207 m), to the Belle Fourche River valley in the state's northeast corner, at 3,125 feet (952 m). In the northwest are the Absaroka, Owl Creek, Gros Ventre, Wind River, and the Teton ranges. In the north central are the Big Horn Mountains; in the northeast, the Black Hills; and in the southern region the Laramie, Snowy, and Sierra Madre ranges.\nThe Snowy Range in the south-central part of the state is an extension of the Colorado Rockies both in geology and in appearance. The Wind River Range in the west central part of the state is remote and includes more than 40 mountain peaks in excess of 13,000 ft (4,000 m) tall in addition to Gannett Peak, the highest peak in the state. The Bighorn Mountains in the north-central portion are somewhat isolated from the bulk of the Rocky Mountains.\nThe Teton Range in the northwest extends for 50 miles (80 km), part of which is included in Grand Teton National Park. The park includes the Grand Teton, the second-highest peak in the state.\nThe Continental Divide spans north–south across the central portion of the state. Rivers east of the divide drain into the Missouri River Basin and eventually the Gulf of Mexico. They are the North Platte, Wind, Bighorn, and Yellowstone rivers. The Snake River in northwest Wyoming eventually drains into the Columbia River and the Pacific Ocean, as does the Green River through the Colorado River Basin.\nThe Continental Divide forks in the south-central part of the state in an area known as the Great Divide Basin where water that precipitates onto or flows into it cannot reach an ocean—it all sinks into the soil and eventually evaporates.\nSeveral rivers begin in or flow through the state, including the Yellowstone River, Bighorn River, Green River, and the Snake River.\n\nBasins\nMuch of Wyoming is covered with large basins containing different eco-regions, from shrublands to smaller patches of desert. Regions of the state classified as basins contain everything from large geologic formations to sand dunes and vast unpopulated spaces. Basin landscapes are typically at lower elevations and include rolling hills, valleys, mesas, terraces and other rugged terrain, but also include natural springs as well as rivers and artificial reservoirs. They have common plant species such as various subspecies of sagebrush, juniper and grasses such as wheatgrass, but basins are known for their diversity of plant and animal species.\n\nIslands\nWyoming has 32 named islands; the majority are in Jackson Lake and Yellowstone Lake, within Yellowstone National Park in the northwest portion of the state. The Green River in the southwest also contains a number of islands.\n\nRegions and administrative divisions\nCounties\nThe state of Wyoming has 23 counties.\n\nWyoming license plates have a number on the left that indicates the county where the vehicle is registered, ranked by an earlier census. Specifically, the numbers are representative of the property values of the counties in 1930. The county license plate numbers are:\n\nCities and towns\nThe State of Wyoming has 99 incorporated municipalities.\n\nIn 2020, 51.1% of Wyomingites lived in one of the 12 most populous Wyoming municipalities.\n\nMetropolitan areas\nThe United States Census Bureau has defined two metropolitan statistical areas (MSA) and eight micropolitan statistical areas (MiSA) for the state. In 2020, 31.3% of Wyomingites lived in either of the metropolitan statistical areas, and 80.4% lived in either a metropolitan or a micropolitan area.\n\nDemographics\nPopulation\nThe 2020 United States census counted 576,851 people living in Wyoming. The center of population of Wyoming is in Natrona County. Sparsely populated, Wyoming is the least populous state of the United States. Wyoming has the second-lowest population density in the country (behind Alaska) and is the sparsest-populated of the 48 contiguous states. It is one of only two states with a population smaller than that of the nation's capital; the only other state with this distinction is Vermont.\nAccording to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 648 homeless people in Wyoming.\n\nAccording to the 2020 census, the population's racial composition was 84.7% white (81.4% non-Hispanic white), 2.4% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.9% Black or African American, 0.9% Asian American, and 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 3.5% from some other race, and 7.5% from two or more races. As of 2011, 24.9% of Wyoming's population younger than age 1 were minorities. According to data from the American Community Survey, as of 2018, Wyoming was the only U.S. state where African Americans earn a higher median income than white workers.\nAs of 2015, Wyoming had an estimated population of 586,107, which was an increase of 1,954, or 0.29%, from the prior year and an increase of 22,481, or 3.99%, since the 2010 census. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 12,165 (33,704 births minus 21,539 deaths) and an increase from net migration of 4,035 into the state. Immigration resulted in a net increase of 2,264 and migration within the country produced a net increase of 1,771. In 2004, the foreign-born population was 11,000 (2.2%). In 2005, total births in Wyoming were 7,231 (birth rate of 14.04 per thousand).\nAccording to the 2000 census, the largest ancestry groups in Wyoming were: German (26.0%), English (16.0%), Irish (13.3%), Norwegian (4.3%), and Swedish (3.5%).\nIn 2018, The top countries of origin for Wyoming's immigrants were Mexico, China, Germany, England and Canada.\n\nBirth data\nNote: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.\n\nSince 2016, data for births of White Hispanic origin are not collected, but included in one Hispanic group; persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.\n\nLanguages\nIn 2010, 93.39% (474,343) of Wyomingites over age 5 spoke English as their primary language; 4.47% (22,722) spoke Spanish, 0.35% (1,771) spoke German, and 0.28% (1,434) spoke French. Other common non-English languages included Algonquian (0.18%), Russian (0.10%), Tagalog, and Greek (both 0.09%).\nIn 2007, the American Community Survey reported 6.2% (30,419) of Wyoming's population over five spoke a language other than English at home. Of those, 68.1% were able to speak English very well, 16.0% spoke English well, 10.9% did not speak English well, and 5.0% did not speak English at all.\n\nReligion\nSurveys have consistently ranked Wyoming among the most irreligious states. According to the 2020 American Values Atlas survey, Wyoming was the least religious state in the country.\nIn 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute determined that about 55% of Wyoming's adult population was Christian, primarily evangelical and mainline Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Mormon. The Public Religion Research Institute survey documented a decrease in religiosity from a 2014 separate Pew Research Center study; according to the Public Religion Research Institute, the irreligious made up 40% of the state population by 2020. According to a 2013 Gallup poll, Wyomingites' religious affiliations were 49% Protestant, 23% nonreligious or other, 18% Catholic, 9% Latter-day Saint (Mormons), and less than 1% Jewish.\nA 2010 Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) report recognized as Wyoming's largest denominations the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), with 62,804 (11%); the Catholic Church, with 61,222 (10.8%); and the Southern Baptist Convention, with 15,812 (2.8%). The report counted 59,247 evangelical Protestants (10.5%), 36,539 mainline Protestants (6.5%), 785 Eastern Orthodox Christians; 281 Black Protestants; 65,000 adhering to other traditions; and 340,552 claiming no religious tradition. In 2020, ARDA reported the state's largest individual denominations as the following: the Catholic Church (69,500); the LDS Church (67,729); and the Southern Baptist Convention (11,082). Non-denominational Protestants were 23,410 in number.\nAccording to ARDA's 2020 report, the Roman Catholics had an adherence rate of 120.48 per 1,000 people, Mormons 117.41 per 1,000 people, and Southern Baptists 19.21 per 1,000 people. Non-denominational Protestants had an adherence rate of 40.58 per 1,000 people; these trends reflected the separate 2014 Pew study's varying attendance at religious services. In 2014, 38% visited a religious service at least once a week, 28% once or twice a month, and 32% seldom/never. A 2018 research article by the National Christian Foundation cited non-churchgoing Christians nationwide did not attend religious services often through practicing the faith in other ways, not finding a house of worship they liked, disliking sermons and feeling unwelcomed, and logistics.\n\nEconomy and infrastructure\nAccording to a 2012 United States Bureau of Economic Analysis report, Wyoming's gross state product was $38.4 billion. As of 2014, the population was growing slightly with the most growth in tourist-oriented areas, such as Teton County. Boom conditions in neighboring states, such as North Dakota, were drawing energy workers away. About half of Wyoming's counties showed population loss. The state makes active efforts through Wyoming Grown, an internet-based recruitment program, to find jobs for young people educated in Wyoming who have emigrated but may wish to return.\nThe mineral-extraction industry and travel and tourism sector are the main drivers of Wyoming's economy. The federal government owns about 42.3% of its landmass, while the state controls 6%. The total taxable value of mining production in Wyoming in 2007 was over $14.5 billion. In 2018, tourism industry accounted for over $3.8 billion in revenue.\nIn 2002, more than six million people visited Wyoming's national parks and monuments. Wyoming's main tourist attractions include Grand Teton National Park, Yellowstone National Park, Devils Tower National Monument, Independence Rock and Fossil Butte National Monument. Yellowstone, the world's first national park, receives three million visitors each year.\nHistorically, agriculture has been an important component of Wyoming's economy. Its overall importance to the economy has waned, but it is still an essential part of Wyoming's culture and lifestyle. The main agricultural commodities Wyoming produces include livestock (beef), hay, sugar beets, grain (wheat and barley), and wool. More than 91% of Wyoming's land is classified as rural.\nWyoming is the home of only a handful of companies with a regional or national presence. Taco John's and Sierra Trading Post, both in Cheyenne, are privately held. Cloud Peak Energy in Gillette and U.S. Energy Corp. (NASDAQ: USEG) in Riverton are Wyoming's only publicly traded companies.\nVarious initiatives have been put in place and legislation adopted to encourage the use of blockchain technology and cryptocurrencies in the state. Tyler Lindholm, a former state legislator, claimed that 500 member-owned limited liability companies built on blockchain had been established and that 17,000 businesses with \"crypto\" in their name registered by 2023.These included the blockchain platforms Cardano and Tacen.\n\nMineral and energy production\nWyoming's mineral commodities include coal, natural gas, coalbed methane, crude oil, uranium, and trona.\n\nCoal\nWyoming produced 277 million short tons (251.29 million metric tons) of coal in 2019, a 9% drop from 2018. Wyoming's coal production peaked in 2008, when 514 million short tons (466.3 million metric tons) were produced. Wyoming has a reserve of 68.7 billion tons (62.3 billion metric tons) of coal. Major coal areas include the Powder River Basin and the Green River Basin.\nCBM is methane gas extracted from coal bed seams and coalbed methane extraction (CBM) boomed in the mid-1990s. There has been substantial CBM production in the Powder River Basin. In 2002, the CBM production yield was 327.5 billion cubic feet (9.3 km3). In 2016, Wyoming produced 1.77 trillion cubic feet (50.0 billion m3) of natural gas, ranking the state ranked 6th nationwide in natural gas production.\n\nOil\nWyoming produced 53.4 million barrels (8.49×10^6 m3) of crude oil in 2007, ranking fifth nationwide in oil production.\n\nWind energy\nBecause of its geography and altitude, the potential for wind power in Wyoming is one of the highest of any U.S. state. The Chokecherry and Sierra Madre Wind Energy Project is the largest commercial wind generation facility under development in North America. Carbon County is home to the largest proposed wind farm in the nation. Construction plans have been halted because of proposed new taxes on wind power energy production.\n\nOther\nThe Kelsey Lake Diamond Mine in Colorado, less than 1,000 feet (300 m) from the Wyoming border, produced gem-quality diamonds for several years. The Wyoming craton, which hosts the kimberlite volcanic pipes that were mined, underlies most of Wyoming.\nWyoming possesses the world's largest known reserve of trona, a mineral used in manufacturing glass, paper, soaps, baking soda, water softeners, and pharmaceuticals. In 2008, Wyoming produced 46 million short tons (41.7 million metric tons) of trona, 25% of the world's production.\nAlthough uranium mining in Wyoming is much less active than in previous decades, recent increases in uranium's price have generated new interest in prospecting and mining.\nRare earth metals.\n\nTaxes\nUnlike most other states, Wyoming levies no individual or corporate income tax. It also assesses no tax on retirement income earned and received from another state. Wyoming has a state sales tax of 4%. Counties have the option to collect an additional 1% tax for general revenue and a 1% tax for specific purposes, if approved by voters. Food for human consumption is not subject to sales tax. A county lodging tax varies from 2% to 5%. The state collects a use tax of 5% on items purchased elsewhere and brought into Wyoming. All property tax is based on the property's assessed value; Wyoming's Department of Revenue's Ad Valorem Tax Division supports, trains, and guides local government agencies in the uniform assessment, valuation and taxation of locally assessed property. \"Assessed value\" means taxable value; \"taxable value\" means a percentage of the fair market value of property in a particular class. Statutes limit property tax increases. For county revenue, the property tax rate cannot exceed 12 mills (or 1.2%) of assessed value. For cities and towns, the rate is limited to eight mills (0.8%). With very few exceptions, state law limits the property tax rate for all governmental purposes.\nPersonal property held for personal use is tax-exempt. Inventory held for resale, pollution control equipment, cash, accounts receivable, stocks and bonds are also exempt. Other exemptions include property used for religious, educational, charitable, fraternal, benevolent and government purposes and improvements for handicapped access. Mine lands, underground mining equipment, and oil and gas extraction equipment are exempt from property tax, but companies must pay a gross products tax on minerals and a severance tax on mineral production.\nWyoming does not collect inheritance taxes. There is limited estate tax related to federal estate tax collection.\nIn 2008, the Tax Foundation reported that Wyoming had the most \"business-friendly\" tax climate of any U.S. state. Wyoming state and local governments in fiscal year 2007 collected $2.242 billion in taxes, levies, and royalties from the oil and gas industry. The state's mineral industry, including oil, gas, trona, and coal, provided $1.3 billion in property taxes from 2006 mineral production. As of 2017, Wyoming receives more federal tax dollars as a percentage of state general revenue than any state except Montana.\nAs of 2016, Wyoming does not require the beneficial owners of LLCs to be disclosed in the filing, which creates an opportunity for a tax haven, according to Clark Stith of Clark Stith & Associates. If fact, Wyoming was the first state to enact a statute authorizing the creation of LLCs.\n\nTransportation\nWyoming's largest airport is Jackson Hole Airport, with more than 500 employees. Three interstate highways and 13 U.S. highways pass through Wyoming. The Wyoming state highway system also serves the state.\nInterstate 25 enters Wyoming south of Cheyenne and runs north, intersecting Interstate 80 immediately west of Cheyenne. It passes through Casper and ends at Interstate 90, near Buffalo. Interstate 80 crosses the Utah border west of Evanston and runs east through the southern third of the state, passing through Cheyenne before entering Nebraska near Pine Bluffs. Interstate 90 comes into Wyoming near Parkman and cuts through the northeastern part of the state. It serves Gillette and enters South Dakota east of Sundance.\nU.S. Routes 14, 16, and the eastern section of U.S. 20 have their western terminus at the eastern entrance to Yellowstone National Park and pass through Cody. U.S. 14 runs eastward before joining I-90 at Gillette. U.S. 14 then follows I-90 to the South Dakota border. U.S. 16 and 20 split off of U.S. 14 at Greybull and U.S. 16 turns east at Worland while U.S. 20 continues south Shoshoni. U.S. Route 287 runs from Fort Collins, Colorado, to Laramie, Wyoming, through a pass between the Laramie Mountains and the Medicine Bow Mountains, then merges with US 30 and I-80 until it reaches Rawlins, where it continues north, passing Lander. Outside of Moran, U.S. 287 is part of a large interchange with U.S. Highways 26, 191, and 89, before continuing north to Yellowstone's southern entrance. U.S. 287 continues north of Yellowstone, but the park separates the two sections.\nOther U.S. highways that pass through Wyoming are 18, 26, 30, 85, 87, 89, 189, 191, 212, and 287.\nWyoming is one of only two states (the other is South Dakota) in the 48 contiguous states not served by Amtrak. It was once served by Amtrak's San Francisco Zephyr and Pioneer lines. While no passenger trains roll through Wyoming today, intercity buses continue to connect residents across the state. Intercity bus carriers in the state include Express Arrow, Greyhound Lines, and Jefferson Lines.\n\nMajor interstates\nI-25 (300.5 mi) connects Denver, Cheyenne, Casper and Buffalo. Most of the highway is connected with US 87. Major junctions include Interstate 80, US 30, US 85, US 26, US Routes 18 & 20 and US 16 before its northern terminus at Interstate 90 in Buffalo.\n I-80 (402.8 mi) connects Evanston, Rock Springs, Rawlins, Laramie and Cheyenne. Major junctions include US 191, US 287, I-25, and US 85 & I-180.\n I-90 (208.8 mi) connects Sheridan, Buffalo and Gillette. Primarily in northeastern Wyoming. Major junctions include US 14, I-25 and US 16.\n\nWind River Indian Reservation\nThe Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes share the Wind River Indian Reservation in central western Wyoming, near Lander. The reservation is home to 2,500 Eastern Shoshone and 5,000 Northern Arapaho.\nChief Washakie established the reservation in 1868 as the result of negotiations with the federal government in the Fort Bridger Treaty, but the federal government forced the Northern Arapaho onto the Shoshone reservation in 1876 after it failed to provide a promised separate reservation.\nToday the Wind River Indian Reservation is jointly owned, with each tribe having a 50% interest in the land, water, and other natural resources. It is a sovereign, self-governed land with two independent governing bodies: the Eastern Shoshone Tribe and the Northern Arapaho Tribe. Until 2014, the Shoshone Business Council and Northern Arapaho Business Council met jointly as the Joint Business Council to decide matters that affect both tribes. Six elected council members from each tribe served on the joint council.\n\nPublic lands\nThe federal government owns nearly half of Wyoming's land (about 30,099,430 acres (121,808.1 km2)); the state owns another 3,864,800 acres (15,640 km2). Most of it is administered by the Bureau of Land Management and U.S. Forest Service in numerous national forests and a national grassland, not to mention vast swaths of \"public\" land and an air force base near Cheyenne.\n\nThere are also areas managed by the National Park Service and agencies such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.\n\nNational parks\nGrand Teton National Park\nYellowstone National Park—first designated national park in the world\nMemorial parkway\nThe John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway connects Yellowstone and Grand Teton.\nNational recreation areas\nBighorn Canyon National Recreation Area\nFlaming Gorge National Recreation Area (managed by the Forest Service as part of Ashley National Forest)\nNational monuments\nDevils Tower National Monument—first national monument in the U.S.\nFossil Butte National Monument\nNational historic trails, landmarks and sites\nCalifornia National Historic Trail\nFort Laramie National Historic Site\nIndependence Rock National Historic Landmark\nMedicine Wheel/Medicine Mountain National Historic Landmark\nMormon Pioneer National Historic Trail\nNational Register of Historic Places listings in Wyoming\nOregon National Historic Trail\nPony Express National Historic Trail\nNational fish hatcheries\nJackson National Fish Hatchery\nSaratoga National Fish Hatchery\nNational wildlife refuges\nNational Elk Refuge\nSeedskadee National Wildlife Refuge\n\nEducation\nThe state superintendent of public instruction, an elected state official, directs public education. The State Board of Education, a nine-member board appointed by the governor, sets educational policy. The constitution prohibits the state from establishing curriculum and textbook selections; these are the prerogative of local school boards. The Wyoming School for the Deaf was the only in-state school dedicated to supporting deaf students before it closed in the summer of 2000.\n\nHigher education\nWyoming has a public four-year institution, the University of Wyoming in Laramie, and a private four-year college, Wyoming Catholic College, in Lander. There are also seven two-year community colleges.\nBefore the passing of a new law in 2006, Wyoming had hosted unaccredited institutions, many of them suspected diploma mills. The 2006 law requires unaccredited institutions to make one of three choices: move out of Wyoming, close down, or apply for accreditation. The Oregon State Office of Degree Authorization predicted in 2007 that in a few years the problem of diploma mills in Wyoming might be resolved.\n\nMedia\nWyoming's media market consists of 16 broadcast TV stations, radio stations and dozens of small to medium-sized newspapers. There are also a few small independent news sources such as the nonprofit news site Wyofile.com and Oil City News.\n\nGovernment and politics\nState government\nWyoming's Constitution established three branches of government: the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The state legislature comprises a House of Representatives with 60 members and a Senate with 30 members. The executive branch is headed by the governor and includes a secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, and superintendent of public instruction. As Wyoming does not have a lieutenant governor, the secretary of state is first in the line of succession.\nWyoming's sparse population warrants the state only one at-large seat in the U.S. House of Representatives, and hence only three votes in the Electoral College.\nThe Wyoming State Liquor Association is the state's sole legal wholesale distributor of spirits, making it an alcoholic beverage control state. With the exception of wine, state law prohibits the purchase of alcoholic beverages for resale from any other source.\n\nJudicial system\nWyoming's highest court is the Supreme Court of Wyoming, with five justices presiding over appeals from the state's lower courts. Wyoming is unusual in that it does not have an intermediate appellate court, like most states. This is largely attributable to the state's population and correspondingly lower caseload. Appeals from the state district courts go directly to the Wyoming Supreme Court. Wyoming also has state circuit courts (formerly county courts), of limited jurisdiction, which handle certain types of cases, such as civil claims with lower dollar amounts, misdemeanor criminal offenses, and felony arraignments. Circuit court judges also commonly hear small claims cases as well.\nBefore 1972, Wyoming judges were selected by popular vote on a nonpartisan ballot. This earlier system was criticized by the state bar which called for the adoption of the Missouri Plan, a system designed to balance judiciary independence with judiciary accountability. In 1972, an amendment to Article 5 of the Wyoming Constitution, which incorporated a modified version of the plan, was adopted by the voters. Since the adoption of the amendment, all state court judges in Wyoming are nominated by the Judicial Nominating Commission and appointed by the Governor. They are then subject to a retention vote by the electorate one year after appointment.\n\nPolitical history\nWyoming's political history defies easy classification. The state was the first to grant women the right to vote and to elect a woman governor. On December 10, 1869, John Allen Campbell, the first Governor of the Wyoming Territory, approved the first law in United States history explicitly granting women the right to vote. This day was later commemorated as Wyoming Day. On November 5, 1889, voters approved the first constitution in the world granting full voting rights to women.\nWhile the state elected notable Democrats to federal office in the 1960s and 1970s, politics have become decidedly more conservative since the 1980s as the Republican Party came to dominate the state's congressional delegation. Today, Wyoming is represented in Washington by its two Senators, John Barrasso and Cynthia Lummis, and its one member of the House of Representatives, Congresswoman Harriet Hageman. All three are Republicans; a Democrat has not represented Wyoming in the Senate since 1977 or in the House since 1978. The state has not voted for a Democrat for president since 1964, one of only eight times since statehood. In the 2004 presidential election, George W. Bush won his second-largest victory, with 69% of the vote. Former Vice President Dick Cheney is a Wyoming resident and represented the state in Congress from 1979 to 1989.\nThe last time a Democrat won a statewide election in Wyoming was in 2006, when Democratic governor Dave Freudenthal was re-elected to a second term by a wide margin, winning every county in the state. For 19 of Wyoming's 23 counties, 2006 marked the last time that they voted for the Democratic nominee in a statewide race. Of the remaining 4, Sweetwater County last voted Democratic in the 2008 U.S. House race and Laramie County last voted Democratic in the 2014 Superintendent of Public Instruction race, leaving Teton and Albany as the only counties that Democrats are able to win. Teton, which is composed of affluent resort communities, is reliably Democratic, except in Republican landslides like the 2022 gubernatorial election; Albany, which contains the college town of Laramie, is more competitive.\nRepublicans are dominant at the state level. They have held a majority in the state senate continuously since 1936 and in the state house since 1964, though Democrats held the governorship for all but eight years between 1975 and 2011. Uniquely, Wyoming elected Democrat Nellie Tayloe Ross as the first woman in United States history to serve as state governor. She served from 1925 to 1927, winning a special election after her husband, William Bradford Ross, unexpectedly died a little more than a year into his term.\nWyoming retains the death penalty. Authorized methods of execution include the gas chamber.\n\nCulture\nSports\nDue to its sparse population, Wyoming lacks any major professional sports teams; the Gillette Mustangs, an indoor football team based in Gillette that began play in 2021 prior to their departure from the city in 2023, were previously the only professional team in the state. However, the Wyoming Cowboys and Cowgirls—particularly the football and basketball teams—are quite popular; their stadiums in Laramie are about 7,200 feet (2,200 m) above sea level, the highest in NCAA Division I. The Wyoming High School Activities Association also sponsors twelve sports and there are three junior ice hockey teams, all of which are members of the NA3HL. Casper has hosted the College National Finals Rodeo since 2001.\n\nState symbols\nList of all Wyoming state symbols:\n\nState bird: western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta)\nState coin: Sacagawea dollar\nState dinosaur: Triceratops\nState emblem: Bucking Horse and Rider\nState fish: cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki)\nState flag: Flag of the State of Wyoming\nState flower: Wyoming Indian paintbrush (Castilleja linariifolia)\nState fossil: Knightia\nState gemstone: Wyoming nephrite jade\nState grass: western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii)\nState insect: Sheridan's green hairstreak butterfly (Callophrys sheridanii)\nState mammal: American bison (Bison bison)\nState motto: Equal Rights\nState nicknames: Equality State; Cowboy State; Big Wyoming\nState reptile: horned lizard (Phrynosoma douglassi brevirostre)\nState seal: Great Seal of the State of Wyoming\nState song: \"Wyoming\" by Charles E. Winter & George E. Knapp\nState sport: rodeo\nState tree: plains cottonwood (Populus sargentii)\n\nSee also\nBibliography of Wyoming history\nIndex of Wyoming-related articles\nOutline of Wyoming\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nState of Wyoming government official website\nOfficial Wyoming State Travel Website\nWyoming State Facts from USDA\nWyoming at Curlie\n Geographic data related to Wyoming at OpenStreetMap",
"title": "Wyoming"
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"paragraph_text": "Cheyenne ( shy-AN or shy-EN) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Wyoming, as well as the county seat of Laramie County, with 65,132 residents, per the 2020 census. It is the principal city of the Cheyenne metropolitan statistical area which encompasses all of Laramie County and had 100,512 residents as of the 2020 census. Local residents named the town for the Cheyenne Native American people in 1867 when it was founded in the Dakota Territory. Along with Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Honolulu, Hawaii, and Topeka, Kansas, Cheyenne is one of four state capitals with an indigenous name in a state with an indigenous name.\nCheyenne is the northern terminus of the extensive Southern Rocky Mountain Front, which extends southward to Albuquerque, New Mexico, and includes the fast-growing Front Range Urban Corridor. Cheyenne is situated on Crow Creek and Dry Creek.\n\nHistory\nAt a celebration on July 4, 1867, Grenville M. Dodge of the Union Pacific Railroad announced the selection of a townsite for its mountain region headquarters adjacent to the bridge the railroad planned to build across Crow Creek in the Territory of Dakota. At the same celebration, Major General Christopher C. Augur announced the selection of a site three miles (5 km) west of Crow Creek Crossing for a U.S. Army fort to protect the railroad.\nThe Union Pacific Railroad platted its Crow Creek Crossing townsite on July 5, 1867. Residents named the town Cheyenne for the Cheyenne Native American people. On August 8, 1867, the Town of Cheyenne, Dakota Territory was incorporated, and on August 10, 1867, H. M. Hook was elected as Cheyenne's first mayor. The tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad reached Cheyenne on November 13, 1867, and the first train arrived the following day. Cheyenne grew so quickly it gained the nickname of \"Magic City of the Plains\".\nOn September 8, 1867, the United States Army established Fort D.A. Russell in honor of Brigadier General David Allen Russell. Initially a cavalry encampment, construction of the fort began the following month. The fort was renamed Fort Francis E. Warren in 1930 in honor of the first Governor of the State of Wyoming, Francis E. Warren. The fort was transferred to the new United States Air Force and was renamed Francis E. Warren Air Force Base in October 1949.\nOn July 25, 1868, the United States organized the Territory of Wyoming. Territorial Governor John Allen Campbell arrived in Cheyenne on May 7, 1869, and named Cheyenne the temporary territorial capital. Cheyenne has remained the only capital of Wyoming. On December 10, 1869, the first session of the Wyoming Territorial Legislature met in Cheyenne. That day, the legislature passed and Territorial Governor Campbell signed an act to re-incorporate the Town of Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory, and an act granting women the right to vote, the first U.S. state or territory to grant suffrage to women.\nOn July 10, 1890, the Territory of Wyoming was admitted to the Union as the State of Wyoming. The Wyoming State Capitol was constructed between 1886 and 1890, with further improvements being completed in 1917.\nThe Cheyenne Regional Airport was opened in 1920, initially serving as a stop for airmail. It soon developed into a civil-military airport, serving DC-3s and various military craft. During World War II, hundreds of B-17s, B-24s, and PBYs were outfitted and upgraded at the airfield. Today, it serves a number of military functions, and as a high-altitude testbed for civilian craft.\n\nGeography\nLying near the southeast corner of the state, Cheyenne is one of the least centrally located state capitals in the nation (together with cities such as Carson City, Nevada; Juneau, Alaska; Tallahassee, Florida; Topeka, Kansas; and Trenton, New Jersey).\nAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 24.63 square miles (63.79 km2), of which 24.52 square miles (63.51 km2) is land and 0.11 square miles (0.28 km2) is water.\n\nClimate\nCheyenne, like much of Wyoming, has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk) and is part of USDA Hardiness zone 5b, with the suburbs falling in zone 5a. Winters are cold and moderately long, but relatively dry with highs often above freezing, having a normal mean temperature of 27.7 °F (−2.4 °C), highs that fail to breach freezing for 35 days per year, and lows that dip to the 0 °F (−18 °C) mark on 9.2 mornings. However, the cold is often interrupted, with chinook winds blowing downslope from the Rockies that can bring warm conditions, bringing the high above 50 °F (10 °C) on twenty days from December to February.\nWhile December is the coldest month, snowfall is greatest in March and April, seasonally averaging 60 inches (1,500 mm), historically ranging from 13.1 inches (330 mm) between July 1965 and June 1966 up to 121.5 inches (3,090 mm) between July 1979 and June 1980, yet thick snow cover rarely stays. Summers are warm, with a high diurnal temperature range; July averages 69.4 °F (20.8 °C), and highs reach 90 °F (32 °C) on average for twelve afternoons annually. Spring and autumn are quick transitions, with the average window for freezing temperatures being September 29 thru May 14, allowing a growing season of 106 days. Official record temperatures range from −38 °F (−39 °C) on January 9, 1875, up to 100 °F (38 °C) on June 23, 1954, the last of four occurrences; the record cold daily maximum is −21 °F (−29 °C) on January 11, 1963, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 68 °F (20 °C) on July 31, 1960. The annual precipitation of 15.9 inches (400 mm) tends to be concentrated from May to August and is low during fall and winter; it has historically ranged from 5.04 inches (128.0 mm) in 1876 to 23.69 inches (602 mm) in 1942.\nThe city averages below 60% daily relative humidity in each month and receives an average 2,980 hours (~67% of the possible total) of sunshine annually. On July 16, 1979, an F3 tornado struck Cheyenne, causing one death and 40 injuries. It was the most destructive tornado in Wyoming history.\n\nSee or edit raw graph data.\n\nDemographics\nIn 2020, Cheyenne had a total population of 65,132. As of the census of 2010, there were 59,467 people, 25,558 households, and 15,270 families living in the city. The population density was 2,425.2 inhabitants per square mile (936.4/km2). There were 27,284 housing units at an average density of 1,112.7 per square mile (429.6/km2). As of the census of 2000, there were 53,011 people, 22,324 households, 14,175 families living in the city, and 81,607 people living in the metropolitan statistical area making it the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Wyoming. The population density was 2,511.4 inhabitants per square mile (969.6/km2). There were 23,782 housing units at an average density of 1,126.7 per square mile (435.0/km2).\nAt the 2019 American Community Survey, the city had an owner-occupied housing rate of 65.9% with a median value at $214,300. There were 27,344 households from 2015 to 2019, and an average of 2.20 persons per household. Residents of Cheyenne had a median household income of $64,598 and per capita of $35,637. An estimated 10.4% lived at or below the poverty line.\nIn 2010, there were 25,558 households, of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.1% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.3% were non-families. 33.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.92. In 2000, there were 22,324 households, out of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.2% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.5% were non-families. 31.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.93.\nThe median age in the city was 36.5 years at the 2010 census. Twenty-four percent of residents were under the age of 18; 9.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.9% were from 25 to 44; 26.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.3% male and 50.7% female. In 2000, 24.9% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 29.7% from 25 to 44, 22.8% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.7 males.\nThe median income for a household in the city was $38,856, and the median income for a family was $46,771. Males had a median income of $32,286 versus $24,529 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,809. About 6.3% of families and 8.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.1% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.\n\nEthnicity\nThe U.S. Census Bureau estimated the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was 77.1% non-Hispanic white, 1.7% Black or African American, 0.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, 1.5% Asian, 0.2% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 6.7% two or more races, and 15.9% Hispanic or Latin American of any race, in 2020.\nIn 2010, the racial makeup of the city was 87.44% White, 2.88% African American, 0.96% Native American, 1.24% Asian, 0.20% Pacific Islander, 4.0% from other races, and 3.28% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.45% of the population. At the 2005–2007 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates, the city's population was 87.2% White (79.3% non-Hispanic White alone), 12.7% Hispanic or Latino (of any race), 4.5% Black or African American, 2.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.1% Asian and 6.4% from some other race.\nIn 2000, the racial makeup of the city was 88.1% White, 2.8% Black or African American, 0.8% Native American, 1.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 4.4% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. 12.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.\n\nArts and culture\nCheyenne Frontier Days, which is held over ten days centered around the last full week in July, is known as the largest outdoor rodeo and western festival in the world. The events include professional bull riding, calf roping, barrel racing, steer wrestling, team roping, bronc riding, steer roping, bareback riding, and many others. During this week there are many parades and other events. Additionally there is a carnival with numerous rides, games, and shops. The festival has been held since 1897.\n\nLandmarks\nTivoli Building (Cheyenne, Wyoming)\nWilliam Sturgis House\nWyoming State Capitol\nF.E. Warren Air Force Base, one of the United States's oldest, continuously active installations (originally U.S. Army Fort D.A. Russell).\nNagle Warren Mansion\nFrontier Mall (Cheyenne)\n\nNational Register of Historic Places\nOver fifty different locations in Cheyenne are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including:\n\nThe Historic Plains Hotel (added 1978)\nAtlas Theatre (added 1973)\nUnion Pacific Depot (Cheyenne Depot Museum) (1973)\nthe Governor's Mansion (1969)\nNagle-Warren Mansion (1976)\nFirst Presbyterian Church (1869)\nFirst United Methodist Church (1975)\nSt. Mark's Episcopal Church (1970)\nSt. Mary's Catholic Cathedral (1974)\nCheyenne High School (2005)\nHigh Plains Horticulture Research Station a.k.a. High Plains Arboretum (1930–1974)\nStorey Gymnasium (2005)\nPark Addition School (1970)\nBig Boy Steam Engine (1956)\nBotanic Gardens Rotary Century Plaza & Steam Locomotive (1921)\nSeveral districts in the city are also listed, including:\n\nDowntown Cheyenne Historic District (1978, with boundary increase in 1980, 1988, 1996. Encompasses 205 acres (0.83 km2) and 67 buildings)\nLakeview Historic District (1996, 350 acres and 109 buildings)\nRainsford Historic District (1984, 1980 acres and 288 buildings)\nCapitol North Historic District (1980, 204 acres and 112 buildings)\nFort David A. Russell (1969, 6,300 acres and 19 buildings)\nUnion Pacific Roundhouse, Turntable and Machine Shop (1992, 113 acres and 2 buildings)\nSouth Side Historic District (2006)\n\nSports\nSports venues in Cheyenne include the Cheyenne Ice and Events Center, Pioneer Park, Powers Field, Bison Stadium, and Okie-Blanchard Stadium.\nIn 2012, the Cheyenne Warriors were founded as an American Professional Football League team. After playing a season in the APFL, they announced a move to the Indoor Football League. Shortly after the owner of the team died in December, the Warriors announced that they were forming the new Developmental Football League. In May 2013, after playing several games in this new league, the team folded.\nIn 2020, the City of Cheyenne was chosen to host the historical match between Canadian Dave Leduc who was defending his Lethwei world title against American challenger Cyrus Washington. The event marked the first time in the history of the ancient Burmese combat sport of Lethwei to be held in North America. The event was held at the Outlaw Saloon and was sanctioned by the World Lethwei Federation in partnership with the Wyoming Combat Sports Commission. As of 2024, Wyoming is the first and only US State to have legalized Lethwei in its territory.\n\nParks and recreation\nThe Cheyenne Community Recreation and Events Department operates an Ice and Events center, swimming pool, spray park, skateboard park, two golf courses, Cheyenne Botanic Gardens (including the Paul Smith Children's Village at the Gardens), paddle boat rentals in Lions Park (summers only), cemeteries, forestry operations, community house, Youth Activity Center and a miniature golf park.\nThe Cheyenne Parks and Recreation Department also operates a 37 miles (60 kilometers) Greater Cheyenne Greenway system. The greenway connects parks and neighborhoods of greater Cheyenne. It includes many bridges and underpasses where travelers can avoid high traffic roads and travel above waterways and drainages. It is known that the famous bicycler, Cheyenne Otero, spent many weekends there training for marathons. In 1996, as a result of the greenway, Cheyenne was named a \"Trail Town USA\" by the National Park service and the American Hiking Society.\n\nGovernment\nCheyenne's government consists of a mayor and a city council, elected on a non-partisan basis. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. The current Mayor, Patrick Collins, a bicycle shop owner, took office on January 4, 2021, with a term ending January 6, 2025. The city council has nine members each of whom are elected from one of three wards. Each ward elects three members. The mayor's office is responsible for managing the various city departments which consist of Police, Fire Rescue, Planning and Development, Engineering, Public Works, Treasury, Attorney's Office, Human Resources, and Municipal Court. The Planning and Development Department manages the Downtown Development Authority. The Cheyenne Board of Public Utilities is owned by the city but is semi-autonomous.\n\nEducation\nPublic education in all of the city of Cheyenne is provided by Laramie County School District #1. The district is served by four high schools, Central High on the northwest side, East High on the east side, South High on the south side, and Triumph High, also on the south side.\nCheyenne is home to the Laramie County Community College (LCCC), one of seven constituent campuses managed by the Wyoming Community College Commission.\nCheyenne has a public library, a branch of the Laramie County Library System.\n\nMedia\nWyoming Tribune Eagle newspaper\nThe Cheyenne Herald (OCLC 51310460) was written and published by Dave Featherly from 2002 to 2012.\nKGWN\n\nInfrastructure\nTransportation\nMajor highways\nI-25 – North–South Interstate running from New Mexico to Wyoming intersects I-80 southwest of Cheyenne.\n I-80 – East-West Interstate running from California to New Jersey. Intersects I-25 southwest of Cheyenne.\n I-180 – Bypass Interstate that runs concurrent with US 85 from I-80 to US 30.\n US 30 (Lincoln Highway) – East–west route through Cheyenne\n US 85 (South Greeley Highway, Central Avenue (Southbound), Warren Avenue (Northbound)) – North–South route through Cheyenne\n US 87 – North–South through Cheyenne that runs concurrent with I-25 through Cheyenne\n WYO 210 (Happy Jack Road) – East–west route from I-25/US 87 (Exit 10) west out of Cheyenne towards Laramie\n WYO 211 (Horsecreek Road) – Runs northwest out of Cheyenne to Horse Creek.\n WYO 212 (College Drive, Four Mile Road) – North–South route that forms a beltway around Cheyenne. From I-25 (Exit 7) to WYO 219\n WYO 219 (Yellowstone Road) – North–South route from US 85 in Cheyenne near the Cheyenne Airport north out of the city\n WYO 221 (Fox Farm Road) – East–west route from US 85 east to WYO 212 in Cheyenne\n WYO 222 (Fort Access Road) – North–South route from WYO 225 just southeast of Cheyenne and travels north to F.E. Warren Air Force Base and continues on its north route east of the city to WYO 221\n WYO 225 (Otto Road) – East–west route from I-80/US 30 southwest of Cheyenne west\n\nPublic transit\nCheyenne Transit Program provides bus service to the Cheyenne area.\nIntercity bus service to the city is provided by Express Arrow and Greyhound Lines.\n\nAirports\nCheyenne Regional Airport features daily, nonstop airline service on United Express to Denver International Airport.\n\nRailroads\nThe Union Pacific and BNSF railroads intersect in Cheyenne. The city is home to a BNSF railyard, as well as the Union Pacific's roundhouse that hosts their steam program. UP's operational steam locomotives 844 and 4014 reside in the steam shop. By November 2022, Challenger 3985 was moved to its new home at Silvis, Illinois along with Centennial unit 6936, & 2-10-2 number 5511.\n\nNotable people\nSister cities\nCheyenne's sister cities are:\n\n Bismarck, North Dakota, United States\n Waimea, Hawaii County, Hawaii, United States\n Lompoc, California, United States\n Hammam Sousse, Tunisia\n Lourdes, France\n Taichung, Taiwan\n Voghera, Italy\n Accra, Ghana\n\nSee also\nCheyenne County, Jefferson Territory\nFirst transcontinental railroad\nList of municipalities in Wyoming\nUSS Cheyenne, 6 ships\n\nNotes\nReferences\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\n\"Cheyenne\" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914.\n\"Cheyenne, the chief city and capital of Wyoming, U.S.A.\" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.",
"title": "Cheyenne,_Wyoming"
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] | What compass direction (of the 4 cardinal and 4 ordinal directions) is the capital city of the state which houses the Jackson Hole Mountain Resort in relation to the centre of the state? | [] | Southeast | [] | true |
684 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The first series of the 2005 revival of the British science fiction programme Doctor Who began on 26 March 2005 with the episode \"Rose\". This marked the end of the programme's 16 year absence from episodic television following its cancellation in 1989, and the first new televised Doctor Who story since the broadcast of the television movie starring Paul McGann in 1996. The finale episode, \"The Parting of the Ways\", was broadcast on 18 June 2005. The show was revived by longtime Doctor Who fan Russell T Davies, who had been lobbying the BBC since the late 1990s to bring the show back. The first series comprised 13 episodes, eight of which Davies wrote. Davies, Julie Gardner and Mal Young served as executive producers, Phil Collinson as producer.\nThe show depicts the adventures of a mysterious and eccentric Time Lord known as the Doctor, who travels through time and space in his time machine, the TARDIS, which normally appears from the exterior to be a blue 1950s British police box. With his companions, he explores time and space, faces a variety of foes and saves civilizations, helping people and righting wrongs.\nThe first series features Christopher Eccleston as the ninth incarnation of the Doctor, his only series in the role, accompanied by Billie Piper, as his first and main companion Rose Tyler, whom he plucks from obscurity on planet Earth, and to whom he grows increasingly attached. He also travels briefly with unruly boy-genius Adam Mitchell, played by Bruno Langley, and with 51st-century con man and former \"Time Agent\" Captain Jack Harkness, portrayed by John Barrowman. Episodes in the series form a loose story arc, based upon the recurring phrase \"Bad Wolf\", the significance of which goes unexplained until the two-part series finale. Alongside the \"Bad Wolf\" arc, the revived era re-introduces the Doctor as the sole survivor of an event known as the Time War, which the Doctor claims wiped out all of the Time Lords and the Daleks.\nThe series premiere was watched by 10.81 million viewers, and four days after the premiere episode was broadcast, Doctor Who was renewed for a Christmas special as well as a second series. The series was well received by both critics and fans, winning a BAFTA Award for the first time in Doctor Who's history. The approval from Michael Grade, who had previously forced an 18-month hiatus on the show in 1985, and had postponed Doctor Who out of personal dislike on several occasions, was cited as a factor in the show's resurgence. The show's popularity ultimately led to a resurgence in family-orientated Saturday night drama.\n\nEpisodes\nUnlike the classic era of the series that ended in 1989, the plan with the new series was to have each episode as a standalone story, with no serials. Of the thirteen episodes in the series, seven of them followed this format; the remaining six were grouped together into three two-part stories. Also, for the first time since The Gunfighters in the third season, each episode was given an individual title, which was the case with the standalone and two-part stories.\n\nCast\nMain cast\nThe production team was tasked with finding a suitable actor for the role of the Doctor. Most notably, they approached film stars Hugh Grant and Rowan Atkinson for the role. By the time Mal Young had suggested actor Christopher Eccleston to Davies, Eccleston was one of only three left in the running for the role: the other two candidates are rumoured in the industry to have been Alan Davies and Bill Nighy. His involvement in the programme was announced on 20 March 2004 following months of speculation. In the April 2004 issue of Doctor Who Magazine, Davies announced that Eccleston's Doctor would indeed be the Ninth Doctor, relegating Richard E. Grant's Shalka Doctor to non-official status. Russell T Davies revealed that Eccleston asked for the role in an e-mail.\n\nAfter the announcement that the show would be returning, Davies revealed that the new companion would \"probably\" be called Rose Tyler in an edition of Doctor Who Magazine published in November 2003. This name was confirmed in March 2004, and it was announced at the same time that former pop star Billie Piper was being considered for the role. Piper was announced as portraying Rose Tyler on 24 May, a character which fulfilled the role of permanent companion during the series, and was welcomed by fans of the show. Actress Georgia Moffett, daughter of Fifth Doctor actor Peter Davison and who would later appear as the title role in the fourth series episode \"The Doctor's Daughter\", also auditioned for the role. The original conception of Tyler was slightly different. Paul Abbott was scheduled to write an episode for the series which would have revealed that Rose's entire life had been manipulated by the Doctor in order to mould her into an ideal companion. Davies eventually wrote \"Boom Town\" to replace it when Abbott, after months of development, realised he was too busy to work on the script.\n\nThe first series was Christopher Eccleston's only series in the role of the Doctor. Eccleston's contract was for a single year because at the time it was uncertain whether the show would continue beyond a single revival series. Eccleston's intent to leave was revealed on 30 March 2005, shortly after the broadcast of the first episode. The BBC released a statement, attributed to Eccleston, saying that he had decided to leave because he feared becoming typecast. On 4 April, the BBC revealed that Eccleston's \"statement\" was falsely attributed and released without his consent. The BBC admitted that they had broken an agreement made in January not to disclose publicly that he only intended to do one season. In a 2010 interview, Eccleston revealed that he left the show because he \"didn't enjoy the environment and the culture that [they], the cast and crew, had to work in\", but that he was proud of having played the role.\n\nRecurring and guest cast\nThe character of Adam Mitchell was first conceived, along with Henry van Statten, during Davies' pitch to the BBC, in a story heavily based on Robert Shearman's audio play Jubilee called \"Return of the Daleks\". The production team had always intended for Adam to join the TARDIS after Rose developed a liking for him. To play this role, Bruno Langley was chosen, previously known for his role on Coronation Street as Todd Grimshaw. It was never intended for Adam to be a long-term companion, Davies wanted to show that not everyone is suitable to join the TARDIS crew and dubbed him \"The Companion That Couldn't\", he \"always wanted to do a show with someone who was a rubbish companion\".\nJohn Barrowman appears as Captain Jack Harkness, a character introduced in \"The Empty Child\", where he joined the TARDIS crew for the final five episodes of the series. In naming the character, Davies drew inspiration from the Marvel Comics character Agatha Harkness. Jack's appearances were conceived with the intention of forming a character arc in which Jack is transformed from a coward to a hero, and Barrowman consciously minded this in his portrayal of the character. Following on that arc, the character's debut episode would leave his morality as ambiguous, publicity materials asking, \"is he a force for good or ill?\" Barrowman himself was a key factor in the conception of Captain Jack. Barrowman says that at the time of his initial casting, Davies and co-executive producer, Julie Gardner had explained to him that they \"basically wrote the character around [John]\". On meeting him, Barrowman tried out the character using his native Scottish accent, his normal American accent, and an English accent; Davies decided it \"made it bigger if it was an American accent\". Barrowman recounts Davies as having been searching for an actor with a \"matinée idol quality\", telling him that \"the only one in the whole of Britain who could do it was you\".\nDavid Tennant had been offered the role of the Doctor when he was watching a pre-transmission copy of Casanova with Davies and Gardner. Tennant initially believed the offer was a joke, but after he realised they were serious, he accepted the role and first appeared in the series finale \"The Parting of the Ways\". Tennant was announced as Eccleston's replacement on 16 April 2005. Other recurring characters for the series included Camille Coduri as Rose's mother Jackie Tyler, and Noel Clarke as Rose's boyfriend Mickey Smith. Other actors and television presenters who appeared in the series included Mark Benton, Zoë Wanamaker, Simon Callow, Eve Myles, Penelope Wilton, Annette Badland, David Verrey, Matt Baker, Andrew Marr, Corey Johnson, Simon Pegg, Anna Maxwell-Martin, Tamsin Greig, Shaun Dingwall, Florence Hoath, Richard Wilson, Jo Joyner, Davina McCall, Paterson Joseph, Anne Robinson, Trinny Woodall, and Susannah Constantine.\n\nProduction\nDevelopment\nDuring the late-90s, Davies, a lifelong Doctor Who fan, lobbied the BBC to revive the show from its hiatus and reached the discussion stages in late 1998 and early 2002. His proposals would update the show to be better suited for a 21st-century audience, including the transition from videotape to film, doubling the length of each episode from twenty-five minutes to fifty, keeping the Doctor primarily on Earth in the style of the Third Doctor UNIT episodes, and removing \"excess baggage\" such as Gallifrey and the Time Lords. His pitch competed against three others: Dan Freedman's fantasy retelling, Matthew Graham's Gothic-styled pitch, and Mark Gatiss, Clayton Hickman and Gareth Roberts' reboot, which would make the Doctor the audience surrogate character, instead of his companions.\nIn August 2003, the BBC had resolved the issues regarding production rights that had surfaced as a result of the jointly produced Universal Studios–BBC–Fox 1996 Doctor Who film, leading the Controller of BBC One Lorraine Heggessey and Controller of Drama Commissioning Jane Tranter to approach Gardner and Davies to create a revival of the series to air in a primetime slot on Saturday nights, as part of the BBC's plan to devolve production to its regional bases. By mid-September, they accepted the deal to produce the series alongside Casanova.\n\nWe were told that bringing it back would be impossible, that we would never capture this generation of children. But we did it.\nFollowing Scream of the Shalka, an animated episode which was shown on the Doctor Who website, the 'real' return of Doctor Who was announced on 26 September 2003 in a press release from the BBC.\nDavies voluntarily wrote a pitch for the series, the first time he had done so; he previously chose to jump straight to writing pilot episodes because he felt that a pitch would \"feel like [he's] killing the work\". The fifteen-page pitch outlined a Doctor who was \"your best friend; someone you want to be with all the time\"; the eighteen-year-old Rose Tyler as a \"perfect match\" for the new Doctor; avoidance of the forty-year back story \"except for the good bits\"; the retention of the TARDIS, sonic screwdriver, and Daleks; removal of the Time Lords; and also a greater focus on humanity. His pitch was submitted for the first production meeting in December 2003, with a series of thirteen episodes obtained by pressure from BBC Worldwide and a workable budget from Julie Gardner.\nBy early 2004, the show had settled into a regular production cycle. Davies, Gardner, and BBC Controller of Drama Mal Young took posts as executive producers, although Young vacated the role at the end of the series. Phil Collinson, an old colleague from Granada, took the role of producer. Keith Boak, Euros Lyn, Joe Ahearne, Brian Grant and James Hawes directed the series. Davies' official role as head writer and executive producer, or \"showrunner\", consisted of laying a skeletal plot for the entire series, holding \"tone meetings\" to correctly identify the tone of an episode, often being described in one word—for example, the \"tone word\" for Moffat's \"The Empty Child\" was \"romantic\"—and overseeing all aspects of production. During early production the word \"Torchwood\", an anagram of \"Doctor Who\", was used as a title ruse for the series while filming its first few episodes and on the daily rushes to ensure they were not intercepted. The word \"Torchwood\" was later seeded in Doctor Who and became the name of the spin-off series Torchwood.\nDavies was interested in making an episode that would serve as a crossover with Star Trek: Enterprise, and involve the TARDIS landing on board the NX-01. The idea was officially discussed, but the plans were abandoned following the cancellation of Enterprise in February 2005.\n\nWriting\nThe first series of Doctor Who featured eight scripts by Davies, the remainder being allocated to experienced drama writers and previous writers for the show's ancillary releases: Steven Moffat penned a two-episode story, while Mark Gatiss, Robert Shearman, and Paul Cornell each wrote one script. Davies also approached his friend Paul Abbott and Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling to write for the series, but both declined due to existing commitments. Shortly after securing writers for the show, Davies stated that he had no intention to approach writers for the old series; the only writer he would have wished to work with was Robert Holmes, who died in May 1986, halfway through writing his contribution to The Trial of a Time Lord.\nElwen Rowlands and Helen Raynor served as script editors for the series. They were hired simultaneous, marking the first time Doctor Who had female script editors. Rowlands left after the first series for Life on Mars. Compared to the original series the role of the script editors was significantly diminished, with the head writer taking most of those responsibilities. Unlike the original series they do not have the power to commission scripts. Instead, they act as liaisons between the production staff and the screenwriter, before passing their joint work to the head writer for a \"final polish\". Raynor said that the job is not a creative one, \"you are a part of it, but you aren't driving it.\"\nUnder producer Davies, the new series had a faster pace than those of the classic series. Rather than four to six-part serials of 25-minute episodes, most of the Ninth Doctor's stories consisted of individual 45-minute episodes, with only three stories out of ten being two-parters. The thirteen episodes were, however, loosely connected in a series-long story arc which brought their disparate threads together in the series finale. Davies took cues from American fantasy television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Smallville, most notably Buffy's concepts of series-long story arcs and the \"Big Bad\". Also, like the original series, stories often flowed directly into one another or were linked together in some way. Notably, in common only with the seventh and twenty-sixth seasons of the original series, every story of the season takes place on or near Earth. This fact is directly addressed in the original novel The Monsters Inside, in which Rose and the Doctor joke about the fact that all their adventures to date have taken place on Earth or on neighbouring space stations.\nThe stories of the series varied quite significantly in tone, with the production team showcasing the various genres inhabited by Doctor Who over the years. Examples include the \"pseudo-historical\" story \"The Unquiet Dead\"; the far-future whodunnit of \"The End of the World\"; Earthbound alien invasion stories in \"Rose\" and \"Aliens of London\"/\"World War Three\"; \"base under siege\" in \"Dalek\"; and horror in \"The Empty Child\". Even the spin-off media were represented, with \"Dalek\" taking elements from writer Rob Shearman's own audio play Jubilee and the emotional content of Paul Cornell's \"Father's Day\" drawing on the tone of Cornell's novels in the Virgin New Adventures line. Davies had asked both Shearman and Cornell to write their scripts with those respective styles in mind. The episode \"Boom Town\" included a reference to the novel The Monsters Inside, becoming the first episode to acknowledge (albeit in a subtle way) spin-off fiction.\n\nMusic\nMurray Gold composed the music for this series, which was entirely synthesised.\n\nFilming\nPrincipal photography for the series began on 18 July 2004 on location in Cardiff for \"Rose\". The series was filmed across South East Wales, mostly in or around Cardiff. Each episode took about two weeks to film. The start of filming created stress among the production team because of unseen circumstances: several scenes from the first block had to be re-shot because the original footage was unusable; the Slitheen prosthetics for \"Aliens of London\", \"World War Three\", and \"Boom Town\" were noticeably different from their computer-generated counterparts; and, most notably, the BBC came to a gridlock with the Terry Nation estate to secure the Daleks for the sixth episode of the series, to be written by Rob Shearman. After the first production block, which Davies described as \"hitting a brick wall\", the show's production was markedly eased as the crew familiarised themselves. Filming concluded on 23 March 2005. David Tennant, who was cast as Eccleston's replacement, recorded his appearance at the end of \"The Parting of the Ways\" on 21 April 2005 with a skeleton crew. Production blocks were arranged as follows:\n\nRelease\nPromotion\nThe new logo was revealed on the BBC website on 18 October 2004. The first official trailer was released as part of BBC One's Winter Highlights presentation on 2 December 2004 and subsequently posted on the Internet by the BBC. A media blitz including billboards and posters across the UK started early March 2005. Television trailers started showing up on 5 March and radio advertisements started two weeks before the series premiere and ran till the second episode aired. The official Doctor Who website was launched with exclusive content such as games and new Ninth Doctor information.\n\nLeak\nAn early edit of the premiere was leaked onto the Internet three weeks before the scheduled series premiere. This attracted much media attention and discussion amongst fans, and caused interest in the show to skyrocket. The BBC released a statement that the source of the leak appeared to be connected to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which responded by stating that they \"are looking into it. That's all I can say at this point because we don't know exactly what happened. It certainly wasn't done intentionally.\" Asa Bailey, founder of the Viral Advertising Association, said that the BBC hired them for viral marketing strategies, and that he told them \"they should release things before their time\", to create a \"cool factor\". Both the BBC and CBC denied any involvement, but Bailey believes that to be disingenuous, saying that it is \"the best viral advert they could have done\". The leak was ultimately traced to a third-party company in Canada which had a legitimate preview copy. The employee responsible was fired by the company.\n\nBroadcast\n\"Rose\" finally saw transmission on schedule on 26 March 2005 at 7 pm on BBC One, the first regular episode of Doctor Who since Part Three of Survival on 6 December 1989. To complement the series, BBC Wales also produced Doctor Who Confidential, a 13-part documentary series with each episode broadcast on BBC Three immediately after the end of the weekly instalment on BBC One. Both the series and documentary aired for 13 consecutive weeks, with the finale episode, \"The Parting of the Ways\", airing on 18 June 2005 along with its documentary counterpart. Davies had requested that the two first episodes be broadcast back-to-back, but the request was given to the BBC just two weeks before transmission, at which point everything was already set. In some regions, the first few minutes of the original BBC broadcast of \"Rose\" on 26 March were marred by the accidental mixing of a few seconds of sound from Graham Norton hosting Strictly Dance Fever.\nIn the United States, the Sci Fi Channel originally passed on the new series as it found it lacking and believed it did not fit in its schedule, but the network later changed its mind. After it was announced that the first series would start in March 2006, Sci Fi Channel executive vice president Thomas Vitale called Doctor Who \"a true sci-fi classic\", with creative storytelling and colorful history, and was excited to add it to its line up. The network also took an option on the second series. Candace Carlisle from BBC Worldwide found the Sci Fi Channel the perfect home for Doctor Who. Doctor Who finally debuted in the U.S. on the Sci Fi Channel on 17 March 2006 with the first two episodes airing back-to-back, one year after the Canadian and UK showings. The series concluded its initial U.S. broadcast on 9 June 2006.\n\nHome media\nDVD and Blu-ray releases\nThe series was first released in volumes; the first volume, containing the first three episodes, was released in Region 2 on 16 May 2005. The second, with \"Aliens of London\", \"World War Three\", and \"Dalek\", followed on 13 June 2005. \"The Long Game\", \"Father's Day\", \"The Empty Child\", and \"The Doctor Dances\" were released in the third volume on 1 August 2005 and the final three episodes were released in the fourth volume on 5 September 2005.\nThe entire series was then released in a boxset on 21 November 2005 in Region 2. Aside from the 13 episodes it included commentaries on every episode, a video diary from Davies during the first week of filming, as well as other featurettes. The boxset was released in Region 1 on 4 July 2006.\nAll releases are for DVD unless otherwise indicated:\n\n(D) indicates a DVD release for a specific date\n(B) indicates a Blu-ray release\n\nUMD releases\nIn print\nReception\nRatings\n\"Rose\" received average overnight ratings of 9.9 million viewers, peaking at 10.5 million, respectively 43.2% and 44.3% of all viewers at that time. The final figure for the episode, including video recordings watched within a week of transmission, was 10.81 million, making it the third highest for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels. The opening episode was the highest rated episode of the first series. The penultimate episode, \"Bad Wolf\", received the lowest viewers of the series with just 6.81 million viewers. The series also garnered the highest audience Appreciation Index of any non-soap drama on television. Besides the second episode, \"The End of the World\", which garnered a 79% rating, the lowest of the series, all episodes received an AI above 80%. The series finale \"The Parting of the Ways\" was the highest rated episode with an AI of 89%. The success of the launch saw the BBC's Head of Drama Jane Tranter confirming on 30 March that the series would return both for a Christmas Special in December 2005 and a full second series in 2006.\nThe initial Sci Fi Channel broadcasts of the series attained an average Nielsen Rating of 1.3, representing 1.5 million viewers in total. Although these ratings were less than those reached by Sci Fi's original series Battlestar Galactica, Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis, they reflect a 44% increase in ratings and a 56% increase in viewership over the same timeslot in the second quarter of 2005, as well as increases of 56% and 57% in two key demographics.\n\nCritical reception\nReview aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes offers an 83% approval from 12 critic reviews, and an average rating of 8.6/10.\nIn April 2004, Michael Grade returned to the BBC, this time as the Chairman of the Board of Governors, although this position does not involve any commissioning or editorial responsibilities. Although he had previously disliked the show and imposed an eighteen-month hiatus on it during the Sixth Doctor era, he eventually wrote an e-mail to the Director-General of the BBC Mark Thompson in June 2005, after the successful new first series, voicing approval for its popularity. He also declared, \"[I] never dreamed I would ever write this. I must be going soft!\" The revival also impressed former Doctor Sylvester McCoy, who praised Eccleston and Piper as well as their characters, and the pacing of the first episode. His only criticism was about the new TARDIS interior, though he did comment that he was \"also a bit dismayed that more wasn't made of the show's incidental music, which seemed fairly anonymous in the background\".\nRobin Oliver of The Sydney Morning Herald praised Davies for taking \"an adult approach to one of television's most famous characters\" that children would appreciate, and that he reinvented it in a way that would be \"competitive in a high-tech market\". Oliver also wrote that older viewers would find Eccleston \"easily the best time lord since Tom Baker\". Reviewing the first episode, The Stage's Harry Venning hailed it as a \"fabulous, imaginative, funny and sometimes frightening reinvention\" and particularly praised Rose for being an improvement upon previous female companions who were \"fit only to scream or be captured\". However, he found Eccleston to be \"the show's biggest disappointment\" as he looked \"uncomfortable playing fantasy\". Digital Spy's Dek Hogan found the final episode anticlimactic, but overall said that the series was \"excellent Saturday night telly of the kind that many of us thought the BBC had forgotten how to make\". He praised Eccleston's performance and named \"The Empty Child\" and \"The Doctor Dances\" as the best episodes. Arnold T Blumburg of Now Playing gave the series a grade of A−, praising its variety. However, he was critical of Davies' \"annoying tendency to play to the lowest common denominator with toilet humor\", but felt that from \"Dalek\" on the series was more dramatic and sophisticated.\nDVD Talk's John Sinnott rated the first series four and a half out of five stars, writing that it \"keeps a lot of the charm and excitement of the original (as well as the premise), while making the series easily accessible for new viewers\". Sinnott praised the faster pace and the design changes that made it feel \"fresh\", as well as Eccleston's Doctor. However, he felt that Piper only did a \"credible\" job as Eccleston eclipsed her, and said that the writing was \"uneven\" with many of the episodes \"just slightly flawed\". Looking back on the series in 2011, Stephen Kelly of The Guardian wrote, \"Eccleston's Doctor may have had many faults – looking like an EastEnders extra and bellowing \"FANTASTIC!\" at every opportunity being two of them – but he was merely a reflection of a show that, at the time, still didn't know what it wanted to be. The first series of the revived Doctor Who – which featured farting aliens – was a world away from the intelligent, populist science-fiction we know it as now. But then, it is thanks to Eccleston that it got this far at all – a big, respectable name who laid the foundations for Tennant to swag away with the show.\"\nHowever, not everyone was pleased with the new production. Some fans criticised the new logo and perceived changes to the TARDIS model. According to various news sources, members of the production team even received hate mail and death threats. \"The Unquiet Dead\" was criticised by parents, who felt that the episode was \"too scary\" for their young children; the BBC dismissed the complaints, saying that it had never been intended for the youngest of children.\n\nAwards and nominations\nSoundtrack\nSelected pieces of score from the first series, second series, and \"The Runaway Bride\", as composed by Murray Gold, were released on 4 December 2006 by Silva Screen Records. The cues from the first series were re-recorded by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, the original music having been created using orchestral samples.\nGold's arrangement of the main theme featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added: an orchestral sound of low horns, strings and percussion and part of the Dalek ray-gun and TARDIS materialisation sound effects. Included on the album are two versions of the theme: the 44-second opening version, as arranged by Gold, and a longer arrangement that includes the middle eight, after Gold omitted the \"middle eight\" from both the opening and closing credits. Gold has said that his interpretation was driven by the title visual sequence he was given to work around. Often erroneously cited as being the same as the end credits version, this second version is in fact a new arrangement and recording.\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nAldridge, Mark; Murray, Andy (30 November 2008). T is for Television: The Small Screen Adventures of Russell T Davies. Reynolds & Hearn Ltd. ISBN 978-1-905287-84-0.\nRussell, Gary (2006). Doctor Who: The Inside Story. London: BBC Books. ISBN 978-0-563-48649-7.\n\nExternal links\n\nOfficial website\nDoctor Who at IMDb\nDoctor Who at epguides.com",
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"paragraph_text": "Skylark was a family of British sounding rockets. It was operational between 1957 and 2005.\nDevelopment of the Skylark begun during the early 1950s at the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), which approached the Royal Society with an offer for it to carry scientific experiments. During early 1955, the British government agreed to provide £100,000 to support the programme's operations for four years. Development of the Skylark, initially known as the CTV.5 Series 3, was pursued at a rapid pace, with hopes that initial launches could take place during the latter half of 1956. On 7 April 1956, the existence of the Skylark rocket was publicly revealed under the early name of Gassiot vehicle. Launch facilities were established at the existing Woomera missile range in Australia; the Skylarks were produced in Britain and flown to Australia for final assembly, testing, and launching.\nThe Skylark was first launched on 13 February 1957; the first scientific mission occurred during April 1958, quickly becoming regarded as a valuable platform for various fields of research. The vast majority of launches would be performed from Woomera, although other launch sites would later be used at sites across Europe and South America. The British government opted to terminate its support of the programme in 1977, with responsibility for Skylark being turned over to British Aerospace. It continued to be operated for decades more. The 441st and final launch of the Skylark took place from Esrange, Sweden, on 2 May 2005. Launches had been carried out from various purposes, with some military missions being flown, users extended far beyond the UK to include NASA, the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO), and German and Swedish space organizations.\n\nHistory\nDevelopment\nThe origins of the Skylark can be traced back to decisions made in the aftermath of the Second World War. Unlike some powers, the United Kingdom had not opted to immediately proceed with work on long-range rocketry; however, the Ministry of Supply did work on defensive guided weaponry, leading to the arrival of surface-to-air missiles such as the Bloodhound during the 1950s. To conduct these programmes, the ministry developed a series of test missiles for research and development. During May 1953, amid the preparations for a major conference in Oxford on rocket-based exploration of the upper atmosphere, the Ministry of Supply approached the Gassiot Committee of the Royal Society with an offer of using ministry rockets for scientific research. This offer, while positively received, was quickly realised to far exceed what would be affordable to the universities. During February 1954, a group of scientists enthusiastically responded to a closed briefing on a Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) project, the CTV.5 Series 3 rocket (which would later adopt the name Skylark). The CTV series of rockets had originally been used to investigate aerodynamic control of missiles, yet the Skylark was stated to be capable of carrying a payload of 100 lb to an altitude of 200 km (124 mi).\nThe Royal Society promptly approached HM Treasury with a request for £100,000 to fund upper atmospheric rocket research over the course of four years. There was considerable interest in exploring the ionosphere, which was relatively unknown at that time, and Skylark would be a revolutionary tool for its study. During April 1955, following the approval of funding, the research programme formally commenced; roughly half of the £100,000 was spent on the vehicles themselves, while the remainder covered the costs of scientific instruments and technical staff. Various university groups were responsible for the design and construction of the scientific instruments carried, as well as post-mission analysis; all other aspects were the responsibility of the Ministry of Supply. A subcommittee of the Gassiot Committee coordinated the overall programme.\nIn addition to its scientific role, Skylark was also to serve a military purpose, being available to the RAE's research programme, including in the development of ballistic missiles; in return, the RAE provided considerable assistance in the rocket's design, manufacture, preparation, and firing. Numerous RAE personnel were allocated to the Skylark initiative. A relatively ambitious target date for the first launch was set for the summer of 1956 during the International Geophysical Year, necessitating development to be completed in little over a year. Additional support for the Skylark programme was sourced from the Rocket Propulsion Establishment (RPE) at Westcott with the development and testing of the Raven 1 rocket engine.\nOn 7 April 1956, the existence of the Skylark rocket was publicly revealed under the early name of Gassiot vehicle. Even before this announcement, it had been decided that Skylark would be fired from the Woomera rocket range in Australia. While work did proceed at a fast pace on the project, an ignition problem encountered during the RPE's proof testing forced the postponement of the first launch past a November 1956 slot and, partially due to the Woomera's range's closure for Christmas, was delayed until the following year. On 13 February 1957, the Skylark performed its first launch from Woomera; for this initial test flight, it carried no experimental payload save for RAE test instrumentation to monitor the rocket's performance. It was the first long range vehicle to be launched from Woomera.\n\nOperations\nDuring April 1958, scientific use of the Skylark commenced, marking the programme's attainment of true operational status. Unlike the majority of missile/rocket programmes, which would only temporarily be based at Woomera until they matured, Skylark continued to operate at Woomera as its long term home. This arrangement necessitated an international supply chain between Britain and South Australia; early Skylarks were transported by plane, along with a kit of parts that were locally assembled by a mostly Australian workforce. Once assembled, the rockets would be transported a further 270 miles to the actual range for roughly two weeks of final preparation ahead of launching. After multiple rounds of testing, the rocket would be mounted on a trailer and taken to the launch platform, usually two days prior to the launch date; the launch itself was overseen by Australian Weapons Research Establishment personnel from an underground control room at the edge of the concrete apron.\n\nThe pace of launches climbed rapidly in the first four years of the programme; while eight Skylarks were launched in 1958, this rose to 17 during 1961. The good performance record and value of the Skylark programme was recognised by the British government's Advisory Council on Scientific Policy in 1961. Yet, there were figures within the RAE that felt that the overall success rate of the programme of 40% was far beneath that of the rocket itself, which had a 90% success rate; this was speculated to have been due to the somewhat informal administrative process of the programme and a lack of funding. Some funding had been made available for improvements, such as the continuous development of the Raven rocket motor.\nDuring the 1960s, Skylark proved itself to be an excellent platform for space astronomy, possessing the ability to point at the Sun, Moon, or a star. It was used to obtain the first good-quality X-ray images of the solar corona. In 1963 alone, a total of 14 experiments relating to solar physics were conducted using the Skylark. Within the UK national programme, the frequency of Skylark launches peaked at 20 during 1965 (from Woomera), a total of 198 flights took place between 1957 and 1978 alone.\nDuring the mid-1960s, a key improvement in the form of the stabilised payload system was introduced; as Skylark was designed as a fin-stabilised rocket, there was no guidance once outside of the atmosphere, causing the vehicle to tumble and spin. The new stabilisation system used a pair of gyroscopes connected to thermionic amplifiers to appropriately actuate a series of control valves; it was first deployed in 1961 and became routine by the end of the decade. One rejected enhancement around this time was the construction of a second launch platform at Woomera.\nBy February 1967, the tenth anniversary of the Skylark's first launch, 157 launches had been performed, carrying in excess of 300 scientific experiments. The first X-ray surveys of the sky in the Southern Hemisphere were provided by Skylark launches. Multiple Skylarks were used with atypically high precision during September and October 1972 in an effort to locate the optical counterpart of X-ray source GX3+1 by lunar occultation.\nAs early as June 1965, Australia made informal requests to have use of several Skylark launches; these requests were complicated by their informal nature and a lack of budget for such endeavours. Occasionally, Australian scientific experiments were flown on Skylarks being used for RAE tests, as these did not typically make much use of the payload capability. During 1975, the Federal Republic of Germany through the DFVLR (now German Aerospace Center or DLR) agreed with Australia to cooperate on the launch of a Skylark rocket at Woomera for scientific purposes. This launch took place on 14 March 1975. This was followed by three more, launched on 22 February, 13 March 1979, and 24 August 1987.\nSkylarks were constructed in quantity into the late 1970s, up until the British government decided to terminate the programme in 1977, having concluded that future \"low weight\" research would be carried out using NASA's Space Shuttle instead. Furthermore, by the 1970s, sounding rockets in general were facing increasing competition from scientific satellites, which could conduct missions for far longer terms and across a greater geographical range. The Skylark programme was transferred to British Aerospace, who subsequently sold it to Matra Marconi Space. While the number of launches declined substantially during the late 1970s and the 1980s, the scientific payloads being carried by Skylarks were becoming increasingly complex and ambitious. During 1999, Marconi sold the programme to a small private company, Sounding Rocket Services, based in Bristol.\nBeginning in 2018, Skyrora, a British aerospace & launch company, has developed and launched a new series of \"Skylark\" sounding rockets, reviving the name. They have launched from northern Scotland, where Shetland spaceport and Sutherland spaceport are being built, and also from Iceland. They plan to also develop a satellite launch vehicle which will launch from the UK, which will be a first for the country, which previously only launched satellites from Woomera, Australia.\n\nDescription\nThe basic Skylark is 7.6 metres (25 ft) long, 0.44 metres (17 in) in diameter and has a fin span of 0.96 metres (38 in). Booster stages can increase the height to 12.8 metres (42 ft). The original version was propelled by 840 kilograms (1,850 lb) of solid fuel, which enabled 45 kilograms (99 lb) to be launched to an altitude of over 200 kilometres (120 mi). \nImprovements were made to the engine and the use of a booster increased the payload to 200 kilograms (440 lb) in 1960. Skylark 12, from 1976, could lift 200 kilograms (440 lb) to 575 kilometres (357 mi) altitude.\nDue to its small mass and low thrust, the original version of the Skylark had to be launched from a 25 metres (82 ft) tilting tower to overcome the effects of the wind. Later versions only required a simple trailer.\n\nOn display\nSkylark Rockets are on display in the following locations:\n\nUniversity of Leicester, Department of Physics and Astronomy. (Skylark Raven (c. 1957)).\nNational Space Centre in Leicester. (Skylark Goldfinch Raven).\nMullard Space Science Laboratory, Surrey, England. (Skylark 7 (Goldfinch II, Raven XI)).\nRoyal Observatory, Edinburgh, Visitor Centre, Edinburgh, Scotland. (Skylark Nosecone only).\nRocketry Museum, Woomera, Australia (Skylark Nosecone only).\nWoomera Missile Park, Woomera, Australia (Cuckoo, Raven).\nThe Euro Space Center in Belgium (Replica).\nQVMAG, Launceston, Tasmania, Australia.\nAerospace Bristol, Filton, Bristol, England.\nIn the possession of Mexborough & Swinton Astronomical Society in South Yorkshire, England.\nSolna strandvag 86, Stockholm, Sweden. (Partly viewable from the waterfront).\nSouth Australian Aviation Museum Port Adelaide, Australia Skylark (Raven), Skylark (Cuckoo, Raven) and Skylark Instrument section.\n\nSee also\nBlack Arrow\nBlack Knight\nBlue Streak (missile)\nSkylark launch tower\nSkyrora Skylark\n\nReferences\nCitations\nBibliography\nBrand, Robin H. (2014). Britain's First Space Rocket – The story of the Skylark (1st ed.). YPD Books. ISBN 978-0-9929896-0-6.\n\nExternal links\n\nSkylark sounding rockets\nBBC News article on final launch",
"title": "Skylark_(rocket)"
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] | What Doctor Who episode aired on a date closest to the 441st launch of the Skylark rocket? | [] | Dalek | [] | true |
103 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic, sometimes Afrasian), also known as Hamito-Semitic or Semito-Hamitic, are a language family (or \"phylum\") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara and Sahel. Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Niger–Congo. Most linguists divide the family into six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to the African continent, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch.\nArabic, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa. Other major Afroasiatic languages include the Cushitic Oromo language with 45 million native speakers, Chadic Hausa language with over 34 million, the Semitic Amharic language with 25 million, and the Cushitic Somali language with 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the Semitic Tigrinya and Modern Hebrew, the Cushitic Sidaama, and the Omotic Wolaitta language, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size. There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have since died or gone extinct, including Egyptian and the Semitic languages Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew, Phoenician, Amorite, and Ugaritic. There is no consensus among historical linguists as to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known as Proto-Afroasiatic, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in the Levant. The reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists.\nComparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as the fourth millennium BC, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries. While systematic sound laws have not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns. Other widely shared features include a prefix m- which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel \"a\" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence of pharyngeal fricatives. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes deriving middle (t-), causative (s-), and passive (m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic).\n\nName\nIn current scholarship, the most common names for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance include Erythraic/Erythraean, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite.\nFriedrich Müller introduced the name Hamito-Semitic to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft (1876). The variant Semito-Hamitic is mostly used in older Russian sources. The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons of Noah as attested in the Book of Genesis's Table of Nations passage: \"Semitic\" from the first-born Shem, and \"Hamitic\" from the second-born Ham (Genesis 5:32). Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, while Ham was the father of the Egyptians and Cushites. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as a Canaanite language, while the Elamites are ascribed to Shem despite their language being totally unrelated to Hebrew. The term Semitic for the Semitic languages had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlözer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. Hamitic was first used by Ernest Renan in 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back as Isidore of Seville in the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of \"Hamian\" or \"Hamitish\" languages.\nThe term Hamito-Semitic has largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German. Several issues with the label Hamito-Semitic have led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests that a monophyletic \"Hamitic\" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition, Joseph Greenberg has argued that Hamitic possesses racial connotations, and that \"Hamito-Semitic\" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and doesn't imply a duality of Semitic and \"Hamitic\" any more than Indo-European implies a duality of Indic and \"European\". Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement of Hamito-Semitic is difficult.\nWhile Greenberg ultimately popularized the name \"Afroasiatic\" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally by Maurice Delafosse, as French afroasiatique, in 1914. The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia. Due to concerns that \"Afroasiatic\" could imply the inclusion of all languages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name \"Afrasian\" (Russian: afrazijskije) was proposed by Igor Diakonoff in 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars.\nThe names Lisramic—based on the Afroasiastic root *lis- (\"tongue\") and the Egyptian word rmṯ (\"person\")—and Erythraean—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, the Red Sea—have also been proposed.\n\nDistribution and branches\nScholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon are Berber (also called \"Libyco-Berber\"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Most specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a \"linguistic phylum\" rather than a \"language family\".\nM. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic; Ethnologue lists 375 languages. Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of \"language\" and \"dialect\".\n\nBerber\nThe Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt; since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places.\nThere are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE.\n\nChadic\nChadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages. The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad Basin, with the exception of Hausa. Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct. Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists.\n\nCushitic\nThere are about 30 Cushitic languages, more if Omotic is included, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers. Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area, Meroitic or Old Nubian. The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770; written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century.\n\nEgyptian\nThe Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Egyptian (often called \"Ancient Egyptian\"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt, but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church.\n\nOmotic\nThe c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. The two Omotic languages with the most speakers are Wolaitta and Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, with about 1.2 million speakers each.\nA majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch; some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology.\n\nSemitic\nThere are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today, with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers. \nMost authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE.\n\nOther proposed branches\nThere are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:\n\nLinguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-extinct Ongota language is a separate branch of Afroasiatic; however, this is only one of several competing theories. About half of current scholarly hypotheses on Ongota's origins align it with Afroasiatic in some way.\nRobert Hetzron proposed that Beja is not part of Cushitic, but a separate branch. The prevailing opinion, however, is that Beja is a branch of Cushitic.\nThe extinct Meroitic language has been proposed to represent a branch of Afroasiatic. Although an Afroasiatic connection is sometimes viewed as refuted, it continues to be defended by scholars such as Edward Lipiński.\nThe Kujarge language is usually considered part of the Chadic languages; however, Roger Blench has proposed that it may be a separate branch of Afroasiatic.\n\nFurther subdivisions\nThere is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Whereas Marcel Cohen (1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals, with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012.\nCommon trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic. In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to argue that Chadic and Egyptian are closely related, and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber. Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997). In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group. Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off. Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret and Igor Diakonoff.\nResponding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup. Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with Egyptian, presently with Omotic). Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincing isoglosses on which to base genetic distinctions.\nOne way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such as lexicostatistics, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983. This is also the method used by Alexander Militarev and Sergei Starostin to create a family tree. Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin. Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship. They note the method's inability to detect various strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA.\n\nClassification history\nA relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named \"Semitic\" by August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781. In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called \"Ethiopic\"). In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. In 1855, Ernst Renan named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, \"Hamitic,\" in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876 Friedrich Müller first described them as a \"Hamito-Semitic\" language family. Müller assumed that there existed a distinct \"Hamitic\" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, \"Negroid\" Chadic languages were in the same family as the \"Caucasian\" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites.\n\nAn important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the \"Hamitic theory\" or \"Hamitic hypothesis\" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. This theory connected the \"Hamites\", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) \"Caucasians\", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous \"Negroid\" Africans in ancient times. The \"Hamitic theory\" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 book Die Sprache der Hamiten. On one hand, the \"Hamitic\" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into \"Hamito-Chadic\", and an unrelated non-Hamitic \"Chadic\" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender. On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa.\nThe first scholar to question the existence of \"Hamitic languages\" was Marcel Cohen in 1924, with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s. However, Meinhof's \"Hamitic\" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven by Joseph Greenberg in the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data. Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent \"Omotic\" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted. These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family.\nGreenberg relied on his own method of mass comparison of vocabulary items rather than the comparative method of demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family. An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967. As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly established. Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed its genetic validity.\n\nOrigin\nTimeline\nThere is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary. The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE. An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family. Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to areal contact, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.\n\nLocation\nLikewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated. Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia. Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses \"a strong ideological flavor\", with associations between an Asian origin and \"high civilization\". An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Further subdivisions) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-Southern Cushitic languages and the East African Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates the Proto-Cushitic speakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 ago, as well as the speakers of the Proto-Zenati variety of the Berber languages with an expansion across the Maghreb in the 5th century CE.\nAn origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support, and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data. Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution, \"in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa.\" The Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there. Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherers, arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”.\nA significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic, most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley.\n\nPhonological characteristics\nAfroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features.\n\nSyllable structure\nEgyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). Igor Diakonoff argues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel, however in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable.\nWith the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant. Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. \nSyllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word.\n\nConsonant systems\nSeveral Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic. All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. AA languages tend to have pharyngeal fricative consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing ħ and ʕ. In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. Additionally, the glottal stop (ʔ) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all.\nMost, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish between voiceless, voiced, and \"emphatic\" consonants. The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others; they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless.\nA form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. Several Omotic languages have \"sibilant harmony\", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match.\n\nConsonant incompatibility\nRestrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.\nA set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: \"back consonants\" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), \"front consonants\" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. These rules also have a number of exceptions:\n\nvelar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals;\ndental consonants can co-occur with sibilants; However, there are no Proto-Semitic verbal roots with ḍ and a sibilant, and roots with d and a sibilant are uncommon. In all attested cases of a dental and a sibilant, the sibilant occurs in first position and the dental in second.\nSimilar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. James P. Allen has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals.\n\nVowel systems\nThere is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA, and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably.\nAll branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony.\n\nTones\nThe majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from a pitch accent.\n\nSimilarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology\nAt present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations. Moreover, all Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages. There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use of suffixes, infixes, vowel lengthening and shortening as a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology. Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below.\n\nGeneral features\nConsonantal root structures\nA widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic \"templates\" are placed. This structure is particularly visible in the verbs, and is particularly noticeable in Semitic. Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber, where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template. In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well.\nMost Semitic verbs are triliteral (have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants). The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated. It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such as verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways.\n\nAs part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait; the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well.\n\nWord order\nIt remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order, but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order.\n\nReduplication and gemination\nAfroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed.\n\nNouns\nGrammatical gender and number\nThe assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family. This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic (\"gender stability\"). In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness. In addition to these uses, -t also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages.\n\nAfroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity), while in others, plural forms are ungendered. In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). These so-called \"internal-a\" or \"broken\" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication.\n\nNoun cases and states\nNouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object.\n\nA second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of \"state\". Linguists use the term \"state\" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the \"free state\" or the \"construct state\". The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). Edward Lipiński refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a \"free\" (absolute) state, a \"construct state\", and a \"pronominal state\". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Berber instead contrasts between the \"free state\" and the \"annexed state\", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions.\n\nModifiers and agreement\nThere is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic. All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category of adjectives except for Chadic; some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality and stative verbs. In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun. In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun.\nIn those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying. However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking).\nA widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA.\n\nVerb forms\nTenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)\nThere is no agreement about which tenses, aspects, or moods (TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived (marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb. Another common trait across the family is the use of a suppletive imperative for verbs of motion.\n\n\"Prefix conjugation\"\nConjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found\nin Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic, where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Prefixes of ʔ- (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. As there is no evidence for the \"prefix conjugation\" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic.\n\n\"Suffix conjugation\"\nSome AA branches have what is called a \"suffix conjugation\", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective. In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a \"stative conjugation\", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments, as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses.\n\nCommon derivational affixes\nM-prefix noun derivation\nA prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns, and is one of the features Joseph Greenberg used to diagnose membership in the family. It forms agent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns. In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender. Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages.\n\nVerbal extensions\nMany AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'; the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches. Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions.\n\n\"Nisba\" derivation\nThe so-called \"Nisba\" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic, taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to \"nisba\" adjective derivation.\n\nDue to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a \"quintessentially Afroasiatic feature\". Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases.\n\nVocabulary comparison\nPronouns\nThe forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic), and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of \"independent\" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a nasal consonant (n, m), whereas the third person displays a sibilant consonant (s, sh). Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. These pronouns tend to show a masculine \"u\" and a feminine \"i\". The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate.\n\nNumerals\nUnlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9. Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way. Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two, and Semitic has four words for one. Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers \"one\", \"two\", and \"five\" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with \"five\" often based on a word meaning \"hand\".\nAnother factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages.\n\nCognates\nAfroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. Writing in 2004, John Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages.\nThere are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as \"controversial\", and Ehret's as \"not acceptable to many scholars\". Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages. Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences.\n\nAbbreviations: PEC='Proto-Eastern Cushtic'.\n\nSee also\nNotes\nCitations\nWorks cited\nExternal links\nAfro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006\nAfro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk \"Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data\" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there (in Russian)\nRoot Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, by Alexander Militarev in \"Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic\", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.\nAkkadian-Egyptian lexical matches, by Alexander Militarev in \"Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg.\" Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145.\nA comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions\n\"Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?\" by Rolf Theil (2006)\nAfro-Asiatic webpage of Roger Blench (with family tree).",
"title": "Afroasiatic_languages"
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"paragraph_text": "Central Atlas Tamazight or Atlasic (native name: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ Tamazight [tæmæˈzɪxt, θæmæˈzɪxθ]; Arabic: أمازيغية أطلس الأوسط) is a Berber language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken by 3.1 million speakers.\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is one of the most-spoken Berber languages, along with Tachelhit, Kabyle, Riffian, Shawiya and Tuareg. In Morocco, it comes second as the most-spoken after Tachelhit. All five languages may be referred to as \"Tamazight\", but Central Atlas speakers are the only ones who use the term exclusively. As is typical of Afroasiatic languages, Tamazight has a series of \"emphatic consonants\" (realized as pharyngealized), uvulars, pharyngeals and lacks the phoneme /p/. Tamazight has a phonemic three-vowel system but also has numerous words without vowels.\nCentral Atlas Tamazight (unlike neighbouring Tashelhit) had no known significant writing tradition until the 20th century. It is now officially written in the Tifinagh script for instruction in Moroccan schools, while descriptive linguistic literature commonly uses the Latin alphabet, and the Arabic alphabet has also been used.\nThe standard word order is verb–subject–object but sometimes subject–verb–object. Words inflect for gender, number and state, using prefixes, suffixes and circumfixes. Verbs are heavily inflected, being marked for tense, aspect, mode, voice, person of the subject and polarity, sometimes undergoing ablaut. Pervasive borrowing from Arabic extends to all major word classes, including verbs; borrowed verbs, however, are conjugated according to native patterns, including ablaut.\n\nClassification\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is one of the four most-spoken Berber languages, in addition to Kabyle, Tachelhit, and Riffian, and it comes second as the most-spoken Berber language after Tachelhit in Morocco. Differentiating these dialects is complicated by the fact that speakers of other languages may also refer to their language as 'Tamazight'. The differences between all three groups are largely phonological and lexical, rather than syntactic. Tamazight itself has a relatively large degree of internal diversity, including whether spirantization occurs.\nCentral Atlas Tamazight speakers refer to themselves as Amazigh (pl. Imazighen), an endonymic ethnonym whose etymology is uncertain, but may translate as \"free people\". The term Tamazight, the feminine form of Amazigh, refers to the language. Both words are also used self-referentially by other Berber groups, although Central Atlas Tamazight speakers use them regularly and exclusively.\nIn older studies, Central Atlas Tamazight is sometimes referred to as \"Braber\" / \"Beraber\", a dialectical Arabic term, or its Tamazight equivalent \"Taberbrit\". This is related to the Standard Arabic and English term \"Berber\", used to refer to all Berber dialects/languages, though eschewed by many Berbers because its etymology is pejorative.\nTamazight belongs to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic language family; Afroasiatic subsumes a number of languages in North Africa and Southwest Asia including the Semitic languages, the Egyptian language, and the Chadic and Cushitic languages. Along with most other Berber languages, Tamazight has retained a number of widespread Afroasiatic features, including a two-gender system, verb–subject–object (VSO) typology, emphatic consonants (realized in Tamazight as pharyngealized), a templatic morphology, and a causative morpheme /s/ (the latter also found in other macrofamilies, such as the Niger–Congo languages). Within Berber, Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, along with neighbouring Tashelhiyt, to the Atlas branch of the Northern Berber subgroup.\nTamazight is in the middle of a dialect continuum between Riff to its north-east and Shilha to its south-west. The basic lexicon of Tamazight differs markedly from Shilha, and its verbal system is more similar to Riff or Kabyle. Moreover, Tamazight has a greater amount of internal diversity than Shilha.\nTamazight's dialects are divided into three distinct subgroups and geographic regions: those spoken in the Middle Atlas mountains; those spoken in the High Atlas mountains; and those spoken in Jbel Saghro and its foothills. Although the characteristic spirantization of /b/ > [β]; /t/ > [θ] or [h]; /d/ > [ð]; /k/ > [ç] or [ʃ]; and /ɡ/ > [ʝ], [ʃ] or [j] is apparent in Berber languages in central and northern Morocco and Algeria, as in many Middle Atlas dialects, it is more rare in High Atlas Tamazight speakers, and is absent in Tamazight speakers from the foothills of Jbel Saghro. Southern dialects (e.g. Ayt Atta) may also be differentiated syntactically: while other dialects predicate with the auxiliary /d/ (e.g. /d argaz/ \"it's a man\"), Southern dialects use the typically (High Atlas, Souss-Basin rural country, Jbel Atlas Saghro) auxiliary verb /g/ (e.g. /iga argaz/ \"it's a man\"). The differences between each of the three groups are primarily phonological.\nGroups speaking Tamazight include: Ait Ayache, Ait Morghi, Ait Alaham, Ait Youb, Marmoucha, Ait Youssi, Beni Mguild, Zayane, Zemmour, Ait Rbaa, Ait Seri, Guerouane, Ait Segougou, Ait Yafelman, Ait Sikhmane, Ayt Ndhir (Beni Mtir).\nThere is some ambiguity as to the eastern boundary of Central Atlas Tamazight. The dialect of the Ait Seghrouchen and Ait Ouarain tribes are commonly classed as Central Atlas Tamazight, and Ait Seghrouchen is reported to be mutually intelligible with the neighbouring Tamazight dialect of Ait Ayache. Genetically, however, they belong to the Zenati subgroup of Northern Berber, rather than to the Atlas subgroup to which the rest of Central Atlas Tamazight belongs, and are therefore excluded by some sources from Central Atlas Tamazight. The Ethnologue lists another group of Zenati dialects, South Oran Berber (ksours sud-oranais), as a dialect of Central Atlas Tamazight, but these are even less similar, and are treated by Berber specialists as a separate dialect group.\n\nHistory\nThe Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean since before recorded history began in the region about 33 centuries ago. By the 5th century BC, the city of Carthage, founded by Phoenicians, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa; in the wake of the Punic Wars, Rome replaced it as regional hegemon. The Central Atlas region itself remained independent throughout the classical period, but occasional loanwords into Central Atlas Tamazight, such as ayugu, \"plough ox\", from Latin iugum, \"team of oxen\" and aẓalim \"onion\" < Punic bṣal-im, bear witness to their ancestors' contact with these conquerors.\nArabs conquered the area of modern-day Morocco and Algeria around the 7th century, prompting waves of Arab migration and Berber adoption of Islam. Particularly following the arrival of the Banu Hilal in modern-day Tunisia in the 11th century, more and more of North Africa became Arabic-speaking over the centuries. However, along with other high mountainous regions of North Africa, the Middle Atlas continued to speak Berber.\n\nBetween the 12th and 15th centuries, the Central Atlas, along with the rest of Morocco, successively fell within the domain of the Berber Almoravid, Almohad, and Marinid dynasties. Since the 17th century the region has acknowledged the rule of the Alaouite Dynasty, the current Moroccan royal family. However, effective control of the region was limited; until the 20th century much of the Central Atlas was in a condition of siba, recognising the spiritual legitimacy of royal authority but rejecting its political claims. The expansion of the Ait Atta starting from the 16th century brought Tamazight back into the already Arabised Tafilalt region and put other regional tribes on the defensive, leading to the formation of the Ait Yafelman alliance.\nThe 1912 Treaty of Fez made most of Morocco a French-Spanish protectorate (under French and Spanish military occupation), leaving the Alaouite monarchy but establishing a French military presence in the Atlas region and installing a French commissioner-general. However, the Berber tribes of the Middle Atlas, as in other areas, put up stiff military resistance to French rule, lasting until 1933 in the case of the Ait Atta.\nAfter Morocco's independence in 1956, a strong emphasis was laid on the country's Arab identity, and a national Arabic language educational system was instituted, in which Berber languages, including Middle Atlas Tamazight, had no place. However, in 1994 the government responded to Berber demands for recognition by decreeing that Berber should be taught and establishing television broadcasts in three Berber languages, including Central Atlas Tamazight. For the promotion of Tamazight and other Berber languages and cultures, the government created the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM) in 2001.\n\nGeographic distribution\nCentral Atlas Tamazight is mostly spoken in the entire Middle Atlas and its outcroppings, reaching east to Taza and west to the region near Rabat. It is also spoken in the central and eastern High Atlas mountains in Morocco. It is thus spoken across areas with widely varying ecological conditions — from the mountainous and forested regions of the Middle Atlas mountains to the oases of the northwestern Sahara (Tafilalt). Berber in Morocco is spread into three areas: Riff in the north, Central Atlas in the center, and Shilha in the south/southwest. Central Atlas is mutually intelligible with the dialects Riff and Shilha; but Shilha- and Riff-speakers cannot understand each other, although transitional varieties exist between these dialects, creating a smooth transition.\nFigures for the number of speakers of Berber languages are generally a matter of estimates rather than linguistic censuses. At least a third of Moroccans seem to speak Berber languages,. Tamazight is estimated to be spoken by about 40~49% of Morocco's Berber-speakers, while Shilha commands 32~40% and Riff 20~25%.\n\nStatus\nTamazight, along with other Berber languages of Morocco, has a low sociolinguistic status, used mainly in the home, and rarely in official or formal contexts. Media broadcasts and music are available in it, and there is a policy of teaching it in schools, although it is not always applied.\nOf the Central Atlas Tamazight speakers, 40–45% are monolingual, while the others use Arabic as a second language. Monolingual speakers consist mostly of older generations and children. Women are more likely to be monolingual than men, since they typically stay in the village while the men go to work in the cities. Since Tamazight is the language of the home, girls grow up speaking Berber languages and pass them on to their children — this gender stratification helps to preserve the language. Bilingual Berber speakers have learned Moroccan Arabic via schooling, migration, media, or through the government. Most rural Berber children are monolingual. They struggle to succeed in schools where the teachers do not speak Berber, and require them to learn both Arabic and French.\nRural Morocco, including the Central Atlas area, suffers from poverty. Tamazight along with its relative Shilha are undergoing \"contraction\" as rural families, motivated by economic necessity, move to cities and stop speaking Tamazight, leading many intellectuals to fear Berber language shift or regression. However, Tamazight speakers are reported to immigrate less than many other Berber groups. Moreover, Tamazight has a large enough body of native speakers not to be considered under risk of endangerment, although Tamazight speakers reportedly have a lower birth rate than the country of Morocco as a whole.\n\nOfficial status\nAs of the Moroccan constitutional referendum, 2011, the Berber languages are official in Morocco alongside Arabic. In 1994, King Hassan II declared that a national Berber dialect would acquire a formal status; television broadcasts are summarized in Tamazight, as well as Shilha and Rif, three times a day; and educational materials for schools are being developed. On October 17, 2001 King Mohammed VI sealed the decree (Dahir 1–01–299) creating and organizing the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM). IRCAM's board is composed of Amazigh experts, artists, and activists, all of whom are appointed by the king. The institute, located in Rabat, has played an important role in the establishment of the Tifinagh script in Morocco. There are multiple political parties and cultural associations in Morocco that advocate for the advancement of Berber, calling for it to be recognized as an official language, used more extensively in the mass media, and taught more in schools.\nA legal issue affecting Tamazight speakers is restrictions on naming - Moroccan law stipulates that first names must have a \"Moroccan character\", and uncommon names, including some Berber ones used in the Central Atlas, are often rejected by the civil registry.\n\nOrthography\nUntil the 20th century Tamazight, like many other Berber languages but in contrast with neighbouring Tashelhiyt, was basically unwritten (although sporadic cases, using Arabic script, are attested.) It was preserved through oral use in rural areas, isolated from urban hubs. Scholars from the Middle Atlas, as elsewhere in North Africa, usually wrote in the more prestigious Arabic language, rather than their vernacular.\nAt present three writing systems exist for Berber languages, including Tamazight: Neo-Tifinagh, the Latin alphabet and the Arabic script. To some extent, the choice of writing system is a political one, with various subgroups expressing preference based on ideology and politics. The orthography used for government services including schooling is Neo-Tifinagh, rendered official by a Dahir of King Mohammed VI based on the recommendation of IRCAM. However, various Latin transcriptions have been used in a number of linguistic works describing Central Atlas Tamazight, notably the dictionary of Taïfi (1991).\n\nPhonology\nConsonants\nCentral Atlas Tamazight has a contrastive set of \"flat\" consonants, manifested in two ways:\n\nFor front segments, pharyngealization: /tˤ dˤ sˤ zˤ lˤ nˤ rˤ/)\nFor back segments, labialization: /xʷ ɣʷ qʷ χʷ ʁʷ/)\nNote that pharyngealization may spread to a syllable or even a whole word. Historically Proto-Berber only had two pharyngealized phonemes (/dˤ, zˤ/), but modern Berber languages have borrowed others from Arabic and developed new ones through sound shifts. In addition, Tamazight has uvular and pharyngeal consonants, as well as a lack of /p/ in its plosive inventory, unusual globally but characteristic of the region.\nAll segments may be geminated except for the pharyngeals /ʕ ħ/. In Ayt Ndhir, which is a dialect of Tamazight with spirantization, the consonants that can be spirantized appear in their stop forms when geminated, and additionally the geminate correspondents of /ʁ, dˤ, ʃ, ʒ, w, j/ are usually /qː, tˤː, t͡ʃː, d͡ʒː, ɣʷː, ɣː/ respectively. However some native Berber words have /ʁː/ (not /qː/) where other dialects have singleton /ʁ/, and similarly for /ʃː, ʒː/. In addition, in Arabic loans singleton non-spirantized [b, t, tˤ, d, k, ɡ, q] occur (though [b t d] and to an extent [tˤ] often alternate with their spirantized versions in loans), giving this alternation marginal phonemic status.\n\nPhonetic notes:\n\n/k ɡ/ are fricatives [x ɣ] in the Ayt Ayache dialect\n/χʷ/ and /ʁʷ/ rare—native speakers can freely substitute /χ ʁ/\nFor a small number of speakers, /b/ is sometimes lenited to [β].\n/t/ is aspirated.\n\nVowels\nTamazight has a typical phonemic three-vowel system:\n\nThese phonemes have numerous allophones, conditioned by the following environments:\n(# denotes word boundary, C̊ denotes C[−flat −/χ/ −/ʁ/], Ç denotes C[+flat], G denotes {Ç, /χ/, /ʁ/})\n\nPhonetic schwa\nThere is a predictable non-phonemic vowel inserted into consonant clusters, realized as [ɪ̈] before front consonants (e.g. /b t d .../) and [ə] before back consonants (e.g. /k χ .../). It is voiced before voiced consonants and voiceless before voiceless consonants, or alternatively it can be realized as a voiced or unvoiced consonant release. It also may be realized as the syllabicity of a nasal, lateral, or /r/.\nThe occurrence of schwa epenthesis is governed morphophonemically. These are some of the rules governing the occurrence of [ə]:\n(# denotes word boundary, R denotes /l r m n/, H denotes /h ħ ʕ w j/, ℞ denotes R or H, and B denotes not R or H.)\n\nExamples:\n\n/tbrˤːmnt/ > [tbərːəmənt] ('you (fp) turned')\n/datːħadˤar/ > [datːəħadˤar] ('she is present')\n/ʕadˤːrˤ/ > [ʕadˤːərˤ] ('to meet')\nHowever note that word-initial initial /j, w/ are realized as /i, u/ before consonants. In word-medial or -final position [əj], [əʝ], and [əw] are realized as [ij], [ij], and [uw] respectively, and may become [i] and [u] in rapid speech.\nTamazight in fact has numerous words without phonemic vowels, and those consisting entirely of voiceless consonants will not phonetically contain voiced vowels.\n[ə] is written as ⟨ⴻ⟩ in neo-Tifinagh and as ⟨e⟩ in the Berber Latin alphabet. French publications tended to include [ə] in their transcriptions of Berber forms despite their predictability, perhaps due to the French vowel system. This can cause problems because alternations such as /iʁ(ə)rs/ 'he slaughtered' – /uriʁris/ 'he did not slaughter' would then have to be morphologically conditioned.\n\nStress\nWord stress is non-contrastive and predictable, and falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa).\nExamples:\n\n/sal/ > [ˈsal] ('to ask')\n/dajtːħadˤarˤ/ > [dajtːəħaˈdˤarˤ] ('he is present')\n/fsːr/ > [fəsːˈər] ('to explain')\n/tfsːrnt/ > [təfəsːəˈrənt] ('you (fp) explained')\n\nGrammar\nCentral Atlas Tamazight grammar has many features typical of Afro-Asiatic languages, including extensive apophony in both the derivational and inflectional morphology, gender, possessive suffixes, VSO typology, the causative morpheme /s/, and the use of the status constructus.\n\nMorphology\nTamazight nouns are inflected for gender, number, and state. Singular masculine nouns usually have the prefix /a-/, and singular feminines the circumfix /t...t. Plurals may either involve a regular change (\"sound plurals\"), internal vowel change (\"broken plurals\"), or a combination of the two. Masculine plurals usually take the prefix /i-/, feminines /ti-/, and sound plurals also take the suffix /-n/ in the masculine and /-in/} in the feminine, but many other plural patterns are found.\nExamples:\n\n/axam/ → /ixamn/ 'big tent(s)' (m)\n/amaziɣ/ → /imaziɣn/ 'Berber(s)' (m)\n/adaʃu/ → /iduʃa/ 'sandal(s)' (m)\n/asrdun/ → /isrdan/ 'mule(s)' (m)\n/taxamt/ → /tixamin/ 'tent(s)' (f)\n/tafunast/ → /tifunasin/ 'cow(s)' (f)\n/taɡrtilt/ → /tiɡrtal/ 'mat(s)' (f)\n/tamazirt/ → /timizar/ 'property(ies)' (f)\nNouns may be put into the construct state (contrasting with free state) to indicate possession or when the subject of a verb follows the verb. This is also used for nouns after numerals and some prepositions, as well as the conjunction /d-/ ('and'). The construct state is formed as follows: in masculines, initial /a/ becomes /u, wː, wa/, initial /i/ becomes /i, j, ji/, and initial /u/ becomes /wu/. In feminines, initial /ta/ usually becomes /t/, initial /ti/ usually becomes /t/, and initial /tu/ remains unchanged.\nExamples (in Ayt Ayache):\n\n/babuxam/ ( ← /axam/) 'head of the house'\n/ijːs ntslit/ ( ← /tislit/) 'the horse of the bride'\nCentral Atlas Tamazight's personal pronouns distinguish three persons and two genders. Pronouns appear in three forms: an independent form used in the subject position, a possessive suffix (and a derived independent possessive pronoun), and an object form affixed to the controlling verb.\nDemonstrative pronouns distinguish between proximate and remote. When they occur independently, they inflect for number. They may also be suffixed to nouns: /tabardaja/ 'this pack-saddle'.\n\nCentral Atlas Tamazight verbs are heavily inflected and are marked for tense, aspect, mode, voice, person, and polarity. Tamazight verbs have at their core a stem, modified by prefixes, suffixes, moveable affixes, circumfixes, and ablaut. The prefixes indicate voice, tense, aspect, and polarity, while the suffixes indicate mood (normal, horatory, or imperative). Subject markers are circumfixed to the verb, and object marking and satellite framing are accomplished via either prefixing or suffixing depending on environment Some verb forms are accompanied by ablaut, and sometimes metathesis.\nPronominal complement markers cliticize to the verb, with the indirect object preceding the direct object:/iznz-as-t/ \"he sold it to him\".\nAttributive adjectives occur after the noun they modify and are inflected for number and gender. Adjectives may also occur alone in which case they become an NP. Practically all adjectives also have a verbal form used for predicative purposes, which behaves just like a normal verb.\n\n/argaz amʕdur/ 'the foolish man' (lit. 'man foolish')\n/tamtˤut tamʕdur/ 'the foolish woman'\n/irgzen imʕdar/ 'the foolish men'\n/tajtʃin timʕdar/ 'the foolish women'\n/i-mmuʕdr urgaz/ 'the man is foolish' (lit. '3ps–foolish man')\n/argaz i-mmuʕdr-n/ 'the foolish man' [using a non-finite verb]\nPrepositions include /xf/ ('on'), /qbl/ ('before'), /ɣr/ ('to'), and the proclitics /n/ ('of') and /d/ ('with, and'). They may take pronominal suffixes. Some prepositions require the following noun to be in the construct state, but others do not.\n\nSyntax\nWord order is usually VSO (with the subject in construct state) but is sometimes SVO (with the subject in free state), e.g. (/ifːɣ umaziɣ/ vs. /amaziɣ ifːɣ/ 'the Berber went out'). Tamazight also exhibits pro-drop behavior.\n\nTamazight may use a null copula, but the word /ɡ/ 'to be, to do' may function as a copula in Ayt Ayache, especially in structures preceded by /aj/ 'who, which, what'.\nwh- questions are always clefts, and multiple wh-questions do not occur. Consequently, Tamazight's clefting, relativisation, and wh-interrogation contribute to anti-agreement effects, similar to Shilha, and causes deletion of the verbal person marker in certain situations.\n\nVocabulary\nAs a result of relatively intense language contact, Central Atlas Tamazight has a large stratum of Arabic loans. Many borrowed words in Berber also have native synonyms (/lbab/ or /tiflut/ 'door'), with the latter being used more in rural areas. The contact was unequal, as Moroccan Arabic has not borrowed as much from Berber languages, but Berber has contributed to the very reduced vowel systems of Moroccan and Algerian Arabic.\nArabic loans span a wide range of lexical clasees. Many nouns begin with /l-/, from the Arabic definite prefix, and some Arabic feminines may acquire the native Berber feminine ending /-t/, e.g. /lʕafit/ for /lʕafia/ 'fire'. Many Arabic loans have been integrated into the Tamazight verb lexicon. They adhere fully to inflectional patterns of native stems, and may even undergo ablaut. Even function words are borrowed: /blli/ or /billa/ 'that', /waxxa/ 'although', /ɣir/ 'just', etc.\nThe first few (1–3 in Ayt Ayache and Ayt Ndhir) cardinal numerals have native Berber and borrowed Arabic forms. All higher cardinals are borrowed from Arabic, consistent with the linguistic universals that the numbers 1–3 are much more likely to be retained, and that a borrowed number generally implies that numbers greater than it are also borrowed. The retention of one is also motivated by the fact that Berber languages nearly universally use unity as a determiner.\nCentral Atlas Tamazight uses a bipartite negative construction (e.g. /uriffiɣ ʃa/ 'he did not go out'), which was apparently modelled after proximate |Arabic varieties, in a common development known as Jespersen's Cycle. It is present in multiple Berber varieties and is argued to have originated in neighbouring Arabic varietes and to have been adopted by contact.\n\nExamples\nSee also\nLanguages of Morocco\nShilha language\n\nNotes\n(from \"[nb 1]\")\n\nReferences\nBibliography\nExternal links\n\n(in French) INALCO report on Central Atlas Tamazight: maps, extension, dialectology, name\nUCLA Archive for Tamazight\nBerber (Middle Atlas)\nTamazight Dictionary (southern variety)",
"title": "Central_Atlas_Tamazight"
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] | As of 2024, what percentage of Afroasiatic language speakers speak Central Atlas Tamazight? | [] | 0.49% | [] | true |
670 | [
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"paragraph_text": "HMHS Britannic (originally to be the RMS Britannic) () was the third and final vessel of the White Star Line's Olympic class of steamships and the second White Star ship to bear the name Britannic. She was the youngest sister of the RMS Olympic and the RMS Titanic and was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner. She was operated as a hospital ship from 1915 until her sinking near the Greek island of Kea, in the Aegean Sea, in November 1916. At the time she was the largest hospital ship in the world.\nBritannic was launched just before the start of the First World War. She was designed to be the safest of the three ships with design changes made during construction due to lessons learned from the sinking of the Titanic. She was laid up at her builders, Harland and Wolff, in Belfast for many months before being requisitioned as a hospital ship. In 1915 and 1916 she served between the United Kingdom and the Dardanelles. \nOn the morning of 21 November 1916 she hit a naval mine of the Imperial German Navy near the Greek island of Kea and sank 55 minutes later, killing 30 people. There were 1,066 people on board; the 1,036 survivors were rescued from the water and lifeboats. Britannic was the largest ship lost in the First World War.\nAfter the First World War, the White Star Line was compensated for the loss of Britannic by the award of SS Bismarck as part of postwar reparations; she entered service as RMS Majestic.\nThe wreck was located and explored by Jacques Cousteau in 1975. The vessel is the largest intact passenger ship on the seabed in the world. It was bought in 1996 and is currently owned by Simon Mills, a maritime historian.\n\nCharacteristics\nThe original dimensions of Britannic were similar to those of her older sisters, but her dimensions were altered whilst still on the building stocks after the loss of Titanic. With a gross tonnage of 48,158, she surpassed her older sisters in terms of internal volume, but this did not make her the largest passenger ship in service at that time; the German SS Vaterland held this title with a significantly higher tonnage.\nThe Olympic-class ships were propelled by a combined system of two triple-expansion steam engines which powered the three-bladed outboard wing propellers whilst a low-pressure steam turbine used steam exhausted from the two reciprocating engines to power the central four-bladed propeller giving a maximum speed of 23 knots.\n\nPost-Titanic design changes\nBritannic had a similar layout to her sister ships. Following the Titanic disaster and the subsequent inquiries, several design changes were made to the remaining Olympic-class liners. With Britannic, these changes made before launch included increasing the ship's beam to 94 feet (29 m) to allow for a double hull along the engine and boiler rooms and raising six out of the 15 watertight bulkheads up to B Deck. Additionally, a larger 18,000 horsepower (13,000 kW) turbine was added instead of the 16,000 horsepower (12,000 kW) units installed on the earlier vessels to make up for the increase in hull width. The central watertight compartments were enhanced, allowing the ship to stay afloat with six compartments flooded.\nExternally the largest visual change was the fitting of large crane-like gantry davits, each powered by an electric motor and capable of launching six lifeboats which were stored on gantries; the ship was designed to have eight sets of gantry davits but only five were installed before Britannic entered war service, with the difference being made up with boats launched by manually operated Welin-type davits as on Titanic and Olympic.\nAdditional lifeboats could be stored within reach of the davits on the deckhouse roof, and the gantry davits could reach lifeboats on the other side of the ship, providing that none of the funnels was obstructing the way. This design enabled all the lifeboats to be launched, even if the ship developed a list that would normally prevent lifeboats from being launched on the side opposite to the list. Several of these davits were placed abreast of funnels, defeating that purpose. The elevators, which previously stopped at A deck, could now reach the boat deck. The ship carried 48 lifeboats, capable of carrying at least 75 people each. Thus, at least 3,600 people could be carried by the lifeboats, which was well above the ship's maximum capacity of 3,309.\n\nHistory\nConception\nIn 1907, J. Bruce Ismay, director general of the White Star Line, and Lord Pirrie, chairman of the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast had decided to build a trio of ocean liners of unmatched size to compete with the Cunard Line's Lusitania and Mauretania not in terms of speed but in terms of luxury and safety. The names of the three vessels were decided at a later date and they showed the intention of the designers regarding their size: Olympic, Titanic and Britannic.\nConstruction of the Olympic and the Titanic began in 1908 and 1909 respectively. Their sizes were so large that it was necessary to build the Arrol Gantry to shelter them, wide enough to span the two new building slips and allow two ships to be built at a time. The three ships were designed to be 270 metres long and to have a gross tonnage of over 45,000. Their designed speed was approximately 22 knots, well below that of the Lusitania and Mauretania, but still allowing for a transatlantic crossing of less than one week.\n\nRumoured name-change\nAlthough the White Star Line and the Harland and Wolff shipyard always denied it, some sources claim that Britannic was to be named Gigantic, but her name was changed so as not to compete with Titanic or create comparisons. One source is a poster of the ship with the name Gigantic at the top. Other sources are November 1911 American newspapers stating the White Star order for Gigantic being placed, as well as other newspapers from around the world both during construction and immediately after the sinking of the Titanic.\nTom McCluskie stated that in his capacity as archive manager and historian at Harland and Wolff, he \"never saw any official reference to the name Gigantic being used or proposed for the third of the Olympic-class vessels\". Some hand-written changes were added to the order book and dated January 1912. These only dealt with the ship's moulded width, not her name.\n\nConstruction\nBritannic's keel was laid on 30 November 1911 at the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, on the gantry slip previously occupied by Olympic, 13 months after the launch of that ship, and Arlanza, launched seven days before. The acquisition of the ship was planned to be at the beginning of 1914. Due to improvements introduced as a consequence of the Titanic's disaster, Britannic was not launched until 26 February 1914, which was filmed along with the fitting of a funnel. Several speeches were given in front of the press, and a dinner was organised in honour of the launching. Fitting out began subsequently. The ship entered dry dock in September and her propellers were installed.\nReusing Olympic's space saved the shipyard time and money by not clearing out a third slip similar in size to those used for the two previous vessels. In August 1914, before Britannic could commence transatlantic service between New York and Southampton, the First World War began. Immediately, all shipyards with Admiralty contracts were given priority to use available raw materials. All civil contracts including Britannic were slowed.\nThe naval authorities requisitioned a large number of ships as armed merchant cruisers or for troop transport. The Admiralty paid the companies for the use of their ships but the risk of losing a ship in naval operations was high. The larger ocean liners were not initially taken for naval use, because smaller ships were easier to operate. Olympic returned to Belfast on 3 November 1914, while work on Britannic continued slowly.\n\nRequisition\nThe need for increased tonnage grew critical as naval operations extended to the Eastern Mediterranean. In May 1915, Britannic completed mooring trials of her engines, and was prepared for emergency entrance into service with as little as four weeks' notice. The same month also saw the first major loss of a civilian ocean liner when Cunard's RMS Lusitania was torpedoed near the Irish coast by SM U-20.\nThe following month, the Admiralty decided to use recently requisitioned passenger liners as troop transports in the Gallipoli Campaign (also called the Dardanelles service). The first to sail were Cunard's RMS Mauretania and RMS Aquitania. As the Gallipoli landings proved to be disastrous and the casualties mounted, the need for large hospital ships for treatment and evacuation of wounded became evident. Aquitania was diverted to hospital ship duties in August (her place as a troop transport would be taken by Olympic in September). Then on 13 November 1915, Britannic was requisitioned as a hospital ship from her storage location at Belfast.\nRepainted white with large red crosses and a horizontal green stripe, she was renamed HMHS (His Majesty's Hospital Ship) Britannic and placed under the command of Captain Charles Alfred Bartlett. In the interior, 3,309 beds and several operating rooms were installed. The common areas of the upper decks were transformed into rooms for the wounded. The cabins of B Deck were used to house doctors. The first-class dining room and the first-class reception room on D Deck were transformed into operating rooms. The lower bridge was used to accommodate the lightly wounded. The medical equipment was installed on 12 December 1915.\n\nFirst service\nWhen declared fit for service on 12 December 1915 at Liverpool, Britannic was assigned a medical team consisting of 101 nurses, 336 non-commissioned officers and 52 commissioned officers as well as a crew of 675 people. On 23 December, she left Liverpool to join the port of Mudros on the island of Lemnos on the Aegean Sea to bring back sick and wounded soldiers. She joined with several ships on the same route, including Mauretania, Aquitania, and her sister ship Olympic. The four ships were joined a little later by Statendam. She made a stopover at Naples before continuing to Mudros, in order for her stock of coal to be replenished. After she returned, she spent four weeks as a floating hospital off the Isle of Wight.\nThe third voyage was from 20 March 1916 to 4 April. The Dardanelles was evacuated in January. At the end of her military service on 6 June 1916, Britannic returned to Belfast to undergo the necessary modifications for transforming her into a transatlantic passenger liner. The British government paid the White Star Line £75,000 to compensate for the conversion. The transformation took place for several months before being interrupted by a recall of the ship back into military service.\n\nRecalled\nThe Admiralty recalled Britannic back into service as a hospital ship on 26 August 1916, and the ship returned to the Mediterranean Sea for a fourth voyage on 24 September of that year. On 29 September on her way to Naples, she encountered a violent storm from which she emerged unscathed. She left on 9 October for Southampton. Then, she made a fifth trip, which was marked by a quarantining of the crew when the ship arrived at Mudros (now Moudros) because of food-borne illness.\nLife aboard the ship followed a routine. At six o'clock, the patients were awakened and the premises were cleaned up. Breakfast was served at 6:30 AM, then the captain toured the ship for an inspection. Lunch was served at 12:30 PM and tea at 4:30 PM. Patients were treated between meals and those who wished to go for a walk could do so. At 8:30 PM, the patients went to bed and the captain made another inspection tour. There were medical classes available for training the nurses.\n\nLast voyage\nAfter completing five successful voyages to the Middle Eastern theatre and back to the United Kingdom transporting the sick and wounded, Britannic departed Southampton for Lemnos at 14:23 on 12 November 1916, her sixth voyage to the Mediterranean Sea. The ship passed Gibraltar around midnight on 15 November and arrived at Naples on the morning of 17 November, for her usual coaling and water-refuelling stop, completing the first stage of her mission.\nA storm kept the ship at Naples until Sunday afternoon when Captain Bartlett decided to take advantage of a brief break in the weather and continue. The seas rose once again as Britannic left the port. By the next morning, the storms died and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without problems. Cape Matapan was rounded in the first hours of 21 November. By morning, Britannic was steaming at full speed into the Kea Channel, between Cape Sounion (the southernmost point of Attica, the prefecture that includes Athens) and the island of Kea.\nThere were 1,066 people on board: 673 crew, 315 Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC), 77 nurses, and the captain.\n\nExplosion\nAt 08:12 am European Eastern Time Britannic was rocked by an explosion after hitting a mine. The mines had been planted in the Kea Channel on 21 October 1916 by SM U-73 under the command of Gustav Sieß.\nThe reaction in the dining room was immediate; doctors and nurses left instantly for their posts but not everybody reacted the same way, as further aft, the power of the explosion was less felt, and many thought the ship had hit a smaller boat. Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume were on the bridge at the time and the gravity of the situation was soon evident. The explosion was on the starboard side, between holds two and three. The force of the explosion damaged the watertight bulkhead between hold one and the forepeak. The first four watertight compartments were filling rapidly with water, the boiler-man's tunnel connecting the firemen's quarters in the bow with boiler room six was seriously damaged, and water was flowing into that boiler room.\nBartlett ordered the watertight doors closed, sent a distress signal, and ordered the crew to prepare the lifeboats. An SOS signal was immediately sent out and was received by several other ships in the area, among them HMS Scourge and HMS Heroic, but Britannic heard nothing in reply. Unknown to either Bartlett or the ship's wireless operator, the force of the first explosion had caused the antenna wires slung between the ship's masts to snap. This meant that although the ship could still send out transmissions by radio, she could no longer receive them.\nAlong with the damaged watertight door of the firemen's tunnel, the watertight door between boiler rooms six and five failed to close properly. Water was flowing further aft into boiler room five. Britannic had reached her flooding limit. She could stay afloat (motionless) with her first six watertight compartments flooded. There were five watertight bulkheads rising all the way up to B Deck. Those measures had been taken after the Titanic disaster (Titanic could float with only her first four compartments flooded).\nThe next crucial bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four and its door were undamaged and should have guaranteed the ship's survival. However, there were open portholes along the front lower decks, which tilted underwater within minutes of the explosion. The nurses had opened most of those portholes to ventilate the wards, against standing orders. As the ship's angle of list increased, water reached this level and began entering aft from the bulkhead between boiler rooms five and four. With more than six compartments flooded, Britannic could not stay afloat.\n\nEvacuation\nOn the bridge, Captain Bartlett was already considering efforts to save the ship. Only two minutes after the blast, boiler rooms five and six had to be evacuated. In about ten minutes, Britannic was roughly in the same condition Titanic had been in one hour after the collision with the iceberg. Fifteen minutes after the ship was struck, the open portholes on E Deck were underwater. With water also entering her aft section from the bulkhead between boiler rooms four and five, Britannic quickly developed a serious list to starboard.\nBartlett gave the order to turn starboard towards the island of Kea in an attempt to beach her. The effect of Britannic's starboard list and the weight of the rudder made attempts to navigate the ship under her own power difficult, and the steering gear had been knocked out by the explosion, which eliminated steering by the rudder. The captain ordered the port shaft driven at a higher speed than the starboard side, which helped the ship move towards Kea.\nAt the same time, the hospital staff prepared to evacuate. Bartlett had given the order to prepare the lifeboats, but he did not allow them to be lowered into the water. Everyone took their most valuable belongings with them before they evacuated. The chaplain of the ship recovered his Bible. The few patients and nurses on board were assembled. Major Harold Priestley gathered his detachments from the Royal Army Medical Corps to the back of the A deck and inspected the cabins to ensure no one was left behind.\nWhile Bartlett continued his desperate manoeuvre, Britannic's list steadily increased. Fearing that the list would become too large to launch, some crew decided to launch lifeboats without waiting for the order to do so. Two lifeboats were put onto the water on the port side without permission by Third Officer Francis Laws. These boats were drawn towards the still-turning, partly surfaced propellers. Bartlett ordered the engines to stop but before this could take effect, the two boats were drawn into the propellers, completely destroying both and killing 30 people. Bartlett was able to stop the engines before any more boats were lost.\n\nFinal moments\nBy 08:50, most of those on board had escaped in the 35 successfully launched lifeboats. At this point, Bartlett concluded that the rate at which Britannic was sinking had slowed so he called a halt to the evacuation and ordered the engines restarted in the hope that he might still be able to beach the ship. At 09:00 Bartlett was informed that the rate of flooding had increased due to the ship's forward motion and that the flooding had reached D-deck. Realising that there was now no hope of reaching land in time, Bartlett gave the final order to stop the engines and sounded two final long blasts of the whistle, the signal to abandon ship. As water reached the bridge, he and Assistant Commander Dyke walked off onto the deck and entered the water, swimming to a collapsible boat from which they continued to coordinate the rescue operations.\nBritannic gradually capsized to starboard, and the funnels collapsed one after the other as the ship rapidly sank. By the time the stern was out of the water, the bow had already slammed into the seabed. As Britannic's length was greater than the depth of the water, the impact caused major structural damage to the bow before she slipped completely beneath the waves at 09:07, 55 minutes after the explosion. Violet Jessop (who was one of the survivors of the Titanic, and had also been on board when the Olympic collided with HMS Hawke) described the last seconds:\n\nShe dipped her head a little, then a little lower and still lower. All the deck machinery fell into the sea like a child's toys. Then she took a fearful plunge, her stern rearing hundreds of feet into the air until with a final roar, she disappeared into the depths, the noise of her going resounding through the water with undreamt-of violence....\nWhen the Britannic came to rest, she became the largest ship lost in the First World War and the world's largest sunken passenger ship.\n\nRescue\nCompared to Titanic, the rescue of Britannic was facilitated by three factors: The water temperature was higher (20 °C (68 °F) compared to −2 °C (28 °F) for Titanic), more lifeboats were available (35 were successfully launched and stayed afloat compared to Titanic's 20), and help was closer (it arrived less than two hours after first distress call compared to three and a half hours for Titanic).\nThe first to arrive on the scene were fishermen from Kea on their caïque, who picked many survivors from the water. At 10:00, HMS Scourge sighted the first lifeboats and 10 minutes later stopped and picked up 339 survivors. Armed boarding steamer HMS Heroic had arrived some minutes earlier and picked up 494. Some 150 had made it to Korissia, Kea, where surviving doctors and nurses from Britannic were trying to save the injured, using aprons and pieces of lifebelts to make dressings. A little barren quayside served as their operating room.\nScourge and Heroic had no deck space for more survivors, and they left for Piraeus signalling the presence of those remaining at Korissia. HMS Foxhound arrived at 11:45 and, after sweeping the area, anchored in the small port at 13:00 to offer medical assistance and take on board the remaining survivors. At 14:00 the light cruiser HMS Foresight arrived. Foxhound departed for Piraeus at 14:15 while Foresight remained to arrange the burial on Kea of RAMC Sergeant William Sharpe, who had died of his injuries. Another two survivors died on the Heroic and one on the French tug Goliath. The three were buried with military honours in the Piraeus Naval and Consular Cemetery. The last fatality was G. Honeycott, who died at the Russian Hospital at Piraeus shortly after the funerals.\nIn total, out of the 1,066 people on board, 1,036 people survived the sinking. Thirty people lost their lives in the disaster but only five were buried; others were not recovered and are honoured on memorials in Thessaloniki (the Mikra Memorial) and London. Another 38 were injured (18 crew, 20 RAMC). Survivors were accommodated in the warships that were anchored at the port of Piraeus while nurses and officers were hosted in separate hotels at Phaleron. Many Greek citizens and officials attended the funerals. Survivors were sent home and few arrived in the United Kingdom before Christmas.\nIn November 2006, Britannic researcher Michail Michailakis discovered that one of the 45 unidentified graves in the New British Cemetery in the town of Hermoupolis on the island of Syros contained the remains of a soldier collected from the church of Ag. Trias at Livadi (the former name of Korissia). Maritime historian Simon Mills contacted the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Further research established that this soldier was a Britannic casualty and his remains had been registered in October 1919 as belonging to a certain \"Corporal Stevens\".\nWhen the remains were moved to the new cemetery at Syros in June 1921, it was found that there was no record relating this name with the loss of the ship, and the grave was registered as unidentified. Mills provided evidence that this man could be Sergeant Sharpe and the case was considered by the Service Personnel and Veterans Agency. A new headstone for Sharpe was erected and the CWGC has updated its database.\n\nVisualised as an ocean liner\nThe plan of Britannic showed that she was intended to be more luxurious than her sister ships in order to compete with SS Imperator, SS Vaterland and RMS Aquitania. Enough cabins were provided for passengers divided into three classes. The White Star Line anticipated a considerable change in its customer base. Thus, the quality of the Third Class (intended for migrants) was lowered when compared to that of her sisters, while the quality of the Second Class increased. In addition, the number of crew planned was increased from about 860 – 880 onboard Olympic and Titanic to 950 aboard Britannic.\nThe quality of the First Class was also improved. Children began to appear as part of the clientele that needed to be satisfied, and thus a playroom for them was built on the boat deck. Similar to her two sister ships, the first class amenities included the Grand Staircase, but Britannic's amenities were more sumptuous, with worked balustrades, decorative panels and a pipe organ. The A Deck of the ship was devoted in its entirety to the First Class, being fitted with a salon, two veranda cafes, a smoking room and a reading room. The B Deck included a hair salon, post office, and redesigned deluxe Parlour Suites, dubbed Saloons in the Builder's Plans. The most important addition was that of individual bathrooms in almost every First Class cabin, which would have been a first on an ocean liner. Aboard the Olympic and Titanic, most passengers had to use public bathrooms.\nThese facilities were installed but were soon removed because the ship was converted to a hospital ship and were never re-installed because the ship sank before she could enter transatlantic service, so the planned facilities were either cancelled, destroyed, reused on other vessels, like the Olympic or Majestic, or just never used. Of these accessories, only a large staircase and a children's playroom remained installed. Under the glass dome was a white wall above the first-class staircase instead of a clock and a large painting.\n\nPipe organ\nA Welte philharmonic organ was planned to be installed on board Britannic but because of the outbreak of war, the instrument never made its way to Belfast from Germany. After the war, it was not claimed by Harland and Wolff since Britannic sank before she could have ever entered transatlantic service. It also was not installed on Olympic or Majestic since White Star Line did not want it. For a long time, it was thought that the organ was lost or destroyed.\nIn April 2007, the restorers of a Welte organ, now in the Museum für Musikautomaten in Seewen, Switzerland, detected that the main parts of the instrument were signed by the German organ builders with \"Britanik\". A photograph of a drawing in a company prospectus, found in the Welte-legacy in the Augustiner Museum in Freiburg, proved that this was the organ intended for Britannic. It was found that Welte had first sold the organ to a private owner in Stuttgart instead. Later, in 1937 it had been transferred to a company's concert hall in Wipperfürth, where it was eventually acquired by the founder of the Swiss Museum of Music Automatons in 1969. At the time, the museum was still unaware of the organ's original history. The museum maintains the organ in working condition and it is still used for fully automated and manual performances.\n\nWreck\nThe wreck of HMHS Britannic is at 37°42′05″N 24°17′02″E in about 400 feet (122 m) of water. It was discovered on 3 December 1975 by Jacques Cousteau, who explored it. In filming the expedition, Cousteau also held conference on camera with several surviving personnel from the ship including Sheila MacBeth Mitchell, a survivor of the sinking. In 1976, Cousteau entered the wreck with his divers for the first time. He expressed the opinion that the ship had been sunk by a single torpedo, basing this opinion on the damage to her plates.\nThe giant liner lies on her starboard side relatively intact, hiding the large hole that was torn open by the mine. There is a huge hole just beneath the forward well deck. The bow is heavily deformed and attached to the rest of the hull only by some pieces of C-Deck. The crew's quarters in the forecastle were found to be in good shape with many details still visible. The holds were found empty.\nThe forecastle machinery and the two cargo cranes in the forward well deck are well preserved. The foremast is bent and lies on the seabed near the wreck with the crow's nest still attached. The bell, thought to be lost, was found in a dive in 2019, having fallen from the mast and is now lying directly below the crow's nest on the seabed. Funnel number 1 was found a few metres from the Boat Deck. Funnel numbers two, three, and four were found in the debris field (located off the stern). Pieces of coal lie beside the wreck.\nIn mid-1995, in an expedition filmed by NOVA, Dr Robert Ballard, best known for having discovered the wrecks of Titanic in 1985, and the German battleship Bismarck in 1989, visited the wreck, using advanced side-scan sonar. Images were obtained from remotely controlled vehicles, but the wreck was not penetrated. Ballard found all the ship's funnels in surprisingly good condition. Attempts to find mine anchors failed.\nIn August 1996, the wreck was bought by Simon Mills, who has written two books about the ship: Britannic – The Last Titan and Hostage To Fortune.\nIn November 1997, an international team of divers led by Kevin Gurr used open-circuit trimix diving techniques to visit and film the wreck in the newly available DV digital video format.\nIn September 1998, another team of divers made an expedition to the wreck. Using diver propulsion vehicles, the team made more man-dives to the wreck and produced more images than ever before, including video of four telegraphs, a helm and a telemotor on the captain's bridge.\nIn 1999 GUE divers acclimated to cave diving and ocean discovery led the first dive expedition to include extensive penetration into Britannic. Video of the expedition was broadcast by National Geographic, BBC, the History Channel and the Discovery Channel.\nIn September 2003, an expedition led by Carl Spencer dived into the wreck. This was the first expedition to dive Britannic where all the bottom divers were using closed circuit rebreathers (CCR). Diver Leigh Bishop brought back some of the first photographs from inside the wreck and his diver partner Rich Stevenson found that several watertight doors were open. It has been suggested that this was because the mine strike coincided with the change of watches. Alternatively, the explosion may have distorted the doorframes. A number of mine anchors were located off the wreck by sonar expert Bill Smith, confirming the German records of U-73 that Britannic was sunk by a single mine and the damage was compounded by open portholes and watertight doors. Spencer's expedition was broadcast extensively across the world for many years by National Geographic and the UK's Channel 5.\nIn 2006, an expedition, funded and filmed by the History Channel, brought together fourteen skilled divers to help determine what caused the quick sinking of Britannic. After preparation the crew dived on the wreck site on 17 September. Time was cut short when silt was kicked up, causing zero visibility conditions, and the two divers narrowly escaped with their lives. One last dive was to be attempted on Britannic's boiler room, but it was discovered that photographing this far inside the wreck would lead to violating a permit issued by the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities, a department within the Greek Ministry of Culture.\nPartly because of a barrier in languages, a last-minute plea was turned down by the department. The expedition was unable to determine the cause of the rapid sinking, but hours of footage were filmed and important data was documented. The Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities later recognised the importance of this mission and extended an invitation to revisit the wreck under less stringent rules.\nOn 24 May 2009, Carl Spencer, drawn back to his third underwater filming mission of Britannic, died in Greece due to equipment difficulties while filming the wreck for National Geographic.\nIn 2012, on an expedition organised by Alexander Sotiriou and Paul Lijnen, divers using rebreathers installed and recovered scientific equipment used for environmental purposes, to determine how fast bacteria are eating Britannic's iron compared to Titanic.\nOn 29 September 2019, a British technical diver, Tim Saville, died during a 120 m / 393 ft dive on Britannic's wreck.\n\nLegacy\nHaving her career cut short in wartime, never having entered commercial service, and having had few victims, Britannic did not experience the same notoriety as her sister ship Titanic. After being largely forgotten by the public, she finally gained fame when her wreck was discovered. Her name was reused by the White Star Line when it put MV Britannic into service in 1930. That ship was the last to fly the flag of the company when it retired in 1960.\nAfter Germany capitulated at the end of the First World War followed by the Treaty of Versailles, it handed over some of its ocean liners as war reparations, two of which were given to the company. The first, the Bismarck, renamed Majestic, replaced the Britannic. The second, the Columbus, renamed the Homeric, compensated for other ships lost in the conflict.\nThe last survivor, George Perman, died on the 24th of May 2000, just shy of his 100th birthday. At the time of the sinking, he was a 15-year-old Scout working on Britannic, and the youngest person onboard the ship.\n\nIn popular culture\nThe sinking of the ship was dramatised in a 2000 television film called Britannic that featured Edward Atterton, Amanda Ryan, Jacqueline Bisset and John Rhys-Davies. The film was an entirely fictitious account featuring a German agent sabotaging the ship, because the Britannic was secretly carrying munitions. Titanic has a cameo during the flashback sequence of Violet Jessop's account of the sinking.\nA BBC2 documentary, Titanic's Tragic Twin – the Britannic Disaster, was broadcast on 5 December 2016; presented by Kate Humble and Andy Torbet, it used up-to-date underwater film of the wreck and spoke to relatives of survivors.\nThe historical docudrama The Mystery Of The Britannic was released in 2017, in which the maritime explorer Richard Kohler investigates the ship's last voyage.\nAlma Katsu's 2020 novel The Deep was set partly on the Britannic, and on its sister ship the Titanic, and centred around the sinking of both ships.\nThe Gigantic, the apparent setting of the 2009 escape-room game Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors, references the Britannic as a sister ship of the Titanic retrofitted as a hospital ship.\n\nPostcards\nReferences\nBibliography\nBrewster, Hugh; Coulter, Laurie (1998). 882 1/2 Amazing Answers to your Questions about the Titanic. Madison Press Book. ISBN 978-0-590-18730-5.\nChirnside, Mark (2011) [2004]. The Olympic-Class Ships. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-2868-0.\nLord, Walter (2005) [1955]. A Night to Remember. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-8050-7764-3.\nLe Goff, Olivier (1998). Les Plus Beaux Paquebots du Monde (in French). Solar. ISBN 9782263027994.\nLynch, John (2012). Belfast Built Ships. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6539-5.\nPiouffre, Gérard (2009). Le Titanic ne répond plus (in French). Larousse. ISBN 978-2-263-02799-4.\n\nFurther reading\nMills, Simon (1992). H.M.H.S. \"Britannic\": Last Titan. Dorset: Waterfront Publications. ISBN 0-946184-71-2.\nMills, Simon (2002). Hostage to Fortune: the dramatic story of the last Olympian, HMHS Britannic. Chesham, England: Wordsmith. ISBN 1-899493-03-4.\nMills, Simon (2019). Exploring the Britannic: The Life, Last Voyage and Wreck of Titanic's Tragic Twin. London: Adlard Coles. ISBN 978-1-4729-5492-3.\nLayton, J. Kent (2013). The Edwardian Superliners: a trio of trios. Amberley. ISBN 978-1-4456-1438-0.\nKohler, Richie; Hudson, Charlie (2016). Mystery of the Last Olympian: Titanic's Tragic Sister Britannic. Best Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1930536869.\n\nExternal links\n\nNewsreel footage of the construction of HMHS Britannic, 1914\nMaritimequest HMHS Britannic Photo Gallery\nBritannic Home at Atlantic Liners\nNOVA Online-Titanic's Lost Sister (Companion website to the PBS special Titanic's Lost Sister)\nHospital Ship Britannic\nAbout the origins of the Britannic Organ Archived 10 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine\nImages of HMHS Britannic Archived 22 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine at the English Heritage Archive\nBritish Pathé gallery on the Olympic class\nDeck plans of Britannic as an ocean liner",
"title": "HMHS_Britannic"
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"paragraph_text": "Belfast ( BEL-fast, -fahst; from Irish: Béal Feirste [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]) is the capital city and principal port of Northern Ireland, standing on the banks of the River Lagan and connected to the open sea through Belfast Lough and the North Channel. It is the second-largest city on the island of Ireland (after Dublin), with an estimated population of 348,005 in 2022, and a metropolitan area population of 671,559.\nFirst chartered as an English settlement in 1613, the town's early growth was driven by an influx of Scottish Presbyterians. Their descendants' disaffection with Ireland's Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain in 1800 — later regarded as a key to the town's industrial transformation. When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the world's largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage.\nSectarian tensions accompanied the growth of an Irish Catholic population drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts. Heightened by division over Ireland's future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets. A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts.\nSince the 1998 Belfast Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists. At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions.\nBelfast has seen significant services sector growth, with important contributions from financial technology (fintech), from tourism and, with facilities in the redeveloped Harbour Estate, from film. It retains a port with commercial and industrial docks, including a reduced Harland & Wolff shipyard and aerospace and defence contractors. Post Brexit, Belfast and Northern Ireland remain, uniquely, within both the British domestic and European Single trading areas for goods.\nThe city is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport on the Lough shore and Belfast International Airport 15 miles (24 kilometres) west of the city. It supports two universities: on the north-side of the city centre, Ulster University, and on the southside the longer established Queens University. Since 2021, Belfast has been a UNESCO designated City of Music.\n\nHistory\nName\nThe name Belfast derives from the Irish Béal Feirste (Irish pronunciation: [bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə]), \"Mouth of the Farset\" a river whose name in the Irish, Feirste, refers to a sandbar or tidal ford. This was formed where the river ran—until culverted late in the 18th century, down High Street— into the Lagan. It was at this crossing, located under or close to the current Queen's Bridge, that the early settlement developed.: 74–77 \nThe compilers of Ulster-Scots use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of \"Belfast\" (with which they sometimes are also content) including Bilfawst, Bilfaust or Baelfawst.\n\nEarly settlements\nThe site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city,: 42–45 and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. At the beginning of the 14th century, Papal tax rolls record two churches: the \"Chapel of Dundela\" at Knock (Irish: Cnoc; from cnoc, meaning 'hill') in the east, connected by some accounts to the 7th-century evangelist St. Colmcille,: 11 and, the \"Chapel of the Ford\", which may have been a successor to a much older parish church on the present Shankill (Seanchill, \"Old Church\") Road,: 63–64 dating back to the 9th, and possibly to St. Patrick in the mid 5th, century.\nA Norman settlement at the ford, comprising the parish church (now St. George's), a watermill, and a small fort, was an outpost of Carrickfergus Castle. Established in the late 12th century, 11 miles (18 km) out along the north shore of the Lough, Carrickfergus was to remain the principal English foothold in the north-east until the scorched- earth Nine Years' War at the end of the 16th century broke the remaining Irish power, the O'Neills.\n\nDeveloping port, radical politics\nWith a commission from James I, in 1613 Sir Arthur Chichester undertook the Plantation of Belfast and the surrounding area, attracting mainly English and Manx settlers. The subsequent arrival of Scottish Presbyterians embroiled Belfast in its only recorded siege: denounced from London by John Milton as \"ungrateful and treacherous guests\", in 1649 the newcomers were temporarily expelled by an English Parliamentarian army.: 21 In 1689, Catholic Jacobite forces, briefly in command of the town, abandoned it in advance of the landing at Carrickfergus of William, Prince of Orange, who proceeded through the Belfast to his celebrated victory on 12 July 1690 at the Boyne.\n\nTogether with French Huguenots, the Scots introduced the production of linen, a flax-spinning industry that in the 18th century carried Belfast trade to the Americas. Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed and tobacco from the colonies. From the 1760s, profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the Lagan Canal, new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through Dublin. Abolitionist sentiment, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, Cunningham and Greg, in 1786 to commission ships for the Middle Passage.As \"Dissenters\" from the established Anglican church (with its episcopacy and ritual), Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament. Belfast's two MPs remained nominees of the Chichesters (Marquesses of Donegall). With their emigrant kinsmen in America, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from the Crown.: 55–61 \nWhen early in the American War of Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled their own Volunteer militia. Formed ostensibly for defence of the Kingdom, Volunteer corps were soon pressing their own protest against \"taxation without representation\". Further emboldened by the French Revolution, a more radical element in the town, the Society of United Irishmen, called for Catholic emancipation and a representative national government. In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection. The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the Battle of Antrim and to the south at the Battle of Ballynahinch.\nBritain seized on the rebellion to abolish the Irish Parliament, unlamented in Belfast, and to incorporate Ireland in a United Kingdom. In 1832, British parliamentary reform permitted the town its first electoral contest – an occasion for an early and lethal sectarian riot.: 87\n\nIndustrial expansion, sectarian division\nWhile other Irish towns experienced a loss of manufacturing, and after a cotton boom and bust, from the 1820s Belfast underwent rapid industrial expansion. As the global leader in the production of linen goods—mill, and finishing, work largely employing women and children— it won the moniker \"Linenopolis\". Shipbuilding led the development of heavier industry. By the 1900s, her shipyards were building up to a quarter of the total United Kingdom tonnage. This included from the yard of Harland & Wolff the ill-fated RMS Titanic, at the time of her launch in 1911 the largest ship afloat. Other major export industries included textile machinery, rope, tobacco and mineral waters.: 59–88 \nIndustry drew in a new Catholic population settling largely in the west of the town—refugees from a rural poverty intensified by Belfast's mechanisation of spinning and weaving and, in the 1840s, by famine. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised and dominated the apprenticed trades and gave a new lease of life to the once largely rural Orange Order. Sectarian tensions, which frequently broke out in riots and workplace expulsions, were also driven by the \"constitutional question\": the prospect of a restored Irish parliament in which Protestants (and northern industry) feared being a minority interest.\nOn 28 September 1912, unionists massed at Belfast's City Hall to sign the Ulster Covenant, pledging to use \"all means which may be found necessary to defeat the present conspiracy to set up a Home Rule Parliament in Ireland\". This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000-strong Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The immediate crisis was averted by the onset of the Great War. The UVF formed the 36th (Ulster) Division whose sacrifices in the Battle of the Somme continue to be commemorated in the city by unionist and loyalist organisations.\nIn 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six counties remaining as Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, there was widespread violence. 8,000 \"disloyal\" workers were driven from their jobs in the shipyards: in addition to Catholics, \"rotten Prods\" – Protestants whose labour politics disregarded sectarian distinctions.: 104–108 Gunbattles, grenade attacks and house burnings contributed to as many as 500 deaths. A curfew remained in force until 1924. (see The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)) The lines drawn saw off the challenge to \"unionist unity\" posed by labour (industry had been paralysed by strikes in 1907 and again in 1919). Until \"troubles\" returned at the end of the 1960s, it was not uncommon in Belfast for the Ulster Unionist Party to have its council and parliamentary candidates returned unopposed.\nIn 1932, the opening of the new buildings for Northern Ireland's devolved Parliament at Stormont was overshadowed by the protests of the unemployed and ten days of running street battles with the police. The government conceded increases in Outdoor Relief, but labour unity was short lived.: 219–220 In 1935, celebrations of King George V's Jubilee and of the annual Twelfth were followed by deadly riots and expulsions, a sectarian logic that extended itself to the interpretation of darkening events in Europe.: 226–233 Labour candidates found their support for the anti-clerical Spanish Republic characterised as another instance of No-Popery. (Today, the cause of the republic in the Spanish Civil War is commemorated by a \"No Pasaran\" stained glass window in City Hall).\nIn 1938, nearly a third of industrial workers were unemployed, malnutrition was a major issue, and at 9.6% the city's infant mortality rate (compared with 5.9% in Sheffield, England) was among the highest in United Kingdom.\n\nThe Blitz and post-war development\nIn the spring of 1941, the German Luftwaffe appeared twice over Belfast. In addition to the shipyards and the Short & Harland aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, and devastated the old town centre around High Street. In the greatest loss of life in any air raid outside of London, more than a thousand people were killed.\nAt the end of World War II, the Unionist government undertook programmes of \"slum clearance\" (the Blitz had exposed the \"uninhabitable\" condition of much of the city's housing) which involved decanting populations out of mill and factory built red-brick terraces and into new peripheral housing estates. At the same time, a British-funded welfare state \"revolutionised access\" to education and health care. The resulting rise in expectations; together with the uncertainty caused by the decline of the city's Victorian-era industries, contributed to growing protest, and counter protest, in the 1960s over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights.\n\nThe Troubles\nFor reasons that nationalists and unionists dispute, the public protests of the late 1960s soon gave way to communal violence (in which as many as 60,000 people were intimidated from their homes): 70 and to loyalist and republican paramilitarism. Introduced onto the streets in August 1969, the British Army committed to the longest continuous deployment in its history, Operation Banner. Beginning in 1970 with the Falls curfew, and followed in 1971 by internment, this included counterinsurgency measures directed chiefly at the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) who characterised their operations, including the bombing of Belfast's commercial centre, as a struggle against British occupation.\nPreceded by loyalist and republican ceasefires, the 1998 \"Good Friday\" Belfast Agreement returned a new power-sharing legislative assembly and executive to Stormont. In the intervening years in Belfast, some 20,000 people had been injured, and 1,500 killed.: 73 \n\nEighty-five percent of the conflict-related deaths had occurred within 1,000 metres of the communal interfaces, largely in the north and west of the city.: 73 The security barriers erected at these interfaces are an enduring physical legacy of the Troubles. The 14 neighbourhoods they separate are among the 20 most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all peace lines by mutual consent. The target date of 2023 was passed with only a small number dismantled.\nThe more affluent districts escaped the worst of the violence, but the city centre was a major target. This was especially so during the first phase of the PIRA campaign in the early 1970s, when the organisation hoped to secure quick political results through maximum destruction.: 331–332 Including car bombs and incendiaries, between 1969 and 1977 the city experienced 2,280 explosions.: 58 In addition to the death and injury caused, they accelerated the loss of the city's Victorian fabric.\n\n21st century\nSince the turn of the century, the loss of employment and population in the city centre has been reversed. This reflects the growth of the service economy, for which a new district has been developed on former dockland, the Titanic Quarter. The growing tourism sector paradoxically lists as attractions the murals and peace walls that echo the violence of the past.: 350.352 In recent years, \"Troubles tourism\": 180–189 has presented visitors with new territorial markers: flags, murals and graffiti in which loyalists and republicans take opposing sides in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.\nThe demographic balance of some areas has been changed by immigration (according to the 2021 census just under 10% of the city's population was born outside the British Isles), by local differences in births and deaths between Catholics and Protestants, and by a growing number of, particularly younger, people no longer willing to self-identify on traditional lines.\nIn 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history. The election in 2011 saw Irish nationalist councillors outnumber unionist councillors for the first time, with Sinn Féin becoming the largest party, and the cross-community Alliance Party holding the balance of power.\n\nIn the 2016 Brexit referendum, Belfast's four parliamentary constituencies returned a substantial majority (60 percent) for remaining within the European Union, as did Northern Ireland as a whole (55.8), the only UK region outside London and Scotland to do so. In February 2022, the Democratic Unionist Party, which had actively campaigned for Brexit, withdrew from the power-sharing executive and collapsed the Stormont institutions to protest the 2020 UK-EU Northern Ireland Protocol. With the promise of equal access to the British and European markets, this designates Belfast as a point of entry to the European Single Market within whose regulatory framework local producers will continue to operate. After two years, the standoff was resolved with an agreement to eliminate routine checks on UK-destined goods.\n\nCityscape\nLocation and topography\nBelfast is at the mouth of the River Lagan at the head of Belfast Lough open through the North Channel to the Irish Sea and to the North Atlantic. In the course of the 19th century, the location's estuarine features were re-engineered. With dredging and reclamation, the lough was made to accommodate a deep sea port, and extensive shipyards. The lagan was banked (in 1994 a weir raised its water level to cover what remained of the tidal mud flats) and its various tributaries were culverted On the model pioneered in 2008 by the Connswater Community Greenway some are now being considered for \"daylighting\".\nIt remains the case that much of the city centre is built on an estuarine bed of \"sleech\": silt, peat, mud and—a source the city's ubiquitous red brick— soft clay, that presents a challenge for high-rise construction. (It was this soft foundation that persuaded St Anne's Cathedral to abandon plans for a bell tower and, in 2007, to substitute a lightweight steel spire). The city centre is also subject to tidal flood risk. Rising sea levels could mean, that without significant investment, flooding in the coming decades will be persistent.\nThe city is overlooked on the County Antrim side (to the north and northwest) by a precipitous basalt escarpment—the near continuous line of Divis Mountain (478 m), Black Mountain (389 m) and Cavehill (368 m)—whose \"heathery slopes and hanging fields are visible from almost any part of the city\".: 13 From County Down side (on the south and south east) it is flanked by the lower-lying Castlereagh and Hollywood hills. The sand and gravel Malone Ridge extends up river to the south-west.\n\nNorth Belfast and Shankill\nFrom 1820, Belfast began to spread rapidly beyond its 18th century limits. To the north, it stretched out along roads which drew into the town migrants from Scots-settled hinterland of County Antrim. Largely Presbyterian, they enveloped a number of Catholic-occupied \"mill-row\" clusters: New Lodge, Ardoyne and \"the Marrowbone\". Together with areas of more substantial housing in the Oldpark district, these are wedged between Protestant working-class housing stretching from Tiger's Bay out the Shore Road on one side, and up the Shankill (the original Antrim Road) on the other.\nThe Greater Shankill area, including Crumlin and Woodvale, is over the line from the Belfast North parliamentary/assembly constituency, but is physically separated from the rest of Belfast West by an extensive series of separation barriers—peace walls—owned (together with five daytime gates into the Falls area) by the Department of Justice. These include Cupar Way where tourists are informed that, at 45 feet, the barrier is \"three times higher than the Berlin Wall and has been in place for twice as long\".\nWith other working-class districts, Shankill suffered from the \"collapse of old industrial Belfast\". But it was also greatly affected from the 1960s by the city's most ambitious programme of \"slum clearance\". Red-brick, \"two up, two down\" terraced streets, typical of 19th century working-class housing, were replaced with flats, maisonettes, and car parks but few facilities. In a period of twenty years, due largely to redevelopment, 50,000 residents left the area leaving an aging population of 26,000 and more than 100 acres of wasteland.\nMeanwhile, road schemes, including the terminus of the M1 motorway and the Westlink, demolished a mixed dockland community, Sailortown and severed the streets linking the Shankill area and the rest of both north and west Belfast to the city centre.\nNew \"green field\" housing estates were built on the outer edges of the city. The onset of the Troubles overwhelmed attempts to promote these as \"mixed\" neighbourhoods so that the largest of these developments on the city's northern edge, Rathcoole rapidly solidified as a loyalist community. In 2004, it was estimated that 98% of public housing in Belfast was divided along religious lines.\nAmong the principal landmarks of north Belfast are the Crumlin Road Gaol (1845) now a major visitor attraction, Belfast Royal Academy (1785) - the oldest school in the city, St Malachy's College (1833), Holy Cross Church, Ardoyne (1902), Waterworks Park (1889), and Belfast Zoo (1934).\n\nWest Belfast\nIn the mid-19th century rural poverty and famine drove large numbers of Catholic tenant farmers, landless labourers and their families toward Belfast. Their route brought them down the Falls Road and into what are now remnants of an older Catholic enclave around St Mary's Church, the town's first Catholic chapel (opened in 1784 with Presbyterian subscriptions), and Smithfield Market. Eventually, an entire west side of the city, stretching up the Falls Road, along the Springfield Road (encompassing the new housing estates built 1950s and 60s: Highfield, New Barnsley, Ballymurphy, Whiterock and Turf Lodge) and out past Andersonstown on the Stewartstown Road toward Poleglass, became near-exclusively Catholic and, in political terms, nationalist.\nReflecting the nature of available employment as mill workers, domestics and shop assistants, the population, initially, was disproportionately female. Further opportunities for women on the Falls Road arose through developments in education and public health. In 1900, the Dominican Order opened St Mary's [Teacher] Training College, and in 1903 King Edward VII opened the Royal Victoria Hospital at the junction with the Grosvenor Road. Extensively redeveloped and expanded, the hospital has a staff of more than 8,500.\nLandmarks in the area include the Gothic-revival St Peter's Cathedral (1866, signature twin spires added in 1886); Clonard Monastery (1911), the Conway Mill (1853/1901, re-developed as a community enterprise, arts and education centre in 1983); Belfast City Cemetery (1869) and, best known for its republican graves, Milltown Cemetery (1869).\nThe area's greatest visitor attractions are its wall and gable-end murals. In contrast to those in loyalist areas, where Israel is typically the only outside reference, these range more freely beyond the local conflict frequently expressing solidarity with Palestinians, with Cuba, and with Basque and Catalan separatists.\n\nSouth Belfast\nWest Belfast is separated from South Belfast, and from the otherwise abutting loyalist districts of Sandy Row and the Donegall Road, by rail lines, the M1 Motorway (to Dublin and the west); industrial and retail parks, and the remnants of the Blackstaff (Owenvarra) bog meadows.\nBelfast began stretching up-river in the 1840s and 50s: out the Ormeau and Lisburn roads and, between them, running along a ridge of higher ground, the Malone Road. From \"leafy\" avenues of increasingly substantial (and in the course of time \"mixed\") housing, the Upper Malone broadened out into areas of parkland and villas.\nFurther out still, where they did not survive as public parks, from the 1960s the great-house demesnes of the city's former mill-owners and industrialists were developed for public housing: loyalist estates such as Seymour Hill and Belvoir. Meanwhile, in Malone and along the river embankments, new houses and apartment blocks have been squeezed in, increasing the general housing density.\nBeyond the Queen's University area the area's principal landmarks are the 15-storey tower block of Belfast City Hospital (1986) on the Lisburn Road, and the Lagan Valley Regional Park through which a towpath extends from the City-centre quayside to Lisburn.\nNorthern Ireland's three permanent diplomatic missions are situated on the Malone Road, the consulates of China, Poland and the United States.\n\nEast Belfast\nThe first district on the right bank of the Lagan (the County Down side) to be incorporated in Belfast was Ballymacarrett after 1868. Harland & Wolff, whose gantry cranes, Samson & Goliath, tower over the area, was long the mainstay of employment — although less securely so for the townland's Catholics (In 1970, when the yard still had a workforce of 10,000, only 400 Catholics were employed).: 280 Tolerated in periods of expansion as navvies and casual labourers,: 87–88 they concentrated in a small enclave, the Short Strand, which has continued into this century to feature as a sectarian flashpoint. Home to around 2,500 people, it is the only distinctly nationalist area in the east of the river.\nEast Belfast developed from the Queens Bridge (1843), through Ballymacarrett, east along the Newtownards Road and north (along the east shore of the Lough) up the Holywood Road; and from the Albert Bridge (1890) south east out the Cregagh and Castlereagh roads. The further out, the more substantial, and less religiously segregated, the housing until again encountering the city's outer ring of public housing estates: loyalist Knocknagoney, Lisnasharragh, and Tullycarnet.\nThis century, efforts have been made to add to East Belfast's two obvious visitor attractions: Samson & Goliath (the \"banana yellow cranes\" date only from the early 1970s): 79 and the Parliament Buildings at Stormont. What is marketed now as EastSide, features, at the intersection of the Connswater and Comber Greenways and next to the EastSide Visitor Centre, CS Lewis Square (2017), named and themed in honour of the local author of The Chronicles of Narnia. Next to the former the Harland & Wolff Drawing Offices (now an hotel), stands the \"cultural nucleus to Titanic Quarter\", Titanic Belfast (2012) whose interactive galleries tell the liner's ill-fated story.\n\nCity Centre\nBelfast City Centre is roughly bounded by the ring roads constructed since the 1970s: the M3 which sweeps across the dockland to the north; the Westlink that connects to the M1 for points south and west; and, with less certainty, the Bruce Street and Bankmore connectors that tie back toward the Lagan at the Gasworks Business Park and the beginning of the Ormeau Road. This embraces \"the Markets\", the one remaining inner-city area of housing. Of the various markets, including those for the sale and shipping of livestock, from which it derives its name, only one survives, the former produce market, St George's, now a food and craft market popular with visitors to the city.\n\nArchitectural heritage\nAmong surviving elements of the pre-Victorian town are the Belfast Entries, 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the elliptical First Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing) Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham); the Assembly Rooms (1769, 1776, 1845) on Bridge Street; St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church which had been built on a religious site dating back to 1306; St Mary's Church (1782) in Chapel Lane, which is the oldest Catholic church in the city. The oldest public building in Belfast, Clifton House (1771–74), the Belfast Charitable Society poorhouse, is on North Queen Street. It is now partly cut off from the city centre by arterial roads. In addition there are small sets of city-centre Georgian terraces.\nOf the much larger Victorian city a substantial legacy has survived the Blitz, The Troubles and planning and development. Among the more notable examples are St Malachy's Roman Catholic Church (1844) and the original college building of Queen's University Belfast (1849), both in a Tudor style; the Palm House in the Botanic Gardens (1852); the Renaissance revival Union Theological College (1853) and Ulster Bank (now Merchant Hotel) (1860); the Italianate Ulster Hall (1862), and the National Trust restored ornate Crown Liquor Saloon (1885, 1898) (a setting for the classic film, Odd Man Out, starring James Mason); the oriental-themed Grand Opera House (1895) (bombed several times during the Troubles), and the Romanesque revival St. Patrick's Catholic Church in Donegall Street (1877). \n\nThe Baroque revival City Hall was finished in 1906 on the site of the former White Linen Hall, and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. Its Edwardian design influenced the Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, India, and Durban City Hall in South Africa. The dome is 173 ft (53 m) high and figures above the door state \"Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City\". \nNearby is the Renaissance and Baroque revival Scottish Provident Institution (1902). Opposite is a branch of the Ulster Bank which is built behind the facade of a large former Methodist church which was built in the classical style and which opened in 1846.\nBuilt around an older church dating to 1776, St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral was consecrated 1904 and completed in the 1920s. Its steel spire was added in 2007. The neoclassical Royal Courts of Justice were opened in 1933.\n\nRedevelopment\nThe opening Victoria Square Shopping Centre in 2008 was to symbolise the rebound of the city centre since its days as a restricted security zone during the Troubles. But retail footfall in the centre is limited by competition with out-of-town shopping centres and with internet retailing. As of November 2023, footfall had not recovered pre-COVID pandemic levels. There are compensating trends: the growth in tourism and hospitality which has included a sustained boom in hotel construction.\nThe City Council also talks of a \"residential-led regeneration\". New townhouse and apartments schemes are being developed for the city's quays, and for Titanic Quarter. The completion in 2023 of Ulster University's enhanced Belfast campus (in \"one of the largest higher education capital builds in Europe\") and the determination of Queen's University to compete with the private sector in the provision of student housing, has fostered the construction downtown of multiple new student residences.\n\nRough sleeping and homelessness\nPeople can be found sleeping rough on the streets of the city centre. Numbers, while growing, may be comparatively small for a city of its size in the British Isles. In 2022, counts and estimates by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive identified a total of 26 rough sleepers in Belfast. This is against a background (in 2023) of 2,317 people (0.67% of residents) presenting as homeless, many of whom are in temporary accommodation and shelters. Such figures, however, do not include all those living in severely overcrowded conditions, involuntarily sharing with other households on a long-term basis, or sleeping rough in hidden locations.\n\nThe \"Quarters\"\nSince 2001, buoyed by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has promoted a number of cultural quarters.\nThe Cathedral Quarter comprises much of Belfast's old trade and warehousing district in the narrow streets and entries around St Anne's Cathedral, with a concentration of bars, beer gardens, clubs and restaurants (including two establishments claiming descent from the early town, White's and The Duke of York) and performance spaces (most notably the Black Box and Oh Yeah). It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival. The adjoining Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment.\nWithout defined geographical boundaries, the Gaeltacht Quarter encompasses Irish-speaking Belfast. (According to the 2021 census, 15.5% of people in the city have some knowledge of Irish, 4% speak it daily). It is generally understood as an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast served by the Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich cultural centre. It can be said to include, at the Skainos Centre in unionist east Belfast, Turas, a project that promotes Irish through night classes and cultural events in the belief that \"the language belongs to all\".\nThe Linen Quarter', an area south of City Hall once dominated by linen warehouses, now includes, in addition to cafés, bars and restaurants, a dozen hotels (including the 23-storey Grand Central Hotel), and the city's two principal Victorian-era cultural venues, the Grand Opera House and the Ulster Hall.\nMoving further south along the so-called \"Golden Mile\" of bars and clubs through Shaftesbury Square, there is the Queen's [University] Quarter. In addition to the university (spread over 250 buildings, of which 120 are listed as being of architectural merit), it is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum.\nFinally, the Titanic Quarter covers 0.75 km2 (185 acres) of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as Queen's Island. Named after RMS Titanic, launched here in 1911, work began in 2003 to transform some former shipyard land into \"one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe\". The current area houses Titanic Belfast, the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), two hotels, and multiple condo towers and shops, and the Titanic [film] Studios.\n\nCulture\nArts venues and festivals\nFrom Georgian Belfast, the city retains a civic legacy. In addition to Clifton House (Belfast Charitable Society, 1774), this includes the Linen Hall Library (Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge, 1788), the Ulster Museum (founded by the Belfast Natural History Society as the Belfast Municipal Museum and Art Gallery in 1833), and the Botanic Gardens (established in 1828 by the Belfast Botanic and Horticultural Society). These remain important cultural venues: in the case of the Gardens, for outdoor festivities including the Belfast Melā, the city's annual celebration of global cultures.\nOf the many stage venues built in the nineteenth century, and film theatres built in the twentieth, there remains the Ulster Hall (1862), which hosts concerts (including those of the Ulster Orchestra), classical recitals and party-political meetings; the Grand Opera House (1895) badly damaged in bomb blasts in the early 1990s, restored and enlarged 2020; the Strand Cinema (1935) now being developed as an arts centre; and the Queens Film Theatre (QFT) (1968) focussed on art house and world cinema. The two independent cinemas offer their screens for the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast International Arts Festival.\nThe principal stage for drama remains the Lyric Theatre (1951), the largest employer of actors and other theatre professionals in the region. At Queens University, drama students stage their productions at the Brian Friel Theatre, a 120-seat studio space (named after the renowned playwright).\nIn November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was made possible by the 11,000-seat Odyssey Arena (today the SSE Arena) which opened in 2000 at the entrance to the Titanic Quarter A further large-scale venue is the Waterfront Hall, a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre that first opened in 1997. The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is based on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall. In 2012, the Metropolitan Arts Centre, usually referred to as the MAC, was opened in the Cathedral Quarter, offering a performance mix of music, theatre, dance and visual art.\nThe city has a number of community arts, and arts education, centres, among them the Crescent Arts Centre in south Belfast, the Irish-language Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich in west Belfast, The Duncairn in north Belfast and, in the east of the city, EastSide Arts.\nFéile an Phobail, a community arts organisation born out of the Internment Commemorations in the west of the city, stages one of the largest community festivals in Europe. It has grown from its original August Féile on the Falls Road, to a year-round programme with a broad range of arts events, talks and discussions.\n\nUNESCO City of Music\nIn November 2021, Belfast became the third city in the British Isles to be designated by UNESCO as City of Music (after Glasgow in 2008 and Liverpool in 2016) and is one of 59 cities worldwide participating in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.\nThe greater part of Belfast's music scene is accommodated in the city's pubs and clubs. Irish traditional music (\"trad\") is a staple, and is supported, along with Ulster-Scots snare drum and pipe music, by the city's TradFest summer school.\nMusic offerings also draw on the legacy of the punk and the underground club scene that developed during The Troubles (associated with the groups Stiff Little Fingers and The Undertones, and celebrated in the award-winning 2013 film, Good Vibrations). Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody led a line up of private donors that together with public funders established the Oh Yeah music centre in 2008. The Cathedral Quarter non-profit supports young musicians and these have engaged with a range of genres including Alternative rock, Indie rock, Electronica, Post rock, Post punk, Crossover, and Experimental rock.\nQueens University hosts the Sonic Arts Research Centre (SARC), an institute for music-based practice and research. Its purpose designed building, Sonic Laboratory and multichannel studios were opened by Karlheinz Stockhausen, the German composer and \"father of electronic music\", in 2004.\n\nMedia\nBelfast is the home of the Belfast Telegraph, Irish News, and The News Letter, the oldest English-language daily newspaper in the world still in publication.\nThe city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, and ITV station UTV. The Irish public service broadcaster, RTÉ has a studio in the city. The national radio station is BBC Radio Ulster with commercial radio stations such as Q Radio, U105, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte. Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. \nOne of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.\n\nParades\nSince the lifting in 1872 of a twenty-year party processions ban, Orange parades in celebration of \"the Twelfth\" [of July] and the bonfires of the previous evening, the eleventh, have been a fixed fixture of the Belfast calendar. On what became a public holiday in 1926, Belfast and guest Orange lodges with their pipe, flute and drum bands muster at Carlisle Circus, and parade through the city centre past the City Hall and out the Lisburn Road to a gathering in \"the field\" at Barnett Demesne. While some local feeder and return marches have a history of sectarian disturbance, in recent years, events have generally passed off without serious incident.\nIn 2015, the Orange Order opened the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road in East Belfast with the aim of educating the wider public about \"the origins, traditions and continued relevance\" of the parading institution.\nWhat is sometimes referred to as the Catholic equivalent of the Orangemen, the much smaller Ancient Order of Hibernians, confines its parades to nationalist areas in west and north Belfast, as do republicans commemorating the Easter Rising. In August 1993, in a break with a history of nationalist exclusion from the city centre, a parade marking the introduction of internment in the 1971 proceeded up Royal Avenue toward the City Hall, where it was addressed by Sinn Féin president, Gerry Adams, in front of the statue of Queen Victoria.\nSince 1998, the Belfast City Council has funded a city-centre St. Patrick's Day (March 17) celebration. It is organised by Féile an Phobail as a \"carnival\" complete with a parade featuring dancers, circus entertainers, floats, and giant puppets. Critical of what they perceive as an evolving nationalist festival, unionists on the City Council observe that \"a lot of the Protestant Unionist Loyalist (PUL) community will stay away from the city centre on St Patrick's Day, the same as some stay away on the Twelfth of July\".\nIn 1991, Belfast hosted its first gay pride event. Belfast Pride, culminating in a city-centre parade at the end of July, is now one of the biggest annual festivals in the city and, according to its organisers, the largest LGBT+ festival in Ireland.\nThe Irish Congress of Trade Unions organises an annual city-centre May Day march and rally. The International Workers Day has been a public holiday since 1978.\n\nDemography\nIn 2021, there were 345,418 residents within the expanded 2015 Belfast local government boundary and 634,600 in the Belfast Metropolitan Area, approximately one third of Northern Ireland's 1.9 million population.\n\nAs with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. Deprivation levels are notable in the inner parts of the north and the west of the city. The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) experience some of the highest levels of social deprivation including higher levels of ill health and poor access to services. These areas remain firmly segregated, with 80 to 90 percent of residents being of the one religious designation.\nConsistent with the trend across all of Northern Ireland, the Protestant population within the city has been in decline, while the non-religious, other religious and Catholic population has risen. The 2021 census recorded the following: 43% of residents as Catholic, 12% as Presbyterian, 8% as Church of Ireland, 3% as Methodist, 6% as belonging to other Christian denominations, 3% to other religions and 24% as having either no religion or no declared religion.\nIn terms of community background, 47.93% were deemed to belong to, or to have been brought up in, the Catholic faith and 36.45% in a Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. The comparable figures in 2011 were 48.60% Catholic and 42.28% Protestant or other Christian-related denomination.\nWith respondents free to indicate more than one national identity, in 2021 the largest national identity group was \"Irish only\" with 35% of the population, followed by \"British only\" 27%, \"Northern Irish only\" 17%, \"British and Northern Irish only\" 7%, \"Irish and Northern Irish only\" 2%, \"British, Irish and Northern Irish only\" 2%, British and Irish less than 1% and Other identities with 10%.\nInsofar as the city's two indigenous minority languages (Irish and Ulster Scots) are concerned, figures are made available from the decennial UK census. On census day, 21 March 2021, 14.93% (43,798) in Belfast claimed to have some knowledge of the Irish language, whilst 5.21% (15,294) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Irish. 3.74% (10,963) of residents claimed to use Irish daily and 0.75% (2,192) claimed Irish is their main language. 7.17% (21,025) of people in the city claimed to have some knowledge of Ulster Scots, whilst 0.75% (2,207) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Ulster Scots. 0.83% (2,430) claimed to use Ulster Scots daily.\nFrom the mid to late 19th century, there was a community of central European Jews (among its distinguished members, Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff of Harland & Wolff) and of Italians in Belfast. Today, the largest immigrant groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians. The 2011 census figures recorded a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the British Isles lived in south Belfast, where they comprised 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland resided in the Greater Belfast area. In the 2021 census the percentage of the city's residents born outside the United Kingdom had risen to 9.8.\n\n\tThe Belfast City Council area in the 2011 census\n\nEconomy\nEmployment profile\nServices (including retail, health, professional & scientific) account for three quarters of jobs in Belfast. Only 6% remain in manufacturing. The balance is in distribution and construction. In recent years, unemployment has been comparatively low (under 3% in the summer of 2023) for the UK. On the other hand, Belfast has a high rate of people economically inactive (close to 30%). It is a group, encompassing homemakers, full-time carers, students and retirees, that in Belfast has been swollen by the exceptionally large proportion of the population (27%) with long-term health problems or disabilities (and who, in Northern Ireland generally, are less likely to be employed than in other UK regions).\n\nShipbuilding, aerospace and defence\nOf Belfast's Victorian-era industry, little remains. The last working linen factory—Copeland Linens Limited, based in the Shankill area—closed in 2013. In recent years Harland & Wolff, which at peak production in the Second World War had employed around 35,000 people, has had a workforce of no more than two or three hundred refurbishing oil rigs and fabricating off-shore wind turbines. A £1.6 billion Royal Navy contract has offered the yard a new lease, returning it to shipbuilding in 2025.: 261–262 \nIn 1936, Short & Harland Ltd, a joint venture of Short Brothers and Harland & Wolff, began the manufacture of aircraft in the docks area. In 1989, the British government, which had nationalised the company during the Second World War, sold it to the Canadian aerospace company Bombardier. In 2020, it was sold on to Spirit AeroSystems. Producing aircraft components, it remains the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland.\nOriginating in the Short Brothers' missile division, since 2001 Thales Group owned Thales Air Defence Limited has been producing short range air defence and anti-tank missiles (including the NLAW shoulder-launched system deployed against the Russian invasion by Ukraine).\n\nFintech and cybersecurity\nFrom the 1990s, Belfast established itself as a significant location for call centres and for other back-office services. Attracting U.S. operators such as Citi, Allstate, Liberty Mutual, Aflac and FD Technologies (Kx Systems), it as since been identified by the UK Treasury as \"key fintech [financial technology] hub\". Fintech's key areas (its \"ABCD\") are artificial intelligence, blockchain, cloud computing, and big data.\nThe sector's principal constraint, cyber security, has been addressed since 2004 by the Queens University Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology (IECIT), and its Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT). The IECIT is the anchor tenant at Catalyst (science park) in the Titanic Quarter, which hosts a cluster of companies seeking to offer innovative cyber-security solutions.\n\nFilm\nBetween 2018 and 2023, film and television production based largely in Belfast, and occupying significant new studio capacity in the ports area, contributed £330m to Northern Ireland's economy. There are two 8-acre media complexes (serviced by the adjacent City Airport): the Titanic Studios on Queen's Island (the Titanic Quarter) and across the Victoria Channel in Giant's Park on the Lough's north foreshore, the Belfast Harbour Studios. Together they offer 226,000 ft2 of studio space, plus offices and workshops, and have attracted U.S. production companies such as Amazon, HBO (including all eight series of its fantasy drama Game of Thrones), Paramount, Playtone, Universal, and Warner Bros.\nAt the beginning of 2024, Ulster University, in partnership with Belfast Harbour and supported by Northern Ireland Screen, announced an £72m investment to add to the complex a new virtual production, research and development, facility, Studio Ulster. Additional studio space is available at Loop Studios (formerly Britvic) on the Castlereagh Road in East Belfast.\n\nTourism and hospitality\nNorthern Ireland's peace dividend since the 1990s, which includes a marked increase in inward investment, has contributed to a large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Significant projects included Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall, the new Titanic Quarter with its Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, and the development of the original Short's harbour airfield as George Best Belfast City Airport.\nThese developments reflect a boom in tourism (32 million visitors between 2011 and 2018),: 179 and related hotel construction. This has included an entirely new phenomenon for Belfast: in 1999, the port received its first cruise ship. In 2023, Belfast welcomed 153 calls, 8% up from the pre-pandemic record set in 2019. Ship from 32 different countries landed 320,000 passengers.\nBelfast has also seen growth of \"conflict tourism\".: 186–191 To the dismay of some, \"tourists take photos of the division lines that are not consigned to history, but are a part of living Belfast: children play football against the walls that tourists flock to. The places and the people themselves have become a spectacle, an attraction.\" Tourist bosses and guides, however, are satisfied that the greater draw is city's other \"must-see attractions\", and its \"convivial food and nightlife scene\".\n\nEU/GB Trade\nInvest NI, Northern Ireland's economic development agency is pitching Belfast and its hinterland to foreign investors as \"only region in the world able to trade goods freely with both GB and EU markets\". This follows the 2020 Northern Ireland Protocol and the 2023 Windsor Framework, agreements between the British government and European Union, whereby, post-Brexit, Northern Ireland would effectively remain within the European Single Market for goods while, in principle, retaining unfettered access to the British domestic market. Despite the DUP's derailment of devolved government in protest, local business leaders largely welcomed the new trade regime, hailing the promise of dual EU-GB access as a critical opportunity.\nIn February 2024, the DUP consented to a return of the devolved Assembly and Executive on the understanding that neither the EU nor the British government would defend the integrity of their respective internal markets by conducting routine checks on the bulk of goods passing through Belfast, or other Northern Ireland, ports.\n\nEducation\nPrimary and secondary education\nChildren from Catholic and Protestant homes in Belfast are taught, for the most part, separately on a pattern that, by the mid-nineteenth century, had been established throughout Ireland. Primary and secondary education is divided between (Catholic) Maintained Schools and (non-Catholic/ \"Protestant\") Controlled Schools. They are bound by the same curriculum, but their teaching staff are trained separately (in the university colleges of St Mary's and Stranmillis).: 200–202 \nSince the 1980s, two smaller school sectors have emerged: grant-maintained Integrated schools, which by design bring together children and staff from both communities, and Irish language medium schools\nThe Belfast [later Royal Belfast] Academical Institution, opened its doors in 1810 with the intention, in the words of its founder, former United Irishman, William Drennan of being \"perfectly unbiased by religious distinctions\". The principle was not embraced by the town's middle-classes: in practice \"Inst\" provided a grammar education to the town's Presbyterian families while Anglicans favoured the older Royal Belfast Academy (1785); Catholics, St Malachy's diocesan college (1833) and Wesleyans, Methodist College Belfast (1865).\nDenominational lines have since blurred, with Catholics in particular moving into the controlled grammars. But the presence of 18 selective grammar schools in Belfast is a further feature of post-primary education in Belfast that distinguishes it from that of comparable cities in Great Britain where academic selection was abandoned in the 1960s and 70s. Partly prompted by the COVID disruption of external testing in 2021/22, some the city's grammars have begun to review and amend the practice. It is not clear that this will be on terms that reduce the degree of social segregation they have represented within the system.\nIn 2006, the Belfast Education and Library Board became part of the consolidated Education Authority for Northern Ireland. In Belfast, the Authority has responsibility for 156 primary, and 48 secondary schools (including the 18 grammars). The system is marked by stark inequalities in outcome. Around 30% of school leavers in the city do not attain 5 GCSEs, A* - C (including Maths and English). For those in receipt of free school meals, the figure rises to over 50%.\n\nFurther and Higher education\nBelfast Metropolitan College (\"Belfast Met\") is a further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.\nBelfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded as a college in 1845. In 1908, the Catholic bishops lifted their ban on attendance and Queen's was granted university status.: 164, 166 It is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK, and is one of the largest universities in the UK with over 25,000 students – among them over 4,000 international students.\nUlster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus on the edge of the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. Since 2021, this original \"Arts College\" campus has undergone a £1.4bn expansion to accommodate offerings across all departments. The project promises to bring 15,500 staff and students into the city, and to generate 5,000 new jobs.\n\nGovernance\nBelfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council.\nBelfast has been represented in the British House of Commons since 1801, and in Northern Ireland Assembly, as presently constituted, since 1998.\n\nLocal government\nBelfast City Council is responsible for a range of powers and services, including land-use and community planning, parks and recreation, building control, arts and cultural heritage. The city's principal offices are those of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff. Like other elected positions within the Council such as Committee chairs, these are filled since 1998 using the D'Hondt system so that in recent years the position has rotated between councillors from the three largest factions, Sinn Féin, the DUP and the Alliance Party.\nThe first Lord Mayor of Belfast in 1892, Daniel Dixon, like every mayor but one until 1997 (Alliance in 1979), was a unionist. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in 1997. The current Lord Mayor is Micky Murray of the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, who has been in the position of Lord Mayor since 3 June 2024. His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.\nIn 1997, unionists lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the Alliance Party holding the balance of power. In 2023, unionists retained just 17 of 60 seats on the council, leaving nationalists (Sinn Féin and the SDLP) just 4 seats short of a majority. In addition to the 11 Alliance members there are four other councillors, 3 Green and 1 People Before Profit, who refuse a nationalist/unionist designation.\n\nNorthern Ireland Assembly and Westminster elections\nAs Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In United Kingdom elections, each constituency returns one MP, on a \"first past the post\" basis to Westminster. In NI Assembly elections each returns, on the basis of proportional representation, five MLAs to Stormont.\nIn the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2022, Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 5 Alliance Party, 1 SDLP, 1 UUP and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP won all but the Sinn Féin stronghold of Belfast West. In the 2019 and 2024 UK general elections, they retained only Belfast East, losing Belfast North to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the SDLP.\nFor the next elections the constituencies are redrawn, with Belfast South extended as Belfast South and Mid Down to include parts of Lagan Valley and Strangford.\n\nInfrastructure\nHospitals\nThe Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.\nThe Royal Hospitals site in west Belfast (junction of Grosvenor and Falls roads) contains two hospitals. The Royal Victoria Hospital (its origins in a number of successive institutions, beginning in 1797 with The Belfast Fever Hospital) provides both local and regional services. Specialist services include cardiac surgery, critical care and the Regional Trauma Centre. The Children's Hospital (Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children) provides general hospital care for children in Belfast and provides most of the paediatric regional specialities.\nThe Belfast City Hospital (evolved from a 19th-century workhouse and infirmary) on the Lisburn Road is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a najor cancer centre. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.\nMusgrave Park Hospital in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit.\nThe Mater Hospital (founded in 1883 by the Sisters of Mercy) on the Crumlin Road provides a wide range of services, including acute inpatient, emergency and maternity services, to north Belfast and the surrounding areas.\nThe Ulster Hospital, Upper Newtownards Road, Dundonald, on the eastern edge of the city, first founded as the Ulster Hospital for Women and Sick Children in 1872, is the major acute hospital for the South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust. It delivers a full range of outpatient, inpatient and daycare medical and surgical services.\n\nTransport\nBelfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the 22.5 miles (36 km) M2 and M22 motorway route.\nBlack taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads,\nMore distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called Enterprise operated jointly by NIR and the Irish rail company Iarnród Éireann.\nThe city's Europa Bus Centre and Great Victoria Street rail station, are being replaced by a new Belfast Central Station. When completed in 2025, it will be \"the largest integrated transport facility on the island of Ireland\" with bus stands, railway platforms, and facilities for taxis and bicycles.\n\nThe city has two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, close to the city centre on the eastern shore of Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport 30–40 minutes to the west on the shore of Lough Neagh. Both operate UK domestic and European flights. The city is also served by Dublin Airport, two hours to the south, with direct inter-continental connections.\nIn addition to its extensive freight business, the Belfast Port offers car-ferry sailings, operated by Stena Line, to Cairnryan in Scotland (5 Sailings Daily. 2 hours 22 minutes) and to Liverpool-Birkenhead (14 sailings weekly. 8 hours). The Isle of Man Steam Packet Company provides a seasonal connection to Douglas, Isle of Man.\nThe Glider bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast. Introduced in 2018, it is a bus rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre. Using articulated buses, the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week. The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport.\nNational Cycle Route 9 to Newry, which will eventually connect with Dublin, starts in Belfast.\n\nUtilities\nHalf of Belfast's water is supplied via the Aquarius pipeline from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The other half is now supplied from Lough Neagh via Dunore Water Treatment Works in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs were deferred by devolution in May 2007.\nPower is provided from a number of power stations via NIE Networks Limited transmission lines. (Just under a half of electricity consumption in Northern Ireland is generated from renewable sources). Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Rates in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete capital value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the Valuation and Lands Agency.\n\nRecreation and sports\nLeisure centres\nBelfast City Council owns and maintains 17 leisure centres across the city, run on its behalf by the non-profit social enterprise GLL under the 'Better' brand. These include eight large multipurposed centres complete with swimming pools: Ballysillan Leisure Centre and Grove Wellbeing Centre in North Belfast; the Andersonstown, Falls, Shankill and Whiterock leisure centres in West Belfast; Templemore Baths and Lisnasharragh Leisure Centre in East Belfast, and close to the city centre in South Belfast, the Olympia Leisure Centre and Spa,\n\nParks and gardens\nBelfast has over forty parks. The oldest (1828) and one of the most popular parks Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, its Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the recently restored Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.\nThe largest municipal park in the city, and closest to the city centre, lies on the right bank of Lagan. The 100-acres of Ormeau Park were opened to the public in 1871 on what was the last demesne of the town's former proprietors, the Chichesters, Marquesses of Donegall.\nIn north Belfast, the Waterworks, two reservoirs to which the public have had access since 1897, are features of a park supporting angling and waterfowl. In 1906, a further water park, Victoria, opened behind industrial dockland on what had been the eastern shore of the Lough. It is now connected through east Belfast by the Connswater Community Greenway which offers 16 km of continuous cycle and walkway through east Belfast.\nThe largest green conservation area within the city's boundaries is a 2,116 hectares patchwork of \"parks, demesnes, woodland and meadows\" stretching upriver along the banks of the Lagan river and canal; Established in 1967, the Lagan Valley Regional Park envelopes in its course, Belvoir Park Forest, which contains ancient oaks and a 12th-century Norman Motte, and Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, whose International Rose Garden attracts thousands of visitors each July.\nColin Glenn Forest Park, the National Trust Divis and the Black Mountain Ridge Trail, and Cave Hill Country Park. offer panoramic views over Belfast and beyond from the west. Climbing the Castlereagh Hills, the National Trust Lisnabreeny Cregagh Glen does the same from the east.\nBelow Cave Hill, the council maintains one of the few local government-funded zoos in the British Isles. The Belfast Zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. It carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.\n\nSports\nBelfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, The 41st Marathon in 2023, with related events (Wheelchair Race, Team Relay and 8 Mile Walk) attracted 15,000 participants.\nThe Northern Ireland national football team plays its home matches at Windsor Park. Football clubs with stadia and training grounds in the city include: Linfield, Glentoran, Crusaders, Cliftonville, Donegal Celtic, Harland & Wolff Welders, Dundela, Knockbreda, PSNI, Newington, Sport & Leisure and Brantwood.\nBelfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, had a capacity of 31,500 making it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. Listed as one of the venues for the UK and Ireland's successful UEFA Euro 2028 bid, with co-funding from the Irish government there are plans for a complete rebuild. In May 2020, the foundation of East Belfast GAA returned Gaelic Games to East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area. The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast Linda Ervine who comes from a unionist background in the area. The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League.\nThe 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at Ravenhill Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A.\nBelfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever One Day International against England in 2006.\nThe 9,500 capacity SSE Arena accommodates the Belfast Giants, one of the biggest ice hockey clubs in the UK. Featuring Canadian, ex-NHL players, the club competes the British Elite Ice Hockey League.\nBelfast was the home town of former Manchester United player George Best, the 1968 European Footballer of the Year, who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre. Other sportspeople celebrated in the city include double world snooker champion Alex \"Hurricane\" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough, Rinty Monaghan and Carl Frampton.\n\nClimate\nAt 54°35′49″N 05°55′45″W, its northern latitude is characterised by short winter days and long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. At the summer solstice in June, the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.\nFor this northern latitude, thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, Belfast has a comparatively mild climate. In summer the temperatures rarely range above 25 °C (77 °F) or dip in winter below −5 °C (23 °F). The maritime influence, also ensures that the city gets significant precipitation. On 157 days in an average year, rainfall is greater than 1 mm. Average annual rainfall is 846 millimetres (33.3 in), less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland.\nWith its moderate temperatures and abundant rainfall, Belfast's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification system), a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe.\n\nIn fiction\nJohn Greer Ervine, The Wayward Man (1927)\nF. L. Green, Odd Man Out (1945), basis of Odd Man Out, a 1947 British film noir directed by Carol Reed, and starring James Mason, Robert Newton.\nBrian Moore, The Emperor of Ice Cream (1965).\nMaurice Leitch, Silver's City (1981)\nBernard MacLaverty, Cal (1983)\nRobert McLiam Wilson, Eureka Street (1996)\nLucy Caldwell, Where They Were Missed (2005)\nAnna Burns, Milkman (2018)\nLouise Kennedy, Trespasses (2022)\nMichael Magee, Close to Home (2023)\n\nNotable people\nTwin towns – sister cities\nBelfast City Council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with the following sister cities:\n\nNashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994)\nHefei, Anhui Province, China (since 2005)\nBoston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014)\nShenyang, Liaoning Province, China (since 2016)\nMelbourne, Victoria, Australia\n\nFreedom of the City\nThose who have received the Freedom of the City\n\nSir Kenneth Branagh: 30 January 2018.\nAndrew Carnegie: 28 September 1910.\nSir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955.\nBill Clinton, 9 April 2018\nSir Robert Hart, 1 July 1908\nJohn Hewitt: 26 May 1983\nSir John Jordan: 28 September 1910.\nMichael Longley: 23 March 2015\nGeorge J. Mitchell, 9 April 2018\nNurses of Belfast, 1 December 2015\nRoyal Ulster Constabulary and Reserve: 30 May 1980\nWilliam Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie: 1898, the first person to be awarded Freedom Of The City of Belfast.\n\nNotes\nReferences\nBibliography\nJonathan Bardon (1982), Belfast An illustrated History. Belfast: Blackstaff Press, ISBN 0-85640-272-9\nJ. C. Beckett et al. (1983), Belfast, The Making of a City. Belfast: Appletree Press, ISBN 0-86281-100-7\nCiaran Carson (1997), The Star Factory. London: Granta Books, ISBN 9781862071179\nFeargal Cochrane (2023), Belfast: The Story of a City and its People. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-26444-9\nS. J. Connolly ed. (2012), Belfast 400: People, Place and History, Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-635-7\nMaurice Goldring (1991), Belfast, From Loyalty to Rebellion. London: Lawrence & Wishart, ISBN 978-0-85315-722-81\nRobert Johnstone (1990), Belfast, Portraits of a City, London: Barrie & Jenkins. ISBN 978-0-7126-3744-2\nWilliam Maguire (2009), Belfast, A History, Lancaster: Carnegie. ISBN 978-1-85936-189-4\nBill Meulemans (2013), Belfast, Both Sides Now. Create Space. ISBN 978-1-4791-9541-1\nRaymond O'Regan (2010), Hidden Belfast: Benevolence, Blackguards and Balloon Heads. Dublin: Mercier Press. ISBN 978-1-85635-683-1\nRaymond O'Regan, Arthur Magee (2014), The Little Book of Belfast. The History Press. ISBN 978-1-84588-803-9\nMarcus Patton (1993), Central Belfast, An Historical Gazetteer. Belfast: Ulster Architectural Heritage Society. ISBN 0-900457-44-9\n\n\n== External links ==",
"title": "Belfast"
}
] | As of 1st August 2024 The three British Olympic Class ocean liners were manufactured in a city that lies at the mouth of what river? | [] | River Lagan | [] | true |
333 | [
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"paragraph_text": "The Copa América is an international association football competition established in 1916. It is contested by the men's national teams of the members of the Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL), the sport's continental governing body.\nEarly editions of the tournament, then known as the South American Football Championship, consisted of a round-robin group, where the team with the most points was declared the champion (with a play-off to break a tie if necessary). In 1975, when the tournament was rebranded to its current title, a final stage using the single-elimination format was introduced, which culminates with a final match between the last two teams remaining in contention. This type of format has been used ever since, except in 1989 and 1991, which featured a final group stage.\nArgentina defeated Colombia in the final of the latest competition, held in 2024.\n\nFinals\nKeys\naet: after extra time\np: penalty shoot-out\n Final played in two-legged format (with a playoff if necessary).\n Defined on penalties after 90 minutes.\n Defined on penalties after extra time\nTeams in italics are non-CONMEBOL members that participated as invitees.\n\nResults by nation\n* Indicates host country\n\nSee also\nList of FIFA World Cup finals\nList of UEFA European Championship finals\nList of AFC Asian Cup finals\nList of Africa Cup of Nations finals\nList of CONCACAF Gold Cup finals\nList of OFC Nations Cup finals\n\nReferences\nExternal links\nThe Copa América Archive by Martín Tabeira on the RSSSF",
"title": "List_of_Copa_Am%C3%A9rica_finals"
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"paragraph_text": "The president of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States, indirectly elected to a four-year term via the Electoral College. The officeholder leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. Since the office was established in 1789, 45 men have served in 46 presidencies. The first president, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms and is therefore counted as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States, giving rise to the discrepancy between the number of presidencies and the number of individuals who have served as president.\nThe presidency of William Henry Harrison, who died 31 days after taking office in 1841, was the shortest in American history. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.\nFour presidents died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon, facing impeachment and removal from office). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with their own administration.\nThroughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, no organized parties existed. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, political factions began rallying around dominant Washington administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party.\nThe incumbent president is Joe Biden, who assumed office on January 20, 2021.\n\nPresidents\nSee also\nActing President of the United States\nFounding Fathers of the United States\nList of vice presidents of the United States\nPresident of the Continental Congress\n\nNotes\nReferences\nWorks cited\nExternal links\n Media related to President of the United States at Wikimedia Commons\n Quotations related to List of presidents of the United States at Wikiquote",
"title": "List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States"
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] | Who was the United States President when Chile won their first Copa America? | [] | Barack Obama | [] | true |
Subsets and Splits