text: Cadmium telluride quantum dots cause oxidative stress leading to extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells.
  The mechanisms of toxicity related to human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cell exposures to cadmium telluride quantum dots (CdTe-QDs) were investigated. CdTe-QDs caused cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Treated cells showed an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS). Altered antioxidant levels were demonstrated by depletion of reduced glutathione (GSH), a decreased ratio of reduced glutathione to oxidized glutathione (GSH/GSSG) and an increased NF-E2-related Factor 2 (Nrf2) activation. Enzyme assays showed that superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was elevated whereas catalase (CAT) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities were depressed. Further analyses revealed that CdTe-QD exposure resulted in apoptosis, indicated by changes in levels of caspase-3 activity, poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage and phosphatidylserine externalization. Extrinsic apoptotic pathway markers such as Fas levels and caspase-8 activity increased as a result of CdTe-QD exposure. Involvement of the intrinsic/mitochondrial apoptotic pathway was indicated by decreased levels of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) protein and mitochondrial cytochrome c, and by increased levels of mitochondrial Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) and cytosolic cytochrome c. Further, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) such as c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), extracellular signal-regulated kinases (Erk1/2), and p38 were all activated. Our findings reveal that CdTe-QDs cause oxidative stress, interfere with antioxidant defenses and activate protein kinases, leading to apoptosis via both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. Since the effects of CdTe-QDs on selected biomarkers were similar or greater compared to those of CdCl2 at equivalent concentrations of cadmium, the study suggests that the toxicity of CdTe-QDs arises from a combination of the effects of cadmium and ROS generated from the NPs.
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entities.type: CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL GENE-Y GENE-Y GENE-Y GENE-Y GENE-Y CHEMICAL GENE-Y GENE-N GENE-N GENE-N GENE-N GENE-N GENE-N GENE-N GENE-N GENE-Y CHEMICAL GENE-Y GENE-N GENE-N GENE-Y GENE-Y GENE-N GENE-N GENE-Y GENE-N GENE-N CHEMICAL GENE-Y GENE-Y CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL CHEMICAL
entities.text: reduced glutathione GSH glutathione oxidized glutathione GSH GSSG superoxide glutathione S CdTe CdTe poly ADP-ribose phosphatidylserine cadmium telluride CdTe Cadmium telluride B-cell lymphoma 2 Bcl2 cytochrome c Bcl-2-associated X protein Bax N cytochrome c mitogen-activated protein kinases MAPKs c-Jun N-terminal kinases JNK extracellular signal-regulated kinases Erk1/2 p38 kinases NF-E2-related Factor 2 CdTe Nrf2 superoxide dismutase SOD catalase CAT glutathione-S-transferase GST caspase-3 poly ADP-ribose polymerase PARP CdTe Fas caspase-8 CdTe CdCl2 cadmium CdTe oxygen